1 
 
TI B R.A FLY 
 
 OF THE 
 UNIVERSITY 
 Of ILLINOIS 
 
 630.3 
 JGZ-f 
 
 I84E 
 
THE 
 
 FARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, 
 
 AND DICTIONARY OF 
 
 RURAL AFFAIRS; 
 
 EMBRACING 
 
 ALL THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES 
 
 IN 
 
 agricultural c&emttftrp* 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE COMPREHENSION OF UNSCIENTIFIC READERS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVINGS OF THE BEST MODERN 
 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. 
 
 CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, ESQ. E.R.S. 
 
 barrister at 3£ato ; 
 
 EDITOR OF THE FARMER'S ALMANAC ; 
 CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF KONINGSBERG 
 THE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF MARYLAND ETC. ETC. ETC. ' 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 1842. 
 
London: 
 Printed by A. Spottiswoode, 
 New- Street-Square. 
 
i tm 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 The Editor of this work has to request for it, from the Farmers 
 of his country, the same kind reception which they have, on many 
 former occasions, bestowed upon his efforts in the service of 
 Agriculture. Its object is sufficiently indicated by the title, « The 
 Farmers' Encyclopaedia, and Dictionary of Rural Affairs." 
 Farming operations, therefore, are the chief themes — those most 
 copiously treated of ; yet it was thought desirable and necessary to 
 include many other branches of science, and subjects more or less 
 interesting to the cultivator of the soil, in as extended a form as 
 the prescribed limits of the volume would allow. 
 
 The Editor is desirous to express his obligations to many friends, 
 who have materially assisted him, during the progress of the work, 
 by valuable information and suggestions. For the drawings, and the 
 detailed descriptions of the implements of husbandry, he is indebted 
 to the Treatise of Mr. J. Allen Ransome, of Ipswich ; and to the 
 partners of that gentleman, for many other illustrations and descrip- 
 tive notices. For his biography of the writers upon husbandry and 
 other sciences connected with the cultivation of the soil, he is mainly 
 beholden to Mr. G. W. Johnson's " History of English Gardening;" 
 and for the details of the management of the " Kitchen Garden/' to 
 the volume on that subject by the same author. For many practical 
 suggestions, and the particulars of experiments and improvements, 
 he is indebted to Mr. Hewitt Davis, of Addington, in Surrey, an 
 excellent farmer and land agent. 
 
 In the arrangement, and during the whole progress, of the work 
 the Author has had the advantage of being indefatigably assisted 
 by Mr. P. L. Simmonds, many of whose papers and prize essays 
 (to some of which his signature is attached) are dispersed through- 
 out its pages. The volume, moreover, has been favoured with the 
 
iv 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 corrections and annotations of Dr. A. T. Thomson, the author of the 
 justly popular "London Dispensatory," and other scientific works. 
 It has also been enriched by extracts from the best works of con- 
 temporary authors, such as those of Professors Low, Sir J. E. Smith, 
 Liebig, Brande, Youatt, Thomson, Lindley, and J. F. Johnston ; of 
 Messrs. William Yarrell, John Morton, Henry Stephens, William 
 Shaw, James Hudson, Samuel Taylor, French Burke, James Paxton, 
 the Rev. W. Rham, Miss Louisa Johnson, &c; the Editor believes, 
 however, on no occasion without acknowledging his obligations to 
 these valuable authorities : and, by their assistance, he trusts the 
 work will be found to contain a fund of matter that will be per- 
 manently useful for reference and for study to all the cultivators of 
 the soil. In conclusion, the Editor begs to express the hope that the 
 friends whose kindness he has experienced on former occasions, will 
 add to their favours by supplying him with corrections and sugges- 
 tions for the improvement of future editions of " The Farmers' 
 Encyclopaedia." 
 
 CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON. 
 
 14. Gray's Inn Square, 
 May, 1842. 
 
THE 
 
 FARMER'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA, 
 
 AND 
 
 fitrttonarp of Eural affairs 
 
 A. 
 
 -A, in the composition of botanic terms, is 
 the Greek a, privative, and signifies " with- 
 out ; " as, apetalous means " without petals," 
 aphyllous " without leaves," acaulis " with- 
 out stem," or " stemless." 
 
 Aaron's Beard. See Rhus cotinus. 
 
 Aaron's Rod. See Phlox paniculata. 
 
 ABATE. (French, abbatre; Spanish, aba- 
 tir ; Italian, abbatere ;) to beat down. In 
 Commerce, to let down the price in selling. 
 
 " In letting leases of his impropriations, if he found 
 the curates' wages but small, he would abate much of his 
 fine to increase their pensions." — Sir G. Paul's Life of 
 Abp. Wkitgift, p. 38. " In horsemanship, a horse is said 
 to abate, or take down his curvets ; when, working upon 
 curvets, he puts his two hind-legs to the ground both at 
 once." — Johnson's Did. by Todd. 
 
 In Law, means the beating down or re- 
 moval of an obstruction or nuisance, which 
 any person may remove, provided he does it 
 in a peaceable manner, so as not to occasion 
 a breach of the peace, such as the obstruc- 
 tion of an ancient light, which is a private 
 nuisance, or the erection of a gate across a 
 common road, which is a public nuisance, 
 and which any one may beat down and re- 
 move. 
 
 ABATTOIR. The French term for 
 slaughter-houses. Previous to the year 
 1818, Paris was subject to the nuisance 
 which still exists to a great extent in Lon- 
 don and other towns, of having beasts in- 
 tended for slaughter driven through crowded 
 streets, to the great danger of the passengers. 
 But by an edict of Napoleon, in 1810, public 
 slaughter-houses were ordered to be erected 
 on the banks of the Seine. These build- 
 ings, which were completed in 1818, are five 
 in number, and of very large dimensions. 
 They are placed three on the right, and 
 two on the left, bank of the Seine. In the 
 1 hL 
 
 ABBEY LANDS. 
 
 slaughter-rooms, which are of stone, and in 
 the ox and sheep pens, every attention is 
 paid to cleanliness, and all the latest me- 
 chanical improvements have been intro- 
 duced. Each butcher has separate stalls 
 and conveniences for forage, and pays a 
 certain fixed price for the accommodation 
 and attendance of the labourers of the es- 
 tablishment. These annual payments from 
 the butchers of Paris average a very large 
 sum. In 1824 they amounted to 40,000/. 
 The erection of similar establishments in 
 the least populous suburbs of London would 
 be a most beneficial measure for the public 
 health and comfort, when we take into con- 
 sideration that more than 2,000,000 head 
 of live-stock are annually slaughtered in this 
 great capital. (Dulaure, Hist de Paris, torn, 
 ix.) 
 
 ABBEY LANDS. Lands once the pro- 
 perty of an abbey. The chief circumstances 
 attendant upon these lands worthy of the 
 farmer's notice are, their general exemption 
 from the payment of tithes, a privilege which 
 is thus described by Blackstone (Commen- 
 taries, vol. i. p. 31.) : — " As possessed by spi- 
 ritual persons or corporations, for instance 
 monasteries: 1. By real composition. 2. By 
 the Pope's bull of exemption. 3. By unity of 
 possession ; as where the rectory of a parish 
 and lands in the same parish both belonged 
 to a religious house, those lands were dis- 
 charged of tithes by this unity of possession. 
 
 4. By prescription, having never been liable 
 to tithes, by being always in spiritual hands. 
 
 5. By virtue of their order ; as the Knights 
 Templars, Cistercians, and others, whose 
 lands were privileged by the Pope with a 
 discharge of tithes. Though, upon the disso- 
 lution of the abbeys by Henry VILI., most 
 
ABBEY LANDS. 
 
 ABELE TREE. 
 
 of those exemptions would have fallen with 
 them, and the lands become tithable again, 
 had they not been supported and upheld by 
 the 31 Hen. 8. c. 13., which enacts, that all 
 persons who should come to the possession 
 of lands of any abbey then dissolved, should 
 hold them free and discharged of tithes in as 
 large and ample a manner as the abbeys 
 themselves formerly held them. And from 
 this original have sprung all the lands which, 
 being in lay hands, do at present claim to be 
 tithe free ; for if a man can show his lands to 
 have been such abbey lands, and "also imrae- 
 morially discharged of tithes, by any of the 
 means before mentioned, this is now a good 
 prescription de non decimando. But he must 
 show both these requisites ; for abbey lands, 
 without a special ground of discharge, are 
 not discharged of course, neither will any 
 prescription de non decimando avail in total 
 discharge of tithes, unless it relates to such 
 abbey lands." " And where," says Mr. 
 Hovenden, when commenting upon the text 
 of Blackstone, " lands appear to have been 
 before, and at the time of the Council of 
 Lateran (Stavely v. Ullithorne, Hardres, 
 101.), part of the possessions of any of the 
 greater monasteries suppressed in the time 
 of Henry VIII., and to have remained so 
 till the dissolution (Norton v. Hammond, 
 1 Y. & J. 108.), and there is no evidence 
 of the payment of tithes for those lands at 
 any time, our courts will consider them as 
 discharged by some way or other before the 
 dissolution. (Lamprey v. Rooke, Amb. 291.) 
 The abbey lands, in fact, were widely dis- 
 persed throughout England, for there were 
 few districts in which they had not posses- 
 sions. Their revenues, by the valuation 
 taken at the time of the dissolution, were 
 enormous, especially if we take into account 
 the altered value of money since that time : 
 thus it has been calculated that the annual 
 revenue of the Abbey of Glastonbury was 
 equal, at the time of the dissolution, to 
 40,000£. of our money. The following is 
 the list of the revenues of seventeen of the 
 largest of the mitred abbeys ; that is, of those 
 whose abbots sat in parliament in the House 
 of Peers. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 St. Peter's, Westminster - - - 3977 6 
 
 Glastonbury .... 3508 13 
 
 St. Alban's .... 2510 6 
 
 St. John's, Middlesex ... 2385 19 
 
 St. Edmund's Bury ... 2336 16 
 
 Reading 2116 3 
 
 St. Mary's, near York ... 2085 1 
 
 Abingdon - 2042 2 
 
 Tewkesbury - - - - 1598 1 
 
 Ramsey, Huntingdon ... 1983 15 
 
 Peterborough .... 1972 7 
 
 Gloucester .... 1550 4 
 
 St. Augustine's, Canterbury - - 1412 4 
 
 Evesham ..... 1268 9 
 
 Crowland - ... . . 1217 5 
 
 Walt ham, Essex .... 1079 1 2 
 
 Cirencester .... 1051 7 
 
 (Partner's Wallham Abbey.) 
 
 2 
 
 ABBREVIATIONS, from the Latin 
 
 Abbfeviare. 
 
 " This book — was laid up as sacred in the church of 
 Winchester ; and for that reason, as graver authors say, 
 was called " Liber Domus Dei," and by abbreviation 
 "Domesday Book." (Temple, Jntr. Hist, of England. 
 Johnson, by Todd.) 
 
 For shortening botanical descriptions, 
 some authors, as Linnaeus and Willdenow, 
 contract the terms, as Cat. for Calyx, and 
 Cor. for Corolla; while others, particularly 
 Trattinick, have invented for the same pur- 
 pose a species of hieroglyphics. The only 
 effect of both is to save space in writing 
 or printing, an advantage which is over- 
 balanced by the trouble of recollecting the 
 contractions, or studying the hieroglyphics. 
 
 The following are a few of the abbrevia- 
 tions most common in botanical works : — 
 
 Anth. Anther. 
 
 Bractea. 
 
 Character. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Culture. 
 
 Division. 
 
 Essential. 
 
 Family. 
 
 Filament. 
 
 Flower. 
 
 Folium or Leaf. 
 
 Fruit. 
 
 Genus. 
 
 Habitat. 
 
 On. 
 Fed. 
 Pet. 
 Fist. 
 Bad. 
 
 Ovary. 
 Peduncle. 
 Petal. 
 Pistil. 
 
 Radix or Root. 
 
 Ram. Ramus or Branch. 
 
 Sem. Semina or Seeds. 
 
 S/am. Stamens. 
 
 Slig. Stigma or Summit. 
 
 Sp. Species. 
 
 Syn. Synonimes. 
 
 Tab^} Tabula or Picture. 
 
 Trib. Tribe. 
 
 Var. Variety. 
 
 V. Vidi, or I have seen . 
 
 y C I have seen a speci- 
 
 £ men. 
 V. v. I have seen it living. 
 
 (Miller.) 
 
 Br. 
 Char. 
 CI. 
 Cult. 
 Div. 
 Ess. 
 Fam. 
 
 Fa. 
 
 Ft. 
 Fol. 
 Fr. 
 Gen. 
 H.orl 
 Hab.S 
 
 Hort. Hortus. 
 7c. Icon or Engraving. 
 Infl. Inflorescence. 
 Nat. Natural. 
 Ord. Order. 
 
 ABDOMEN. The lower part of the 
 belly ; from the Latin abdo, to hide or con- 
 ceal. The abdomen in insects includes the 
 whole portion of the body behind the corse- 
 let (thorax), embracing the back as well as 
 the belly. 
 
 ABELE TREE (Populus alba). White 
 Poplar, or Dutch Beech, otherwise called 
 the Arbeel. The Abele is a tree of very 
 rapid growth, but seldom exceeds forty or 
 fifty feet in height. The leaves are large, 
 and divided into three, four, or five lobes, 
 which are indented on their edges. They 
 are of a darker colour on their upper side, 
 and very white with a dense down on their 
 under. The foot-stalks are about an inch 
 in length. The young branches have a 
 purplish bark, and are covered with a white 
 down, but the bark of the older branches 
 and trunk is grey. In the beginning of 
 April, the male flowers, or catkins, appear, 
 which are cylindrical, scaly, and three 
 inches long ; and about a week after, the 
 female flowers come out on catkins, which 
 have no stamens like those of the male. 
 Soon after the female catkins come out, the 
 male catkins fall off ; and in five or six 
 weeks after, the female flowers will have 
 ripe seeds inclosed in a hairy covering, Avhen 
 the catkins will drop, and the seeds will be 
 wafted by the winds to a great distance. 
 
ABELE 
 
 TREE. 
 
 This tree is not to be considered as a 
 native of England. " We do not find," says 
 Phillips, " any old English name for these 
 trees ; the word Poplar is from the Latin 
 Populus, or the French Peuplier, and Abele 
 from the Low Dutch Abed, a name which 
 they gave to this tree on account of its 
 hoary or aged colour." Turner, in 1568, 
 says, " As touching the Whyte Asp, I re- 
 membre not that ever I saw it in any place 
 in England." {Phillips's Shrubbery, vol. ii. 
 p. 124.) 
 
 Hartlib, in his " Complete Husbandman," 
 1659, states that some years ago, there were 
 ten thousand Abeles at once sent over into 
 England from Flanders, and transplanted 
 into many counties ; that the timber is in- 
 comparable for all sorts of wooden vessels, 
 especially trays; and that butchers' trays 
 cannot be made without it, it being so ex- 
 ceedingly light and tough. The Abeles 
 grown at Hartwell, near Aylesbury, in 
 Buckinghamshire, the seat of Sir William 
 Lee, Bart., were remarkable for their height, 
 and the cleanness of their stem or bole. 
 There are some very fine specimens also in 
 Poland. 
 
 " A specimen of their advance," says 
 Evelyn, " we have had of an Abele tree 
 at Sion, which being lopped in Feb. 1651, 
 did, by the end of October 1652, produce 
 branches as big as a man's wrist, and seven- 
 teen feet in length. As they thus increase 
 in bulk, their value advances likewise, which, 
 after the first seven years, is annually worth 
 one shilling more. The Dutch, therefore," 
 he continues, " look upon a plantation of 
 these trees as an ample portion for a daugh- 
 ter." Besides the uses of the wood before 
 stated, it is considered good for wainscoting, 
 for floors, laths, and packing cases ; and, 
 from the boards of it not splitting by nails, 
 but closing over the heads, it is esteemed 
 superior to deal for the latter purpose. It 
 is found to answer for works under water. 
 Peaty and low damp soils are the most pro- 
 per for the Abele, and in these it is well 
 worthy the attention of the forest planter. 
 It should never be planted near the margins 
 of, nor in grass fields, for it extends its roots 
 under the grass to a great distance, and 
 sends up numerous shoots. The Abele is. 
 propagated by layers, cuttings, and off- 
 shoots or suckers. If cuttings are adopted, 
 they should be from two to three feet long, 
 inserting them in a moist light soil to the 
 depth of a foot and a half ; and it is better 
 to plant them in a gentle slanting direction 
 than in an upright position. If the season 
 prove dry, the beds or rows should be re- 
 freshed with water when necessary. The 
 month of February is the best season for 
 planting the cuttings. In two years, many, 
 3 
 
 if not all that have rooted, will be fit to 
 plant out for good, on the sites where they 
 are to remain for timber. The size of the 
 plants considered the best for final trans- 
 plantation, is from one and a half to three 
 feet in length, but much larger plants will 
 succeed very well by paying proper atten- 
 tion to keep the roots as perfect as possible. 
 
 The Abele is sometimes made a variety 
 of the Grey Poplar (Populus cancseens), and 
 several British as well as foreign botanists 
 have sometimes confounded the two species, 
 but they are very distinct. The pistils of 
 the female flowers in the Abele are four, 
 on egg-oblong catkins, while in the Grey 
 Poplar the pistils are eight, on cylindrical 
 catkins ; but the distinction between the 
 trees is most obvious to common observation 
 in the habits of each. The Grey Poplar 
 rises with a clear round stem and silvery 
 bark, crowned with compact branches, form- 
 ing a pretty regular rounded outline ; where- 
 as the Abele has a branched stem with grey 
 bark, the branches long, comparatively 
 spreading and scattered, exhibiting an ir- 
 regular outline frequently tending to the 
 spiral, but nearer to the rounded figure of 
 the top of the Grey Poplar. On a nearer 
 inspection, the leaves offer clear characters 
 of distinction. In the Abele, the leaves are 
 lobed and toothed, dark green and smooth 
 above, and snow white with dense down 
 beneath ; while those of the Grey Poplar 
 are scarcely half the size, are roundish and 
 deeply waved, and hoary with grey or 
 whitish down beneath. 
 
 There are many varieties of the Abele, 
 arising from local circumstances. The va- 
 riety called on the Continent Polan de Hol- 
 land, is preferable for avenues and for 
 landscape gardening, from its rapid growth, 
 its majestic height and aspect, and from its 
 fine white leaves contrasting well with the 
 green of other leaves. There are some 
 magnificent ones near the Hague, and more 
 particularly extensive avenues of them along 
 most of the highways in the lower districts 
 of Belgium, near Bruges and Ghent. It is 
 so common on the romantic banks of the 
 Rhone, that some French authors call it 
 Arbre du Rhone. 
 
 According to M'Intosh, the best cuttings 
 are taken from the wood of the preceding 
 year ; and when made, each cutting should 
 be nine inches in length, and planted in 
 nursery lines eighteen inches apart, and the 
 cuttings about six inches distant from each 
 other. "When inserted in the ground, they 
 should be put in deep enough to resist the 
 drought ; and if only two inches of the top 
 appear above ground, it will be found suf- 
 ficient. In two years, or three at most, 
 these cuttings will be fully grown to fit 
 b 2 
 
ABERCROMBIE (JOHN). 
 
 them for being finally planted out ; but if 
 they are to remain the third year in the 
 nursery, they ought to be taken up and re- 
 planted at a greater distance. The Abele 
 often sends up naturally vast numbers of 
 suckers from its roots, and such are some- 
 times used for young plants ; cuttings are, 
 however, preferable. Langley asserts that 
 he has known great quantities produced by 
 chips only, where the trees have been hewed 
 after felling ; and one of our earliest authors 
 has proposed ploughing down these slips, 
 with a view to produce an economical cop- 
 pice. 
 
 Amongst other uses of this tree, it may 
 be mentioned that, on the Continent, the 
 wood of the larger branches is prized, on 
 account of its lightness, for making wooden 
 shoes ; while the smaller twigs are used for 
 fire-wood. By splitting the wood into thin 
 shavings, like tape or braid, the stuff called 
 sparterie, used for hats, is manufactured. 
 These shavings are always made from green 
 wood. One workman can, with the aid of 
 a child to carry off the shavings, keep seve- 
 ral plaiters employed. The ancient Greek 
 athletse wore crowns made of the branches 
 of this tree, because it was sacred to their 
 patron deity, Hercules. (Julius Pollux, de 
 Ludis. Millers Diet.) 
 
 ABERCROMBIE (JOHN), a popular 
 writer on gardening, was born at Edin- 
 burgh in 1726, near which city his father 
 conducted a considerable market garden. 
 At fourteen he became an apprentice of his 
 father. He was thoroughly grounded in 
 his profession, the practice of years being 
 retained and concentrated by a habit of 
 committing to paper all the observations he 
 made in its pursuit from a very early age. 
 Soon after his apprenticeship expired, being 
 about eighteen, he came to London, where 
 he obtained employment in some of the 
 Royal gardens at Kew and Leicester House. 
 Afterwards he became gardener to Dr. 
 Munro. He was present at the battle of 
 Preston Pans, which was fought under his 
 father's garden wall. He was a loyalist. 
 About 1751-52 he became gardener to Sir 
 James Douglas, during his continuance in 
 whose service he married, and, in 1759, re- 
 turned to Scotland with the intention of 
 becoming kitchen and market gardener, but 
 came again to England, after an absence of 
 only ten months. He was engaged in the 
 service of several noblemen and gentlemen 
 until 1770, when he engaged a kitchen- 
 garden and small nursery-ground between 
 Mile End Road and Hackney, attending 
 Spitalfields Market with the products until 
 1 771 -72. At this period he became a publican 
 in I )og-Row, Mile End, at a house afterwards 
 the Artichoke Tea Gardens ; he soon left 
 4 • 
 
 this, and entered into the seed and nursery 
 business at Newington and Tottenham 
 Court, carrying on at the same time an 
 extensive trade as a kitchen gardener and 
 florist. About 1778 he prepared his " Every 
 Man his own Gardener," which has passed 
 through many editions. He actually how- 
 ever paid Mr. T. Mawe, gardener to the 
 Duke of Leeds, twenty pounds to allow his 
 name to be attached to this work. After- 
 wards becoming more confident, he pub- 
 lished his " Gardener's Pocket Journal, or 
 Daily Assistant," which obtained a very 
 extensive sale, and has since passed through 
 a very large edition annually. Besides 
 these, he compiled, " The Universal Dic- 
 tionary of Gardening and Botany, 4to ; " 
 " The Gardener's Dictionary ;" " The Gar- 
 dener's Vade-Mecum ; " " The Kitchen 
 Gardener and Hot-bed Forcer ; " 41 The 
 Hot-house Gardener ; " " The Wall Tree 
 Pruner;" "The Gardener's best Com- 
 panion," &c. He died from an accident on 
 the 2d of May, 1806. He at one period, 
 after the publication of his " Every Man his 
 own Gardener," had actually embarked to 
 superintend the gardens of the Empress of 
 Russia ; but the sight of the ocean inspired 
 him with terrors which he could not over- 
 come. (Memoir prefixed to his Gardener's 
 Pocket Journal ; Gentleman's Mag. and 
 Monthly Mag. for 1806.) Abercrombie was 
 induced to become author by a visit which 
 he received, in 1770, from Mr. Davis, a 
 London bookseller, and the celebrated Dr. 
 Goldsmith, who made overtures to him for 
 an original work, the latter promising to 
 revise the language, which he afterwards 
 neglected to do. 
 
 After the publication of the second 
 edition of his " Every Man his own Gar- 
 dener," he accepted an invitation from Mr. 
 Mawe, whose name he had borrowed for 
 the title page ; but when introduced to him, 
 having never before seen him, he was so 
 powdered and dressed, that Abercrombie 
 mistook him for his master the Duke of 
 Leeds. They were, however, mutually 
 pleased with each other, and subsequently 
 continued to correspond. 
 
 From 1796, to the time of his decease, he 
 continued to reside in Charlton Street, 
 Somers' Town. (Loudon's Encyclopaedia of 
 Gardening, p. 1106. ed. 5.) 
 
 The following is a list of his horticultural 
 works, in the order in which they were 
 published : — 
 
 1. Every Man his own Gardener. London. 1774. 
 
 2. The. Universal Gardener and Botanist. London. 177*, 
 4to. Mr. Weston says the first Edition appeared in 1770. 
 
 3. The Garden Mushroom, its nature and cultivation. 
 London. 1779. 8vo. 4. The British Fruit Garden, and 
 Art of Pruning. London. 1779. 8vo. 5. The Garden 
 Mushroom, its nature and cultivation. London. 1779. 
 8vo 1802. 12mo. G. The complete forcing Gardener. 
 
ABHOL. 
 
 ABORTION. 
 
 London. 1781. 12mo. 7. The complete Wall Tree 
 Pruner, &c. London. 1783. 12mo. 8. The Propagation 
 and botanical Arrangement of Plants and Trees useful and 
 ornamental. London. 1785. 2 vols. 12mo. 9. The Gar- 
 dener's Pocket Dictionary. London. 1786. 3 vols. 12mo. 
 10. The Daily Assistant in the modern Practice of Eng- 
 lish Gardening. London. 1789. 12mo. U. The Uni- 
 versal Gardener's Kalendar. London. 1789. 12mo. — 
 1808. 8vo. 12. The complete Kitchen Gardener. Lon- 
 don. 1789. 12mo. 13. The Gardener's Vade-Mecum. 
 London. 1789. 8vo. 14. The Hot-house Gardener. 
 Plates. London. 1789. 8vo. 15. The Gardener's Pocket 
 Journal and Annual Register. London. 1791. 12mo. 
 
 Of these works there needs little comment. 
 They are the sound results of lengthened ex- 
 perience. " Every Man his own Gardener," 
 was re-edited in 1816, by Mr. Mean. But 
 the editions and numbers that have been 
 sold, have never been equalled by any other 
 horticultural work, except Abercrombie's 
 own u Pocket Journal," of which cheap and 
 useful work about 2000 are annually sold. 
 
 The best portrait of Abercrombie is pre- 
 fixed to Debrett's edition, 2 vols. 8vo. He 
 is also represented at full length when 
 seventy-two, in the 16th edition, printed in 
 1800. (G. W. Johnson's Hist Eng. Gard.) 
 
 ABHOL, the garden shrub usually known 
 by the name of Savin, which see. 
 
 ABIES. In Botany, the Fir or Pine 
 Tree genus, well known for the valuable 
 timber obtained from many of the varieties. 
 The origin of the Latin name is unknown, 
 that of the English appellation is the Saxon 
 Furh-wude, fir-wood. See Fir Tree. 
 
 ABLACTATION. (Latin, ablacto.) The 
 weaning of an animal. Also a method of 
 grafting, without cutting the scion from the 
 stock. 
 
 ABNODATION, from Abnodatio, Latin. 
 A term used in gardening, to signify the 
 cutting knots from trees. - 
 
 ABORTION. (Latin, abortio.) In Vete- 
 rinary Surgery, miscarriage, slipping, slink- 
 ing, casting, or warping, all meaning the 
 expulsion of the foetus from the womb 
 (uterus) at so early a period of pregnancy, 
 as to render it impossible for it to live. The 
 immediate causes appear to be the death of 
 the foetus, or derangement in the functions 
 of the womb or its dependencies, arising 
 from some external cause or causes operat- 
 ing on the mother. Amongst these operating 
 causes may be reckoned too much, or too 
 little food, producing plethora or emacia- 
 tion ; sudden fright acting on the nerves, or 
 sympathy with certain smells or sights, such 
 as the smell or sight of blood, of bones, of 
 horns, and particularly of the aborted foetus 
 of another animal; — on a similar principle, 
 perhaps, to that which causes even some 
 strong-nerved men to faint away on wit- 
 nessing a surgical operation. Accidents, 
 also, such as falls, bruises, over-driving, or 
 fatigue, and the like, may frequently bring- 
 on abortion. 
 
 The signs of approaching abortion are, 
 5 
 
 great languor, uneasiness, and restlessness ; 
 sometimes a discharge of bloody matter from 
 the vagina, and the sudden filling of the 
 udder, similar to the signs of approaching 
 parturition. 
 
 Abortion in the Horse. — Abortions very 
 frequently happen among mares. This often 
 arises in consequence of over exertion 
 during the latter period of pregnancy. 
 Mares are liable, also, very frequently, to 
 various accidents in their pastures, which 
 may be the cause of their slipping their 
 foal, such as kicks, tumbling into holes and 
 ditches, over-exerting themselves to get 
 over fences, and the like. On this account, 
 when a mare is near her time, she should 
 be kept by herself, in some convenient 
 place. But there is another, and we sus- 
 pect a very general, cause of these accidents 
 in mares ; we mean a stinting of them in 
 their food, either in quantity or quality. It 
 appears, indeed, that some imagine that the 
 mare, when she is in foal, may be turned 
 out almost any where : but this opinion is 
 ill founded ; for although the mare does not 
 require to be kept so high in condition as 
 when she is at hard work, yet she is not to 
 be turned out into a pasture where she may 
 be in a manner starved : but how often do 
 we see the mare-in-foal on the worst piece 
 of ground in the whole farm, exposed, during 
 the rigorous winter season, to endure the 
 cold, as well as to put up with scanty food. 
 Every well-informed farmer knows that the 
 slinking of the foal is often the consequence 
 of such treatment. On the other hand, when 
 the mare is not worked at all, and indulged 
 with too high keep, she is almost equally in 
 danger of abortion, her high condition 
 having a tendency to cause inflammation 
 and other disorders ; and these deranging 
 the reproductive organs, frequently produce 
 miscarriage. It would seem, then, that 
 moderate exercise and diet are best suited 
 as means to avoid the misfortune of the 
 premature exclusion of the foal. 
 
 Abortion in the Cow. — Abortion occurs 
 oftener in the cow than in all other domestic 
 animals put together. Perhaps it is one of 
 the greatest annoyances the proprietor of 
 cows has to encounter, and unfortunately, 
 for aught we see to the contrary, it is likely 
 so to continue ; for in spite of the improved 
 state of veterinary medicine, and the re- 
 searches of skilfuUveterinary surgeons, both 
 at home and abroad, abortion still continues 
 as frequent and annoying as ever. The 
 causes are frequently involved in obscurity ; 
 but it may be mentioned, that an extremely 
 hot and foul cowhouse, a severe blow, violent, 
 exertion, starvation, plethora, an overloaded 
 stomach, internal inflammations, constipated 
 bowels, bad food or water, improper ex- 
 b 3 
 
ABORTION. 
 
 posure, and the like, will now and then 
 produce abortion. Any thing whatever, in- 
 deed, that seriously affects the health of the 
 animal in general, or the state of the repro- 
 ductive organs in particular, may do so. 
 But abortion occurs again and again when 
 no such causes as those enumerated can be 
 traced. The disease, if such it may be 
 called, as we think it may, is even said to 
 be infectious. No sooner does it show it- 
 self in one animal than it is seen in another, 
 and another, till it has spread over the most 
 part of the cowhouse. Some say this is to 
 be attributed to the odour arising from the 
 things evacuated. Possibly it may be so, there 
 is nothing unreasonable in the supposition ; 
 for although we cannot perceive the smell, 
 nor account for its peculiar influence, it is 
 still quite within possibility that such an 
 odour does exist, having the power attri- 
 buted to it. There can be no great harm, 
 however, in acting as if we were assured 
 that the mischief has its origin in the source 
 so commonly supposed, provided we do not 
 shut our eyes to any other which accident 
 or investigation may reveal. In the mean- 
 time, the number of abortions may be 
 diminished by carefully avoiding all those 
 causes which are known to be capable of 
 producing it. Let the cows be regularly 
 fed ; let their food be good, and in proper 
 quantities ; let them have water as often as 
 they will take it ; avoid sudden exposure to 
 cold or heat ; and, above all, let the cow- 
 house be well ventilated. Prohibit all 
 manner of rough usage on the part of those 
 who look after the cows, whether they be 
 pregnant or not. If any of them accumulate 
 flesh too rapidly, gradually reduce their al- 
 lowance ; and, on the other hand, if any 
 become emaciated, discover the cause, and 
 remedy it, always by slow degrees. Sudden 
 changes in the matter or mode of feeding 
 should also be avoided. The same sort of 
 diet does not agree equally well with all the 
 cows ; and this, in general, is indicated by 
 undue relaxation, or constipation of the 
 bowels : this should be watched, and re- 
 moved at once. Attention to these, and 
 many other minor circumstances, will amply 
 repay the proprietor for the little additional 
 trouble. 
 
 " That improper or too little food," says 
 Mr. Lindsay, " is a prominent cause of 
 abortion, is strongly indicated by the fol- 
 lowing facts. A friend of mine, a respect- 
 able grazing farmer, kept a dairy of twenty- 
 two cows, ten of which slipped calf at 
 different periods of parturition. The sum- 
 mer had been very unfavourable in every 
 respect, both as regarded the ground where 
 the cows were pastured, and in getting in 
 the hay crop. lie had little or no hay of 
 
 the last year's growth, and the hay of that 
 year when cut into was in a very bad state ; 
 but as he had no other, he was obliged to 
 give it to his cattle. The consequence was 
 as mentioned above ; and besides, many of 
 his stock died of various disorders ; and 
 many of those which recovered remained 
 long weakly." 
 
 " The most common cause of abortion in 
 cows," says White, " is improper feeding 
 during the winter and spring, before they 
 are turned to pasture. The filthy pond- 
 water they are often compelled to drink, 
 and feeding on the rank fog -grass of October 
 and November, especially when covered 
 with hoar frost, are likewise frequent causes 
 of miscarriage. I remember a farm near 
 Berkeley, in Gloucestershire, which afforded 
 a striking proof of the injuries of stagnant 
 pond-water, impregnated with dung and 
 urine. This farm had been given up by 
 three farmers successively, in consequence 
 of the losses they sustained through abortion 
 in their cattle, their not being in season 
 (that is, not conceiving), red water, and 
 other diseases. At length a Mr. Dimmery, 
 after suffering considerably in his live stock 
 for the first five years, suspected that the 
 water of his ponds, which was extremely 
 filthy, might be the cause of the mischief. 
 He therefore dug three wells upon his farm, 
 and having fenced round the ponds to pre- 
 vent his cattle from drinking there, caused 
 them to be supplied with well water, in 
 stone troughs erected for the purpose ; and 
 from this moment his live stock began to 
 thrive, became uncommonly healthy, and 
 the quality of the butter and cheese made 
 on his farm was greatly improved. It 
 should be observed, that on this farm the 
 cattle were regularly fed with good hay 
 during the winter, and kept in good pas- 
 ture in summer : so that there cannot exist 
 a doubt that the losses sustained by Mr. 
 Dimmery were entirely attributable to the 
 unwholesome water the animals were com- 
 pelled to drink." 
 
 " In order," adds Mr. White, " to show 
 that the accident of warping may arise from 
 a vitiated state of the digestive organs, I 
 shall here notice a few circumstances tend- 
 ing to corroborate this opinion. In January, 
 1782, all the cows in the possession of 
 farmer D'Euruse, near Grandvilliers, in 
 Picardy, miscarried. The period at which 
 they warped was about the fourth or fifth 
 month. The accident was attributed to 
 the excessive heat of the preceding summer ; 
 but as the water they were in the habit of 
 drinking was extremely bad, and they had 
 been kept upon oat, wheat, and rye straw, 
 it appears to me more probable that the 
 great quantity of straw they were obliged 
 
ABORTION. 
 
 ABORTIVE. 
 
 to eat in order to obtain sufficient nourish- 
 ment, and the injury sustained by the third 
 stomach in expressing the fluid parts of the 
 masticated mass, together with the large 
 quantity of water they probably drank while 
 kept upon this dry food, was the real cause 
 of their miscarrying. A farmer at Cha- 
 rentin, out of a dairy of twenty-eight cows, 
 had sixteen slip calf at different periods of 
 gestation. The summer had been very dry, 
 and during the whole of this season they 
 had been pastured in a muddy place, which 
 was flooded by the Seine. Here the cows 
 were generally up to their knees in mud 
 and water, and feeding on crowfoot, rushes, 
 and the like. Part of the stock had re- 
 cently been brought from Lower Normandy, 
 where they had all been affected with indi- 
 gestion by feeding upon lucerne, from the 
 effects of which they had been relieved by 
 the operation of paunching. In one, the 
 opening made was large enough to admit 
 the hand for the purpose of drawing out 
 the food ; the rest were operated on with a 
 trocar. In 1789, all the cows in the parish 
 of Beaulieu, near Mantes, miscarried. All 
 the land in this parish was so stiff as to hold 
 water for a considerable time ; and as a 
 vast quantity of rain fell that year, the 
 pastures were for a long time, and at several 
 periods, completely inundated, on which 
 the grass became sour and rank. These, 
 and several other circumstances which have 
 fallen under my own observation, plainly 
 show that keeping cows on food that is de- 
 ficient in nutrition, and difficult of digestion, 
 is one, if not the principal, cause of their 
 miscarrying. It is stated by Mr. Handwin, 
 that feeding in pastures, when covered with 
 white frost, has been observed to occasion 
 abortion in these animals." 
 
 If there be any probability of a cow mis- 
 carrying from exposure to any of the 
 common causes already enumerated, let her 
 by all means be put apart from the others ; 
 and let a skilful person attend to the evil 
 from which she is expected to suffer. If 
 the approach of abortion be evident, bleed- 
 ing may be had recourse to ; for if it do not 
 check abortion, it will yet do no harm 
 though it take place. When there are any 
 premonitory symptoms of abortion, they 
 are precisely the same as those which 
 present themselves in ordinary labour, with 
 the exception of their being less marked. 
 
 Fumigation of the cow-house is resorted 
 to as one of the means of preventing the 
 spread of abortion : tar, sulphur, gunpowder, 
 feathers, and the like, are burned for the 
 purpose of destroying the odour. We have 
 never seen a single instance of the practice 
 being attended with the smallest success ; 
 while it is obvious that, if carried beyond a 
 
 certain point, it may produce the very evil 
 it is intended to remove or mitigate. 
 
 It is a remarkable feature in the history 
 of this complaint, that those cows that have 
 once miscarried are particularly liable to do 
 so again at the same period of their suc- 
 ceeding pregnancy. Greater care is there- 
 fore requisite to guard against those causes 
 which do, or are supposed to, excite it. The 
 treatment of abortion, when it does take 
 place, differs not from that adopted in cases 
 of parturition, only that the cow which 
 miscarries should be removed with all that 
 belongs to her from among pregnant cows. 
 
 If the signs of approaching abortion be 
 discovered early, the accident may some- 
 times be prevented. If the cow is in good 
 condition, then immediately let it be bled 
 to the extent of five or six quarts, and the 
 bowels opened with half a pound of Epsom 
 salts, three or four drams of aloes in powder, 
 or as many ounces of castor oil, administered 
 in a quart of gruel ; but if the cow is in 
 very poor condition, and the miscarriage is 
 anticipated from her having been exposed 
 to cold, it would be more advantageous to 
 avoid bleeding, and give her a warm gruel 
 drink, with an ounce of laudanum in it. If 
 after this abortion does take place, let her 
 be kept in a comfortable place by herself ; 
 and if the after-birth has not passed off, let 
 no injudicious and unnecessary adminis- 
 tration of violent forcing medicines, such as 
 capsicum or hellebore, be given. Nature, 
 with a little assistance, is generally equal to 
 the perfect restoration of the animal. 
 
 Abortion in the Sheep. Ewes are much 
 subject to abortion, in consequence of the 
 numerous accidents they are liable to, such 
 as fright, overdriving, being worried or run 
 with dogs, a remarkable instance of which 
 came under my own observation. A pack 
 of hounds, in pursuit of a hare, got among 
 a flock of sheep belonging to a farmer, and 
 so hurried and alarmed them, that thirty 
 out of a flock of two hundred ewes prema- 
 turely dropped their lambs. It is the same 
 in sheep as in the other cases of domestic 
 animals, — scarcity of food, and exposure to 
 severe cold, having a great tendency to 
 make the ewes prematurely drop their 
 lambs, or produce them weakly and crip- 
 pled at the full time ; and although there 
 may be a little danger in giving too much 
 food, such as allowing them to feed all the 
 winter on turnips, the danger is trifling 
 compared with the starving system. (Miller.) 
 
 ABORTIVE. A term applied by gar- 
 deners and farmers to flowers, seeds, and 
 fruits, which do not come to maturity, in 
 consequence of external injury from the 
 weather, from insects, or other causes 
 affecting their growth. Thus fruit often 
 b 4 
 
ABORTIVE CORN 
 
 ABSCESS. 
 
 becomes abortive, in consequence of cold 
 winds or frosts in spring checking the flow 
 of the nutritive juices ; and after losing its 
 healthy colour it shrivels, and falls. The 
 same effects arise when the leaves of fruit- 
 branches are devoured by caterpillars, or 
 the fruit-stalks sucked by insects (Aphides, 
 Cocci, &c). The only preventives are shel- 
 tering from cold, and destroying the insects. 
 
 ABORTIVE CORN. A distemper in 
 grain, first mentioned by M. Tillet, in a 
 Dissertation which gained the prize at the 
 Academy of Bourdeaux. This distemper, 
 said that ingenious naturalist, shows itself 
 long before harvest, when the stalk is not 
 above eighteen inches high ; and may be 
 known by a deformity in the stalks, the 
 leaves, the ears, and even in the grain. The 
 stems of abortive corn plants are generally 
 shorter than those of healthy ones of the 
 same kind and age : they are crooked and 
 knotted, the leaves being commonly of a 
 bluish green colour, curled up in various 
 forms, sometimes turned like wafer-cakes, 
 and often rolled in a spiral form. The ears 
 have very little of their natural form : they 
 are lean, withered, and show very imperfect 
 rudiments of either the chaff or grain. 
 These appearances are, however, only to be 
 observed in plants that are highly diseased. 
 The stalks are often pretty straight, the 
 leaves but little curled, and the chaff toler- 
 ably well formed ; but instead of inclosing 
 a small embryo, white and soft at the sum- 
 mit, it contains only a green kernel, termin- 
 ating in a point, not unlike a young pea 
 when forming in its pod. These abortive 
 kernels have two or three points very visible, 
 and are formed in a manner as if two or 
 three kernels were joined together at the 
 base. When they are ripe, or rather when 
 dried up, they grow black, and resemble the 
 seeds of cockle so much, that farmers who 
 are not acquainted with this distemper often 
 confound abortive wheat with the seeds of 
 that weed. It is supposed by the author 
 just mentioned, that this disease is occa- 
 sioned by the perforations of insects, as he 
 perceived on the sickly plants small drops 
 of a very limpid liquor, which he imagined 
 to be extravasated sap. 
 
 ABROKUS. A term employed by some 
 old authors for the Bromns, Avena sterilis, or 
 wild oat ; and, by others, for the Orobus, or 
 bitter vetch. 
 
 ABROTANUM, andADONIUM. The 
 plant Southernwood ; which see. 
 
 ABSCESS. (Latin, abseessus.) In Vete- 
 rinary Surgery, a circumscribed cavity in an 
 animal, containing matter. The deposition 
 of matter in a solid part of the body is 
 ;il ways preceded, and in some degree ac- 
 companied, by inflammation. The local 
 8 
 
 symptoms are, pain on pressure, heat, swell- 
 ing, hardness, and, where it can be seen, 
 redness. These are easily recognised, in 
 proportion as the inflamed part is near the 
 external surface. If the part in which an 
 abscess is about to form be soft, yielding, 
 and well supplied with blood, it soon softens 
 and points, the pain diminishes, the skin 
 becomes thin, a fluid is felt fluctuating under 
 it, and by and by the skin bursts, or a por- 
 tion of it drops out, and the matter escapes. 
 What is called the process of granulation 
 succeeds to this ; and, provided the matter 
 be completely evacuated, and the outlet be 
 such as not to retain any that may form 
 subsequently, the cavity soon fills up. 
 
 Such are the different stages of an ordi- 
 nary abscess. The general health of the 
 animal is rarely affected ; but if an abscess 
 form in a dense unyielding texture, in a 
 part which cannot without much difficulty 
 accommodate itself to an increase of volume, 
 then the swelling may be less, but the animal 
 will endure a great deal more pain. The 
 irritation indeed is sometimes so great, from 
 this cause, as to induce fever, and even 
 death; and hence the formation of an 
 abscess in the foot of an irritable horse is 
 not an unfrequent cause of death. During 
 the deposition of the matter in such cases, 
 we have general symptoms added to those 
 termed local. There is loss of appetite, 
 thirst, a hot skin, quick and hard pulse, 
 constipated bowels ; in short, the animal is 
 fevered. When an abscess forms in a part 
 remote from the surface, its presence is not 
 easily recognised. The general practitioner 
 has here an advantage over the veterinary 
 surgeon. The expressed feelings of the 
 patient, and the occasional slight shivering 
 fits which accompany the formation of mat- 
 ter, are guides which the veterinary surgeon 
 can rarely or never command. The shiver- 
 ing, if it occurs, passes unobserved, and the 
 animal can give no account of himself ; dis- 
 section, therefore, sometimes reveals large 
 abscesses, whose existence was not even 
 suspected during life. Fortunately these 
 are not frequent. 
 
 It is a curious circumstance, and one that 
 well illustrates the preservative principle of 
 a living being, that, unless there be some 
 mechanical obstacle, as in the case of the 
 horse's foot, the matter always seeks its exit 
 by an external opening. If this were not a 
 law in the animal economy, and if the matter 
 were to spread indiscriminately on all sides, 
 it might not only accumulate to an enor- 
 mous extent, and produce much destruction, 
 but by encroaching upon vital organs, it 
 might be a very frequent cause of death. 
 The instances of such a thing happening are 
 rare ; but they are easily accounted for by 
 
ABSCESS. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. 
 
 the presence of some mechanical obstacle 
 which the absorbents could not overcome. 
 Why an abscess should point at one part 
 rather than another, is truly wonderful ; but 
 it is not more so than almost every other 
 process of importance in the animal economy. 
 We may attempt to explain it ; but, in truth, 
 to perceive that such is the case, and that 
 because it would have been wrong had it 
 been otherwise, is as far as we can proceed. 
 We know that the absorbents remove a 
 portion of that side of the cavity which is 
 next to the external surface ; but we do not 
 know what urges them to act on that side 
 in preference to any other; and, perhaps, 
 in a practical point of view, we need not 
 care to know. 
 
 The causes of abscess may in general be 
 traced to an injury done to the texture of 
 a part, or to the introduction of some foreign 
 substance by which it is irritated. In the 
 former, the formation of matter is a part of 
 the process by which the injury is repaired ; 
 in the latter, it becomes necessary to inter- 
 pose a bland insensible medium between the 
 surrounding parts and the irritating sub- 
 stance, while the same means serve to expel 
 it. Thus a severe bruise, the insertion of a 
 thorn, a nail, or any similar agent, may be 
 followed by an abscess. 
 
 The treatment of an ordinary abscess is 
 very simple : as a general rule, the matter 
 should be evacuated as soon as discovered. 
 Let a broad-shouldered lancet be used, and 
 let the opening be made sufficiently large ; 
 and, what is of still more consequence, let it 
 be at the lowest part of the tumour, in order 
 that the cavity may be completely and con- 
 stantly drained. The general practitioner 
 has some scruple about making an artificial 
 opening, often for good reasons. His pa- 
 tients dread the lancet more than a tedious 
 cure; while the skin is thinner, and conse- 
 quently the natural outlet is sooner formed. 
 But in the horse, and the dog, and still more 
 in the ox, the skin is thick, its removal pro- 
 portionally slow, and the natural process is 
 both tedious and painful. It is, therefore, 
 better both for the animal and his owners, 
 to have an artificial outlet made for the 
 matter as soon as the abscess is brought to 
 a head, either naturally, or by the application 
 of a bran poultice. Little more is necessary 
 than to keep the part clean ; trim the hair 
 from the edges of the orifice, and by apply- 
 ing hogs' -lard, prevent the acrid discharge 
 from adhering to, and removing the hair 
 from the skin beneath. Let no pretender 
 stuff the cavity with a candle, or tent of tow, 
 or rowels, or any thing else. All these in- 
 terfere with nature's operations, prevent the 
 escape of the matter, produce fistula, and 
 other evils, often far more serious than the 
 9 
 
 original abscess. If the cavity do not fill 
 up so readily as might be expected, allow 
 the animal a little more nourishing food than 
 that recommended for invalids ; and inject 
 once, or even twice a day, a liniment, com- 
 posed of equal parts of spirits of turpentine 
 and sweet oil ; or, if the matter discharged, 
 instead of being thick, pale yellow, and 
 without smell, be dark-coloured, variegated, 
 and smell offensively, a solution of chloride 
 of lime, or one to three drachms of nitre in 
 six ounces of water, may be used. 
 
 A hernial tumour has been mistaken for 
 an abscess ; and, in consequence, the black- 
 smith has plunged a lancet into the gut, or 
 inserted a rowel. This is a most unlikely 
 mistake for a veterinary surgeon to make. 
 The heat, the pain, the rigidity, and the 
 situation of an abscess, would be sufficient 
 to distinguish it from a hernial swelling. If 
 there be met with a tumour without heat or 
 pain, very compressible, elastic, and situated 
 on the belly, the veterinary surgeon would 
 pronounce it a rupture, or hernia; and of 
 course would never dream of touching it 
 with the lancet. — Miller. 
 
 ABSCISSION. The act of cutting or 
 lopping off. 
 
 ABSINTHIUM (Greek a^ivBwv, from 
 «, not, and \piv9og, pleasant). 1. The com- 
 mon Wormwood {Artemisia Absinthium). 
 2. A section of the genus Artemisia. See 
 Wormwood. 
 
 ABSORBENT SOILS. Such soils as 
 imbibe water. See Earth, the use of, to 
 vegetation. 
 
 ABSORBENTS. In veterinary medi- 
 cine, those drugs are termed absorbents that 
 are given internally for the purpose of 
 neutralising any acid which forms in the 
 stomach and bowels in consequence of im- 
 paired digestion. Prepared chalk is gene- 
 rally used for this purpose. Those medicines 
 are likewise termed absorbents which are 
 applied externally for absorbing moisture. 
 Armenian bole, calamine, flour, and the like, 
 are employed in this way. They are some- 
 times dusted between folds of the skin when 
 galled, and raw from friction, blisters, or 
 grease. They are likewise useful in canker 
 of the horse's foot, foul in the foot of cattle, 
 foot-rot in sheep, and sores between the 
 toes of dogs ; and they are beneficial in some 
 forms of mange, in staying bleeding, and 
 assisting the cure of a penetrated joint. 
 
 Absorbents. In veterinary physiology, 
 a class of vessels whose office it is to 
 convey the product of digestion, and the re- 
 sidue of nutrition into the circulation, to be 
 mixed with and repair the waste of the 
 blood. They are divided into lacteals and 
 lymphatics. The former are all situated in 
 the cavity of the belly ; and by extremely 
 
ABSORBENTS. 
 
 ABSORPTION. 
 
 minute mouths, opening on the inner surface 
 of the stomach and intestines, they receive 
 the nutritious portion of the food, and carry 
 it to a vessel which runs along the left side 
 of the spine, and which, in its turn, empties 
 itself into the left jugular vein. The lym- 
 phatics are distributed over every portion of 
 the frame, at least over every portion that 
 contains blood. Their different branches 
 are so minute and so numerous, that a cele- 
 brated anatomist who attempted their dis- 
 section, is said to have thrown down his knife 
 in despair, exclaiming, " that the body is 
 entirely composed of absorbents." The uses 
 of the lymphatics are, to remove the residue 
 of nutrition ; and when the supply of food is 
 deficient, to remove such portions of the 
 body as can be spared and converted into 
 blood. It is they that effect the removal of 
 parts which disappear without the action of 
 external agents. The lymphatics ultimately 
 empty their contents into the same vessel as 
 the lacteals ; and they follow, in their distri- 
 bution through the body, the same course 
 as the veins. In the horse they arc liable to 
 a disease termed farcy ; and in all animals 
 they are frequently inflamed in the neigh- 
 bourhood of a sore. The absorbents, both 
 lacteals and lymphatics, are very delicate in 
 their sides, nearly transparent, have nume- 
 rous valves which compel their contents to 
 flow only in one direction ; and their larger 
 trunks have numerous glandular bodies on 
 them. The use of these glands is not well 
 known ; but, from one or two circumstances, 
 it would appear that they have to produce 
 some change on the fluid which passes 
 through them before it is fit to mingle with 
 the blood. 
 
 ABSORPTION. An important process 
 in vegetable physiology. As plants are not 
 furnished with any individual organ similar 
 to the mouth of animals, how, it may be 
 asked, do they effect the introduction of food 
 into their bodies ? Is it by the general sur- 
 face of their stem, leaves, or roots, or by any 
 peculiar part of these ? By whatever part 
 it may enter, it must, at any rate, pass 
 through tlie covering of the outer bark (epi- 
 dermis), which the earlier physiologists 
 thought it could not do, but by means of 
 pores more or less visible. Yet some of 
 them described the outer bark as being of so 
 close and compact a texture, that the eye, 
 aided even by the best microscopes, was un- 
 able to discover in it the slightest vestige 
 either of pores or of apertures. But Hed- 
 wig and De Candolle detected superficial 
 pores in the leaves, at least, of many plants ; 
 and so will any one else, who will be at the 
 trouble of* repeating their observations with 
 lenses of similar powers. 
 
 The next difficulty was with regard to the 
 10 
 
 outer bark (epidermis) of the flower, fruit, 
 and root. No pores had been detected in 
 the flower and fruit, though it was evident 
 that they were refreshed and invigorated by 
 the access of moisture and of atmospheric 
 air ; and no pores had been detected in the 
 root, though it was evident that the whole 
 of the nourishment which the plant derives 
 from the soil must of necessity pass through 
 the root. It was also evident that no aliment 
 could be taken up by the plant, except in 
 the state of a liquid, or of a gas — that is, by 
 absorption or by inhalation, as the chyle is 
 taken up into the animal lacteals, or the air 
 into the cells of the lungs. The greediness 
 with which plants absorb water was per- 
 ceived and acknowledged even in the earliest 
 times, and even by men who were not bota- 
 nists. Anacreon, in one of his little trifles 
 in honour of drinking, makes the very trees 
 of the forest drink : 
 
 'H y*j fjiiXctivoe, trtvu, 
 
 Hhu ht SevSgs' kvtviv. Ode xix. 
 
 " The black earth drinks, and the trees drink it ;" 
 that is, the moisture which it contains. 
 
 By merely immersing in water a plant of 
 almost any species of moss that has been 
 some time gathered, or long exposed to 
 drought, so as to have had its leaves shri- 
 velled up, the moisture will immediately be- 
 gin to penetrate the plant, which will thereby 
 resume its original verdure ; an experiment 
 which proves the fact of the entrance of 
 moisture into the plant through the outer 
 bark (epidermis). 
 
 It might be doubted whether any of the 
 moisture thus imbibed had passed through 
 the root. But if the bulb of a hyacinth is 
 placed on the mouth of a glass bottle filled 
 with water, so as that the smaller roots (ra- 
 dicles) only shall be immersed, the water 
 is imperceptibly exhausted, and the plant 
 grows. The moisture must, consequently, 
 have passed through the root. Plants seem, 
 indeed, to be peculiarly well adapted for the 
 absorption of fluids by the root, from the 
 infinite number of little absorbent fibulous 
 sponges (spongioloe), in which the fine fibres 
 of the root terminate. It is owing to this 
 important property that the scientific gar- 
 dener, in the transplanting of his young 
 trees, or the scientific and ornamental 
 planter, in the transplanting of his trees of 
 full growth, is so extremely careful to pre- 
 serve entire even the minutest fibres and 
 extremities of the root. Sir Henry Steuart's 
 Planters Guide has taught him the great 
 importance of these little organs. 
 
 Hales instituted a variety of experiments 
 to show the absorbing power of roots, and 
 the force with which it acted; as did also 
 Duhamel and Marriotte, to show the ab- 
 sorbent power of leaves. But the most 
 
ABSORPTION. 
 
 complete set of experiments upon the ab- 
 sorbent power of leaves is that of M. Bonnet 
 of Geneva, whose main object was to ascer- 
 tain whether the absorbing power of both 
 surfaces of a leaf was alike. With this view 
 he placed a number of leaves over water, so 
 as that they only floated on it, but were not 
 immersed ; some with the upper surface, and 
 others with the under surface, applied to the 
 water. If the leaf retained its verdure the 
 longer with the upper surface on the water, 
 the absorbing power of the upper surface 
 was to be regarded as the greater; but if 
 it retained its verdure the longer with the 
 under surface on the water, then the ab- 
 sorbing power of the under surface was to be 
 regarded as the greater. Some leaves were 
 found to retain their verdure the longer 
 when moistened by the upper surface, and 
 some when moistened by the under sur- 
 face ; and some were indifferent to the mode 
 in which they were applied to the water. But 
 the inference deducible from the whole, and 
 deduced accordingly by Bonnet, was, that 
 the leaves of herbs absorb moisture chiefly 
 by the upper surface, and the leaves of trees 
 chiefly by the under surface. What is the 
 cause of this singular difference between the 
 absorbing surfaces of the leaf of the herb, 
 and of the tree ? The physical cause might 
 be the existence of a greater, or of a smaller 
 number of pores, found in the leaves of the 
 herb and tree respectively. The chemical 
 cause would be the peculiar degree of affinity 
 existing between the absorbing organs and 
 the fluid absorbed. Duhamel seems to have 
 been content to look to the physical cause, 
 merely regarding the lower surface of the 
 leaf of the tree as being endowed with the 
 greater capacity of absorbing moisture 
 chiefly for the purpose of catching the as- 
 cending exhalations which must necessarily 
 come in contact with it as they rise, but 
 which might possibly have escaped if absorb- 
 able only by the upper surface, owing to the 
 increased rapidity of their ascent at an in- 
 creased elevation ; and regarding the upper 
 surface of the leaf of the herb as being en- 
 dowed with the greater absorbing power, 
 owing to its low stature and the slow ascent 
 of exhalations near the earth. This did not 
 throw much light upon the subject ; and the 
 experiments were still deemed insufficient, 
 as not representing to us the actual pheno- 
 menon of vegetation, though the fact of the 
 absorption of moisture by the leaf is fully 
 confirmed. 
 
 If, after a long drought, a fog happens to 
 succeed before any rain falls, so as to moisten 
 the surface of the leaves, plants begin to 
 revive, and to resume their verdure long 
 before any moisture can have penetrated to 
 their roots. Hence it follows incontestably, 
 11 
 
 either that moisture has been absorbed by 
 the leaf, or that exhalation has been suddenly 
 stopped by closing the pores of the leaf, or 
 both. The efficacy of rain and of artificial 
 waterings may be accounted for partly on 
 the same principle ; for they have not always 
 penetrated to the root when they are found 
 to have given freshness to the plant by either 
 or both of the processes just alluded to. The 
 moisture, then, that enters the plant as an 
 aliment, is taken up by means of the pores ; 
 or, in default of visible pores, merely by 
 means of the absorbent power of the outer 
 bark (epidermis), not only of the root and 
 leaf, but often, as it is to be believed, of the 
 other parts of the plant also, at least when 
 they are in a soft and succulent state. 
 
 It is to the modern improvements in pneu- 
 matic chemistry, and to them alone, that we 
 are indebted for our knowledge of the real 
 functions of the leaves of plants, and of their 
 analogical resemblance to the lungs of ani- 
 mals, it being now proved indisputably that 
 the leaves of plants not only contain air, 
 but do both inhale and respire it. It was 
 the opinion of Dr. Priestley that they inhale 
 it chiefly by the upper surface ; and it has 
 been shown by Saussure that their inhaling 
 power depends entirely upon the integrity 
 of their organisation. A bough of Cactus 
 Opuntia, detached from the plant and placed 
 in an atmosphere of common air, inhaled in 
 the course of a night four cubic inches of 
 oxygen ; but when placed in a similar at- 
 mosphere, after being cut to pieces and 
 pounded in a mortar, no inhalation took 
 place. The inhalation of air, therefore, is 
 no doubt effected by the pores of the outer 
 bark (epidermis) of the leaf. 
 
 It is important to attend particularly to 
 the distinction pointed out above, that it is 
 not the whole of the root which is endowed 
 with the power of absorbing nourishment, 
 but only the points of the root fibres, termed 
 spongelets. The surface of the root whose 
 outer bark has acquired a certain consistence 
 does not absorb the moisture of the soil in 
 contact with it ; but the roots, and also the 
 smallest rootlets, constantly lengthen at 
 their extremities ; and these extremities are 
 composed of a fine cellular tissue, compact, 
 spongy, and the whole newly developed, 
 possessing in a high degree the hygrosco- 
 pical faculty proper to vegetable tissue. 
 
 M. Carradori (Degli Organi Assorbenti) 
 has remarked that there is a slight ab- 
 sorption, either by the surface of the roots, 
 or by the fugacious hairs with which the 
 roots of young plants are often furnished : 
 but this effect seems owing to general hy- 
 groscopicity ; and he himself agrees that 
 this absorption is extremely feeble, especially 
 in old and woody roots, comparatively with 
 
ABSORPTION. 
 
 that which takes place at their extremities. 
 These experiments, however, are not made 
 with such minute accuracy as to enable us 
 to appreciate this comparison. 
 
 When we cut a branch of a tree and 
 plunge it into water, its woody tissue thus 
 laid bare quickly absorbs a quantity of 
 water; and in this manner is the life of 
 branches preserved which are kept for orna- 
 mental purposes, but this effect has a limit. 
 The extremity which has been cut and 
 plunged in the water is not renewed, as in 
 the case of the root ; and is, consequently, 
 more or less quickly altered or deteriorated 
 by being in contact with the water. We 
 renew its action by cutting off the rotting 
 extremity, and thus place a new and healthy 
 surface in contact with the liquid. The 
 water which in this manner penetrates into 
 the woody tissue of vegetables, preserves 
 their existence, at least for a certain time, 
 as if it entered by the spongelets. This is 
 the same thing, we may rest assured, in these 
 phenomena, as is presented in the develope- 
 ment of the cuttings of trees, which are also 
 nourished in general only through the water 
 sucked up by the surface of their denuded 
 wood. These means of nutrition are, how- 
 ever, accidental or artificial ; and absorption 
 is a natural operation by the spongelets in 
 general, or by the suckers in some vegetable 
 parasites. M. Sennebier observed that, if 
 we divide a plant into three parts, the roots 
 as far as the crown, the stem as far as the 
 branches, and the leafy top, then plunge the 
 lower ends of these into water, the whole 
 three will pump up a certain quantity, but 
 the leafy parts' more than the others. This 
 absorption particularly takes place at the 
 cut surface, where the woody parts are laid 
 bare. 
 
 A branch of raspberry put in water and 
 exposed to the sun has absorbed a hundred 
 and fifty grains, but only imbibed eight 
 grains when the division has been covered 
 over with wax. It sucked up no more when, 
 having the divided part covered, it was 
 plunged in the whole of its length, than when 
 only a short zone at the extremity was im- 
 mersed. This proves that the outer bark is 
 impenetrable to water. 
 
 The woody portion, when laid bare, sucks 
 up moisture in every way ; that is to say, 
 when we cut a branch and place it in the 
 water, it sucks it up, either when put into 
 it by the upper or by the lower cut part. 
 The habitual or upright direction, however, 
 appears to offer certain facilities for this 
 more than an inverse one. This, indeed, 
 results, first, from the observation of M. 
 Pollini {Elm. di Botan., i. 281.) ; for the 
 watery juices mount a little less high in the 
 branches placed in an inverse direction; 
 12 
 
 secondly, from the observation of common 
 gardeners, and of Mr. T. A. Knight, that, in 
 the cuttings made in an inverse manner, it 
 is more frequently only the lower buds which 
 are developed, and not the higher ones, as 
 happens in those made in a direct manner. 
 It is necessary, in order to render these 
 experiments comparative, that the horizontal 
 cuttings be made equal ; and, as we were 
 doubtful whether this circumstance had been 
 taken into consideration, we made the 
 following experiment: — We placed two 
 branches of willow in water, the one in a 
 direct manner, the other inverted, and con- 
 trived in such a manner that these two 
 absorbing bodies were equal ; but the branch 
 which was placed inverted pushed its roots 
 a little slower than the direct one. {Mem. 
 sur les Lenticelles, Ann. des Sc. Nat., 1825, 
 Jan., pp. 18, 19.) 
 
 The wood tends not only to absorb the 
 water by its transverse section, but also 
 lengthways. Thus we placed in water (ibid., 
 p. 4.) a branch of willow, the section of which 
 was covered with mastic, but which had the 
 part immersed denuded of the bark by 
 taking off a cortical ring of an inch in length. 
 This branch pushed its buds and roots in a 
 manner similar to the branches which are 
 immersed by a transverse section. 
 
 The hygrometrical power of wood is such 
 that when we expose it to the air it easily 
 imbibes the surrounding moisture ; and, 
 when preserved in shady places, it never 
 dries of itself. Count Rumford (Mem. sur le 
 Bois et le Charbon: 8vo, Paris, 1812) dried 
 in an oven a piece of wood taken from the 
 interior of a beam which had been placed 
 for one hundred and fifty years in a battle- 
 ment, and observed that it lost about ten 
 per cent of its own weight ; and he thinks 
 that this is the greatest degree of natural 
 desiccation which wood can attain in our 
 climate. An oak faggot, exposed eighteen 
 months in the air, and which might be re- 
 garded as excellent wood for burning, lost 
 twenty-four per cent. The same experi- 
 menter observed that, when chips of wood 
 have been well dried in a stove, on their 
 exposure to the open air they very freely 
 imbibe water. If these chips are placed for 
 twenty-four hours in a room, the extremes 
 of this power of absorption have proved to 
 be, on one side, the Lombardy poplar, whose 
 chips, five inches long by six lines broad, 
 have sucked up 0*87 grains; and, on the 
 other, a billet of oak of the same dimensions, 
 which sucked up 1*40 grains. When the 
 same chips were exposed for eight successive 
 days, it was found that they did not increase 
 in weight if the air had remained at the 
 same temperature, but they lost in weight if 
 the air became more heated. This experi- 
 
ABSORPTION. 
 
 merit, then, proves that the absorption is 
 rapid; and that the equilibrium it attains 
 will be determined by the surrounding at- 
 mosphere, and certainly also by its own 
 hygrometrical power. 
 
 These necessary conditions of existence 
 have been effected by the organisation of the 
 spongelets as organs of suction, and by the 
 nature of the water, which is abundantly 
 diffused over nature, and also impregnated 
 with their principal nourishment. 
 
 The nature of the action of the spongelets 
 is remarkable in this, that the choice which 
 they seem to make of the matter which they 
 absorb does not appear to be determined by 
 the natural wants of the plant, but the 
 facility is less or more influenced by the 
 nature of the liquids. Thus, M. Theodore 
 de Saussure (Rech. Chim., ch. 8.) found, that 
 if we place plants in water, with which is 
 mixed sugar, gum, or the like, the spongelets 
 will absorb a greater proportion of water 
 than of the materials which are dissolved in 
 it ; for the water which remained after the 
 experiment was more saturated than before 
 the roots were put into it. Again, if we 
 plunge the roots into different solutions, they 
 will absorb so much the more of these in 
 proportion to their fluidity, although at the 
 same time such solutions may be injurious 
 to the plant, and yet will they absorb a less 
 proportion of viscous matter, although this 
 may contain more nutritive materials. Thus, 
 of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), the most 
 hurtful of the substances employed, they 
 absorbed a large quantity, but a very small 
 quantity of the gum, which is not injurious. 
 When we placed plants in solutions of gum, 
 of different degrees of thickness, we found 
 that the quantity absorbed was smaller in 
 proportion as the solution was more viscous. 
 Sir H. Davy, also, observed that plants 
 perished in those solutions in which there 
 was a large quantity of sugar or gum ; and 
 prospered when the solutions had only a 
 small quantity of either. (Agricultural 
 Chem.) 
 
 The effect of the viscosity is obviated 
 when we put the roots in water which holds 
 organic matters in suspension. Thus, the 
 drainings of dunghills, and impure waters, 
 are taken up by the roots in smaller quan- 
 tities than pure water. It should seem that 
 these particles have a tendency to obstruct 
 the imperceptible pores, passages, or cells of 
 the spongelets. M. Th. de Saussure remarks 
 that analogous laws may be observed in the 
 case of liquids in which different substances 
 are dissolved, the more fluid being absorbed 
 in a greater quantity than others. It would 
 accordingly appear that the roots exercise a 
 kind of choice in the soil; but that the choice, 
 far from being relative to the wants of the 
 13 
 
 plants, is a circumstance purely mecha- 
 nical. 
 
 On the other hand, M. Pollini, who has 
 repeated these experiments, found that of 
 the solutions of different substances in water, 
 the roots sucked up different quantities, 
 without any apparent regard to their vis- 
 cosity. Thus he constantly found, he says, 
 that the roots absorbed more of common 
 salt, or of potass, than of the acetate or of 
 the nitrate of lime, and more of sugar than 
 of gum. He found, on the other hand, that 
 if he cut the extremity of a root, the water 
 which entered by the wound contained in- 
 differently all the salts which had been 
 dissolved in the water ; and the portion 
 which remained after absorption did not 
 contain more than before. (Saggio di Os- 
 serv. e di Sperienze sulla Veget. degli Alberi : 
 Verona, 1815.) 
 
 Another circumstance remarkable in the 
 experiments which we have before detailed 
 is, that the disorganised tissue of the sponge- 
 lets appears to give a much freer passage to 
 the juices than that which had been unin- 
 jured. Thus plants can only live for two or 
 three days in a solution of blue vitriol (sul- 
 phate of copper), of which they absorb a large 
 quantity ; while they will live eight or ten 
 days in a solution of gum, of which they absorb 
 only a very little. Branches cut and plunged 
 in the different solutions follow similar laws, 
 and absorb both water and its solutions. 
 
 It is very probable that the spongelets of 
 different species of plants are not all organ- 
 ised in a uniform manner, and that there are 
 some which more easily admit of certain 
 substances ; but microscopical observations 
 are still far from accounting for these dif- 
 ferences, and the facts drawn from culture 
 are equally obscure in directing our judg- 
 ment upon the point. 
 
 The manner in which plants of different 
 kinds exhaust the soil relatively to each other, 
 the general action of manures, the prodigious 
 number of different plants which we can 
 cultivate in the same patch of a garden, tend 
 to prove that the differences of absorption in 
 vegetables are of great importance. Instead 
 of the variety, however, of aliments which 
 sustain the life of animals, we find among 
 vegetables a great imiformity of the sub- 
 stances absorbed. The quantity of liquid 
 absorbed at different epochs of the life of 
 plants, and under the influence of different 
 atmospherical circumstances, appear more 
 intimately connected with the ascent of the 
 sap than with its suction. 
 
 Absorption varies according to the state 
 of the plants and the periods of their growth ; 
 going on more rapidly in proportion as the 
 leafing is rapid. At the time of flowering 
 and fruiting, also, more nourishment is ab- 
 
ABSTERGENT REMEDIES. 
 
 ACACIA TREE. 
 
 sorbed from the soil. We likewise know 
 that absorption, as well as the progression of 
 the fluids absorbed, depends greatly on the 
 influence of heat and light ; that it is most 
 active in spring, that it diminishes in autumn, 
 and is reduced almost to nothing, if it do not 
 altogether cease, in winter. — Miller. 
 
 ABSTERGENT REMEDIES, in far- 
 riery, are those used for the purpose of 
 resolving or discussing tumours and con- 
 cretions on the joints and other parts of 
 animals. They mostly consist of volatile, 
 stimulant, and saponaceous matters. 
 
 ABUTILON. The yellow marsh-mal- 
 low. 
 
 ABUTTAL. (Barb.Lat.a&Mtfare; Celtic, 
 but, abound ; Saxon, abutan ; old French, 
 aboutir.} The boundary or butting of any 
 land or headlands. In a terrier, or descrip- 
 tion of the site of land, the sides on the 
 breadth are called adjacentes, lying or bor- 
 dering, and the ends only in length are 
 abuttantes, abutting, or bounding. 
 
 " Declaration must be made of the abuttals and sides 
 of the land seized — Spelman. 
 
 — Johnson's Diet, by Todd. See Hedges, 
 Nuisances. 
 
 ACACIA TREE (Robinia Pseud-Acacia 
 Linnseus). The Acacia tree is well known in 
 America, from which it was introduced by 
 the name of the Locust tree. It grows very 
 rapidly in the early stages of its progress ; so 
 that in a few years, from seeds, plants of 
 eight and ten feet high may be obtained. 
 It is by no means uncommon to see shoots 
 of this tree eight or ten feet high in one 
 season. The branches are furnished with 
 very strong, crooked thorns ; the leaves are 
 winged with eight or ten pairs of leaflets, 
 egg-oblong, bright green, entire, and without 
 foot-stalks. The flowers come out from the 
 branches in pretty long bunches, hanging- 
 down like those of the laburnum, or the 
 still more lovely Wistaria sinensis. Each 
 flower grows on a slender foot-stalk, smelling 
 very sweet. It is of a white colour, but 
 there is a rose-red variety. It blows in 
 June ; and when the tree is full of bloom 
 makes a handsome appearance, and perfumes 
 the whole air around. The flowers are 
 followed by seed-pods, oblong, flat, having 
 a longitudinal rib next the seeding suture, 
 on the outside of that being drawn out into 
 a membranous margin ; one-celled, and two- 
 valved. The seeds are sometimes as many 
 as sixteen, kidney-shaped, ending in a 
 hooked beak, like a lens, and are of a rusty 
 colour. 
 
 In North America, where this tree grows 
 to a very large size indeed, the wood is 
 much valued for its duration. Most of the 
 houses which were built at Boston in New 
 England, on the first settling of the English, 
 14 
 
 were constructed of this wood ; and since 
 then it has been much used in America for 
 various purposes. 
 
 The seeds of the Acacia tree were first 
 brought to Europe by M. Jean Robin, nur- 
 seryman to the King of France, and author of 
 a " History of Plants." M. Robin brought 
 the first seeds from Canada ; in consequence 
 of which, succeeding botanists have, in 
 honour to his name, termed the genus Robi- 
 nia to which the Acacia tree belongs. Soon 
 after its introduction into France, the 
 English gardeners received seeds from Vir- 
 ginia, from which many trees were raised. 
 
 Parkinson, who mentions the Acacia tree 
 in his " Theatre of Plants," which was pub- 
 lished in 1640, says it was then grown of an 
 exceeding height by John Tradescant ; and 
 Evelyn recommended it to the notice of the 
 nation in his " Sylva," which was presented 
 to the Royal Society in 1662. In this work 
 he observes that the Acacia is well deserving 
 of a place among our avenue trees, which is 
 so well adapted to the adorning of our 
 walks with its beautiful leaves and sweet 
 flowers. 
 
 There appears to have been very little 
 notice taken of the Acacia tree till Bradley's 
 time, in 1720 ; and he mentions only a few 
 trees growing in the court before Russell 
 House, Bloomsbury, and in the Old Palace 
 Yard, Westminster. Mortimer afterwards 
 tells us that a goodly number of Acacias were 
 formerly planted in St. James's Park ; and 
 that in consequence of the high winds shat- 
 tering some of their branches, they were all 
 ordered to be cut down. We wish that the 
 hint had been then taken, that the tree wanted 
 only the shelter of the numerous offspring 
 of our woods in order to show its native 
 dignity, and spread its usefulness. The 
 wood, when green, is of a soft texture, but 
 becomes very hard when dry. It is as 
 durable as the best white oak of North 
 America, and esteemed preferable for axle- 
 trees of carriages, trenails for ships, and 
 many other important purposes. The turner 
 finds the wood of the Acacia hard and well 
 suited to his purpose, and is delighted with 
 its smooth texture and beautifully delicate 
 straw-colour. 
 
 The tree, when aged, abounds with certain 
 excrescences or knots, which, when polished, 
 are beautifully veined, and much esteemed 
 by the cabinet-maker. It makes excellent 
 fuel, and its shade is said to be less injurious 
 than that of any other tree ; while the leaves 
 afford wholesome food for cattle. A gen- 
 tleman in New England sowed several acres 
 of it for this purpose alone. 
 
 It has been employed with signal success 
 in Virginia for ship-building, and is foimd 
 to be very superior to American oak, ash, 
 
ACACIA TKEE. 
 
 elm, or any other wood they use for that 
 purpose. In New York it has been found, 
 after repeated trials, that posts for rail- 
 fencing, made of the Acacia tree, stand wet 
 and dry near the ground better than any 
 other in common use, and will last as long 
 as those of swamp cedar. 
 
 The Acacia tree seems happily adapted to 
 ornamental planting. Whether as a single 
 tree upon the grass, feathering to the ground 
 line, or as a standard in the shrubbery, 
 towering above a monotonous mass of sombre 
 evergreens, the Acacia has great charms for 
 us, and may justly be called a graceful tree ; 
 and, although its light, loose, and pleasing 
 foliage admits the light, and seems to har- 
 monize so delightfully with the polished 
 lawn, or the highly cultivated shrubbery 
 (and there is hardly a shrubbery to be found 
 without them), yet we should like much to 
 see the Acacia tree planted in the woods 
 everywhere, where forest timber is an object 
 of attention. 
 
 In France the Acacia tree appears to have 
 been more generally diffused throughout the 
 country than with us : for it does not only 
 ornament their gardens, and shade their 
 public walks, but the sprightly foliage of 
 this beautiful tree shines through their 
 woods and forests in every direction; so 
 much so that it might be taken for an indi- 
 genous inhabitant of the soil. 
 
 In one of the Memoirs by the Agricultu- 
 ral Society at Paris, the properties of this 
 tree are very highly extolled. Its shade, it 
 is said, encourages the growth of grass. Its 
 roots are so tenacious of the soil, and shoot 
 up such groves of suckers, that when planted 
 on the banks of rivers it contributes exceed- 
 ingly to fix them as barriers to check the 
 incursions of the stream. Acacia stakes, 
 too, are more durable than any other known 
 wood. 
 
 _ The choicest pieces only of the best oak 
 timber are applied to the purpose of trenail- 
 making in ship-building ; and, as the Sussex 
 oaks are generally reckoned the best, most 
 shipwrights, even in the north, have them 
 from thence, and the demand for them is so 
 great, that trenail-making is there become 
 a very considerable manufacture. If it be 
 proved that the Acacia tree is equal to our 
 best oak for this important purpose in our 
 naval architecture, then do we strongly re- 
 commend (and we write practically) to every 
 landed proprietor to plant the Acacia as a 
 forest tree, more especially as it will grow 
 upon almost any description of soil, but more 
 particularly upon sandy or gravelly shallow 
 soils, where the oak does not thrive. 
 
 In forty years the Acacia tree will grow 
 sixty feet high, and will girth six feet, three 
 feet from the ground ; and, although brittle 
 15 
 
 in a young state, the characteristics of the 
 timber of a grown tree are toughness and 
 elasticity. 
 
 There are many fine stately Acacia trees 
 on the banks of the Thames. On the estate 
 of his Grace the Duke of Devonshire, at 
 Chiswick House, thflre are some remarkably 
 fine trees, which, from their size and appear- 
 ance, we have no doubt were among the 
 first introduced to this country. 
 
 In the pleasure-grounds at Sion House 
 many fine old Acacia trees are to be found, 
 and several groups in the park there. But 
 the finest, perhaps, in England, are growing 
 on Claremont estate, Esher, Surrey. Sir 
 Robert Gardener occupies a small portion 
 of this domain, at Milbourne, where may be 
 seen some Acacia trees eighty years old. 
 One, in particular, measures eleven feet in 
 circumference three feet from the ground, 
 tapering but very little till it sends out its 
 lofty branches from the trunk at about fif- 
 teen feet from the ground, and is now per- 
 fectly sound. The extreme altitude of this 
 remarkable tree is seventy feet ; forming, 
 by the deep indentures of its bark and fine 
 large limbs, a truly picturesque as well as 
 an ornamental tree. 
 
 There are numerous Acacia trees through- 
 out the grounds at Claremont, measuring 
 seven and eight feet in circumference two feet 
 from the ground, which, although growing 
 in exposed situations, exhibit no symptoms 
 of being shaken or unsound. It is worthy, 
 perhaps, of observation, too, that these trees 
 are growing upon very shallow soil, where 
 the under-soil is nothing but sand and gra- 
 vel. In the grounds of Sir William Cooper, 
 of Isleworth House, there are also some very 
 fine Acacia trees, not measuring less than 
 eight feet in circumference three feet from 
 the ground. There are, perhaps, more 
 Acacias in the counties of Middlesex and 
 Surrey, than in any other counties in 
 England, but chiefly confined to the shrub- 
 bery and the lawn. In many parts of Scot- 
 land the Acacia tree grows extremely well, 
 and many very fine trees are to be found in 
 the neighbourhood of Edinburgh. Sir John 
 Nasmyth, Bart., has one at Dalwick, in 
 Tweeddale, which measures between five 
 and six feet in circumference about three 
 feet from the ground, and six feet six inches 
 close to the ground. But the finest group 
 of these trees we have ever seen in this 
 country, are at Niddrie Mareschall, near 
 Edinburgh. One of these measures upwards 
 of nine feet a few inches above the ground. 
 Another tree in the same group, at three 
 inches from the ground, measures six feet 
 six inches round the base ; and there is a 
 third Acacia belonging to them that mea- 
 sures six feet five inches at two feet and a 
 
ACACIA TREE. 
 
 half from the ground. The Acacia also 
 thrives well in Ireland, and there are many- 
 fine healthy trees in the neighbourhood of 
 Dublin. It grows more rapidly in that 
 country than it does in either England or 
 Scotland. In the different States of Ger- 
 many the Acacia seems" to bear the rigour 
 of their winters, and grows to a fine orna- 
 mental tree. 
 
 As a durable timber, it has been proved 
 that nothing can exceed the Acacia wood, 
 when of proper age. But there is one im- 
 portant use to which these trees may be ap- 
 plied, which has hitherto escaped the notice 
 of the planter, namely, hedges. From its 
 rapidity of growth it forms a fence capable 
 of resistance in one fourth of the time of any 
 other plant hitherto used for that purpose. 
 Had we to fence in a whole estate, we should, 
 in preference to all others, plant Acacias. 
 They bear clipping, and may be raised to 
 twenty or thirty feet high, if required, and 
 are so strong that no animal can force 
 through them. Fences of this kind are 
 common on the Continent, but generally of 
 hornbeam. The only instance of an Acacia 
 hedge we know of is to be seen round part 
 of the boulevard of the city of Louvain. 
 Plants for this purpose should be taken from 
 the nursery lines four feet high. At every 
 point where the stems cross one another, a 
 natural union or grafting takes place, and, 
 as the stems increase in size, the spaces be- 
 tween will gradually decrease ; so that in the 
 course of a few years the fence becomes a 
 complete wooden wall, not occupying a space 
 more than twelve or fifteen inches, forming 
 a barrier that no animal can force. Fences 
 of this description may either be made on 
 the level ground, or concealed from the dis- 
 tant view. 
 
 We are at a loss to account for the name 
 commonly given to this tree by the Ameri- 
 cans, namely, Locust tree ; for the Locust 
 tree {HymencBa Courbarit) is a native of 
 South America. 
 
 In the arboretum of the gardens of the 
 Horticultural Society of London, there is a 
 proof, perhaps the very best proof that this 
 country affords, of the great rapidity of 
 growth, and also the beauty of this truly 
 interesting and highly valuable tree. About 
 twelve years ago, this arboretum was planted 
 for the express purpose of introducing the 
 trees of all countries — the research of en- 
 terprising men. The Acacia was planted 
 with the other individuals of this very 
 splendid collection, and the result has been, 
 that the Acacia has made greater progress 
 than any of the oaks, the ash, the elm, 
 the maple, or, indeed, any of the hard- 
 wooded timber trees within the wall of the 
 gardens. 
 
 1G 
 
 The Acacia trees, in their rapidity of 
 growth, are exceeded only by a few of the 
 poplar and willow tribes. 
 
 There is a singular character about the 
 suckers of this tree. They are rarely seen 
 to appear on the lawn, but in the shrubbery 
 frequently. They rise singly, not like the 
 elm, and other trees, in thick masses, choking 
 one another, but they start out of the ground 
 at once, with all the boldness and vigour of 
 a healthy shoot from a powerful stool; and 
 in a sheltered situation will grow, the same 
 year, from twelve to fifteen feet long from 
 the ground ; and it is the more remarkable, 
 that these suckers grow in this vigorous way 
 immediately under the shade of the parent, 
 and other large trees. What is also very 
 singular, so strongly are they attached to 
 the root below the ground, at the insertion, 
 that they are very rarely from accident dis- 
 placed. 
 
 Mr. William Lindsey mentions a very 
 striking instance of the astonishing rapidity 
 of the growth of this tree. He observed a 
 strong shoot make its appearance in one of 
 the woods at Chiswick, and he had the 
 curiosity to see what would be the result 
 by applying a stake to this sucker for pro- 
 tection. By the end of the season, it was 
 twenty feet high, and measured three inches 
 in circumference. When the full-grown old 
 Acacia trees are felled, the following year 
 hundreds of suckers will start up from 
 the roots in all directions, and grow as 
 freely as if a fresh plantation had been 
 carefully made. So that, on the score of 
 economy, we know of no tree that Can be 
 planted equal to the Acacia. As an under- 
 wood, it far exceeds any other tree in pro- 
 duce ; and for stakes, arbour-poles, hop-poles, 
 and pale-fencing, there is no wood equal to 
 Acacia. In America, the use of the Acacia 
 has been confined to trenails of ships, in con- 
 sequence of its scarcity. But were it, either 
 in that or this country, as plentiful as oak, 
 it would be applied for more purposes in 
 naval architecture, such as knees, floor- tim- 
 bers, and foot-hooks, being far superior to 
 oak for its strength and duration ; and from 
 the tree arriving much sooner at perfection, 
 and spreading into so many branches, it 
 affords full as large a proportion of crooks 
 and compass timber as the oak tree. 
 
 A cubic foot of Acacia, in a dry state, 
 weighs from forty-eight to fifty-three pounds' 
 weight. If we compare its toughness, in an 
 unseasoned state, with that of oak, it will not 
 be more than 8-100 less. Its stiffness is 
 equal to 99-100 of oak; and its strength 
 nearly 96-100; but, if it were properly sea - 
 soned, it might, possibly, be found much 
 superior to oak in strength, toughness, and 
 stiffness. A piece of Acacia, unseasoned, 
 
ACACIA TREE. 
 
 ACCLIMATATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 two feet six inches long, and an inch square 
 in the vertical section, broke when loaded 
 with a weight of two hundred and forty- 
 seven pounds avoirdupois. Its medium 
 .cohesive force is about 11-500 pounds. 
 (Dictionary of Architecture.) 
 
 We are not aware that this tree has added 
 in any shape to the list of medicines. The 
 Acacia of the shops was formerly made from 
 the unripe pods of the true Acacia tree ; but 
 of later years, the Acacia Germanica of the 
 shops is made from unripe sloes, and is pre- 
 ferred as an astringent medicine to the true 
 Acacia. 
 
 The Acacia is easily propagated from 
 seeds or suckers. (Miller.) 
 
 ACACIA. The Rose Acacia (Lat. Robinia 
 hispida). This graceful shrub is a native of 
 North America. It grows twenty feet high, 
 when the soil and situation agrees with it, 
 and its beautiful rose-coloured drooping 
 flowers bloom in June. It often blows 
 again in July and August. Its branches are 
 covered with prickles till they are two years 
 old, when they fall off. This gives it the 
 appellation of hispida, or hairy. It loves a 
 good soil, and is very hardy. The flowers 
 bloom on the wood of the same year ; there- 
 fore the plants should be shortened every 
 season, unless they are planted in a shrub- 
 bery, in which case cut away only the dead 
 wood. The smooth tree Acacia (Lat. Mi- 
 mosa Julihrissin) is a green-house shrub, and 
 a native of the Levant, but it succeeds in 
 the open ground if carefully sheltered from 
 frost and cold wind. It loves a fresh light 
 mould, and blows its beautiful rose-coloured 
 flowers in August. It is multiplied by layers. 
 The Sponge tree Acacia (Lat. Mimosa far- 
 nesiana) is also a green-house shrub ; but it 
 will thrive in the open air if very carefully 
 protected. It comes originally from St. Do- 
 mingo, and in August it throws out a small 
 head of sweet-scented yellow flowers. It 
 loves a good rich soil, with a sheltered south 
 aspect. It is raised by seed, and multiplied 
 by layers. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ACANTHA. The prickle of thorny 
 plants. 
 
 ACANTHIS. The plant called groundsel. 
 
 ACANTHUS (Lat.). The name of the 
 herb bear's breech, remarkable for being the 
 model of the foliage on the Corinthian 
 capital. Milton, in his Paradise Lost, iv. 
 696., speaks of it, 
 
 " On either side 
 Acanthus, and each odorous bushy shrub, 
 Fenc'd up the verdant wall." 
 
 Todcts Johnson. 
 In modern botany, Acanthus is a genus of 
 herbaceous plants found in the South of 
 Europe, Asia Minor, and India, belonging 
 to the natural order Acanthacece. 
 17 
 
 ACARON. The wild myrtle. 
 
 ACCENTOR, The Alpine (Accentor Al- 
 pinus). In Ornithology. " The nest," says 
 Yarrell, " is formed of moss and wool, lined 
 with hair, amongst stones, or the cavities of 
 rocks. Eggs four or five, of a fine light blue 
 colour. Its food, insects and seeds. The beak 
 black at the point, and yellowish white at 
 the base. Head and neck brownish grey. 
 Feathers of the back brown, with longi- 
 tudinal central patches of darkish blackish 
 brown. Rump greyish brown. This bird is 
 not often met with in England. (Yarrell, 
 Brit. Birds, vol.i. p. 219.) 
 
 The Hedge Accentor is better known by 
 the name of the Hedge Sparrow. See 
 Sparrow. 
 
 ACCIPITRINIA. The herb hawk- 
 weed. 
 
 ACCLIMATATION OF PLANTS. 
 This term has been applied to the act of 
 accustoming plants to support a tempera- 
 ture or a climate different from that in which 
 they are found originally growing. ' This 
 differs from naturalisation, which is the act 
 of transporting or transferring a plant into 
 a country different from its native place of 
 growth. Nobody can deny the possibility 
 of these naturalizations ; but there are some 
 doubts upon the acclimatations of plants ; 
 doubts which have been corroborated by 
 M. Schubler (Linnaa, 1829, p. 16.); and it 
 renders this important question the more 
 deserving of examination, that the facts 
 which are reported are complex and some- 
 what contradictory. 
 
 On the one hand, we see wild plants 
 appear fixed within the same climate from 
 the epoch of which we have any knowledge, 
 and cultivated trees, such as the olive, that 
 have for many centuries kept within the 
 same limit. 
 
 On the other hand, we see certain trees, 
 such as the horse-chestnut, which, although 
 originally from the tropics, have reached as 
 far north as Sweden. We see that in gar- 
 dening, the Aucuba japonica and the Paonia 
 Moutan, after having been cultivated in the 
 hothouse, have passed into the greenhouse, 
 and now flourish in the open air. But 
 before we infer from these facts the pos- 
 sibility of acclimatation, it will be necessary 
 to analyse them more fully. 
 
 Taking the instance of a plant which may 
 have been placed at the first in the hot- 
 house, and afterwards cultivated in the open 
 ground, what are we to conclude, but that, 
 while ignorant of its nature, and while its 
 rarity rendered it more precious, we were 
 unwilling to run the risk of losing it. There 
 is not a gardener, or one who has had the 
 management of a botanic garden, who has 
 not made such calculation a hundred times, 
 
ACCLIMATATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 and who, doubtful of success, has been led 
 to follow this prudent course with a mul- 
 titude of plants. Those plants which are 
 received from tropical countries are usually 
 thus treated, on the supposition that they 
 partake of the general nature of plants 
 brought from those countries ; and we after- 
 wards try, by groping in the dark, those 
 which form exceptions to the general law. 
 We thus succeed in naturalising some of 
 them ; but this does not yet prove that they 
 have been acclimated, for they have not 
 been exposed on their arrival in the climate 
 they were afterwards seen to support. Even 
 had this been done, the experiment would 
 have been frequently doubtful; for when 
 plants arrive in Europe they are for the 
 most part weak, and too young to try the 
 experiment with; while every one knows 
 that young plants, such as those of the bead 
 tree and the silk tree, will thrive in a tem- 
 perate climate in their adult age, if they are 
 very vigorous when planted, but which are 
 easily destroyed by the frost when young. 
 
 An exact knowledge of the manner of 
 living of each species tends to explain some 
 of the illusions which we are apt to fall into 
 on this subject. Thus, when a plant newly 
 arrived in Europe, and consequently little 
 known, is cultivated in the open ground, it 
 often happens that it is placed in a soil or a 
 position contrary to its nature, that it is 
 watered too much or too little, and that it 
 is pruned unseasonably, and the like; it 
 consequently perishes without the tempera- 
 ture of the climate being to blame. Some 
 years afterwards its nature becomes better 
 known, and the management which it re- 
 quires ; it is planted anew in the open ground, 
 is properly cultivated, and it succeeds, and 
 we then say it is acclimated, while it is sim- 
 ply naturalised. 
 
 The greater number of cultivators think 
 that plants produced from seeds collected in 
 the same country are much stronger than 
 those produced from foreign seeds, and make 
 this an argument to prove the doctrine of 
 acclimatation. Sir Joseph Banks (Trans. 
 Hort. Soc, i. 21.), in particular, adduces in 
 favour of this opinion the culture of Zizania 
 aquatica, established by him at Spring Grove ; 
 but he also relates that the first seeds col- 
 lected in England produced delicate plants, 
 and the second strong plants, so that this 
 example proves as much against as in favour 
 of the theory. Dr. Macculloch, also (Journ. 
 of Science, 1825, p. 20.; Feruss. Bull., Sc. 
 Agr., ix. p. 262.), in his Essay on the Island 
 of Guernsey, strongly doubts this pretended 
 superiority of plants coming from seeds. We 
 will not stop to notice that this opinion is 
 in <>| position to the very generally received 
 idea, that the changing of seeds is useful. 
 18 
 
 We do not think it less probable that those 
 seeds taken from trees supposed to be lan- 
 guishing, in consequence of not being yet 
 properly acclimated, produce young plants 
 much stronger than those which are taken . 
 from trees more healthy, and growing in 
 their natal soil. We will not discuss that 
 which certain cultivators, such as M. J. Street 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc, viii. 1.; Ferussac, Bull., 
 Agr.), assert, that the individual plants 
 coming from cuttings are much stronger 
 than those coming from seeds ; but we will 
 ask whether this experiment has been made 
 with any degree of certainty, that is to say, 
 in a comparative manner; and when the 
 fact is so, that native seeds have had better 
 success, whether this may not have arisen 
 from the circumstance that certain sorts of 
 seeds do not succeed well when they are not 
 sown immediately after maturity, as in the 
 case of the coffee plant, or perhaps from 
 there being a greater number of seeds to 
 dispose of, and more of them sown ? In fine, 
 supposing that experiments are in accord- 
 ance with the admitted opinion, does this 
 prove any thing more than that a tree which 
 produces good seed is of a nature to accom- 
 modate itself to the soil ; and is not this 
 rather a proof of naturalisation than of ac- 
 climatation ? Let us see if there exist any 
 clearer proofs of the reality of acclimatation. 
 
 One of the principal results of culture is 
 the formation of varieties which otherwise 
 would have no existence in nature, and 
 which have different degrees of susceptibility 
 according to the temperature. We know 
 that these varieties, in many instances, are 
 much more delicate than the wild species. 
 We may instance the varieties of double 
 flowers, which are less hardy than those of 
 single varieties of the same species ; varieties 
 of white flowers, which are generally less 
 hardy than red or yellow varieties ; and the 
 varieties of the oleander, with double rose- 
 red flowers, and with single white flowers, 
 are often killed by the frost, while the com- 
 mon oleander, with single rose-red flowers, 
 may stand the winter. 
 
 It is, however, those species produced by 
 culture, and chiefly by hybridising, which 
 are of a more hardy nature than the wild 
 species. Now we conceive that the choice 
 of these varieties affords the means of intro- 
 ducing certain sorts into climates where the 
 original species could not have succeeded. 
 This effect is most apparent in such varieties 
 as have undergone some change in the season 
 of vegetation : thus the late variety of the 
 walnut tree, which we call St. John's walnut, 
 will thrive in those localities where the frosts 
 are felt late in the spring, and where the 
 common walnut tree is soon killed by the 
 cold. Thus the very early varieties of the 
 
ACCLIMATATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 ACIDS. 
 
 vine will bear fruit in certain climates, where 
 either from there being little heat, or from 
 the rapid approach of autumnal frosts, other 
 varieties would not succeed. 
 
 There exists, in many species of plants, 
 the remarkable phenomenon of certain in- 
 dividuals being more early or more late 
 than others, without our being able to attri- 
 bute the circumstance to the influence of 
 locality ; while, at the same time, we cannot 
 perceive any sensible difference in the or- 
 ganisation. Now, by carefully collecting 
 the seeds, or the layers, or the tubercles, 
 or grafts, of such early and late varieties, 
 we obtain artificially such agricultural sorts 
 or varieties as present certain useful quali- 
 ties, and such, in particular, as will thrive 
 in climates where the original species would 
 not succeed. For example, by gathering 
 the tubers of such potatoes as ripen first, 
 and by repeating the same, many times in 
 succession, we may by this means obtain a 
 variety which will ripen in three months. 
 To us, such a variety is of no more ad- 
 vantage than in giving us an early vege- 
 table ; but if cultivated in climates farther 
 north, it might introduce the useful culture 
 of the potato in places where this was pre- 
 viously unknown. Attentive observation 
 of such species and varieties may furnish 
 means of advancing the culture of certain 
 vegetables beyond their ordinary limits. 
 For example, if the varieties of the olive 
 brought from the Crimea, which appear 
 less affected with cold than our European 
 varieties, should come to be introduced on 
 the shores of the Mediterranean ; or if we 
 should propagate extensively the variety 
 called Caillou in Provence, which seems to 
 stand eleven or twelve degrees (Desnuchels, 
 Bull., Sc. Agr. xii. p. 344.), we might be led 
 to conclude that the olive is accustomed to 
 a greater degree of cold, although there 
 might only be the substitution of a hardier 
 sort for a more delicate one. 
 
 In fine, although we are not authorised 
 to observe that the vegetable tissue cannot, 
 by the effects of habit, accustom itself to a 
 different temperature than that of its na- 
 tive climate ; and although we are disposed 
 to recognise, in many cases, this influence 
 of habit, yet the preceding facts seem to 
 lead to the following inferences; 1. That 
 if certain species of vegetables are suscep- 
 tible of being acclimated, this occurs within 
 very narrow limits ; and we frequently ex- 
 aggerate these limits by confounding accli- 
 matation with naturalisation. 2. That the 
 cases in which acclimatation appears to take 
 place in reality, chiefly, if not exclusively, 
 comprise species where there is a formation 
 of new varieties, or where we have managed 
 to change the season of the vegetation of 
 
 plants, as arising from periodicity. 3. That 
 practical results, almost as important as 
 those of acclimatation, more properly so 
 called, are obtained by ably following up 
 certain processes of culture. (Miller s Dic- 
 tionary.) 
 
 Accounts, Farm. See Farm accounts. 
 ACER. The Roman name for a genus 
 of trees, comprehending different species of 
 the large deciduous kind, as the sycamore, 
 &c. See Maple Tree. 
 
 ACETIC ACID, and ACETUM, terms 
 employed to signify Vinegar, which see. 
 ACETOSA. See Sorrel, 
 ACHE. (Sax. ace ; Gr.«x°£-) Dr. Johnson, 
 see also Doescheri Litirator Celta, Lips. 1726, 
 p. 65., " Act antiqua vox Iapetica, dolores 
 et suspiria indicans." Our word, it has been 
 observed, is now often written dke, and in 
 the plural akes, of one syllable, the primitive 
 manner being preserved chiefly in poetry, 
 for the sake of the measure. In Farriery, 
 a violent continued pain in a part, existing 
 independently of any motion, swelling, or 
 other apparent alteration ; being, of course, 
 an affection only to be discovered in brute 
 animals, by the common signs of pain. The 
 bones and joints of horses are often liable to 
 aches, in consequence of having been hard 
 ridden, and exposure to cold. 
 
 ACHILLEA. A genus of plants, con- 
 sisting of sixty or seventy species, found 
 exclusively in the colder climates of the 
 northern hemisphere. They are all herba- 
 ceous, perennial weeds of little importance, 
 except to botanists, and are only seen in cul- 
 tivation in the collections of the curious. 
 ACHRAS. The wild pear tree. 
 ACICULA. A herb ; the wild chervil. 
 ACIDS. (Lat. acetum ; Goth, aceit ; Sax. 
 aeceb.) Liquids and other substances are 
 called acids which commonly, but not al- 
 ways, affect the taste in a sharp, piercing, 
 and peculiar manner. The common way of 
 trying whether any particular liquor hath 
 in it any acid particles is by mixing it 
 with syrup of violets, when it will turn of a 
 red colour ; but if it contains alkaline or 
 lixivial particles, it changes that syrup green. 
 They combine with various earths, alkalies, 
 and metallic oxides, and form the peculiar 
 class of bodies called salts. (Todd's Johnson.) 
 
 Vegetable acids abound in most plants : 
 thus, the Acetic acid (vinegar) is found in 
 the chick pea (Cicer arietinum), in the 
 elderberry (Samhucus nigra), in the date 
 palm tree (Phoenix dactylifera), and in 
 numerous others. 
 
 The Oxalic acid is found combined with 
 potash in the Oxalis Acetosella, or wood 
 sorrel (whence its name), and many other 
 plants ; united with lime, it is detected in 
 the root of the rhubarb, in parsley, fennel, 
 c 2 
 
ACIDS. 
 
 ACORNS. 
 
 soapwort, squills, &c. ; and in an uncom- 
 bined state in the liquid which exudes from 
 the Cicer arietinum. 
 
 Tartaric Acid is commonly procured from 
 tartar ,or tartrate of potash (whence its 
 name). It has been detected in many 
 plants, such as in grapes, tamarinds, bil- 
 berries, white mulberries, the Scotch fir, 
 couch grass, dandelion, &c. &c. 
 
 Citric Acid has been found in oranges 
 and lemons, cranberries, red whortleberry, 
 birdcherry, woody nightshade, the hip, and 
 the onion. 
 
 Malic Acid is the only acid existing in 
 the apple, barberry, plum, sloe, elder, ser- 
 vice, &c. It is found with the citric acid in 
 the gooseberry, currant, bleaberry, cherry, 
 strawberry, raspberry, &c. ; combined with 
 lime, it is found in the house-leek, wake- 
 robin, &c. ; and with potash and lime, in 
 rue, garden purslane, madder, spinach, lilac, 
 mignionette, &c. 
 
 Benzoic Acid. — This acid is found in 
 benzoin, balsam of Tolu, storax, &c. ; and 
 in marjoram, clary, chickpea, Tonkin bean, 
 &c. 
 
 The Prussic, or Hydrocyanic Acid, exists 
 in laurel leaves, peach blossoms, bitter al- 
 monds, flowers of the sloe, leaves of the 
 bay-leaved willow, &c. ; there is little doubt 
 but that all the bitter almond-tasted kernels 
 contain this acid. 
 
 Gallic Acid abounds in the barks of many 
 plants, such as the elm, oak, chestnut, beech, 
 willow, elder, plum tree, sycamore, birch, 
 cherry tree, sallow, mountain ash, poplar, 
 hazel, common ash, sumach, &c. 
 
 These are the chief vegetable acids. 
 There are others which have been detected 
 occasionally ; such as the moroxylic, in the 
 Morus alba, or white mulberry ; the boletic, 
 in the Boletus pseudo-igniarius ; the meconic, 
 in opium ; the kinic, in the bark of the Cin- 
 chona officinalis ; the camphoric from cam- 
 phor ; the suberic from cork, &c. ; but 
 none of these are of that importance to the 
 cultivator to require a particular notice in 
 this place. The composition of the principal 
 vegetable acids is much more similar than 
 the intelligent farmer might be inclined to 
 suspect, as will be readily seen from a com- 
 parison of the following table of their com- 
 position, chiefly by M. Berzelius : — 
 
 Acetic acid 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 - 6-35 
 
 Carbon . 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 46-83 
 
 46-82 
 
 Oxalic acid 
 
 - 0-244 
 
 33-222 
 
 66-534 
 
 Tartaric acid 
 
 - 3-951 
 
 36-167 
 
 59-882 
 
 Citric acid 
 
 - 3-800 
 
 41 -369 
 
 54-831 
 
 Benzoic acid 
 
 - 5-16 
 
 74-41 
 
 20-43 
 
 Gallic acid 
 
 - 5-00 
 
 56-64 
 
 38 -36 
 
 (Thomson's Chem.) 
 
 ACINUS. The stone of any berry. 
 ACONITE (Gr. aicovirov : Fr. aconit. 
 20 
 
 Our old writers use also the Latin aco- 
 nitum instead of aconite ; and, indeed, aconite 
 is placed among the hard words which are 
 explained in Sylvester's Du Bartas, ed. 
 1621, p. 653. Todd's Johnson.) Properly 
 the herb wolfsbane, but commonly used in 
 poetical language for poison in general. It 
 is often met with, in this sense, in the works 
 of Dryden, Shakspeare, Granville, and 
 others. See Wolfsbane. 
 
 ACORNS. The seed or fruit of the oak ; 
 aecepn, Saxon, from ac, an oak, and conn, 
 corn or grain ; that is, the grain or fruit of 
 the oak. {Todd's Johnson.) Germ, eicheln ; 
 Fr. glands ; It. ghiande ; Sp. bellotas ; Rus- 
 sian, schedudii. (Macculloch.) 
 
 The Greeks had a tradition, that the oak 
 was the first created tree ; and hence, having 
 a similar idea as to the Arcadians being the 
 first created men, they compared them to 
 the oak. Virgil tells us to 
 
 " Thresh the wood, 
 
 For masts of oak, your father's homely food." 
 
 And Ovid corroborates their use : — 
 
 " Content with food which nature freely bred, 
 On wildings and on strawberries they fed, 
 Cornels and bramble berries gave the rest, 
 And fallen acorns furnish'd out a feast." 
 
 Turner, who is the earliest English author 
 on this subject, writes, " Oke, whose fruit we 
 call an acorn, or an eykom (that is, the corn 
 or fruit of an eyke), are hard of digestion, 
 and nourish very much, but they make raw 
 humores. Wherefore, we forbid the use of 
 them for meates." They were long the food 
 of the early Greeks, as they are of the lower 
 order of Spaniards, even to this day ; but 
 then it must be remembered, that the 
 acorns of Spain are more sweet and nu- 
 tritious than those of England. And yet 
 the early Britons certainly eat them : 
 their priests, or Druids, taught them, that 
 every thing that was produced on the oak, 
 even to the parasitical mistletoe, was of 
 heavenly origin, a superstition which was 
 common, alsa, to the Persians and the Mas- 
 sagetae. 
 
 The Saxons valued them chiefly for 
 fattening swine. Their king Ina, in the 
 seventh century, gave them a law, respecting 
 the fattening of their swine in the oak woods, 
 which privilege was called a pawnage, or 
 pannage. 
 
 The oak is often mentioned in Holy Writ, 
 as the oak of Ophra, Judges, vi. 11.; of 
 Sechem, Gen. xxxv. 4. ; and of Deborah's 
 Grave, Gen. xxxv. 8. See Oak. 
 
 Although acorns are said to have been 
 the primitive food of mankind, at present 
 they are only used in raising young oaks, 
 or for the purpose of fattening deer and 
 hogs, for which last they are said to be a 
 very proper and useful kind of food. 
 
ACORNS. 
 
 ACRE. 
 
 In Gloucestershire, according to Mr. 
 Marshall, they are in high esteem among 
 the farmers, who seem to be as anxious 
 about them as their apples. They consider 
 them as the best means of fatting hogs, and 
 think they make the bacon firm, and weigh 
 better than bean-fed bacon. The price of 
 acorns there is from Is. 6d. to 2s. per bushel, 
 according to the season and the price of 
 beans. Few are sold, however ; every farmer 
 collecting his own, or letting his pigs feed 
 upon them. 
 
 Some care is necessary to be taken when 
 hogs are fed upon acorns, for otherwise they 
 will be subject to constipation, and the 
 disease called the garget. These may, how- 
 ever, be avoided, by mixing laxative sub- 
 stances with them, and not allowing them 
 to have too many at a time ; at first a few, 
 twice a day, is often enough ; afterwards 
 three times a day. The hogs, while they 
 eat this food, should not be confined to the 
 stye, but be suffered to run at large ; for if 
 their liberty be too much abridged, they 
 never thrive well, or grow fat on this sort 
 of food. 
 
 In Hertfordshire, and the New Forest in 
 Hampshire, it is no uncommon thing, with 
 the management above directed, and the 
 assistance of a little wash, and a few grains 
 now and then, for a farmer to kill several 
 hogs in a season, which weigh from eight to 
 ten score, and sometimes even more. Hogs 
 fed in this way make very good well-fla- 
 voured meat ; but it is not thought by some 
 so fine as when they are taken up, and four 
 or five bushels of pease or barley-meal given 
 to each, to complete their fattening. 
 
 " The pigs are gone acorning " is a very 
 common provincialism (see Mr. Wilhrahams 
 Cheshire Glossary) ; and the expression is 
 also confirmed by Shakspeare's " full- 
 acorn'd boar." 
 
 Acorns are sometimes given to poultry, 
 and would be found an advantageous food 
 for them, when dried, and ground into meal. 
 
 Tusser, speaking of acorns, says, 
 
 " Some left among bushes shall pleasure thy swine, 
 For fear of a mischief keep acorns from kine." 
 
 They are considered injurious to cows, be- 
 cause they swell in their stomachs, and will 
 not come up to the cud again ; which causes 
 them to strain as it were, to remit, and to 
 draw their limbs together. 
 
 In medicine, a decoction of acorns is re- 
 puted good against dysenteries and colics. 
 Pliny states, " that acorns beaten to powder, 
 and mixed with hog's lard and salt, heal all 
 hard swellings and cancerous ulcers; and 
 when reduced into a liniment, and applied, 
 stays haemorrhage." (Phillips's Fruits.) 
 
 When employed for raising oak timber 
 from, the method of planting the acorns, 
 21 
 
 which is practised by some, is to make holes 
 to receive them, at the distance of 12 or 15 
 inches from each other, in an oblique di- 
 rection, so as to raise up a tongue of turf; 
 under which they are to be deposited, and 
 where they require no farther kind of nursing. 
 In the course of from twenty to thirty 
 years, in this mode of planting, the spot, it 
 is said, will be fit to be coppiced, that is, 
 partially cut down as underwood, leaving 
 the most healthy plants. The thinnings 
 may be sold for railing, and generally fetch 
 a good price. A better method is, however, 
 to dibble them on land that has been pro- 
 perly prepared by ploughing or digging, 
 which may be done by women, three or four 
 within a square yard ; or they may be sown 
 broad-cast, when the surface is fine and 
 moist, and rolled in with a light roller. The 
 former is probably the better practice. 
 They may likewise be set about the middle 
 of November, by a land chain, a quarter of 
 a rod asunder, and six inches apart in the 
 rows ; dibbling them in, zigzag, alternately 
 on either side a line stretched tightly on 
 the surface, with blunt-pointed dibbles, 
 letting a little mould fall down to the bot- 
 toms of the holes, to prevent water lodging 
 round them, and burying them about two 
 inches beneath the surface. Each square 
 rod, when planted in this way, takes 132 
 acorns, nearly a pint, when they are middle- 
 sized, which is equal to two statute bushels 
 and a half on an acre. The expense of 
 planting acorns in this manner is about 5s. 
 an acre. See Planting. 
 
 ACORUS, from the Greek a, privative, 
 and Koprj, the pupil of the eye. The bota- 
 nical name of a plant of the thistle kind, 
 that produces the drug called in the shop 
 Calamus aromaticus. It is found abun- 
 dantly in the neighbourhood of Norwich, and 
 in the freshwater marshes of many parts of 
 England. The ancient practice of strewing 
 the floors with the leaves of these sweet 
 rushes is still kept up in some of our ca- 
 thedral churches upon certain high festivals. 
 The plant, which belongs to the natural 
 order Aroidece, flourishes luxuriantly in 
 loose moist soils, and sends forth many deep- 
 green, long sword-shaped leaves from its 
 perennial, creeping, and horizontal stems. 
 It seldom flowers, but the blossoms which 
 it sends forth are of a greenish colour. 
 The root, or more properly the stem, is the 
 part which, when dried, is used medicinally, 
 occasionally as a stimulant. It is slightly 
 acrid and aromatic. (Thomson's Dispen- 
 satory.) 
 
 ACRE, (aecne, Sax. Acre, Lye says, is 
 common to all the European languages. 
 (Sax. Die.) He might have added further, 
 that it is an Eastern word ; and that agr, 
 c 3 
 
ACRE. 
 
 akoro, and akkoran, denote in the Hebrew, 
 Syriac, and Arabic, a field, an husbandman. 
 So the Saxon aecceji-mon, an husbandman. 
 Wachter, in his Glossary, gives ackerman, 
 a day-labourer. Todd's Johnson.) In 
 Shakspeare's King Lear, we have — 
 
 " Search every acre in the high grown field, 
 And bring him to our eye." 
 
 The prevailing and standard measure of 
 land in Britain. An acre in England con- 
 tains 4 square roods ; a rood, 40 perches, 
 rods, or poles, 5-| yards or 16| feet each, 
 according to the statute in the act passed 
 in 1824, for the equalisation of weights and 
 measures throughout the United Kingdom, 
 which is in this instance confirmatory of the 
 old law of England. But in some parts of 
 England there are other measures under 
 the same designation of acre. For example, 
 in Devonshire, and part of Somerset, 5 
 yards (instead of 5|) have been reckoned 
 to a perch ; in Cornwall, 6 yards (anciently 
 called the woodland perch) ; in Lancashire, 
 7 yards ; in Cheshire and Staffordshire, 8 
 yards ; in the Isle of Purbeck, and some 
 parts of Devonshire, 15 feet and 1 inch. In 
 the common fields of Wiltshire, and the 
 neighbouring counties, 120 poles, or 3 roods, 
 were reckoned to an acre. 
 
 The Irish acre is 7840 square yards, and 
 is equal to 1 acre, 2 roods, and 19 poles 
 nearly of English measure. 
 
 The Scotch acre contains 5760 square 
 Scotch ells, and is equal to 1 acre, 1 rood, 
 2 poles nearly of English measure. 
 The following Table shows the comparative 
 quantity of each of the above measures : — 
 
 A. R.P. 
 
 120 3 20 Devonshire Customary measure," 
 119 2 26 Isle of Purbeck ditto, 
 
 84 0 4 Cornish or Woodland ditto, Equal to 
 
 61 2 37A Lancashire or Irish ditto, }■ 100 statute 
 
 47 1 2i Cheshire and Staffordshire ditto, acres. 
 133 2 0 Wiltshire tenantry ditto, 
 79 1 6i Scotch measure, 
 
 The French acre, or arpent, according to 
 Mr. Greave's calculation, consists of 100 
 perches, of 22 feet each, amounting to 
 48,400 square Frenoh feet, which are equal 
 to 51,691 square English feet, or very near 
 one acre and three quarters of a rood, 
 English measure. The Strasburg acre is 
 about half an English acre. 
 
 An Account of the Number of Plants or 
 Trees which may be planted on a Rood, 
 Perch, or an Acre of Land, at different 
 distances : — 
 
 In an acre are 
 4 roods, each rood forty perches. 
 160 perches, sixteen feet and a half each. 
 4,840 square yards, nine feet each. 
 43,560 square feet, 144 inches each. 
 174,240 squares of six inches each, thirty-six 
 inches each. 
 6,272,640 inches, or squares, of one inch each. 
 22 
 
 Table exhibiting the Number of Plants ivhich 
 may be raised on a Perch of Land, at 
 different distances : — 
 
 In a perch are 272£ square feet, or 39,204 
 square inches. A perch will contain 
 
 Trees or 
 Plants. 
 
 Inches 
 over. 
 
 Numberof Inches 
 asunder. 
 
 Square Inches 
 to each. 
 
 2450 
 
 4 
 
 4 by 4 
 
 16 
 
 1960 
 
 
 5—4 
 
 20 
 
 1633 
 
 12 
 
 6—4 
 
 24 
 
 1069 
 
 
 6—6 
 
 36 
 
 816 
 
 36 
 
 8—6 
 
 48 
 
 612 
 
 36 
 
 8—8 
 
 64 
 
 490 
 
 4 
 
 10—8 
 
 80 
 
 392 
 
 4 
 
 10 — 10 
 
 100 
 
 272 
 
 36 
 
 12 — 12 
 
 144 
 
 261 
 
 54 
 
 15 — 10 
 
 150 
 
 An acre will contain 
 
 Trees or 
 
 Inches 
 
 Number of feet 
 
 Square feet 
 
 Plants. 
 
 over. 
 
 asunder. 
 
 to each 
 
 108 
 
 360 
 
 20 
 
 400 
 
 160 
 
 
 
 272£ 
 
 134 
 
 144 
 
 18 
 
 324 
 
 302 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 144 
 
 435 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 100 
 
 680 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 64 
 
 888 
 
 48 
 
 7 
 
 49 
 
 1089 
 
 
 8 by 5 
 
 40 
 
 1210 
 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 1361 
 
 8 
 
 8 —4 
 
 32 
 
 1452 
 
 
 6^-5 
 
 30 
 
 1555 
 
 20 
 
 7 —4 
 
 28 
 
 1815 
 
 
 6 —4 
 
 24 
 
 2178 
 
 
 5—4 
 
 20 
 
 2722 
 
 8 
 
 4 —4 
 
 16£ 
 15 
 
 2904 
 
 
 5—3 
 
 3630 
 
 
 4 —3 
 
 12 
 
 4840 
 
 
 3 —3 
 
 9 
 
 5445 
 
 
 4 —2 
 
 8 
 
 7260 
 
 
 3 —2 
 
 6 
 
 8712 
 
 
 2^ — 2 
 
 5 
 
 10,890 
 
 
 2 —2 
 
 4 
 
 19,305 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 21,780 
 
 
 2 — 1 
 
 2 
 
 43,560 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 A Table for the more readily calculating 
 the Value of several Crops on an Acre of 
 Land : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 f\d. 181 10 o 
 
 43,560 plants (a plant to each foot), at <{ $ 90 15 0 
 
 Li 45 7 0 
 
 19,360 plants, at i each"! 
 
 9680 $ „ 
 
 4840 (a plant to each yard) at Id. ,, I ori , . 
 
 2420 . . 2d. „ f M d 4 
 
 1210 Ad. „ 
 
 605 8</. „ J 
 
 7000 plants, at Id. „ . . 62 6 8 
 
 5200 2d. „ . . 43 6 8 
 
 2200 2d. „ . . 18 6 8 
 
ACRE. 
 
 9980 plants," 
 6970 
 6533 
 5460 
 5445 
 4356 
 3630 
 1000 
 160 
 15,000 
 7000 
 6534 
 
 ► at Id. each 
 
 5000 
 
 at lirf. each 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 r-io 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 0 10 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 (1 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 13 
 
 *> 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 "31 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 RATES PER ACRE. 
 
 ROODS AND POLES AT GIVEN BATES PER 
 ACRE. 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 Rd. 3 
 2 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
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 4s. 6d. 
 
 Is. 
 
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 6 
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 9 
 
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 5s. 
 
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 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 71 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 1 9 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 io£ 
 
 0 
 
 6f 
 
 0 7| 
 
 0 
 
 4 2 
 
 0 5-J 
 
 0 
 
 2 ? 
 
 0 2^ 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 2| 
 
 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 0 2 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
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 0 
 
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 0 
 
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 0 
 
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 5s. 6d. 
 
 2s. 
 
 d. 
 
 6 
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 o o£ 
 4s. 
 
 3 0 
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 0 
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 n 
 
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 6s. 
 
 4 6 
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 Rd. 3 
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 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
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 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 Rd. 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 Po. 30 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
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 8s. 
 
 0 5£ 
 
 0 Of 
 
 3 
 
 1 5| 
 
 0 8£ 
 
 13s. 6d. 
 10 li 
 
 6 9 
 
 0 10 
 0 9 
 
 c 4 
 
ACRE. 
 
 Rd. 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 Rd. 3 
 2 
 1 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 9 
 8 
 7 
 6 
 5 
 4 
 
 Rd. 
 
 2 
 1 
 
 Po. 30 
 20 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 I4s.6d. 
 
 s. d. 
 10 101 
 7 3 
 
 3 7* 
 2 8£ 
 1 9 
 0 10 
 
 0 9f 
 
 i 
 a 
 si 
 2} 
 1 
 
 16s.6d. 
 
 12 4| 
 
 8 3" 
 
 4 1* 
 
 3 1 
 
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 1 (4 
 
 0 11} 
 
 0 10 
 
 0 8| 
 
 7 f 
 5 
 
 0 3f 
 
 18s.6d. 
 
 3 13 101 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 3| 
 
 1 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 iT 
 
 0 9f 
 0 8£ 
 7 
 
 5 f 
 4} 
 2| 
 
 H 
 
 15s. 
 
 15s. 6d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 11 7£ 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 IOA- 
 
 2 
 
 9| 
 
 9 i n 3 
 
 •i IUt 
 
 i l li 
 1 1 14 
 
 n ill 
 
 1 
 
 }?I 
 
 0 
 
 llf 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 lOr^ 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 0 
 
 el 
 
 0 7 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 5f 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 4| 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 31 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 2± 
 
 0 1} 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 17s. 
 12 9 
 
 8 6 
 4 3 
 
 0 ll| 
 0 10^ 
 0 9 
 
 5 
 
 3? 
 
 0 2* 
 0 u 
 
 19s. 
 
 14 3 
 9 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 1 
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 6 
 9 
 
 6f 
 
 2} 
 . Of 
 0 ll£ 
 0 10 
 0 8£ 
 7 
 
 5 ! 
 
 4f 
 H 
 
 17s. 6d. 
 
 9 
 
 4 f 
 
 2} 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 4 
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 0 11| 
 0 10^ 
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 0 
 
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 0 6^ 
 
 0 5£ 
 
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 19s. 6d. 
 
 14 1\ 
 9 9 
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 1 2| 
 
 0 llf 
 
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 0 a 3 - 
 0 
 0 
 0 
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 3 
 
 4 
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 20s. 
 
 
 
 
 a£3 
 
 
 £4, 
 
 
 .£ 
 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 0 
 
 Po. 30 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 0 15 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 0 10 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 5 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
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 0 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
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 3 
 
 0 
 
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 7 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
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 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
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 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 1 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4.V 
 
 0 0 
 
 
 
 £5 
 
 
 £6 
 
 
 
 £7 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 5 0 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 10 0 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 15 0 
 
 Po. 30 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 6 3 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 6 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 .3 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8 9 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 1 2 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 7 10^ 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 4i 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 6 li 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 3 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 4 4i 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 101 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 71 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3" 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 101 
 
 
 
 
 £9 
 
 
 5 
 
 £10 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 10 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 ! 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 0 
 
 Po. 30 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 17 6 
 
 20 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 o- 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 12 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 l 2 
 
 0 
 
 11 3 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 lOh 
 
 0 
 
 8 9 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 7 6 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 6 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 4* 
 
 0 
 
 3 9 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 2 6 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 1 3 
 
 
 £20 
 
 
 
 
 a£40 
 
 Rd. 3 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 9 0 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 0 0 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 0 
 
 Po. 30 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 G 
 
 7 
 
 10 0 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 0 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 10 0 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 5 0 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 0 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 G 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 15 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 10 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 5 0 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 15 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 10 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 5 0 
 
 A Table for reducing Square Yards into 
 Acres, Roods, and Perches. 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 30 
 60 
 91 
 121 
 151 
 
 200 
 300 
 
 0 7 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 A. 
 
 n. 
 
 p. 
 
 400 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 500 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 600 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 700 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 800 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 26 
 
 900 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 1,000 
 
 _ 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
ACRE. 
 
 ACRIMONY. 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 A. 
 
 R. 
 
 p. 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 A. 
 
 R. 
 
 p. 
 
 1,100 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 7,100 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 1,200 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 7,200 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 1,300 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 7,300 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1,400 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 7,400 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1,500 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 7,500 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1,600 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 7,600 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 11 
 
 1,700 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 7,700 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 15 
 
 1,800 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 7,800 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 18 
 
 1,900 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 7,900 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 2,000 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 8,000. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2,100 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 29 
 
 8,100 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 28 
 
 2,200 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 8,200 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 31 
 
 2,300 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 8,300 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 2,400 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 8,400 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 38 
 
 2,500 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 8,500 
 
 J 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2,600 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 8,600 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 2,700 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 8,700 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 2,800 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 8,800 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 2,900 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 8,900 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 3,000 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 9,000 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 18 
 
 3,100 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 22 
 
 9,100 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 3,200 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 9,200 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 24 
 
 3,300 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 9,300 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 3,400 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 32 
 
 9,400 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 31 
 
 3,500 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 9,500 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 3,600 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 39 
 
 9,600 
 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 3,700 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 9,700 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 3,800 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 9,800 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 3,900 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 9,900 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 4,000 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 10,000 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 4,100 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 10,100 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 4,200 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 19 
 
 10,200 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 4,300 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 22 
 
 10,300 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 4,400 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 10,400 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 24 
 
 4,500 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 10,500 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 27 
 
 4,600 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 10,600 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 4,700 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 35 
 
 10,700 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 34 
 
 4,800 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 39 
 
 10,800 
 
 2 
 
 0 37 
 
 4,900 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 10,900 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5,000 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 11,000 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 5,100 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 11,100 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 5,200 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 11,200 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 5,300 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 11,300 
 
 2 
 
 
 14 
 
 5,400 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 11,400 
 
 2 
 
 
 17 
 
 5,500 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 22 
 
 11,500 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5,600 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 11,600 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 23 
 
 5,700 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 28 
 
 11,700 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 5,800 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 32 
 
 11,800 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 30 
 
 5,900 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 35 
 
 11,900 
 
 2 
 
 
 33 
 
 6,000 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 38 
 
 12,000 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 6,100 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 12,100 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 6,200 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 12,200 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6,300 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 12,300 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6,400 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 12 
 
 12,400 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 6,500 
 
 1 
 
 
 15 
 
 12,500 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 6,600 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 12,600 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 17 
 
 6,700 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 21 
 
 12,700 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 6,800 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 12,800 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 6,900 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 28 
 
 12,900 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 7,000 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 31 
 
 13,000 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 13,100 
 13,200 
 13,300 
 13,400 
 13,500 
 13,600 
 13,700 
 13,800 
 13,900 
 14,000 
 
 14,100 
 14,200 
 14,300 
 14,400 
 14,500 
 14,600 
 14,700 
 14,800 
 14,900 
 15,000 
 
 15,100 
 15,200 
 15,300 
 15,400 
 15,500 
 15,600 
 15,700 
 15,800 
 15,900 
 16,000 
 
 16,100 
 16,200 
 16,300 
 16,400 
 16,500 
 16,600 
 16,700 
 16,800 
 16,900 
 17,000 
 
 17,100 
 17,200 
 17,300 
 17,400 
 17,500 
 17,600 
 17,700 
 17,800 
 
 0 19 
 0 22 
 0 26 
 0 29 
 0 32 
 0 36 
 
 0 39 
 
 1 2 
 1 6 
 1 9 
 
 1 12 
 1 16 
 1 19 
 
 1 22 
 1 25 
 1 29 
 1 32 
 1 35 
 
 1 39 
 
 2 2 
 
 2 5 
 2 9 
 2 12 
 2 15 
 2 19 
 2 22 
 3 2 25 
 3 2 28 
 
 Sq. Yds. 
 
 17,900 
 18,000 
 
 18,100 
 18,200 
 18,300 
 18,400 
 18,500 
 18,600 
 18,700 
 18,800 
 18,900 
 19,000 
 
 19,100 
 19,200 
 19,300 
 19,400 
 19,500 
 19,600 
 19,700 
 19,800 
 19,900 
 20,000 
 
 20,100 
 20,200 
 20,300 
 20,400 
 20,500 
 20,600 
 20,700 
 20,800 
 20,900 
 21,000 
 
 21,100 
 21,200 
 21,300 
 21,400 
 21,500 
 21,600 
 21,700 
 21,800 
 21,900 
 22,000 
 
 22,100 
 22,200 
 22,300 
 22,400 
 22,500 
 
 Waterson's Manual of Commerce. 
 
 ACREME. A quantity of land con- 
 sisting of ten acres. 
 
 ACRIMONY. (Acrimonia, Lat.) A sharp 
 property in some plants and vegetables, by 
 which they excoriate and blister the tongue, 
 mouth, or other parts of the body, on being 
 applied to them. The nature of this sort 
 of acrimony has not yet been sufficiently 
 examined by chemical investigation. It 
 seems to differ in some measure according 
 
ACROSPIRE. 
 
 ADEPS. 
 
 to the nature of the plants ; as in the com- 
 mon onion, water-cresses, cabbages, &c, a 
 part of their acrimony is lost, by their 
 being exposed to a boiling heat; while 
 other kinds, as ginger, capsicum, arum, 
 &c, do not become much milder by under- 
 going that process. 
 
 The juice of the fungous excrescences of 
 some trees possesses so much acrimony as to 
 be capable of blistering ; and some kinds of 
 fungi contain a juice or liquor of a very 
 corrosive quality ; and it is probably on this 
 account that many of those which are com- 
 monly procured disagree so much with the 
 patient when made use of as articles of diet. 
 By being more perfectly stewed, or other- 
 wise prepared by means of heat, they might 
 most likely be rendered safe and nutritious. 
 Much caution should, however, he used, 
 even when thus prepared, in eating such 
 kinds as are unknown. " There be some 
 plants," says Bacon, in his Nat. Hist, " that 
 have a milk in them when they are cut ; as 
 figs, old lettuce, sow-thistles, spurge. The 
 cause may be an inception of putrefaction ; 
 for those milks have all an acrimony, though 
 one would think they should be lenitive." 
 
 ACROSPIRE. (From aicpoQ, and oirupa, 
 Gr. Sometimes written provincially acres- 
 pire and ackerspire ; ackerspit and acrespit 
 are in like manner found for acrospired. 
 See Wilbrahani s Cheshire Glossary, and 
 Moore's Suffolk Words.) A term used by 
 maltsters for the shoot or sprout from the 
 end of seeds when they begin to germinate. 
 
 It is thus mentioned by Mortimer. " Many 
 corns will smelt, or have their pulp turned 
 into a substance like thick cream ; and will 
 send forth their substance in an acrospire." 
 And again, " for want of turning when the 
 malt is spread on the floor, it comes and 
 sprouts at both ends, which is called acros- 
 pired, and is fit only for swine." 
 
 ADAPTER. (Adapto, Lat.) In the man- 
 agement of bees, is a board used to place 
 the hives or glasses upon. 
 
 ADDER. (Aeccep, aetfcop, nabbpe, as it 
 seems, from eiccep, Sax. poison ; Moes-Goth. 
 nadr, vipera ; Teut. adder.) A viper, a poi- 
 sonous reptile, perhaps of any species. In 
 common language, however, adders and 
 snakes are not the same, the term adder 
 being generally understood to imply a viper. 
 See Animal Poisons. 
 
 ADDER'S-TONGUE (Ophioglossum 
 vulgatum). The name of a pernicious herb 
 or weed, which has, however, some excellent 
 medicinal properties. 
 
 This wild plant abounds in moist meadows, 
 and is found in April and May, after which 
 period it dies away. It must be sought for 
 in the grass, where it conceals its one leaf, 
 and the little spike of seeds arising from its 
 26 
 
 base, which has procured it the name of 
 Adder's-tongue. This spike being indented 
 on each side like a file, resembles in form 
 the tongue of those disgusting and stealthy 
 reptiles. Its one oblong leaf is a fine bright 
 green colour, thick, smooth, fleshy, and of 
 an oval figure, without ribs or veins. Its 
 stalk is four inches high, and its spike rises 
 the same height above it. The seed-vessel, 
 or tongue, is notched on either side. Its 
 root is fibrous. The leaves made into an 
 oil is a fine balsam for green wounds. The 
 juice, drank with horsetail water distilled, is 
 a remedy for internal wounds. It is also ex- 
 cellent against fluxes and the whites. An 
 ointment made of the leaves, with lard, is an 
 admirable application to burnings, sores, hot 
 tumours, aposthumes, and inflammations. 
 The leaves infused, or the whole plant de- 
 cocted, is a fine drink in fevers. It is also a 
 cooling and strengthening eye-water. The 
 dried herb in powder is good in ruptures, 
 applied outwardly, and taken inwardly. (Z. 
 Johnson.) 
 
 ADDER-STUNG. Being stung by an 
 adder. The best remedy for cattle which 
 have been bit by any venomous reptile is 
 an application of ammonia (hartshorn) to 
 the part ; but excision of the place affected 
 is frequently desirable. 
 
 ADDLE EGGS. (From abel, a disease, 
 Sax. according to Skinner and Junius ; 
 perhaps from ybel, idle, barren, unfruitful. 
 The latter of the preceding etymologies, 
 which Dr. Johnson has given, may be re- 
 jected ; but we may safely refer to the 
 Saxon abel, morbus, a disease ; or to the 
 verb ablean, to be sick ; or to the Brit, hadyl, 
 corrupt, rotten ; hadlu, to corrupt, to pu- 
 trefy. Thus, Verstegan says, " we yet call 
 eggs addle, when they are corrupt." Addle, 
 in the Lancashire dialect, is unfruitful.) Ori- 
 ginally applied to eggs, and signifying such 
 as produce nothing, but grow rotten under 
 the hen. 
 
 There's one with truncheon, like a ladle, 
 
 That carries eggs too fresh or addle ; 
 
 And still at random, as he goes, 
 
 Among the rabble rout bestows. (Hudibras.) 
 
 ADEPS. In veterinary science, animal 
 oil or fat. The fat diners in different 
 animals ; and hence it has received different 
 names. In the horse it is called grease ; in 
 the ox and sheep, tallow, fat, suet ; and in 
 the hog, hog's lard. At a low temperature 
 all these possess various degrees of con- 
 sistence ; but in the living animal they all 
 exist in a fluid state, and are distributed 
 over various parts of the body. An im- 
 mense quantity of fat is often found in the 
 belly, all deposited in extremely small cells, 
 which have no communication with each 
 other. No fat is ever found within the 
 skull. 
 
ADONIS FLOWER. 
 
 AERATION. 
 
 Fat performs important functions in the 
 animal economy. When the supply of ali- 
 ment, for example, is greater than the de- 
 mand, the surplus is stored away in the 
 form of fat ; and when the demand, either 
 from deficiency of food, over-exertion, or 
 disease, becomes greater than the supply, 
 then the absorbents carry the fat into the 
 circulation, and thus, for a time, the evils 
 that would very soon arise from a defect in 
 the quantity of blood are prevented. Some 
 animals accumulate fat more readily than 
 others. Health, a round chest, a short back, 
 and tranquil temper are highly favourable 
 to its formation ; and when to these qualities 
 are added inaction, clean litter, and a plenti- 
 ful supply of nourishing food, the animal is 
 soon fit for the butcher. A warm atmo- 
 sphere, provided it be a pure one, is also 
 favourable to fattening. {Millers Dic- 
 tionary.} 
 
 ADONIS FLOWER, or FLOS ADO- 
 NIS, Pheasant's eye. (Lat. Adonis annua.) 
 This is a very pretty annual plant, bearing 
 a deep red flower, and growing from one to 
 two feet high. It blossoms from July to 
 November. If the seeds are allowed to fall 
 from the plant and sow themselves, they 
 come up much finer than when delayed till 
 the spring. This flower grows freely in a 
 light soil, but it succeeds very well in almost 
 any sort of earth, well dug and raked. It 
 blooms early in a warm situation, and later 
 in a shady one. The perennial Adonis, with 
 yellow flowers, blooms very handsomely. 
 It has a perennial root, but an annual stalk, 
 and produces its flowers in March and April. 
 Part the roots in autumn to increase the 
 plant. If you sow for new plants, sow the 
 seed in autumn in an east border ; and when 
 they rise in the spring, keep them gently 
 moist, and very free from weeds. Plant 
 them out the following autumn, and when 
 they have stood another year, they may be 
 placed where they are to remain. 
 
 This wild plant grows very abundantly 
 in corn-fields, in the western parts of Eng- 
 land, in May, June, and July. It is known 
 by its bright scarlet flowers, with a black 
 centre, and its leaves divided into many 
 parts of a bright green colour. The seed 
 bruised, and given in wine or beer, is good 
 in cholic and pains of the stomach. It is 
 good likewise against stone. 
 
 The herb infused, and drank hot, pro- 
 motes gentle perspiration. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ADOXA MOSCHATELLINA. See 
 
 MOSCHATELL. 
 
 ADULT. (From the Latin adultus.) A 
 term sometimes applied to such plants or 
 animals as have arrived at some degree of 
 strength, or are full-grown. 
 
 ADZ, or ADZE. (A corruption from 
 27 
 
 addice, derived from the Saxon abepe, an 
 axe.) " The addice (says Moxon, in his 
 Mechanical Exercises,) hath its blade made 
 thin and somewhat arching. As the axe 
 hath its edge parallel to its handle, so the 
 addice hath its edge athwart the handle, and 
 is ground to a basil on its inside to its outer 
 edge." An edge-tool of the axe kind, much 
 used by coopers. It is a very useful in- 
 strument for many purposes of the farmer. 
 
 AEGLUS. The chameleon thistle. 
 
 AERATION. The process by which 
 the soil is exposed to the air and imbued 
 therewith, air being indispensable to the 
 healthy growth of plants. When a flower- 
 pot is filled with rather dry earth, if it be 
 plunged under water a profusion of air 
 bubbles will be seen to rise, owing to the 
 water penetrating between the particles of 
 the dry earth, and forcing out the air pre- 
 viously lodged there. As the more loose 
 and porous a soil is, the greater quantity of 
 air it will contain, it will follow, that the 
 more a soil is ploughed and harrowed, or 
 dug and raked, the better it will be aerated 
 — one of the chief beneficial effects of fre- 
 quently repeating these operations. 
 
 Besides the direct influence of the at- 
 mosphere, the agency of water is all-im- 
 portant in the process of aeration. All 
 water openly exposed contains more or less 
 atmospheric air ; and, in consequence of 
 this, it acquires an agreeable taste, always 
 destroyed by boiling, which renders it vapid 
 and disagreeable, by expelling the air. The 
 importance of air contained in water to the 
 growth of plants appears from water being- 
 found beneficial in proportion as it has had 
 opportunities of becoming mixed with air. 
 But the best water, with respect to the pro- 
 perties of the air it contains, is rain, which, 
 falling in small drops, often tossed about by 
 the wind, has an opportunity of collecting a 
 large proportion of air, and, according to 
 Liebig (Organic Chem.), ammonia, during 
 its descent to the earth ; and hence the 
 smaller the bore of the holes in a garden 
 watering-pot, the better ; and the more 
 minutely the garden-engine scatters the 
 water, the more advantageously, so far as 
 the air is concerned. 
 
 There is another point of view in which 
 aeration appears beneficial, arising from the 
 excrementitious matters thrown into the 
 soil by growing plants, as ascertained by 
 M. Macaire ; for as these matters become 
 decomposed in the processes of fallowing, ir- 
 rigation, and draining, the gases there pro- 
 duced would not so readily be carried off 
 from the soil, but for a due circulation of 
 the common air through the earth. See 
 Gases, their use to vegetation. (Millers 
 Dictionary.) 
 
AERIE. 
 
 AFTER-GRASS. 
 
 AERIE. (From the French aerie, some- 
 times written aiery or eyrie, as derived from 
 the Teutonic ey, ovum.) Dr. Johnson has 
 given only the imperfect definition of Cowel, 
 viz. the proper word, in hawks, and other 
 birds of prey, for that which we call a nest 
 in other birds. It means also a young 
 brood of hawks, as well as the nest in which 
 they are produced. 
 
 AEROLITES. (From the Greek arip, air, 
 and XiQog, a stone.) Meteoric stones, bodies 
 that fall from the heavens. The origin of 
 these remarkable bodies is still a mystery ; 
 but of the truth of their existence, and of 
 their actual descent to the earth from very 
 lofty regions of the air, there can be no 
 doubt. We owe to the Hon. Edward 
 Howard, F.R.S., an admirable paper on the 
 nature and properties of many of these sub- 
 stances. He collected from various quarters 
 authentic specimens, examined their physical 
 characters, and subjected them to a rigid 
 chemical analysis ; and the result of his in- 
 quiries was, that stones which fell in England, 
 in Italy, in Germany, in the East Indies, 
 and in a great variety of other places, and 
 whose origin rested on the very best testi- 
 mony, all bore to each other the most perfect 
 resemblance, were all composed of the same 
 substances, and, moreover, that they differed, 
 in many most essential particulars, not only 
 from the minerals of the neighbourhood in 
 which they fell, but also from all hitherto 
 discovered on the earth. 
 
 As a general description, we may observe, 
 that these bodies are all covered with a thin 
 crust of a deep black colour, without gloss, 
 and having their surfaces roughened with 
 small asperities. Their internal texture 
 is granulated, more or less fine, of a 
 greyish colour, and in which four different 
 substances may clearly be distinguished by 
 a lens. The most abundant vary in size 
 from a pin's head to that of a pea, and are 
 hard enough to produce faint sparks with a 
 steel. Their specific gravity varies from 
 3*352 to 4*281. The chemical composition 
 of these stones, from whatever quarter of 
 the globe collected, is very similar. Mr. 
 Howard found in one that fell in Yorkshire, 
 
 Silica - - - 75 parts. 
 
 Magnesia - - 37 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 48 
 
 Oxide of nickel - 2 
 
 (Phil. Trans., 1802.) 162 
 
 A similar origin has been ascribed to the 
 solitary masses of iron found in Bohemia, 
 Siberia, Senegal, and South America. One 
 in the province of Bahia, in Brazil, is seven 
 feet long, four feet wide, and two feet thick. 
 Its weight is about 14,000 lbs. In the most 
 authentic instances that have occurred, a 
 28 
 
 luminous meteor, exploding with a loud 
 noise, has immediately preceded the descent 
 of these bodies. It would be easy to form 
 a catalogue of these bodies reaching to the 
 most ancient times, but we shall limit our- 
 selves to some authentic examples of the 
 present century. 
 
 Date. Place and Authority. 
 
 1 802, September { St gJ«f ^ 0 S ™ tland * ~ Monthly Ma *' 
 
 1803, April 26th - Stones in the environs of Aigle. 
 1803, July 4th - Stones at East Norton. — Phil. Mag. 
 1803, October 8th A stone near Apt. 
 
 1803, Dec. 13th 
 
 1804, April 5th 
 
 1805, March 25th 
 1805, June 
 
 1806, May 17th 
 
 1807, Dec. 14th 
 
 1808, May 22d 
 
 1808, Sept. 3d 
 
 Near Eggenfelde. — Imhqf. 
 Near Glasgow. — Phil. Mag. 
 C Stones at Doroninsk, in Siberia — 
 (. Gilbert's Annals. 
 C Stones at Constantinople.— Kougas 
 " t Ingigian. 
 £A stone in Hampshire — Monthly 
 
 Mag. 
 
 1810, July 
 
 1810, August 
 
 1810, Nov. 23d 
 
 1811, July 8th 
 
 1812, April 10th 
 
 1812, April 15th 
 
 1813, March 14th 
 
 1824, January 
 
 [ many stones l 
 I territory of 1 
 ■i weighing t"» 
 served in th 
 L logna — Di 
 
 - Stones near Weston, in Connecticut. 
 Near Stanneru, in Moravia. 
 
 At Lissa, in Bohemia De Schrei- 
 
 bers. 
 
 1810, January 30th At Casswell, in America — Phil. Mag. 
 
 C A large stone at Shahabad, in India. 
 ■< The meteor caused great havock — 
 L Phil. Mag. 
 
 f A. stone in the county of Tipperary. 
 I Higgins has published its analysis. 
 Stones at Charronville, near Orleans. 
 Stones at Berlanguillas. 
 Stones near Toulouse. 
 C A stone at Errleben. — Gilbert's 
 I Annals. 
 
 C Stones at Cutro, in Calabria, during 
 < the fall of a great quantity of red 
 C dust. — Bibl. Brit., Oct. 1813. 
 
 1814, Nov. 5th - At Doab, in India. — Phil. Mag. 
 
 1 815, Feb. 18th - { A at Duralla ' in India._PM. 
 
 r A stone near Zaborzica, in Volhynia. 
 
 1818, March, 30th < Analysed by M. Laugier Ann. de 
 
 L Museum. 
 
 fMany stones near Arnazzo, in the 
 territory of Bologna ; one of them , 
 twelve pounds, is pre- 
 the Observatory of Bo- 
 Jiario di Roma. 
 
 1827, October 8th { A ^H^Lpetersburgh Gazette. 
 
 (Miller.) 
 
 Those who wish to investigate this curious 
 subject further will find it most ably and 
 copiously treated in Chladni's work, " Ueber 
 Feuer-Meteore, und uber die mit denselben 
 herabgefallenen Massen." Gilbert's Annalen 
 derPhysik, and Continuation by Poggendorf. 
 Izarn's Lithologie Atmospherique, and Me- 
 moire Historique et Physique sur les Chutes 
 des Pierres, par Bigot de Morogues, Orleans, 
 1812. 
 
 iESCULUS. The horse chestnut. See 
 Chesnut Tree. 
 
 ^THUSA CYNAPIUM. See Fooi/s 
 Parseey. 
 
 AFFUIAGE. A right of cutting fuel 
 wood. 
 
 AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Tagiteserecta, 
 Lin.). A favourite hardy annual, which 
 docs not come from Africa, as its name would 
 indicate, but from Mexico. See Marigold. 
 
 AFTER-BIRTH. In veterinary practice, 
 the secundine, or membrane in which the 
 birth was involved. 
 
 AFTER-GRASS, or AFTERMATH. 
 
AFTER-GRASS. 
 
 The second crop of grass, or that which 
 springs after mowing, or the grass cut after 
 some kinds of corn crops. 
 
 The composition of the after-grass gene- 
 rally varies considerably from that of the 
 first or spring crop. The nutriment of the 
 latter, from most of the grasses, is materially 
 less than that of the former. This was clearly 
 ascertained by the elaborate experiments of 
 the late Mr. G. Sinclair, the results of which 
 are dispersed throughout his valuable work 
 on the Grasses. To give a few instances 
 only — 
 
 First Crop. Second Crop, 
 dr. gr. dr. gr. 
 
 64dr. of round-panicledcock's-foot 
 
 grass afforded of nutritive matter 2 1 12 
 Meadow fox-tail grass - - 3 1 2 0 
 
 Larger-leaved creeping bent-crested 
 
 dog's-tail grass - - 4 1 2 2 
 
 Hard fescue grass - - - 3 2 11 
 Welch fescue grass - -.21 11 
 Yellow oat grass - .-33 11 
 
 And the same remark applies to the rye 
 grass (Solium perenne), not only of upland 
 pastures but of meadows. Thus, Sinclair 
 found (Hort. Gram. Wob. 384.) that this grass 
 when flowering, taken from a water meadow 
 that had been fed off with sheep till the end 
 of April, yielded of nutritive matter 72 grs. 
 
 But the same grass from the same meadow 
 which had not been fed off, yielded 100 grs, 
 
 The same weight of this grass, from a 
 rich old pasture that had been shut up for 
 hay at the same time, yielded of nutritive 
 matter 95 grs. But the grass from the same 
 field, which had not been depastured, yielded 
 120 grs. 
 
 Some of them, however, contain exactly 
 as much nutritive matter in the aftermath 
 as in the first crop : thus, 64 drs. of the 
 
 First Crop. Latter Crop, 
 
 dr. gr. dr. gr. 
 
 Sweet-scented soft grass yielded - 4 1 4 1 
 
 Smooth-stalked meadow grass - 1 3 13 
 
 Short blue meadow grass - - 2 0 2 0 
 
 Cow grass - - - - 2 1 2 1 
 
 Creeping fescue - - - 1 2 12 
 
 and one or two were found to contain more 
 nutritive matter in the aftermath than in 
 the first crop : thus, 64 dr. of the 
 
 First Crop. Latter Crop, 
 dr. gr. dr. gr. 
 
 Sweet- scented vernal grass yielded 13 2 1 
 
 In the vicinity of London most of the 
 after-grass, or second crop, was formerly 
 made into hay, and was considered of con- 
 siderable value for the ewes of suckling 
 lambs, and milch cows ; but in harvesting 
 this crop, so as to make it sell well, great 
 nicety is requisite, the nature of after-grass 
 being more soft, spongy, and porous than 
 the first growth, and consequently more 
 liable to be hurt by rains. The practice is 
 therefore on the decline. 
 
 In the midland counties their management 
 of the feeding off the after-grass is in gene- 
 ral judicious. It is commonly suffered to 
 get up to a full bite before it is broken, and 
 29 
 
 not turned in upon as soon as the hay is ofl^ 
 or suffered to stand until much of it becomes 
 improper for the food of animals. Farmers, 
 however, make a point of saving autumnal 
 grass for spring feed, and contend that it is 
 the most certain, and, on the whole, the best 
 spring feed yet known. This would seem 
 to be a wasteful practice, at least in respect 
 to the more forward after-grasses. These 
 ought certainly to be broken sufficiently early 
 to be eaten, without waste, before winter 
 sets in; and the latest, that is to say, the 
 shortest, may be shut in for spring feed. If 
 after-grass be too long and gross, it is apt to 
 lodge, and rot upon the ground in winter ; 
 therefore, on rich lands, it ought always to 
 be more or less off before Michaelmas, in 
 order to prevent its being wasted or lost in 
 the winter. 
 
 It is remarked by the author of " Practical 
 Agriculture," that, " In some districts much 
 of the after-grass is frequently cut and made 
 into a green soft sort of hay, as has been 
 already mentioned ; but in others it is fed 
 off by live stock in the autumn." And that 
 " both modes may be useful under different 
 circumstances. In situations where plenty 
 of manure can be procured, as near large 
 towns, and where the chief dependance is 
 upon the sale of hay, or where lamb-suck- 
 ling prevails, it may frequently be a benefi- 
 cial practice to take a second crop of hay, as 
 the first may by that means be more fully 
 spared for sale, the after-crop supplying the 
 cows or other cattle that may be kept on the 
 farm. But in cases where manure cannot 
 easily be obtained, and there is no local prac- 
 tice carried on which requires such sort of 
 hay, it is better to let it be fed off by stock 
 than run the risk of exhausting and injuring 
 the ground by taking off repeated crops. 
 There is also another circumstance," he says, 
 " to be considered in this business, which is, 
 that of the state of the land in respect to 
 dryness, as where it is low, wet, and very 
 retentive of moisture, it may be often more 
 hurt by the poaching of the cattle in feeding 
 off the herbage than by a second crop of 
 hay." But that, " independent of these con- 
 siderations, it may, in general, be a more 
 safe and usual practice to eat off the after- 
 grass by stock, and only take one crop of 
 hay, as by such means a more abundant an- 
 nual produce may be afforded, and the land 
 sustain less injury." 
 
 It is, however, added, that " where a crop 
 of rowen is made into hay, the most profit- 
 able application of it is probably in the fod- 
 dering of such cows as are in milk ; as it is 
 well suited, by its grassy quality, and its not 
 heating so much, when well made, as other 
 sorts of hay in the stack, to afford a large 
 flow of milk. It is this reason that induces 
 
AFTER-GRASS. 
 
 AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 the cow farmers to cut their grass so many 
 times in the summer. Another beneficial 
 application of this hay is, as has been seen, 
 in the feeding of such ewes as are employed 
 in the suckling of house-lambs during the 
 winter season ; the intention in this case is 
 the same as in that of the preceding instance. 
 There is another advantageous use to which 
 this sort of produce may be applied, which 
 is that of supporting young calves, and all 
 sorts of young cattle that are kept as store 
 stock." And that, " where sheep require the 
 support of hay in the winter season, it is 
 also well adapted to that use." 
 
 In the manner of feeding after-grass, there 
 is also much variety in different districts. 
 " It has," the same author says, " been ob- 
 served by a farmer in Middlesex, that the 
 condition on which he rents his farm is that 
 of taking out the cattle at Michaelmas, but 
 that sheep remain till February." In that 
 county the practice is to turn on the cattle 
 immediately after mowing ; but in the north- 
 ern districts, this grass, to which they have 
 given the name of eddish, is kept till No- 
 vember, or even a later period, for the pur- 
 pose of furnishing fat stock, or for the pas- 
 turage of milch cows, from which a superior 
 quality of cheese is made, and by which time 
 it has attained a considerable head : however, 
 this latter practice would seem to be attended 
 with some loss, as has been shown from its 
 being trodden and trampled under foot. In 
 the stocking of after-grass, Marshall found 
 the midland graziers of opinion, that one 
 cow to an acre, on well-grown after-grass, 
 was an ample stock. Good grass-land may, 
 however, admit something more ; and instead 
 of pasturing of rowen, or after-grass, by 
 heavy cattle in the autumn, to avoid poach- 
 ing the ground, particularly at a late period 
 in that or the winter season, it has been 
 recommended by Dr. Wilkinson, " to confine 
 the consumption of this grass principally to 
 the support of sheep, unless in very favour- 
 able seasons, or where the soil is uncommonly 
 dry; in which cases milch cows, or other 
 heavy cattle, may be admitted without in- 
 convenience." 
 
 In some places it is the practice, as " where 
 there is a great scarcity of spring feed, to 
 reserve after-grass in the autumn for spring 
 use." Some, on the basis of experience, 
 contend that it is the most certain, and, on 
 the whole, the best spring feed yet known. 
 It would seem, however, as has been shown, 
 to be a wasteful practice, at least in respect 
 to the more forward after-grasses. The for- 
 wardest ought certainly to be eaten without 
 waste before winter sets in ; and the latest, 
 that is, the shortest, be shut up for spring 
 feed. Arthur Young, it is stated, found, 
 from repeated experiments, as suggested 
 30 
 
 above, " that old after-grass feeds sheep 
 that give milk better than turnips, which 
 are more adapted to the fattening of stock ; 
 and that this grass holds to a period, if 
 wanted, when most other resources fail, the 
 last half of April and the first half of May 
 — periods always of want and difficulty, 
 where rye-grass is not sown." Marshall also 
 assures us, that as a certain and wholesome 
 supply of food for ewes and lambs in the 
 early spring, the preserved pasture is to be 
 depended on as " the sheet anchor, in pre- 
 ference to turnips, cabbages, or any other 
 species whatever, of what is termed spring 
 feed : " and the same thing has been expe- 
 rienced by Dr. Wilkinson, who has observed; 
 that " this food with him afforded a more 
 nutritive and healthful quality of milk from 
 the ewes to their tender lambs than turnips, 
 even in their best state." But however use- 
 ful after-grass pastures may be under this 
 management, there is evidently a great loss 
 of food incurred by it, especially in severe 
 winters. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram.; Loive's 
 Prac. Agr.) 
 
 AFTER-SWARMS. In the manage- 
 ment of bees, are those that leave the hive 
 some time after the first set have swarmed. 
 See Bees. • 
 
 AGARIC OF THE OAK. In Farriery, 
 a substance sometimes employed for the re- 
 straining of haemorrhages, or the bleeding of 
 small vessels. 
 
 AGARICUS. See Mushroom. 
 
 AGAVE. In Botany, comprehends those 
 plants which gardeners call American aloes. 
 
 AGE OF ANIMALS. The age of a 
 horse may be ascertained by his mouth, 
 and the examination of his teeth, till he is 
 eight years old, after which the usual marks 
 commonly wear out. These are usually 
 forty in all ; of which twenty-four are double 
 teeth, and, from their office, denominated 
 grinders, four tushes, or corner teeth, and 
 twelve fore-teeth. 
 
 The first which appear are the foal-teeth, 
 which generally begin to show themselves 
 a month or two after foaling ; they are twelve 
 in number, six above and six below, and 
 are easily distinguished from the teeth that 
 come afterwards, by their smallness and 
 whiteness, having some resemblance to the 
 incisores, or fore-teeth of man. 
 
 When the colt is about two years and a 
 half old, he commonly sheds the four middle- 
 most of his foal-teeth, two above and two 
 below ; but sometimes none are cast till 
 near three years old. The new teeth are 
 readily distinguished from the foal-teeth, 
 being much stronger, and always twice their 
 size, and are called the nippers or gatherers, 
 being those by which horses nip off the grass 
 when they are feeding in the pastures, and 
 
AGE OF ANIMALS. 
 
 by which, in the house, they gather their 
 hay from the rack. When horses have got 
 these four teeth complete, they are reckoned 
 to be three years old. 
 
 When they are about three and a half, or 
 in the spring before they are four years old, 
 they cast four more of their foal-teeth, two 
 in the upper and two in the lower jaw, one 
 on each side the nippers, or middle teeth ; 
 so that when you look into a horse's mouth, 
 and see the two middle teeth full-grown, 
 and none of the foal-teeth, except the common 
 teeth, remaining, you may conclude he is 
 four that year, about April or May. Some, 
 indeed, are later colts, but that makes little 
 alteration in the mouth. 
 
 The tushes appear near the same time 
 with the four last-mentioned teeth, some- 
 times sooner than these, and sometimes not 
 till after a horse is full four years old ; they 
 are curved like the tushes of other animals, 
 only in a young horse they have a sharp 
 edge all round the top and on both sides, 
 the inner part being somewhat grooved and 
 flattened, so as to incline to a hollow. 
 
 When a horse's tushes do not appear for 
 some time after the foal-teeth are cast, and 
 the new ones come in their room, it is gene- 
 rally owing to the foal-teeth having been 
 pulled out before their time, by the breeders 
 or dealers in horses, to make a colt of three 
 years old appear like one of four, that he 
 may be the more saleable ; for when any one 
 of the foal-teeth have been pulled out, the 
 others soon come in their places ; but the 
 tushes having none that precede them, can 
 never make their appearance till their proper 
 time, which is when a horse is full four, or 
 coming four ; and therefore one of the surest 
 marks to know a four-year old horse is by 
 his tushes, which are then very small, and 
 sharp on the top and edges. 
 
 At the time when a horse comes five, or 
 rather in the spring before he is five, the 
 corner teeth begin to appear, and at first 
 but just equal with the gums, being filled 
 with flesh in the middle. The tushes are 
 also by this time grown to a more distinct 
 size, though not very large : they likewise 
 continue rough and sharp on the top and 
 edges. But the corner teeth are now most 
 to be remarked ; they differ from the middle 
 teeth in being more fleshy on the inside, 
 and the gums generally look rawish upon 
 their first shooting out, whereas the others 
 do not appear discoloured. The middle 
 teeth arrive at their full growth in less than 
 three weeks, but the corner teeth grow 
 leisurely, and are seldom much above the 
 gums till a horse is full five ; they differ also 
 from the other fore-teeth in this, that they 
 somewhat resemble a shell ; and thence are 
 called the shell-teeth, because they environ 
 31 
 
 the flesh in the middle half-way round ; and 
 as they grow, the flesh within disappears, 
 leaving a distinct hollowness and openness 
 on the inside. When a horse is full five, 
 the teeth are generally about the thickness 
 of a crown-piece above the gums. From 
 five to five and a half, they will grow about 
 a quarter of an inch high, or more ; and 
 when a horse is full six, they will be near 
 half an inch, and in some large horses a full 
 half-inch above the gums. 
 
 The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall 
 out before those in the under, so that the 
 upper corner teeth are seen before those be- 
 low ; on the contrary, the tushes in the 
 under gums came out before those in the 
 upper. 
 
 WTien a horse is full six years old, the 
 hollowness on the inside begins visibly to fill 
 up, and that which was at first fleshy grows 
 into a brownish spot, not unlike the eye of 
 a dried garden-bean, and continues so till 
 he is seven ; with this difference only, that 
 the teeth are gradually more filled up, and 
 the marks, or spots, become fainter, and of 
 a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in 
 most horses is quite worn out, though some 
 retain the vestiges of it a longer time ; and 
 those who have not had a good deal of ex- 
 perience may sometimes be deceived by 
 taking a horse of nine or ten years old for 
 one of eight. It is at this time only, when 
 a horse is past mark, that one can easily 
 err in knowing his age ; such practices are 
 used to make a very young horse or colt 
 appear older than he really is, by pulling 
 out the foal-teeth before their time, which 
 may be discovered by feeling along the 
 edges where the tushes grow, for they may 
 be felt in the gums before the corner teeth 
 are put forth ; whereas, if the corner teeth 
 come in some months before the tushes rise 
 in the gums, we may reasonably suspect that 
 the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three 
 years old. 
 
 It is not necessary to mention the tricks 
 that are used to make a false mark in a 
 horse's mouth, by hollowing the tooth with 
 a graver, and burning a mark with a small 
 hot iron ; because those who are acquainted 
 with the true marks will easily discover the 
 cheat by the size and colour of the teeth, by 
 the roundness and bluntness of the tushes, 
 by the colour of the false mark, which is 
 generally blacker, and more impressed than 
 the true mark, and by other circumstances 
 which denote the advanced age of horses. 
 
 After the horse has passed his eighth year, 
 and sometimes at seven, nothing certain can 
 be known by the mouth. It must, however, 
 be remembered, that some horses have but 
 indifferent mouths when they are young, 
 and soon lose their mark ; others have their 
 
AGE OF 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 mouths good for a long time, their teeth 
 being white, even, and regular till they are 
 sixteen years old and upwards, together 
 with many other marks of freshness and 
 vigour ; but when a horse comes to be very 
 old, it may be discovered by several indi- 
 cations, the constant attendants of age ; such 
 as his gums wearing away insensibly, leaving 
 his teeth long and naked at their roots ; the 
 teeth also growing yellow, and sometimes 
 brownish. The bars of the mouth, which 
 in a young horse are always fleshy, and form 
 so many distinct ridges, are in an old horse, 
 lean, dry, and smooth, with little or no rising. 
 The eye-pits in a young horse are generally 
 filled up with flesh, look plump and smooth ; 
 whereas, in an old one, they are sunk and 
 hollow, and make him look ghastly. There 
 are also other marks which discover a horse 
 to be very old, as grey horses turning white, 
 and many of them being all over flea-bitten, 
 except their joints. This, however, happens 
 sometimes later, and sometimes sooner, ac- 
 cording to the variety of colour and consti- 
 tution. Black horses are apt to grow grey 
 over their eye-brows, and very often over 
 a great part of their faces ; and all horses, 
 
 32 
 
 when very old, sink more or less in their 
 backs ; and some horses, that are naturally 
 long-backed, grow so hollow with age, that 
 it is scarcely possible to fit them with a 
 saddle. 
 
 The various progressive changes that take 
 place in the appearance of the teeth of horses 
 at different ages, from a few weeks old 
 (marked a in Jig.) to 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 
 12, and 18 years, may be seen in the foregoing 
 dental map constructed by Mr. Blaine 
 (Encyc. of Rural Sports, 273.). 
 
 Age of Neat Cattle. The age of cows, 
 oxen, and bulls is known by the teeth and 
 horns. At the end of about two years they 
 shed their first fore-teeth, which are replaced 
 by others, larger, but not so white ; and be- 
 fore five years all the incisive teeth are re- 
 newed. These teeth are at first equal, long, 
 and pretty white ; but as the animals ad- 
 vance in years, they wear down, become un- 
 equal and black. These animals likewise 
 shed their horns at the end of three years ; 
 and they are replaced by other horns, which, 
 like the second teeth, continue. The manner 
 of the growth of these horns is not uniform, 
 nor the shooting of them equal. The first 
 year, that is the fourth year of the animal's 
 age, two small pointed horns make their ap- 
 pearance, neatly formed, smooth, and to- 
 wards the head terminated by a kind of 
 button. The following year this button 
 moves from the head, being impelled by a 
 horny cylinder, which, lengthening in the 
 same manner, is also terminated by another 
 button, and so on ; for the horns continue 
 growing as long as the animal lives. These 
 buttons become annular joints or rings, which 
 are easily distinguished in the horn, and by 
 which the age of the creature may be easily 
 known ; counting three years for the point 
 of the horn, and one for each of the joints 
 or rings. 
 
 Age of Sheep. — The age of these animals 
 is known by their having, in their second 
 year, two broad teeth ; in their third year, 
 four broad teeth; in their fourth year, 
 six broad teeth ; and in their fifth year, 
 eight broad teeth before. After which, 
 none can tell how old a sheep is while their 
 teeth remain, except by their being worn 
 down. 
 
 About the end of one year, rams, wethers, 
 and all young sheep, lose the two fore-teeth 
 of the lower jaw ; and they are known to 
 want the incisive teeth in the upper jaw. 
 At eighteen months, the two teeth joining 
 to the former also fall out ; and at three 
 years, being all replaced, they are even and 
 pretty white. But as these animals advance 
 in age, the teeth become loose, blunt, and 
 afterwards black. The age of the ram, and 
 all horned sheep, may also be known by 
 
AGE OF TREES. 
 
 their horns, which show themselves in their 
 very first year, and often at the birth, and 
 continue to grow a ring annually to the last 
 period of their lives. 
 
 Age of Goats. — The age of these animals 
 is known by the same marks as those of 
 sheep, as, by their teeth, and the annular 
 rings on their horns. 
 
 Age of Plants. — This, however difficult 
 to ascertain, may be attempted in various 
 ways, as from their general appearances and 
 growth. The continuance of life is ex- 
 tremely different in plants, and from this 
 difference, they are generally divided into 
 annual, biennial, and perennial. 
 
 The infancy of plants, like that of animals, 
 is marked by the characters of weakness and 
 tenderness ; in the youthful state they ac- 
 quire beauty and size, the vessels attract 
 and convey their juices ; the full growth is 
 crowned with the robust fibre, and full 
 exercise of all its functions ; the fruit there- 
 fore ripens ; but old age advancing, the 
 vessels begin gradually to harden and lose 
 their tone, they droop, the juices move no 
 longer with equal celerity as in youth, the 
 vital powers cease, and they die. 
 
 Age of Trees. — The age of some trees 
 may be determined from the number of 
 ligneous annuli or rings. In many sorts of 
 trees it is, however, very difficult to dis- 
 tinguish these, and in others, utterly im- 
 possible. Some trees arrive to an astonishing 
 age ; thus, the cedars of Lebanon have ex- 
 isted for 2000 years. In this country the 
 oak is the most durable. 
 
 Many instances of the extreme old age of 
 trees exist in these islands : at Ellerslie, 
 three miles from Paisley, at the birthplace 
 of William Wallace, is an oak, in which, 
 according to the tradition of the neighbour- 
 hood, that celebrated chieftain once sheltered 
 himself with many of his followers. And 
 many others either till lately or still abound 
 in England ; for instance, there was one at 
 Langley Wood, near Downton (Dodsley,An. 
 Reg., 1758, p. 116.), supposed to be of 
 1000 years' growth ; then there is the oak of 
 William Rufus, in the New Forest ; the 
 Fairlop oak of Hainault Forest ; Fisher's 
 oak on the road to Tonbridge ; Hern's oak 
 in Windsor Forest ; Queen Elizabeth's oak 
 at Heveningham, in Suffolk ; the Whin- 
 field oak, near Appleby, all of great an- 
 tiquity. (Phillips's Fruits; Withers on 
 Planting.} 
 
 At Ankerwyke, near Staines, is a yew 
 tree, that has certainly been growing there 
 since the time of King John ; and at Foun- 
 tain's Abbey, in Yorkshire, there are yew 
 trees that are probably some centuries older ; 
 and the celebrated Spanish chestnut tree, 
 growing in LordDucie's park, at Tortworth, 
 33 
 
 in Gloucestershire, which in the reign of 
 John was called the Great Chestnut of Tort- 
 worth, was certainly growing there in the 
 days of William of Normandy. 
 
 At Trons, in the Grisons, there existed in 
 1798 a lime tree which was a celebrated 
 plant in the year 1424, and which, when last 
 measured, was 51 feet in circumference. 
 The age of this specimen could not have 
 been less than 580 years. 
 
 In the year 1776 there existed in the 
 palace garden of Granada some famous cy- 
 presses, which were thought to have been 
 at least 800 or 900 years old. 
 
 Some of the trees of oriental countries, 
 however, attain to still greater ages than any 
 of these : thus the Baobab trees of Africa, 
 according to Adanson, are 5150 years old ; 
 and Decandolle considers the deciduous 
 cypress trees of Chapultepec in Mexico to 
 be still older. 
 
 It would seem, that, after a certain age, 
 all trees decrease in their rapidity of growth, 
 a fact of some importance to be known to 
 planters ; the oak, for instance, between its 
 fortieth and sixtieth years ; the elm after its 
 fiftieth ; the spruce after its fortieth ; the 
 yew after its sixtieth : of this rate of growth, 
 Decandolle has constructed the following 
 table : — 
 
 Table of the Rate of Increase in Diameter of 
 certain Exogenous Trees. 
 
 1 to 10 
 10 — 20 
 20 — 30 
 30— 40 
 40— 50 
 50— GO 
 00— 70 
 70— 80 
 80— 90 
 90 — 100 
 100— 110 
 110 — 120 
 120— 130 
 130—140 
 140—150 
 
 Quercus | Quercus 
 peduncu- | sessili- 
 lata. flora. 
 
 10 
 16 
 
 22± 
 12 
 
 !? 
 !?* 
 
 II 
 
 9* 
 
 9£ 
 10 
 
 8* 
 
 4K 
 Gl 
 
 58 
 
 72 
 
 4G 
 
 57 
 
 46 
 
 21) 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 201 
 
 22' 
 
 23 
 
 Spruce 
 
 Mr. Waistell has given the following 
 Tables respecting the growth of timber, 
 showing every fourth year, from 12 to 100, 
 the progressive annual increase in the 
 growth of trees, and gradual decrease in 
 the rate per cent, per annum, that the 
 annual increase bears to the whole tree. 
 The whole height of the trees is taken to 
 the top of the leading shoot, and the girt in 
 the middle ; but no account is taken of the 
 lateral branches. If trees increase twelve 
 inches in height and one in circumference 
 annually, their increase will be as under 
 mentioned : — 
 
AGE OF TREES. 
 
 AGENTS. 
 
 Years 
 old, 
 and Keel 
 high. 
 
 Girt. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Years 
 old,' 
 cUid Feet 
 high. 
 
 Girt. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 One Year's 
 Increase. 
 
 Rate per 
 Cent, of 
 Increase. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 Jn. 
 
 Pts. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. Pts. Sds. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Pts. Sds. 
 
 
 12 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 If 
 
 A 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 26*8 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 17 
 
 
 0 
 
 6 4 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 19*9 
 
 20 
 
 2* 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 2f 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 a 
 U 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 15*7 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 3| 
 
 1 
 
 8 4 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 3* 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 29 
 
 3§ 
 
 lit 
 
 7 9 
 
 1 
 
 u 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 li 
 
 3 
 
 10 9 
 
 6 
 
 U 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9*67 
 
 36 
 
 *i 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 y 
 
 37 
 
 
 t 
 o 
 
 5 11 
 
 5 
 
 A 
 U 
 
 o 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 8 '5 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 1 
 
 4 
 
 41 
 
 5 f 
 
 7 
 
 5 8 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 7'6 
 
 44 
 
 5 * 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 1 
 
 45 
 
 5$ 
 
 Q 
 
 10 7 
 
 9 
 
 A 
 
 / 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 6'96 
 
 48 
 
 6 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 49 
 
 
 12 
 
 9 2 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 U 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6*38 
 
 52 
 
 6| 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 53 
 
 
 16 
 
 1 10 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 IU 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 5*9 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 19 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 57 
 
 
 20 
 
 1 1 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 5*4 
 
 60 
 
 
 23 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 61 
 
 a 
 
 24 
 
 7 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5*1 • 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 28 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 65 
 
 8 £ 
 
 29 
 
 q "7 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 
 4*76 
 
 68 
 
 
 34 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 69 
 
 8§ 
 
 35 
 
 7 8 
 
 11 
 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 4*49 
 
 72 
 
 9 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 73 
 
 9 1 
 
 42 
 
 2 6 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 4*2 
 
 76 
 
 
 47 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 77 
 
 9f 
 
 49 
 
 6 5 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 2 
 
 3*98 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 55 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 81 
 
 10£ 
 
 57 
 
 7 11 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3*79 
 
 84 
 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 8 
 
 85 
 
 104 
 
 66 
 
 7 7 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 8 
 
 3*6 
 
 88 
 
 11 
 
 73 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 89 
 
 Hi 
 
 76 
 
 5 11 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 92 
 
 11* 
 
 84 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 93 
 
 n| 
 
 87 
 
 3 4 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 3-3 
 
 96 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 97 
 
 12| 
 
 99 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 315 
 
 100 
 
 
 108 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 101 
 
 12| 
 
 111 
 
 9 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 If the trees increase eighteen inches in height, and two inches in circumference 
 annually, their increase will then be : — 
 
 Age of 
 Trees. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Girt. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 Age of 
 Trees. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Girt. 
 
 Contents. 
 
 One Year's 
 Increase. 
 
 Rate per 
 Cent, 
 of In- 
 crease. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 'Pt. 
 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Inch. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. Pt. Sd. 
 
 Ft. 
 
 In. 
 
 Pt. 
 
 Sd. 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 19| 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 26'5 
 
 16 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 25£ 
 
 i 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 19*8 
 
 20 
 
 30 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 21 
 
 3l| 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 15-6 
 
 24 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 " 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 37j 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 28 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 29 
 
 43£ 
 
 n 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 48 
 
 8 
 
 21 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 49* 
 
 8 f 
 
 23 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 9-6 
 
 36 
 
 54 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 55£ 
 
 
 32 
 
 11 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 8*5 
 
 40 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 41 
 
 6l| 
 
 
 44 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 7'6 
 
 44 
 
 66 
 
 11 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 45 
 
 67j 
 
 
 59 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 6-9 
 
 48 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 72 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 49 
 
 7S| 
 
 
 76 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 6-3 
 
 52 
 
 78 
 
 13 
 
 91 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 53 
 
 79} 
 
 
 96 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 5-8 
 
 56 
 
 84 
 
 14 
 
 114 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 57 
 
 85i 
 
 
 120 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 G 
 
 5-4 
 
 60 
 
 90 
 
 15 
 
 140 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 61 
 
 91* 
 
 i 
 
 147 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 64 
 
 96 
 
 16 
 
 170 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 65 
 
 97^ 
 
 
 178 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 4-7 
 
 AGENTS. Land agents, are very com- 
 monly persons of the legal profession, little 
 conversant with the ordinary details of farm- 
 ing affairs. This is not always a desirable 
 state of things — it often leads to oppression, 
 to discord, and to very bad farming. 
 
 An agent cannot bind his principal beyond 
 the extent of his limited authority (Fenn v. 
 Harrison, 3 T. R. 575.). For although a 
 principal is bound by all the acts of his ge- 
 neral agent, yet where he appoints an agent 
 for a particular purpose, he is only bound to 
 the extent of the authority given. (E. I. 
 34 
 
 (Trans. Soc. of Arts, vol. xxvi.) 
 
 Company v. Hensley, 1 Espinasse, 112.) 
 Thus says Woodfall (Law of Landlord and 
 Tenant). 
 
 "Agreements for a lease, made with an 
 agent who acts under a power of attorney, 
 and a lease executed by such agent in pur- 
 suance of the agreement, shall bind the prin- 
 cipal. (Hamilton v. Clanricarde, 1 Bro. P. C. 
 341.) 
 
 And where a man does such an act as can- 
 not be good by any other means but by vir- 
 tue of his authority, it shall be intended to 
 be an execution of his authority ; but where 
 
AGISTMENT. 
 
 AGREEMENT. 
 
 a man has an interest and an authority, and 
 does an act without reciting his authority, 
 it shall be intended to be done by virtue of 
 his interest. (1 Lord Ray. 658—660.) 
 
 A bailiff of a manor cannot, by virtue of 
 his office, make leases for years ; for his busi- 
 ness is only to collect rents, gather the fines, 
 look after the forfeitures, and such like : but 
 he hath no estate or interest in the manor 
 itself, and therefore cannot contract for any 
 certain interest thereout. But the lord of 
 the manor may give him a special power to 
 make leases for years, as he may do to any 
 stranger, and then such leases, if they are 
 pursuant to the power, and made in the 
 name of the lord, will be as good as leases 
 by the lord himself ; for the bailiff, though 
 he hath such power, cannot make them in 
 his own name. (Bac. Ab. Tit. Leases.} 
 
 But a general bailiff of a manor may make 
 leases at will, without any special authority, 
 because, being to collect and answer the rents 
 of the manor to his lord, if he could not let 
 leases at will, the lord might sustain great 
 prejudice by absence, sickness, or other in- 
 capacity to make leases when any of the 
 former leases were expired ; and such leases 
 at will are for the benefit of the lord, and 
 can be no ways prejudicial to him, because 
 he may determine his will when he thinks 
 fit. Such, however, must be taken to be 
 strict tenancies at will ; otherwise, as general 
 tenancies at will are construed to be tenan- 
 cies from year to year, and half a year's no- 
 tice to quit is required, before a tenant can 
 be ousted, such tenancies might prove very 
 prejudicial to the lord's interest. But if the 
 bailiff of a manor hath a special power to 
 make leases for years, as he ought to make 
 them in the name of his master, so they ought 
 to be made in writing, that the authority 
 may appear to be pursued; a parol lease 
 such bailiff has no power to make." 
 
 A bailiff may receive rents and may re- 
 pair, but not alter, even the materials of the 
 repairs of a building, as for instance, by sub- 
 stituting slate for thatch. He may, in fact, 
 do any thing that is for his master's benefit, 
 but not to his prejudice without his assent. 
 
 AGISTMENT. A term seemingly from 
 the old law French word giste, which signi- 
 fies a lying-place, and therefore, as applied 
 to cattle, supposes pasturing. Agistment 
 accordingly is the pasturing of cattle, the 
 property of another, on the payment of a 
 certain sum of money, or other valuable 
 consideration ; and the animals thus grazed 
 are sometimes called gistments. " If," says 
 Blackstone, " a man takes in a horse or other 
 cattle to graze and depasture in his grounds, 
 which the law calls agistment, he takes them 
 upon an implied contract to return them on 
 demand to the owner. (Cro. Car. 271.) But 
 35 
 
 he cannot like an innkeeper retain them till 
 payment." Agistment also means the profit 
 arising from this practice. The tithe of 
 agistment is the tenth part of the value for 
 the keeping or depasturing such cattle as 
 are liable to pay it ; but it may be avoided 
 by cutting the grass for stall-feeding. 
 
 AGREEMENT. A very considerable 
 proportion of the lands of England are held 
 by agreements between the landlord and the 
 tenant. See Leases. 
 
 These are best made in writing, although 
 not absolutely necessary for terms not ex- 
 ceeding three years. {Crosby v. Wordsworth, 
 6 East, 602.) An agreement to make a lease 
 is, inequity, agood lease. (Hamiltonv. Card- 
 ness, 2 Bro. P. C. 125.) But whether an 
 instrument shall amount to a present lease 
 or only as an agreement for a future lease, 
 will depend on the intention of the parties, 
 to be collected from the instrument itself. 
 (Morgan v. Bissett, 3 Taunton, 65. Baxter 
 v. Browne, 2 W. Black. 973.) 
 
 The following skeleton form of an agree- 
 ment, or short demise from year to year, of a 
 farm, is abridged from WoodfalTs Law of 
 Landlord and Tenant, by Harrison, p. 974. ; 
 and with the necessary alterations according 
 to the custom of counties (see which), may 
 serve as a guide to many of my readers. 
 
 Memorandum made the day of , 
 in the year of our Lord 184 , between 
 A. B. (Landlord) of , of the one part, 
 
 and CD. (Tenant) of , in the county 
 
 of , farmer, on the other part ; 
 
 whereby the said A. B. lets, and the said 
 C. D. agrees to take and hold of him as te- 
 nant, all that and those farms and lands 
 called , situate in the parish of , in 
 the county of (excepting , here 
 
 insert names of any excepted fields, 8fc), from 
 Michaelmas-day next ensuing upon the terms 
 following ; that is to say, tenant to be deemed 
 tenant from year , to enter on fallows at 
 Lady-day, 184 , on the other lands, and 
 the house, and buildings, except barns, at 
 
 next, and on the barns, at 
 Either party may determine the tenancy by 
 a notice in writing of nine calendar months, 
 or upwards, expiring on any Michaelmas- 
 day. Tenant to quit in like manner as 
 before expressed concerning his entry. Rent 
 I. payable half-yearly, at , and 
 
 , without any deduction on account of 
 any rate, tax, or assessment now in exist- 
 ence, or hereafter to be imposed, or on any 
 other account except the quit-rent, and the 
 land-tax, which are to be paid by the land- 
 lord. Landlord to cause the under-mentioned 
 repairs to be done on or before the day 
 of ,184 (enumerate these on the back 
 
 of the agreement, if any). Landlord to keep 
 buildings in tenantable repair. Tenant to 
 d 2 
 
AGRICULTOR. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 keep the gates, stiles, bars, and fences in good 
 repair, landlord providing rough timber. 
 Tenant not to lop, cut, or top any oak, ash, 
 elm tree, or tiller, or sapling on the estate, 
 except pollards, and that only for the lop- 
 pings and toppings to be used for 
 Tenant not to mow grass on meadow land 
 above once in one year, and if he breaks up 
 any old meadow or pasture land with con- 
 sent in writing of landlord, then to pay the 
 further yearly sum of 10Z. fo revery acre so 
 broken up; and so in proportion for any 
 greater or less quantity than an acre. Tenant 
 to crop the arable land in each year as fol- 
 lows (here insert course of cropping agreed 
 upon). Tenant to use and consume on the 
 farm all hay, and straw, and turnips made 
 and grown thereon. Tenant to use and 
 spread on the farm all dung and manure 
 made thereon, in such manner that every 
 acre in tillage of the farm aforesaid may be 
 well manured once in every three years of 
 his tenancy. All hay and wheat straw on 
 the farm at expiration of the tenancy may be 
 purchased by landlord or succeeding tenant 
 at a fair valuation, by two indifferent per- 
 sons ; one to be named by each party. Te- 
 nant to leave on premises without compen- 
 sation (here insert what straw and dung, 8rc. 
 is to be left). Landlord alone, or with any 
 other or others in his company, may shoot 
 game on the estate. Tenant not to crop or 
 sow any of the land with rape, flax, hemp, 
 or woad. Tenant not to let or assign the 
 premises, or any part thereof. Tenant in 
 quitting the farm to receive such pecuniary 
 compensation from the landlord for improve- 
 ments in, banking and fencing within five 
 years, and good under-draining within ten 
 years, as two arbitrators shall award ; which 
 arbitrators shall abate according to the bene- 
 fit derived by the tenant from such repairs, 
 improvements, and additions, and take into 
 consideration how far, at the expiration of 
 the tenancy, they may be beneficial to the 
 estate ; and such arbitrators shall be nomi- 
 nated one by each party on the request of 
 either party, and if either party neglect or 
 refuse to nominate his arbitrator, the other 
 party may nominate both arbitrators. In wit- 
 ness whereof the said parties hereto have set 
 their hands, the day and year first aforesaid. 
 
 AGRICULTOR. (Lat. a husbandman.) 
 The word in our language is modern, but is 
 getting into common use. It is, however, 
 more generally written agriculturist, and is 
 intended to imply one who is skilled in 
 the art of cultivating the ground. (Todd's 
 Johnson.) 
 
 AGRICULTURE, HISTORY OF. 
 (Lat. agricultural) The art of cultivating 
 the ground ; tillage, husbandry, as distinct 
 from pasture. (Todd's Johnson.) 
 36 
 
 I shall, in the present article, limit my- 
 self to a brief historical sketch of agricul- 
 ture, which became one of the sustaining 
 arts of life as soon as man was ordained to 
 earn his bread by the sweat of his brow. 
 In the garden of Eden, whose fertile soil 
 and genial clime appear to have combined 
 in maturing a continued variety and un- 
 failing succession of vegetable sustenance, 
 agricultural operations were unknown ; for 
 that which came spontaneously to perfec- 
 tion required no assistance from human 
 ingenuity ; and where there is no defici- 
 ency there can be no inducement to strive 
 for improvement. That period of perfec- 
 tion was but transitory ; and the Deity that 
 had placed man in the garden " to dress it 
 and keep it," eventually drove him thence 
 " to till the earth from whence he was 
 taken." (Gen. ii. 15. ; iii. 23.) 
 
 From that time to the present, agricul- 
 ture has been an improving art ; and there 
 is no reason to doubt but that it will go on 
 advancing as long as mankind continues to 
 increase. 
 
 Man, in his greatest state of ignorance, 
 is always found dependent for subsistence 
 upon the produce of the chase; but, as 
 population increases, recourse must be had 
 to other sources of food. And we find in 
 the shepherd's life of the early ages, the 
 first step of the agricultural art, the do- 
 mestication of animals, which it was found 
 to be more convenient to have constantly 
 at hand, rather than to have to seek pre- 
 cariously at the very time they were re- 
 quired. As the increase of population still 
 went on, and the flocks and the herds had 
 proportionately to be enlarged, one favourite 
 spot would be found too small for the sub- 
 sistence of the whole ; and, as in the case 
 of Abraham and Lot, they would have to 
 separate and find pasturage in different dis- 
 tricts. This separation into tribes could 
 not proceed beyond a certain extent; and 
 when the land was fully occupied, recourse 
 would by necessity be had to means of in- 
 creasing the produce of given surfaces of 
 soil instead of enlarging their extent. With 
 Abraham and Isaac it is very evident that 
 wheat and the other fruits of the earth were 
 the rare and choice things of their country ; 
 but when such nations once learned, as 
 they might from the example of Egypt, the 
 resource such products were in periods of 
 famine, arising from mortalities among their 
 cattle, they would soon pursue their inter- 
 ests by cultivating them. This completed, 
 the acquirement of property in land for the 
 space not only long occupied, but upon 
 which the occupier had bestowed his la- 
 bour, built his habitation, and had enclosed 
 from injury by vagrant animals, would be 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 acknowledged to be his without any one 
 stopping to inquire what right he had to 
 make the enclosure. 
 
 When once thus located, experience and 
 observation would soon teach the employ- 
 ment of manures, irrigation, times of sowing, 
 and other necessary operations ; and every 
 generation would be wiser in the art than 
 that which preceded it. This especially has 
 occurred in these more northern climates, 
 where art and industry has to compensate 
 for a deficiency of natural advantages. 
 " Enlarging numbers," observes Mr. Sharon 
 Turner, " only magnify the effect ; for man- 
 kind seem to thrive and civilise in propor- 
 tion as they multiply ; and, by a recurrent 
 action, to multiply again in proportion as 
 they civilise and prosper." In this manner 
 improved modes of cultivation, the intro- 
 duction of new species, and of more fruitful 
 varieties of agricultural produce, have uni- 
 versally kept pace with an increasing popu- 
 lation. This resting upon a basis of facts, 
 vindicates the wisdom of Providence, and 
 refutes Mr. Malthus's superficial theory 
 of over-production. The agricultural pro- 
 duce of this country has gradually increased 
 from the insignificant amount that was its 
 value in the time of the Roman invasion, to 
 the enormous annual return of 200,000,000/. ; 
 and it is very certain that in this country, 
 and much more in other parts of the world, 
 the produce is a mere fraction of what the 
 total soil is capable of returning. 
 
 Agriculture is the art of obtaining from 
 the earth food for the sustenance of man 
 and his domestic animals ; and the perfec- 
 tion of the art is to obtain the greatest 
 possible produce at the smallest possible 
 expense. Upon the importance of the art, 
 it is needless, therefore, to insist ; for by it 
 every country is enabled to support in com- 
 fort an abundant population. On this its 
 strength as a nation depends ; and by it its 
 independence is secured. An agricultural 
 country has within itself the necessaries and 
 comforts of life ; and, to defend these, there 
 will never be wanting a host of patriot 
 soldiers. 
 
 Of the pleasure attending the judicious 
 cultivation of the soil, we have the evi- 
 dence of facts. The villa farms sprinkled 
 throughout our happy land, the establish- 
 ments of Holkham, Woburn, &c, would 
 never have been formed if the occupation 
 connected with them was not delightful. 
 We have an unexceptionable witness to the 
 same fact in the late Mr. Roscoe, the elegant, 
 talented author of the Lives of Lorenzo de 
 Medici and of Leo the Tenth. Mr. Roscoe 
 was the son of an extensive potato grower 
 near Liverpool. In the cultivation of that 
 and other farm produce, he had been an 
 37 
 
 active labourer ; and he who thus had en- 
 joyed the delights that spring from literary 
 pursuits, and from the cultivation of the 
 soil, has left this recorded opinion, " If I 
 was asked whom I consider to be the hap- 
 piest of the human race, I should answer, 
 those who cultivate the earth by their own 
 hands." 
 
 We have but little information to guide 
 us as to the country in which man first cul- 
 tivated the soil; nor of that in which he 
 first settled after the deluge. Thus much, 
 however, is certain, that we have the earliest 
 authentic account of the state of agriculture 
 as it existed among the Egyptians and their 
 bond-servants, the Israelites. From the for- 
 mer, probably, the Greeks were descended. 
 The Romans, at a later period, were a 
 colony from Greece ; and from the Romans 
 the other countries of Europe derived their 
 earliest marked improvement in the arts. 
 
 Our brief history of the progress of agri- 
 culture, then, will be divided into, 1. The 
 agriculture of the Egyptians and other 
 eastern nations ; 2. The agriculture of the 
 Greeks; 3. The agriculture of the Ro- 
 mans; 4. The agriculture of the Britons, 
 including a cursory notice of its present 
 state among the chief nations of Europe. 
 
 I. The Agriculture of the Egyptians, 
 Israelites, and other early Eastern 
 Nations. 
 
 Every family of these primitive nations 
 had its appointed district for pasturage, if it 
 pursued a pastoral life ; or its allotted en- 
 closure, if it was occupied by tilling the 
 earth. There was no distinction in this re- 
 spect between the monarch and his people : 
 each had a certain space of land from which 
 he and his family were to derive their sub- 
 sistence. 
 
 The Egyptians, as well as the Israelites, 
 were flock-masters. The latter were par- 
 ticularly so ; and, as Joseph's brethren said 
 to Pharaoh, " their trade was about cattle 
 from then- youth." {Gen. xlvi. 34.) When, 
 therefore, they came into Egypt, they desired 
 the low-lying land of Goshen, as producing 
 the most perennial of pasture. {Gen. xlvii. 
 4.) It is true that the same authority says, 
 " Every shepherd is an abomination unto the 
 Egyptians ; " but this was because, about a 
 century before the arrival of Joseph among 
 them, a tribe of Cushite shepherds from 
 Arabia had conquered their nation, and 
 held them in slavery ; till, after a sangui- 
 nary contest of thirty years, they regained 
 their liberty about twenty-seven years be- 
 fore Joseph was promoted by Pharaoh. 
 That the Egyptians were flock-masters is 
 certain, from many parts of the Scriptures. 
 d 3 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Thus, when Pharaoh gave permission to the 
 Israelites to dwell in Goshen, he added, as 
 he spoke to Joseph, " And if thou knowest 
 any men of activity among them, then make 
 them rulers over my cattle " {Gen. xlvii.6.); 
 and when the murrain came into Egypt, it 
 was upon their horses, asses, camels, oxen, 
 and sheep. (Exod. ix. 3.) 
 
 The attention and care necessary to be 
 paid to their domestic animals were evi- 
 dently well-known and attended to ; for 
 when they proposed to settle in a land, 
 their first thought was to build " sheep- 
 folds for their cattle." (Numb, xxxii. 16.) 
 They had stalls for their oxen (Hab. iii. 17.), 
 and for all their beasts. Thus King Heze- 
 kiah is said to have made " stalls for all 
 manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks; 
 moreover, he provided him possessions of 
 flocks and herds in abundance" (2Ch?-on. 
 xxxii. 28.) ; and that this abundance ex- 
 ceeded the possessions of the greatest of 
 our modern flock-masters, we may readily 
 acknowledge, when we read that " Mesha, 
 king of Moab, was a sheep-master, and 
 rendered unto the king of Israel 100,000 
 lambs, and 100,000 rams, with the wool." 
 {2 Kings, iii. 4.) 
 
 They prepared the provender for their 
 horses and asses of chaff, or cut straw and 
 barley. (Judges, xix. 21. ; 1 Kings, iv. 28.) 
 Our translation does not explicitly state 
 this, but it is clear in the Hebrew original. 
 (Dr. Kennicotfs xxivth Codex ; Harmers 
 Observations, i. 423.) It is also certain, 
 from the Hebrew original, that they tied 
 up calves and bullocks for the purpose of 
 fattening them (Jerem. xlvi. 21.; Amos, vi. 
 4, &c, Parkhurst s Hebrew Lexicon, 673.) ; 
 and that they were acquainted with the 
 arts of the dairy. " Surely the churning of 
 milk," says Solomon, " bringeth forth but- 
 ter" (Prov. xxx. 31.) ; and Samuel speaks 
 of the " cheese of kine." (2 Sam. xxvii. 29.) 
 The chief vegetable products cultivated by 
 these eastern nations were, wheat, barley, 
 beans, lentils, rye, the olive, and the vine. 
 (Exod. ix. 31. ; Levit. xix. 10. ; 2 Sam. xvii. 
 28. &c.) 
 
 The scanty notices which we have of their 
 tillage, give us no reason to doubt that they 
 were skilful husbandmen. Their name for 
 tillage (Obed) emphatically expresses their 
 idea of it ; for it literally means to serve the 
 ground (Parkhurst, 508). And that the 
 cares and attention necessary were well sus- 
 tained, is evidenced by the fact, that David, 
 for his extensive estate, had an overseer for 
 the storehouses in the fields; another over 
 the tillage of the ground ; a third over the 
 vineyards ; a fourth over the olive trees; 
 two to superintend his herds ; a seventh over 
 Inn camels; an eighth to superintend his 
 38 
 
 flocks ; and a ninth to attend similarly to 
 the asses. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25 — 31.) 
 
 Of their ploughing, we know that they 
 turned up the soil in ridges, similarly to our 
 own practice; for the Hebrew name of a 
 husbandman signifies a man who does so. 
 (Parkhurst, 93.) That they ploughed with 
 two beasts of the same species attached 
 abreast to the plough. (Deut. xxii. 10.) That 
 the yoke, or collar, was fastened to the neck 
 of the animal ; and that the plough, in its 
 mode of drawing the furrows, resembled our 
 own ; for we read of their sharpening the 
 coulter and the ploughshare. (1 Sam. xiii. 
 20, &c.) Ploughing was an operation that 
 they were aware might be beneficially per- 
 formed at all seasons ; for Solomon mentions 
 it as a symptom of a sluggard, that he will 
 not plough in the winter (Prov. xx. 4.) ; 
 and that too much care could not be de- 
 voted to it, they expressed, by deriving their 
 name for ploughing from a Hebrew root, 
 which signifies silent thought and attention. 
 (Parkhurst, 244.) 
 
 Their sowing was broadcast, from a basket 
 (Amos, xi. 13. ; Psalm cxxvi. 6.) ; and they 
 gave the land a second superficial ploughing 
 to cover the seed. It is true that harrowing 
 is mentioned in our translation (Job, xxxix. 
 10.) ; but Schultens and other Hebraists 
 agree that harrowing was not practised by 
 them. Russell, in remarking upon the mode 
 of cultivation now practised near Aleppo, 
 says, " ~No harrow is used, but the ground is 
 ploughed a second time after it is sown, to 
 cover the grain." (Parkhurst, 720.) 
 
 The after-cultivation apparently was not 
 neglected ; they had hoes or mattocks, which 
 they employed for extirpating injurious 
 plants. " On all hills," says the prophet, 
 "that shall be digged with the mattock, there 
 shall not come thither the fear of briars and 
 thorns." (Isa. vii. 25.) In those hot cli- 
 mates a plentiful supply of moisture was 
 necessary for a healthful vegetation ; and 
 the simile of desolation, employed by the 
 same prophet, is " a garden that hath no 
 water." (Isa. i. 30.) In Egypt they irri- 
 gated their lands ; and the water thus sup- 
 plied to them was raised by an hydraulic 
 machine, worked by men in the same man- 
 ner as the modern tread-wheel. To this 
 practice Moses alludes, when he reminds the 
 Israelites of their sowing their seed in Egypt, 
 and watering it with their feet, a practice 
 still pursued in Arabia. (Deut. xi. 10. ; Nie- 
 buhr, Voyage en Arabie, 1.121.) 
 
 When the corn was ripe it was cut with 
 either a sickle or a scythe (Jer.l. 16. ; Joel, iii. 
 13.), was bound into sheaves (Psalm cxxix. 
 7. ; Deut. xxiv. 19. &c), and was conveyed 
 in carts (Amos, ii. 13.), either immediately 
 to the threshing floor or to the barn. They 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 never formed it into stacks as we do. These 
 passages in the Scriptures (Exod. xxii. 6. ; 
 Judg. xv. 5. ; Job, v. 26.) refer exclusively to 
 the thraves or shocks in which the sheaves 
 are reared as they are cut. (Harmer's Ob- 
 serv. iv. 145. &c.) The threshing floors, as 
 they are at the present day, were evidently 
 level plats of ground in the open air. (Judg. 
 vi. 37. ; 2 Sam. xxiv. 18—25. &c.) They 
 were so placed that the wind might, at the 
 time of the operation, remove the chief part 
 of the chaff. They perhaps had threshing 
 floors under cover, to be used in inclement 
 seasons ; for Hosea (ii. 35.), speaking of " the 
 summer threshing floors," justifies such sur- 
 mise. The instruments and modes of thresh- 
 ing were various. They are all mentioned 
 in these two verses of the prophet : " Fitches 
 are not threshed with a threshing instru- 
 ment, neither is a cart-wheel turned upon 
 the cummin, but the fitches are beaten out 
 with a staff, and the cummin with a rod. 
 Bread-corn is bruised because he will not 
 ever be threshing it, nor break it with the 
 wheel of his cart, nor bruise it with his horse- 
 men." (Isaiah, xxviii. 27, 28.) When the 
 seed was threshed by horses they were ridden 
 by men ; and when by cattle, although for- 
 bidden to be muzzled (Deut. xxv. 4.), yet 
 they were evidently taught to perform the 
 labour. (Hosea, x. 11.) The "instrument" 
 was a kind of sledge made of thick boards, 
 and furnished underneath with teeth of iron. 
 (Isaiah, xli. 15. ; Parkhurst, 242. 412.) The 
 revolving wheels of a cart, and the various 
 sized poles employed for the same purpose, 
 need no further comment. To complete 
 the dressing of the corn, it was passed 
 through a sieve (Amos, ix. 9.), and thrown 
 up against the wind by means of a shovel. 
 The fan was, and is still, unknown to the 
 eastern husbandmen ; and where that word 
 is employed in our translation of the Scrip- 
 tures, the original seems to intend either the 
 wind or the shovel. (Isa. xxx. 24. ; Jer. xv. 
 7.; Parkhurst, 183. 680.) 
 
 Of their knowledge of manures we know 
 little. Wood was so scarce that they con- 
 sumed the dung of their animals for fuel. 
 (Parkhurst, 764.) Perhaps it was this de- 
 ficiency of carbonaceous matters for their 
 lands that makes an attention to fallowing so 
 strictly enjoined. (Levit. xix. 23. xxv. 3.; 
 Hosea, x. 12. &c.) 
 
 The landed estates were large, both of the 
 kings and of some of their subjects ; for we 
 read that Uzziah, king of Judah, " had much 
 both in the low country and in the plains ; 
 husbandmen also, and vine-dressers in the 
 mountains and in Carmel, for he loved hus- 
 bandry " (2 Chron. xxvi. 10.) ; that Elijah 
 found Elisha with twelve yoke of oxen at 
 plough, himself being with the twelfth yoke 
 39 
 
 (1 Kings, xix. 19.) ; and that Job, the great- 
 est man of the east, had 14,000 sheep, 6000 
 camels, 1000 yoke of oxen, and 1000 she- 
 asses. (Job, i. 3. xlii. 12.) In the time of 
 Isaiah, the accumulation of landed property 
 in the hands of a few proprietors was so 
 much on the increase, that a curse was ut- 
 tered against this engrossment. " Woe 
 unto them," says the prophet, "that join 
 house to house, that lay field to field, till 
 there be no place, that they may be placed 
 alone in the midst of the earth." (Isaiah, v. 
 8.) 
 
 II. The Agriculture of the Greeks. 
 
 1. Ancient implement, from a tombstone at Athens. 
 2. The Greek plough. 3. The spade. 4. and 5. Hoes. 
 
 Revelation has taught us to offer up our 
 prayers and thanksgivings for all benefits to 
 the one omni-beneficent Creator and Pro- 
 vider of the universe. The less enlightened 
 ancients, whose religion was mythological, 
 equally convinced with ourselves of the ex- 
 istence of some divine first cause and provi- 
 dence, like us offered up their votive petitions 
 and hymns of praise, though the objects of 
 their worship were as many as the benefits 
 or the evils to which man is subject. 
 
 Agriculture was too important and too 
 beneficial an art not to demand, and the 
 Greeks and Romans were nations too po- 
 lished and discerning not to afford to it, a 
 very plentiful series of presiding deities. 
 They attributed to Ceres, as their pro- 
 genitors, the Egyptians, did to Isis, the in- 
 vention of the arts of tilling the soil. Ceres 
 is said to have imparted these to Tripto- 
 lemus, of Eleusis, and to have sent him as 
 her missionary round the world to teach 
 mankind the best modes of ploughing, sow- 
 ing, and reaping. In gratitude for this, the 
 Greeks, about 1356 years before the Chris- 
 tian era, established, in honour of Ceres, the 
 Eleusinian mysteries, by far the most cele- 
 brated and enduring of all their religious 
 ceremonies ; for they were not established 
 at Rome till the close of the fourth century. 
 Superstition is a prolific weakness ; and, con- 
 sequently, by degrees, every operation of 
 agriculture, and every period of the growth 
 of crops, obtained its presiding and tutelary 
 deity. The goddess, Terra, was the guar- 
 dian of the soil ; Stercidius presided over 
 d 4 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 manures ; Volutia guarded the crops whilst 
 evolving their leaves; Flora received the 
 still more watchful duty of sheltering their 
 blossom ; they passed to the guardianship of 
 Lactantia when swelling with milky juices ; 
 Mubigo protected them from blight; and 
 they successively became the care of Hos- 
 tilina, as they shot into ears ; of Matura as 
 they ripened; and of Tutelina when they 
 were reaped. Such creations of polytheism 
 are fables ; but they are errors that should 
 even now give rise to feelings of gratification 
 rather than of contempt. They must please 
 by their elegance ; and much more when we 
 reflect that it is the concurrent testimony of 
 anterior nations, through thousands of years, 
 that they detected and acknowledged a Great 
 First Cause. 
 
 Unlike the arts of luxury, Agriculture has 
 never been subject to any retrograde re- 
 volutions ; being an occupation necessary 
 for the existence of mankind in any degree 
 of comfort, it has always continued to re- 
 ceive their first attention ; and no succeeding 
 age has been more imperfect, but in general 
 more expert, in the art than that which has 
 preceded it. The Greeks are not an ex- 
 ception to this .rule ; for their agriculture 
 appears to have been much the same in the 
 earliest brief notices we have of them, as it 
 was with the nation of which they were an 
 off- set. The early Grecians, like all new 
 nations, were divided into but two classes : 
 landed proprietors, and Helots, or slaves ; 
 and the estates of the former were little 
 larger than were sufficient to supply their 
 respective households with necessaries. We 
 read of princes among them; and as we 
 dwell upon the splendid details of the Trojan 
 war, associate with such titles, unreflectingly, 
 all the pageantry and luxury of modern po- 
 tentates, that are distinguished by similar 
 titles. But in this we are decidedly wrong ; 
 for there was probably not a leader of the 
 Greeks who did not, like the father of 
 Ulysses, assist with his own hands in the 
 farming operations. {Homer s Odyss. 1. 
 xxiv.) Hesiod is the earliest writer who 
 gives us any detail of the Grecian agricul- 
 ture. He appears to have been the con- 
 temporary of Homer ; and, in that case, to 
 have flourished about nine centuries before 
 the Christian era. His practical statements, 
 however, are very meagre ; we have, there- 
 fore, preferred taking Xenophon' s (Economics 
 as our text, and introducing the statements 
 of other authors, as they may occur, to sup- 
 ply deficiencies or to afford illustrations. 
 
 Xenophon died at the age of ninety, 359 
 years before the birth of Christ. The fol- 
 lowing narrative of the Greek agriculture is 
 from his " Essay," if not otherwise specified. 
 
 In Xenophon's time the landed pro- 
 40 
 
 prietor no longer laboured upon his farm, 
 but had a steward as a general superin- 
 tendant, and numerous labourers, yet he 
 always advises the master to attend to his 
 own affairs. " My servant," he says, " leads 
 my horse into the fields, and I walk thither 
 for the sake of exercise in a purer air ; and 
 when arrived where my workmen are 
 planting trees, tilling the ground, and the 
 like, I observe how every thing is performed, 
 and study whether any of these operations 
 may be improved." After his ride his ser- 
 vant took his horse, and led him home, 
 " taking with him," he adds, " to my house, 
 such things as are wanted, and I walk home, 
 wash my hands, and dine off whatever is 
 prepared for me moderately." " No man," 
 he says, " can be a farmer till he is taught 
 by experience ; observation and instruction 
 may do much, but practice teaches many 
 particulars, which no master would ever 
 have thought to remark upon." "Before 
 we commence the cultivation of the soil," 
 he observes, that "we should notice what 
 crops flourish best upon it; and we may 
 even learn from the weeds it produces, what 
 it will best support." 
 
 " Fallowing, or frequent ploughing in 
 spring or summer," he observes, " is of great 
 advantage ; " and Hesiod advises the farmer 
 {Works and Days, 50.) always to be pro- 
 vided with a spare plough, that no accident 
 may interrupt the operation. The same 
 author directs the ploughman to be very 
 careful in his work. " Let him," he says, 
 " attend to his employment, and trace the 
 furrows carefully in straight lines, not look- 
 ing around him, having his mind intent 
 upon what he is doing." {Ibid. 441 — 443.) 
 
 Theophrastus evidently thought that the 
 soil could not be ploughed and stirred about 
 too much, or unseasonably ; for the object 
 is to let the earth feel the cold of winter 
 and the sun of summer, to invert the soil, 
 and render it free, light, and clear of all 
 weeds, so that it can most easily afford 
 nourishment. {De Causis Plant, lib. iii. 
 cap. 2. 6.) 
 
 Xenophon recommends green plants to 
 be ploughed in, and even crops to be raised 
 for the purpose ; " for such," he says, " en- 
 rich the soil as much as dung." He also 
 recommends earth that has been long under 
 water to be put upon land to enrich it, upon 
 a scientific principle which we shall explain 
 under Irrigation. Theophrastus, who 
 flourished in the fourth century n. c, is still 
 more particular upon the subject of manures. 
 He states his conviction that a proper 
 mixture of soils, as clay with sand, and the 
 contrary, would produce crops as luxuriant 
 as could be effected by the agency of ma- 
 nures. He describes the properties that 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 render dungs beneficial to vegetation, and 
 dwells upon composts. (Hist, of Plants, ii. 
 cap. 8.) Xenophon recommends the stubble 
 at reaping time to be left long, if the straw 
 is abundant ; " and this, if burned, will en- 
 rich the soil very much, or it may be cut 
 and mixed with dung." " The time of 
 sowing" says Xenophon, " must be regu- 
 lated by the season ; and it is best to allow 
 seed enough." 
 
 Weeds were carefully eradicated from 
 among their crops ; " for, besides the hin- 
 drance they are to corn, or other profit- 
 able plants, they keep the ground from 
 receiving the benefit of a free exposure to 
 the sun and air." Homer describes Laertes 
 as hoeing, when found by his son Ulysses. 
 (Odyss. xxiv. 226.) 
 
 Water-courses and ditches were made to 
 drain away " the wet which is apt to do 
 great damage to corn." 
 
 Homer describes the mode of threshing 
 corn by the trampling of oxen (Iliad, xx. 
 lin. 495, &c.) ; and to get the grain clear 
 from the straw, Xenophon observes, "the 
 men who have the care of the work take 
 care to shake up the straw as they see oc- 
 casion, flinging into the way of the cattle's 
 feet such corn as they observe to remain in 
 the straw." From Theophrastus and Xeno- 
 phon combined, we can also very particu- 
 larly make out that the Greeks separated 
 the grain from the chaff by throwing it with 
 a shovel against the wind. 
 
 III. The Agriculture oe the Romans. 
 
 It is certain, that at a very early age 
 Italy received colonies from the Pelasgi and 
 Arcadians ; and that, consequently, with 
 them the arts of Greece were introduced; 
 and we may conclude that there was then a 
 similarity in the practice of agriculture in 
 the two countries. 
 
 About 753 years before the nativity of 
 Christ, Romulus founded the city of Rome, 
 whose inhabitants were destined to be the 
 conquerors and the improvers of Europe. 
 The Roman eagle was triumphant in Egypt, 
 Persia, Greece, Carthage, and Macedon ; 
 and the warriors who bore it on to victory, 
 in those and other countries, being all pos- 
 sessors of land of a larger or smaller extent, 
 naturally introduced, upon their return, any 
 superior vegetable, or improved mode of 
 culture, which they observed in those highly 
 civilised seats of their victories. 
 
 Thus the arts of Rome arrived at a degree 
 of superiority that was the result of the 
 accumulated improvements of other nations ; 
 and, finally, when Rome became in turn the 
 conquered, the victors became acauainted 
 41 
 
 with this accumulated knowledge, and dif- 
 fused it over the other parts of Europe. 
 
 Of the agriculture of the early Romans 
 we know but little ; but of its state during 
 the period of their greatest prosperity and 
 improvement, we fortunately have very full 
 information. Cato in the second, and Varro 
 in the first century before the Christian era, 
 Virgil, at the period of that event, Columella 
 and Pliny but few years subsequently, and 
 Palladius in the second or fourth century, 
 each wrote a work upon agriculture, which, 
 with the exception of that by Columella, 
 have come down to us entire. 
 
 From these various authorities we derive 
 full information ; and we are convinced that 
 many of our readers will be surprised at 
 the correct knowledge of the arts of culti- 
 vation possessed by that great nation. 
 
 1, 2, 3, Ploughs used by the Romans in different ages. 
 4. The yoke for fixing the cattle. 5. The reaping 
 
 hook. 6. The scythe. 
 
 1. Size of the Roman Farms. — When 
 Romulus first partitioned the lands of the 
 infant state among his followers, he assigned 
 to no one more than he could cultivate. 
 This was a space of only two acres. ( Varro, 
 i. 10.; Pliny, xvii. 11.) After the kings 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 were expelled, seven acres were allotted to 
 each citizen. (Pliny, xviii. 3.) Cincinnatus, 
 Curius Dentatus, Fabricius, Regulus, and 
 others, distinguished as the most deserving 
 of the Romans, had no larger estates than 
 this. Cincinnatus, according to some au- 
 thorities, possessed only four acres. (Ibid. ; 
 Columella, i. 3, &c.) On these limited spaces 
 they dwelt, and cultivated them with their 
 own hands. It was from the plough that 
 Cincinnatus was summoned to be dictator 
 (Livy, iii. 26.) ; and the Samnian ambas- 
 sadors found Curius Dentatus cooking his 
 own repast of vegetables in an earthern 
 vessel. (Plutarch in vita Cato. Cens.) 
 
 Some of the noblest families in Rome de- 
 rived their patronymic names from ancestors 
 designated after some vegetable, in the cul- 
 tivation of which they excelled, as in the 
 examples of the Fabii, Pisones, Lentuli, 
 Cicerones, and the like. (Pliny, xviii. 1.) 
 In those days, " when they praised a good 
 man, they called him an agriculturist and a 
 good husbandman : he was thought to be 
 very greatly honoured who was thus praised." 
 (Cato, in Prcef.) As the limits of the em- 
 pire extended, and its wealth increased, the 
 estates of the Roman proprietors became 
 very greatly enlarged ; and, as we shall see 
 more particularly mentioned in our histo- 
 rical notices of gardening, attained to a 
 value of 80,000?. (Plutarch in vit. Marius 
 et Lucullus.) Such extensive proprietors 
 let portions of their estates to other citizens, 
 who, if they paid for them a certain rent, 
 like our modern tenants, were called Coloni 
 (Columella, i. 7. ; Pliny, Epist. x. 24.) and 
 Politores, or Partiarii, if they shared the 
 produce in stated proportions with the pro- 
 prietor. (Pliny, Epist. vii. 30., and ix. 37, 
 &c.) Leases were occasionally granted, 
 which appear to have been of longer du- 
 ration than five years. (Ibid. ix. 37.) 
 
 2. Distinction of Soils. — Soils were cha- 
 racterised by six different qualities, and 
 were described as rich or poor, free or stiff, 
 wet or dry. (Colum. ii. 2.) 
 
 The best soil they thought had a blackish 
 colour, was glutinous when wet, and friable 
 when dry ; exhaled an agreeable smell when 
 ploughed, imbibed water readily, retaining 
 a sufficiency, and discharging what was su- 
 perfluous ; not injurious to the plough irons 
 by causing a salt rust ; frequented by crows 
 and rooks at the time of ploughing ; and, 
 when at rest, speedily covered with a rich 
 turf. (Virg. Georg. ii. 203. 217. 238. 248. ; 
 Pliny, xvii. 5.) 
 
 Vines required a light soil, and corn a 
 heavy, deep, and rich one. (Virg. Georg. 
 ii. 29. ; Cato, vi.) 
 
 3. Manures. — The dung of animals was 
 particularly esteemed by the Romans for 
 
 42 
 
 enriching their soil. " Study," says Cato, 
 " to have a large dunghill." (Cato, v.) They 
 assiduously collected it and stored it in 
 covered pits, so as to check the escape of 
 the drainage. (Colum. i. 6.; Pliny, xvii. 
 9., and xxiv. 19?) They sowed pulverised 
 pigeons' dung and the like over their crops, 
 and mixed it with the surface soil by means 
 of the sarcle or hoe. (Colum. i. 16. ; Cato, 
 xxxvi.) They were aware of the benefit ot 
 mixing together earth of opposite qualities 
 (Ibid.), and of sowing lupines and plough- 
 ing them in while green. (Varro, i. 23.) 
 They burnt the stubble upon the ground, 
 and even collected shrubs and the like for 
 the similar purpose of enriching the soil 
 with their ashes. ( Virg. Georg. i. 84. ; 
 Pliny, xvii. 6. 25.) 
 
 Pliny also mentions that lime was em- 
 ployed as a fertiliser in Gaul, and marl in 
 the same country and Britain ; but we can 
 only surmise thence that they were also 
 probably employed by the Romans. (Pliny, 
 xvii. 8., and xvii. 5.) 
 
 4. Draining. — The superfluous water of 
 soils was carried off by means both of open 
 and covered drains. (Colum. ii. 2. 8. ; 
 Pliny, xvii. c. ; Virg. Georg. i. 109.) Cato 
 is very particular in his directions for making 
 them. (Cato, xliii. clx.) 
 
 5. Crops. — They cultivated wheat, spelt, 
 barley, oats, flax, beans, pease, lupines, kid- 
 ney-beans, lentils, tares, sesame, turnips, 
 vines, olives, willows, and the like. To cite 
 the authorities who mention each of these 
 would be needless, for they are noticed in 
 all the Roman writers upon agriculture. 
 Of the relative importance or proportion in 
 which the crops were profitable to the Ro- 
 mans, we have this judgment of Cato : — " If 
 you can buy 100 acres of land in a very 
 good situation, the vineyard is the first ob- 
 ject if it yields much wine ; in the second 
 place, a well watered garden ; in the third, a 
 willow plantation ; in the fourth, an olive 
 ground ; in the fifth, a meadow ; in the sixth, 
 corn ground ; in the seventh, an underwood, 
 a plantation yielding stout poles for training 
 the vine ; and in the ninth, a wood where 
 mast grows." (Cato, i.) 
 
 They made hay, and the process appears 
 to have been the same as in modern times. 
 After being cut it was turned with forks, 
 piled into conical heaps, and finally into 
 stacks or under cover. But the mowing 
 was imperfectly performed ; for, as soon as 
 the hay was removed from the field, the 
 mowers had to go over it again. (Varro; 
 Colum. ii. 22.) 
 
 6. Implements. — The plough consisted of 
 several parts : the beam to which the yoke 
 of the oxen was fastened ; the tail or handle 
 terminated in a cross bar, with which the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 ploughman guided the instrument ; it had a 
 ploughshare, the share-beam to which it 
 was fixed, and two mould-boards, a coulter, 
 and a plough-staff for cleaning the plough- 
 share. {Ovid. Pont. i. 8. 57. ; Virg. G. i. 170. ; 
 Pliny, xvii. 18, 19.) Some of their ploughs 
 had wheels, and some were without coul- 
 ters and earth-boards. Besides this, they 
 had spades, rakes, hoes, with plain and 
 with forked blades, harrows, mattocks, and 
 similar implements. 
 
 7. Operations. — Ploughing was usually 
 performed by two oxen, though three were 
 sometimes employed. They were yoked 
 abreast, and trained when young to the em- 
 ployment. {Cicero, in Verr. iii. 21. ; Col. 
 vi. 2. 10. ; Pliny, xviii. 18. ; Virg. G. iii. 
 163, &c.) They were usually yoked by the 
 neck, but sometimes by the horns. {Pliny, 
 viii. 45. ; Colum. ii. 2.) There was but one 
 man to a plough, which he guided, and 
 managed the oxen with a goad. {Pliny, 
 Epist. viii. 17.) 
 
 They sometimes ploughed in ridges, and 
 sometimes not. They did not take a cir- 
 cuit when they came to the end of the field, 
 as is our practice, but returned close to the 
 furrow. They were very particular in 
 drawing straight and equal sized' furrows. 
 {Pliny, xviii. 19. s. 49.) 
 
 They seem to have ploughed three times 
 always before they sowed ( Varro, i. 29.) : 
 and to stiff soils, even as many as nine 
 ploughings were given. ( Virg. G. i. 47. ; 
 Pliny, xviii. 20. ; Pliny, Epist. v. 6.) The 
 furrows in the first ploughing were usual- 
 ly nine inches deep. When the soil was 
 only stirred about three inches, it was called 
 scarification. {Pliny, xviii. 17 — 19.) They 
 usually fallowed their land every other year. 
 {Virg. G. i. 71.) 
 
 Sowing was performed by hand, from a 
 basket ; and that it might be performed re- 
 gularly, the hand moved with the steps. 
 {Colum. ii. 9. ; Pliny, xviii. 24.) The seed 
 was either scattered upon the land and co- 
 vered by means of rakes and harrows, or 
 more commonly by sowing it upon a plain 
 surface, and covering by a shallow plough- 
 ing, which caused it to come up in rows, 
 and facilitated the operation of hoeing. 
 {Pliny, xviii. 20.) They were particular as 
 to the time of sowing, the choice of seeds, 
 and the quantity sown. ( Varro, i. 44. ; Pliny, 
 xviii. 24. s. 55. ; Virg. G. i. 193, &c.) 
 
 Weeding was performed by hoes, hooks, 
 and by hand. 
 
 In dry seasons the crops were watered. 
 {Virg. G. i. 106.) If they appeared too 
 luxuriant they were fed off. {Ibid. 193.) 
 
 Reaping and mowing were the usual 
 modes of cutting down the corn crops, but 
 the ears were sometimes taken off by a 
 43 
 
 toothed machine, called batilium, which 
 seems to have been a wheeled cart, pushed 
 by oxen through the corn, and catching the 
 ears of corn between a row of teeth fixed to 
 it, upon the principle of the modern daisy 
 rake. In Gaul, the corn was cut down by 
 a machine drawn by two horses. ( Varro, i. 
 50. ; Virg. G. i. 317. ; Colum. ii. 21.; Pliny, 
 xviii. 30.) They do not seem to have ever 
 bound their corn into sheaves. {Colum. ii. 
 
 Threshing was performed by the tramp- 
 ling of oxen and horses, by flails, and by 
 means of sledges drawn over the corn. 
 {Pliny, xvii. 30. ; Colum. ii. 21. ; Virg. G. iii. 
 132. ; Tibullus, i. 5. 22. ; Varro, i. 52.) The 
 threshing-floor was circular, placed near the 
 house, on high ground, and exposed on all 
 sides to the winds. It was highest in the 
 centre, and paved with stones, or more usual- 
 ly with clay, mixed with the lees of the oil, 
 and very carefully consolidated. {Colum. i. 
 6. ; Varro, i. 2. ; Virg. G. i. 178. ; Cato, xci. 
 and cxxix.) 
 
 Dressing was performed by means of a 
 sieve or van, and by a shovel, with which it 
 was thrown up and exposed to the wind. 
 {Varro, i. 52.; Colum. ii. 21.) It was finally 
 stored in granaries or in pits, where it would 
 keep fifty years. {Pliny, xviii. 30. ; Varro, 
 i. 57.) 
 
 8. Animals. — Oxen, horses, asses, mules, 
 sheep, goats, swine, hens, pigeons, pea-fowls, 
 pheasants, geese, ducks, swans, guinea-fowls, 
 and bees, are mentioned by various authors 
 as products of the Roman farms. Di- 
 rections for breeding many of these are 
 given in the third and fourth books of the 
 Georgics. 
 
 Such is an outline of the Roman agri- 
 culture ; and in it our readers will doubt- 
 less find sufficient evidence to warrant them 
 in agreeing with us, that it was but little 
 different from that pursued by the present 
 farmers of England. We are superior to 
 them in our implements, and consequently 
 in the facility of performing the operations 
 of tillage ; we perhaps have superior va- 
 rieties of corn, but we most excel them in 
 our rotation of crops, and in the manage- 
 ment of stock. We differ from them, also, 
 in not practising the superstitious rites and 
 sacrifices which accompanied almost all their 
 operations (see Cato, cxxxiv. c.) ; but of 
 the fundamental practices of agriculture 
 they were as fully aware as ourselves. No 
 modern writer could lay down more correct 
 and comprehensive axioms than Cato did in 
 the following words ; and whoever strictly 
 obeys them will never be ranked among the 
 ignorant of the art. " What is good til- 
 lage ? " says this oldest of the Roman teachers 
 of agriculture ; " to plough. What is the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 second ? to plough. The third is to manure. 
 The other part of tillage is to sow plenti- 
 fully, to choose your seed cautiously, and to 
 remove as many weeds as possible in the 
 season." (Cato, lxi.) 
 
 Such is an epitome of their agricultural 
 knowledge; a knowledge which has since 
 increased, and can only in future be added 
 to by attending to this advice of another of 
 their writers. " Nature," he observes, " has 
 shown to us two paths which lead to a know- 
 ledge of agriculture — experience and imi- 
 tation. Preceding husbandmen, by making 
 experiments, have established many maxims ; 
 their posterity generally imitate them ; but 
 we ought not only to imitate others, but 
 make experiments, not directed by chance, 
 but by reason." (Varro, i. 18.) 
 
 IV. The Agriculture of England. 
 
 The historian of English agriculture has 
 not the least trace of authority from which 
 he can obtain information of its state beyond 
 the period when the Romans invaded this 
 island, and the annals of even that period 
 are meagre and unsatisfactory. 
 
 When Caesar arrived in England, about 
 55 b. c, he describes the Cantii, or inha- 
 bitants of Kent, and the Belgae, inhabiting 
 the modern counties of Somerset, Wilts, and 
 Hants, as much more advanced than the 
 rest of the people in the habits of civilised 
 life. They cultivated the soil; employed 
 marl as manure ; stored their corn un- 
 threshed, and freed it from the chaff and 
 bran only as their daily demands required. 
 The interior inhabitants lived chiefly upon 
 milk and flesh, being fed and clothed by the 
 produce of their herds. " The country," 
 adds Caesar, " is well-peopled, and abounds 
 in buildings resembling those of the Gauls, 
 and they have a great abundance of cattle. 
 They are not allowed to eat either the hen, 
 the goose, or the hare, yet they take plea- 
 sure in breeding them." (Cces. v. c. 10. ; 
 Stra bo, iv. 305. ; Diodor. Sic. v. 301.; Pliny, 
 xvii. 4.) Cicero, in one of his letters, says, 
 " There is not a scruple of money in the 
 island; nor any hopes of booty, but in 
 slaves ; (Lib. iv. Ep. 17.) ; a description, 
 that the industry and intelligence of suc- 
 ceeding ages has rendered singularly inap- 
 plicable. The first steps in that improve- 
 ment were owing to the Romans themselves. 
 Rutilius has elegantly and correctly said, 
 that Rome filled the world with her legisla- 
 tive triumphs, and caused all to live in one 
 common union, blending discordant nations 
 into one country, and, by imparting a com- 
 
 f>anionship in her own acquirements and 
 aws, formed one great city of the world. 
 44 
 
 Agricola was the chief instrument in im- 
 parting to the Britons the improved arts and 
 civilisation of the Romans. " To wean 
 them from their savage habits, Agricola held 
 forth the baits of pleasure, encouraging the 
 natives, as well by public assistance as by 
 warm exhortations, to build temples, courts 
 of justice, and commodious dwelling-houses. 
 He bestowed encomiums on such as cheer- 
 fully obeyed ; the slow and uncomplying 
 were branded with reproach; and thus a 
 spirit of emulation diffused itself, operating 
 like a sense of duty. To establish a plan of 
 education, and give the sons of the leading 
 chiefs a tincture of letters, was part of his 
 policy. By way of encouragement he 
 praised their talents, and already saw them, 
 by the force of their natural genius, rising 
 superior to the attainments of the Gauls. 
 The consequence was, that they who had 
 always disdained the Roman language began 
 to cultivate its beauties. The Roman ap- 
 parel was seen without prejudice, and the 
 toga became a fashionable part of dress. 
 By degrees, the charms of vice gained ad- 
 mission to their hearts ; baths, porticos, and 
 elegant banquets grew into vogue ; and the 
 new manners, which in fact served only to 
 sweeten slavery, were by the unsuspecting 
 Britons called the arts of polished humanity." 
 {Tacitus, Agricola, xxi.) Thus eloquently 
 does Tacitus describe the diffusion of the 
 Roman arts among the early natives of our 
 country ; and that agriculture was one of 
 those in which they so rapidly improved, 
 is attested by the fact, that in the fourth 
 century the Emperor Julian, having erected 
 here granaries in which to store the tribu- 
 tary corn that he exacted from the natives, 
 at one time sent a fleet of 600 large vessels, 
 to convey away the store they contained. 
 Julian himself particularises the transaction. 
 " If," says Gibbon, " we compute those ves- 
 sels at only seventy tons each, they were 
 capable of exporting 120,000 quarters; and 
 the country which could bear so large an 
 exportation must have attained an improved 
 state of agriculture." (Dec. and Fall of 
 Rom. Emp. c. xix.) 
 
 Possessing this improved agriculture, our 
 country was successively subdued by the 
 Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans ; but 
 as these all came to improve their fortunes, 
 and to win the comforts of life, agriculture 
 continued to flourish : her operations were 
 interrupted, her products destroyed, in 
 whichever direction swept the tide of war ; 
 but no sooner was peace restored than the 
 inhabitants, though of varied extraction, 
 united their knowledge in the pursuit of this 
 art, on which not only their comfort but 
 their existence chiefly depended. A si- 
 milar summary observation applies to all 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 succeeding ages ; and our agriculture has 
 continued slowly to improve, in spite of 
 every obstacle that has occasionally delayed, 
 or that has»permanently retarded its advance. 
 
 1. Tenures — Size of Estates. — The native 
 Britons, it is very certain, appropriated but 
 small portions of the land for raising corn, 
 or other cultivated vegetables, and the rest 
 of the country was left entirely open, afford- 
 ing a common pasturage for their cattle, and 
 pannage for their swine. Under the Roman 
 government, we have seen that the extent 
 of cultivated ground must have considerably 
 increased, yet the oldest writers agree, that 
 by far the greatest proportion of the country 
 was occupied by heaths, woods, and other 
 unreclaimed wastes. 
 
 When the Saxons established themselves 
 in the island, an almost total revolution in 
 the proprietorship of the lands must have 
 occurred. The conquest was only accom- 
 plished after a bloody struggle ; and what 
 was won by the sword was considered to 
 possess an equitable title, that the sword 
 alone could disturb. In those days it was 
 considered that the lands of a country all 
 belonged to the king ; and on this principle 
 the Saxon monarchs gave to their followers 
 whatever districts they pleased, as rewards 
 for the assistance afforded in the conquest, 
 reserving to themselves certain portions, and 
 imposing certain burdens upon each estate 
 granted. (Coke's Littleton, 1.58.2.; Black- 
 stone's Comm. 45, &c.) This was only a 
 continuance of that feudal system that pre- 
 vailed upon the Continent ; and we may take 
 the county of Sussex as an example, how the 
 land was carved out among the aristocracy, 
 reckoning a hide at 100 or 150 acres. 
 
 Hides. 
 
 The king had - 59j 
 
 Archbishop of Canterbury - - 214 
 
 Bishop of Chichester - - 184 
 
 Abbot of Westminster - -7 
 
 Abbot of Fecamp - - - 135 
 
 Bishop Osborn - - - 149 
 
 Abbot of St. Peter's, Winchester - 33 
 
 Church of Battle - 60| 
 
 Comes of Oro - 196^ 
 
 Comes Roger - - - 818 
 
 William of Braiose - - 452^ 
 
 Abbot of St. Edward - 21 
 
 Comes Moriton - - 520 
 
 William of Warrene - - 620\ 
 
 Odo and Eldred - - 10 
 
 These great proprietors granted the chief 
 part of their estates to the actual cultivators 
 of the soil, receiving in general from the 
 under-tenants certain proportions of what- 
 ever might be the productions of the farms. 
 Thus we find one tenant stating, " I give 
 food for seventy swine in that woody allot- 
 ment, called Wulfeudinleh, and five wag- 
 gons full of good twigs, and every year an 
 
 oak for building, and others for necessary 
 fires, and sufficient wood for burning. 
 (Bede, Hist. Append. 970.) The rent of ten 
 hides of land were even regulated by two of 
 the laws of King Ina. They enacted that 
 the tenant of such extent of land should 
 render to the lord ten vessels of honey, three 
 hundred loaves, twelve casks of Welsh ale, 
 thirty of clear ale, two old rams, ten wethers, 
 ten geese, twenty hens, ten cheeses, one cask 
 of butter, five salmon, twenty pounds' weight 
 of fodder, and one hundred eels ; or else ten 
 mittas of malt, five of grits, ten of wheat 
 flour, eight gammons, sixteen cheeses, two fat 
 cows, and in Lent eight salmon. (Wilkins, 
 Leges Saxon. 25. 3. ; Gale's Hist. R. 410.) 
 Such grants were usually to the tenant and 
 his heirs for ever, so long as they afforded 
 the accustomed rent ; and we are not aware 
 of any grant or lease extending for a shorter 
 period than the life of the tenant. An ex- 
 ample of these occurs in the year 852, when 
 the abbot and monks of Medehamsted let 
 some land at Sempingham, to a tenant named 
 Wulfred, for his life, on condition that he 
 annually paid them sixty fother of wood, 
 twelve fother of grcefan (coals), six fother 
 of turf, two tons of clear ale, two killed oxen, 
 six hundred loaves, ten casks of Welsh ale, 
 one horse, thirty shillings, and a night's 
 lodging. (Saxon Chronicle, 75.) 
 
 As this feudal system declined, and was 
 finally extinguished in the twelfth year of 
 Charles II., so proportionally did the landed 
 interest increase in prosperity. Freed from 
 the burden of furnishing a soldier and his 
 armour for every certain number of acres, 
 and all restrictions as to land changing hands 
 being removed, and the numerous imposi- 
 tions being got rid of, with which the lords 
 oppressed their sub-infeudatories, it soon 
 became a marketable species of property ; 
 and, as money and merchandise increased, 
 and the proprietor lived less upon his estate, 
 it soon became the most eligible plan for 
 both landlord and tenant, that the whole 
 rent should be paid in money. 
 
 Of the size of these early farms we have 
 no precise information ; but, from the laws 
 of Ina we may perhaps conclude that a hide 
 of land, equal to about 100 or 120 acres, was 
 the customary size ; for, in speaking of the 
 produce to be given to the lord for ten hides, 
 the law speaks of the smallest division of each 
 county of which it was particularly cogni- 
 sant ; namely, of ten families, or a tithing, as 
 they were collectively called. Again, Bede 
 expressly calls a hide of land familia, and 
 says it was sufficient to support a family. 
 It was otherwise called mansum, or manerium, 
 and was considered to be so much as one 
 could cultivate in a year. (Henry of Hun- 
 tingdon, vi. 2066.) That the boundaries ot 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 these farms, or manentes, were well defined 
 is certain ; for we have many grants in which 
 they are detailed. The following is one of 
 the shortest; it bears the date of 866. 
 " From Sture, on the Honey-brook, up be- 
 hind the brook on the old hedge ; along the 
 hedge on the old way ; along the way on the 
 great street ; along the street on four bound- 
 aries ; then so to Calcbrook, along the brook ; 
 then so to Horsebrook, along the brook; 
 then so to the ditch, along the ditch to the 
 store again ; on the store to the ditch that is 
 called Thredestreo, along the ditch to the 
 Ileasecan-hill ; from that hill to the ditch ; 
 along the ditch to Wenforth, along Wen- 
 forth, and then again to the Sture." (Smith's 
 Append, to Bede, 770.) 
 
 War succeeded war, and chivalry and the 
 chase were the engrossing occupations of the 
 landed proprietors during the whole of the 
 middle ages ; yet amid all these convulsions, 
 and all this neglect, agriculture continued 
 to obtain a similar degree of attention, and 
 its practitioners to occupy a similarly humble, 
 yet more independent station of life. Bishop 
 Latimer flourished in the first half of the 
 sixteenth century ; and his father was among 
 the most respectable yeomen of his time, yet 
 his farm evidently did not exceed 100 acres. 
 " My father," says Latimer, " was a yeoman, 
 and had no lands of his own ; he had only a 
 farm of three or four pounds by the year, at 
 the utmost ; and hereupon he tilled as much 
 as kept half a dozen men. He had a walk 
 for 100 sheep ; and my mother milked thirty 
 kine," &c. (Latimer's Sermons, p. 30.) But 
 that this class of society was then not very 
 refined, is proved by Sir A. Fitzherbert, in 
 his Book of Husbandry, declaring, " It is the 
 wife's occupation to winnow all manner of 
 corn, to make malt, to wash and wring, to 
 make hay, to shear corn, and in time of need 
 to help her husband to fill the muckwain, or 
 dung-cart ; to drive the plough, to load corn, 
 hay, and such other ; and to go or ride to the 
 market, to sell butter, cheese, milk, eggs, 
 chickens, capons, hens, pigs, geese, and all 
 manner of corn." 
 
 This race of farmers, and this extent of 
 farm, continued much the same till the clos- 
 ing years of the eighteenth century. The 
 wife, indeed, had long previously ceased to 
 participate in the above-mentioned drudgery, 
 but she still attended the dairy, and sold its 
 products at market, as her husband still par- 
 ticipated in the usual labours of his farm ; 
 but in the latter half of that century, and 
 thence to the present time, a different class 
 of men have engaged in the cultivation of 
 the soil. The accumulation of wealth from 
 the vast increase and improvement of our 
 manufactures and commerce, the diffusion 
 of* better information, and the increased 
 46 
 
 population, have all contributed to this ef- 
 fect. Individuals engage in the pursuit 
 whose education and habits require a larger 
 income for their indulgence than- can be af- 
 forded by the profits of a small farm ; and, 
 consequently, in districts having the most 
 fertile soils, farms of from 300 to 500 acres 
 are very common ; whilst in less productive 
 districts they extend even to 1000 and 2000 
 acres. With the present expenditure of rent, 
 tithe, taxes, rates, and labour, and the re- 
 duced prices of agricultural produce, farms, 
 even of those extents, cannot yield a profit 
 sufficient to support the farmer of refined 
 habits. And if the present artificial system 
 of corn laws is removed, we do not see any 
 possible result but a return to smaller farms, 
 and a more labouring class of tenants ; for 
 it admits of perfect demonstration, that small 
 farms, having that manual labour, and that 
 careful tillage which small plots obtain, re- 
 turn a more abundant produce than those 
 which are too large to be so attentively cul- 
 tivated. 
 
 Enclosure of Land. — It is a rule, founded 
 upon general observation, that the most en- 
 closed country is always the best cultivated : 
 for, as Sir Anthony Fitzherbert observed, 
 in the reign of Henry VIII., live stock may 
 be better kept, and with less attendance, 
 closes be better alternately cropped, and the 
 crops better sheltered in inclement seasons, 
 " if an acre of land," he concludes, " be worth 
 sixpence an acre before it is enclosed." 
 
 We have seen, already, that hedges, ditches, 
 and other fences, marked the boundaries 
 of the early Saxon estates ; and these were 
 certainly not adventitious distinctions, for 
 they are mentioned in most of the Saxon 
 grants of which we are aware, and are 
 strictly regulated and protected by law. 
 If a tenant omitted to keep his farm en- 
 closed, both in winter and summer, and to 
 keep his gate closed, if any damage arose 
 from his hedge being broken down or his 
 gate being open, he was declared to be le- 
 gally punishable. (Wilkins, Leges Sax. 21.) 
 If a freeman broke through another's hedge 
 he was fined 6s. (Ibid.) 
 
 As our woollen manufactures improved, 
 the demand for our broad cloths became ex- 
 cessive, not only in our own but in the con- 
 tinental nations ; and the consequent con- 
 sumption of wool was so large, and the price 
 was so enhanced, that self-interest dictated 
 to the landed proprietors, even in the reign 
 of Henry III., that the enclosure of their 
 manorial wastes, on which to feed sheep 
 upon their own account, or to let out as 
 pasture farms, would be a source of exten- 
 sive emolument. The statutes of 20 Hen. 3., 
 13 Edw. 1., and others, were consequently 
 passed for sanctioning and regulating the 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 practice. The demand for woollens con- 
 tinued, and became so great, that rapidity 
 of manufacture was the chief consideration. 
 " Yet as ill as they be made," says King 
 Edward VI., in his private journal, " the 
 Flemings do at this time desire them won- 
 derfully." The consequences are depicted 
 by the same genuine authority. " The ar- 
 tificer will leave the town, and for his mere 
 pastime will live in the country ; yea, more 
 than that, will be a justice of the peace, and 
 will scorn to have it denied him, so lordly 
 be they now-a-days ; for they are not con- 
 tent with 2000 sheep, but they must have 
 20,000, or else they think themselves not 
 well. They must have twenty miles square 
 their own land, or full of their farms : four 
 or five crafts to live by is too little. Such 
 hell-hounds be they." (Edward the Sixth's 
 Remains, p. 101.) The rents of land were 
 consequently enormously raised, and the corn 
 farmers were ruined. " They every where," 
 says Roger Ascham, " labour, economise, and 
 consume themselves to satisfy their owners. 
 Hence so many families dispersed, so many 
 houses ruined, so many tables common to 
 every one, taken away. Hence the honour 
 and strength of England, the noble yeo- 
 manry, are broken up and destroyed." (As- 
 cham' s Epistles, 293 — 295.) Bishops Story, 
 Latimer, and others, raised their voices in 
 their behalf, and hurled their invectives from 
 the pulpit upon those who oppressed them. 
 " Let them," said Latimer, in a sermon 
 preached before the king, " let them have 
 sufficient to maintain them, and to find them 
 in necessaries. A plough land must have 
 sheep to dung their ground for bearing corn ; 
 they must have swine for their food, to make 
 their bacon of ; their bacon is their venison, 
 it is their necessary food to feed on, which 
 they may not lack; they must have other 
 cattle, as horses to draw their plough, and 
 for carriage of things to the markets, and 
 kine for their milk and cheese, which they 
 must live upon, and pay their rents." 
 
 The short-sighted executive of that period 
 endeavoured to prevent these enclosures by 
 a prohibitory proclamation, as the legislature 
 had done by the statutes 4 Hen. 7. c. 16. 19. 
 There doubtless was great distress, and al- 
 ways will be upon any sudden change in the 
 direction of the national industry, and in 
 none more extensively than in the return 
 from an agricultural to a pastoral mode of 
 life. But, as is observed by one of the most 
 impartial of our historians, " every one has 
 a legal and social right of employing his pro- 
 perty as he pleases ; and how far he will 
 make his use of it compatible with the com- 
 forts of others, must be always a matter of 
 his private consideration, with which no one, 
 without infringing the common freedom of 
 47 
 
 all, can ever interfere. That no national 
 detriment resulted from this extensive en- 
 closure — no diminution of the riches, food, 
 and prosperity of the country at large, is 
 clear to every one who surveys the general 
 state and progress of England with a com- 
 prehensive impartiality." ( Turner s History 
 of Edward the Sixth, &c.) " The landlord," 
 he further observes, " advanced his rent, but 
 the farmer also was demanding more for his 
 produce." 
 
 The evil of converting arable to pasture 
 land cured itself. The increased growth of 
 wool in other countries, and the improve- 
 ment of their manufactures, by degrees 
 caused the production of it in England to 
 diminish; and as dearths of corn accrued, 
 and the consequent enormous increase of its 
 value rendered its growth more lucrative, 
 pasture land gradually returned to the do- 
 minion of the plough. 
 
 Since that period enclosures have gone on 
 with various, but certainly undiminished, 
 degrees of activity. More than 3000 en- 
 closure bills were passed in the reign of 
 George HI. The land so enclosed was, and 
 is, chiefly dedicated to the growth of corn ; 
 but since the field culture of turnips was in- 
 troduced in the seventeeth, of mangel wurzel 
 in the nineteenth century, and other im- 
 provements in our agricultural practice, 
 every farm is enabled to combine the ad- 
 vantages of the stock and tillage husbandry. 
 
 Implements. — It is very certain that the 
 state of any art is intimately connected with 
 that of its instruments. If these are im- 
 perfect it cannot be much advanced; and 
 this is so universally the case, that agricul- 
 ture, of course, is no exception. 
 
 We find, in the earliest of our national 
 records, that the plough, the most important 
 implement of husbandmen, was then of a 
 very rude construction. In general form 
 it rudely resembled the plough now em- 
 ployed, but the workmanship was singularly 
 imperfect. This is no matter of surprise ; 
 for among the early inhabitants of this 
 country there were no artificers. The 
 ploughman was also the ploughwright. It 
 was a law of the early Britons that no one 
 should guide a plough until he could make 
 one ; and that the driver should make the 
 traces, by which it was drawn, of withs or 
 twisted willow, a circumstance which affords 
 an interpretation to many corrupt terms at 
 present used by farming men to distinguish 
 the parts of the cart harness. Thus the i 
 womb withy has degenerated into wambtye 
 or wantye ; withen trees into whipping or ( 
 Whipple trees; besides which we have the 
 tail withes, and some others still uncor- 
 rupted. (Leges Wallicce, 283 — 288.) We 
 read, also, that Easterwin, Abbot of Wear- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 mouth, not only guided the plough and 
 winnowed the corn grown on the abbey 
 lands, but also with his hammer forged the 
 instruments of husbandly upon the anvil. 
 (Bede, Hist. Abb. Wearmoth, 296.) Whether 
 the early British or Saxon ploughs had 
 wheels is uncertain, but those of the Nor- 
 mans certainly had such appendages. Pliny 
 says that wheels were first applied to 
 ploughs by the Gauls. The Britons were 
 forbidden to plough with any other animal 
 than the ox ; and they attached any requi- 
 site number of oxen to the plough. The 
 Normans had been accustomed, in their 
 light soils, to employ only one, or at most 
 two. (Leges Wallicce, 288. ; Montfaucon's 
 Monumens de Monarchie Francois I. 
 Blanche, 47. ; Giraldus Cambrensis, c. 17.) 
 
 1. Norman plough, with the hatchet carried by the 
 
 ploughman for breaking the clods. 2. Sowing, as 
 
 represented by Strutt. 3. Reaping. 4. Threshing. 
 5. Whetting. 6. Beating hemp. 
 
 The gigantic and universal impulse that 
 seemed simultaneously to affect the human 
 mind in the sixteenth century, tended to 
 the improvement of sciences which could not 
 be benefited without agriculture sharing in 
 the good. Metallurgy and its subservient 
 arts, and applied mathematics, were thus 
 assistant to improving the plough. It re- 
 ceived the first improvement among the 
 Dutch and Flemings in the sixteenth cen- 
 tury ; and still more so in Scotland in the 
 following one. 
 
 The common wooden swing-plough is the 
 state to which it was brought in the last- 
 named country, in the eighteenth century, 
 48 
 
 and still is known in many countries, as the 
 improved Scotch plough. The first author 
 of the improved form is differently stated. 
 A man of the name of Lummis has by one 
 writer this credit assigned to him, though 
 he learned the improvement in Holland. 
 He obtained a patent for his form of con- 
 struction ; but another ploughman, named 
 Pashley, living at Kirkleathem, pirated 
 his invention. The son of Lummis esta- 
 blished a manufactory at Rotherham in 
 Yorkshire, whence it is sometimes called the 
 Rotherham plough ; but in Scotland it was 
 known as the Dutch or Patent Plough. On 
 the other hand, the Rotherham plough is 
 said to have been made at that town in 
 1720, or ten years before Lummis's im- 
 provements. The grandmother of the Earl 
 Buchan, Lady Stewart of Goodtrees, near 
 Edinburgh, is also named as an improver. 
 She invented the Rutherglen plough, for- 
 merly much employed in the west of Scot- 
 land. Mr. Small, in 1784, and Mr. Bailey, 
 in 1795, published upon the proper mathe- 
 matical form of this implement. In the 
 fourth volume of the Transactions of the 
 Highland Society, and in the Quarterly 
 Journal of Agriculture for February, 1829, 
 there are also two valuable Essays upon the 
 same subject. In 1811 this plough came 
 very generally to be made of cast iron. 
 (Amos' s Essay on Agricultural Machines, 
 Survey of W. Riding of Yorkshire, &c.) 
 
 Wheel ploughs have been commen- 
 surately improved. The objects to be at- 
 tended to in the formation of a plough, and 
 that is the best which attains to them most 
 effectually, are, first, that it shall enter and 
 pass through the soil with the least possible 
 resistance; secondly, that the furrow-slice 
 be accurately turned over ; and, thirdly, that 
 the moving power or team shall be placed 
 in the most beneficial line of draught. 
 
 Scarifiers and horse hoes are imple- 
 ments which were unknown till within about 
 a century ago. Hoeing by manual labour 
 had, in very early ages, been partially prac- 
 tised ; for the earliest writers, we have seen, 
 recommended particular attention to the 
 cutting down and destroying of weeds. But 
 to our countryman, Jethro Tull, is indis- 
 putably due the honour of having first 
 demonstrated the importance of frequent 
 hoeing, not merely to extirpate weeds, but 
 for the purpose of pulverising the soil, by 
 which process the gases and moisture of the 
 atmosphere are enabled more freely to pe- 
 netrate to the roots of the crop. The works 
 of Tull appeared between the years 1731 
 and 1739. 
 
 Drills. — We noticed, when considering 
 the Roman agriculture, that the Romans 
 endeavoured to attain the advantages inci- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 dent to row-culture by ploughing in their 
 seeds. A rude machine is described in the 
 Transactions of the Board of Agriculture, 
 as having been used immemorially in India 
 for sowing in rows. The first drill for this 
 purpose introduced into Europe seems to 
 have been the invention of a German, who 
 made it known to the Spanish court in 
 1647. (Harte's Essays on Husbandry.) It 
 was first brought much into notice in this 
 country by Tull, in 1731 ; but the practice 
 did not come into any thing like general 
 adoption till the commencement of the pre- 
 sent century. There are now several im- 
 proved machines adapted to the sowing of 
 corn, beans, and turnips. See Drllls. 
 
 Draining, as we have seen, was attended 
 to by the Romans, and it was unquestion- 
 ably practised in Britain during the middle 
 ages ; for where lands were too retentive of 
 moisture, or abounded in springs, the ob- 
 vious remedy was to remove it by drains. 
 This, however, and far simpler operations, 
 are seldom performed in the most correct 
 mode without a knowledge of the sciences 
 connected with their success. Draining was 
 never correctly understood till the scientific 
 observations of Dr. Anderson, and the prac- 
 tical details of Mr. Elkington, about the 
 year 1761, placed it upon a more enlight- 
 ened and correct system. The important 
 benefits that have arisen from the adoption 
 of this system are very extensive ; and the 
 acknowledgment of 1000?., voted to Mr. 
 Elkington, was a just testimony that the 
 landed interest appreciated the boon, and 
 that the benefiter of this country is duly 
 estimated by its legislature. 
 
 There are numerous kinds of drain 
 ploughs. The mole plough was invented 
 by a Mr. Adam Scott, and improved by a 
 Mr. Lumley of Gloucestershire during the 
 present century. 
 
 The past and the present century have also 
 given birth to machines totally unknown in 
 previous ages ; of these are rollers, machines 
 for haymaking, reaping, threshing, and 
 dressing ; and if to these be added the im- 
 mense improvement that has taken place in 
 the form and quality of all other agricul- 
 tural implements, the saving of labour, and 
 the power to pursue the necessary opera- 
 tions neatly and well, will be found to be 
 incalculably promoted. 
 
 Crops. — It is probable that wheat was 
 not cultivated by the early Britons ; for the 
 climate, owing to the immense preponder- 
 ance of woods and undrained soil, was so 
 severe and wet, that in winter they could 
 attempt no agricultural employments ; and 
 even when Bede wrote, early in the eighth 
 century, the Anglo-Saxons sowed their 
 wheat in spring. (Bede's Wo?*ks, p. 244.) 
 49 
 
 The quantity cultivated in the reign of 
 Henry III. does not appear to have ex- 
 ceeded the quantity necessary for the 
 year's consumption ; for in a very wet, in- 
 clement year, 1270, wheat sold for six 
 pounds eight shillings per quarter, which, 
 calculating for the difference of the value 
 of money, was equal to twenty-five pounds 
 of our present currency. It continued an 
 article of comparative luxury till nearly the 
 17th century commenced ; for in the house- 
 hold books of several noble families it is 
 mentioned that manchets, and other loaves 
 of wheat flour, were served at the master's 
 table, but there is only notice taken of 
 coarser kinds for the servants. That the 
 cultivation of wheat was very partial in the 
 reign of Elizabeth is attested by Tusser, 
 who, writing at that period, says, — 
 
 " In Suffolk again, whereas wheat never grew, 
 Good husbandry used, good wheat-land I knew." 
 
 As our climate has improved by the 
 clearing and drying of the surface of the 
 country, so, proportionately, has the culti- 
 vation of wheat extended. 
 
 It was probably owing to our fickle and 
 inclement climate rendering the successful 
 completion of harvest a much rarer and 
 more hazardous event than now, that our 
 forefathers made on the occasion such 
 marked and joyous festivities. We do not 
 know the motive that actuated the farmer, 
 but no dread of an uncertain harvest could 
 have made him more prompt and vigorous, 
 who, in 1389, cut and stored 200 acres of 
 corn in two days. The account is given in 
 " The History of Hawstead." About 250 
 reapers, thatchers, and others, were em- 
 ployed during one day, and more than 200 
 the next. The expenses of the lord on 
 this occasion are thus stated : — Nineteen 
 reapers, hired for a day at their own board, 
 4d. each ; eighty men one day, and kept at 
 the lady's board, 4d. each ; 140 men, hired 
 for one day, at 3d. each ; wages of the head 
 reaper, 6s. Sd. ; of the brewer, 3s. 4d. ; of 
 the cook, 3s. 4d. ; thirty acres of oats, tied 
 up by the job, Is. 8d. ; three acres of wheat, 
 cut and tied up by the job, Is. lid. ; five 
 pair of gloves," &c. 
 
 Barley is probably the grain which was 
 most cultivated by the early Britons. The 
 representation of it occurs upon their coins. 
 (Camden's Britannia, by Gibson, lxxxviii.) 
 It was not only the grain from which their 
 progenitors, the Cyrnri, made their bread, 
 but from which they made their favourite 
 beverage, beer. 
 
 Oats being well-known and cultivated 
 by the Germans and other continental na- 
 tions when Pliny wrote, they were probably 
 known also to this island in the earliest 
 ages. In all periods, even to the present 
 
 E 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 time, bread made of oatmeal has been a 
 very prominent part of the food of the in- 
 habitants of the northern parts of Britain. 
 " In Lancashire," says Gerarde, in 1597, " it 
 is their chiefest bread-corn, for jamrocks, 
 haver-cakes, thorffe-cakes, and those which 
 are called generally oaten-cakes; and for 
 the most part they call the grain haver, 
 whereof they do likewise make drink for 
 want of barley." It is so hardy that it is 
 admirably calculated for a cold climate, 
 and there is scarcely any soil in which it 
 will not be productive. In southern cli- 
 mates it will not nourish. 
 
 " Rye," says Gerarde, " groweth very 
 plentifully in the most parts of Germany and 
 Polonia, as appeareth by the great quantity 
 brought into England in times of scarcity of 
 corn, as happened in the year 1596 ; and at 
 other times, when there was a general want 
 of bread corn, by reason of the abundance 
 of rain that fell the year before, whereby 
 great penury ensued, as well of cattle, and 
 all other victuals, as of all manner of grain. 
 It groweth, likewise, very well in most places 
 of England, especially towards the north." 
 
 Its hardiness probably rendered it a prin- 
 cipal grain with the early Britons ; but as it 
 is a great impoverisher of the soil upon which 
 it grows, and the grain makes very inferior 
 bread, it is now cultivated to a very small 
 extent. 
 
 Peas have been extensively cultivated in 
 this country from a very early period ; but 
 they have been much less since the bean has 
 become a more general field crop, which it 
 did not till within the present century. Len- 
 tils were brought to England about 1548. 
 Gerarde says he had heard they were cul- 
 tivated as fodder near Watford. Maize, or 
 Indian corn, was made known in England in 
 1562. It is commonly cultivated in the 
 south of France as a field crop, and for the 
 same purpose was tried in this country in 
 1828, at the recommendation of Mr. Cobbett, 
 but it has not succeeded. Tares, in 1566, 
 according to Ray, were grown as a seed crop, 
 and given to horses, mixed with oats and 
 peas, though they were sometimes cut green 
 as fodder. This is now their chief use. 
 
 Potatoes were introduced from South 
 America, by Sir Walter Raleigh, about 1586. 
 Sir Robert Southwell, President of the Royal 
 Society, informed the Fellows, in 1693, that 
 his father introduced them into Ireland, 
 having received them from Sir Walter. 
 {MS. Journal of Royal Society.) It long 
 continued to be neglected by gardeners. In 
 1663, however, attention was drawn to its 
 extensive culture. But notwithstanding the 
 exertions of the Royal Society to effect this 
 purpose, potatoes did not become a field crop 
 till the early part of the last century. They 
 50 
 
 became so in Scotland about 1730, a day 
 labourer of the name of Prentice having the 
 honour of first cultivating them largely two 
 years previously. Every county of England 
 now grows them extensively. Lancashire 
 and Cheshire are particularly celebrated for 
 them. In the counties round London, es- 
 pecially in Essex, about two thousand acres 
 are annually cultivated for supplying the 
 metropolis with this root. 
 
 Turnips and clover, though known in 
 this country during time immemorial, were 
 never much cultivated in the field before 
 the early part of the seventeenth century, and 
 we mention them together because their in- 
 troduction among the farmer's crops caused 
 the greatest improvement in the art that it 
 ever received. In 1684, it is observed as a 
 modern discovery, " sheep fatten very well 
 on turnips, these proving an excellent nou- 
 rishment for them in hard winters, when 
 fodder is scarce ; for they will not only eat 
 the greens, but feed on the roots in the 
 ground, scooping them out even to the very 
 skin." This is the first notice we have of 
 feeding off turnips ; and the same authority 
 adds, " ten acres sown with clover, turnips, 
 &c. will feed as many sheep as one hundred 
 acres would have done before." (Houghtoris 
 Collections on Husbandry, &c. iv. 142 — 144.) 
 Brown, Donaldson, and all other writers 
 upon agriculture, agree, that the introduc- 
 tion of the improved mode of cultivating 
 these crops revolutionised the art of hus- 
 bandry. Previously, light soils could not 
 be cropped with advantage; there was no 
 rotation that the judgment could approve. 
 Tusser, in the sixteenth century, in the fol- 
 lowing homely lines, tells us that two corn 
 crops were grown consecutively and then 
 a fallow ; and many authorities could be 
 quoted to show that some soils were fallowed 
 on alternate years, so that they afforded only 
 one crop in two years. 
 
 " First rie and then barlie, the champion saies, 
 Or wheat before barlie, be champion waies : 
 But drink before bread-corn, with Middlesex men, 
 Then laie on more compas, and fallow agen." 
 
 But now, by the aid of green crops, a 
 fallow usually occurs but once in four years. 
 " Clover and turnips," it has been observed, 
 " are the two main pillars of the best courses 
 of British husbandry ; they have contributed 
 more to preserve and augment the fertility 
 of the soil for producing grain, to enlarge 
 and improve our breeds of cattle and sheep, 
 and to afford a regular supply of butcher's 
 meat all the year, than any other crops." It 
 was previously a difficult task to support 
 live stock through the winter and spring 
 months ; and as for feeding and preparing 
 cattle and sheep for market during these 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 inclement seasons, the practice was hardly 
 thought of, and still more rarely attempted. 
 
 Mangel wurzel has only been culti- 
 vated by the farmer for a few years past. 
 Its chief advantage is, that as it will succeed 
 upon tenacious soils which will not produce 
 turnips, it enables farms in which such soils 
 predominate to support a larger quantity 
 of live stock. Its cultivation seems on the 
 increase, its fattening qualities being good, 
 the produce heavy, and liability to failure 
 small. 
 
 Hops, although indigenous to this coun- 
 try, were little attended to, and never em- 
 ployed in brewing till the sixteenth century ; 
 and then, when they began to be more used, 
 the citizens of London petitioned parliament 
 to prevent them as a nuisance. " It is not 
 many years since," says Walter Blith, writing 
 in the year 1653, " the famous city of Lon- 
 don petitioned against two nuisances, and 
 these were Newcastle coals, in regard of 
 their stench, &c.' and hops, in regard they 
 would spoil the taste of drink and endanger 
 the people." (English Improver Improved, 
 3d ed. 240.) 
 
 There are many other crops occasionally 
 cultivated by the farmer which may be enu- 
 merated here, and most of them first ex- 
 tensively cultivated within the last 150 
 years, but which in this place will require 
 no further notice — such as the artificial 
 grasses, rape, mustard, caraway, coriander, 
 flax, hemp, buck-wheat or brank, teasel, 
 madder, saintfoin, lucerne, cabbage, carrots, 
 and others. 
 
 General cultivation. — We have no in- 
 formation as to whether the early inhabitants 
 of Britain varied their modes of ploughing 
 with the nature of their soil. They some- 
 times ploughed with two oxen, sometimes 
 with more ; some ploughmen, represented in 
 very old pictures, evidently drove the team 
 as well as guided the plough ; but it was 
 usual for them to have a driver. There is 
 a very old Saxon dialogue extant, in which 
 a ploughman, in stating his duties, says, " I 
 go out at day-break, urging the oxen to the 
 field, and I yoke them to the plough — the 
 oxen being yoked, and the share and coulter 
 fastened on, I ought to plough one entire 
 field or more. I have a boy to threaten the 
 oxen with a goad, who is now hoarse through 
 cold and bawling. I ought, also, to fill the 
 bins of the oxen with hay, and water them, 
 and carry out their soil." (Turners Anglo- 
 Saxons, ii. 546. ed. 5.) Repeated plough- 
 ings and fallowings, to prepare the soil for 
 wheat, was the common practice ; for Giraldus 
 Cambrensis, speaking of the Welsh, says, 
 with astonishment, "they ploughed their 
 lands only once a year, in March or April, 
 in order to sow them with oats ; but did not, 
 51 
 
 like other farmers, plough them twice in 
 summer and once in winter, to prepare them 
 for wheat." (Descript. Cambria;, c. viii.) 
 
 In a law tract, called Fleta, and written 
 early in the fourteenth century, are given 
 several agricultural directions, especially 
 upon dressing and ploughing fallows. In 
 summer, the ploughing is advised to be only 
 so deep as to bury and kill the weeds ; and 
 the manure not to be applied till just before 
 the last ploughing, which is to be deep. 
 (Fleta, lib. ii. c. 73.) 
 
 Sowing was anciently performed in all 
 cases by hand. In the famous antique tapes- 
 try of Bayeux, a man is represented sow- 
 ing. The seed is contained in a cloth fas- 
 tened round his neck, is supported at the 
 other extremity by his left arm, and he 
 scatters the seed with his right hand. 
 
 All agricultural writers, from the earliest 
 era to the present, have recommended the 
 seed to be soaked in some medicament or 
 other previously to sowing. Virgil recom- 
 mends oil and nitre for beans ; others direct 
 the employment of urine ; and Heresbachius, 
 who wrote in 1570, mentions the juice of 
 the houseleek. " Sow your ridges," says 
 the same author, " with an equal hand, and 
 all alike in every place, letting your right 
 foot, especially, and your hand go together. 
 Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and other large 
 seeds must be sown with a full hand, but 
 rape seeds only with three fingers." ( Googe's 
 Heresbachius, 246.) 
 
 The tapestry of Bayeux, already men- 
 tioned, represents a man harrowing ; one 
 harrow only being employed, and one horse. 
 In the time of Heresbachius, though har- 
 rowing was the usual mode of covering the 
 seed, yet he says, " in some places it is done 
 with a board tied to the plough." Rakes 
 seem to have been employed by the Anglo- 
 Saxons ; for the accurate researches of Mr. 
 Turner do not appear to have discovered 
 any mention of other implements that were 
 employed by them for the purpose. (Hist. 
 Anglo-Sax. ii. 544.) 
 
 We find no very early mention made of 
 hoeing by any of our agricultural writers. 
 Though there is generally some directions 
 for " plucking up the naughty weeds," He- 
 resbachius is the first that we have met with 
 who notices the advantage of loosening the 
 surface of the soil about growing crops. 
 " Sometimes," he says, " raking is needful, 
 which, in the spring, loosens the earth made 
 clung by the cold of winter, and letteth in 
 the fresh warmth. It is best to rake wheat, 
 barley, and beans twice. Moreover, they 
 break asunder with a roller the larger and 
 stiffer clods." (Googe's Heresbachius, 256.) 
 It was not till the time of Tull, 1731, that 
 the due importance of this was appreciated. 
 e 2 
 
 a F ILL u% 
 
 u. of ill: in. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Of the other operations of agriculture, as 
 reaping, mowing, stacking, and the like, there 
 seems no need of making mention: they 
 were performed much in the same way as 
 now. " Corn," says the author last quoted, 
 " should be cut before it is thorough hard ; 
 experience teacheth that if it be cut down 
 in due time, the seed will grow to fulness 
 as it lieth in the barn." (Googe's Heres- 
 bachius, 406.) According to Henry, the 
 practice with our ancestors was for the wo- 
 men to thresh and the men to reap. (Hist, 
 of Britain, vi. 173.) 
 
 Irrigation seems to have been practised 
 in a few places in Britain from the time of 
 the Romans, there being meadows near 
 Salisbury which have been irrigated from 
 time immemorial. Lord Bacon mentions it 
 as a practice well understood in his time 
 (1560—1626); and at the same period, 1610, 
 appeared a work by Robert Vaughan, de- 
 tailing the mode of u summer and winter 
 drowning of meadows and pastures, thereby 
 to make those grounds more fertile ten for 
 one." It was not, however, till the close of 
 the last century that the attention of agri- 
 culturists was much aroused to the subject. 
 The writings of Boswell, Wright, Western, 
 and others, between the years 1780 and 
 1824, partially awakened the farmers to the 
 importance of the practice. The best ex- 
 amples of it are to be observed in Glouces- 
 tershire and Wiltshire ; but it is now one of 
 the practices of farming that is the most un- 
 deservedly neglected. Mr. Welladvise was 
 its great promoter in Gloucestershire. 
 
 Live Stock. — Cattle and sheep were the 
 chief riches of the Britons when they became 
 first known to the Romans (Caisar, v. c. x.), 
 and they are still a great source of our agri- 
 cultural riches. 
 
 Sheep. — In a very early Anglo-Saxon 
 MS. a shepherd is represented as saying, 
 " In the first part of the morning I drive 
 my sheep to their pasture, and stand over 
 them in heat and in cold with dogs, lest the 
 wolves destroy them. I lead them back to 
 their folds, and milk them twice a day ; and 
 I move their folds and make cheese and 
 butter." (Turners Anglo- Sax. ii. 546.) 
 
 This attention to sheep was attended 
 with so much success that they became an 
 object of acquirement by the continental 
 nations; and in the reign of Edward IV. 
 at the time a treaty of peace was concluded 
 with Spain (1466), a licence was granted 
 by that monarch "for certain Coteswold 
 sheep to be transported to Spain, as peo- 
 ple report, which have there so multiplied 
 and increased, that it hath turned the com- 
 modity of England much to the Spanish 
 profit, and to the no small hinderance of the 
 gain which was beforetimes in England raised 
 52 
 
 of them." (HalFs Chronicle, 266. Holin- 
 shed, 668.) The sheep thus exported were 
 probably improved by attention and climate 
 till they had become that breed of Merinos 
 which was re-imported to this country early 
 in the present century. The statute 3H.6. 
 c. 2. forbids the exportation of sheep. The 
 fears which old chroniclers may have igno- 
 rantly entertained, that the exporting of 
 sheep would be injurious to our native com- 
 merce, have in all succeeding years been 
 proved to be fallacious. The demand for our 
 wool was so large, and the consequent increase 
 of the breed of sheep was so great, that an 
 impolitic legislature in 1533 endeavoured to 
 check it. The preamble of the act states, 
 that " divers of the king's subjects, to whom 
 God of his goodness hath disposed great 
 plenty and abundance of moveable substance, 
 now of late, within few years, have daily 
 studied, invented, and practised ways and 
 means to accumulate into few hands, as well 
 great multitudes of farms as great plenty of 
 cattle, and in especial sheep, putting such 
 lands as they can get to pasture and not to 
 tillage, whereby they have not only pulled 
 down churches and towns, and enhanced the 
 old rates of the rents, and that no poor man 
 is able to meddle with it, but also have 
 raised the prices of all manner of corn, cattle, 
 &c. almost double above the prices accus- 
 tomed, to the great injury, &c. of his ma- 
 jesty's subjects; and as it is thought that 
 the greatest occasion of this accumulation is 
 the profit that cometh of sheep, which now 
 be come to a few persons' hands of this 
 realm, that some have 24,000, some 20,000, 
 &c. by which a good sheep for victual, that 
 was accustomed to be sold for 2s. 4d. &c. 
 is now sold for 6s. &c. ; which things thus 
 used be principally to the high displeasure 
 of Almighty God, to the decay of the hos- 
 pitality of this realm, to the diminishing of 
 the king's people, and to the let of cloth- 
 making," &c. It then enacts, that no one shall 
 have more than 2000 sheep ; though, as a 
 subsequent section declares every hundred 
 to consist of six score, the limited number 
 was 2400. And it further enacts, that no man 
 shall have above two farms. (25 H. 8. c. 13.) 
 
 Harrison, who died in 1593, describes our 
 sheep as very excellent, " sith for sweetness 
 of flesh they pass all other. And so much 
 are our wools to be preferred before those 
 of Milesia and other places, that if Jason 
 had known the value of them that are bred 
 and to be had in Britain, he would never 
 have gone to Colchis to look for any there." 
 (Description of England, prefixed to Ho- 
 Unshed, 220.) Heresbach, who was a con- 
 temporary, gives such a description of the 
 best form and qualities of sheep, that it is 
 evident that the excellence of our breed was 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 not the mere effect of chance. (Googes 
 Heresbach. 1376.) From that period till 
 the latter half of the eighteenth century, we 
 are not acquainted with any efforts further 
 to improve it. This last-mentioned period 
 was the era of the improvements effected 
 by Mr. Bakewell and his pupils, the Messrs. 
 Culley. 
 
 Bakewell was born in 1726, at Ditchley 
 in Leicestershire, and about the year 1755 
 commenced those experiments'^ which finally 
 effected a greater improvement in our sheep 
 than was ever effected in any species of 
 agricultural produce by the exertions of one 
 individual. He travelled over England, 
 Ireland, Holland, and other places, for the 
 purpose of examining the "Various breeds of 
 cattle, and by careful selections, and judi- 
 cious crosses, succeeded in procuring a stock 
 that obtained for the Ditchley sheep a pre- 
 viously unheard of excellence. Fortunately 
 the English agriculturists appreciated the 
 importance of his success; and it is a fact 
 that, in 1789, three of his rams, the produce 
 of one birth, were let for the breeding season 
 for 1200 guineas, and the whole produce of 
 his letting was at least 3000 guineas. One 
 of his rams obtained for Mr. Bakewell, in 
 one season, 800 guineas ; and when it is 
 taken into the calculation, that the same 
 animal served for his own flock, it produced 
 for its owner in that year 1 200 guineas. Mr. 
 Bakewell died in 1795. 
 
 Messrs. Culley introduced these improve- 
 ments into Northumberland, and the other 
 northern counties of this island. When 
 they first settled in that district, the sheep 
 kept there were large, slow-feeding, long- 
 woolled animals ; and a breed between those 
 and the Cheviot sheep. These breeds rarely 
 became fat before they were three years 
 old ; but the Leicesters introduced by the 
 Messrs. Culley were sold fat at little more 
 than a year old. They at first met with 
 much opposition ; but as it was soon seen 
 they were improvers, and not mere inno- 
 vators, the flocks have generally been made 
 to improve by their example. They be- 
 came the general patrons of improvement, 
 and their great attention to minutiae, unre- 
 mitting industry, and superior cultivation, 
 gave birth to a spirit of emulation, and their 
 own merits were rewarded with a liberal 
 success. For several years they occupied 
 farms to the amount of about 8000Z. per 
 annum. They had pupils with liberal pre- 
 miums from all parts ; and these again were 
 the means of making known, not only their 
 enlightened husbandry, but the encouraging 
 illustration they afforded of industry, eco- 
 nomy, and intelligence duly rewarded. 
 
 Merino sheep were imported by George 
 III. in the years 1788 and 1791. This 
 53 
 
 breed attracted much attention in 1804, 
 when his majesty commenced his annual 
 sales. Dr. Parry, Lord Somerville, and 
 others, have paid considerable attention to 
 them; but the climate of this country has 
 a considerable effect in deteriorating their 
 fleeces, and the flesh is too indifferent to 
 permit them to be much encouraged in a 
 country where mutton is so considerable an 
 article of food. (Hunt's Agricultural Me- 
 moirs ; Gent's Magazine ; Encyc. Brit.) 
 
 Mr. Ellman, of Sussex, during an en- 
 lightened practice of more than fifty years, 
 has brought the South Down variety of 
 sheep to a state of the highest improvement. 
 Perhaps the best description of the varieties 
 of the sheep reared in this country has been 
 written by this gentleman for "Baxter's 
 Agricultural Library." 
 
 Cattle, as we have already noticed, have 
 always been a prominent production of this 
 country. They were mentioned by Caesar, 
 Strabo, and other ancient writers. They 
 have ever since continued, more or less, 
 particularly to engage the attention of the 
 husbandman, not only for the dairy and the 
 plough, but also as a source of food. The 
 breeding of cattle, however, had been so 
 much neglected for the more profitable pas- 
 turage of sheep, that in 1555 an act of 
 parliament was passed to remedy the evil. 
 The preamble states that u Forasmuch as 
 of late years a great number of persons in 
 this realm have laid their lands, farms, and 
 pastures to feeding of sheep, oxen, runts, 
 scrubs, steers, and heifers, &c. having no 
 regard or care to breed up young beasts 
 and cattle, whereby is grown great scarcity 
 of cattle and victual ; " and, therefore, it is 
 enacted, that a cow shall be kept wherever 
 are sixty sheep, and a calf reared where - 
 there are one hundred and twenty, &c. 
 (2 & 3 Phil. Sf Mary, c. 3.) Many other 
 legislative enactments occur in the records 
 of that and contiguous periods ; but reason 
 and interest are better promoters of im- 
 provement than acts of parliament. A due 
 attention to the breeding of cattle was first 
 aroused by Mr. Bakewell, who has just been 
 mentioned as an improver of sheep. He let 
 bulls for 150 guineas during four months, 
 and 5 guineas per cow was no uncommon 
 charge. Pedigrees have been preserved of 
 different animals with as much care as those 
 of race-horses. The attention and care that 
 have thus been paid to their breeding have 
 met with an appropriate recompense. In 
 no other country is there to be found such 
 breeds of cattle ; and that none are so highly 
 estimated, is proved by the prices that have 
 been given for individuals. (MarshalVs 
 Midland Counties, i. 334. ; Parkinson on 
 Live Stock, ii. 469.) 
 
 e 3 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 Horses. — That the ancient Britons had 
 horses with which they impelled their war 
 chariots, we know upon the authority of 
 those who had seen them — Caesar, Strabo, 
 and others. In the epitome of Dion Cassius, 
 by Xiphelin, those horses are described as 
 small and swift. They appear not to have 
 been usually employed in the operations of 
 agriculture ; and their employment was not 
 considered desirable; for in the old Cam- 
 brian laws, oxen are exclusively directed to 
 be employed. (Leges Wallicce, 288.) Under 
 the Saxons, and still more under the Nor- 
 mans, who nourished here in an age that, 
 from its excelling in noble horsemanship, 
 has been distinguished as the chivalric, the 
 breed of horses was undoubtedly improved. 
 " Richard De Rulos, Lord of Brunne and 
 Deeping, was much addicted to agriculture, 
 and delighted in breeding horses and cattle." 
 (Ingulphuss Chron. lib. i.) 
 
 In the year 1494, the exportation of horses 
 was so extensive, and the price of them in 
 this country was so much enhanced, that an 
 act of parliament ordained that none should 
 go out of the realm without the king's license 
 (2 H 8. c. 6 ; 32, c. 13 ; 33, c. 5.) ; but 
 these being evidently intended for the im- 
 provement of war horses, " for the defence 
 of the realm," would only collaterally benefit 
 those employed by the husbandman. It 
 was provided by the second of the acts just 
 quoted, that no stallion should be kept that 
 did not measure fifteen hands from the sole 
 of the hoof to the highest part of the wither ; 
 each hand to be four standard inches. We 
 find, however, that at this period our draught 
 horses were fine and powerful animals, for 
 Harrison, who lived at this era, and whose 
 Appendix to Holinshed we have before 
 quoted, after expressing his admiration of 
 them, says, that five or six of them would 
 draw with ease three thousand weight of 
 the greatest tale for a long journey. We 
 must remember, too, that in those days the 
 roads were totally different from what they 
 are at present. It is within the memory of 
 persons still living in the hundreds of Essex, 
 that no more than a load of wheat was ever 
 sent out in a waggon, the roads there being, 
 until within less than half a century, ex- 
 ceedingly bad. 
 
 i We have already noticed that in the 
 /tapestry of Bayeux a man is represented 
 harrowing with a horse. That tapestry was 
 / woven in the year 1066, and this repre- 
 j sentation is the first notice, of which we are 
 aware, of the horse being employed in agri- 
 eulture. The first attempt that our histo- 
 rians notice, to improve the breed of our 
 husbandry horses, was in the reign of King 
 .John. Tyrant and despot as he was, yet 
 his evil qualifications gave two benefits to 
 54 
 
 England. His tyranny gave birth to Magna 
 Charta ; and his pride, rendering it hateful 
 to him to see foreigners surpass him in the 
 excellence of their horses, induced him to 
 import 100 stallions from Flanders; and 
 from that era may be dated the improvement 
 of pur draught horses. His object did not 
 entirely succeed; for a century subse- 
 quently, in the reign of Edward II. we 
 find that horses were still imported from 
 Lombardy and Flanders. We have already 
 noticed some of the enactments to improve 
 our breed of horses, but these shared the 
 fate of most other compulsory measures ; for 
 when Elizabeth summoned her forces to 
 defend her realm, in the prospect of a 
 Spanish invasion, she could obtain no more 
 than 3000 cavalry. 
 
 Sir A. Fitzherbert, who wrote in the 
 reign of Henry VIII. says, in his JBoke of 
 Husbandry, — "A husbande may not be 
 without horses and mares, and specially if 
 he goe with a horse-plough, he must have 
 both ; his horses to droive, and his mares to 
 brynge colts to upholde his stocke, and yet 
 at many times these may droive well if they 
 be well handled." The roguery of horse- 
 dealers was an early sin ; for one of the old 
 Cambrian laws provides, that the purchaser 
 of a horse shall have three nights to ascer- 
 tain whether he is infected with the staggers; 
 three months to prove his lungs; and twelve 
 months to discover whether he is infected 
 with the glanders. For every blemish not 
 discovered before purchasing, if it was not 
 in the ears or tail, one third of the price 
 was to be returned. (Laws of Howell Dhu.) 
 The deceptions practised by the dealers in 
 horses is still proverbial; and there does 
 not appear with their fraternity to have 
 been any intermediate age of innocence ; for 
 Sir A. Fitzherbert says, " Thou grayser, 
 that mayest fortune to be of myne opinion 
 or condytion to love horses, and young coltes 
 and foles to go among thy cattle, take hede 
 that thou be not beguiled as I have been a 
 hundred times and more. And first, thou 
 shalt knowe that a good horse has fifty-four 
 properties ; that is to say, two of a man, two 
 of a badger, four of a lion, nine of an oxe, 
 nine of a hare, nine of a fox, nine of an asse, 
 and ten of a woman." 
 
 Since the days of Elizabeth, every va- 
 riety of our horses has been gradually im- 
 proving, and our four kinds, the Suffolk 
 Punch, the Cleveland bays, the Clydesdale, 
 and the Lincolnshire or dray, are surpassed 
 in no country in the world. The nume- 
 rous cart stallions attending every market 
 town during the covering season, is an at- 
 testation that this care is not on the decrease. 
 It is stated, as a further proof, that a few 
 years since a Suffolk cart-mare and her 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 offspring sold at Woodbridge Lady -day fair 
 for 1000/. 
 
 Pigs have been among the usual animals 
 fostered by the farmer in times at least as 
 early as the Anglo-Saxons. In those days 
 they were evidently the most numerous of 
 their live stock ; scarcely an estate is men- 
 tioned without its being stated that it af- 
 forded pannage, or mast in its wood, for 
 such a number of swine. They were a very 
 prominent portion of their wealth ; and, in- 
 deed, a chief necessary, for they were in 
 winter obliged to use almost exclusively 
 salted meat, and the great preponderance 
 of woodland supported best this kind of 
 stock. {Turners Anglo-Saxons, iii. 22.) 
 Heresbach is particularly earnest in com- 
 mending the pig; and after mentioning it 
 as abominable to the Jews, says, with a 
 boastful feeling that made him forget its 
 impiety, " I believe, verily, they never tasted 
 the flitches of Westphaly." 
 
 Enactments occur in our statute book in 
 1225 and 1534, regulating the pannage of 
 swine. There are now a great many va- 
 rieties of pigs, every district of England 
 varying in the size and qualities of those it 
 prefers. Some attention has of late years 
 been paid to improve the stock, but in 
 general they have been too much neglected. 
 
 We have not particularised the progress 
 of husbandry in Scotland, because previously 
 to the time of its union with this country 
 Lord Kames and Mr. Fletcher agree that 
 its agriculture was deplorable ; and since 
 then the improvement of the art in that 
 most generally enlightened part of our 
 island has in many districts outstripped, 
 and, in most, at least kept pace with that of 
 England ; and its future advance will pro- 
 bably surpass that of England, because good 
 education is more completely diffused among 
 its inhabitants. 
 
 Ireland is in general deplorably behind 
 us in all the arts of life ; nor will this be 
 obviated until the effect of education and 
 wealth is more generally felt and appre- 
 ciated by its generous and hospitable, but 
 far from wealthy inhabitants. 
 
 Wales, for the most part, has an agricul- 
 ture as bad as that of Ireland ; and we can- 
 not have much hope of its improvement, 
 when Mr. Adam Murray, in his evidence be- 
 fore the Committee of Agriculture in 1833, 
 stated that the Welsh have a great antipathy 
 against us Saxons or Sassenachs ; and that 
 they take every advantage of any Englishman 
 that settles among them. 
 
 V. Continental, Agriculture. 
 
 We have now brought to a conclusion our 
 sketch of the progress of agriculture. The 
 55 
 
 limits of our work preclude us from giving 
 here more of the ample details that have come 
 under our notice in the research for the ma- 
 terials, of which we have given the abstract. 
 We have not withheld our attention from 
 the husbandry of other nations, but have 
 found little concerning the history of their 
 progress in the art ; and the examination of 
 their present operations made it so apparent, 
 that with the exception of Flanders, they 
 are all so much behind us in general prac- 
 tice, that the conviction is forced upon us, 
 that little instruction could be obtained from 
 its detail. Several of them, however, excel 
 us in some particular points ; and in noticing 
 these we shall avail ourselves of the oppor- 
 tunity to enforce the importance of extra 
 attention to them upon our own agricul- 
 turists. 
 
 Flanders. — This country was certainly the 
 first of modern countries to improve the prac- 
 tice of agriculture. Its farmers were our 
 first tutors ; and from the time of Sir Richard 
 Weston, who published an account of their 
 husbandry in 1645, till that of the Rev. 
 T. Radcliff in 1819, the Flemish husband- 
 men have continued models of neat and eco- 
 nomical farming. In this respect we fall 
 short of them. It is a leading principle with 
 them to make their farms closely resemble 
 gardens. Consequently, to effect this, they 
 have small farms, and devote their efforts 
 to these three grand points — the accumula- 
 tion of manure — the destruction of weeds — 
 and the frequent and deep pulverisation of 
 the soil. We recommend for the perusal 
 of our readers the work (Tour in Flanders) 
 published by Mr. Radcliff, and the Flemish 
 Husbandry of the Society for the Diffusion 
 of Useful Knowledge, and we are con- 
 vinced that they will benefit by the time so 
 occupied. We do not expect that they will 
 induce them to try to cultivate a large sur- 
 face of land with the minute accuracy of a 
 garden ; but it might persuade them to 
 adopt that more cleanly system of cultiva- 
 tion which is the only one that is perma- 
 nently profitable. 
 
 We shall only remark more particularly 
 upon the assiduous care the Flemish farmers 
 bestow upon the collection of manure. 
 
 They were the first among the moderns 
 to raise crops for the sake of ploughing them 
 in whilst growing ; and they continue it 
 more extensively than any other nation. 
 This practice, we may say, is entirely neg- 
 lected by our farmers ; but if they kneAV 
 sufficient of chemistry to understand how 
 much fertilising materials such green crops 
 impart to the soil, it would be a practice 
 more extensively adopted. Every frag- 
 ment of animal and vegetable matter is 
 preserved by the Flemish farmers for the 
 e 4 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 fertilising of their lands ; and the ready 
 sale which all such decomposable substances 
 meet, is one cause of the broom and the 
 barrow succeeding in keeping their towns 
 so scrupulously neat. Saw-dust, chips, and 
 similar refuse, all tend to increase their 
 composts ; and on their barren lands trees 
 are frequently planted for the purpose of 
 creating in time a fertile soil by the agency 
 of their fallen leaves. 
 
 Their dunghills are so constructed that 
 all the drainage is collected in cisterns, with 
 which liquid is mixed the emptyings of pri- 
 vies, pulverised rape eakes, and the like ; 
 and this most fertilising compound is con- 
 veyed to their fields by means of barrels 
 fixed on wheels, and is spread by means of 
 a scoop, 2840 gallons per acre being allowed 
 for their flax crop. (Johns, on Liq. Manure.} 
 
 The slovenly management of his dunghill 
 is one of the most general specimens of the 
 ignorance or carelessness of a farmer. He 
 allows the most soluble and valuable por- 
 tions to drain away ; and treats with ridi- 
 cule the idea of carrying out manure in a 
 liquid form. As this arises from ignorance, 
 and bigoted attachment to old practice, it 
 should excite our pity more than our anger. 
 Liquid manures, notwithstanding stupidity 
 and prejudice, are amongst the best of fertil- 
 izers, and will, in a coming age, be generally 
 employed, since it is a fallacy to argue that 
 they cannot be employed on a large scale ; 
 for the comparative expense of preparation 
 and application is unquestionably smaller on 
 a large scale than on a less. 
 
 Holland. — The husbandry of this country 
 is almost exclusively confined to the dairy 
 and to stall-feeding. There are two points 
 in their practice in which our farmers would 
 do well to imitate them. 
 
 It is a common prejudice that a cow for 
 the dairy should never be fat. This is thus 
 far true, namely, that if a cow inclines to 
 fatten easily, she does not yield so much 
 milk as one that generates fat less readily. 
 But a good dairy cow, that is, one that 
 secretes milk abundantly, will not fatten 
 whilst in that condition, and therefore the 
 abstaining from giving them nutritive food 
 is an erroneous conclusion. The Hollanders 
 know that the contrary is the correct prac- 
 tice, and once a day, or oftener, they give 
 their cows rape cake, and other nutri- 
 tious preparations. The ignorance of our 
 common practice is evident from this fact, 
 that without one exception we always keep 
 other animals, when suckling, much higher 
 than at other periods. 
 
 The other point of their practice that 
 merits imitation is the cleanliness with 
 which they keep all their animals. It will 
 excite a laugh with some of our agricultural 
 56 
 
 readers, when we recommend not only the 
 most scrupulous daily cleaning and washing 
 out of cow-sheds, pig-styes, and the like, but 
 that the animals themselves should be cleaned. 
 This, however, is not a mere speculative 
 precept, for the national example of Holland 
 attests its utility. We have known the be- 
 neficial effects of such treatment upon the 
 health of cows and pigs in this country. 
 But in the absence of all facts, if the farmer 
 would but allow his own common sense to 
 direct him ; if he would but reflect that no 
 animal will thrive that is not healthy ; that 
 his horse becomes diseased if not kept clean ; 
 and that by no possibility can it be other- 
 wise but that fetid stenches, and encumber- 
 ing filth must tend to breed disease, he 
 would not allow so baleful a neglect to con- 
 tinue. It is futile to urge that where the 
 stock is large, the attendance to such treat- 
 ment is impossible ; for if it is beneficial it 
 will pay to adopt it ; and no one should en- 
 gage in a larger concern than he can manage 
 in the most beneficial mode. 
 
 Germany. — The inhabitants of the differ- 
 ent districts of this extensive empire pay 
 particular attention to the cultivation of 
 timber trees. The number of German books 
 on the subject is excessive. 
 
 It is a subject that has of late years been 
 gaining much attention also in this country ; 
 and planting will probably be still further 
 extended over many of the poorer soils that 
 at present will not pay whilst producing 
 corn. 
 
 The careless and ignorant manner in 
 which the labourer is allowed to mutilate 
 timber trees that grow upon most farms 
 cannot be too severely deprecated. To 
 train trees correctly requires as much judg- 
 ment as any operation in which the gar- 
 dener or forester is concerned. Not an un- 
 necessary wound should be inflicted upon 
 them ; for the process of healing each wound 
 not only deducts so much from the growth 
 of the tree, but is usually the introducer of 
 decay. Yet the hedger, with no other in- 
 strument than his bill, is generally allowed 
 an unguided use of so unfit and mutilating 
 a tool. 
 
 Lombardy. — In this, and most of the other 
 Italian states, all rivers, and in some, even, 
 all springs, are considered to be the property 
 of the government, for they are the source of 
 a considerable revenue. Any one desiring 
 a canal from a river has to pay for it to the 
 government ; and he may cut it through 
 another person's ground without the latter 
 having the power to prevent it, upon paying 
 the value of the land. Such canals are con- 
 sidered as improving the value of an estate, 
 for they irrigate not only their grass lands, 
 but their corn, vines, and other crops, nu- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 merous little channels being cut for the 
 purpose down the ridges. The water from 
 a river is purchased at a certain price for so 
 many hours' or days' run in the year, through 
 a sluice of a stated dimension. Arthur 
 Young mentions that the fee-simple of an 
 hour's run per week through a particular 
 sized sluice at Turin, sold in 1788 for 1500 
 livres. Watered lands usually let for one 
 third more than lands that are unwatered. 
 
 We have already noticed, and shall again 
 have to recur to the subject of irrigation ; 
 but we could not but notice the above na- 
 tional evidence in favour of what we know 
 to be one of the most beneficial practices 
 neglected by our agriculturists. 
 
 Tuscany. — Sismondi informs us that it is 
 the practice in this country, where he was 
 himself for five years a cultivator, to trench 
 one third of the farm every year with the 
 spade, bringing the lower soil to the top. 
 This mode of culture bringing a new soil for 
 the promotion of vegetation, for it has been 
 in a manner lying two years fallow, is sanc- 
 tioned by reason as well as confirmed by prac- 
 tice. We are not the advocates of a general 
 system of spade husbandry. There are ob- 
 jections to it that at present are insuperable. 
 But we do recommend, and that from our 
 own experience, its partial adoption. There is 
 no parish in England in which many of the 
 labourers are not out of employ during a 
 considerable portion of the year. Perhaps 
 the average of the poor's rates were 10s. in 
 the pound upon the farmer's rental ; and this 
 might have been reduced more than one half, 
 if every farmer had employed one man in 
 spade husbandry for every thirty acres he 
 cultivated. Thus he would have had some 
 return for the money he expended ; and the 
 saving of horse labour, and the benefit of 
 the extra cultivation, would have turned 
 the balance in his favour, and he would thus 
 have got rid, in a great degree, of the worst 
 of all outlays — an outlay without a possi- 
 bility of a return. 
 
 I have searched various statements of the 
 agriculture of the other European countries ; 
 but though I am gratified by the conviction 
 that they are all more or less improving, yet 
 in almost all their practices, except the cul- 
 ture of the vine, they are very far behind 
 us. For that reason I leave them unnoticed, 
 because there is no instruction to be ex- 
 tracted from a detail of deficiencies that 
 have already been overcome. Upon a re- 
 vision of the whole, I may remark that 
 agriculture, in common with all other kinds 
 of knowledge, is always flourishing, in pro- 
 portion to the freedom of the people. Spain, 
 subjugated by its despotic monarchy and 
 priesthood, has an agriculture imperfect and 
 degraded beyond that of any other Euro- 
 57 
 
 pean nation. Flanders has always had a 
 liberal government, and its agriculture im- 
 proved before our own, and is its equal now. 
 
 By freedom, I mean security of property 
 and person, unrestricted discussion of every 
 virtuous opinion, and an untainted distri- 
 bution of justice. With us, the era that 
 introduced such freedom was that of the 
 reformation, confirmed and strengthened by 
 the exclusion of the Stuarts in 1688. 
 
 The introduction of the scholastic phi- 
 losophy, which revived that activity of mind 
 which the Grecian vanity had so much abused, 
 and the Romans, by their gross habits, had so 
 long paralysed; the mathematical sciences 
 which the Grecians had imported from Alex- 
 andria and had forgotten ; that natural and 
 experimental knowledge which neither the 
 Grecians nor Romans had ever much or 
 permanently pursued ; the reformation of 
 religion, which removed from the mind that 
 incubus that forbad man to trust to his 
 own reason, but made it the bond-slave 
 of interested ignorance ; the invention of 
 printing, which became the mighty engine 
 of diffusing accumulated knowledge ; were 
 all events that preceded the seventeenth 
 century, and rendered it an era splendid by 
 the general improvement which it afforded 
 in all the arts and sciences. These have 
 justly been represented as forming a circle, 
 for they are so united, so blended together, 
 and so co-assistant, that one cannot be im- 
 proved without the benefit being shared in 
 some way by the others. 
 
 Agriculture participated in the general 
 progress ; and trie impetus that was given 
 to the human mind, tutoring it to follow 
 reason rather than habit, was felt by the 
 cultivators of the soil. The eighteenth and 
 present centuries have been those in which 
 the improvement has been marked, and the 
 instances of which have already been 
 noticed. The reason of this is to be found 
 in its having then very generally engaged 
 the attention of a more enlightened class of 
 society. The noblemen, the gentry, and 
 even the monarch of England, became prac- 
 tical agriculturists ; and under the patronage 
 of George III., the Duke of Bedford, Lords 
 Sheffield, Suffield, and Albemarle, Coke, 
 Western, and many others, it was sure to 
 obtain the benefit of all the improved know- 
 ledge of the day. In 1723 was instituted 
 the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge 
 of Agriculture in Scotland ; in 1749, the 
 Dublin Agricultural Society ; in 1777, the 
 Bath and West of England. Society ; in 
 1784, the Highland Society of Scotland ; 
 in 1793, the London Board of Agriculture, 
 and the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land in 1838. The last chiefly through the 
 exertions of Mr. W. Shaw and Mr. Hand- 
 
AGRICULTURE. 
 
 AGRIMONY. 
 
 ley, Lord Spencer and the Duke of Rich- 
 mond. This, although supported entirely 
 by voluntary subscriptions, promises to be 
 of the highest advantage to agriculture, and 
 by its excellent arrangements, of which 
 carefully avoiding all political discussions is 
 a prominent feature, it now includes in its 
 copious list of members, men of all parties, 
 who are united not for the sake of indi- 
 rectly forwarding party objects, but for the 
 improvement in all its important branches 
 of practical agriculture. The fate of the 
 Board of Agriculture, which expired about 
 the year 1812, from the withdrawal by 
 government of the annual parliamentary 
 grant for its support, should operate as a 
 warning to all other agricultural societies ; 
 for this society failed, not from a want of 
 talent or of industry, but from its efforts 
 being paralysed, and its resources curtailed 
 by its being considered the society of a 
 party, and made the arena for the discus- 
 sion and promulgation of political doctrines. 
 From none of these have arisen any splendid 
 discoveries, for such are not to be made in 
 agriculture : there can never arise, so far as 
 we can foresee, any Newton or Watt in this 
 art ; but they have effected and are accom- 
 plishing all that such associations can be 
 expected. They have occasioned the col- 
 lision of opinion, they have stimulated the 
 desire of improvement, and they have pro- 
 moted the general communication of its 
 acquirements. The general improvements 
 introduced into agriculture, under the aus- 
 pices of these valuable societies, have been, 
 amongst several others, 1." the general in- 
 troduction of green crops ; 2. the improve- 
 ment of agricultural machinery, such as the 
 drill, the thrashing-machine, the plough, 
 &c. ; 3. better breeds of all kinds of live 
 stock ; 4. better and more numerous va- 
 rieties of seeds. 
 
 Of the benefits conferred by other sciences 
 upon agriculture, by chemistry, botany and 
 physiology, I shall hereafter have much to 
 say. They are branches of knowledge 
 hitherto too seldom combined with practical 
 skill to have yet accomplished much ; but 
 of what they are capable of achieving, an 
 estimate may be formed from the perusal of 
 De Candolle's Physiologie Vegetale. " It is 
 certain," as the writer of this has elsewhere 
 observed, " that a cultivator of the soil 
 should have a knowledge of botany and of 
 chemistry. Without the first he will be un- 
 able to understand terms and observations 
 that must occur in every well-written work 
 on his art ; unable to comprehend the na- 
 ture and habits of the objects of his culture, 
 or to render observations which he makes 
 : ntelli^il)le to others or even to himself. 
 Chemistry is of as much, if not greater, im- 
 
 portance to him. The nature of soils, of 
 manures, of the food and functions of plants, 
 would all be unknown but from the analyses 
 which chemists have made. Science can 
 never supersede the use of the dunghill, the 
 plough, the spade, and the hoe ; but it can 
 be one of their best guides — can be a pilot 
 even to the most experienced." (Baxters 
 Agricultural Library, 140.) 
 
 Of the literature of agriculture, I have 
 little to say in this place. From the days 
 of Hesiod until the sixteenth century, the 
 authors upon this art were very few ; but 
 from that period to the present, they have 
 continued to increase ; and its literature, if 
 now collected, would form a copious library. 
 
 There have been professorships of agri- 
 culture for some time proposed at the Uni- 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge. There 
 was one appointed at Edinburgh in 1790, 
 and the chair is now (1841) filled by Mr. 
 Low; another at Oxford in 1840, of which 
 Dr. Daubeny is the present holder. 
 
 A prejudice too generally existed amongst 
 farmers against the agricultural knowledge 
 contained in books ; but, now they are gene- 
 rally better educated, this prejudice will 
 cease. Ignorance is always bigoted and ob- 
 stinate ; and it is the same mental sterility 
 which made them jealous of all new prac- 
 tices, that made the Irish persist in fastening 
 their horses to the plough by their tails, until 
 it was absolutely prohibited by the govern- 
 ment. The Irish said in defence of their 
 practice what some English farmers say in 
 defence of theirs, however erroneous, " My 
 grandfather did well enough this way." Such 
 foolish observations amount to no more than 
 this, " We will not try to improve." This 
 race of stagnant cultivators is gradually dis- 
 appearing; and those who are succeeding 
 them, we see reason to believe, are more 
 enlightened, and consequently more ready 
 to adopt improvements. We most heartily 
 rejoice at this; and we hope to see them 
 more and more a class of reading men. 
 Practice must ever be their chief tutor, as 
 in all other arts ; but likewise, as in all 
 other arts, that practice will always be the 
 most correct in its details which is founded 
 upon scientific knowledge. (G. W.Johnson. 
 Miller's Gard. Diet, by Orr Co.) 
 
 AGRIMONY. (Agrimonia.) This most 
 healing and excellent wild plant grows abun- 
 dantly in most soils. It is found in barren 
 places upon ditch banks, and wherever herbs 
 can exist. It flowers in June and July, and 
 rises a foot in height, with single, firm, round 
 stalks, and pale green hairy leaves, notched 
 at the edges. Its yellow flowers are pale, 
 small, and numerous, standing in long spikes, 
 and the seed vessels which succeed them 
 are rough like burs. Agrimony is hot, and 
 
AGRIMONY. 
 
 AGROSTIS. 
 
 moderately astringent in quality ; detergent, 
 aperient, and resolvent. A decoction of the 
 plant opens obstructions of the liver, and 
 is good against jaundice. It is also a fine 
 remedy in diabetes. An ointment made from 
 the herb is admirable in cleansing and heal- 
 ing ulcers, wounds, sores, burns, and blows. 
 The common people apply a poultice of the 
 freshly-gathered herb for the same purpose. 
 Decoction of agrimony is good in dropsy, 
 and expels worms. The ointment is excel- 
 lent in drawing out things fixed in the flesh, 
 and it heals luxations, or bones forced out 
 of joint, by rubbing it well into the part af- 
 fected frequently. The sweet- smelling agri- 
 mony possesses equal virtues, and is more 
 palatable than the common agrimony. It 
 is likewise good in coughs when decocted. 
 (Z. Johnson.) 
 
 AGROSTIS. The bent grass. ; An ex- 
 tensive genus of native grasses, which, from 
 the marshy soil on which they flourish 
 best, are of comparatively small value to the 
 farmer. I shall, however, particularise the 
 different varieties, pointing out their com- 
 parative qualities, and nutritive properties. 
 
 Agrostis alba, or white bent, flowers in 
 the first week in August, and the seed is 
 ripe about the beginning of September. 
 This grass is late, unproductive, and con- 
 tains but little nutritive matter. Its creep- 
 ing roots greatly exhaust the soil : in this 
 variety they are smaller than in the other 
 varieties of Agrostis, but equally difficult to 
 extirpate when once in possession of tena- 
 cious clays. This property of the roots is 
 the best character of distinction for the pur- 
 pose of the agriculturist, as it may be found 
 at any season or stage of growth of the plant. 
 
 Agrostis canina, var. mutica. Awnless va- 
 riety of brown bent. Trichodium caninum 
 muticum (Schrader). Creeping-stalked brown 
 bent. It is the most common grass on deep 
 bogs, even where they are subject to be 
 under water for six months in the year. It 
 is a diminutive plant, very unlike the pro- 
 duce of such soils : the leaves seldom attain 
 to more than two or three inches in length. 
 Hares crop the foliage in the spring. The small - 
 ness of the produce, even when cultivated in 
 the most favourable circumstances, affords a 
 sufficient proof of its unworthiness to be re- 
 garded by the farmer in any other light than 
 that of a weed which indicates a soil capable 
 of being improved, so as to produce the most 
 valuable grasses by irrigation. It differs but 
 little from the Agrostis nivea, except in the 
 want of awns and the length of the culms. 
 The structure varies almost imperceptibly 
 in the Agrostis canina, Agrostis nivea, and 
 in this species. The like gradual shades of 
 difference may be perceived in the colour of 
 the plants ; the canina is of a brownish-green 
 59 
 
 colour : this awnless variety is of a pale green ? 
 the nivea of a greenish straw colour. The 
 knots or bundles of leaves attached to the 
 decumbent shoots show it to be connected 
 with the Agrostis canina fascicularis. It 
 flowers in the second and third weeks of 
 July, and ripens the seed about the middle 
 of August. 
 
 Agrostis canina capillaris. Fine-panicled 
 brown bent. This variety is nearly akin to 
 the Agrostis canina fascicularis; it grows 
 pretty common in some parts of Wo burn 
 park where the soil is silicious. It is seldom 
 combined with any other species of grass, 
 but grows in a wild state in dfetached patches 
 on moors and heaths. It flowers about the 
 beginning of August, and the seed is ripe 
 about the end of that month. 
 
 Agrostis canina fascicularis. Bundle-leaved 
 bent ; tufted bent. In old pastures, or light 
 soils, this bent may be readily distinguished 
 in the autumn by its shoots, which are fur- 
 nished with leaves in tufts or bundles, that 
 generally run along on the surface of the 
 rest of the herbage, and is occasioned, appa- 
 rently, by the cattle, which eat the other 
 herbage, and leave the scattered shoots of 
 the tufted-leaved bent untouched. It is a 
 very common grass on poor, light, but moist 
 soils, incumbent on clay, that have long been 
 under pasture. This and the woolly soft 
 grass in some parts of the country are 
 termed winter fog. From the above details 
 it will appear to be the least valuable of the 
 bent grasses that have been mentioned. The 
 cultivation of a grass of this value is out of 
 the question ; the point of most importance 
 to be ascertained respecting it is, how to 
 remove it from the soil, and to substitute 
 more valuable grasses in its place. I have 
 witnessed the beneficial effects of coal ashes, 
 as a top dressing, when spread on the pas- 
 ture in sufficient quantity : they appear to 
 act in the manner of a surface drain, by pre- 
 venting the water from stagnating or re- 
 maining too long on the surface of the soil 
 during wet weather in the end of autumn, 
 during winter, and in the qarly part of spring, 
 which the retentive subsoil causes ; a cir- 
 cumstance most favourable to the growth of 
 this grass, but highly injurious to the supe- 
 rior grasses. The ashes thus favouring the 
 growth of the superior grasses, and the pas- 
 ture being in consequence closely cropped 
 by the cattle, which now find the pasture 
 more palatable, the tufted bent disappears ; 
 it will, however, be found by no means de- 
 stroyed, but only checked in its growth. 
 This grass flowers in the first and second 
 weeks of August, and ripens the seed in the 
 end of the same month. 
 
 Agrostis lobata. Lobed bent; sea-side bent. 
 The general appearance of this plant indi- 
 
AGROSTIS. 
 
 cates its inferior comparative value. It ap- 
 pears according to the information afforded 
 by Mr. Curtis, to be chiefly confined to the 
 sea coasts. It grows wild on a stiff wet, 
 clayey loam, part of the London blue clay, 
 in the parish of Cuddington, near Epsom, 
 Surrey. It does not appear to be of much 
 value to the agriculturist. Probably, how- 
 ever, in such places as are exposed to the 
 spray of the ocean, it may succeed better, 
 and afford a greater produce ; its nutritive 
 powers are far from being inconsiderable. 
 It ripens an abundance of seed which vege- 
 tates freely. It flowers in the first week of 
 August, and the seed is ripe about the end 
 of the same month. 
 
 Agrostis mexicana, the Mexican bent 
 grass, is, as its name implies, a native of 
 South America, and was introduced into 
 England, by Mr. Gilbert Alexander, in 1780. 
 It delights more in calcareous or clayey 
 soils than in those that are of a silicious 
 sandy nature. It perfects an abundance 
 of seed, which when sown produces plants 
 that soon arrive at perfection. So far, 
 therefore, it possesses the requisite proper- 
 ties of a grass adapted for the alternate 
 husbandry ; but it is late in the produce of 
 foliage in the spring, and that herbage is 
 not distinguished by any superior nutritive 
 powers. It is perfectly hardy. Being a 
 native of a warmer climate, its defects may 
 possibly be greatly lessened by being natu- 
 ralised, and by frequently raising it from 
 seed successively ripened in this country. 
 At present it does not offer any strong rea- 
 sons to recommend it further to the notice 
 of the agriculturist. It flowers in the third 
 week of August, and the seed is ripe towards 
 the end of September. 
 
 Agrostis nivea. Snowy bent; straw-co- 
 loured bent grass. Trichodium caninum 
 var. stramineis arista calicem vix excedente. 
 Schrader. 
 
 The seeds of this grass, when sown on a 
 heath soil, and on a clayey loam of equal 
 space, afforded of grass, from the time they 
 were sown, May lp. till the time the produce 
 was collected, on the 20th of August fol- 
 lowing, 
 
 Heath soil, produce of grass - 2 oz. 
 Clayey loam, ditto - - 1 
 
 On comparing the produce of this grass 
 with those of the common bent (Agrostis 
 vulgaris) it will be found inferior in the 
 roportion nearly of 5 to 3. The snowy 
 ent appears to be unfit for the purposes of 
 the agriculturist, and it is apparently too 
 scarce a plant to be at all formidable as a 
 weed. It flowers about the second week of 
 August, and ripens the seed about the be- 
 ginning of September. 
 60 
 
 Agrostis palustris, or marsh bent. This is 
 considered only a variety of the Agrostis 
 stolonifera. This grass is properly a sub- 
 aquatic : it will grow on tenacious clays, but 
 it seems only to thrive in very moist soils, 
 or in such as are for the most part covered 
 with water. In moist woods it is more 
 frequent than any other of the creeping- 
 stemmed bent grasses : here the culms often 
 attain to five feet in height, when supported 
 by bushes. The above details show the 
 inferior nature of this grass, compared to 
 the larger, and even to the lesser leaved 
 varieties of the Agrostis stolonifera. It can- 
 not, therefore, as yet be considered in any other 
 light than a weed that chokes up drains and 
 underwoods. It flowers about the second 
 week of July, and the seed is ripe about the 
 middle and towards the end of August. 
 
 Agrostis ramosissima. Lateral -branching 
 bent grass. This is nearly allied to the 
 Agrostis mexicana, and is one of the latest 
 flowering grasses. It is remarkable for the 
 number of branches that issue from the 
 joints of the stem ; and the woody substance 
 of the culms makes it approach to the nature 
 of a shrub. It affords little herbage till the 
 beginning of summer, and flowers at so late 
 a period of the season (the first or second 
 week in October), that, excepting once, I 
 have never been able to procure any perfect 
 seed, the frost generally destroying the pa- 
 nicles before the seed is perfected. The 
 herbage is killed by frost, but the roots 
 suffer nothing from its effects ; it is propa- 
 gated by parting and planting the roots 
 early in the spring or late in the autumn. 
 The table on the next page will show that 
 it is neither very productive nor nutritive. 
 
 Agrostis repens. Creeping-rooted bent; 
 white bent. The Agrostis nigra, or black 
 couch grass of Withering. Though a later 
 growing grass, it is less productive than the 
 Agrostis alba. It is subject to the rust, a 
 peculiar disease. which dries up the extre- 
 mities of the leaves and gives it an unsightly 
 appearance. Simple ploughing will be found 
 ineffectual to root out this weed in clayey 
 soils. It will be found ultimately the 
 cheapest and most expeditious mode of ex- 
 tirpating it to follow the plough and fork 
 out the roots. Burning, under such cir- 
 cumstances of soil, would doubtless be highly 
 beneficial, but the roots of this couch grass 
 penetrate so deep that a considerable part 
 of them would escape; and the least par- 
 ticle of the root soon produces a plant. It 
 flowers in the second week of August, and 
 the seed is ripe about the latter end of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Agrostis stolonifera aristata. Awned creep- 
 ing bent. This variety of creeping bent, 
 which is allied to the Agrostis canina or 
 
AGROSTIS. 
 
 awned var. Agr. vulgaris of Dr. Smith, is 
 greatly inferior to the larger-leaved variety 
 {Agrostis. stolonifera latifolia, or fiorin) ; for 
 the weight of nutritive matter per acre af- 
 forded by the latifolia is two thirds greater 
 than that of the awned variety. Cattle ap- 
 pear to eat this grass in common with the 
 rough-stalked meadow grass and meadow 
 fox-tail grass. It flowers about a week 
 later than the fiorin, but the seed is ripe 
 about the same time. 
 
 Agrostis stolonifera angustifolia. Smaller- 
 leaved creeping bent. This is the most 
 common variety of the creeping bent, on 
 damp, tenacious, clayey soils, and in moist 
 woods. It stands next in value to the longer- 
 leaved variety of creeping bent ; but appears, 
 from all the observations that have been 
 made on it, when growing in natural pas- 
 tures, to be entirely neglected by cattle, while 
 any of the superior pasture grasses presented 
 a sufficiency for a bite. It flowers in the 
 second and third weeks of July, and ripens 
 the seed about the end of August. 
 
 Agrostis stolonifera (var. 1. latifolia). 
 Longer-leaved creeping bent ; fiorin. 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Wm. Richardson has intro- 
 duced this variety of the Agrostis stolonifera 
 to the agricultural world, under the name of 
 Fiorin, and has shown its merits and pro- 
 perties, deduced from his own experiments, 
 in a variety of publications on the subject, 
 to which the reader is referred. It is greatly 
 superior in point of produce and nutritive 
 powers to the other varieties of the Agrostis 
 stolonifera, which have been enumerated : 
 this will be manifest, on referring to the de- 
 tailed table of experiments made upon them 
 as given in the table on the next page. 
 
 On comparing the specimens of these dif- 
 ferent varieties, their resemblance to each 
 other is so great, that they may be easily 
 mistaken for each other, without a close in- 
 spection, and some knowledge of botany to 
 assist it. This variety appears to be confined 
 to rich ancient pasture land, as its natural 
 place of growth, and the other varieties to 
 various soils and situations ; and that when 
 taken from these different soils, and culti- 
 vated together under the same circumstances, 
 they retain their discriminating characters. 
 On damp, clayey soils, the second variety 
 (smaller-leaved creeping bent) is the most 
 common. To moors and bog soils, the third 
 variety (awned creeping bent grass) is 
 chiefly or altogether confined. To light 
 sandy soils, particularly when more or less 
 shaded, the fourth variety (wood creeping 
 bent grass) is peculiar ; and the fifth variety 
 (marsh creeping bent grass) is seldom found 
 but in the bottoms of ditches, or by the side 
 of rivulets. The first variety being there- 
 fore scarce, and the others very common, 
 61 
 
 there is little room for surprise at the con- 
 tradictory results of experiments that have 
 been made, on one or other of these inferior 
 varieties, by gentlemen equally eminent for 
 agricultural knowledge, under the conviction 
 of their being one and the same grass as re- 
 commended by Dr. Richardson, under the 
 name of fiorin : whereas, though they agree 
 in the general habit of Dr. Richardson's va- 
 riety, and indeed in every respect, except 
 in the characters before described, their in- 
 feriority in every agricultural merit is so 
 great, as to justify the opprobrious epithets 
 that have been bestowed upon them, by 
 those who, from the above causes, have dif- 
 fered from Dr. Richardson's statements of 
 the merits of the first variety, or fiorin, and 
 prevented that justice being done to the 
 discovery which it may have deserved. 
 
 The above details will assist the farmer 
 in deciding on the comparative merits of this 
 grass as a constituent of a mixture of grasses 
 for permanent pasture ; from which it will 
 doubtless appear worthy of attention, but 
 its value not so great as has been supposed, 
 if its habits or manner of growth be impar- 
 tially taken into the account, when compared 
 with the produce and nutritive powers of 
 the other grasses. The chief advantage of 
 this grass, in permanent pasture, is its late 
 growth. It remains in a degree inactive, 
 till other grasses have attained to perfection, 
 and when their productive powers become 
 exhausted, those of fiorin and its varieties 
 begin ; and it will be found, on inspection, 
 that the latest mouthful of herbage, and 
 sometimes the earliest, in those pastures, is 
 principally afforded by this grass. 
 
 There has been much prejudice existing 
 against the different species of Agrostis in 
 general ; but let the proprietor of a rich an- 
 cient pasture divest a part of it of this grass 
 entirely, and the value of the plant will be 
 demonstrated in the comparative loss of late 
 and early herbage. The cock's foot grass is 
 superior to the larger variety of the creeping 
 bent, in the proportion nearly of 11 to 9. 
 The meadow fescue is also superior to fiorin 
 in nearly the like proportion as cock's foot. 
 The meadow fox-tail grass is inferior to 
 fiorin in the proportion nearly of 6 to 7. 
 When cultivated separately, for the purpose 
 of green food or hay, fiorin requires to be 
 kept perfectly clear of weeds, its couchant 
 habit of growth affording great encourage- 
 ment for the health of upright growing 
 plants — under this circumstance, weeds. It 
 flowers about che second and third weeks of 
 July, and the seed is ripe about the second 
 and third weeks of August. The mode of 
 converting fiorin into hay, during the winter 
 months, is amply detailed in Dr. Richardson's 
 publications on Fiorin. Full information will 
 
AGROSTIS. 
 
 there be likewise found on the productive 
 powers, uses, modes of cultivation, &c. of 
 this grass, deduced from the Doctor's own 
 experiments. 
 
 Agrostis stricta. Rock bent; upright bent. 
 Trichodium rupestre (Schrader). The whole 
 plant is of a fine deep green colour, by which 
 it is distinguished at first sight from every 
 other species of bent grass : if we compare 
 the Agrostis vulgaris with this species, it will 
 be found superior, in the proportion nearly 
 of 5 to 3. This species being inferior to the 
 common bent in most points, its value to the 
 agriculturist can be but little. The only 
 property that renders it worthy of notice is, 
 the small degree in which it impoverishes 
 the soil : when cultivated on a poor, silicious, 
 sandy soil, the produce, though somewhat 
 inferior, continued for six years, without di- 
 minishing in the yearly quantity, and with- 
 out any manure being applied ; a circum- 
 stance which was not manifested in any other 
 species of grass. 
 
 Agrostis vulgaris canina. Awned fine bent. 
 (Brown bent, or Agrostis canina, Wither. 
 Arr. Smith's Engl. Flora. Agrostis vul- 
 garis var. (3. Do. var. 1.) As this is a much 
 less common plant than the variety of 
 Agrostis vulgaris before described, and as 
 it differs so much from that variety in the 
 properties which constitute the farmer's dis- 
 tinguishing characters of grasses, the name 
 canina is here added. The vulgaris mutica 
 is more common to sandy soils ; the v. canina 
 to clayey soils. The weight of nutritive 
 matter in which the produce of one acre of 
 the awnless variety of Agrostis vulgaris ca- 
 nina exceeds that of the awned variety 
 is 151*8. The comparative merits of the 
 Agrostis vulgaris exceed those of the Agrostis 
 
 vulgaris canina nearly as 2 to 1. The crop 
 of the awnless variety is greater than that 
 of the awned, but is much less nutritive, 
 being as 10 to 7 ; the spring and autumn 
 produce is likewise superior. Neither oi 
 these varieties appears to be of much value 
 to the farmer. The rust attacks the culms 
 and leaves of both varieties, which gives 
 the plants a dirty-brown appearance; the 
 Agrostis vulgaris is always free from this 
 disease. The brown bent flowers in the 
 second and third weeks of July, and ripens 
 the seed in the end of August. 
 
 Agrostis vulgaris mutica. Common bent ; 
 fine bent grass. This species has four vari- 
 ations, according to Dr. Schrader. The first 
 is distinguished by being awned (see Agrostis 
 vulgaris canina, and Trichodium caninum) ; 
 the second, by awnless and diseased flowers 
 (see Agrostis pumila of Willd. Spec. Plant, i. 
 p. 371.); the third, by its diseased awned 
 flowers ; the fourth, by having the flowers 
 viviparous, Agrostis sylvatica. 
 
 The common bent is one of the earliest 
 of the bent grasses : in this respect it is supe- 
 rior to every other of this family ; but in- 
 ferior to several of them in the quantity of 
 produce it affords, and the nutritive matter 
 it consumes. It is the most common grass 
 on natural sandy pastures ; and even on more 
 tenacious soils, that are elevated and exposed, 
 it is frequent. It flowers from the third week 
 of June till the second week of July, and 
 the seed is ripe the beginning of August. 
 
 The following tabular arrangement shows 
 at a glance the proportional value of the 
 several varieties of Agrostis, in seed and in 
 flower, and their yield per acre of green and 
 dry produce on various soils, and compara- 
 tive qualities of nutrition. 
 
 Description. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Green Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Produce per 
 Acre of Nutri- 
 tive Matter. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Clay 
 
 8,167 8 
 
 0 
 
 3,471 3 
 
 0 
 
 2,255 3 12 
 
 Bog 
 
 5,445 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,497 6 
 
 0 
 
 148 14 0 
 
 
 6,125 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,603 5 
 
 0 
 
 239 4 8 
 
 
 10,209 6 
 
 0 
 
 4,534 3 
 
 0 
 
 438 10 0 
 
 
 13,612 8 
 
 0 
 
 5,445 0 
 
 0 
 
 584 14 0 
 
 Clayey loam 
 
 6,125 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,679 15 
 
 6 
 
 287 2 0 
 
 Bog 
 
 8,848 0 
 
 0 
 
 4,210 12 
 
 0 
 
 368 10 0 
 
 
 10,209 6 
 
 0 
 
 4,594 3 
 
 8 
 
 438 10 15 
 
 
 16,335 0 
 
 0 
 
 7,350 12 
 
 0 
 
 765 11 0 
 
 
 17,015 0 
 
 0 
 
 8,507 8 
 
 0 
 
 930 8 0 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 4,764 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,310 3 
 
 0 
 
 148 14 0 
 
 Sandy 
 
 2,722 8 
 
 0 
 
 680 10 
 
 0 
 
 85 1 4 
 
 
 4,083 12 
 
 0 
 
 1,429 5 
 
 0 
 
 239 4 0 
 
 Rich black, silici- 7 
 ous, sandy j 
 
 19,057 8 
 
 0 
 
 6,670 2 
 
 0 
 
 595 8 12 
 
 Sandy 
 
 6,125 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,603 6 
 
 4 
 
 239 4 8 
 
 
 4,764 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,310 3 
 
 4 
 
 148 14 3 
 
 Strong clavey loam 
 
 28,586 4 
 
 0 
 
 11,434 0 
 
 0 
 
 893 5 0 
 
 Peat 
 
 17,696 4 
 
 0 
 
 7,742 1 
 
 12 
 
 967 12 3 
 
 
 19,057 8 
 
 0 
 
 8,575 14 
 
 0 
 
 1,042 3 6 
 
 Silicious sand 
 
 6,806 4 
 
 0 
 
 3,403 2 
 
 0 
 
 319 0 1L 
 
 
 6,125 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,679 15 
 
 6 
 
 287 2 3 
 
 Bog 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 0 
 
 4,764 6 
 
 0 
 
 251 3 15 
 
 
 7,486 14 
 
 0 
 
 2,713 15 14 
 
 175 7 9 
 
 Silicious sand 
 
 10,209 6 
 
 0 
 
 4,*94 3 
 
 fj 
 
 531 11 3 
 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 0 
 
 4,764 6 
 
 0 
 
 251 3 15 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 6,125 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,603 6 
 
 1 
 
 239 4 8 
 
 Agrostis alba, in flower . - - : 
 
 canina, in flower 
 
 canina, when seed ripe - 
 
 palustris, in flower - - 
 
 palustris, when seed ripe - 
 
 repens, in flower - - 
 
 stolonifera aristata, in flower 
 
 stolonifera aristata, in December 
 
 stolonifera angustifolia, when seed ripe 
 
 stolonifera angustifolia, in December - 
 
 canina capillaris, in flower - 
 
 canina fascicularis, in flower 
 canina fascicularis, in seed - 
 
 mexicana, in flower 
 
 nivea, in flower 
 nivea, when seed ripe 
 ramosissima, in flower 
 stolontfera latifolia, in flower 
 stolonifera latifolia, seed ripe 
 lobata, in flower 
 lobata, seed ripe 
 stricta, in flower 
 stricta, seed ripe 
 vulgaris mutica, in flower 
 vulgaris mutica, in seed 
 vulgaris canina 
 
 (52 " 
 
Am. 
 
 AIRA. 
 
 As this family of grasses has been held 
 in little esteem by farmers, principally on 
 account of their lateness of flowering, it 
 may be of use to bring them into one view, 
 in the order of their early produce of herbage 
 in the spring, and the nutritive matters af- 
 forded by equal quantities of each grass. 
 
 Agrostis vulg. mutica (common 
 bent) 
 
 A. palustris (marsh bent) 
 
 A.stolonifera, var.latifolia (florin) 
 A. stolonifera, var. angustifolia 
 
 (smaller leaved) 
 A.stolonifera, var. aristata (awn- 
 
 ed var. of creeping bent) 
 A. stolonifera, var. sylvatica 
 
 (wood-creeping bent) 
 A. alba (creeping-rooted bent) 
 A. stricta (upright bent, Tricho- 
 
 dium rupestre) 
 A. vulgaris canina (brown bent) 
 A. nivea (snowy bent, Tricho- 
 
 dium, var. nivea) 
 A. lobata (lobed bent grass) 
 
 Middle of 
 
 April 
 One week 
 
 later 
 
 Nutr. 
 Powers, 
 dr. gr. 
 
 1 2f 
 
 2 3 
 
 3 2 
 3 0 
 
 2 6 
 1 2 
 
 Three weeks 
 later 
 
 A. repens (black couch bent 
 grass) 
 
 A. Mexicana (Mexican bent — 
 grass) 
 
 A. fascicular is (bundled-leaved — 
 bent) 
 
 A. lateriflora (branching bent — 
 grass) 
 
 {Sinclair's Hort. Gram. ; Smith's Eng. 
 
 Pot.) 
 
 AIR. (Air, French, aer, Lat.) The 
 element or thin medium in which terrestrial 
 animals move and breathe, and which sur- 
 rounds the earth to a considerable height. 
 See Atmosphere and Gases. 
 
 AIRA. A genus of native grasses, of 
 which there are but few species capable of 
 being cultivated to advantage as field 
 grasses, on account of their aquatic nature. 
 
 Aira aquatica. Water hair-grass. This 
 plant is an aquatic, found naturally growing 
 in the mud of standing pools, or running- 
 waters. It is, therefore, unfit for cultiva- 
 tion. Mr. Curtis says, that it is the sweetest 
 of the British grasses ; but there are several 
 species which contain more sugar, in pro- 
 portion to the other ingredients which com- 
 pose their nutritive matter, as the Glyceria 
 fluitans, Elymus arenarius, Poa nemoralis 
 Var. angustifolia, Poa aquatica. It flowers 
 in the second and third weeks of July. 
 
 Aira ccespitosa. Turfy hair-grass ; has- 
 sock-grass. This grass is of a very innu- 
 tritious nature ; but even if it had greater 
 nutritive powers, the extreme coarseness of 
 the foliage would render it unfit for culti- 
 vation. It delights in moist clayey soils, 
 where the water stagnates ; but is found 
 in almost every kind of soil, from the dry 
 sandy heath to the bog. It forms dense 
 tufts in pastures very disagreeable to the 
 sight, which are termed hassocks, bull's 
 faces, &c, by farmers. It is a most diffi- 
 cult plant to extirpate, when in considerable 
 
 quantity. Some persons, to get rid of it, dig 
 up the tufts, and fill up the holes with lime 
 compost ; this, no doubt, would answer the 
 end, at least for a few years, if all the roots 
 were destroyed ; but this is never the case : 
 a circle of roots is left, which, in one or two 
 seasons, produce larger hassocks than be- 
 fore ; and besides, when the hassocks are 
 numerous, the expense attending this pro- 
 cess is considerable. Others depend on 
 occasional mowings to keep the hassocks 
 under ; but this is productive of little good, 
 particularly if the mowing of the tufts be 
 deferred till the autumn, which I believe is 
 the common practice. I have found no 
 treatment weaken or retard the growth of 
 grass so much as cutting it closely, before 
 and after the first tender shoots appear in 
 the spring. But the only effectual and most 
 profitable mode of extirpating this grass is 
 by first paring and burning the surface of 
 the land, and by making proper drains, to 
 correct, as much as possible, the tenacious 
 nature of the soil; in this case surface- 
 drains are as necessary as those termed 
 hollow. Sand should likewise be applied 
 during the course of crops taken previous 
 to returning the land again to permanent 
 pasture, if such should be desirable, from 
 its local situation ; as that, for instance, of 
 a park or policy. This grass flowers about 
 the third week in July, and the seed is ripe 
 towards the end of August. 
 
 Aira cristata. Crested hair-grass. Poa 
 cristata. Crested meadow-grass. Host. ii. 
 p. 54. t. 75. This native grass was formerly 
 ranked by botanists under the genus Poa, 
 but has since been referred to that of Aira, 
 to which it is more closely allied. The pro- 
 duce of this species, and the nutritive mat- 
 ter it affords, are equal to those of the Fes- 
 tuca ovina at the time the seed is ripe : they 
 equally delight in dry soils, though the 
 Aira cristata will thrive well and remain 
 permanent in soils of a moist and clayey na- 
 ture, which is different with the Festaca 
 ovina. The greater bulk of the produce of 
 the Aira cristata, in proportion to its weight, 
 makes it of inferior value to the Festuca 
 ovina. In some parts of the country it grows 
 on dry pastures plentifully, where it appears 
 to be but sparingly eaten by cattle, parti- 
 cularly if the pasture be not overstocked. 
 Rye-grass (Lolium perenne), sheep's fescue 
 (Festuca ovina), yellow oat-grass (Avena 
 Jlavescens), crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus 
 cristatus), meadow barley (Hordeum pra- 
 tense), flexuose hair-grass (Aira jftexuosa), 
 are all preferred by cattle to the crested 
 hair-grass. The nutritive matter of this 
 grass differs but little in its composition 
 from those of the above : it approaches 
 nearest to that of the Aira flexuosa, differing 
 
AIRING. 
 
 AITON, WILLIAM. 
 
 only in having less bitter extractive matter 
 and of more tasteless mucilage ; but the soft 
 hairy foliage of the grass appears at once the 
 cause of this dislike in cattle to eat it. It 
 flowers about the first week in July, and the 
 seed is ripe about the beginning of August. 
 
 Aira flexuosa. Zig-zag hair-grass ; wavy 
 mountain hair-grass. The Aira flexuosa is 
 much more productive on its natural soil 
 than the Festuca ovina ; but it requires a 
 deeper soil, though not a richer. The Fes- 
 tuca ovina is more common among heath, 
 the Aira flexuosa among furze, though both 
 grasses frequently grow intermixed on the 
 same soil. To those who attempt the im- 
 provement of such soils in a secondary man- 
 
 ner only, this species of hair-grass appears 
 to be the best of those grasses natural to 
 the soils in question, and may form a prin- 
 cipal part of a mixture of seeds for that 
 purpose of improvement. The produce of 
 this grass on a heath soil is superior to that 
 on a clayey loam in the proportion of 2 to 1. 
 The proportional value in which the grass 
 at the time of flowering exceeds that of 
 the latter-math, is as 8 to 7. Flowers in 
 the first week of July. Seed ripens in 
 August. 
 
 The proportionate value of the different 
 varieties of Aira as deduced from expe- 
 riments may be ascertained by reference to 
 the following classified table of results : — 
 
 Description. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Ureen Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Produce per Acre 
 of Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Aira aquatica, in flower 
 
 ccespitosa, seed ripe - 
 
 cristata, in flower - - 
 
 — cristata, seed ripe - 
 
 flexuosa, in flower - - 
 
 flexuosa, seed ripe - - - 
 
 0 Mud covered with \ 
 7 water J 
 Clay 
 Sandy loam 
 
 Heath on clay 
 
 lbs. 
 
 10,890 0 0 
 
 10,209 0 0 
 10,890 0 0 
 
 6,806 4 0 
 10,209 6 0 
 
 9,528 12 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,267 0 0 
 
 3,318 0 0 
 4,900 8 0 
 3,403 2 0 
 3,318 0 12 
 3,573 4 8 
 
 lbs. 
 382 13 10 
 
 319 0 11 
 340 5 0 
 127 10 0 
 319 0 11 
 297 12 6 
 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 AIRING. In the management of horses, 
 implies the exercising them in the open air, 
 which is of the greatest advantage to them 
 when performed with moderation, and ac- 
 cording to the circumstances or state in 
 which they are in respect to their health 
 and the nature of their keep. By this means 
 their legs are prevented from swelling, their 
 stomachs improved, and their wind rendered 
 more free and perfect. 
 
 AIR VESSELS, vegetables, are cer- 
 tain horizontal vessels of large diameter, that 
 pass through the bark of trees to the albur- 
 num, which Dr. Darwin thinks probably 
 contain air, as they are apparently empty, 
 he believes, in the living vegetable. The 
 air vessels of the bark of trees consist of lon- 
 gitudinal fibres, which are joined together, 
 and appear to inosculate at certain distances, 
 and recede from each other between those 
 distances like the meshes of a net, in which 
 spaces, several horizontal apertures are seen 
 to penetrate through the bark to the albur- 
 num, according to Malpighi, who has given 
 a figure of them. Very fine horizontal per- 
 forations through the bark of trees are also 
 mentioned by Duhamel, which he believes 
 to be perspiratory or excretory organs ; but 
 adds, that there are others of much larger 
 diameter, some round and some oval, and 
 which, in the birch tree, stand prominent, 
 and pierce the cuticle or exterior bark. 
 These vessels probably contain air during 
 the living state of the tree, as they pierce 
 the external bark, which frequently consists 
 64 
 
 of many doubles, like a roll of linen cloth ; 
 as a new cuticle is annually produced be- 
 neath the old one, like a new scarf-skin be- 
 neath a blister in animal bodies ; and the 
 old one sometimes continues, and sometimes 
 peels off like the cuticle of a serpent, as is 
 seen on the trunks of many cherry trees and 
 birches. These vessels, when contracted in 
 dry timber, appear like horizontal insertions 
 in many planed boards, in which the spiral 
 absorbent vessels become by their contrac- 
 tion the longitudinal fibres, as appears in 
 the figure of a walking-cane given by Dr. 
 Grew. These horizontal vessels Dr. Darwin 
 supposes to contain air, enclosed in a thin 
 moist membrane, which may serve the pur- 
 pose of oxygenating the fluid in the extremi- 
 ties of some fine arteries of the embryo 
 buds, in the same manner as the air at the 
 broad end of the egg is believed to oxygen- 
 ate the fluids in the terminations of the 
 placental vessels of the embryo chicken. 
 
 AITON, WILLIAM. A writer upon 
 plants, was born in 1731, near Hamilton in 
 Lanarkshire. In 1754 he visited London 
 in pursuit of employment as a gardener, to 
 which profession he had been brought up. 
 Philip Miller discerned his abilities, and ob- 
 tained for him a situation in the royal gar- 
 dens, and, in 1759, he was appointed bo- 
 tanical superintendent at Kew In 1783 he 
 obtained the charge of the royal kitchen and 
 pleasure gardens. Six years afterwards 
 he published a catalogue of the plants, under 
 the title of Hortus Kewensis, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 
ALABASTER. 
 
 ALBURNUM. 
 
 He died in 1793. T. Aiton his son published 
 an enlarged edition of the Hortus Kewensis, 
 London, 1810-13, in 5 vols 8vo., and an 
 epitome in 1814, to which is added a selec- 
 tion of the esculent vegetables and fruits 
 cultivated in the royal gardens. It needs 
 scarcely be remarked, that the Hortus Kew- 
 ensis is a work of the first authority as re- 
 gards botanical nomenclature, &c. 
 
 ALABASTER. (Greek dXa€a<TT P ov; 
 Teut. alabast.) The name is said^ to be de- 
 rived from Alabastion, a town in Egypt, 
 where there was a manufactory for small 
 ornamental vessels, from stone procured from 
 the mountains in the neighbourhood. These 
 vessels were used by the ancients to contain 
 perfumes of various kinds, with which it was 
 the custom of the country to anoint the 
 heads of guests. There are many allusions 
 to this custom in Horace ; and in the Scrip- 
 ture we find Mary, the sister of Lazarus, 
 pouring " very precious ointment " upon the 
 head of our Saviour from an alabaster box. 
 
 There are two kinds of white stone to 
 which antiquaries and artists give the name 
 of alabaster — the one is a carbonate of lime, 
 and the other is gypsum or sulphate of lime. 
 Savary tells us there are " some specimens of 
 the colour of horn and transparent, and some 
 yellow, like honey marked with veins." Ala- 
 baster differs from marble in being easier to 
 cut, and less durable, the basis being a cal- 
 careous earth, which is soluble in five hun- 
 dred times its weight of water at a tempe- 
 rature of about 60°. (See Carbonate of 
 Lime and Gypsum.) Alabaster is found 
 in Derbyshire and Staffordshire, and is fre- 
 quently manufactured into small toys. 
 
 ALBUMEN" is the name given by che- 
 mists to the impure glossy viscid liquid, 
 which forms the white of an egg. This white 
 is composed chiefly of albumen mixed with 
 some mucus, soda, and sulphur. 
 
 Albumen unites readily with water, and 
 when heated to 165° it coagulates into a 
 white solid mass ; but when mixed with ten 
 times its weight of water, it no longer is co- 
 agulated by heat. It is composed, accord- 
 ing to the analysis of MM. Gay Lussac and 
 Thenard, of 
 
 Carbon - - - 52883 
 
 Oxygen - 23*872 
 Hydrogen - 7 '540 
 
 Azote ... 15-705 
 
 (Rech. Phys. Chem. ii. 332.) 100-000 
 
 Albumen (which is nearly identical in 
 composition with the gluten of vegetables), 
 is one of the most important and common 
 of all the animal substances. It abounds 
 in bones, muscle, the membrane of shells, 
 sponges, &c. ; and, according to the experi- 
 ments of Hatchett, cartilage, nails, horns, 
 65 
 
 hair, &c. are almost entirely composed of it. 
 (Thomson, vol. iv. p. 407.) 
 
 ALBURNUM. An integument com- 
 posed of a soft white substance, scarcely 
 perceptible in some sorts of trees, situated 
 between the liber and the wood. In the 
 oak and elm it is hard and very conspicu- 
 ous. It is as it were an imperfect wood, 
 not having acquired that state or consistence 
 necessary to perfect wood ; hence it may be 
 compared to the cartilage in animals, which 
 at length becomes bone. This state must 
 necessarily be passed through before wood 
 can be formed. The hardness of this sub- 
 stance is in proportion to the vigour of the 
 plant or tree. In respect to its formation 
 Dr. Darwin observes, that the umbilical 
 vessels of the new buds of deciduous trees, 
 which are analogous to those which perme- 
 ate the lobes of the seed, are extended 
 downward in the bark about Midsummer, 
 and terminate in certain reservoirs of nutri- 
 ment, which are at this time secreted from 
 the vegetable blood oxygenated in the leaves. 
 This bark now consists of an intertexture of 
 the caudexes of the ^-present leaves, which 
 were buds in the last summer, and are now 
 adult vegetable beings, and of the embryo 
 caudexes of the new buds, and of the umbi- 
 lical vessels of the new buds ; it will become 
 alburnum or sap wood during the autumn 
 or ensuing spring, and will be gradually 
 covered over with a new bark consisting of 
 the mature caudexes of the new buds, while 
 that which was the alburnum in the pre- 
 ceding spring will become a circle of lifeless 
 timber, interior to the circle of alburnum. 
 
 The vessels of the alburnum in their 
 living state possess the property of convey- 
 ing the sap-juice, which is propelled up- 
 wards in the early spring, by the absorbent 
 terminations of the roots, as visible in decor- 
 ticated oaks, the branches of which expand 
 their buds like those of the birch and vine 
 in the bleeding season. That the vessels of 
 the alburnum in their living state occasion- 
 ally act as capillary syphons, through which 
 the sap-juice is first pushed upwards by 
 the absorbent extremities of the roots, and 
 afterwards returns downwards, partly by its 
 gravitation, in branches bent below the ho- 
 rizon, appears from an experiment of Dr. 
 Walker ; and lastly, that the vessels of the 
 alburnum, after their vegetable life is ex- 
 tinct, possess a power of capillary attraction 
 of the sap-juice, or of permitting it to pass 
 through them occasionally, appears from 
 the following experiment A branch of 
 a young apple-tree was so cankered, that 
 the bark for about an inch round it was to- 
 tally destroyed. To prevent the alburnum 
 from becoming too dry by exhalation, this 
 decayed part was covered with thick white 
 
 F 
 
ALCOHOL. 
 
 paint : in a few days the painting was re- 
 peated, and this three or four times, so as 
 to produce a thick coat of paint over the 
 decayed part, or naked alburnum, extending 
 to the ascending and descending lips of the 
 wound ; this was in spring, and the branch 
 blossomed and ripened several apples. 
 
 ALCOHOL is the name first given by the 
 alchemists (it came originally from Arabia) 
 to the liquid obtained by the distillation of 
 wine, beer, and other fermented spirits.. 
 These seem to have been known in the 
 earliest ages: Noah, who planted a vine- 
 yard, drank wine ; and the heathen writers 
 deemed the invention worthy of being as- 
 cribed to their greatest kings and heroes. 
 Beer, there is little doubt, was invented by 
 the Egyptians. They certainly used it in the ' 
 days of Herodotus. The Germans drank 
 it extensively when Tacitus wrote. These 
 were probably the purest varieties of alcohol 
 then generally made ; although they were 
 known in the dark ages, and it is probable 
 have been employed in the North of Europe 
 from a very remote period. The process, 
 however, of separating the impure alcohol 
 from these is very easy : upon subjecting the 
 wine or wash to a moderate heat, the spirit 
 arises, and is easily collected in a worm sur- 
 rounded by cool water. It is in this way 
 that gin is procured from the distillation of 
 fermented barley or other grain ; rum from 
 molasses ; brandy from wine. It must not 
 be supposed, however, that the product of 
 these distillations is pure alcohol, for even 
 the strongest brandy contains between forty 
 and fifty per cent, of water. The first who 
 procured alcohol in a state of tolerable purity 
 is supposed to have been Arnold of Villa 
 JSTova, a celebrated alchemist of the fourteenth 
 century. When impure alcohol is con- 
 centrated by repeated distillations, and by 
 mixing it with some salt, like the salt of tar- 
 tar, that has a strong attraction for water, it 
 gradually parts with a considerable portion of 
 its water, and becomes reduced in specific 
 gravity to about 0-820 ; that of commerce, 
 however, is rarely of less specific gravity than 
 0-8371. At the greatest strength, however, 
 at which it has been observed, such as that 
 of 0*792, which M. Lowitz obtained by re- 
 peatedly distilling rectified spirits from pot- 
 ash, it possesses the following properties : — 
 it is transparent, colourless, of a strong 
 agreeable penetrating taste, and produces 
 when swallowed intoxication. It does not 
 freeze, even by exposure to the most intense 
 cold; it is very volatile, boiling at 176° of 
 Fahrenheit, and in a vacuum at 5C°. It 
 unites with water in all proportions, and 
 is entirely combustible, burning without 
 leaving any residuum. Alcohol, according to 
 the analysis of M. Saussure, is composed of 
 66 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 13-70 
 
 Carbon - 51*98 
 Oxygen - 34*32 
 
 (Thomson's Chem. vol. ii. p. 39.) 100*00 
 
 The following table will show the ordinary 
 proportion of alcohol per cent, by measure 
 in various fluids, according to the expe- 
 riments of Professor Brande. 
 
 Port - 
 
 21*40 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 25*83 
 
 Madeira - - 
 
 - 19*34 
 
 -L"l HO - - 
 
 _ OA-AO 
 
 Sherry — *— — 
 
 18*25 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 19*83 
 
 "oiaret — — — 
 
 - iz y i 
 
 Calcavella - — 
 
 
 Lisbon — — — 
 
 18*94 
 
 Ivlalaga - - • 
 
 - 17*26 
 
 T^ii/>all^c _ _ _ 
 JDUCcllda 
 
 18*49 
 
 XVCU. lYldtlclId. - - 
 
 18*40 
 
 TVTfllmcv TYTfif?pirft - 
 
 lUulliio V XTXfclViCXl Ok 
 
 - 16*40 
 
 TVTnvfsnla - - - 
 
 - 25-87 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 17*26 
 
 
 11*30 
 
 "White Champagne - 
 
 - 12*80 
 
 Burgundy - - 
 
 - 14*53 
 
 Ditto 
 
 - 11*95 
 
 White Hermitage 
 
 - 17*43 
 
 T? pf" TTpvmitaD'p — — 
 
 1VCU 1H. I 111 1 IdiiC 
 
 12*32 
 
 Hock ... 
 
 - 14-37 
 
 Ditto - 
 
 8*88 
 
 Vin de Grave 
 
 - 12*80 
 
 l^r , /\TT f \ O'Tl fl C* m m 
 A lUllllgllaL' 
 
 - 12*79 
 
 Coti-Roli 
 
 - 12*32 
 
 Roussillon 
 
 - 17 26 
 
 V^d-pc J-TXCIU.C1I a> m *■ 
 
 18*11 
 
 >-/apc i>±UoC licit ™ 
 
 18*25 
 
 Constantia - 
 
 - 19*75 
 
 1 Gill - 
 
 l < 3 i *3n 
 
 ft Vk ATf* 7 m •» • ■ m 
 KJllK. L (X/j 
 
 - 15*52 
 
 Syracuse 
 
 - 15*28 
 
 Nice - - - 
 
 - 14*63 
 
 Tokay - 
 
 - 9*88 
 
 Raisin - 
 
 - 25*77 
 
 Grape - - - 
 
 - 18*11 
 
 Currant - 
 
 - 2055 
 
 Gooseberry 
 
 - 11*84 
 
 Elder - 
 
 - 9*87 
 
 Cyder *- 
 
 9*87 
 
 Perry - 
 
 - 9*87 
 
 Brown Stout 
 
 6*80 
 
 Ale - 
 
 - 8*88 
 
 Brandy - 
 
 - 53*39 
 
 Rum - 
 
 - 53*68 
 
 Hollands 
 
 - 51*60 
 
 The spirits distilled from different fer- 
 mented liquors, says Davy, differ in their 
 flavour, for peculiar odorous matters or oils 
 rise in most cases with the alcohol. The 
 spirit from malt usually has an empyreu- 
 matic taste, like that of oil formed by the 
 distillation of vegetable substances. The 
 best brandies seem to owe their flavour to a 
 
ALCOYE. 
 
 ALDER TREE. 
 
 peculiar oily matter, formed probably by the 
 action of tartaric acid upon alcohol ; and 
 rum derives its characteristic taste from a 
 principle in the sugar cane. The cogniac 
 brandies contain prussic acid. (Davy, Chem. 
 Phil. 135.) 
 
 ALCOVE. (Span, alcoba; Dan. alkove; 
 but originally from the Arab alkobba.) A 
 recess in gardens or pleasure grounds. 
 
 ALDER TREE. (Alnus glutinosa, 
 Gartner ; Betula Alnus, Linn.) The com- 
 mon Alder appears generally as a shrub ; 
 but if allowed to attain maturity it will grow 
 to a stately tree. The bark in old trees is 
 blackish, and full of clefts ; on the young 
 shoots it is smooth, and of a purplish hue. 
 The leaves have a dark green colour, and 
 roundish shape, resembling those of the 
 hazel, nicked on the margin, smooth, and 
 clammy to the touch. The foot-stalk is 
 about an inch long ; the leaf-ribs on the un- 
 der side have spongy balls at the angles, as 
 in the leaves of the lime tree. The male 
 catkins are cylindrical, appear in the autumn, 
 and remain on the tree till spring. The fe- 
 male catkins are of a short conical form, like 
 a small fir cone. 
 
 The alder is often planted as a coppice- 
 wood in wet and boggy places where no other 
 trees will thrive, and cut down every tenth or 
 twelfth year for poles. It may also be often 
 used to advantage on swampy ground for 
 fences, and may be conveniently trained to 
 any desired height. The young trees may 
 be planted to great advantage for securing 
 the banks of water-courses from the torrents. 
 We certainly know of no tree so well adapted 
 to this purpose as the alder ; for, on account 
 of the numerous suckers which it constantly 
 sends up from the bottom, and the very fi- 
 brous nature of their roots, the banks be- 
 come in time one mass of strongly interwoven 
 roots. 
 
 Wherever it may be desirable to complete 
 a prospect by extending plantations over 
 sterile cold ground, water-galls, or boggy 
 swamps, no tree we know of is equal to the 
 alder, even in a picturesque point of view. 
 Mr. Gilpin in his Remarks on Forest Sce- 
 nery observes that, " He who would see the 
 alder in perfection, must follow the banks 
 of the Mole in Surrey, through the winding 
 and delightful vales of Dorking and Mickle- 
 ham into the groves of Esher. The Mole, 
 indeed, is far from being a beautiful river ; 
 it is a silent and sluggish stream ; but what 
 beauty it has, it owes greatly to the alder, 
 which everywhere fringes its meadows, and 
 in many places forms very pleasing scenes, 
 especially in the vale between Box Hill and 
 the high grounds of Norbury Park." 
 
 The generality of trees acquire pictu- 
 resque beauty by age ; but it is not often 
 67 
 
 that they are suffered to attain this venerable 
 period : some use is commonly found for 
 them long before that period. The oak falls 
 for the greater purposes of man, and the 
 alder is ready to supply a variety of his 
 smaller wants. 
 
 The remark as to the wants and purposes 
 of man tending to prevent the growth of 
 trees to their full maturity, is too well ex- 
 emplified in the case of the alder ; yet they 
 are sometimes allowed to come to perfection. 
 Mr. Beevor mentions an alder in his garden, 
 which, at four feet from the ground, mea- 
 sured upwards of sixteen feet in circum- 
 ference. 
 
 Some of the largest alders we have seen 
 in England are growing in the Bishop of 
 Durham's park at Bishop-Auckland, and 
 some very fine ones are to be found in 
 his Grace the Duke of Northumberland's 
 grounds at Sion House. We fully agree 
 with Mr. Gilpin in his commendation of the 
 alder. It is always associated in our minds 
 with river scenery, both of that tranquil 
 description most frequently to be met with 
 in the vales of England, and with that of a 
 wilder and more picturesque cast, which is 
 to be found amidst the deep glens and ravines 
 of Scotland. Whoever has traversed the 
 banks of the North and South Esks, winding 
 their rocky way through the extensive do- 
 main of his Grace the Duke of Buccleuch, 
 Dalkeith Park, near Edinburgh — the Mar- 
 quis of Lothian's, Newbattle Abbey — and 
 Lord Melvil's at Melvil Castle, — will bear 
 testimony to the picturesque effect of the 
 alder. The romantic scenery about Roslin 
 Castle and Hawthorndean is much indebted 
 to the alder for fine effect. 
 
 Sir Thomas Dick Lauder says, " In very 
 many instances we have seen the alder put 
 on so much of the bold resolute character 
 of the oak, that it might have been mistaken 
 for that tree except for the intense depth of 
 its green colour. The Mole may doubtless 
 furnish the traveller with very beautiful 
 specimens of the alder, as it may also furnish 
 a specimen of that species of quiet English 
 scenery we have alluded to ; but we venture 
 to assert, that nowhere will the tree be found 
 in greater perfection than on the wild banks 
 of the river Findhorn and its tributary 
 streams, where scenery of the most romantic 
 character everywhere prevails." 
 
 " The alder, like the birch," says Marshall, 
 " suffers as an ornamental tree from an as- 
 sociation of ideas ; we not only see it very 
 common, but we see it in low, dreary, dirty 
 situations ; nevertheless, if the alder be suf- 
 fered to form its own head, in an open ad- 
 vantageous situation, it is by no means an 
 unsightly tree. In Stowe Gardens, in what 
 is called the old part, there are some very 
 r 2 
 
ALDER TREE. 
 
 fine ones ; and in coming round from the 
 house by the road leading to Buckingham, 
 there is one which is truly ornamental. 
 Hacked and disfigured in the manner in 
 which alders in general are, they have but 
 little effect in doing away the unsightliness 
 of a swamp ; but if they were suffered to 
 rise in groups and singlets, open enough to 
 have room to form their full tops, and close 
 enough to hide sufficiently the unseemliness 
 of the surface, even a moor or a morass, seen 
 from a distance, might be rendered an 
 agreeable object." (On Planting, ii. 37.) 
 
 The wood of the alder is used for making 
 charcoal and heating ovens, and is valuable 
 for piles, pumps, sluices, and in general for 
 all works under water ; " because," says 
 Pliny, " it will endure for many years." It 
 is said to have been used under the Rialto 
 at Venice ; and we are told that the morasses 
 about Ravenna were piled with it in order 
 to lay foundations for building upon. In 
 Flanders and Holland it is raised in great 
 quantities for this purpose. It serves also 
 many domestic and rural uses, such as for 
 cart-wheels, spinning-wheels, milk-vessels, 
 bowls, spoons, and other turnery ware, 
 troughs, handles of tools, clogs, pattens, and 
 wooden heels. The roots and knots furnish 
 a beautiful veined wood for cabinets. The 
 Scottish Highlanders often make chairs of 
 it, which are very handsome, and of the 
 colour of mahogany. 
 
 Sir Thomas Dick Lauder tells us that the 
 old trees, which are full of knots, cut up into 
 planks, make very handsome tables. " We 
 have seen some of these," says the baronet, 
 " made from some enormous trees that grew 
 at Dalwick, on the property of Sir John 
 Nasmyth, in Peebleshire ; and no foreign 
 wood we have ever seen can match them for 
 beauty." 
 
 The bark, though nearly superseded by 
 logwood, is used by dyers, tanners, and 
 leather-dressers ; and also by fishermen for 
 dyeing their nets. Both the bark and young 
 shoots dye yellow, and with a little copperas, 
 a yellowish grey, very useful in the demi- 
 tints and shadows of flesh colour in tapestry. 
 The shoots cut in March will dye a cinnamon 
 colour ; and a fine tawny, if they be dried 
 and powdered.- The fresh wood yields a 
 dye the colour of rappee snuff. The catkins 
 dye green, and the bark is used as a basis 
 for black. The bark and leaves have been 
 sometimes employed in tanning leather, the 
 whole tree being very astringent. 
 
 The Alder delights in a very moist soil, 
 where few other trees will thrive : — 
 
 " The Alder, owner of each waterish soil." 
 
 Fairfax's Tasso. 
 
 It is also an old opinion that it does not in- 
 j ure grass, but rather nourishes its growth : — 
 68 
 
 «* The Alder, whose fat shadow nourisheth ; 
 Each plant set neere to him long flourisheth." 
 
 W. Browne. 
 
 Marshall is of a very different opinion. 
 "In low swampy situations," he says, "where 
 the ground cannot be drained but at too 
 great an expense, the alder may be planted 
 with propriety and advantage ; but wherever 
 the soil is or can be made pasturable, the 
 alder should by no means be allowed to gain 
 a footing. Its suckers and seedlings poison 
 the herbage ; and it is a fact well known to 
 the observant husbandman, that the roots 
 of the alder have a peculiar property of ren- 
 dering the soil they grow in more moist and 
 rotten than it would be if not occupied by 
 this aqueous plant. Plantations of alders 
 should therefore be confined to swampy, 
 low, unpasturable places ; except when they 
 are made for the purposes of ornament ; and 
 in this case the native species ought to give 
 place to its more ornamental varieties, of 
 which Hanbury makes five, namely, the 
 log-leaved alder, the white alder, the black 
 alder, the hoary-leaved alder, and the 
 dwarf alder." (On Planting, ii. 37.) The 
 cut-leaved is a pretty variety. 
 
 It is propagated by layers, cuttings, or 
 truncheons, about three feet in length. Such 
 truncheons are often employed for securing 
 the banks of rivers, either by planting them 
 very close, or crosswise. For general pur- 
 poses, however, we approve of raising the 
 young trees by layers. This operation 
 should be performed in October, and by the 
 autumn following they will have taken root 
 sufficiently to be transplanted. The distance 
 at which these trees should be placed, if in- 
 tended for a coppice, is a yard square ; and 
 at the expiration of seven years, when they 
 may be felled for poles, every other stool 
 may be taken away ; and if the small lateral 
 shoots be taken off in the spring, it will very 
 much strengthen the upright poles, provided 
 a few small shoots be left at certain distances 
 upon the trunk, to detain the sap for the in- 
 crease of its bulk. 
 
 The alder may be raised from seeds sown 
 in beds in the same way as is usual for birch ; 
 but propagation by truncheons or layers is 
 the most speedy process for obtaining young 
 plants. 
 
 The best time for planting alder trun- 
 cheons is in February or March. They should 
 be about three feet in length, sharpened at 
 one end, and the ground loosened with an 
 instrument before they are thrust into it, 
 lest by the stiffness of the soil the bark should 
 be torn off, which may prevent their growing. 
 They should be put into the earth about 
 two feet, to prevent their being blown out 
 of the ground by strong winds. After they 
 have made stout shoots, the plantations 
 
ALDER TREE, BLACK. 
 
 ALDERNEY COWS. 
 
 should be cleared from all such weeds as 
 grow tall, otherwise they will overbear the 
 young shoots ; but when they have made 
 good heads, they will keep down the weeds, 
 and will require no further care. 
 
 If they be raised by laying down the 
 branches, it must be performed in October ; 
 and by the October following, they will have 
 taken root sufficiently to be transplanted 
 out ; which must be done by digging a hole, 
 and loosening the earth in the place where 
 each plant is to stand, planting the young 
 trees at least a foot and a half deep, cutting 
 off the top to about nine inches above the 
 surface, which will occasion them to shoot 
 out many branches. 
 
 Mr. South in the sixth volume of the 
 Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of 
 England Society has stated, that, on planting 
 a waggon-load of truncheons in such situa- 
 tions as have been described above, they all 
 appeared to succeed by throwing out strong 
 shoots the first summer, but that the year 
 following they all died, not having struck a 
 single root. Concluding that this did not 
 depend on any defect in the soil, he planted 
 it again with small-rooted slips, taken from 
 old stubs, few of which failed, most of them 
 having been since repeatedly cut for brush- 
 wood, poles, and other purposes ; and of 
 those planted single, he observes, one has 
 formed a conical top of great beauty, and 
 that its bole is three feet seven inches in cir- 
 cumference midway between the branches 
 and the ground. From this statement it 
 would seem, that the best mode of securing 
 the growth of those trees is the planting of 
 the rooted slips, which can be easily done, 
 as great quantities of young shoots are an- 
 nually thrown out from about the roots of 
 this sort of trees. 
 
 Where there are plantations, or much of 
 this sort of wood on a farm, Arthur Young 
 advises that it should be cut when the bark 
 will peel, and be immediately soaked in a 
 pond for two months, as by this means the 
 wood is so much hardened as to be greatly 
 improved in its quality. 
 
 The leaves of the Alder are often exten- 
 sively devoured and the trees injured by 
 the caterpillar of a saw-fly (Selandria aim), 
 as observed by M. Reaumur in France, and 
 by ourselves in England. There is a small 
 beetle, also, with shining dark violet-blue 
 wing-cases (Chrysomela betulce), which we 
 remarked to be very injurious to the exten- 
 tensive plantations of alder, intended for 
 charcoal, on the Rhine, near Obercassel. 
 (Miller's Dictionary.') 
 
 ALDER TREE, BLACK. (Alnus 
 nigra, Frangula.) This shrub grows in 
 moist low places and woods, flowering in 
 spring, and fruiting in autumn. Its shoots 
 69 
 
 are brittle, and covered with a brown bark* 
 Its roundish formed leaves are bright green, 
 veined, and terminate in a point. Its small 
 white flowers are followed by large black 
 berries. Its inner yellow rind is an excel- 
 lent purgative, taken in decoction or infu- 
 sion, which is milder. The patient must 
 take it in very mild doses at first, to ascer- 
 tain its effect upon his constitution, as weak 
 and delicate subjects might suffer from its 
 powerful effects, if overdosed. It is good 
 against jaundice, and opens obstructions of 
 the liver. The bark bruised in vinegar is a safe 
 and excellent cure for the itch, applying it 
 outwardly till it takes effect. The decocted 
 outward bark is a fine astringent and styptic. 
 The leaves, bruised and applied, heal ulcers, 
 hot swellings, and inflammations, (L. John- 
 son.) 
 
 ALDER ELY, also known to anglers as 
 the orange tawny, or orange brown camlet fly. 
 " It is in season," says Taylor, 44 from the 
 latter end of February to about a week in 
 April, and is the first fly which begins the 
 diversion of fly-fishing." 
 
 ALDERNEY COWS. This admired 
 breed of cows is in general fine-boned, but 
 small and ill-made, and of a light red or 
 yellowish colour. Cows of this breed are 
 most frequently met with about the seats 
 of the opulent, from their milk, though 
 smaller in quantity, being more rich in 
 quality than that of most other kinds, and 
 yielding from the same measure a larger pro- 
 portion of cream and butter, which is of a 
 beautiful yellow colour and fine flavour. 
 They are much inclined to fatten, and their 
 beef has a very fine grain, and is well tasted, 
 but rather more yellow or high-coloured 
 than that of other sorts. 
 
 Mr. Lawrence in his general treatise on 
 cattle, however, supposes, " that the cattle 
 of the islands on the French coast are col- 
 lectively known by the name of Alderney ;" 
 and that " these are a variety of, and smaller 
 than, the Norman ; light red, yellow, dun, 
 and fawn-coloured ; short, wild-horned, 
 deer-necked, with a general resemblance to 
 that animal ; thin, hard, and small-boned ; 
 irregular, often very awkwardly shaped." 
 But he considers this description to refer 
 chiefly to the cows. He thinks " they are 
 amongst the best milkers in the world as to 
 quality, and in that respect are either before 
 or immediately next to the long horn, but 
 that in weight of butter for inches they are 
 far superior to all. He has been assured by 
 a respectable friend, that " an Alderney 
 strayed cow during the three weeks she 
 was kept by the finder made nineteen 
 pounds of butter each week ; and the fact 
 was held so extraordinary, as to be thought 
 worth a memorandum in the parish books." 
 f 3 
 
ALDERNEY COWS. 
 
 ALE. 
 
 And it is added, that " the Norman and 
 island cattle make fat very quick, and for 
 their bulk arrive at considerable weight. 
 The beef," in his opinion, " is of the first 
 class, very fine grained, in colour yellow, or 
 of a high colour, with a bluish cast and elastic 
 feel, which denotes the closest grained, most 
 savoury, and finest meat." It is in his re- 
 collection, that, " some years since, a heifer, 
 bred between Alderney and Kentish home- 
 bred stock, and fattened on cabbages and 
 carrots, made one hundred and fifty stone, 
 dying uncommonly fat." On this ground he 
 supposes, that " this species is, in course, a 
 proper cross for the large and coarse-boned ; 
 but in that view he would prefer the real 
 Normans from the Continent, as generally 
 better shaped than the islanders." He like- 
 wise states, that " many persons near the 
 metropolis, and along the south and western 
 coast, make a trade of importing these cattle, 
 which are extremely convenient for private 
 families, and make a good figure in parks 
 and lawns." 
 
 Mr. Culley, however, remarks, that they 
 are a breed of cattle too delicate and tender 
 to be much attended to by the British farmer, 
 and not capable of bearing the cold of this 
 island, especially the northern parts of it. 
 
 By an experiment which is stated in the 
 Report for the County of Kent, made be- 
 tween a large home-bred cow of eight years 
 old and a small Alderney of two years old, 
 it appears that the home-bred cow in seven 
 days gave thirty-five gallons of milk, which 
 made ten pounds and three ounces of butter, 
 and the Alderney cow, in the same length of 
 time, gave only fourteen gallons of milk, but 
 which made six pounds and eight ounces of 
 butter. 
 
 Very useful cattle may be bred by crossing 
 these cows with short-horned bulls. The late 
 Mr. Hunter also produced a very beautiful 
 cow from the Alderney by a buffalo, which 
 is said, in the Middlesex Report, to have kept 
 plump and fat, both in summer and winter, 
 on much less food than would be sufficient 
 to support a beast of the same size of the 
 ordinary breed. 
 
 ALE. (Sax. eale.) A liquor obtained 
 from the infusion of malt and hops by fer- 
 mentation. Ale differs from beer chiefly by 
 having a smaller proportion of hops. There 
 are different sorts of ale brewed, such as 
 strong ale, table ale, pale ale, and brown ale. 
 The pale ale is made from malt which has 
 only been slightly dried, and is generally 
 considered as of a more viscid quality than 
 the brown ale, which is produced from malt 
 that has been roasted, or very hard dried. 
 (Miller.) See Beer and Brewing. The 
 fertility of the soil in grain, and its being 
 not proper for vines, put the Egyptians 
 
 upon drinking ale, of which they were the 
 inventors. (Arbuthnot.) 
 
 A Jiquor made from fermented barley is 
 mentioned by Herodotus {1. ii. c. 77.) : the 
 earliest manufactured kind of intoxicating 
 liquid was probably, however, mead. Ta- 
 citus notices the use of beer by the Germans. 
 Pliny describes it as common to all the na- 
 tions of the west. It has long been a fa- 
 vourite beverage of the inhabitants of this 
 island. Our Saxon and Danish forefathers 
 drank beer to excess. They regarded it as 
 the drink allotted to those admitted into the 
 Hall of Odin. Ale is named amongst the 
 laws of king Ina ; and it was long the cus- 
 tom, when the Norman princes were on the 
 throne, to regulate its price by statute : thus 
 in 1272 it was ordained that a brewer should 
 sell two gallons of ale in a city for a penny, 
 or three or four gallons for the same price 
 in the country. 
 
 Hops were apparently first used for beer 
 in Germany, and in the Dutch breweries 
 about the year 1400; but they were not 
 used generally in England until about the 
 year 1600. Henry VIII. in 1530 even for- 
 bade the brewers to mix hops in their beer ; 
 and yet, according to Rickmann (Hist of 
 Inv. vol. iv. p. 386.), plantations of hops had 
 begun to be formed in England A. d. 1552: 
 The distinction between ale and beer is thus 
 stated by Dr. Thomson : " Both are obtained 
 by fermentation from the malt of barley, but 
 they differ from each other in several par- 
 ticulars, ale is light-coloured, brisk, and 
 sweetish, or at least free from bitter ; while 
 beer is dark-coloured, bitter, and much less 
 brisk. Porter is a species of beer, and is 
 what was formerly called strong beer. The 
 original difference between ale and beer was 
 owing to the malt, from which they were 
 prepared Ale malt was dried at a very 
 low heat, and consequently was of a pale 
 colour ; while beer or porter malt was dried 
 at a higher temperature, and had in conse- 
 quence acquired a brown colour. This in- 
 cipient charring had developed a peculiar, 
 and agreeable bitter taste, which was com- 
 municated to the beer along with the dark 
 colour. This bitter taste rendered beer more 
 agreeable to the palate, and less injurious to 
 the constitution than ale. It was manu- 
 factured in larger quantities, and soon be- 
 came the common drink of the lower ranks 
 in England. When during the wars of the 
 French Revolution the price of malt was very 
 materially increased, the brewers found out 
 that a greater quantity of wort of a given 
 strength could be procured from pale malt, 
 than from brown malt ; the consequence was, 
 that pale malt was to a considerable extent 
 substituted for brown malt in the brewing 
 of porter and beer. The wort now, however, 
 
ALEHOOF. 
 
 ALIMENT. 
 
 was paler, and wanted that agreeable bitter 
 flavour which characterised porter. The 
 porter brewers endeavoured to remedy these 
 defects by several artificial additions, such 
 as burnt sugar, quassia, &c. and most of 
 which the chief London porter brewers have, 
 I believe, long since discontinued." Brewers 
 are obliged, under the 6 Geo. 4. c. 81., to take 
 out an annual license, for which they pay, 
 if brewers of strong beer, 
 
 Barrels. L. t. 
 
 Of not exceeding - - - - 20 0 10 
 Of exceeding 1,000 and not exceeding 2,000 3 0 
 
 — 10,000 — 20,000 30 0 
 
 — 30,000 — 40,000 60 0 
 Exceeding - 40,000 75 0 
 
 Considering the increase of population in 
 England, the consumption of beer has not 
 materially increased since 1787, as the fol- 
 lowing table of the beer brewed in this coun- 
 try in various years will show. 
 
 Years ending 
 5th July. 
 
 Strong Beer. 
 
 Table Beer. 
 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 Barrels. 
 
 1787 
 
 4,426,482 * 
 
 485,620 
 
 1797 
 
 5,839,627 
 
 584,422 
 
 1807 
 
 5,577,176 
 
 1,732,710 
 
 1817 
 
 5,236,048 
 
 1,453,960 
 
 1825 
 
 6,500,664 
 
 1,485,750 
 
 The number of barrels of beer exported 
 from England is considerable and increasing, 
 amounting in the years ending the 
 
 5th of January, 1826 to 53,013 barrels. 
 
 — 1828 — 59,471 — 
 
 — 1830—74,902 — 
 (M'CullocKs Diet, of Com.) 
 
 ALEHOOF. (Hedera terrestris. From 
 ale, and hoopt, head.) Ground-ivy„so called 
 by our Saxon ancestors, as being their chief 
 ingredient in ale. This wild plant creeps 
 upon hedge banks, at the foot of trees, and 
 in every shady place, flowering in spring. 
 It takes root at every joint, like the straw- 
 berry runners, and its leaves are roundish 
 and notched at their edges, becoming a 
 purple colour as the spring advances. Its 
 flowers are blue, and its roots fibrous. This 
 plant has a peculiar and strong smell ; and it 
 is best gathered when in flower. It is an 
 excellent vulnerary or wound-herb, applied 
 outwardly, and taken inwardly. An oint- 
 ment made from alehoof, or ground-ivy, is 
 very healing to ulcers and fistula. The de- 
 coction of the herb drank daily for a con- 
 tinuance is admirable in cleansing the sto- 
 mach, promoting the proper secretions, and 
 sweetening the blood ; also a fine strength- 
 ening eye-water. The old writers affirm, 
 that "equal quantities of ground-ivy, ce- 
 landine, and daisies, decocted, strained, and 
 applied as a wash to the eyes, will remove all 
 inflammations, spots, web, smarting, and 
 any grief whatsoever." It is very strength- 
 ening to weak and aching backs. Ground- 
 71 
 
 ivy, or alehoof, operates as a diuretic, and it 
 is excellent in disorders of the lungs and 
 breast. It obtained its name of Alehoof 
 among the poor, who infuse it in ale or beer, 
 and drink it warm, for all internal ailments. 
 (Z. Johnson.) 
 
 ALEHOUSE. (Sax. ealhu r .) A house 
 where ale is publicly sold, more generally 
 known now by the term " beer shop." 
 Beer shops are regulated by the 1 W. 4. 
 c. 64. and by the 4 & 5 W. 4. c. 85. By 
 these a license is now only granted to 
 any person to sell beer to be drank on the 
 premises, on the applicant depositing with 
 the commissioners of excise a certificate of 
 good character, signed by six rated inhabi- 
 tants of the parish, and certified by one of 
 the overseers of the parish, which certificate 
 if false in any particular, renders the license 
 void. And for the license for the selling by 
 retail of beer not to be drank or consumed 
 in or upon the house or premises -where sold, 
 the annual sum of 11. Is. And where the 
 beer shall be drank or consumed in or upon 
 the house or premises where sold, the annual 
 sum of 31. Ss. 
 
 ALEXANDER (Hipposelinum). This 
 garden vegetable has been superseded by 
 celery, yet it was an excellent vegetable, 
 and grows abundantly wild almost every 
 where. The seeds and root are hot and dry 
 like those of parsley, cleansing and alter- 
 nating in quality. The root and seed de- 
 cocted in wine promote the proper secretions 
 during childbirth. They are also excellent 
 against flatulence and strangury. The 
 leaves applied as a poultice reduce wens 
 and cleanse ulcers and wounds. The root 
 is good decocted, in asthma and coughs. 
 (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ALIEN. (Lat. alienus.) Foreign, or not 
 of the same family or land. Thus Dryden, 
 
 " The mother plant admires the leaves unknown, 
 Of alien trees, and apples not her own." 
 
 In law, an alien is one born in a strange 
 country and never naturalized. 
 
 ALIMENT. (Lat. alimentum.) That 
 which nourishes, nutriment or food. 
 
 Of alimentary roots, some are pulpy and 
 very nutritious, as turnips and carrots. 
 These have a fattening quality. (Arbuth. on 
 Aliments.) See Gases, Earth, Water, 
 &c. 
 
 The food of animals, whether of a solid or 
 liquid kind, should be adapted to their dif- 
 ferent organs, both in quantity and quality, 
 in order that they may. exist in the most 
 perfect state. It is observed, that nature 
 directs every animal, instinctively, to choose 
 such substances for food as are best adapted 
 to its health and support ; but as some are 
 withdrawn from their natural condition for 
 f 4 
 
ALKALI. 
 
 ALL-HALLOWS. 
 
 the convenience of man, and, in their do- 
 mesticated state, are fed on artificial pro- 
 ductions not of their own choice, it becomes 
 a matter of serious importance to the owners 
 of cattle, horses, &c. to make themselves ac- 
 quainted with their nature and habits, and 
 also with the qualities of those substances 
 which are usually designed as food for them, 
 since there is no doubt but errors in the 
 choice of the latter must be a fruitful source 
 of disease. Besides, in the view of the 
 grazier, some sorts of food may be much 
 more advantageous in the quality of fat- 
 tening animals than others — a circumstance 
 of vast importance. See Food. 
 
 ALKALI. The word alkali comes from 
 a herb called by the Egyptians kali ; by us 
 glasswort. This herb they burnt to ashes, 
 boiled the ashes in water, and after having 
 evaporated the water, there remained at the 
 bottom a white salt — this they called sal 
 kali or alkali. (Todd's Johnson.} The word 
 is of Arabic origin ; according to Albertus 
 Magnus it signifies " the dregs of bitterness." 
 (Thomson, vol. ii. p. 49.) 
 
 The chief alkalies found in plants are 
 potash and soda; ammonia, it is true, is 
 produced by the distillation of certain vege- 
 tables, but it is a product of the distillation ; 
 and again, morphia is obtained from opium, 
 quinia from the Peruvian bark, &c; but 
 these alkaline substances are but rarely met 
 with by the cultivator, and do not involve 
 any very important facts of vegetable che- 
 mistry. 
 
 Potash is found in all vegetables growing 
 at a distance from the sea; that of com- 
 merce is procured by merely burning the 
 vegetable, washing the ashes in water, and 
 evaporating the solution of potash thus ob- 
 tained to dryness. In this manner the pot- 
 ash of commerce is made. The proportion, 
 however, of potash existing in plants varies 
 very considerably, as may be seen from the 
 following table of the quantities of ashes and 
 potash obtained from 100 parts -of various 
 plants: — 
 
 Thomson's Chan. iv. 189. 
 
 72 
 
 The potash thus obtained, however, must 
 not be regarded as a pure alkali, for it con- 
 tains almost always a small portion of various 
 salts, such as the sulphate of potash, muriate 
 of potash, sulphate of lime, phosphate of 
 lime, &c. 
 
 Soda abounds in marine plants gene- 
 rally to a much greater extent than potash 
 does in the vegetables of inland districts ; 
 the barilla of Spain is extracted from the 
 salsola sativa and vermiculata, and some 
 of these plants yield nearly 20 per cent, 
 of ashes, which contain about 2 per cent, 
 of soda. 
 
 The union of alkalies with acids forms the 
 class of bodies known as the alkaline salts. 
 
 ALKANET. (Anchusa, Lat.) This 
 plant is a species of bugloss with a red root, 
 brought from the southern parts of France, 
 and used in medicine. It grows wild in 
 Kent and Cornwall, but in other counties 
 only in gardens. It flowers in summer, and 
 its root becomes red in autumn. The root 
 is astringent : the leaves not so much so. 
 The root boiled with butter or lard into an 
 ointment, is good for bruises ; a decoction 
 of it mixed with honey and drank freely, is 
 excellent in the jaundice, in ague, and in 
 diseases of the kidneys; sliced into beer, 
 and made hot, it is a good drink in the 
 measles and small-pox. The leaves with 
 hyssop, drank in infusion, kill worms ; and 
 the leaves and root in wine are considered 
 good in disorders of the womb. The leaves, 
 applied with honey and meal, are healing in 
 luxations. 
 
 ALKEKENGI. A medicinal fruit or 
 berry, produced by a plant of the same de- 
 nomination; also popularly called winter- 
 cherry. The plant bears a near resemblance 
 to Solanum nigrum or Nightshade, whence 
 it is frequently called in Latin by that name, 
 with the addition or epithet of vesicarium. 
 (Chambers.) 
 
 ALLEY. In husbandry, implies the va- 
 cant space between the outermost row of 
 corn on one bed, and the nearest row to it 
 on the next parallel bed. 
 
 Alley. In gardening, implies a straight 
 walk, bounded on both sides with trees or 
 shrubs, and commonly covered with .gravel 
 or grass. 
 
 ALL-HALLOWS. All- Hallowmas, All- 
 Hallowtide, or simply- Hallowmas, the old 
 English name for All-Saints Day, or the 
 1st of November. (From all and hallow, to 
 make holv.) All-Hallowmas was the Saxon 
 term, as is evidenced by the rubric prefixed 
 to the 5th chapter of Matthew, in the Saxon 
 version of the Scriptures. Boucher, in his 
 learned and valuable Glossary of Archaic 
 and Provincial Words, remarks, that while 
 the other ancient forms, Christinas, Michael- 
 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Sallow ... 
 
 2-8 
 
 0-285 
 
 Elm 
 
 2-36727 
 
 0-39 
 
 Oak 
 
 1-35185 
 
 0 15343 
 
 Poplar - 
 
 1-23476 
 
 0-07481 
 
 Hornbeam - 
 
 1-1283 
 
 0-1254 
 
 Beach ... 
 
 0-58432 
 
 0 14572 
 
 Fir ... 
 
 0-34133 
 
 
 Hue branches 
 
 3-379 
 
 0-55 
 
 Common nettle - 
 
 10-67186 
 
 25033 
 
 Common thistle - 
 
 4-04265 
 
 0-53734 
 
 Fern ... 
 
 4-00781 
 
 0 6259 
 
 Stalks of Turkey wheat - 
 
 8-86 
 
 1-75 
 
 Wormwood 
 
 9744 
 
 73 
 
 Fumitory 
 
 21-9 
 
 7-9 
 
 Trifolium pratense 
 
 
 0-078 
 
 Vetches - 
 
 
 2-75 
 
 Beans, with their stalks - 
 
 
 20 
 
ALL-HEAL, CLOWN'S. 
 
 ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. 
 
 mas, &c, have been generally preserved, that 
 of All-Hallowmas is now only used in the 
 northern counties. All-Hallowmas derives its 
 greatest importance from the popular usages 
 which in our own, and various other countries, 
 have distinguished sometimes the day itself, 
 hut more generally the night preceding, 
 called its eve or vigil. For a particular ac- 
 count of the various modes in which its ob- 
 servances are to be made, I must refer the 
 curious reader to Burns's poem on the sub- 
 ject, and the notes by which it is illustrated. 
 (Penny Cyclopedia.} 
 
 ALL-HEAL, CLOWN'S. (Panax Co- 
 loni.) A species of iron wort which is found 
 in moist lands. It has long hairy leaves, 
 an'd small red flowers in clusters round the 
 stalk-joints. They are not unlike the dead 
 nettle, only smaller. The All-heal is a pe- 
 rennial, and its root creeps : it flowers in 
 August. The leaves of the All-heal must 
 be used quite fresh, bruised, and laid upon 
 a new wound, or cut, and bandaged over : 
 it heals, and stops the bleeding, without any 
 other combination. This most useful little 
 herb flowers from May till September, and 
 loves moist places. Whatever is most use- 
 ful, is wisely and beneficently allowed to 
 remain long with us. (L. Johnson.) " At 
 Yule-tide, which was the most respectable 
 festival of the Druids, mistletoe, which they 
 called All-heal, was carried in their hands 
 and laid on their altars, as an emblem of 
 the salutiferous advent of Messiah." (Stuhe- 
 ley's Medallic Hist, of Carausius, b. 2.) 
 
 ALLIUM. See Onion, Garlic, Leek, 
 Shalot, Chives, &c. 
 
 ALLODIAL TENURE OF LAND. A 
 free tenure in some parts of Scotland, in 
 which the tenant pays no quit rent, or ac- 
 knowledges any superior. From the end 
 of the fifth to the end of the eighth century, 
 allodial tenure prevailed in France. 
 
 The etymology of the word has given rise 
 to much controversy. Sir H. Spelman, Dr. 
 Robertson, Sir W. Blackstone, and others, 
 have proposed several ingenious solutions 
 of the difficulty, which are, however, founded 
 on mere conjecture. (Knighfs Cyclopedia.) 
 
 ALLOTMENTS OF LAND. Are those 
 portions of ground that are allotted to claim- 
 ants on the division and inclosure of com- 
 mons, or other waste lands, and which ought 
 to be proportionate to the extent of common 
 right which they enjoy upon them, from the 
 possession of lands, tenements, &c, in the 
 same parish in which they are situate. 
 
 ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. This desig- 
 nation has been applied to a plan for bet- 
 tering the condition of the poor, by allotting 
 to each family in a parish an extent of ground 
 for the purpose of cultivation with the spade. 
 Under the article Agriculture it is 
 73 
 
 noticed, that in England, during the feudal 
 times, an allotment system existed. Its ob- 
 ject, however, was different : the lords of 
 the soil, having an interest in obtaining as 
 many tenants as they could, for their power 
 was proportionate to their number, portioned 
 their estates into as many small allotments 
 as they could obtain family tenants, receiv- 
 ing in return certain days of military or 
 other service. 
 
 When the feudal system was destroyed, 
 the lords let their lands in a similar manner, 
 receiving as rent certain quantities of labour 
 from the tenant, or produce of the land he 
 rented ; although, it not being now an ob- 
 ject to maintain the number of their tenants, 
 but rather to acquire an increased return 
 of produce, and to obtain a prosperous te- 
 nantry, no obstacle was thrown in the way 
 of increasing the size of farms. Land was 
 left like any other subject of investment, 
 and a man obtained as much as his means 
 of cultivating permitted, or as he found to 
 be profitable. These were powerful limit- 
 ations, for money was scarce, and the agri- 
 culturists were chiefly tenants, labourers 
 for hire being few. 
 
 In the fourteenth century occurred the 
 greatest revolution that ever happened to 
 the agriculture of this country. The in- 
 creased demand for wool in the Netherlands 
 and at home, rendered the breeding of sheep 
 much more profitable than the gi owing of 
 corn, and consequently the arable lands 
 were converted into pastures. England had 
 been very closely cultivated, and the small 
 or cotter farms were extremely numerous. 
 These were now generally exterminated, 
 and the land-proprietor becoming a great 
 flock-master, converted them all into one 
 breadth of grazing land. " Your sheep," 
 says Sir Thomas More in his Utopia, " that 
 were wont to be so meek and tame, and 
 such small eaters, are now become such 
 great devourers, and so wild, that they eat 
 up and swallow down the very men them- 
 selves." — " One covetous and unsatiable cor- 
 morant, and very plague of his native country, 
 compasses about and encloses many thousand 
 acres of ground together within one pale or 
 hedge, the husbandmen are thrust out of 
 their own, or else, either by covin and fraud, 
 or by violent oppression, they are put beside 
 it, or by wrongs and injuries they be so 
 wearied that they be compelled to sell all ; 
 by one means or other, either by hook or 
 by crook, they must needs depart away, 
 poor, silly, wretched souls, men, women, 
 husbands, wives, fatherless children, widows, 
 woeful mothers with their young babes, and 
 their whole household, small in substance 
 and much in number, as husbandry requireth 
 many hands. For one shepherd or herds- 
 
ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. 
 
 man is enough to eat up that ground, to 
 the occupying whereof about husbandry 
 many hands were required." 
 
 Some few of the cotter farmers were re- 
 duced to the grade of hired shepherds ; 
 others became artisans, a still smaller num- 
 ber retained a plot of land, but a large por- 
 tion (for even monastic support was now 
 abolished) became beggars, who, as all re- 
 cords agree, infested England. This gave 
 birth to the poor laws, and the same reign 
 of Elizabeth was the era of an effort to re- 
 medy the evils which had arisen from this 
 destruction of small farms. 
 
 It had been experienced that though the 
 tenants of those small farms had been poor, 
 yet none of them were paupers ; it was 
 therefore thought that every mode of re- 
 curring to such a system must be bene- 
 ficial ; and in accordance with this opinion 
 an act of parliament was passed, command- 
 ing that to every cottage that should be 
 erected, four acres of ground should be al- 
 lotted. This first suggestion of the allot- 
 ment system failed. The quantity of ground 
 allotted was too large, and from its inter- 
 fering with the just liberties of the landed 
 proprietors, this act was repealed in the last 
 century. 
 
 As the value of all farming produce in- 
 creased from various causes, the profits be- 
 coming commensurately large, cultivators 
 required more extensive farms, consolida- 
 tion proceeded, and in 1709 the first inclo- 
 sure act passed ; and from that time to the 
 present the small occupiers have gradually 
 further diminished, as their right of com- 
 monage and the like was taken away by the 
 four thousand enclosure bills that have since 
 been enacted. 
 
 When small farmers are deprived of their 
 tenements, they become, if they continue 
 agriculturists, farming labourers. It becomes 
 a subject of very great political importance, 
 therefore, to ascertain how the character 
 and comfort of these, who are now by far 
 the most numerous class in society, can be 
 best promoted. It would be here misplaced 
 to examine how- the system of poor laws 
 has served in various ways to debase and 
 depress them; our present object must be 
 to consider how the allotment system may be 
 the best made to promote contrary effects. 
 
 This system, we have noticed, suggested 
 itself to the legislature in the reign of Eliz- 
 abeth, but it was of very limited operation. 
 
 On the Continent, a system of larger al- 
 lotments was partially adopted in the year 
 1707, in the Duchy of Cleves, but we are 
 not aware that the example was followed, 
 till, after the lapse of more than a century, 
 the Dutch government, in 1818, divided 
 tracts of poor soil at Frederick's Oord, and 
 74 
 
 other places, into allotments of seven acres. 
 The government provided overseers to no- 
 tice the moral conduct and industry of the 
 tenants ; advanced capital when needed, 
 which was to be repaid ; and an annual 
 rent was to be returned. Manual labour 
 was exclusively adopted. The expense of 
 establishing each individual was 221. 6s. 4d. ; 
 and the annual excess of produce over the 
 subsistence of the family, after deducting 
 the rent, twelve shillings per acre, was 
 8/. 2*. 4d. (M. de Kirchoff. Jacob on the 
 Corn Trade, &c.) 
 
 About the year 1800, Dr. Law, Bishop 
 of Bath and Wells, commenced the allot- 
 ment system ; Sir H. Vavasour communi- 
 cated to the Board of Agriculture, about 
 the same period, some experiments demon- 
 strating the great benefit of " the Flemish," 
 or " field-gardening husbandry ; " and, in 
 1802, Charles Howard, Esq. followed the 
 example. 
 
 " On Pulley Common, in Shropshire," says 
 Sir W. Pulteney, " there is, at least there 
 was, a cottager's tenement of about 512 
 square yards, somewhat more than one ninth 
 of an acre. The spade and the hoe are the 
 only implements used, and those chiefly by 
 his wife, that he may follow his daily labour 
 for hire. The plot of land is divided into 
 two parcels, whereon she grows wheat and 
 potatoes alternately. In the month of Oc- 
 tober, when the potatoes are ripe, she takes 
 off the stalks of the plants, which she se- 
 cures to produce manure by littering her 
 pig. She then goes over the whole with a 
 rake, to collect the weeds for the dunghill. 
 She next sows the wheat, and then takes up 
 the potatoes with a three-pronged fork ; and 
 by this operation the wheat seed is covered 
 deep. She leaves it quite rough, and the 
 winter frost mellows the earth ; and by its 
 falling down in the spring it adds vigour to 
 the wheat plants. She has pursued this al- 
 ternate system of cropping for several years 
 without any diminution of produce. The 
 potatoe crop only has manure. In 1 804, a 
 year very noted for mildew, she had fifteen 
 Winchester bushels of wheat from 272 
 square yards, being four times the general 
 averaging crop of the neighbouring farmers. 
 It is to be wished such instances of cottage 
 industry were more frequent; and more 
 frequent they would be, were proper means 
 made use of to invigorate the spirit of ex- 
 ertion in the labouring class." 
 
 Since that period the patrons of the sys- 
 tem have been very numerous, and under 
 the influence of Lords Winchilsea, Brown- 
 low, Beverley, and Carrington, Sir John 
 Kushout, Sir John Swinburne, the late Sir 
 Thomas Bernard, Mr. Burdon of Castle 
 Eden, Mr. Babington of Leicestershire, Cap- 
 
ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. 
 
 tain Scobell of High Littleton, Bath, Mrs. 
 Gilbert of Eastbourn, and many others, it 
 has been extensively pursued. The clergy 
 have been especially promoters of this system. 
 Among them the rector of Springfield, in 
 Essex, deserves particular notice, for his 
 exertions and writings in its cause. 
 
 Within these few years the legislature has 
 promoted this system, by enabling parish 
 officers to rent or to purchase land, not ex- 
 ceeding twenty acres, for the purpose of 
 allotting it to the labourers of the parish ; 
 though this is much disapproved of by Cap- 
 tain Scobell, who very justly, as we think, 
 considers it indispensable for the tenants to 
 hold directly of the proprietors. 
 
 It remains for us to notice some of the 
 circumstances which require attention in its 
 adoption. 
 
 The allotment system is divided into two 
 branches : — 
 
 1. Home colonies, in which the settlers 
 have ground allotted sufficient, or more than 
 sufficient, to support themselves. 
 
 2. Family allotments, of such extent as 
 only to occupy occasionally the leisure hours 
 of the tenant and his family. 
 
 Of home colonies we shall not enter into 
 any lengthy consideration, for they have not 
 hitherto been adopted in this country, nor 
 do they appear to be worthy of that eulogy 
 which has occasionally been bestowed upon 
 them. They have been recommended to be 
 established on the wastes as an outlet and 
 means of support to our redundant labourers; 
 but it is obvious that this could be only a 
 temporary relief, for even supposing the im- 
 possibility that every labouring family can 
 be furnished with a cotter-farm, yet as the 
 rate of our population goes on increasing, 
 the same necessities as at present would 
 speedily recur. At the best it is but a tem- 
 porary expedient. No one can object to 
 the formation of such home colonies as the 
 means of establishing numerous labouring 
 families in comfortable independence ; and 
 we would not object to the extension of such 
 a system, so long as land could be found 
 for the purpose capable of producing more 
 food than is consumed by the tenant during 
 the period of cultivation. But we consider 
 it totally inefficacious as a measure of relief 
 from our pauper population. 
 
 To family allotments I can afford more 
 unqualified approbation, provided five cir- 
 cumstances be attended to ; namely, 1. that 
 no labourer shall have more ground than he 
 can easily cultivate without any other assist- 
 ance than that of his wife and family ; 2. that 
 it shall be entirely voluntary on the part of 
 the labourer whether or not he will occupy 
 such an allotment ; 3. that he shall pay the 
 full rent for it, and all other dues ; 4. that 
 75 
 
 every tenant shall be ejected, after due 
 notice, who does not pursue a cleanly and 
 non-exhausting course of cultivation ; and, 
 5. that the allotment tenant hold directly of 
 the proprietor, and not of any middleman 
 nor parish officer, and that he be prohibited 
 from sub -letting. 
 
 Where this system, and so regulated, has 
 been tried, and the experience is now very 
 extensive, the results have been most happy. 
 The condition of the poor has been ameli- 
 orated ; by rendering them more indepen- 
 dent, they have become more contented and 
 more careful ; better as citizens, and better 
 as individuals. 
 
 If they do not pay the marketable worth 
 of their allotment ; if it is at all compulsory ; 
 if the land is held of a middleman or parish 
 officer ; or if the bad tenant stands upon an 
 equal footing with the good, so in proportion 
 is the cheering feeling of independence and 
 the desire of excellence checked. 
 
 If the allotments much exceed a quarter 
 of an acre, or in any way approach to the 
 nature of cotter farms, a proportionate blow 
 is made at that employment of capital and 
 talent in agriculture which has raised it to 
 its present improved state. 
 
 " The advantages attending this system," 
 says a clerical writer in the Christian Ob- 
 server for 1832, " besides the comfort of the 
 poor man, are the diminution of the poor's 
 rate, and the moral improvement of the 
 labourer. Since this plan has been in oper- 
 ation, the poor-rate has been steadily de- 
 clining from about 320Z. to about 180Z. per 
 annum, with the prospect of still further 
 diminution. When the farmer's work is 
 scarce, the poor man finds profitable em- 
 ployment on his patch of ground, which if 
 he had not to occupy him, he would be sent 
 to idle upon the roads at the expense of the 
 parish. The system has the further and very 
 important effect of improving his character. 
 When the labourer has his little plot of 
 ground, from which he feels he shall not be 
 ejected as long as he conducts himself with 
 propriety, he has an object on which his 
 heart is fixed ; he has something at stake in 
 society ; he will not hang loose on the com- 
 munity, ready to join those who would 
 disturb it ; so much so, that in the late riots 
 no man in the parish showed any disposition 
 to join them." 
 
 From the year 1828 to the present time, 
 numerous pamphlets upon this subject have 
 appeared, and I may refer my readers for 
 further information to those of Dr. Law, 
 and of Messrs. Scobell, Scrope, Banfill, 
 Denson, Blackiston, Withers, &c. 
 
 Speaking of the vicinity of High Littleton, 
 Captain Scobell says, " There are in this 
 division twenty parishes, fourteen of which 
 
ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. 
 
 are agricultural, and the other six have, 
 besides the usual operations of agriculture, 
 one or more coal-pits situated in each. The 
 population of the division is nearly 18,000, 
 the area about forty-eight square miles, and 
 the number of acres from 30,000 to 35,000 ; 
 and all the parishes are from five to ten 
 miles from any city or town. In the spring 
 of 1831, field gardens were introduced in 
 High Littleton and Midsomer Norton ; in 
 1832, they were commenced in three other 
 parishes, two of them solely agricultural; 
 and in March 1833, seven additional parishes 
 followed the example. The results are, that 
 of the twenty parishes forming the division 
 of Chewton, twelve of them (comprehending 
 about thirty-two square miles) have adopted 
 the field garden system ; that these gardens, 
 in these twelve parishes, contain one hun- 
 dred and four acres of good fresh land, oc- 
 cupied by five hundred and three families, 
 271 of which are of the agricultural popula- 
 tion, and 232 of which are of the coaling 
 population. The whole of this land is let, 
 and the arrangements are managed by the 
 landlords, or a representative of their ap- 
 pointment. The rents charged ranged from 
 2\d. per pole, or 11. 16s. Sd. per acre, to 3±d. 
 per pole, or 21. 6s. 8d. per acre ; and the 
 average quantity in each garden is between 
 thirty-three and thirty-four poles. As an ex- 
 emplification of the operation of these field 
 gardens, in one main arrangement, I can 
 say, that of the 503 tenants I have spoken, 
 500 have paid the whole of their rent ; 
 and I happen to know, of the three not yet 
 having done so, one is a widow dangerously 
 ill. But it is a greater evidence of the 
 happy influence of the system, that I can 
 testify that during the three years' 1 occupa- 
 tion of the 179 tenants, in High Littleton and 
 Midsomer, not one has been convicted of any 
 crime whatever. Many of my tenants assured 
 
 me that, from the one-third portion of their 
 ground, which is planted in succession with 
 vegetables, not being potatoes, that there 
 has not been a day, for the past year, in 
 which their wives could not go and gather 
 something towards a dinner. I have, at some 
 pains, satisfied my curiosity, by ascertaining 
 how the plan operates in promoting the pre- 
 sence of the poor man's friend, the pig. Of 
 my forty-seven occupiers here, I find that 
 sixteen have usually kept pigs ; and that 
 ten others have done so in consequence of 
 their allotments. Some I found had pre- 
 mises without sties, and others had sties 
 without pigs or money to buy them. To 
 test the effect of confidence, even indiscri- 
 minately applied, I offered to lend the means 
 to any in the latter situation. I have done so 
 to seven of them, and have no doubt I shall 
 be repaid, by instalments, to the last farthing. 
 In one case only, the promised time of re- 
 payment has yet arrived, and that man has 
 refunded the whole amount, leaving with me 
 a written account, showing he had cleared 
 11. 7s. 2d. by his pig. I will here remark, 
 that of my own seventy tenants at High 
 Littleton and Midsomer Norton, none are 
 my workmen, in any way, but two of the 
 husbandmen, and that but three others are 
 my cottage renters. 
 
 " The provision of manure, an important 
 consideration, continues to increase, which, 
 I think, is attributable to the cartage being 
 done at a penny per pole, without reference 
 to quantity or distance. Into the eight fields, 
 adjacent to the four hamlets of Midsomer 
 Norton, the average, per acre, has this year 
 been seventeen loads ; and at High Littleton, 
 in its two hamlets, it has been twenty-one. 
 But to return to these details of the two 
 parishes with which I am more immediately 
 connected, I will now append a table of refer- 
 ence. 
 
 " Field Gardens established in the Division of Chewton, Somersetshire. 
 
 Parishes. 
 
 When esta- 
 blished. 
 
 No. of Acres 
 in Field Gar- 
 dens. 
 
 No. of Fa- 
 milies oc- 
 cupying. 
 
 Of these 
 Husband- 
 men, &c. 
 
 Of these 
 Coaling 
 Popu- 
 lation. 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 Midsomer Norton 
 
 1831 
 
 30 
 
 132 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 More than one coal-pit. 
 
 High Littleton 
 
 
 U 
 
 47 
 
 9 
 
 38 
 
 One coal-pit. 
 
 
 Stone- Easton 
 
 1832 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Emberrow 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 Clutton 
 
 
 
 63 
 
 20 
 
 43 
 
 More than one coal-pit. Five of these 
 
 Stowey 
 
 1833 
 
 8 
 61 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 
 acres now letting to additional occupiers. 
 
 Camely 
 
 
 50 
 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Farrington 
 
 
 P 
 
 20 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 
 One coal-pit. 
 
 
 Chewton 
 
 
 32 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 Chilcompton 
 
 
 9 
 
 22 
 
 19 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 Timsbury 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 11 
 
 48 
 
 More than one 
 
 coal-pit. 
 
 Compton Martin 
 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 104$ 
 
 503* 
 
 271 
 
 232 
 
 
 
 * At an average of five In each family, 2505 persons. 
 
 7G 
 
ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. 
 
 u Here then we have 271 husbandry or 
 rural families in the occupation of field 
 gardens." 
 
 In another place Captain Scobell says, 
 u Notwithstanding the thirty acres of old 
 pasture apportioned were of the best quality, 
 it was deemed an expedient preservative for 
 the fertility of the land, to stipulate that, 
 after the first year, not more than two-thirds 
 of each allotment should be cropped with 
 potatoes ; but from the unusual strength 
 and fruitfulness of the soil, the produce ha- 
 ving reached in some cases 140 sacks an 
 acre, and from the unexpected supply of 
 manure, it was decided to relax this regu- 
 lation for another year, but strictly to en- 
 force it hereafter. Small beds of other 
 vegetables have, however, from preference, 
 been cultivated ; and the last summer has 
 diffused among the tenants a repetition of 
 cheerfulness and abundance. 
 
 " The average of potatoes per acre, has 
 been quite 100 sacks, or 300 Winchester 
 bushels. 
 
 " Let us now see, by the test of figures, 
 how the account stands between the la- 
 bourers and their land. 
 
 The number of occupiers is 132, and of acres 30. 
 
 The average produce, 100 sacks per acre. — 
 Total, 3000 sacks, or 9000 Winchester 
 
 bushels, at 5s. 6d. per sack 
 
 £825 0 0 
 
 Rent, at 21. 6s. 8d. per acre - £70 0 0' 
 Seed :7± sacks per acre, at 5s. 6d. 62 17 6 
 Haulage of manure (400 loads), 
 at a penny per pole, — 18s. Ad. 
 per acre - - - - 20 0 0 
 Tithes, rates, and sustaining 
 feuces, charged at three far- 
 things per pole — 10s. per acre 15 0 0. 
 
 167 17 6 
 
 Profit — not deducting the cost of labour .£657 2 6 
 
 Profit, per acre, 21/. 18s. — an average of 51. to each 
 occupier, or ten weeks' wages at 10s. per week. 
 
 " But it may be said that the price of 
 labour, as if it had been paid in money, should 
 be deducted. I will do so, although I know 
 that it was by all performed at times which 
 would otherwise have been valueless. The 
 account will then stand thus : — 
 
 £ s.d 
 
 Profit, including labour - - - 657 2 6 
 
 Money value of the labour for the year, at lOd. 
 per pole, 71. per acre - - - 217 0 0 
 
 440 2 6 
 
 Add the value of the after-crop, Turnip, Cab- 
 bage, &c, not noticed before, 3d. per pole 
 — 21. per acre - - - - 60 0 0 
 
 The profit, deducting the money value > Knn 
 of labour - - . _j 500 
 
 Profit, per acre, 16Z. 13s. 4<f.,_ an average of 3/. 15s. 9d 
 to each occupier, or 7 J weeks' wages, at 10s. per week 
 
 " The question whether the labour, or a 
 large portion of it, is not a clear profit as 
 well as the produce, is a material one, and 
 is worth our consideration." — G. W.Johnson 
 
 Of all those who have sought to extend the 
 cottage allotment system, there is no one who 
 77 
 
 has exerted himself more zealously or suc- 
 cessfully than Captain Scobell. He has had 
 nine years' experience of the working of the 
 system, and has therefore fairly tested it. 
 The following is an extract from a letter 
 upon this subject which he addressed re- 
 cently to Mr. Leigh Lye, the secretary of 
 the Bath and West of England Agricultural 
 Society : — 
 
 '• The greater part of the remarks I shall 
 offer on those parishes, with which I am 
 closely connected, will apply to from twenty 
 to thirty other contiguous parishes, in which 
 the field garden system is also in operation. 
 The parishes, then, to which I can best ad- 
 vert, are three, namely — High Littleton, 
 with 80 tenants, occupying, as field gardens, 
 14 out of 1,250 acres which it contains ; 
 Midsomer Norton, 135 garden occupiers, 
 renting 28 out of 3,800 acres ; and North 
 Bruham (wholly an agricultural parish), 
 near Bruton, having 35 tenants, with 9 out 
 of 1,838 acres. I repeat these figures to 
 quiet the still unallayed alarm of some, who 
 imagine that an appalling quantity of land is 
 requisite to carry out the system. 
 
 ' The culture, then, of the gardens around 
 here, and the manure furnished, continue to 
 be good and ample. The tenants are cheerful 
 in their demeanour — comfortable in their 
 homes — contented in their stations. They 
 pay their small, but equitable and sufficient 
 rents (from 2|d. to 3±d. per pole) with rea- 
 diness and regularity. I have lately held 
 my annual rent meeting at High Littleton, 
 and to sit down with eighty labourers is no 
 common circumstance. I hold out no in- 
 ducement to punctuality. I do not offer 
 them any thing to eat or to drink. At each 
 anniversary that I thus assemble with them, 
 I am taught, more and more, to understand 
 and to value the general honest and intel- 
 ligent bearing of their minds, and their 
 willing and full appreciation of confidence 
 reposed in them. To me, as I believe, also 
 to themselves, such an evening is one of the 
 happiest and most satisfactory of the year. 
 The system, if disinterestedly and perma- 
 nently carried on, must, and does, gradually, 
 but closely bind minds together. The field 
 gardens, themselves, are an ever-visible and 
 heart-speaking index of mutual good-will. 
 The mere worldly man will only value the 
 plan, because ' in all labour there is profit,' 
 whilst he who looks to a higher source will 
 see in it an evidence that ' we have fellowship 
 one with another.' " Excellent testimony to 
 the success of the allotment system is borne 
 by Mr. H. Weatherly, Quarterly Jour, of 
 Agr. vol. iii. p. 1065. ; to the advantages of 
 allotting muir lands to crofters, ibid. vol. 
 v. 531., and also in the Mag. of the Soc.for 
 bettering the Condition of the Poor. 
 
ALLOWANCES TO TENANTS. 
 
 ALLUVIUM. 
 
 ALLOWANCES TO TENANTS. Such 
 as are agreed to be made to them on their 
 quitting farms, or under any other circum- 
 stances. See Customs of Counties. 
 
 ALLSPICE, CAROLINA. (Lat. Ca- 
 lycanthus floridus.) A very odoriferous 
 shrub, native of North America. _ It is very 
 hardy, and grows eight feet high; blows 
 a ruddy brown flower from May to August, 
 which has a spicy smell when rubbed in 
 the hand. It loves a shady situation and 
 heath mould, but it will thrive in any deep 
 fresh soil. 
 
 Fruitful Calycanthus (Lat. C.fertilis), is 
 also hardy, and a native of North America. 
 It grows three or four feet in height, blowing 
 its reddish-brown flowers from May to Au- 
 gust. It prefers heath mould; propagate 
 both sorts by layers, and remove the layers 
 the third year. If propagated by seed, sow 
 it in a hot-bed, or the plants will not appear 
 for two years. (Z. Johnson.') 
 
 ALLUVIAL LIMESTONE. A sort of 
 soft chalky limestone found in many districts, 
 supposed to have been formed in the early 
 ages of the world by the deposition of mat- 
 ters held in the state of solution in water. 
 This kind of limestone Dr. Darwin supposes 
 to contain magnesia, which it probably may 
 have acquired from the sea-water, in which 
 it was originally dissolved. Limestone that 
 contains magnesia has been found, by the 
 experiments of Mr. Tennant, to be much 
 less useful when burnt into lime, for the pur- 
 poses of agriculture, than such as is purely 
 calcareous. See Limestone. 
 
 ALLUVIUM, or ALLUVION, (from 
 the Latin Alluvio, " an inundation,") is a 
 term which, in the English language, has no 
 very defined meaning. Some authors use it 
 to designate all those rocks which have been 
 formed by causes now acting on the surface 
 of the earth, including those of volcanic 
 origin ; while others, adhering to the literal 
 meaning of the original term, confine its 
 application to deposits, whatever be their 
 character, that have resulted from inunda- 
 tions. Neither of these definitions convey 
 the same meaning as is usually attached to 
 the word, the one including too much, the 
 other too little. The term has been badly 
 selected, but is used in its proper applica- 
 tion to designate all those deposits recently 
 formed, or now forming, by the agency of 
 water, whether from an uninterrupted and 
 constant stream, or from a casual inundation. 
 
 All streams, lakes, rivers, seas, and the 
 ocean itself, hold a large quantity of earthy 
 mechanical solution, which they deposit in 
 their beds. The character of the sediment 
 is governed by the nature of the rocks over 
 .which the waters How ; and the quantity 
 depends partly upon the constitution of the 
 
 rocks, and partly upon the power of the 
 water. If the rock be easily destroyed, and 
 a large body of water flow over it with a 
 considerable velocity, the destructive effect 
 will be great, and much worn materials 
 (detritus) being formed, the stream will 
 have a thick and turbid appearance. The 
 same effect is frequently produced by the 
 discharge of a number of tributary streams 
 into a river, all of which accumulate a 
 greater or less quantity of the earths aver 
 which they flow. 
 
 The distribution of water at the present 
 time, and I more particularly refer to rivers, 
 is very different from that of former periods. 
 The majority of the valleys through which 
 rivers are now flowing, have been produced 
 by the action of water, which, running from 
 higher lands, has not only scooped them 
 out, but has spread over them the worn 
 material which it accumulates in its pas- 
 sage. By the operations which have since 
 been going on, the waters have been col- 
 lected together in comparatively narrow 
 channels of considerable permanency. On 
 this account, the influence of water that 
 flows over the portions of the earth in- 
 habited by terrestrial animals, is greatly re- 
 stricted ; and the production of new beds of 
 rock or soil is rather an accidental than a 
 necessary consequence. 
 
 But, although the influence of water has 
 been thus confined, all lands, and especially 
 the surfaces of mountainous districts, are 
 undergoing change, and the superficial co- 
 vering of one district is conveyed to another. 
 The showers of heaven are constantly sweep- 
 ing away the soil and decomposed rocks of 
 the uplands into the valleys, over which 
 they are transported by streams and rivers, 
 the larger and heavier particles falling to 
 the bottom, the smaller being united with 
 the water in mechanical mixture. That 
 portion of earthy matter which is carried 
 away from a district by the running water, 
 is, as far as the district itself is concerned, 
 the most valuable, being the superficial co- 
 vering or soil, and would be for ever lost to 
 that portion of the earth inhabited by man, 
 were it not arrested in its passage to the 
 ocean, by deposition in the bed of the river^ 
 or on those lands which the waters may 
 happen to overflow. 
 
 It is well known to those who have visited 
 elevated districts, that many mountains are 
 already deprived of their soils, and are but 
 the skeletons of the earth without covering 
 or life. By this action the valleys are in 
 the process of elevation, and the mountains 
 of depression ; and if we could conceive it 
 to proceed without limitation, we may ima- 
 gine a time when all the varieties of eleva- 
 tion and depression, which now give beauty 
 
ALLUVIUM. 
 
 to the surface, will be destroyed, and an en- 
 tirely different condition of the distribution 
 of land and water will be established. But, 
 at the same time, it cannot be denied that 
 these changes, as far as they have hitherto 
 proceeded, have been advantageous to man, 
 whatever might be their result under the 
 conditions to which we have alluded. The 
 mountainous regions are, from their eleva- 
 tion, less suited to the progression of society, 
 so intimately connected with agricultural 
 prosperity, than the plains. As we rise 
 above the level of the sea, the atmosphere 
 becomes more rarified, and the cold more 
 intense, both of which are injurious to vege- 
 tation in general, and unsuited to promote 
 the comfort of animal life. The plains are, 
 therefore, preferred by men when they con- 
 gregate together, and form societies. It 
 cannot be considered an unwise or unfit 
 result, that the lowlands should be enriched 
 with alluvial soils, produced by the destruc- 
 tion of the rocks and natural soils of moun- 
 tainous regions. It is reported of Diocle- 
 sian, that he told his colleague, Maximilian, 
 he had more pleasure in the cultivation of 
 a few potherbs which, in the gardens of 
 Spalatro, grew in the soil that on the top of 
 Mount Haemus had only produced moss and 
 dittany, than in all the honours the Roman 
 empire could confer. From the definition 
 I have given of the word " alluvium " I 
 must include the gravels and sands that are 
 of recent formation among the alluvial de- 
 posits ; but our attention is chiefly directed 
 to the soils, or those beds which are suited 
 to sustain vegetable life. It is true that the 
 gravels may be made available for the cul- 
 tivation of some plants, but the beds which 
 are so used belong rather to that class of 
 rocks denominated diluvial, by geologists, 
 than to the deposits of which we are speak- 
 ing. 
 
 If we trace the circumstances under which 
 alluvial soils are formed to their cause, we 
 shall find that they have their origin in the 
 fall of heavy rains, and the melting of snows, 
 in mountainous regions. The water, in its 
 passage to the valleys, collects the super- 
 ficial soil and decomposed earthy material 
 that lies in its path, and transports them 
 into the channels towards which it flows. 
 The streams that are formed on the moun- 
 tain slopes are generally united together 
 before they reach the plains, and form im- 
 petuous torrents, overcoming all obstacles, 
 until their velocity is lost, when, in their 
 winding courses, they meet each other, and 
 form rivers. 
 
 Rivers, in every part of their course, are 
 subject to inundation ; when, throwing their 
 waters over a considerable space, they de- 
 posit the earthy materials they have accu- 
 79 
 
 mulated. If such inundations had not 
 occurred, the accumulated worn materials 
 (debris) would have been deposited in the 
 bed of the river, or carried into the lake or 
 sea where the waters themselves are dis- 
 charged. There are abundant instances on 
 record of the filling up of rivers by the 
 worn materials (detritus), which have been 
 carried into their courses ; and any river of 
 our own country will afford a limited ex- 
 ample of this result. Many rivers and 
 estuaries, which a few years since were 
 navigable, have ceased to be so, on account 
 of the large amount of alluvial matter de- 
 posited in their beds, and many of our 
 towns, which were once populous and 
 wealthy, have on this account become poor 
 and almost deserted. If we would see the 
 effect of the transport of worn materials 
 into lakes, we cannot have a more fa- 
 vourable opportunity than in Switzerland. 
 Many of the lakes of this sublime and ma- 
 jestic country are rapidly filling from this 
 cause ; and, in some of them, water plants 
 are seen above the surface of the water. 
 But when a river suffers inundation, the 
 earthy matter, which is held in mechanical 
 mixture, is arrested, and deposited on the 
 land that is overflowed, and a richly pro- 
 ductive soil is formed. One or two ex- 
 amples may illustrate these remarks. 
 
 The Ganges annually overflows its banks, 
 and deposits a rich alluvial soil over the 
 country it inundates. This magnificent river 
 was supposed to take its rise on the northern 
 side of the Himalaya mountains, until it was 
 proved, in 1819, by Lieutenant Webb, that 
 all the streams which unite to give its ex- 
 istence, take their rise on the south side of 
 the .Hindoo Coast, or Snowy Mountains. 
 The melting of the snows, and the heavy 
 periodical rains augment the volume of the 
 water, and by the end of June, before the 
 rainy season has commenced in the low 
 country, the river has generally risen fif- 
 teen feet ; but after the rains in Bengal it 
 usually attains a height of thirty-two feet 
 above its ordinary level. By the end of 
 July all the low countries adjoining the 
 Ganges and the Burrampooter are over- 
 flowed, and nothing but houses and trees are 
 seen for many miles inward. The province 
 of Bengal is divided into two nearly equal 
 parts by the Ganges ; and as a large portion 
 of the country on the banks of the river is 
 low, it is especially exposed to inundation, 
 from which circumstance it probably de- 
 rived its name, such districts being called 
 beng. A deep bed of rich soil is deposited 
 during the period of the overflow, and the 
 vegetable productions are of the most varied 
 and luxuriant character. Rice, wheat, 
 barley, tobacco, indigo, cotton, the mulberry, 
 
ALLUVIUM. 
 
 and the poppy, are all cultivated with suc- 
 cess on the alluvial soils. 
 
 It is well known that Egypt has been 
 from time immemorial indebted to the over- 
 flow of the Nile for a rich alluvial soil, as 
 well as for the means of irrigating the land. 
 The ancients seem to have been altogether 
 at a loss to account for the periodical over- 
 flow of this river; and when we consider 
 the appearances before them, we are not 
 surprised at the difficulties they experi- 
 enced. They observed it in a country that 
 was not moistened by a drop of rain, and 
 where it was unaided by a single stream, 
 and yet, at its stated period, it began to lift 
 its waters from their bed, and rising higher 
 and higher, overflowed its banks and spread 
 itself like a sea over Lower Egypt, refresh- 
 ing the parched earth with moisture, and 
 aiding its productiveness with the formation 
 of a superficial covering of rich loam. The 
 philosophers speculated without success 
 upon its cause ; but while they were dis- 
 puting as to the origin of the phenomenon, 
 year by year the Nile rose, and left the evi- 
 dence of its beneficial sway in the richness 
 of the crops and the luxuriance of the 
 country. From the investigations that have 
 now been made, we know that the rise of 
 the Nile is occasioned by the rains which 
 fall on the high mountains in the interior 
 and tropical regions, and not, as many of 
 the ancients supposed, from the Etesian 
 winds, which, blowing periodically from the 
 north, prevent the waters from reaching the 
 sea. 
 
 The great importance of rivers, as agents 
 in the production of alluvial soils, cannot 
 be more strongly proved by any positive 
 evidence than by a consideration of the 
 state of Australia, a country remarkable for 
 the fewness of its rivers, and the general 
 poverty of its soil. Contrary to all prece- 
 dents, the richest soils in this land, except- 
 ing the alluvial, are found on the summits 
 of hills. The fires which so frequently 
 happen on the plains, the peculiar character 
 of the vegetation (chiefly consisting of ever- 
 greens), and the sparing distribution of 
 water, are the principal causes of the steri- 
 lity of this otherwise desirable country. 
 There are, however, spots which, covered 
 with alluvial soil, can rival the richest and 
 most cultivated districts of England ; and 
 the comparison of these with other lands 
 impresses the observer the more strongly 
 with the great importance of the natural 
 provision for the restitution of that portion 
 of the earth inhabited by man, by the de- 
 position of new earthy matter and a virgin 
 soil. The alluvial fiats of the Ncpean, the 
 Hawkesbury, and the Hunter rivers, are 
 spoken of by all writers as remarkable for 
 80 
 
 their fertility. The rich valley in which the 
 Lake Alexandrina is situated may be no- 
 ticed as another example of the influence of 
 alluvial soils. The country around this 
 lake appears to be one of the most beautiful 
 and fertile in Australia; and a glance at 
 the map will immediately inform the in- 
 quirer of the cause. It is so situated as to 
 receive the worn materials of the moun- 
 tain chain that ranges along the promon- 
 tory of which Cape Jervis is the southern 
 point, and also to obtain moisture at all 
 times from the lake, and a renovating soil 
 whenever it may overflow its banks. 
 
 Alluvial soils are produced by the dis- 
 charge of mountain streams into valleys, as 
 well as by the overflow of rivers. We have 
 already explained the manner in which they 
 collect the superficial covering of moun- 
 tainous districts, and being charged with 
 earthy matter bring it into the plains. This 
 may be deposited before the streams are 
 united together in an individual channel as 
 well as after, and should this be done the 
 valley may be covered with alluvial pro- 
 ducts. The formation of a river is a pro- 
 cess which requires time, and many changes 
 must happen before the flowing waters can 
 form for themselves a local habitation ; ob- 
 stacles must be removed, a bed must be 
 scooped out, and an outlet must be formed, 
 in the performance of which earthy matter 
 must be accumulated, and extensive de- 
 posits be formed. 
 
 A third cause in the production of allu- 
 vial deposits may be mentioned. The sea 
 is making great inroads upon many of its 
 shores, carrying on a destructive war against 
 the cliffs that vainly endeavour to oppose 
 its force ; while on the other hand it is in 
 some instances receding from the shores 
 against which it once beat ; and thus, as 
 though to recompense man for what it takes 
 away, gives to him a portion of its own ter- 
 ritory. Those districts which are thus added 
 to the land are usually superposed by a fine 
 rich alluvial soil, as also are those which have 
 at a former period been covered by the sea, 
 and would be at the present day, were it 
 not for the ingenuity and works of man. 
 
 The American States of New Orleans and 
 Missolonghi are chiefly alluvial; and Hol- 
 land, as is well known, has the same cha- 
 racter, and can only be described as a 
 district of which man has robbed the ocean. 
 That part of the coast of Germany which is 
 bordered by the North Sea is alluvial, and 
 additions are constantly made to the shores 
 by the gradual depositions of earthy matter 
 upon the immense flats which extend along 
 them. The first sign of vegetation on these 
 lands is the appearance of the saltwort 
 (Salicornia maritime/.), which is succeeded 
 
ALLUVIUM. 
 
 by the sea grass (Poa maritima), and when 
 the land is very rich, by the marsh starwort 
 {Aster Tripolium). The land is afterwards 
 dyked and used as pasture for sheep and 
 cattle, so that the spot over which the sea 
 has perhaps for ages exercised an undis- 
 puted control is brought under the power 
 of man in a state most admirably adapted 
 to suit his wants. 
 
 It is not, however, necessary that we 
 should go to foreign countries for examples 
 of the formation of alluvial soils by the 
 ocean. In Lincolnshire and other parts of 
 the English coast, where the land is beneath 
 the level of high-water mark, unfruitful dis- 
 tricts are often restored to a state of fertility 
 by the removal of the artificial banks that 
 prevent the sea-water from flowing over it. 
 In this way the land is thrown open to the 
 sea, and as the tide rises it is covered by 
 water, which, being overcharged with earthy 
 matter, deposits in two or three years a bed 
 five or six feet thick of rich soil, which may 
 be brought under cultivation by the ex- 
 clusion of the agent that was instrumental 
 in its production. (See Warping.) 
 
 But it may be asked, whence does the sea 
 obtain the earthy matter with which it 
 abounds ? Rivers discharge themselves into 
 the ocean, and it has been already stated 
 that their waters are charged, more or less, 
 with the superficial soil of mountainous 
 countries, and the destroyed materials of 
 rocks. A part of this may be arrested by 
 occasional or periodical inundations, and by 
 deposition in the bed of the river, but a 
 large quantity must still be carried into the 
 ocean. It must also be remembered that 
 the water which is conveyed in a channel is 
 constantly endeavouring so to arrange its 
 course as to suffer the least possible resist- 
 ance. In this attempt it attacks the banks 
 that confine it, and widens its course, pre- 
 cipitating much earthy matter into the 
 stream, to be removed by the flowing water. 
 It frequently happens, and especially after 
 the fall of heavy rains, that the water at the 
 mouths of rivers is thick and turbid from 
 the quantity of alluvial matter it holds in 
 solution, and very many large rivers are 
 rendered unsafe for navigation by the ex- 
 istence of large bars of sand or clay at their 
 outlet. 
 
 But the sea is not merely a passive reci- 
 pient of the product of destructive causes, 
 but is itself a cause. Sea coasts are con- 
 stantly suffering depredation by the action 
 of the waves that beat upon them. Whether 
 we look at the soft and almost unresisting 
 rocks of our eastern coast, or the hard pri- 
 mary rocks of Devonshire, Cornwall, and 
 the Shetland Isles, the same results will be 
 observed. During the stormy months of 
 
 winter, when the waves are tossed upon the 
 coasts with an almost uncontrolled violence, 
 no rock is sufficiently hard to resist its 
 energy, and when unruffled by a passing 
 breeze in the months of summer, its in- 
 fluence upon the softer rocks is hardly less 
 destructive, though more insidious, for it 
 then attacks the base of the cliffs, and re- 
 moving the support of the superincumbent 
 mass, causes the precipitation of large por- 
 tions into the sea. By these two causes the 
 sea is provided with the materials for the 
 formation of alluvial soils. Some estimate 
 may be formed of the violence and extent 
 of these causes, by an examination of the 
 present state of the German Ocean, one 
 fifth of which is covered by banks that ap- 
 pear to have been produced in the same 
 way as the alluvial soils on the northern 
 coast of Germany. 
 
 Water, then, is a most powerful agent in 
 the destruction and production of rocks, 
 and were there no conservative principle, 
 the changes that are going on would be 
 more extensive than they are in the present 
 day. The floods to which some rivers are 
 subject are so impetuous that they fre- 
 quently sweep away all opposing objects, 
 and involve an entire district in ruin. These 
 effects, however, are much more common in 
 countries that are thinly covered by vege- 
 tation, than in those where it is luxuriant, 
 for it acts as a conservative agent, increasing 
 the power of the resistance, by binding the 
 soil more closely together. This, therefore, 
 will account for the diminished influence of 
 floods upon lowlands, and for the frequent 
 deposition of rich and fertile alluvial soils. 
 
 The composition of the alluvial soils that 
 have been brought under cultivation is ex- 
 ceedingly various; but they are generally 
 remarkable for their fertility, and are ad' 
 mirably suited for pasture lands. " In ge- 
 neral," says Sir Humphry Davy, "the soils, 
 the materials of which are most various and 
 heterogeneous, are those called alluvial, or 
 which have been formed by the deposition 
 of rivers ; many of them are extremely fer- 
 tile. I have examined some productive al- 
 luvial soils, which have been vexy different 
 in their composition. A specimen from the 
 banks of the river Parrett, in Somerset- 
 shire, afforded me eighty parts of finely 
 divided matter, and one part of silicious 
 sand ; and an analysis of the former gave 
 the following result : — 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 360 parts. 
 
 Alumina - - .. 25 
 
 Silica ... 20 
 
 Oxide of iron 8 
 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter 19 
 
 " A rich soil from the neighbourhood of 
 a 
 
ALMANAC. 
 
 ALMOND TREE. 
 
 the Avon, in the valley of Evesham, in 
 Worcestershire, afforded me three-fifths of 
 fine sand, and two fifths of impalpable mat- 
 ter. This last consisted of — 
 
 Alumina - - - 41 parts. 
 
 Silica 42 
 Carbonate of lime 4 
 Oxide of iron 5 
 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter 8 
 
 " A soil yielding excellent pasture, from 
 the valley of the Avon, near Salisbury, af- 
 forded one eleventh of coarse silicious sand, 
 and the finely divided matter consisted of, — 
 
 Alumina 7 parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 14 
 
 Carbonate of lime - 63 
 Oxide of iron 2 
 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter 14." 
 
 Another striking cause of the fertility of 
 alluvial soils will come more properly under 
 Irrigation. — (Miller's Dictionary!) 
 
 ALMANAC. The derivation of this 
 word has been a fruitful source of contro- 
 versy to etymologists. Some assert it to 
 be from the Arabic, al and manah, Heb. 
 to count or compute; but others from al, 
 Arab, and fi-fjv, a month, or fiavaicbg, the 
 course of the months ; by others from a 
 Teutonic original, al and maan, the moon, 
 an account of every moon or month ; all of 
 them are probable. Nor may Verstegan's 
 remark be omitted. Al-mon-aght, he says, 
 is the Saxon al-mon-heed, i. e., the regard 
 or observation of all the moons ; whence the 
 word almanac. A calendar ; a book in which 
 the revolutions of the seasons with the re- 
 turn of feasts and fasts is noted for the en- 
 suing year. (Todd's Johnson.) 
 
 A compendium, entitled The Farmer's 
 Almanac is published regularly by the au- 
 thor of this work and W. Shaw, Esq., editor 
 of the Mark Lane Express, and Farm. Mag. 
 
 ALMOND, Silver-leafed. (Lat.Amyg- 
 dalus argentea.) A beautiful shrub origi- 
 ginally from the Levant. It grows from 
 eight to ten feet high, and blows rose-co- 
 loured flowers in April. Its leaves are 
 covered on both sides with a silvery-coloured 
 down, but they do not appear till the flowers 
 are gone. All the almond tribe are hardy, 
 and will bear any situation, if the soil is 
 tolerably good. Propagate by grafting upon 
 the bitter almond or a plum stock. The 
 double dwarf almond, Lat. Amygdalus pumila, 
 is a smaller shrub with pale rose-coloured 
 double flowers blowing in May, and again 
 in September. The common dwarf almond, 
 Lat. Amygdalus nana, grows only three feet 
 high, and is a native of Russia. It blows 
 its pink flowers in March and April. Pro- 
 pagate by seed, or grafting upon the bitter 
 almond or plum stocks. Trim away dead 
 82 
 
 wood, but prune seldom: they rarely re- 
 quire pruning. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ALMOND TREE. (Amygdalus, Lin- 
 naeus ; amand, Fr.) Derived by Menage from 
 amandala, a word in low Latin ; by others 
 from Allemand, a German, supposing that 
 almonds come to France from Germany. 
 But the Spanish have almendra ; and per- 
 haps amand, amandola, and this, are all re- 
 ferable to amygdalum, as that is to afivy- 
 daXiov. (Todd's Johnson.) More than one 
 species, and several varieties, of this well 
 known genus are cultivated in this country, 
 chiefly for the beauty of their early spring 
 flowers, which did not escape the poetical 
 eye of Spenser, and this tree is introduced 
 in a fine description of Prince Arthur's 
 plumed helmet : — 
 
 " Upon the top of all, his lofty crest, 
 A bunch of hairs discolour'd diversely, 
 With sprinkled pearl and gold full richly drest, 
 Did shake, and seem'd to dance for jollity, 
 Like to an almond tree ymounted high, 
 On top of green Selinis all alone, 
 Whose tender locks do tremble every one, 
 At every little breath that under heaven is blown." 
 
 Faerie Queene. 
 
 The common almond tree (Amygdalus 
 communis, Linnaeus) is a native of northern 
 Africa, and so late as the time of Cato had 
 not been introduced into Italy, as he calls 
 the fruit Greek nuts (nuces Grcecoe.) It 
 was introduced into Britain about 1548. It 
 will grow to the height of twenty or thirty 
 feet, dividing into a head of numerous 
 spreading branches. The leaves very much 
 resemble those of the peach, but they pro- 
 ceed from buds both above and below the 
 flowers. There are also small glands on the 
 lower saw-toothing of the leaves. The form 
 of the flowers is not very different from 
 those of the peach, but they come out 
 usually in pairs, and vary more in their 
 colour, from the fine blush of the apple 
 blossom to a snowy whiteness. The chief 
 obvious distinction is in the fruit, which is 
 flatter, with a leather-like covering, instead 
 of the rich pulp of the peach and the necta- 
 rine, and it also opens spontaneously when 
 the kernel is ripe. The shell of the almond 
 is never so hard as a peach stone, and is 
 sometimes even tender and exceedingly 
 brittle. It is flatter, smoother, and the 
 furrows or holes are more superficial than 
 those of the peach stone. 
 
 Varieties of the common almond. — 1 . The 
 nuts about an inch and a quarter long, with 
 a hard smooth shell; the kernel not va- 
 luable. The seedlings are used in France 
 to bud peaches upon. 
 
 2. Bitter : fruit of a large size. 
 
 3. Bitter : with a tender shell ; fruit of a 
 large size. 
 
 4. Bitter : with a hard shell ; fruit of a 
 large size. 
 
ALMOND TREE. 
 
 5. Sultan : fruit of a small size. 
 
 6. Grand Sultan : fruit of a small size. 
 
 7. Sweet : with a tender shell, or tender- 
 shelled Sultan ; fruit of a moderate size. 
 
 8. Sweet : with a half hard shell. 
 
 9. Sweet : with a hard shell. 
 
 10. Long-fruited: hard-shelled; fruit of 
 a large size. 
 
 11. Peach almond : fruit of a large size. 
 
 12. Brittle : fruit of a moderate size. 
 We are not certain whether the French 
 
 varieties, called, 1. Amande douce a coque 
 dure ; 2. Amande douce a coque tendre ; 3. 
 Amande des dames; and 4. Amande prin- 
 cesses coincide with any of the preceding. 
 
 The whole of the varieties generally pro- 
 duce a profusion of blossoms, which vary a 
 little in colour from a fine rose to a pale 
 blush. They closely resemble each other 
 in foliage, the principal distinction being in 
 the fruit, which differs either as to its form, 
 its size, or its taste. 
 
 In the south of Europe, as in France, 
 Spain, Portugal, and Italy, the almond is 
 cultivated very extensively as a standard 
 fruit tree, the varieties there being far more 
 numerous than in this country ; while the 
 tree also grows more vigorously. They 
 export the fruit to every quarter of the 
 globe. The kernel of the almond is the 
 part used, and when it is green, ripe, or 
 dried, it furnishes a most agreeable addition 
 to the dessert. It is also used to a very 
 great extent in confectionary, perfumery, 
 cookery, and medicine. 
 
 The general purpose of introducing the 
 tree into our gardens and pleasure grounds 
 in this country is for the great beauty of 
 its blossoms, which are not only handsome, 
 but being produced in such profusion as 
 they usually are at so early a period of the 
 spring season, before the foliage appears, 
 become extremely conspicuous and highly 
 ornamental ; a circumstance which renders 
 the tree a most desirable shrubby plant. 
 
 The common almond, and its varieties, 
 blossom earlier than the dwarf kinds, from 
 which circumstance the blossoms of the latter 
 are very rarely damaged by spring frosts, 
 but the other kinds, when planted in situa- 
 tions sheltered from the east winds, are ge- 
 nerally preserved from sustaining damage. 
 
 Propagation. — All the species and vari- 
 eties are propagated by seeds, budding, 
 grafting, layers, and occasionally they will 
 produce suckers, which may be successfully 
 planted out. When stocks for budding or 
 grafting upon are wanted, or new varieties 
 desired, these are obtained by sowing the 
 fruit stones, though they may be budded or 
 grafted on mussel-plum stocks. 
 
 The stones of the last season's produce 
 should be sown in October, upon a bed of 
 83 
 
 light rich soil, about three inches apart, and 
 covered four inches deep with fine soil. This 
 is indispensable ; for when the soil is left in 
 lumps the shoots are often forced into a 
 crooked direction, and this causes the trunk 
 to be deformed, and unfit to become a fine 
 tree. When the surface of the *seed-bed 
 has been smoothed, a covering of rotten 
 tanner's bark, or leaf mould, to the depth of 
 two inches, must be laid upon it, which being 
 light, prevents the fruit-stones from being 
 damaged by any severity of winter. At the 
 beginning of May this covering of bark or 
 leaves must be raked clean off the bed. The 
 stones might be reserved till spring and be 
 sown at the end of March, but the plants 
 do not come so certainly as when sown in 
 autumn. An additional advantage of an 
 autumn sowing is, that the plants come up 
 about six weeks or two months earlier than 
 those sown in spring; consequently the 
 plants become vigorous and well rooted the 
 first year, and thereby not liable to be 
 thrown out of the ground by thaws succeed- 
 ing frost in the following winter. 
 
 During summer, care must be taken to 
 pull up all weeds, when very young, for if 
 they be allowed to get strong before pulling 
 out, this operation is apt to injure the roots 
 of the almond plants. 
 
 When almond stones have been sown in 
 spring, it will be necessary at the approach 
 of the succeeding winter to have the beds 
 covered with rotten tanner's bark, or leaf 
 mould, scattering it an inch deep, or more, 
 amongst the plants, a covering which will 
 tend to prevent the plants being injured or 
 thrown out by frost. 
 
 In the second spring after the sowing, the 
 plants should be taken up, carefully preserv- 
 ing all the fibrous roots, a care which, as 
 they are but sparingly produced, will be es- 
 sentially necessary. The plants must be 
 transplanted in rows, at two feet apart, row 
 from row, and a foot and a half distant in 
 the rows. Here they may be trained to 
 form standards, half standards, or dwarfs, 
 and be regulated and prepared either for 
 wall training or shrubbery plantations. For 
 both purposes, attention will be requisite 
 during summer and winter, to thin out the 
 branches, reserving only a suitable number 
 for the future limbs of the tree, and these 
 so far apart that they may not, in any future 
 stage of growth, be liable to rub against each 
 other, which standard trees would be liable 
 to ; for if this be not avoided, gum would 
 be exuded at such injured parts, and the 
 speedy decay of the tree be the consequence. 
 
 Almond plants intended for training 
 against walls should have some stakes fixed 
 in the form of a trellis, to which the branches 
 should be secured in a proper form, so that 
 g 2 
 
ALOES. 
 
 they may be suited to the position of the 
 wall on their final removal. (Miller's Dic- 
 tionary.') 
 
 ALOES. (D^riN, as it is supposed, Dr. 
 Johnson says. Sax. alepa. John, xix. 39.) 
 A medicinal juice extracted not from the 
 odoriferous, but the common aloes tree, 
 by cutting the leaves and exposing the juice 
 that drops from them to the sun. It is dis- 
 tinguished into socotorine and caballine or 
 horse aloes ; the first is so called from the 
 island of Socotora ; the second, because, 
 being coarse, it ought to be confined to the 
 use of farriers. It is a warm and strong 
 cathartic. (Todd's Johnson.) In vete- 
 rinary medicine, a very important produc- 
 tion, well known under the name of bitter, 
 or purging aloes. It is the chief, and almost 
 the only purgative used for the horse ; but 
 as far as regards other quadrupeds we could 
 do very well without it. Formerly we had 
 choice of three kinds, the Barbadoes, the 
 Cape, and the socotrine ; but we believe 
 the last is not now to be had. What is now 
 sold in the shops for socotrine is merely a 
 compound of Barbadoes and Cape aloes. 
 The Barbadoes aloes, as being safer, more 
 certain, and less irritating in its operation, 
 is generally preferred in veterinary practice. 
 We are aware that Mr. Percival speaks of 
 the Cape aloes as being as efficacious as the 
 other ; " and this I say," he adds, " although 
 I myself am at present in the practice of 
 using the Barbadoes." 
 
 Aloes has long been in use as the best 
 purgative for the horse. When given in 
 sufficient quantity it produces a copious dis- 
 charge from the lining membrane of the 
 stomach and bowels, acting more especially, 
 however, upon the large intestines than on 
 the small intestines or on the stomach. In 
 most cases it requires about twenty-four 
 hours to operate, though particular circum- 
 stances may hasten or retard it. Mr. Per- 
 cival says he has known a dose of physic 
 remain sixty hours before it operated. " This 
 shows," he adds, " the impolicy, and danger 
 even, of administering a second dose of 
 physic at an interval of less than three or 
 four days after the first, supposing the latter 
 not to have taken effect." 
 
 The usual dose of aloes when wanted to 
 produce what is called physicking, varies from 
 four to eight or ten drachms. Except in 
 certain diseases, or in peculiar constitutions, 
 more than eight should never be given, even 
 to the strongest horse ; and, indeed, in by 
 far the greater number of cases, this is too 
 much. An under-dose will do no harm 
 whatever ; but an over-dose may, and often 
 does destroy the horse, or it may leave him 
 in such a state that he will be an invalid for 
 weeks or months afterwards. Six or seven 
 84 
 
 drachms, with proper management, are a 
 full and sufficient dose for an ordinary sad- 
 dle or carriage horse. Professor Coleman 
 used to mention a horse of his own that 
 used to be purged by three drachms of Cape 
 aloes; "in opposition to which," says Mr. 
 Percival, " I may set the case of a thorough- 
 bred filly, the property of Mr. O'Connor, 
 at Newmarket, who took, under every ad- 
 vantage of preparation, fourteen drachms of 
 Barbadoes to produce purging." These are 
 anomalous cases, and do not often occur. 
 We have heard of a horse that was purged 
 by six drachms after fourteen had been 
 given without effect. Instead of increasing 
 the dose to such a dangerous extent, it is 
 better to try some other purgative. (See 
 Purgatives and Purging.) 
 
 Small doses of aloes, from one to four 
 drachms, are often given merely to evacuate 
 the contents of the bowels of the horse ; and 
 still smaller doses are given in inflammations 
 for reducing the force and frequency of the 
 pulse. While they do so, they at the same 
 time produce nausea, which is often very 
 desirable. 
 
 Mode of administering. — Aloes may be 
 given in either the solid or dissolved state. 
 The former has advantages over the latter. 
 Finely powdered, and beat up with any 
 simple, such as syrup, soap, flour and water, 
 or honey, aloes forms a stiff paste, which, 
 when rolled into proper shape, may be easily 
 placed at the root of the horse's tongue, and 
 he will then swallow, without tasting it. It 
 is not so easy to give the aloes in solution ; 
 and in this state it annoys and disgusts the 
 patient; part of the solution is spilt and 
 wasted ; and, after all, no advantage of any 
 consequence is thereby gained. It is said 
 the solution operates quicker than in the 
 solid form, and so in many cases it does, but 
 not always, and the difference is but trifling. 
 If the requisite quantity of aloes be beat up 
 with two drachms of ginger, two drachms of 
 flour, and four drachms of hog's lard or palm 
 oil, it will dissolve, by the heat of the sto- 
 mach, in a few minutes. 
 
 Effects of Aloes on Oxen, Sheep, and 
 Dogs. — Cattle are sometimes griped and 
 have their bowels slightly relaxed by aloes; 
 but enormous doses have been given with- 
 out producing any effect ; and as we have 
 an excellent substitute in Epsom salts, we 
 do not attempt purgation on the ox by aloes. 
 Sheep appear to be equally unsusceptible of 
 their action. In doses from twenty, to thirty, 
 or forty grains, the dog is briskly purged by 
 aloes ; but even for this animal we have 
 better agents in castor oil, Epsom salts, 
 jalap, and calomel. The hog is purged by 
 a small quantity of aloes ; but it is difficult 
 to administer ; and it gripes him, and in a 
 
ALOES TREE. 
 
 ALOPECURUS. 
 
 few cases produces prolapsus of the vent- 
 gut (anus). 
 
 Compound tincture of aloes is made by 
 digesting two ounces of aloes and one of 
 gum myrrh in two pints of spirits of wine 
 for fourteen days ; strain, and it is fit for use. 
 {Miller s Dictionary.) 
 
 ALOES TREE. (AquilariaMalaccensis, 
 Lamarck.) A lofty tree, which has no re- 
 lation to the genus Aloes. 
 
 The wood of the aloes tree, also called 
 eagle tree, ligne aloes, or wood aloes, is re- 
 sinous, and has an agreeable aromatic per- 
 fume. It is so much esteemed in the East, 
 as frequently to be sold for its weight in 
 gold, to be burnt in censers like incense. It | 
 is this wood-aloes which is mentioned in the j 
 Scriptures: "Thy plants," says Solomon, I 
 " are an orchard of pomegranates, with plea- | 
 sant fruits ; camphor, with spikenard ; spike- ; 
 nard and saffron ; calamus and cinnamon, j 
 with all trees of frankincense ; myrrh and 
 aloes, with all the chief spices." (Canticles, 
 iv. 14.) "All thy garments," says David, in 
 the Psalms, ** smell of myrrh, and aloes, and 
 cassia." Chaucer introduces it more than 
 once in a similar manner. 
 
 " My chamber is strewed with myrrhe and incense, 
 With sweete savouring aloes and sinnamone 
 Brething an aromatike redolence." Remedie of Love. 
 
 Again he alludes to the bitterness of the 
 ligne aloes, from which, probably, this wood 
 has been called aloes : — 
 
 " The woeful tears that they letten fall 
 As bitter werin, out of tearis kind 
 For paine, as is ligne aloes or gall." 
 
 Troilus and Cresseide. 
 
 The Jesuit missionaries describe the aloes 
 tree to be as tall as an olive, and similar in 
 form. The same individual furnishes three 
 sorts of wood: the first sort, immediately I 
 under the bark, is what our dealers would j 
 term soft wood, and is black, compact, and 
 heavy; it is this which is termed eagle- 
 wood. The second sort, found next to the 
 eagle-wood, is shining, darkish-coloured, and 
 as light as touch-wood; this, termed ca- 
 lambouc, or calamba wood is exported to 
 Europe, and is esteemed as an excellent per- 
 fume, burning like wax, and used for making 
 pastiles. The third sort is what our dealers 
 would term heart-wood, lying next the pith : 
 this is termed tambac, and is the most va- 
 luable of all ; but is rarely to be procured 
 genuine, even in the East, the other sorts 
 being sold instead. Most authors, in giving 
 an account of this tree, confound its pro- 
 ductions with the genus aloes, as well as 
 with agave. (Dictionary of Gardening.) 
 
 ALOPECURUS. A genus of grasses of 
 the foxtail kind, of which there are several 
 species, some of which may be cultivated to 
 advantage in the field. 
 85 
 
 Alopecurus agrestis. Slender foxtail-grass. 
 (Alopecurus myosuroides, Curt. Lond.) 
 One of the most inferior species of this 
 grass. The herbage it produces is com- 
 paratively of no value whatever. It appears 
 to be left untouched by every description 
 of cattle. The seed is produced in consi- 
 derable abundance, and is eaten by the 
 smaller birds, as well as by pheasants and 
 partridges. This annual species of foxtail - 
 grass is distinguished from the perennial 
 meadow foxtaS (Alopecurus pratensis) by 
 the total want of woolly hairs on the spike, 
 so conspicuous in that of the A. pratensis. 
 The Rev. G. Swayne observes, that it is a 
 very troublesome weed in many places among 
 wheat, and execrated by farmers under the 
 name of black bent. 
 
 " I have always," says Mr. Sinclair," found 
 it prevalent in poor soils, particularly such 
 as had been exhausted by avaricious crop- 
 ping. It is most difficult to extirpate 
 when once in possession of the soil ; for it 
 sends forth flowering culms during the 
 whole summer and autumn, till frost arrests 
 it ; so that it can bear to be repeatedly cut 
 down in one season, without suffering essen- 
 tially by the process. Indeed, it will be 
 found a vain and unprofitable labour to at- 
 tempt the removal of this grass by any other 
 means than the opposite to that which gave 
 it possession of the soil, which is judicious 
 cropping. To return land, in this state, to 
 grass, in the hope of overcoming this un- 
 profitable plant, will be found of little avail. 
 I have witnessed this practice, and the slender 
 foxtail, instead of disappearing in these in- 
 stances, re- appeared with the scanty herbage, 
 and in greater health and abundance. The 
 soil must first be got into good heart by very 
 moderate and judicious cropping, which in- 
 cludes the proper application of manure, a 
 skilful rotation of crops, and the most pointed 
 attention to the destruction of weeds ; which 
 last can only be effected, in this sense, by 
 adopting the drill or row culture for the 
 crops. After this, the land may be returned 
 to grass for several years with every pros- 
 pect of success. It flowers in the first week 
 of July, and successively till October. 
 
 Alopecurus arundinaceus. Reed-like fox- 
 tail-grass. The substance of the culms and 
 leaves of this grass is coarser than that of 
 the Alopecurus pratensis; and the root is so 
 powerfully creeping as to render its intro- 
 duction into arable land a matter of great ' 
 caution. The produce and nutritive powers 
 are very considerable : it is an early grass, 
 producing culms at an early period of the 
 spring, and continuing to vegetate vigorously 
 j through the summer and autumn. It cannot 
 be recommended as a constituent of perma- 
 nent pasture ; but as a grass to cultivate by 
 g 3 
 
 • 
 
ALOPECURUS. 
 
 itself, to a certain extent, for green food, or 
 for hay, it offers advantages in the superior 
 produce and nutritive powers above stated. 
 It grows stronger, and attains to a greater 
 height, than the A. Tauntoniensis ; but, owing 
 to the roots spreading wide, being large, 
 and requiring a consequent greater supply 
 of nourishment from the soil, the produce 
 stands thinner and proves less weighty than 
 the crops afforded by that variety. It 
 flowers in April or early in May, and con- 
 tinues to produce flowering culms until the 
 autumn. 
 
 Alopecurus bulbosus geniculatus. Bulbous- 
 rooted, knee-jointed, foxtail-grass. The 
 produce and nutritive powers of this peren- 
 nial grass are so inconsiderable as to jus- 
 tify a conclusion that it is comparatively of 
 no use to the agriculturist. I have found 
 it but seldom in a wild state. It grows on 
 a soil of a drier nature than the fibrous- 
 rooted variety, to be spoken of hereafter. 
 When raised from seed on a moist soil, it 
 still retains the bulbous root, which goes 
 the length to prove, that if it is not a dis- 
 tinct species, it is at least a permanent va- 
 riety. 
 
 Alopecurus geniculatus. Knee-jointed 
 foxtail-grass. There are two varieties of 
 this species of foxtail-grass : the present, 
 which is by far the more common, is distin- 
 guished from the other by its fibrous root 
 and greater size ; the less common variety 
 has a bulbous root. The A. bulbosus may 
 be distinguished from the bulbous-rooted 
 variety of the knee-jointed species, by its 
 upright culms, which want the knee-jointed 
 form so conspicuous in the culms of the 
 former. (Sm. Engl. Flora.} It is a perennial, 
 and grows commonly in surface drains, and 
 at the entrance of cattle ponds, particularly 
 where the soil is clayey. It does not appear 
 to be eaten with much relish by either cows, 
 horses, or sheep. Its nutritive powers are 
 not considerable, and its sub-aquatic natural 
 place of growth excludes any recommen- 
 dation of it for cultivation. Flowers in the 
 first week of June, and during the summer. 
 
 Alopecurus pratensis. Meadow foxtail- 
 grass. This grass is a native of Britain and 
 most parts of Europe, from Italy, through 
 France, Germany, Holland, to Denmark, 
 Norway, Sweden, and Russia. 
 
 Under the best management, it does 
 not attain to its fullest productive powers 
 from seed till four years; hence it is in- 
 ferior to the cock's-foot grass for the pur- 
 poses of ultimate cropping, and to many 
 other grasses besides. The herbage, how- 
 ever, contains more nutritive matter than 
 that of the cock's-foot, though the weight of 
 grass produced in one season is considerably 
 less. It thrives well under irrigation, keep- 
 
 ing possession of the crowns of the ridges ; 
 and is strictly permanent. Sheep are very 
 fond of it : when combined with white 
 clover only, the second season on a sandy 
 loam, it is sufficient for the support of five 
 couple of ewes and lambs per acre. As it 
 only thrives in perfection on lands of an 
 intermediate quality as to moisture and 
 dryness, and also being somewhat longer in 
 attaining to its full productive state than 
 some other grasses, its merits have been 
 misunderstood in many instances ; and in 
 others, as in the alternate husbandry, it has 
 been, by some persons, set aside altogether. 
 In many rich natural pastures, it constitutes 
 the principal grass. Though not so well 
 adapted, therefore, for the alternate hus- 
 bandry, it is one of the best grasses for 
 permanent pasture, and should never form 
 a less proportion than one eighth of any ad- 
 mixture of different grasses prepared for that 
 purpose : its merits demand this, whether 
 in respect to early growth, produce, nutri- 
 tive qualities, or permanency. It has been 
 observed by the Rev. Mr. Swayne, (in his 
 Gramina Pascua, a work which contains 
 much valuable information on the subject 
 of grasses,) that nearly two-thirds of the 
 seed is constantly destroyed by insects : ac- 
 cording to my experiments, this evil may 
 be almost entirely obviated by suffering the 
 first culms of the season to carry the seed. 
 It flowers in April, May, and June, accord- 
 ing as it may have been depastured earlier 
 or later. Seed ripe in June and July, ac- 
 cording to the season of flowering. The 
 meadow-foxtail constitutes part of the pro- 
 duce of all the richest pastures I have ex- 
 amined in Lincolnshire, Devonshire, and in 
 the vale of Aylesbury. In Mr. Westcar's 
 celebrated pastures at Creslew I found it 
 more prevalent than in those of Devonshire 
 and Lincolnshire. 
 
 Experiments tend to prove that there is 
 nearly three-fourths of produce greater 
 from a clayey loam than from a silicious 
 sandy soil, and that the grass from the latter 
 soil is of comparatively less value in the 
 proportion of 3 to 2. The culms produced 
 on the sandy soil are deficient in number 
 and in every respect smaller than those from 
 the clayey loam ; which satisfactorily ac- 
 counts for the difference in the quantity of 
 nutritive matter afforded by equal quan- 
 tities of the grass. It is not the strength 
 and rankness of the grass that indicates the 
 fitness of the soil for its growth, but the 
 number and quality of the culms. The 
 proportional value in which the grass of 
 the latter-math exceeds that of the flower- 
 ing crop is as 4 to 3 ; a difference which 
 appears extraordinary when the quantity of 
 flowering culms is considered. In the An- 
 
 « 
 
ALOPECURUS. 
 
 ALPACA. 
 
 thoxanthum odoratum the proportional dif- 
 ference is still greater, the latter-math being 
 to the flowering crop in nutriment nearly 
 as 9 to 4. In the Poa trivialis they are 
 equal ; but in all the later-flowering grasses 
 that have culms resembling those of the 
 meadow-foxtail and sweet-scented vernal, 
 the greater proportional value is always, on 
 the contrary, found in the grass of the 
 flowering crop. Whatever the cause may 
 be, it is evident that the loss sustained by 
 taking these grasses at the time of flowering 
 is considerable. In ordinary cases, this 
 seldom happens in practice, because these 
 grasses perfect their seed about the season 
 when hay-harvest generally commences, un- 
 less where the pasture has been stocked till 
 a late period in the spring, which cannot, in 
 this respect, be productive of any ultimate 
 advantage, but rather loss. The propor- 
 tional value which the grass, at the time the 
 seed is ripe, bears to that at the time of 
 flowering is as 3 to 2. The superiority of 
 the produce from a light loam over that 
 from a clay*ey soil is as 4 to 3. 
 
 Alopecurus Tauntoniensis. Taunton's 
 meadow foxtail-grass. This holds a middle 
 station between the Alopecurus pratensis 
 and Alopecurus arundinaceus. The lanceo- 
 late, strong, reed-like leaves, and powerful 
 creeping root of the A. arundinaceus, at first 
 sight, when growing, distinguish it from 
 every other species of Alopecurus. The 
 strongly-ribbed lower leaves of the A. Taun- 
 toniensis, with its slightly, though evidently 
 creeping roots, in like manner, when grow- 
 ing, distinguish it from the A. pratensis and 
 A. arundinaceus. 
 
 The following comparison of the nutritive 
 powers of some other species of grass with 
 the Alopecurus Tauntoniensis may be satis- 
 factory : — 
 
 Nutr. matter from 
 64 drs. of grass, 
 oz. gr. 
 
 Alop. arundinaceus, at the time the 
 seed is ripe, from Cheam, Surrey. 
 (W. P. Taunton's, Esq.) - - 3 10 
 
 Nutr. matter from 
 64 drs. of grass, 
 oz. gr. 
 
 Ahp. arundinaceus, produce of the 
 grass garden, Woburn, at the time 
 the grass was in flower - - 3»26 
 
 Alop. Tauntoniensis, at the time of 
 flowering, from the produce of the 
 grass garden - - - - 3 4 
 
 Alop. pratensis, at the time the seed 
 
 is ripe - - - - - 215 
 
 Triticum elongatum, ditto - - 4 14 
 
 Festuca heterophyila, various-leaved 
 fescue, produced on Cheam farm - 3 0 
 
 The superior productiveness of this grass 
 throughout the season, furnishing very early 
 and late herbage, equal to the very best 
 species, are properties which recommend it 
 very highly for permanent pasture, in com- 
 pany with other kinds particularly adapted 
 for the purpose. The roots, although only 
 slightly creeping, yet seem to forbid any 
 recommendation of the plant for the alternate 
 husbandry for permanent pasture. However, 
 this habit is here of advantage, as securing 
 the extension and continuance of the plant 
 without the serious objection of impoverish- 
 ing the soil by the unprofitable production 
 underground of vegetable matter, which 
 occurs in the growth of the powerful creep- 
 ing roots of Poa pratensis, Triticum repens, 
 Holcus mollis, &c. Should the seed of this 
 species prove obnoxious to the same dis- 
 eases as the seed of the A. pratensis (which 
 I suspect will prove to be the case) the 
 slight creeping habit of the roots will add 
 to the comparative value of this new species, 
 as allowing of its cultivation with more cer- 
 tainty of success and smaller cost, than the 
 general defects of seed in the A. pratensis 
 permits in its cultivation. It comes into 
 flower in April or early in May, and con- 
 tinues to emit flowering culms until Sep- 
 tember and October. 
 
 The produce and nutritive powers of the 
 several species of Alopecurus, may easily be 
 seen by a reference to the following analyti- 
 cal classification {Sinclair s Hort. Gram.) : — 
 
 Description of Grass. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Green Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Produce per Acre 
 of Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Alopecurus agrestis, in flower 
 
 A. bulbosus geniculatus in flower - 
 
 A. pratensis, in April - - - 
 
 . , in flower - - 
 
 , in flower - - - 
 
 . , seed ripe - - 
 
 Sandy loam 
 
 Clayey loam 
 
 Silicious sand 
 Clayey loam 
 
 lbs. 
 
 8,167 8 0 
 5,445 5 0 
 9,528 12 0 
 
 20,418 12 0 
 8,507 13 0 
 
 12,931 14 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,164 14 8 
 1,089 0 0 
 
 6,125 10 0 
 2,552 5 8 
 5,819 5 8 
 
 lbs. 
 
 223 5 4 
 85 1 0 
 483 14 0 
 478 9 0 
 132 14 5 
 454 10 2 
 
 ALP. A local name for the bullfinch. 
 
 ALPACA. A peculiar breed of Peruvian 
 sheep, for whose introduction into this 
 country considerable efforts have been re- 
 cently made. A very excellent " Memoir " 
 upon these interesting animals, has recently 
 87 
 
 (1841) been published by Mr. William 
 Walton, from whose work I gather the fol- 
 lowing interesting facts : — " When the 
 Spanish adventurers under Pizarro crossed 
 the isthmus of Panama and reached the 
 shores of the Pacific, they bent their steps 
 g 4 
 
ALPACA. 
 
 towards Peru, and arriving there found the 
 inhabitants in possession of two domestic 
 animals, the beauty and utility of which 
 excited their admiration. They also ascer- 
 tained that two others, alike in species, 
 although varying in properties, existed in a 
 wild state. Struck with the analogy, and 
 always disposed to see objects of comparison 
 with the productions of their own land, the 
 Spaniards called this new breed of cattle 
 Carneros de la tierra, or country sheep, and 
 in their use of them imitated the natives. 
 Acosta, one of the earliest naturalists who 
 embarked for the New World, wrote an 
 account of these interesting animals, derived 
 from personal observation ; and that account, 
 which made its appearance in 1590, is per- 
 haps the best ever penned. He says (His- 
 toria Natural y Moral de los Indias, lib. iv. 
 c. 41.), "There is nothing in Peru more 
 useful, or more valuable, than the country 
 sheep called llamas, and they are as eco- 
 nomical as they are profitable. From them 
 the natives obtain both food and clothing, 
 as we do in Europe from sheep, and besides 
 use them as beasts of burden. They require 
 no expense in either shoeing, packsaddles, 
 bridles, or even barley, serving their masters 
 gratuitously, and being satisfied with herb- 
 age picked up on the wastes. Thus did 
 Providence provide the Peruvians with 
 sheep and beasts of burden, united in the 
 same animal, and on account of their poverty 
 seems to have wished that they should en- 
 joy this advantage, free from expense, as 
 pastures in the highlands are abundant. 
 These sheep are divided into two kinds ; 
 the one called paco bears a heavy fleece of 
 wool, while the others have only a short 
 coat, and are better adapted for carrying 
 burdens. They have a long neck, similar 
 to the camel, and this they require ; for being 
 tall and upright, they stand in need of an 
 elongated neck to reach their food. The 
 colours of both animals vary, some being 
 entirely white, others entirely black, and 
 occasionally party-coloured. The meat is 
 good ; that of the fawn is best and most de- 
 licate, although the Indians use it sparingly, 
 their principal object in rearing this breed 
 of cattle being to avail themselves of its 
 wool for clothing and of its services to carry 
 loads. The wool they were accustomed to 
 spin and weave into garments, one of their 
 kinds of cloth, called huasca, being coarse, 
 and in more general use ; while the other, 
 known by the name of cumbi, was ofWi finer 
 and more delicate quality. Of the latter 
 they still make mantles, table-covers, quilts, 
 and various articles of ornamental dress, 
 which are durable, and have a gloss upon 
 them, as if partly made of silk. Their 
 mode of weaving is peculiar to themselves, 
 88 
 
 each side of the web being alike ; nor in a 
 whole piece is it possible to discover an un- 
 even thread or a knot. The Peruvian incas, 
 or emperors, kept experienced masters to 
 teach the art of making the cumbi, or super- 
 fine cloth, the principal part of whom re- 
 sided in the district of Capachica, where 
 they had public establishments, and with 
 the aid of plants gave to it various colours, 
 bright and lasting. The men and women 
 in the highlands were mostly manufacturers, 
 having looms in their own houses, which 
 precluded the necessity of going to market 
 to purchase clothing." 
 
 " The Indians still possess large droves, 
 consisting of 400, or 1000 head each, which 
 they load, and with them perform journies, 
 travelling like a string of mules and carrying 
 wine, coca, corn, chuno, (a nutritive food 
 made from potatoes, first frozen and after- 
 wards reduced to powder,) quicksilver, and 
 other articles of merchandise, and more es- 
 pecially that which, of all others, is the most 
 valuable, viz. silver, ingots of which they 
 bear from Potosi to Arica, a distance of 
 seventy leagues, .as they formerly did to 
 Arequipa, more than twice as far. Often 
 have I been astonished at seeing these droves 
 carrying 1000 or 200*0 ingots, valued at 
 more than 300,000 ducats, journeying slowly 
 on with no other guard than a few Indians, 
 who chiefly served to load and unload, or, 
 at most, two or three Spaniards. They 
 sleep in the open country ; and though the 
 journey is long, and the protection afforded 
 so extremely weak, no part of the silver is 
 ever missing. The load usually carried by 
 each animal is from four to six arrobas (each 
 arroba has twenty-five lbs.) ; and if the 
 journey is long they do not travel beyond 
 three or four leagues per day. The drivers 
 have their known resting-places, where they 
 find pasture and water, and on arriving 
 there, unload, pitch their tents, light a fire 
 and dress their own food, while the bearers 
 of their burdens are turned out loose." 
 
 He further remarks that the flesh of these 
 animals was jerked and made into cusharqui, 
 or, as the Spaniards call it, cecina, which 
 kept good for a considerable time, and was 
 in very general request. "Both species," 
 he says, " are accustomed to a cold climate, 
 and thrive best in the highlands. Often does 
 it happen that they are covered with snow 
 and sparkling with icicles, and yet healthy 
 and contented." Speaking of the vicunas, 
 the same author observes that they are wild 
 and timid, inhabiting the punas, or snowy 
 cliffs, and are affected by neither rain or 
 snow. To this he adds that they are gre- 
 garious, extremely fleet, and that on meeting 
 a traveller, or beast of the forest, they fly 
 away, collecting and driving their young 
 
ALPACA. 
 
 before them. He further affirms that the 
 vicuna wool is as soft as silk, made into fine 
 stuffs, and requires no dyeing ; adding, that 
 many persons also considered it medicinally 
 useful in cases of pains in the loins and other 
 parts of the body, in consequence of which 
 they had mattresses made of it. 
 
 Inca Garcilasso de la Vega, a native of 
 Peru, was the next Spaniard of note who 
 described the Carneros de la tierra, and 
 subjoined are his leading remarks : — " The 
 domestic animals which God was pleased to 
 bestow on the Indians, congenial to their 
 character and like them in disposition, are 
 so tractable that a child may guide them, 
 more particularly those accustomed to bear 
 burdens. Generally they are called llamas, 
 and the keeper llama-michec. As a distinc- 
 tion, the larger kind is called huanacu-Uama, 
 owing to its resembling the wild one of that 
 name, from which it only differs in colour, 
 the tame breeds being seen of all hues, 
 whereas the wild ones have only one, and 
 that is a light brown. The height of the 
 domestic breeds is that of a deer, and to no 
 animal can they be likened so justly as the 
 camel, excepting that they are smaller and 
 have no hunch on the back. The skin was 
 anciently steeped in tallow, in order to 
 prepare it, after which the Indians used it 
 for shoes, but the leather not being tanned, 
 they were obliged to go barefooted in rainy 
 weather. Of it the Spaniards now make 
 bridles, girths, and cruppers for saddles. 
 The llama formerly served to bear loads 
 from Cusco to the mines of Potosi, in droves 
 of 800 or 1000, each animal carrying three 
 or four arrobas. The paco was chiefly 
 valued for its flesh, but more especially for 
 its wool, long, but excellent, of which the 
 natives made cloths, and gave to them 
 beautiful and never-fading colours." 
 
 The Peruvian sheep are peculiar to that 
 part of South America, bordering on the 
 Pacific, which extends from the equator be- 
 yond the tropic of Capricorn, that long and 
 enormous range of mountains known as the 
 Andes Cordilleras. Along this massive pile 
 every imaginable degree of temperature may 
 be found in successive gradation. Below 
 stretches a narrow strip of land, washed by 
 the sea, where the heat is intense and it 
 never rains, but where, owing to heavy dews 
 and filtration from the mountains, vegetation 
 is luxuriant and an eternal spring reigns. 
 As one ascends, the aspect of the country 
 changes and new plants appear ; but no 
 sooner are the middle summits gained, and 
 the sun has lost his power, than those cold 
 and icy regions rise up, one above the other, 
 called by the natives punas, which are again 
 crowned witb rocky crests, broken by deep 
 ravines and rugged chasms, and presenting 
 89 
 
 a wilderness of crags and cliffs never trodden 
 by the human footstep, and never darkened, 
 except by a passing cloud, or the eagle's 
 wing. In this land of mist and snow, or 
 rather in the hollows which surround it, 
 feed the guanaco and vicuna, at an elevation 
 of 12,000 or 14,000 feet above the level of 
 the sea ; while in the lower regions, stretch- 
 ing immediately under the snowy belt, and 
 where the Indian fixes his abode at a 
 height from 8000 to 12,000 feet, may be 
 seen pasturing those flocks of llamas and 
 alpacas which constitute his delight, and 
 at the same time the principal part of his 
 property. 
 
 Here, amidst broken and precipitous peaks, 
 on the parapets and projecting ledges, slightly 
 covered with earth, or in the valleys formed 
 by the mountain ridges, like the Pyrenean 
 chamois, the llama and alpaca pick up a 
 precarious subsistence from the mosses, li- 
 chens, tender shrubs, and grassy plants which 
 make their appearance as the snow recedes ; 
 or, descending lower down, revel in the pa- 
 jonales, or, as they are called in some parts 
 of the country, ichuales — natural meadows 
 of the ichu plant, the favourite haunts of the 
 tame and wild kinds. Thus the hand of 
 man never prepares food for either species 
 — both readily find it on their native moun- 
 tains. Besides the extremes of cold, these 
 animals have equally to endure the severities 
 of a damp atmosphere, for while below it 
 seldom rains, in the summer months, when 
 evaporation from the sea is abundant, clouds 
 collect, and being driven over the lower 
 valleys by strong winds from the south and 
 west, and condensed by the cold, burst on 
 the highlands, where the rain falls in tor- 
 rents, amidst the most awful thunder and 
 lightning. 
 
 However bleak and damp the situation, 
 little does it matter for an animal requiring 
 neither fold nor manger, and living in wild 
 and desolate places, where the tender is often 
 obliged to collect the dung of his flock to 
 serve as fuel for himself. Although delicate 
 in appearance, the alpaca is, perhaps, one of 
 the hardiest animals of the creation. His 
 abstinence has already been noticed. Nature 
 has provided him with a thick skin and a 
 warm fleece, and as he never perspires, like 
 the ordinary sheep, he is not so susceptible 
 of cold. There is, therefore, no necessity 
 to smear his coat with tar and butter, as the 
 farmers are obliged to do with their flocks 
 in Scotland, a process which, besides being 
 troublesome and expensive, injures the wool, 
 as it is no longer fit to make into white goods, 
 nor will it take light and bright colours. 
 In the severest winter the alpaca asks no 
 extra care, and his teeth being well adapted 
 to crop the rushes and coarse grass with 
 
ALPACA. 
 
 ALTHEA FRUTEX. 
 
 which our moors abound, he will be satisfied 
 with the refuse left upon them. In a word, 
 he would live where sheep must be in dan- 
 ger of starving. 
 
 The importations of sheep's wool from 
 Peru into Liverpool, principally alpaca, have 
 steadily advanced since the article became 
 known to the manufacturer, — the best proof 
 of its worth. In 1835 they amounted to 
 8000 bales; in 1836, to 12,800; in 1837, 
 to 17,500; in 1838, to 25,765; in 1839,#to 
 
 34,543 ; and in 1840, to 34,224 — more than 
 quadrupled in six years. 
 
 In the Custom House returns, it is to be 
 regretted that alpaca wool is not distin- 
 guished from the ordinary kinds arriving 
 from Peru. The total imports for the last 
 five years of all sheep's wool, distinguishing 
 from Peru (including alpaca) and other parts, 
 and also of red, or vicuna wool, together with 
 raw and thrown silks, and goat's hair or wool, 
 and mohair yarn, are here subjoined : — 
 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Sheep's wool : 
 From Peru - 
 Other parts - 
 
 lbs. 
 
 953,974 
 63,284,677 
 
 lbs. 
 1,914,137 
 46,464,957 
 
 lbs. 
 2,303,794 
 50,289,846 
 
 lbs. 
 2,145,106 
 55,228,349 
 
 lbs. 
 2,762,439 
 46,630,638 
 
 Total - 
 
 64,238,651 
 
 48,379,094 
 
 52,593,640 
 
 57,373,455 
 
 49,393,077 
 
 Red Wool : 
 
 From Peru - 
 Other parts - 
 
 1,248 
 78 
 
 614 
 
 294 
 421 
 
 4,465 
 2,003 
 
 7,940 
 34,377 
 
 Total - 
 
 1,326 
 
 614 
 
 715 
 
 6,468 
 
 42,317 
 
 Raw silk 
 Thrown silk 
 Goats' hair or wool 
 Mohair yarn 
 
 4,453,081 
 396,660 
 1,117,629 
 89,298 
 
 4,146,481 
 231,203 
 602,373 
 29,199 
 
 3,458,959 
 265,130 
 942,770 
 20,546 
 
 3,746,248 
 225,268 
 992,188 
 13,645 
 
 3,758,841 
 288,994 
 989,257 
 2,664 
 
 With regard to the number of these sheep 
 now in England, and their capability of 
 being naturalised, Mr. Walton adds, " Mr. 
 Bennett, of Faringdon, had a pair of llamas 
 sent to him from Peru twenty years ago, 
 and fed them as sheep are usually fed, with 
 hay and turnips, in the winter. From his 
 own experience he found that they are par- 
 ticularly hardy and very long-lived, He 
 increased his stock, and has actually had six 
 females at a time which have had young ones. 
 Of these very few have died. The number 
 of Peruvian sheep in the kingdom at pre- 
 sent (July, 1841) may be estimated thus: — 
 the Earl of Derby, Knowsley Hall, Lanca- 
 shire, sixteen; Marquis of Breadalbane, one ; 
 Duke of Montrose, three ; Earl Fitzwilliam, 
 one ; Zoological Gardens, Phoenix Park, 
 Dublin, six ; ditto, Regent's Park, two ; J. 
 J. Hegan, Esq., Harrow Hall, Cheshire, 
 seven; Charles Tayleure, Esq., Parkfield, 
 near Liverpool, five ; John Edwards, Esq., 
 Pye Nest, Halifax, six ; Mr. Stephenson, 
 Oban, six ; Wm. Bennett, Esq., twelve ; 
 Mr. Cross, Surrey Zoological Gardens, one ; 
 Mr. Atkins, Zoological Gardens, Liverpool, 
 three; and in travelling caravans, four — 
 total seventy-nine. Lately six more ar- 
 rived in Liverpool. The existence of this 
 number among us, supported by their healthy 
 appearance, as reported to me from every 
 quarter where I have been able to institute 
 inquiries, is a better proof of the capacity 
 90 
 
 of Andes sheep to adapt themselves to our 
 climate, than any further arguments or elu- 
 cidations which I could adduce." 
 
 ALTERATIVE MEDICINES. In far- 
 riery, are such medicines as possess a power 
 of changing the constitution, without any 
 sensible increase or diminution of the natu- 
 ral evacuations. 
 
 ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY. That 
 sort of management of farms, which has one 
 part in the state of grass or sward, while the 
 other is under the plough, so as to be capa- 
 ble of being changed as there may be oc- 
 casion, or as the nature of the lands may 
 require. This system of management is 
 supposed to lessen the expense of manure, 
 and keep the land more clean. (See Hus- 
 bandry.) 
 
 ALTELEA OFFICINALIS. See Marsh- 
 Mallow. 
 
 ALTHEA FRUTEX. (Lat. Hibiscus 
 Syriacus.) This is a very beautiful hardy 
 shrub, but it does not throw out its leaves 
 till the middle of June. It is a native of the 
 Levant, Syria, and North America, and it 
 grows well in any loose soil. It blooms 
 through August and September. There are 
 four varieties. One bears pale purple flowers 
 with dark bottoms; a second variety has 
 bright purple flowers with black bottoms; 
 a third bears white flowers with purple bot- 
 toms, and the fourth has variegated flowers 
 with dark bottoms. The flower grows at 
 
ALTITUDE. 
 
 ALUM. 
 
 the side of the last year's wood as well as on 
 the present year 1 s wood. It reaches from six 
 to ten feet high. Propagate from seed, or 
 from cuttings and layers. Seed produces 
 the finest plants. It may be sown in the 
 open ground, and the young plants appear 
 the same year. This shrub is a beautiful 
 appendage to all gardens. If the frosts pinch 
 the young late shoots, cut below them in the 
 spring following ; they will shoot afresh. {R. 
 Johnson.) 
 
 ALTITUDE. (Lat. altitudo, from alius, 
 high.) In vegetable physiology, altitude 
 or elevation of surface above the level of the 
 sea is equivalent to a receding, whether 
 north or south, from the line of the equator, 
 600 feet of altitude being thought to be 
 equal to a degree. Hence it follows that 
 all varieties of climate, and consequently all 
 varieties of vegetable habitat, may exist 
 even in the same latitude, merely by means 
 of variety in the altitude of the spot. This 
 was found by Tournefort to be literally the 
 fact, during his travels in Asia. At the foot 
 of Mount Ararat he met with plants pecu- 
 liar to Armenia ; above these he met with 
 plants which are found also in France ; at a 
 still greater height he found himself sur- 
 rounded with such as grow in Sweden, and 
 at the summit, with such as vegetate in the 
 polar regions. Baron Humboldt, in his 
 Personal Narrative, gives us a similar ac- 
 count of the several zones of vegetation 
 existing in a height of 3730 yards on the 
 ascent of Mount Teneriffe. The first zone 
 is the region of vines, extending from the 
 shores of the ocean to a height of from 400 
 to 600 yards, well cultivated, and produc- 
 ing date trees, plantains, olives, vines, and 
 wheat. The second zone is the region of 
 laurels, extending from about 600 to 1800 
 yards, producing many plants with showy 
 flowers, and moss and grass beneath. The 
 third zone is the region of pines, commenc- 
 ing at 1920 yards, and having a breadth of 
 850 yards. The fourth zone is the region 
 of Retama, or broom, growing to a height of 
 nine or ten feet, and fed on by wild goats. 
 The last zone is the region of grasses, scantily 
 covering the heaps of lava, with cryptogamic 
 plants intermixed, and the summit of the 
 mountain bare. 
 
 This accounts for the great variety of 
 plants which is often found in no great ex- 
 tent of country ; and it may be laid down as 
 a botanical axiom, that the more diversified 
 the surface of the country, the richer it will 
 be in species, at least in the same latitudes. 
 It accounts, also, for the want of correspon- 
 dence between plants of different countries, 
 though placed in the same latitudes ; because 
 the mountains, or ridges of mountains, which 
 may be found in the one and not in the other, 
 91 
 
 will produce the greatest possible difference 
 in the character of the genera and species. 
 To this cause we may ascribe the diversity 
 that often actually exists between plants 
 growing in the same country and m the 
 same latitudes; as between those of the 
 north-west and north-east coasts of North 
 America, as also of the south-west and south- 
 east coasts ; the former being more moun- 
 tainous, the latter more flat. Sometimes the 
 same sort of difference takes place between 
 the plants of an island and those of the neigh- 
 bouring continent ; that is, if the one is flat 
 and the other mountainous ; but if they are 
 alike in their geographical delineation, they 
 are generally alike in their vegetable pro- 
 ductions. 
 
 ALUM. (Lat. Alumen.) The sulphate 
 of alumina, and potash of the chemist, is 
 composed, according to the analysis of Ber- 
 zelius {Ann. de Chim. 82 — 258.), of 
 Sulphuric acid - 34*23 
 Alumina - 10-86 
 Potash - - - - 9-81 
 Water - - - - 45*00 
 
 99-90 
 
 In veterinary practice, alum in powder 
 is sometimes used externally for destroying 
 trifling excrescences, arresting bleeding, &c. 
 A little, very finely powdered, is occasionally 
 blown through a quill into the eye for the 
 purpose of removing specks of long standing. 
 Internally, alum is administered in from one 
 to two drachm doses, with other astringents, 
 in diarrhoea, diabetes, and other immediate 
 discharges. 
 
 Alum lotion is prepared by dissolving from 
 six to eight drachms of alum powder in two 
 pints of water. This forms an inexpensive 
 and tolerably efficacious application for mild 
 forms of grease, cracks in the heels of horses, 
 and for superficial sores of all kinds. It 
 should not be used till the surrounding in- 
 flammation has been subdued by time or 
 proper remedies. In its weakest state, the 
 alum lotion is serviceable in the cankered 
 ear of dogs, and wounds or ulcers of the 
 mouth in any animal. 
 
 Alum ointment is composed of one drachm 
 of the powder to one ounce each of turpen- 
 tine and hog's lard, incorporated by heating. 
 This supplies the place of the lotion when 
 the sores are apt to become dry and hard. 
 It is, however, very little used. 
 
 Alum whey is prepared by throwing two 
 drachms of the powder into two pints of hot 
 milk. It is given internally as an astringent, 
 either by the mouth, the vent-gut {rectum), 
 or vagina, according to circumstances. It 
 now and then succeeds in diarrhoea, after 
 other and better astringents have failed. 
 
 Burnt alum is made by boiling a solid 
 
ALUMINA. 
 
 AMBURY. 
 
 piece of the salt on an iron plate over a fire 
 till it becomes quite dry and white, taking 
 care not to make the heat so strong as to 
 decompose it. This is somewhat milder than 
 the alum in powder, and is therefore some- 
 times substituted for it when wanted for 
 specks in the eye. (Miller's Dictionary.') 
 
 ALUMINA. The pure earth of clay, 
 was so named from having been obtained 
 in a state of the greatest purity from alum, 
 in which salt it exists combined with sulphuric 
 acid, and potash. This earth when pure has 
 but little taste, and no smell. The earthy 
 smell which clay emits when breathed upon, 
 is owing to the presence of oxide of iron. 
 Its specific gravity is 2*00. When heated 
 it parts with a portion of water, and its bulk 
 is considerably diminished. Hence most clay 
 lands are apt to crack, by their contraction 
 in dry weather. There is little doubt, from 
 the experiments of Davy, but that alumina 
 is the oxide of a metal, which has been de- 
 nominated aluminum, although he did not 
 succeed in procuring it in a separate state. 
 
 Of all the earths alumina is found in plants 
 in the smallest proportions, 32 ounces of the 
 seeds of wheat only contain 0*6 of a grain, 
 and those of the barley and the oat only 
 about 4 grains. It has been found in the 
 largest proportions in the entire plant of 
 Turkey wheat, 100 parts of which yield 7*11 
 parts ; and the same proportion of the sun- 
 flower yielded 3*72 parts, and the fumitory 
 14 parts. Small as these proportions usually 
 are, still there is no reason to doubt but that 
 these are absolutely essential to the growth 
 of the plant. It exists in all cultivated soils 
 in varying proportions, and these are in- 
 variably smaller than those of the other 
 earths. (See Earths ; their use to vege- 
 tation.) (Davy, El. Chem. Phil. ; Thomson's 
 System ; Professor Schubler, Jour. Roy. Ag. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 177.) 
 
 AL VEARIUM. A term sometimes em- 
 ployed to signify a bee-hive. 
 
 ALVEOLI. The sockets of the jaws of 
 animals in which the teeth are placed. They 
 are lined by a very sensible membrane, which 
 also encloses the roots of the teeth. The 
 number of them diners in various animals, 
 as well as in animals of different kinds. 
 
 ALVEOLUS. The waxen cells in bee- 
 hives. 
 
 AMARYLLIS. Lily Daffodil, Autumnal 
 Narcissus. (Lat. Amaryllis lutea.) This is 
 a hardy bulbous root, coming originally 
 from the south of Europe, and throwing out 
 its yellow flowers in September. It is a 
 hardy plant, which increases very rapidly 
 by offsets, taken between May and the end 
 of July, but not later. It thrives very 
 healthily almost any where, provided it be 
 not planted under trees, or too near walls. 
 92 
 
 The offsets should be planted in a bed by 
 themselves for two years, previously to 
 setting down in the flower beds. If planted 
 in well dug, tolerably rich mould, the ama- 
 ryllis will bear very splendid flowers. (X. 
 Johnson.) 
 
 AMAUROSIS. In farriery, is a total 
 blindness, without any altered appearance 
 in the eye. 
 
 AMBARVALIA. A superstitious cere- 
 mony practised by the ancient Romans, in 
 order to procure from the gods a happy 
 harvest. It consisted of a procession in 
 which the victims, a sow, a sheep, and a 
 bull, were conducted thrice round the corn 
 fields before they were sacrificed. Twelve 
 priests walked at the head of the procession, 
 which consisted of all the neighbouring in- 
 habitants, every one being crowned with 
 leaves of oak, and singing hymns in honour 
 of Ceres, the goddess of corn. ( Virg. G. i. 
 339. and 345. Cato de R. R. c. 141.) 
 
 AMBLE. In horsemanship, is a peculiar 
 kind of pace, in which both the horse's legs 
 of the same side move at the same time. 
 In this pace the horse's legs move nearer to 
 the ground than in the walk, and at the 
 same time are more extended : but what is 
 most extraordinary in it is, that the two 
 legs of the same side, for instance, the off 
 hind and fore leg, move at the same time ; 
 and then the two near legs, in making 
 another step, move at once ; the motion 
 being performed in this alternate manner, 
 so that the sides of the animal are alter- 
 nately without support, or any equilibrium 
 between the one and the other, which must 
 necessarily prove very fatiguing to him, 
 being obliged to support himself in a forced 
 oscillation, by the rapidity of a motion, in 
 which his feet are scarcely off the ground. 
 For if in the amble he lifted his feet as in 
 the trot, or even in a walk, the oscillation 
 would be such, that he could not avoid fall- 
 ing on his side. 
 
 Those who are skilled in horsemanship 
 observe, that horses which naturally amble, 
 never trot, and that they are considerably 
 weaker than others. Colts often move in 
 this manner, especially when they exert 
 themselves, and are not strong enough to 
 trot or gallop. Most good horses, which 
 have been over-worked, and on the decline, 
 are also observed voluntarily to amble, 
 when forced to a motion swifter than a 
 walk. The amble may, therefore, be con- 
 sidered as a defective pace, not being com- 
 mon, and natural only to a very few horses, 
 which, in general, are weaker than others. 
 Add to this, that such amblers as seem the 
 strongest are spoiled sooner than those 
 which trot or gallop. 
 
 AMBURY. See Anbury. 
 
AMEL-CORN. 
 
 AMERICAN BLIGHT. 
 
 AMEL-CORN. A diseased sort of grain, I 
 the same with spelt. 
 
 AMELIORATING CROPS. In hus- 
 bandry, are such as are supposed to im- 
 prove the lands on which they are cultivated. 
 Carrots, turnips, artificial grasses, such as 
 contain a large proportion of nutritious 
 materials, and many other green vegetable 
 products, especially if fed off", are considered 
 as ameliorating; but all kinds of crops, 
 carried off* the land, are in some degree or 
 other exhausters of the ground ; and green 
 crops, such as have been just mentioned, 
 are only less so than crops of grain or other 
 ripe vegetables. The improvement of lands, 
 therefore, by what are commonly termed 
 ameliorating crops, depends, in a great mea- 
 sure, upon the culture which the ground 
 receives while they are growing, and the 
 returns which they make to it in the way 
 of manure, after being consumed by ani- 
 mals. 
 
 AMELIORATING SUBSTANCES. In 
 agriculture, are such substances, as, when 
 applied to land, render it more fertile and 
 productive. 
 
 AMERICAN BLIGHT. A popular 
 but very inappropriate name for an insect 
 (Eriosoma mali, Leach ; Aphis lanigera, 
 Bliger), very injurious to apple trees, sup- 
 posed, though on no very clear evidence, to 
 have been introduced from America. Mr. 
 Knapp says he was informed that it was first 
 observed in the west of England in 1819, in 
 the nursery gardens of Messrs. Millar and 
 Sweet, near Bristol, introduced, as was 
 supposed, by some imported plant. Mr. 
 Salisbury again says, " I have, from good 
 authority, heard that it was brought to this 
 country from France, in the reign of Louis 
 XIV., when a colony of refugees settled at 
 Paddington ; and there it was first observed 
 to begin its depredations on the apple trees. 
 I am in some measure warranted in my be- 
 lief, that the insect in question was intro- 
 duced from France, as an old French gar- 
 dener who worked in my garden stated 
 that he was well acquainted with the bug, 
 as he termed it, since his childhood ; and 
 that it had been the destruction of many 
 fruits, not apple trees in particular, in the 
 neighbourhood of Montpelier, where he had 
 been brought up." (Hints on Orchards, 
 p. 39.) M. Blote again informs us that it is 
 exceedingly destructive to the apple trees 
 in the department of Calvados. {Mem. 
 Societe Linn, de Caen, pour 1824, p. 104.) 
 We seem to be indebted for the supposition 
 of its American origin to Sir Joseph Banks, 
 who traced the supposed first appearance of 
 the insect to a nursery in Sloane Street, 
 Chelsea ; and upon being informed that it 
 was unknown in France, concluded that it 
 93 
 
 I was most probably imported from North 
 America, with some apple trees which had 
 been brought over to this nursery. But in 
 whatever way it originated, it spread ra- 
 pidly, though it was at first confined to the 
 vicinity of the metropolis, where it destroyed 
 thousands of trees. Subsequently it found 
 its way into other parts of the kingdom ; 
 and, in 1810, so many of the cider apple 
 trees in Gloucestershire were infested with 
 it, that it was apprehended the making of 
 cider would have been abandoned for the 
 season. A periodical writer, who signs Rus- 
 ticus, has described this insect on the wing, 
 as having " the appearance of a bit of cotton 
 or a downy seed, floating in the air, and as 
 readily driven about by every breath of 
 wind," a description which applies as well 
 to the poplar plant louse {Aphis populi, 
 Lin. ; Eriosoma populi, Leach), a very dif- 
 ferent insect, harmless to fruit trees. A 
 detailed account of the insect is given in the 
 Journal of a Naturalist, which, with the cor- 
 rection of a few errors and oversights of 
 the author, we shall now follow. 
 
 Early in summer, and even in spring, 
 about March, a slight hoariness is observed 
 upon the branches of certain species of our 
 orchard fruit. As the season advances this 
 hoariness increases, and becomes cottony; 
 and toward the middle or the end of sum- 
 mer, the upper sides of some of the branches 
 are invested with a thick, downy substance, 
 so long as at times to be sensibly agitated 
 by the air. Upon examining this substance, 
 we find that it conceals a multitude of small, 
 wingless creatures, which are busily em- 
 ployed in preying upon the limb of the tree 
 beneath. This they are well enabled to do, 
 by means of a beak terminating in a fine 
 bristle ; this being insinuated through the 
 bark, and the sappy part of the wood, en- 
 ables the creature to extract, as with a 
 syringe, the sweet, vital liquor that circu- 
 lates in the plant. This terminating bristle 
 is not observable in every individual, from 
 being usually, when not in use, so closely 
 concealed under the breast of the animal, 
 as to be invisible. In the younger insects 
 it is often manifested by protruding, like a 
 fine termination, to the vent (anus) ; but as 
 their bodies become lengthened, the bristle 
 is not in this way observable. The pulp 
 wood (alburnum) being thus wounded, rises 
 up in excrescences and nodes all over the 
 branch, and deforms it ; the limb, deprived 
 of its mitriment, grows sickly ; the leaves 
 turn yellow, and the part perishes. Branch 
 after branch is thus assailed, until they be- 
 come leafless, and the tree dies. 
 
 Plant lice (Aphides), in general, attack 
 the younger and softer parts of plants ; but 
 this insect seems easily to wound the harder 
 
AMERICAN BLIGHT. 
 
 bark of the apple, and doe's not always 
 make choice of the most tender branch. 
 They give a preference to certain sorts, but 
 not always the most rich fruits, as cider 
 apples, and wildings, are greatly infested by 
 them ; and from some unknown cause, other 
 varieties seem to be exempted from their 
 depredations. The Wheeler's russet, and 
 Crofton pippin, have never been observed to 
 be injured by them; and the insect is so 
 fastidious in its selections, that it will fre- 
 quently attack the stock or the graft, leaving 
 the one or the other untouched, should it 
 consist of a kind not to its liking. This in- 
 sect is viviparous, or produces its young 
 alive, forming a cradle for them by dis- 
 charging from the extremities of its body a 
 quantity of long, cottony matter ; which, 
 becoming interwoven and entangled, pre- 
 vents the young from falling to the earth, 
 and completely envelopes the parent and 
 offspring. In this cottony substance, we 
 observe, as soon as the creature becomes 
 animated in the spring, and as long as it 
 remains in vigour, many round pellucid 
 bodies, which at the first sight look like 
 eggs, only that they are larger than we 
 might suppose to be ejected by the animal. 
 They consist of a sweet glutinous fluid, and 
 are not the eggs but the discharges of the 
 insects. In the autumn, the winds and 
 rains of the season partly disperse these in- 
 sects ; and we observe them endeavouring 
 to secrete themselves in the crannies of any 
 neighbouring substance. Should the savoy 
 cabbage be near the trees whence they have 
 been dislodged, the cavities of the under 
 sides of its leaves are commonly favourite 
 asylums for them. Multitudes perish by 
 these rough removals, but numbers yet re- 
 main ; and we may find them in the nodes 
 and crevices, on the under sides of the 
 branches, at any period of the year, the long, 
 cottony vesture being nearly all removed ; but 
 still they are enveloped in a fine short downy 
 clothing, to be seen by a magnifier, pro- 
 ceeding apparently from every suture or 
 pore of their bodies, and protecting them in 
 their dormant state from the moisture and 
 frosts of our climate. This insect, in a 
 natural state, usually awakens and com- 
 mences its labours very early in the month 
 of March ; and the hoariness on its body 
 may be observed increasing daily; but if 
 an affected branch be cut in the winter, 
 and kept in water in a warm room, these 
 creatures will awaken speedily, spin their 
 cottony nests, and feed and discharge as 
 accustomed to do in a genial season. 
 
 Salisbury says these insects winter be- 
 neath the surface of the soil in crevices of 
 the root-bark ; but though this may cer- 
 tainly occur, we have found them more 
 94 
 
 commonly in cracks, and under the angles 
 of branches at a considerable distance from 
 the ground ; and in all cases much dimin- 
 ished from their summer numbers by the 
 cold, as well as by the depredations of their 
 enemies. We have observed the insect to 
 be very fastidious as to its feeding places. 
 A tree, for example, which has been much 
 infested one season, not having one, or only 
 a very few of the insects on the succeeding 
 season; while a tree a few yards distant, 
 previously free, shall become all over a prey 
 to the pest. An espalier stock, also, may 
 have one half of its branches covered with 
 the insects, while another half is entirely 
 free from them. 
 
 It does not appear to us, that the feeding 
 organs (trophi) of this insect are capable of 
 easily penetrating old bark; for, though 
 numerous colonies of them be found on the 
 oldest trunks, these appear to begin in some 
 recent crack or wound in the bark ; and 
 hence, from the extravasation and oozing 
 out of the organic juices, new bark is 
 formed, and this affords a substance easily 
 penetrable ; while, as the colony increases, 
 new perforations are made, irregular ex- 
 crescences are produced, deforming the tree, 
 and draining off the nutriment which would 
 otherwise have gone to the production of 
 flowers and fruit. The young branches, 
 however, are always the most infested 
 during the summer ; and the crevices in the 
 old bark are only resorted to when cold 
 weather renders shelter necessary. 
 
 Remedies. — A considerable number of 
 methods have been proposed for getting rid 
 of the insect in question. White-washing, 
 or washing with lime-water, has been tried, 
 but is not so efficacious as the application of 
 any glutinous substance, which may cover 
 the insects and dry over them. Double 
 size or glue, liquefied by heat, and applied 
 by means of a brush, particularly in March, 
 when the insects begin to show more cottony 
 than in winter, is a very effectual remedy, 
 if no crevice of a tree is left unsized. This, 
 however, may be dissolved by the rain, and 
 therefore a varnish is recommended by 
 Mr. Knapp, as follows : " Melt about three 
 ounces of resin in an earthen pipkin, take it 
 from the fire, and pour it into three ounces 
 of fish oil ; the ingredients perfectly unite, 
 and when cold, acquire the consistence of 
 honey. A slight degree of heat will liquefy 
 it, and in this state paint over every node or 
 infected part in your tree, using a common 
 painter's brush. This I prefer doing in 
 spring, or as soon as the hoariness appears. 
 The substance soon sufficiently hardens, and 
 forms a varnish, which prevents any escape, 
 and stifles the individuals. After this first 
 dressing, should any cottony matter appear 
 
AMERICAN CRESS. 
 
 AMOMUM, COMMON. 
 
 round the margin of the varnish, a second 
 application to these parts will, I think, be 
 found to effect a perfect cure. The preva- 
 lence of this insect," adds this author, " gives 
 some of our orchards here the appearance of 
 numerous white posts in an extensive drying 
 ground, being washed with lime from root 
 to branch ; a practice, I apprehend, attended 
 with little benefit. A few of the creatures 
 may be destroyed by accident ; but as the 
 animal does not retire to the earth, but 
 winters in the clefts of the boughs, far be- 
 yond the influence of this wash, it remains 
 uninjured, to commence its ravages again 
 when spring returns." 
 
 All oily or resinous substances, however, 
 being prejudicial to trees, Mr. George Lindley 
 recommends vinegar as a wash for young 
 trees ; and, as less expensive for old trees, a 
 sort of paint, composed of one gallon of 
 quicklime, half a pound of flowers of sulphur, 
 and a quarter of a pound of lamp-black, 
 mixed with boiling water to the consistence 
 of whitening for white-washing, and laying 
 it on rather more than blood warm with a 
 brush. This should be done in March, and 
 again in August when the winged insects 
 spread from tree to tree. 
 
 Mr. Couch, as a cheap and certain remedy, 
 recommends three quarters of an ounce of 
 sulphuric acid, by measure, to be mixed with 
 seven ounces and a half of water. It should 
 be applied all over the bark by means of 
 rags, the only parts excepted being the 
 present year's shoots, which it would de- 
 stroy. This destroys moss and lichens, as 
 well as insects ; and if applied in showery 
 weather, will be washed into every crevice 
 in which they can harbour. 
 
 AMERICAN CRESS. (Lepidium vir- 
 ginicum.) From Xcirtg, a scale, on account of 
 the form of the seed-vessel. For the winter 
 standing crops, a light dry soil, in an open 
 but warm situation, should be allotted to it, 
 and for the summer, a rather moister and 
 shady border is to be preferred. In neither 
 instance is it required to be rich. It is pro- 
 pagated by seed, which must be sown every 
 six weeks from March to August, for summer 
 and autumn, but only one sowing is neces- 
 sary, either at the end of August, or begin- 
 ning of September, for a supply during 
 winter and spring. It may be sown broad- 
 cast, but the most preferable mode is in 
 drills nine inches apart. Water may be 
 given occasionally during dry weather, both 
 before and after the appearance of the plants. 
 If raised from broadcast sowings, the plants 
 are thinned to six inches apart ; if in drills, 
 only to three. In winter they require the 
 shelter of a little litter or other light cover- 
 ing ; and to prevent them being injured by 
 its pressure, some twigs may be bent over 
 
 the bed, or some light bushy branches laid 
 amongst them, which will support it. The 
 only cultivation they require is to be kept 
 clear of weeds. 
 
 In gathering, the outside leaves only 
 should be stripped off, which enables suc- 
 cessional crops to become rapidly fit for use. 
 When the plants begin to run, their centres 
 must be cut away, which causes them to 
 shoot afresh. For the production of seed, a 
 few of the strongest plants raised from the 
 first spring sowing are left ungathered from. 
 They flower in June or July, and perfect 
 their seed before the commencement of au- 
 tumn. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 AMERICAN GRASS. A term some- 
 times applied to a species of agrostis. 
 
 AMMONIA. The name given by che- 
 mists to the volatile alkali, from its being 
 first prepared in the East, from camels' dung 
 near to a temple dedicated to Jupiter Am- 
 nion. It is known in commerce under the 
 name of hartshorn, sal volatile, &c. and is 
 prepared by the dry or destructive distilla- 
 tion of animal substances. It is formed also 
 most commonly wherever animal substances 
 undergo putrefaction. It is composed of 
 
 Hydrogen - - 0*125 
 
 Azote or nitrogen - 1*75 
 
 Ammonia is usually produced in the state 
 of carbonate of ammonia, or united with car- 
 bonic acid gas, and in this state, or in fact 
 in combination with most other acids, it 
 forms salts, which possess peculiarly fertilis- 
 ing properties. This alkali fulfils, there is 
 little doubt, a very important part in many 
 organic manures. It is a very universally 
 diffused substance, has been detected in 
 rain water and even in snow, and there is 
 little doubt but that it exists, and preju- 
 dicially too, to the health of the inhabitants, 
 in the atmosphere of many places crowded 
 with animal life. (Liebig's Organic Chem. 
 76, 77.) Wherever this alkali is detected in 
 a substance, such as it commonly is, for 
 instance, in urine, gas-water, &c. the most 
 excellent effects may be anticipated to ve- 
 getation by its use. Fresh urine contains 
 phosphate of ammonia, muriate of ammonia, 
 and lactate of ammonia, and there is perhaps 
 no fertiliser more powerful in its effects than 
 this. 
 
 AMNIOS. The name which anatomists 
 have given to a peculiar membranous co- 
 vering which envelopes the foetus in the 
 uterus. Within this amnios there is a liquid 
 distinguished by the name of the liquor of 
 the amnios, which surrounds the foetus in 
 every part. (Thomson's Chem.) 
 
 AMOMUM, COMMON, or BASTARD 
 STONE PARSLEY. This plant is common 
 among hedges and groves, to about three feet 
 
AMYLACEOUS. 
 
 ANALYSIS. 
 
 in height. The stalk is slender. The flowers 
 are small and white, growing in little clusters 
 at the extremity of all the branches. The 
 seeds have a peculiar flavour of mace, and 
 the plant is_ distinguished by the slenderness 
 of its stalks and branches ; and the smallness 
 of its umbels. This plant is nearly equal in 
 its cordial properties to the foreign amomum. 
 It is good for many disorders. The root is 
 excellent for all diseases connected with the 
 urinary passage, and the seeds are used in 
 all disorders of the stomach and bowels. 
 
 It is also an aperient, and useful in all ob- 
 structions. The root should be dried, and 
 always kept ready for use, being a most va- 
 luable medicine. The root boiled in ale is 
 almost an immediate cure for colic ; and 
 dried or fresh, the root and seeds are an ad- 
 mirable ingredient in bitters, (i. Johnson.} 
 
 AMYLACEOUS. A term applied to 
 such farinaceous seeds, grains, and roots, as 
 contain much of the fine flour from which 
 starch is made, and in which chiefly conists 
 their nutritive principle. 
 
 ANALEPTIC. In farriery, a term ap- 
 plied to remedies of a restorative and cordial 
 quality. 
 
 ANALYSIS (Gr. dvaXvmg). In a ge- 
 neral sense, signifies the resolution of com- 
 pound bodies into their original or consti- 
 tuent principles. 
 
 Analysis of Soils. — The means of ascer- 
 taining the nature, properties, and propor- 
 tions of the different materials of which 
 they are composed. The chemical exami- 
 nation of the soil affords perhaps more 
 certain and more valuable information to 
 the farmer, for the improvement of its fer- 
 tility, than any other mode of investigation. 
 The apparatus and the experiments, neces- 
 sary for even the most accurate experiments, 
 are by no means so difficult as it is often be- 
 lieved is the case. It is, in fact, a very er- 
 roneous conclusion, that an extensive or an 
 expensive apparatus is necessary to carry on 
 even the most valuable chemical researches. 
 The laboratory of one of the most celebrated 
 chemical philosophers of his day, that of 
 Dalton of Manchester, contained apparently 
 but a poor collection of glass bottles, retorts, 
 crucibles, fragments of wine glasses, &c. 
 
 The following descriptions of the philo- 
 sophically-accurate mode adopted by Sir 
 Humphry Davy for the analysis of soils, 
 and that of the more easily repeated plan of 
 the Rev. W. Rham, I will give nearly in 
 their own words. The first I take from his 
 Elements of Agricultural Chemistry, and the 
 last from the first volume of the Journal 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land, p. 46. It may be well to premise 
 that four earths are almost always the chief 
 constituents of all cultivated soils, viz. silica 
 96 
 
 (flint), alumina (clay), carbonate of lime 
 (chalk), and carbonate of magnesia. These 
 are mixed together in an endless variety of 
 proportions, and are interspersed with ani- 
 mal and vegetable remains, salts, &c. to an 
 equally varying extent. It is to ascertain 
 the presence, and the extent of these sub- 
 stances that the analysis of soils is so neces- 
 sary and so valuable to the farmer. 
 
 " The instruments required for the ana- 
 lysis of soils," said the illustrious Davy, 
 " are few and but little expensive. They are 
 a balance capable of containing a quarter 
 of a pound of common soil, and capable of 
 turning when loaded with a grain ; a set of 
 weights from a quarter of a pound troy to 
 a grain ; a wire sieve sufficiently coarse to 
 admit a mustard seed through its apertures ; 
 an Argand lamp and stand ; some glass bot- 
 tles ; Hessian crucibles ; porcelain or queen's 
 ware evaporating basins ; a Wedgewood pes- 
 tle and mortar ; some filters made of half a 
 sheet of blotting paper, folded so as to con- 
 tain a pint of liquid, and greased at the 
 edges ; a bone knife, and an apparatus for 
 collecting and measuring aeriform fluids. 
 (All these may be had at a small expense of 
 Mr. Knight of Foster Lane, Cheapside, 
 London.) 
 
 " The chemical substances or re-agents re- 
 quired for separating the constituent parts 
 of the soil are muriatic acid (spirit of salt), 
 sulphuric acid, pure volatile dissolved in 
 water, solution of prussiate of potash and 
 iron, succinate of ammonia, soap lye, or so- 
 lution of potassa, solutions of carbonate of 
 ammonia, of muriate of ammonia, of neutral 
 carbonate of potash, and nitrate of ammonia. 
 
 In cases when the general nature of the 
 soil of a field is to be ascertained, specimens 
 of it should be taken from different places, 
 two or three inches below the surface, and 
 examined as to the similarity of their pro- 
 perties. It sometimes happens that upon 
 plains the whole of the upper stratum of 
 the land is of the same kind, and in this 
 case one analysis will be sufficient ; but in 
 vallies, and near the beds of rivers, there are 
 very great differences ; and it now and then 
 occurs that one part of a field is calcareous, 
 and another part silicious, and in this case, 
 and in analogous cases, the portions different 
 from each other should be separately sub- 
 mitted to experiment. 
 
 Soils, when collected, if they cannot be 
 immediately examined, should be preserved 
 in phials quite filled with them, and closed 
 with ground glass stoppers. The quantity 
 of soil most convenient for a perfect ana- 
 lysis is from two to four hundred grains. 
 It should be collected in dry weather, and 
 exposed to the atmosphere till it becomes 
 dry to the touch. 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 The specific gravity of a soil, or the 
 relation of its weight to that of water, may 
 be ascertained by introducing into a phial, 
 which will contain a known quantity of 
 water, equal quantities of water and of soil, 
 and this may be easily done by pouring in 
 water till it is half full, and then adding the 
 soil till the fluid rises to the mouth ; the 
 difference between the weight of the soil 
 and that of the water will give the result. 
 Thus if the bottle contains 400 grains of 
 water, and gains 200 grains when half filled 
 with water and half with soil, the specific 
 gravity of the soil will be 2; that is, will be 
 twice as heavy as water, and if it gained 165 
 grains, its specific gravity would be 1825', 
 water being 1000*. It is of importance that 
 the specific gravity of a soil should be 
 known, as it affords an indication of the 
 quantity of animal and vegetable matter it 
 contains ; these substances being always 
 most abundant in the lighter soils. 
 
 The other physical properties of soils 
 should likewise be examined before the 
 analysis is made, as they denote to a certain 
 extent their composition, and serve as guides 
 in directing the experiments. Thus sili- 
 cious soils are generally rough to the touch, 
 and scratch glass when rubbed upon it ; 
 ferruginous soils are of a red or yellow co- 
 lour, and calcareous soils are soft. 
 
 I. Soils, though as dry as they can be 
 made by continued exposure to air, in all 
 cases still contain a considerable quantity 
 of water, which adheres with great obstinacy 
 to the earths, and animal and vegetable 
 matter, and can only be driven off from 
 them by a considerable degree of heat. The 
 first process of analysis is to free the given 
 weight of soil from as much of this water as 
 possible, without, in other respects, affecting 
 its composition, and this may be done by 
 heating it for ten or twelve minutes over an 
 Argand lamp in a basin of porcelain to a 
 temperature equal to 300° Fahrenheit ; and 
 if a thermometer is not used, the proper de- 
 gree may be easily ascertained by keeping 
 a piece of wood in contact with the bottom 
 of the dish; as long as the colour of the 
 wood remains unaltered the heat is not too 
 high, but when the wood begins to be 
 charred the process must be stopped. A 
 small quantity of water will perhaps remain 
 in the soil even after this operation, but it 
 always affords useful comparative results ; 
 and if a higher temperature were employed, 
 the vegetable or animal matter would un- 
 dergo decomposition, and, in consequence, 
 the experiment be wholly unsatisfactory. 
 The loss of weight in the process should be 
 carefully noted, and when in 400 grains of 
 soil it reaches as high as 50°, the soil may 
 be considered as in the greatest degree ab- 
 97 
 
 sorbent, and retentive of water, and will 
 generally be found to contain much vege- 
 table or animal matter, or a large proportion 
 of aluminous earth. When the loss is only 
 from 20° to 10°, the land maybe considered 
 as only slightly absorbent and retentive, and 
 silicious earth probably farms the greatest 
 part of it. 
 
 2. None of the loose stones, gravel, or 
 large vegetable fibres should be divided 
 from the pure soil, till after the water is 
 drawn off; for these bodies are often them- 
 selves highly absorbent and retentive, and 
 in consequence influence the fertility of the 
 land. The next process, however, after 
 that of heating, should be their separation, 
 which may be easily accomplished by the 
 sieve, after the soil has been gently bruised 
 in a mortar. The weights of the vegetable 
 fibres or wood, and of the gravel or stones, 
 should be separately noted down, and the 
 nature of the last ascertained ; if calcareous, 
 they will effervesce with acids ; if silicious, 
 they will be sufficiently hard to scratch 
 glass ; and if of the common aluminous 
 class of stones, they will be soft, easily cut 
 with a knife, and incapable of effervescing 
 with acids. 
 
 3. The greater number of soils, besides 
 gravel and stones, contain larger or smaller 
 proportions of sand, of various degrees of 
 fineness; and it is a necessary operation (the 
 next in the process of analysis) to detach 
 them from the parts in a state of more mi- 
 nute division, such as clay, loam, marl, ve- 
 getable and animal matter, and the matter 
 soluble in water. This may be effected in 
 a way sufficiently accurate, by boiling the 
 soil in three or four times its weight of 
 water, and when the texture of the soil is 
 broken down, and the water cool, by agitat- 
 ing the parts together, and then suffering 
 them to rest. In this case, the coarse sand 
 will generally separate in a minute, and the 
 finer in two or three minutes, whilst the 
 highly divided, earthy, animal, or vege- 
 table matter will remain in a state of me- 
 chanical suspension for a much longer time ; 
 so that by pouring the water from the 
 bottom of the vessel, after one, two, or three 
 minutes, the sand will be principally separ- 
 ated from the other substances, which with 
 the water containing them must be poured 
 into a filter, and after the water has passed 
 through, collected, dried, and weighed. The 
 sand must likewise be weighed, and the re- 
 spective quantities noted down. The water 
 of lixiviation must be preserved, as it will 
 be found to contain the saline, and soluble 
 animal or vegetable, if any exist in the soil. 
 
 4. By the process of washing and filtra- 
 tion, the soil is separated into two portions, 
 the most important of which is generally 
 
 H 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 the finely divided matter. A minute ana- 
 lysis of the sand is seldom if ever necessary, 
 and its nature may be detected in the same 
 manner as that of the stones or gravel. It 
 is always either silicious sand, or calcareous 
 sand, or a mixture of both. If it consist 
 wholly of carbonate of lime, it will be ra- 
 pidly soluble in muriatic acid, with effer- 
 vescence ; but if it consist partly of this 
 substance, and partly of silicious matter, 
 the respective quantities may be ascertained 
 by weighing the residuum after the action 
 of the acid, which must be applied till the 
 mixture has acquired a sour taste, and has 
 ceased to effervesce. This residuum is the 
 silicious part : it must be washed, dried, 
 and heated strongly in a crucible : the dif- 
 ference between the weight of it, and the 
 weight of the whole indicates the propor- 
 tion of calcareous sand. 
 
 5. The finely- divided matter of the soil 
 is usually very compound in its nature : it 
 sometimes contains all the four primitive 
 earths of soils, as well as animal and vege- 
 table matter ; and to ascertain the propor- 
 tions of these with tolerable accuracy is 
 the most difficult part of the subject. 
 
 The first process to be performed in this 
 part of the analysis is the exposure of the 
 fine matter of the soil to the action of mu- 
 riatic acid. This substance should be 
 poured upon the earthy matter in an eva- 
 porating basin, in a quantity equal to twice 
 the weight of the earthy matter, but diluted 
 with double its volume of water. The 
 mixture should be often stirred and suffered 
 to remain for an hour or an hour and a half 
 before it is examined. If any carbonate of 
 lime, or of magnesia, exist in the soil, they 
 will have been dissolved in this time by the 
 acid, which sometimes takes up, likewise, a 
 little oxide t>f iron, but very seldom any 
 alumina. 
 
 The fluid should be passed through a 
 filter, the solid matter collected, washed 
 with rain water, dried at a moderate heat, 
 and weighed. Its loss will denote the 
 quantity of solid matter taken up. The 
 washings must be added to the solution, 
 which if not sour to the taste, must be made 
 so, by the addition of fresh acid, when a 
 little solution of prussiate of potassa and 
 iron must be mixed with the whole. If a 
 blue precipitate occurs, it denotes the pre- 
 sence of oxide of iron, and the solution of 
 the prussiate must be dropped in, till no 
 farther effect is produced. To ascertain its 
 quantity, it must be collected in the same 
 manner as other solid precipitates, and 
 heated red : the result is oxide of iron, 
 which may be mixed with a little oxide of 
 manganese. 
 
 Into the fluid freed from oxide of iron a 
 98 
 
 solution of neutralised carbonate of potash 
 must be poured till all effervescence ceases 
 in it, and till its taste and smell indicate a 
 considerable excess of alkaline salt. The 
 precipitate that falls down is carbonate of 
 lime : it must be collected on the filter, and 
 dried at a heat below that of redness. The 
 remaining fluid must be boiled for a quarter 
 of an hour, when the magnesia, if any exist, 
 will be precipitated from it, combined with 
 carbonic acid, and its quantity is to be as- 
 certained in the same manner as that of the 
 carbonate of lime. If any minute propor- 
 tion of alumina should, from peculiar cir- 
 cumstances, be dissolved by the acid, it will 
 be found in the precipitate with the car- 
 bonate of lime ; and it may be separated 
 from it by boiling it for a few minutes with 
 soap lye, sufficient to cover the solid matter : 
 this substance dissolves alumina, without 
 acting upon carbonate of lime. 
 
 Should the finely divided matter be 
 sufficiently calcareous to effervesce very 
 strongly with acids, a very simple method 
 may be adopted for ascertaining the quantity 
 of carbonate of lime, and one sufficiently 
 accurate in all common cases. 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) in all its states 
 contains a determinate proportion of car- 
 bonic acid, i. e. nearly 43 per cent. ; so that 
 when the quantity of this elastic fluid 
 given out by any soil during the solution of 
 its calcareous matter in an acid is known, 
 either in weight or measure, the quantity 
 of carbonate of lime may be easily disco- 
 vered. 
 
 When the process by diminution of weight 
 is employed, two parts of the acid and one 
 part of the matter of the soil must be 
 weighed in two separate bottles, and very 
 slowly mixed together till the effervescence 
 ceases. The difference between the weight 
 before and after the experiment denotes 
 the quantity of carbonic acid lost : for 
 every 4£ grains of which 10 grains of car- 
 bonate of lime must be estimated. 
 
 6. After the calcareous parts of the soil 
 have been acted upon by muriatic acid, the 
 next process is to ascertain the quantity of 
 finely divided insoluble animal and vege- 
 table matter that it contains. This may be 
 done with sufficient precision, by strongly 
 igniting it in a crucible over a common 
 fire, till no blackness remains in the mass. 
 It should be often stirred with a metallic 
 rod, so as to expose new surfaces continually 
 to the air : the loss of weight that it un- 
 dergoes denotes the quantity of the sub- 
 stance that it contains destructible by fire 
 and air. 
 
 It is not possible, without very refined 
 and difficult experiments, to ascertain 
 whether this substance is wholly animal or 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 vegetable matter, or a mixture of both. 
 When the smell emitted during the incine- 
 ration is similar to that of burnt feathers, 
 it is a certain indication of some substance, 
 either animal, or analogous to animal 
 matter, and a copious blue flame at the time 
 of ignition almost always denotes a consi- 
 derable proportion of vegetable matter. In 
 cases when it is necessary that the experi- 
 ment should be very quickly performed, the 
 destruction of the decomposable substances 
 may be assisted by the agency of nitrate of 
 ammonia, which at the time of ignition 
 may be thrown gradually upon the heated 
 mass, in the quantity of 20 grains for every 
 100 of residual soil. It accelerates the dis- 
 sipation of the animal and vegetable matter, 
 which it causes to be converted into elastic 
 fluids, and it is itself, at the same time, de- 
 composed and lost. 
 
 7. The substances remaining after the 
 destruction of the vegetable and animal 
 matter are generally minute particles of 
 earthy matter containing usually alumina 
 and silica, with combined oxide of iron or 
 of manganese. To separate these from each 
 other, the solid matter should be boiled for 
 two or three hours with sulphuric acid, di- 
 luted with four times its weight of water; 
 the quantity of the acid should be regulated 
 by the quantity of solid residuum to be acted 
 on, allowing for every 100 grains two drachms, 
 or 120 grains of acid. 
 
 The substance remaining after the action 
 of the acid may be considered as silicious, 
 and it must be separated and its weight as- 
 certained, after washing and drying in the 
 usual manner. The alumina, and the oxide 
 of iron and manganese, if any exist, are all 
 dissolved by the sulphuric acid: they may 
 be separated by succinate of ammonia added 
 to excess, which throws down the oxide of 
 iron, and by soap lye, which will dissolve 
 the alumina, but not the oxide of manganese : 
 the weights of the oxides ascertained after 
 they have been heated to redness will de- 
 note their quantities. 
 
 Should any magnesia and lime have es- 
 caped solution in the muriatic acid, they 
 will be found in the sulphuric acid: this, 
 however, is rarely the case ; but the process 
 for detecting them and ascertaining their 
 quantities is the same in both instances. 
 The method of analysis by sulphuric acid 
 is sufficiently precise for all usual experi- 
 ments ; but if very great accuracy be an 
 object, dry carbonate of potash must be ap- 
 plied as the agent, and the residuum of the 
 incineration (6.) must be heated red for 
 half an hour, with four times its weight of 
 this substance in a crucible of silver, or of 
 well baked porcelain. The mass obtained 
 must be dissolved in muriatic acid, and the 
 99 
 
 solution evaporated till it is nearly solid ; 
 distilled water must then be added, by which 
 the oxide of iron and all the ear ths except 
 silica will be dissolved in combination as 
 muriates. The silica after the usual process 
 of lixiviation must be heated red : the other 
 substances may be separated in the same 
 manner as from the muriatic and sulphuric 
 solutions. This process is the one usually 
 employed by chemical philosophers for the 
 analysis of stones. 
 
 8. If any saline matter, or soluble vege- 
 table or animal matter, is suspected in the 
 soil, it will be found in the water of lixivi- 
 ation used for separating the sand. This 
 water must be evaporated to dryness in a 
 proper dish, at a heat below its boiling point. 
 If the solid matter obtained is of a brown 
 colour and inflammable, it may be considered 
 as partly vegetable extract. If its smell 
 when exposed to heat be like that of burnt 
 feathers, it contains animal or albuminous 
 matter ; if it be white, crystalline, and not 
 destructible by heat, it may be considered 
 as principally saline matter. The saline 
 compounds contained in soils are very va- 
 rious. The sulphuric acid combined with 
 potash or sulphate of potash is one of the 
 most usual. Common salt is also very often 
 found in them ; likewise phosphate of lime, 
 which is insoluble in water, but soluble in 
 muriatic acid. Compounds of the nitric, 
 muriatic, sulphuric, and phosphoric acids, 
 with alkalies and earths, exist in some soils. 
 The salts of potash are distinguished from 
 those of soda by their producing a precipi- 
 tate in solutions of platina ; those of lime are 
 characterised by the cloudiness they occasion 
 in solutions containing oxalic acid ; those of 
 magnesia, by being rendered cloudy by so- 
 lutions of ammonia. Sulphuric acid is de- 
 tected in salts by the dense white precipitate 
 it forms in solutions of baryta; muriatic 
 acid, by the cloudiness it communicates to 
 solution of nitrate of silver ; and when salts 
 contain nitric acid, they produce scintillations 
 by being thrown upon burning coals. 
 
 9. Should sulphate or phosphate of lime 
 be suspected in the entire soil, the detection 
 of them requires a particular process upon 
 it. A given weight of it, for instance, 400 
 grains, must be heated red for half an hour 
 in a crucible, mixed with one third of pow- 
 dered charcoal. The mixture must be boiled 
 for a quarter of an hour in a half pint of 
 water, and the fluid collected through the 
 filtre and exposed for some days to the at- 
 mosphere in an open vessel. If any notable 
 quantity of sulphate of lime (gypsum) ex- 
 isted in the soil, a white precipitate will 
 gradually form in the fluid, and the weight 
 of it will indicate the proportion. 
 
 Phosphate of lime, if any exist, may be 
 h 2 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 separated from the soil after the process for 
 gypsum. Muriatic acid must be digested 
 upon the soil in quantity more than sufficient 
 to saturate the soluble earths : the solution 
 must be evaporated, and water poured upon 
 the solid matter. This fluid will dissolve 
 the compounds of earths with the muriatic 
 acid, and leave the phosphate of lime un- 
 touched. It will not fall within the limits 
 assigned to this article to detail any processes 
 for the detection of substances which may 
 be accidentally mixed with the matters of 
 soils. Other earths and metallic oxides are 
 now and then found in them, but in quan- 
 tities too minute to bear any relation to 
 fertility or barrenness, and the search for 
 them would make the analysis much more 
 complicated, without rendering it more 
 useful. 
 
 10. Where the examination of a soil is 
 completed, the products should be nume- 
 rically arranged and their quantities added 
 together, and if they nearly equal the ori- 
 ginal quantity of soil, the analysis may be 
 considered as accurate. It must, however, 
 be noticed that when phosphate or sulphate 
 of lime are discovered by the independent 
 process just described (9.), a correction 
 must be made for the general process, by 
 subtracting a sum equal to their weight from 
 the quantity of carbonate of lime obtained 
 by precipitation from the muriatic acid. In 
 arranging the products the form should be 
 in the order of the experiments by which 
 they were procured. Thus I obtained from 
 400 grains of a good silicious sandy soil from 
 a hop garden near Tonbridge Kent, — 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Of water of absorption - - - 19 
 
 Of loose stones and gravel, principally 
 
 silicious - - - - 53 
 
 Of undecomposed vegetable fibres - 14 
 Of fine silicious sand - - - 212 
 
 Of minutely divided matter, separated 
 by agitation and filtration, and con- 
 sisting of Grains. 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - 19 
 Carbonate of magnesia - 3 
 Matter destructible by heat, 
 
 principally vegetable - 15 
 Silica - - - 21 
 
 Alumina - - - 13 
 
 Oxide of iron - 5 
 
 Soluble matter, principally 
 common salt and vegetable 
 extract - - 3 
 Gypsum - - - 2 
 
 — 81 
 
 Loss - - 21 
 
 400 
 
 The loss in this analysis is not more than 
 usually occurs, and it depends upon the im- 
 possibility of collecting the whole quantities 
 100 1 
 
 of the different precipitates, and upon the 
 presence of more moisture than is accounted 
 for in the water of absorption, and which is 
 lost in the different processes. 
 
 When the experimenter is become ac- 
 quainted with the use of the different in- 
 struments, the properties of the re- agents, 
 and the relations between the external and 
 chemical qualities of soils, he will seldom 
 find it necessary to perform, in any one case, 
 all the processes that have been described. 
 When his soil, for instance, contains no no- 
 table proportion of calcareous matter, the 
 action of the muriatic acid (7.) may be 
 omitted. In examining peat soils, he will 
 principally have to attend to the operation 
 by fire and air, and in the analysis of chalks 
 and loams, he will often be able to omit the 
 experiment by sulphuric acid (9.). 
 
 In the first trials that are made (adds 
 Davy) by persons unacquainted with che- 
 mistry, they must not expect mucn precision 
 of result ; many difficulties will be met with ; 
 but, in overcoming them, the most useful 
 kind of practical knowledge will be obtained ; 
 and nothing is so instructive in experimental 
 science as the detection of mistakes. The 
 correct analyst ought to be well grounded 
 in general chemical information ; but per- 
 haps there is no better mode of gaining it 
 than that of attempting original investiga- 
 tions. In pursuing his experiments, he will 
 be continually obliged to learn the properties 
 of the substances he is employing or acting 
 upon ; and his theoretical ideas will be more 
 valuable in being connected with practical 
 operations, and acquired for the purpose of 
 discovery. 
 
 Such were the excellent rules for analysis 
 prescribed by Sir Humphry Davy. With 
 the still more simple directions of the Rev. 
 W. Rham, I shall conclude this paper. 
 
 A portion of the earth to be analysed 
 may be dried in the sun or near a fire until 
 it feels quite dry in the hand. It is then 
 reduced to powder by the fingers, or by 
 rolling it on a deal board with a wooden 
 roller, so as to separate the particles, but 
 not to grind them : any small stones above 
 the size of a pea must be taken out. If 
 these form a considerable part of the soil, 
 their proportion must be ascertained by 
 weight; their nature and quality may be 
 afterwards examined : this being a very 
 simple operation, and obvious to the sight, 
 need not be described. Where the stones 
 and pebbles are evidently accidental, they 
 may be overlooked as having little influence 
 on the fertility : the dry earth, cleared from 
 stones, should be accurately weighed ; and 
 it is convenient to take some determined 
 quantity of grains, as 1000, 500, or 250, 
 according to the accuracy of the instru- 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 ments at hand. This portion should be put 
 into a shallow earthen or metal vessel, and 
 heated over the fire, or a lamp, for about 
 ten minutes, stirring it with a chip of dry 
 wood ; the heat should not be so great as to 
 discolour the wood. It may then be allowed 
 to cool, and be weighed again ; the loss of 
 weight indicates the water which remained 
 uncombined after the soil appeared quite 
 dry. This is the first thing to be noted. 
 The power of retaining water without any 
 external appearance of moisture is greatest 
 in humus (a modern term for very finely 
 divided organic matter), next in clay, both 
 of which readily absorb it from the atmo- 
 sphere ; carbonate of lime does so in a less 
 degree, and silicious sand least of all. This 
 moisture occupies the pores of the soil, and 
 is very different from the water, which is 
 combined with clay as a part of its substance, 
 and to which it owes its ductility ; for when 
 this last is expelled by a great heat, the clay 
 loses its quality, and approaches to the 
 nature of sand. Pounded brick will not 
 bind with water, and porcelain reduced to 
 fine powder has all the properties of silicious 
 sand in the soil. The finer the division of 
 the particles of the soil, the greater will be 
 its power of absorbing and retaining water ; 
 but in a soil where clay greatly predomi- 
 nates, the lumps sometimes become so hard 
 and baked by the sun that the moisture 
 cannot penetrate ; and in this case the power 
 of absorption is much diminished. Hence 
 loams in which there is a good proportion 
 of humus have a greater power of absorp- 
 tion than the pure earths. Taking all cir- 
 cumstances into consideration, it will be 
 found that the soils which most readily 
 absorb moisture are also the most fertile, 
 and therefore it is important to ascertain 
 their power of absorption. This can be 
 found by comparison. Equal portions of 
 different soils, dried as before, are placed in 
 the opposite scales of a good balance, and 
 left exposed for some time to a moist atmo- 
 sphere; that which preponderates has the 
 greatest power of absorption ; the degree is 
 measured by the difference of the acquired 
 weights. Another important circumstance 
 is the specific gravity of a soil. The dif- 
 ferent earths have very different specific 
 gravities ; and humus being lighter than any 
 mineral earth, the lightness of the soil is a 
 sure indication of its richness, excepting 
 where this lightness is occasioned by an 
 excess of undecomposed vegetable matter, 
 or peat. Humus, when nearly pure, has 
 specific gravity varying from 1-2 to 1 '5 ; fine 
 porcelain clay, 2 ; chalk, about 2*3 ; silicious 
 sand from 2-5 to 2*7 ; mixed soils have spe- 
 cific gravities, varying according to the pro- 
 portions of their component parts. Those in 
 101 
 
 which clay, chalk, and humus abound, and 
 which are generally the most fertile, are the 
 lightest. The sandy soils are heavier, and 
 the more so if they contain oxides of iron, or 
 of other metals ; and it is well known that 
 the ferruginous sands are the most barren. 
 The common expression of light, when ap- 
 plied to a sandy soil, has no reference to its 
 specific gravity, but merely to the force re- 
 quired to plough it. No carrier would say 
 that a loose sandy road was a light one. 
 The easiest and readiest method of deter- 
 mining the specific gravity of earth, or any 
 substance which is of a loose texture, is that 
 described by Dr. Ure in his Philosophy of 
 Manufactures (p. 97.), as employed by him 
 to ascertain the specific gravities of cotton, 
 wool, silk, and flax. It is as follows : — 
 Take a narrow-necked phial, capable of 
 holding four or five ounces of water ; mark 
 a line round the middle of the neck with the 
 point of a diamond, or a file ; fill the phial 
 up to the mark with river or rain water, 
 and poise it with sand, or any other sub- 
 stance, in a scale; then put 1000 grains' 
 weight in the same scale with the phial, and 
 pour out water till the equilibrium is re- 
 stored. In the vacant space, which is evi- 
 dently equal to the bulk of 1 000 grains of 
 water, introduce the soil till the water rises 
 to the mark in the neck ; then put into the 
 opposite scale grain weights sufficient to 
 restore the equilibrium. The number of 
 grains required for this purpose will denote 
 the specific gravity of the soil compared to 
 water as 1000. Suppose, for example, that 
 silicious sand, which is 2*7 times denser than 
 water, is poured into the vacant space, it 
 will require 2*700 grains to fill the space 
 occupied by the 1000 grains of water ; and 
 thus we have the specific gravity without 
 any calculation. If, instead of 1000 grains, 
 we use only 500, or 250, the result will be 
 the same, if we multiply the grains in the 
 other scale by 2 or 4. 
 
 We will give a few examples of soils, of 
 which the specific gravity has been carefully 
 determined. 
 
 A rich garden soil, which contained, per 
 
 cent., — 
 
 Clay - - - 52-4 
 
 Silicious sand - - 36*5 
 
 Calcareous sand - 1*8 
 
 Carbonate of lime - 2-0 
 
 Humus - - - 7 3 
 
 had a specific gravity of 2-332. 
 
 A good loam, consisting of — 
 
 Clay - - - 51-2 
 
 Silicious sand - - 42*7 
 
 Calcareous sand - - 0*4 
 
 Carbonate of lime - 2*3 
 
 Humus - - 3-4 
 had a specific gravity of 2-401. 
 
 h 3 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 A poorer soil, of which the component 
 parts were, — 
 
 Silicious sand - - 64-0 
 Clay - - - 32 3 
 
 Calcareous sand - 1*2 
 Carbonate of lime - 1*2 
 
 Humus - - -1*8 
 had a specific gravity of 2*526. 
 
 These examples suffice to show that the 
 specific gravity of a soil is some tolerable 
 indication of its fertility. It cannot, how- 
 ever, be entirely relied upon in the absence 
 of other proofs; for there may be many 
 different mixtures of earths which will have 
 the same specific gravity, although they may 
 differ greatly in their fertility ; but it will 
 facilitate the analysis, and often detect mis- 
 takes in the process, if the result does not 
 accord with the specific gravity found. We 
 proceed now to the analysis. The portion 
 of soil which has been deprived of all its 
 water, as described above, must be sifted 
 -through metallic sieves of different fineness ; 
 the first is made of a perforated tin plate, 
 the holes of which are about one twentieth 
 of an inch in diameter : whatever does not 
 go through this is put by. The remainder 
 is successively passed through two or three 
 more sieves, increasing in fineness to the 
 last ; which is of the finest wire cloth, having 
 from 150 to 170 threads in an inch: what- 
 ever passes through this is an impalpable 
 powder. Thus we have already a division 
 of the soil, according to the size of its par- 
 ticles : — 1. the coarse grit left in the first 
 sieve ; 2. the finer grit in No. 2. ; 3. fine 
 sand in No. 3. ; and 4. impalpable powder, 
 which has passed through the last sieve. To 
 facilitate this part of the operation, the 
 sieves may be made so as to fit into one 
 another, like the filterers in a coffee-biggin, 
 the last fitting into a tin pot which will hold 
 about a pint of water; a cover being made to 
 fit on the top sieve, the instrument is com- 
 plete. (See fig*) Thus, all 
 the sifting may be done at 
 once without any loss. Any 
 lumps which are not tho- 
 roughly pulverised must be 
 
 1 broken. The coarser sand 
 left in the sieve No. 1. must 
 
 2 now be washed with pure 
 water, to detach any fine dust 
 adhering to it; what runs 
 
 3 through may be used to 
 wash No. 2. in the same man- 
 ner; and then may pass 
 through No. 3. to the im- 
 palpable matter which passed 
 
 4 through all the sieves. A 
 sufficient quantity of water 
 must be used to render the 
 
 whole of this last nearly fluid. There will 
 102 
 
 then be three different portions of the 
 washed soil left in the sieves, and a portion 
 of impalpable matter diffused through the 
 water in the lower division of the instrument. 
 This last is the principal object of analysis, 
 and that to which Sir Humphry Davy usu- 
 ally confined his attention, merely noticing 
 the proportion of coarser sand in the soil. It 
 contains, no doubt, the great principle of 
 fertility and nutrition ; and the effect of the 
 coarser parts may be considered as chiefly 
 mechanical ; but they may much affect the 
 fertility of the finer parts, and are of the 
 greatest importance to the soil in which 
 they are blended: they consequently de- 
 serve a more minute examination, to which 
 we will return. In the mean time, our at- 
 tention shall be directed to the composition 
 of the finer earth in No. 4., which is mixed 
 with water in a semi-fluid state. This is 
 well shaken, and suddenly poured into a 
 deep glass vessel, and allowed to settle for 
 a few minutes, when the heavier earth, 
 which is sand, will be deposited, and the 
 lighter may be poured off" suspended in the 
 water. It requires some little practice to 
 effect this at once, but a few trials will soon 
 enable any one to do it. This operation 
 may be repeated until all sand, of which the 
 particles are visible to the naked eye, is 
 separated. The earth and water decanted 
 out of this last vessel are now poured into a 
 glass tube, 18 inches long, No. 1., the bore 
 of which is less than an inch ; one end is 
 stopped with a cork fitted into it, and the 
 other has a small lip for the convenience of 
 pouring out the contents. In a short time, 
 there will be a further deposition of earth, 
 which will be principally alumina. What 
 remains suspended in the water over it is 
 gently poured off" into another similar tube 
 (No. 2.) ; this will contain nearly the whole 
 of the humus, which will take some hours 
 to be deposited in the form of a fine brown 
 mud. The contents of the tube No. 1 . may 
 now have a little more water added to them : 
 after being well shaken, the tube may be 
 set upright, and left for half an hour to 
 settle : what remains suspended in the water 
 after this, must be added to the humus in 
 the tube No. 2. After some time, this will 
 also be deposited, and the clear water may 
 be decanted off. The mud which remains 
 is put on filtering paper in a glass funnel ; 
 and when all the water has drained from 
 it, it is dried over the fire, and weighed. 
 
 This is the most important portion of the 
 soil. The fine earths deposited in the tube 
 No. 1. will consist of very fine particles of 
 sand, clay, and perhaps carbonate of lime. 
 The sand will appear deposited in the bot- 
 tom of the tube. The clay may be easily 
 diffused in the water above it, by stirring 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 it carefully with a small rod, without reach- 
 ing the sand. It may then be decanted 
 with the water into another tube (No. 3.), 
 and allowed to settle. This part of the 
 operation may be carried to much perfection 
 by great care, and by examining the results 
 occasionally with a small microscope; but 
 for all common practical purposes it is suffi- 
 cient to separate the vegetable earth from 
 the mineral, and the particles of sand from 
 the finer. The contents of No. 1. having 
 been collected, as well as those of No. 3., 
 are dried over the fire, and accurately 
 weighed. The same is done with the earth 
 which remains on the sieves. All the water 
 in which the earths have been diffused and 
 washed is collected and passed through fil- 
 tering paper, and then set over the fire in a 
 common saucepan. It is boiled away gently, 
 until it is reduced to a small portion, which 
 begins to look turbid. The complete eva- 
 poration is finished in an evaporating dish 
 as slowly as possible ; and the residue is the 
 soluble matter contained in the soil. It will 
 be sufficient to dry and weigh this, as its 
 further analysis would require more skill 
 and chemical knowledge than we suppose in 
 the operation. Salts may be detected by 
 the taste, or by the crystals formed in the 
 evaporation ; but unless there is a decided 
 saline taste, the whole may be considered as 
 soluble humus, and the immediate fertility of 
 the soil depends greatly on the quantity of it. 
 
 To recapitulate what has been obtained, 
 we shall have the coarse grit in sieve No. 1. ; 
 the sand in Nos. 2. and 3. ; the fine earth 
 separated in the tubes, Nos. 1. and 3.; the 
 humus in tube No. 2. and on the filtering 
 paper, and on the soluble parts in the eva- 
 porating dish. All these substances must 
 be well dried over the fire, as was done with 
 the soil at first, and each separated part ac- 
 curately, weighed : the sum of them ought to 
 be equal to the original portion of soil sub- 
 jected to analysis after the water was drawn 
 off ; but there always is a loss even with the 
 most experienced analyser : this loss will be 
 principally in the finer parts which are dis- 
 sipated in the operation. But the analysis 
 is not yet completed : we have separated the 
 sand, clay, and humus, but there may be a 
 portion of carbonate of lime in the form of 
 sand, or of finely divided earth mixed with 
 the other earths. To ascertain this, each 
 portion, excepting the humus, is put into a 
 separate cup, and a little muriatic acid, di- 
 luted with four times its weight of water, is 
 poured on it : if there is any effervescence 
 it shows the presence of carbonate of lime ; 
 diluted acid is then added gradually, as long 
 as the effervescence is renewed by the ad- 
 dition. When this ceases, and the water 
 continues to have an acid taste, more pure 
 103 
 
 water is added, and each portion separately 
 filtered, dried, and weighed. The loss of 
 weight in each gives the quantities of car- 
 bonate of lime dissolved by the muriatic 
 acid, and which has passed with the water 
 in the form of muriate of lime. The dif- 
 ferent weights being now collected, the re- 
 sult of the operations may be set down. 
 There may be many mineral substances in 
 the soil, which this mode of analysing will 
 not detect ; and some of these may mate- 
 rially affect the fertility. In most cases 
 there will be something to indicate the pre- 
 sence of metals. Iron abounds in most 
 soils : when the quantity is considerable, it 
 will be detected by pouring a decoction of 
 gall-nuts into the water which has washed 
 the earth ; it will immediately become of a 
 bluish dark colour. The other metals are 
 not of frequent occurrence. Sulphate of 
 lime or gypsum, and also magnesia, are 
 found in some soils ; but the separation of 
 them can only be effected by those who are 
 well acquainted with chemistry : they for- 
 tunately occur very seldom, and the places 
 where they are found are generally well 
 known. For all practical purposes it is suf- 
 ficient to ascertain the proportion of sand, 
 clays, carbonate of lime, and humus, which 
 any soil contains. Many soils which have 
 been highly manured contain portions of 
 undecomposed vegetable substances, and 
 fibres of roots : these will be found mixed 
 with the coarser earths separated by the 
 sifting : not being a part of the natural soil, 
 they need not be taken into the account ; 
 but they may be separated by washing the 
 earths, as they are much lighter, and will 
 come over in the first decantations. They 
 may be dried and weighed, and the quan- 
 tity set down in the result, if it is desirable. 
 Some very barren sands, containing very 
 little argillaceous earth or humus may rea- 
 dily be known by the copious sandy deposit 
 which they rapidly make when diffused 
 through water. Good natural loams are 
 not so easily judged of ; but the preceding 
 mode of analysis will in general detect their 
 intrinsic value. When a soil contains peaty 
 matter, it is easily discovered by the irre- 
 
 ?ilar black particles which are visible in it. 
 eat differs from humus only in being in a 
 different state of decomposition and con- 
 taining a considerable portion of tannin : 
 when acted upon by lime or alkalies, and 
 brought into a state of greater decomposit ion, 
 it is not to be distinguished from humus in 
 its qualities. The only instruments abso- 
 lutely required for the foregoing analysis, 
 are, in the first place, two good balances, 
 one capable of weighing a pound and turning 
 with a grain, and one weighing two ounces 
 and turning with the tenth part of a grain. 
 h 4 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 Next, the combination of sieves which we 
 have described, and which may easily be 
 made by any tinsmith. But any sieves of 
 the required fineness, whether of metal, 
 horse-hair, or silk, provided they be of the 
 proper texture, will answer the purpose for 
 a trial. Some earthen or glass jugs, and 
 two or three glass tubes, 18 inches long, 
 open at both ends, which may be obtained 
 at any glass-blower's or chemist's, a glass 
 funnel and some filtering paper, will com- 
 plete the apparatus. The only chemical 
 substance indispensable to the analysis is 
 some muriatic acid, commonly called spirit 
 of salt. A little test-paper to detect acids 
 in the water with which the soil has been 
 washed, and an infusion of gall-nuts to as- 
 certain the presence of iron, may be useful. 
 A small glass phial will serve for the specific 
 gravities. The whole of these instruments 
 and materials may be procured for a very 
 small sum. If the foregoing process is care- 
 fully followed, any person, however unac- 
 customed to chemical operations, will soon 
 be enabled to satisfy himself as to the com- 
 osition of any soil of which he desires to 
 now the comparative value. He must not 
 be disheartened by a few failures at first. 
 However simple every operation may appear, 
 it requires a little practice and much pa- 
 tience, if we would come to a very accurate 
 result. Every portion must be dried to the 
 same degree before it is weighed : minute 
 portions which adhere to the vessels when 
 dried must be carefully collected by scraping, 
 and brushing off with a feather : pieces of 
 filtering-paper and of linen must be weighed 
 before they are used, that small portions of 
 matter adhering to them may be ascertained 
 by the increase of weight. By attending to 
 these particulars it is surprising how nearly 
 the whole original weight is accounted for 
 in the summing up of the separate parts. 
 If this mechanical analysis should be thought 
 lightly of by experienced chemists, let them 
 only carefully analyse a portion of soil by 
 this process, and then another by any more 
 perfect mode, and compare the importance 
 of the results as regards practical agri- 
 culture. The object is to ascertain the pro- 
 ductive powers of the soils ; and for this 
 purpose the separation of the different earths 
 is sufficient, in the present imperfect state 
 of our knowledge of the mysteries of vege- 
 tation. The process which we have de- 
 scribed, simple as it is, may yet be too te- 
 dious for the farmer who is desirous of 
 speedily comparing different soils ; and we 
 will indicate a still simpler method of ascer- 
 taining, nearly, the composition of a soil, and 
 a simple instrument by which it may be 
 done. Take a glass tube, ^ths of an inch in 
 diameter, and three feet long; fit a cork 
 104 
 
 into one end and set it upright ; fill it half 
 full of pure water ; take nearly as much 
 water as has been poured into the tube, and 
 mix with it the portion of soil which is to 
 be examined, in quantity not more than 
 will occupy 6 inches of the tube ; pour the 
 mixture rapidly into the tube and let ik. 
 stand in a corner of a room, or supporte cF 
 upright in any way ; in half an hour it may 
 be examined. The earths will have been 
 deposited according to the size and specific 
 gravity of their particles. The portion still 
 suspended in the water may be allowed to 
 settle ; and there will appear in the tube 
 layers of sand, clay, and humus, which may 
 be measured by a scale, and thus the pro- 
 portion nearly ascertained. When a farmer 
 is about to hire a farm of which the quality 
 is not well known to him, he may be much 
 assisted in his judgment by this simple ex- 
 periment, if he has no time or opportunity 
 for a more accurate analysis. For the glass 
 tube may be substituted one of tin or zinc 
 two feet in length, with a piece of glass tube 
 a foot long, joined to it by means of a brass 
 collar or ferule with a screw cut in it, which 
 is cemented to the glass, and screws on the 
 metal tube ; and thus the instrument may 
 be made more portable. When the water 
 has been poured off, and the earths only re- 
 main, the cork may be taken out and the 
 contents pushed out on a plate, by means of 
 a rod and a plug which exactly fits the in- 
 ternal diameter of the tube. They may thus 
 be more particularly examined. The re- 
 sult of various accurate analyses of soils 
 shows that the most fertile are composed 
 of nearly equal quantities of silicious and 
 argillaceous earths in various states of di- 
 vision, and a certain proportion of cal- 
 careous earth, and of humus in that state in 
 which it attracts oxygen and becomes so- 
 luble, giving out at the same time some car- 
 bonic acid. No chemist has yet been able 
 to imitate the process of nature in the form- 
 ation of this substance; and the circum- 
 stances which are most favourable to it are 
 not yet fully ascertained. Here is the 
 proper field for the application of science 
 and accurate chemical analysis. As an ex- 
 ample of an analysis will be useful to those 
 who may desire to try the proposed method, 
 we will add one actually made under very 
 unfavourable circumstances, and without 
 any apparatus ; the only instrument at 
 hand were scales and weights of tolerable 
 accuracy, three glasses a foot long, and 
 1 a inch in diameter, belonging to Irench 
 lamps, a tin coffee-strainer, a piece of fine 
 gauze, and a very fine cambric pocket- 
 handkerchief. A little muriatic acid was 
 obtained at the apothecary's. The soil to 
 be analysed was taken from a piece of good 
 
ANALYSIS. 
 
 arable land on the south side of the slope of 
 the Jura mountains in Switzerland. Its 
 specific gravity was taken as described 
 before, and found to be 2-358 nearly. 500 
 grains of the dry soil were stirred in a pint 
 of water, and set by in a basin. To save 
 time, 500 grains more of the same soil were 
 weighed, after having been dried over the 
 fire. It was well pulverised with the fingers, 
 and sifted through the coffee-strainer, then 
 through gauze, and, lastly, through the cam- 
 bric handkerchief. Some portion was left be- 
 hind at each sifting. The two first portions 
 were washed in the strainer and the gauze. 
 The residue was sand of two different de- 
 grees of fineness, which, when dried, weighed, 
 the coarser, 24 grains, the next, 20 grains. 
 The earth and water which had passed 
 through the strainer and the gauze were 
 now strained through the cambric, and left 
 some very fine sand behind, which, dried, 
 weighed, and added to what had remained 
 on the cambric, when sifted in a dry state, 
 weighed 180 grains. All that which had 
 gone through the cambric was mixed with 
 water in a jug and stirred about. The 
 heavier earth subsided, and the lighter was 
 poured in one of the lamp-glasses, which had 
 a cork fitted into it, and was placed upright. 
 In about two minutes there was a deposit, 
 and the lighter portion was poured into a 
 similar glass, where it was left some time 
 to settle. In this a slower deposition took 
 place, and in about a quarter of an hour the 
 muddy water was poured off into the third 
 glass. The three glasses were placed up- 
 right, and left so till the next day. In the 
 first glass was some very fine earth, appa- 
 rently clay; in the second the same, but 
 more muddy ; and in the third nothing but 
 thin mud. The contents of No. 2. were di- 
 vided between No. 1. and No. 3. by pouring 
 off the muddy part into No. 3., after some 
 of the pure water had been poured off, and the 
 remaining earth into No. 1.; they were then 
 left to settle. As much water as appeared 
 quite clear over the sediment was decanted 
 off. The sediment was poured on a plate 
 by taking the cork out of the tube, which was 
 cleaned with a piece of fine linen which had 
 been carefully dried, and accurately weighed. 
 The plates were examined, and some of the 
 lighter part, which floated on the least agi- 
 tation, was poured from one plate to an- 
 other, until it was thought that all the humus 
 had been separated. Most of the water 
 could now be poured off the earths, by in- 
 clining the plates gently, without any mud- 
 diness. It was, however, passed through a 
 piece of filtering-paper, which had been pre- 
 viously dried and weighed. The earth was 
 slowly dried, by placing the plates on the 
 hearth before a good fire, until they were 
 105 
 
 Grains. 
 24 
 20 
 180 
 
 240 
 24 
 
 quite dry, and so hot that they could not be 
 easily held in the hand. The deposit left in 
 the jug was poured on a plate, and a little 
 muddy part, which was observed, was poured 
 off with the water on another. This was 
 again transferred, and the finer added to 
 that which was in the second plate. Col- 
 lecting now all the separate portions, there 
 were found 
 
 Of coarse sand 
 
 Finer sand - 
 
 Very fine sand ... 
 
 Clay deposited in the jug, and first 
 plate dried - . _ 
 
 Deposit in the second plate 
 
 — on the filtering-paper 
 
 — on the linen rag - 
 
 490 
 
 Leaving 10 grains to be accounted for. 
 
 Each portion, except the three last, was 
 now put into a cup, and diluted muriatic 
 acid poured over them : an effervescence 
 appeared in all of them, which continued on 
 the addition of diluted acid, and when the 
 contents of the cups were stirred with a 
 piece of tobacco-pipe. They were left till 
 the next day, when all effervescence ceased, 
 and the calcareous part seemed entirely dis- 
 solved : pure water was added to dissolve 
 all the muriate of lime which had been 
 formed. After some time, the clear liquor 
 was poured off, and the remainder was 
 strained through filtering-paper, and dried 
 on plates before the fire. The earths were 
 now found to weigh, respectively, 20, 17, 
 162, and 182*5 grains, having lost 4, 3, 18, 
 and 57*5 grains of calcareous earth dissolved 
 by the acid. The soil and water which had 
 been put by in a basin were now repeatedly 
 stirred, and poured into a filter, and more 
 water was passed through the earth to wash 
 out all the soluble matter : all the water 
 was boiled down and evaporated, and left 
 two grains of a substance which had the 
 appearance of a gum with a little lime in it. 
 Thus the loss was reduced to eight grains, 
 a very small quantity, considering the means 
 used in analysing the soil. The corrected 
 account, therefore, is as follows : — 
 
 Specific gravity, 2*358. 
 
 Silicious 
 sand. 
 
 Calcareous 
 sand. 
 
 Impalpable 
 earth. 
 
 f Coarse 
 
 < Finer 
 
 [ Very fine 
 
 {Coarse 
 Finer 
 Very fine 
 fClay 
 
 < Carb. of.lime 
 Humus 
 
 Soluble matter 
 Loss 
 
 500 
 
ANALYSIS 
 
 ANBURY. 
 
 Or, in round numbers, — 
 
 40 per cent. Sand. 
 
 36 — Clay. 
 
 17 — Calcareous earth. 
 5*5 — Vegetable earth, or humus. 
 0-5 — Soluble matter. 
 
 From the composition of this soil, it is 
 evident that it is a most excellent loam, 
 capable of producing with good tillage and 
 regular manuring every kind of grain, 
 artificial grasses, and roots commonly culti- 
 vated. The field from which the soil was 
 taken was always considered to be of su- 
 perior quality. This simple rule will suf- 
 fice to enable any one to analyse any soil of 
 which he desires to know the component 
 parts, so far as they affect the general fer- 
 tility. To ascertain minute portions of salts 
 
 or metals, or any peculiar impregnation of the 
 waters, must be left to practical chemists. 
 To those who may be inclined to try the 
 analysis of soils, it may be interesting to 
 compare the results of their own experi- 
 ments with some which have been obtained 
 with great care. Thaer in his very excel- 
 lent work on Rational Husbandry, written 
 in German and translated into French, has 
 given a table in which different soils ana- 
 lysed by him are classed according to their 
 comparative fertility, which is expressed in 
 numbers, 100 being the most fertile. This 
 table is the result of very patient investi- 
 gation, the natural fertility of each soil 
 being ascertained by its average produce 
 with common tillage and manuring. It is 
 as follows : — 
 
 No. 
 
 Clay. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 1 
 
 74 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 81 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 79 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 49 
 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 67 
 
 7 
 
 58 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 56 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 60 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 11 
 
 68 
 
 30 
 
 12 
 
 38 
 
 60 
 
 13 
 
 33 
 
 65 
 
 14 
 
 28 
 
 70 
 
 15 
 
 231 
 
 75 
 
 16 
 
 18£ 
 
 80 
 
 2 
 12 
 
 fig 
 
 Finely divided 
 Organic Matter 
 or Humus, 
 
 'it 
 
 27 
 10 
 
 imnarati 
 Value. 
 
 781 
 77| 
 75 > 
 70 
 65j 
 60 ■) 
 60 C 
 50j 
 
 Rich alluvial soils. 
 
 The value of this could not be fixed, as it was grass 
 land; perhaps bog-earth. 
 
 Good wheat and barley-lands. 
 
 Barley-land not fit for wheat. 
 
 Poor sand, fit only for oats or buck-wheat. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. The 
 process or means by which such bodies are 
 resolved into their constituent or elementary 
 principles. (See Chemistry, or Vegetable 
 Chemistry.) 
 
 ANANA. See Pine. 
 
 ANBURY. In Farriery a kind of wen, 
 or spongy soft tumour or wart, commonly 
 full of blood, growing on any part of an 
 animal's body. Substances of this kind may 
 be removed either by means of ligatures 
 being passed round their bases, or by the 
 knife, and the subsequent application of some 
 caustic material, in order to effectually de- 
 stroy the parts from which they arise. 
 
 ANBURY, THE, AMBURY, HAN- 
 BURY, or CLUB-ROOT. The anbury, 
 the correct name, is evidently derived from 
 the Saxon word ambre, a wart, suffused 
 with blood, to which horses are subject. In 
 Holderness, a district of Yorkshire, this 
 disease is known as " fingers and toes," from 
 its causing the top root of the turnip to be 
 divided into swollen fibres, resembling those 
 members of the human body. On this, Mr. 
 Spence, the entomologist, wrote a very sensi- 
 ble pamphlet, entitled " Observations on the 
 Diseases in Turnips, termed in Holderness 
 Fingers and Toes, Hull, 1812." Thedefici- 
 106 
 
 I ency of knowledge relative to the diseases of 
 I plants is well illustrated by the imperfect 
 and inaccurate observations that have been 
 adventured upon this disease. Where there 
 is much difference of opinion there is little 
 real knowledge, and both these are certainly 
 the case in the instance before us. Some cul- 
 tivators assert that the disease arises from a 
 variableness and unfavourable state of the 
 seasons ; a second party of theorists advance, 
 that it is caused by insects; and a third, 
 that it is owing to a too frequent growth of 
 the same crop upon the same site. Every 
 man having formed an opinion, usually 
 clings to it pertinaciously, and sets its esti- 
 mate far above its real value or correctness. 
 " It is with our opinions as our watches, none 
 go just alike, yet each believes his own." 
 The chief error appears to be in considering 
 any of the above enumerated causes as the 
 exclusive one ; for beyond doubt they each 
 contribute, either immediately or remotely, 
 to induce or exasperate the attacks of the 
 anbury. I am about, in the first place, to 
 consider the disease exclusively as affecting 
 the cabbage, and, secondly, as it operates 
 upon the turnip. Though other species of 
 brassica, the hollyhock, &c. are subject to 
 its attacks, its progress has invariably ap- 
 
ANBURY. 
 
 peared to me as follows : cabbage-plants are 
 frequently infected with anbury in the seed- 
 bed, and this incipient infection appears in 
 the form of a gall or wart upon the stem, 
 immediately in the vicinity of the roots : if 
 this wart is opened it will be found to con- 
 tain a small white maggot, the larva of a 
 small insect called the weevil. If the gall 
 and its tenant being removed, the plant is 
 placed again in the earth where it is to re- 
 main unless it is again attacked, the wound 
 usually heals, and the growth is little re- 
 tarded. On the other hand, if the gall is left 
 undisturbed, the maggot continues to feed 
 upon the alburnum, or young woody part 
 of the stem, until, the period arrives for its 
 passing into the other insect form, previously 
 to which it gnaws its way out through the 
 exterior bark. The disease is now almost 
 beyond the power of remedies, the gall, in- 
 creased in size, encircles the whole stem : 
 the alburnum being so extensively destroyed, 
 prevents the sap ascending, consequently, 
 in dry weather, sufficient moisture is not 
 supplied from the roots, to counterbalance 
 the transpiration of the leaves, and the dis- 
 eased plant is very discernible among its 
 healthy companions, by its pallid hue and 
 flagging foliage. The disease now makes 
 rapid progress : the swelling continues to 
 increase; for the vessels of the alburnum 
 and the bark continue to afford their juices 
 faster than they can be conveyed away. 
 Moisture and air are admitted to the interior 
 of the excrescence through the perforation 
 made by the maggot ; the wounded vessels 
 ulcerate, putrefaction supervenes, and death 
 concludes the stinted existence of the mi- 
 serable plant. The tumour usually attains 
 the size of a large hen's egg, has a rugged, 
 ichorous, and even mouldy surface, smelling 
 strong and offensively. The fibrous roots, 
 besides being generally thickened, are dis- 
 torted and monstrous, from swellings which 
 appear throughout their length, which ap- 
 parently arise from an effort of nature to 
 form receptacles for the sap, deprived as it 
 is of its natural spissation in the leaves. 
 These swellings do not seem to arise imme- 
 diately from the attacks of the weevil, for I 
 have never observed them containing its 
 larva. Mr. Marshall very correctly de- 
 scribes the form which this disease assumes 
 when it attacks the turnip. It is a large 
 excrescence appearing below the bulb ; 
 growing to the size of both hands, and as 
 soon as the hard weather sets in, or it is, by 
 its own nature, brought to maturity, be- 
 coming putrid, and smelling very offensively. 
 On the last day of August, when the bulbs 
 of the turnips were about the size of walnuts 
 in the husk, the anburies were as big as 
 a goose's egg. These were irregular and 
 107 
 
 uncouth in their form, with excrescences 
 resembling the races of ginger hanging to 
 them. On cutting them, their general ap- 
 pearance is that of a hard turnip ; but on 
 examining them through a magnifier there 
 are veins, or string-like vessels, dispersed 
 among the pulp. The smell and taste some- 
 what resemble those of turnips, but without 
 their mildness, having an austere and some- 
 what disagreeable flavour resembling that of 
 an old stringy turnip. The tops of those 
 much affected turn yellow, and flag with the 
 heat of the sun, so that in the daytime they 
 are obviously distinguishable from those 
 which are healthy. These distortions mani- 
 fest themselves very early in the turnip's 
 growth, even before the rough leaf is much 
 developed. Observation seems to have ascer- 
 tained, that if the bulbs have attained the 
 size of a walnut unaffected, they do not 
 subsequently become diseased. Mr. Spence 
 has clearly shown, from established facts, 
 that the anbury does not arise from any im- 
 perfection of the seed sown : for experience 
 demonstrates that, in the same field and 
 crop, the attacks are very partial ; and 
 crops in two adjoining fields, sown with 
 seed from the same growth, will one be dis- 
 eased, and the other healthy. Secondly, it 
 does not arise from an unfavourable time of 
 sowing, or from dry, unpropitious seasons, 
 during their after-growth ; for on this sup- 
 position we might expect that in all turnip 
 districts the disease would occasionally make 
 its appearance, in consequence of variations 
 in the period and mode of sowing, or from 
 following droughts ; yet we know that, in 
 many parts of the country, it has never been 
 heard of. Thirdly, it does not arise from 
 the quality of the soil, for Sir Joseph Banks 
 suffered from its infecting thin stapled, sandy 
 fields ; whilst all Holderness, which is gene- 
 rally a strong loamy soil, was found equally 
 liable to the disease. But a still more de- 
 cisive evidence on this point is, that it makes 
 its appearance at uncertain intervals upon 
 the same soil ; the turnips upon it being in 
 some years more injured by them than in 
 other years. Fourthly, although it is certain 
 from the observations of Sir Joseph Banks, 
 and general experience, that the disease oc- 
 curs most frequently in soils tired of the 
 crop, that is, soils upon which it has been 
 grown for a long course of years, yet that 
 this is not the immediate cause of the disease 
 is proved by the fact, that often only patches 
 in the same field are affected ; and the same 
 observers record, that it appears in soils that 
 have not produced turnips for a long series 
 of years. The diseased specimens examined 
 by Mr. Marshall were from an old orchard 
 that had not borne turnips within the me- 
 mory of man. Mr. Spence concluded that 
 
ANBURY 
 
 the disease is occasioned by the poisonous 
 wound inflicted by some unascertained insect 
 upon the turnip in an early stage of vegeta- 
 tion, or by its insinuating its egg into it, 
 infusing, at the same time, a liquid, causing 
 a morbid action in the sap-vessels, and the 
 consequent forming of excrescences. This 
 correct opinion was afterwards confirmed 
 by the actual discovery of the insect, and 
 that there actually is a maggot generated 
 from the egg, of which fact he was at the 
 time ignorant. The maggot found in the 
 turnip anbury, is the larva of a weevil called 
 Curculio pleurostigma by Marsham, and 
 Rhynchcenus sulcicollis by Gyllenhal. "I 
 have bred this species of weevil," says Mr. 
 Kirby, "from the knob-like galls on turnips, 
 called the anbury, and I have little doubt 
 that the same insects, or a species allied to 
 them, cause the clubbing of the roots of cab- 
 bages." {Kirby and Spence's Introduction 
 to Entomology .) Marsham describes the pa- 
 rent as a coleopterous insect, of a dusky, 
 black colour with the breast spotted with 
 white, and the length of the body one line 
 and two thirds. 
 
 A very full description of this insect is in 
 the Insecta Svecica descripta, of Gyllenhal, 
 vol. iii. p. 229. under the name of Rhynchce- 
 nus sidcicollis. It is the Curculio ajfinis of 
 Panzer's Faunce Insectorum Germanicae initio, 
 the Curculio sulcicollis of Paykull's Fauna 
 Suecica, the Falciger sulcicollis of Dejean's 
 Catalogue des Coleopteres, and the Cryp- 
 torhynchus alauda of Germar's Insectorum 
 species novce, 8fc. 
 
 The general experience of all the farmers 
 and gardeners with whom I have conversed 
 upon the subject, testifies that the ambury 
 of the turnip and cabbage usually attacks 
 these crops when grown for successive years 
 on the same soil. This is precisely what 
 might be expected; for the parent insect 
 always deposits her eggs in those situations 
 where her progeny will find their appro- 
 priate food ; and in the fragments of the 
 roots, &c. of preceding crops, some of these 
 embryo ravagers are to be expected. That 
 they never attack the plants upon a fresh 
 site is not asserted : Mr. Marshall's statement 
 is evidence to the contrary ; but it is ad- 
 vanced that the obnoxious weevil is most 
 frequently to be observed in soils where the 
 turnip or cabbage has recently and repeat- 
 edly been cultivated. Another general re- 
 sult of experience is, that the anbury is 
 most frequently observed in dry seasons. 
 This is also what might be anticipated, for 
 insects that inhabit the earth just beneath 
 its surface are always restricted and checked 
 in their movements by its abounding in 
 moisture. Moreover, the plants actually 
 affected by the anbury, are more able to 
 108 
 
 contend against the injury inflicted by the 
 larva of the weevil by the same copious 
 supply. The developement of their parts, 
 their growth is more rapid ; consequently 
 the maggot has not to extend his ravages 
 so extensively in search of food as in drier 
 seasons, when the stem is less juicy and of 
 a smaller growth. In wet periods, also, the 
 affected plants show less the extent of the 
 injury they have sustained, for their foliage 
 does not flag; because their transpirations of 
 watery particles is less, and their supply of 
 nutriment from the soil is more free. 
 
 In wet seasons I have in very few instances 
 known an infected cabbage plant produce 
 fresh healthy roots above the swelling of 
 the anbury. These facts being premised, 
 better qualify us for the consideration of 
 the best modes of preventing the occurrence 
 of the disease, and of palliating its attacks. 
 It is apparent that any addition to the soil 
 that renders it disagreeable to the weevil 
 will prevent the visits of this insect. The 
 gardener has this in his power with but 
 little difficulty ; for he can keep the vicinity 
 of his cabbage, cauliflower, and brocoli 
 plants soaked with water. Mr. Smith, 
 gardener to Mr. Bell, of Woolsington in 
 Northumberland, expresses his conviction, 
 after several years' experience, that charcoal 
 dust spread about half an inch deep upon 
 the surface, and just mixed with it by the 
 point of a spade effectually prevents the 
 occurrence of this disease. (Trans, of Lon. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. i. art. 2.) That this would 
 be the case we might have surmised from 
 analogy ; for charcoal dust is offensive to 
 many insects, and is one of the most pow- 
 erful preventives of putrefaction known. 
 Soot, I have reason to believe, from a slight 
 experience, is as effectual as charcoal dust. 
 Judging from theoretical reasons, we might 
 conclude that it would be more specific ; for 
 in addition to its being like charcoal, finely 
 divided carbon, it contains ammonia, to which 
 insects have an antipathy. Mr. Drurey, a 
 practical farmer at Erpingham, in Norfolk, 
 considered marl a certain preventive of this 
 disease. He, and several other judicious 
 farmers also, thought that teathing, that is, 
 giving sheep and cattle their green food, 
 turnips, &c. upon the barley stubbles, in- 
 tended for turnips as the succeeding crop, 
 will cause the anbury. (Marshall's Rural 
 Economy of Norfolk, ii. 33. 35.) It is very 
 evident that it would mix fragments with 
 the soil that would be liable to contain the 
 eggs of the weevil. The marl, approved by 
 Mr. Drurey, is probably the calcareous 
 marl which occurs at Thorp Market, in the 
 hundred of North Erpingham ; but as there 
 is a slight doubt, owing to the deficiency of 
 accuracy in the statement, it affords me an 
 
ANBURY. 
 
 .opportunity to impress upon agriculturists 
 in general the great importance of employ- 
 ing more certain terms than they usually do. 
 What can be more indefinite than the state- 
 ment, that marl is a certain preventive of 
 the anbury ? For the very first question 
 suggested to the reader's mind is, What 
 marl is intended ? Is it a chalky marl, or a 
 clay marl ? Is it a mixture of chalk and 
 clay, or of chalk and silicious sand ? for all 
 these varieties of marl are known to agricul- 
 ture. The want of a correct nomenclature 
 is one of the drawbacks and deficiencies 
 checking the improving progress of agri- 
 culture. Few farmers ever thought upon this 
 point, and still smaller is the number who 
 duly appreciated its importance ; yet it is an 
 incontrovertible fact, that no art or science 
 can advance rapidly until its technical terms 
 are fixed, terse, expressive, and generally un- 
 derstood. Chemistry attained a greater aid 
 to its advancement by the introduction of its 
 new nomenclature by Lavoisier, than by any 
 series of discoveries that have since been 
 made on its rapid and brilliant progress. If 
 a sulphate, an acid, or a metal is mentioned, 
 a chemist immediately has a definite idea of 
 the nature and properties of the substance 
 alluded to ; but if a loam or marl is spoken 
 of, would any two farmers agree in their 
 idea of what description of earthy compound 
 was intended ? To make it well understood, 
 a long detail must be added ; and nothing 
 checks the imparting of knowledge more, 
 than the person capable of imparting it 
 being conscious that he must define every 
 term as he goes on, and that even then it 
 is doubtful, if he shall succeed in making 
 himself intelligible. The very name, an- 
 bury, usually applied to the disease, which 
 is the subject of this paper, is another proof 
 of the necessity of a reformed agricultural 
 nomenclature ; for in Suffolk the same 
 title is given to another disease which merely 
 affects the leaves of the turnip. Sir Joseph 
 Banks, Mr. Baker of Norfolk, and others, 
 agree that marl is the best preventive of 
 anbury. And another evidence of the effi- 
 cacy of applications to the soil is afforded by 
 a gentleman in Holderness, a Mr. Brigham, 
 who had a highly manured clayey ridge, 
 which he had levelled the year before, and 
 this grew turnips entirely free of the disease, 
 whilst in the natural rich loam of the field 
 they were much infected. Francis Con- 
 stable, Esq. of Burton Constable, had a 
 field that had been in grass twenty years : 
 this he pared, burned, and sowed with 
 turnips, obtaining a crop perfectly free from 
 the disease. Two white crops were then 
 taken, after which turnips were again sown ; 
 a considerable portion of the crop was then 
 infected with the disease. (Spencers Observ- 
 109 
 
 ations on the Disease of Turnips, termed in 
 Holdei*ness fingers and toes.) I have myself 
 tried the efficacy of common salt in pre- 
 venting the occurrence of this disease : its 
 tendency to keep the soil moist, and to irri- 
 tate the animal frame, certainly checks the 
 inroads of the weevil ; and its generally be- 
 neficial effects as a manure, enables the 
 plants better to sustain themselves under 
 the weakening influence of the disease ; but 
 it is not a decisive preventive. 
 
 The following result of one of my expe- 
 riments was read to the " Horticultural So- 
 ciety of London," October 16. 1821. Some 
 cauliflowers were planted upon a light sili- 
 cious soil, which had previously been ma- 
 nured with well putrefied stable manure, 
 and over one third of the allotted space was 
 sown salt, at the rate of twenty bushels per 
 acre. Immediately before the planting, in 
 the beginning of July, 1821 ; the previous 
 crop had been broccoli : fifty-four plants 
 were set on the two thirds unsalted, and 
 twenty-six on the one third salted ; the re- 
 sult has been, that of the fifty-four unsalted 
 fifteen have been diseased and unproduc- 
 tive ; but of the twenty-six salted only two. 
 Some more cauliflowers were planted on a 
 plot of ground which had previously borne a 
 crop of savoys, and half of which ground had 
 been sown with salt four months previous 
 to planting : in this the unsalted and salted 
 were alike nearly destroyed, evincing that 
 the salt was not present in a sufficient pro- 
 portion to produce the desired effect. 
 
 With regard to the use of salt as a cure 
 for the disease, I am inclined to think, from 
 the results of experiments which I have 
 instituted, that unless the salt be applied 
 very early, it would be useless ; for the root 
 soon becomes so diseased as to be entirely 
 past recovery. (C. W. Johnson's Essay on 
 Salt, p. 136.) 
 
 I have a strong opinion that a slight 
 dressing of the surface soil, with a little of 
 the dry hydro-sulphate of lime, that may 
 now be obtained so readily from the gas- 
 works introduced throughout England, 
 would prevent the occurrence of the dis- 
 ease, by driving the weevils from the soil. 
 It would probably as effectually banish the 
 turnip-fly or flea, if sprinkled over the sur- 
 face immediately after the seed is sown. I 
 entertain this opinion of its efficacy in pre- 
 venting the occurrence of the anbury, from 
 an instance when it was applied to some 
 broccoli, ignorantly grown upon a bed where 
 cabbages had as ignorantly been endea- 
 voured to be produced in successive crops ; 
 these had invariably failed from the occur- 
 rence of the anbury, but the broccoli was 
 uninfected. The only cause for this escape 
 that I could trace was, that just previously to 
 
ANBURY. 
 
 ANDERSON (JAMES). 
 
 planting, a little of the hydro-sulphuret of 
 lime had been dug in. This is a very fetid, 
 powerful compound. 
 
 Where dry lime purifiers are employed 
 at gas works it may be obtained in the state 
 of a dry powder ; but where a liquid mix- 
 ture of lime and water is employed, the 
 hydro-sulphuret can only be had in the 
 form of a thick cream. Of the dry hydro- 
 sulphuret, I would recommend 8 bushels 
 per acre to be spread regularly by hand 
 upon the surface, after the turnip seed is 
 sown, and before harrowing. If the liquid 
 is employed, I would recommend 30 gallons 
 of it to be mixed with a sufficient quantity 
 of earth or ashes, to enable it to be spread 
 over an acre in a similar manner. For 
 cabbages 12 bushels, or 45 gallons per acre, 
 would not, probably, be too much spread 
 upon the surface, and turned in with the 
 spade or last ploughing. To effect the ba- 
 nishment of the turnip-flea, I should like a 
 trial to be made of 6 or 8 bushels of the 
 dry, or from 22 to 28 gallons of the liquid 
 hydro-sulphuret, being spread over the 
 surface immediately after the sowing, har- 
 rowing, and rolling are finished. Although 
 I specify the quantities as those I calculate 
 most correct, yet in all experiments it is best 
 to try various proportions : 3 or 4 bushels 
 may be found sufficient; perhaps 12, or 
 even 20, may not be too much. Fre- 
 quent hoeing has been recommended as a 
 preventive of this disease ; but I believe 
 this to be unsustained by either reason or 
 practice. Hoeing, like any other stirring 
 of the surface soil, assists the ready admis- 
 sion of the atmosphere to the roots of the 
 incumbent plants, and so far promotes their 
 general health : but I have never yet found, 
 or even heard any one advance, that a fre- 
 quently-hoed part of a crop was free from 
 the anbury, which affected the more rarely 
 hoed portion. It would be fortunate if our 
 white turnip crops could be sown as early 
 as our Swedes ; for they would then pro- 
 bably be as little liable to the anbury as 
 these are. The reason of this seems to be, 
 that the weevil does not emerge into that 
 state in which it is capable of injuring the 
 young plants until the summer is far ad- 
 vanced, and by that time the Swedish tur- 
 nips have attained a size which secures their 
 safety. I conclude this to be the case from 
 my own slight, very slight observations 
 upon the habits of the insect ; for, unfortu- 
 nately, we are very deficient in knowledge 
 upon this point. It is to be regretted, that 
 entomologists are not more attentive to 
 what may be termed the private and par- 
 ticular history of the subjects of their 
 study : to define and describe their specific 
 characters is very useful ; but it is chiefly so, 
 110 
 
 because it is like a good index to an intri- 
 cate volume. It is of far more utility to 
 ascertain their habits, and their periods of 
 
 estation and transformation, because this 
 
 nowledge is that which often affords us 
 one of the best means of avoiding their ra- 
 vages. In cabbages, the anbury may usu- 
 ally be avoided by frequent transplantings ; 
 for this enables the workman to remove the 
 excrescences upon their first appearance, 
 and renders the plants altogether more ro- 
 bust, and ligneous, the plant in its tender, 
 sappy stage of growth being most open to 
 the insect's attacks. The sap of the turnip 
 and cabbage, thus diseased, undergoes a 
 considerable change : its specific gravity is 
 much increased, arising from an excess of the 
 mucilage, vegetable extract, and other saline 
 constituents, which it naturally contains, 
 caused probably by its being in a concen- 
 trated state ; for it is very considerably re- 
 duced in quantity compared with what the 
 same plant contains when healthy. The 
 increase of the saline components unques- 
 tionably exasperates the disease. They 
 consist chiefly of chloride and carbonate of 
 potass, which, by the corroding power of 
 the last named, and the irritating qualities 
 of both, must increase the sanious discharge 
 by stimulating the already lacerated and 
 morbidly sensitive vessels. Probably the oc- 
 casional application of diluted acids, such 
 as the dregs of beer, would mitigate the 
 symptoms, and check the progress of the 
 ulcerations ; but the application could not 
 be expected to effect a cure, nor is it avail- 
 able, even if proved to be a specific. The 
 warts or galls that so frequently may be 
 noticed on the bulbs of turnips must not 
 be mistaken for the anbury in a mitigated 
 form : if these are opened, they will usually 
 be found to contain a yellowish maggot, the 
 larva, probably, of some species of cynips. 
 This insect deposits its eggs in the turnip 
 when of larger growth than when it is 
 attached by the weevil, and the vegetable, 
 consequently, suffers less from the injury ; 
 but from some slight observations I am in- 
 clined to conclude, that the turnips thus 
 infested suffer most from the frosts of 
 winter, and are the earliest in decay. This 
 is what might be anticipated ; for when the 
 maggot has escaped from its cell, the hollow 
 of this admits the exterior air to the 
 wounded vessels, and forms a reservoir for 
 moisture, agents which promote the pro- 
 gress of putrefaction, and assists the pene- 
 trating influence of the freezing tempera- 
 ture. (G. W. Johnson, Quar. Journ. Agric, 
 vol. viii. p. 308. et seq.) 
 
 ANCHYLOSIS. In farriery, a disease 
 of the joints of animals. 
 
 ANDERSON, JAMES, was born at 
 
ANDERSON (JAMES). 
 
 ANGELICA. 
 
 Herdmanston, or Hermiston, near Edin- 
 burgh, in 1739, on a farm long in the pos- 
 session of his ancestors. His education was 
 the fruit of his own exertions. At fifteen 
 the care of the farm devolved upon him by 
 the death of his parents, and it could not 
 have fallen into abler hands, as was demon- 
 strated by his skilful management. He 
 studied Chemistry under Dr. Cullen, and 
 thus improved and guided his experience 
 by the lights of science. He soon left 
 Herdmanston, and took an uncultivated farm 
 of 1300 acres, in Aberdeenshire, which he 
 managed most beneficially for twenty years, 
 and then let, enjoying an annuity from 
 it during the remainder of his life. He wrote 
 Thoughts on Planting, first in the Edinburgh 
 Weekly Magazine, afterwards in a separate 
 form in 1777, 8vo. This acquired him much 
 reputation, and the University of Aberdeen 
 conferred on him the degree of Doctor of 
 Laws in 1780. In 1783 he gave up his 
 farm, and removed to Edinburgh, where he 
 projected the North British fisheries, and 
 was employed by government to survey the 
 coast of Scotland. He then commenced a 
 periodical termed The Bee, which was ably 
 supported, but the doctor suffered from 
 some political papers appearing in it, of 
 which he was entirely ignorant. About 
 1797 he removed to the neighbourhood of 
 London, fixing his abode at Isleworth, 
 where he wrote Recreations in Agriculture, 
 &c. He continued to lead a very domestic, 
 happy life, being excessively fond of the 
 cultivation of his garden, until 1808, in 
 which year he died. He wrote many works, 
 reviews, essays, &c. : we shall only mention 
 besides that already noticed, 
 
 A Description of a Patent Hot-house, which operates 
 chiefly by the Heat of the Sun, and other subjects, with- 
 out the aid of Flues, Tan-bark, cr Steam, for the pur- 
 pose of heating it, &c. London. 1804. 12mo. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Hist, of Eng. Gard.) 
 
 ANDROMEDA, THE MARSH. (Lat. 
 Andromeda polifolia.) This is a pretty 
 heath, growing a foot high, and blowing 
 rose-coloured flowers in May. It loves 
 shade and a well-dug^ light soil. It is pro- 
 pagated by suckers, or by dividing the roots 
 m February. If raised from seed, the seeds 
 must be sown under a glass, and covered 
 lightly over with peat soil. Pot the young 
 plants afresh when they are a couple of 
 inches high, to strengthen them, for planting 
 out. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ANEMONE. (From the Greek avqxojvn, 
 which signifies wind-flower, the actual En- 
 glish appellation.) This is a hardy tuberous- 
 rooted plant, of the natural order Ranun- 
 culacea>, in which are comprehended many 
 beautiful flowers, coming originally from the 
 Levant. The flowers are very beautiful, and 
 of almost every hue. The principal colours 
 111 
 
 are white, purple, red, and blue. Some 
 anemones are very splendidly variegated. 
 The soil which raises the finest flowers 
 should be composed of fresh earth, taken 
 from a pasture or a common, turf and all, 
 and mixed with a third part of rotten cow- 
 dung. These materials should lie in a heap, 
 for six or eight months, turning it over once 
 a month, to let it all incorporate well to- 
 gether. Sow anemone seed in January, 
 under a frame, pretty thickly, and sprinkle 
 the mould over the seeds, to the thickness 
 of a shilling. It is better to sow the seed 
 in drills, than broadcast, as the young 
 tubers are much more easily found. Water 
 the seed very gently with a watering-pot, 
 and keep out the frost and the mid-day sun, 
 for both are destructive to the young plants. 
 In March, when the leaves of the young 
 plants have died away, take up the tubers 
 or roots, and put them by in a dry place till 
 October, when they may be planted in the 
 flower-beds to flower the following spring. 
 Anemones are plentifully multiplied by di- 
 viding their roots with a sharp knife. Plant 
 them in raised beds, that the wet may not 
 lie upon them too long, and rot their roots. 
 Let each root be placed five inches apart. 
 Take them up when their leaves die away, 
 which will be in June, and replace them in 
 October. 
 
 All the anemone tribe are detersive and 
 acrimonious -in their quality. Taken in in- 
 fusion they are good in removing female 
 obstructions, and increase milk in the ma- 
 ternal breast. The root chewed strengthens 
 the gums and teeth. The root in decoction 
 is excellent for inflammation in the eyes ; the 
 juice cleanses corrosive ulcers. The flowers 
 of the anemone boiled in oil causes the hair 
 to thicken. Anemone ointment is very 
 valuable in inflammations and ulcers ap- 
 plied externally ; and is also an eye-salve of 
 great virtue, (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ANETHUM. See Diix and Fennel. 
 
 ANEURISM. In farriery, a throbbing 
 tumour, produced by the dilatation of the 
 coats of an artery in some part of the body 
 of an animal. Aneurisms in the limbs may 
 be cured by making an incision, exposing 
 the artery, and tying it above and below the 
 tumour with a proper ligature. 
 
 ANGELICA. (Angelica Archangelica.) 
 This plant was formerly blanched and eaten 
 like celery ; but at present its tender stalks 
 are the only part made use of, which are cut 
 in May for candying. 
 
 It grows in gardens, and also wild. It 
 flowers in July and August, and the roots 
 perish after the seed has ripened. This 
 plant grows as high as eight feet ; the stalks 
 robust, and divided into branches. The 
 flowers are small, and stand in large clusters 
 
ANGELICA. 
 
 ANIMALS (WILD). 
 
 of a globular form. Two seeds follow each 
 flower. 
 
 It may be grown in any soil and exposure, 
 but flourishes best in moist situations, conse- 
 quently the banks of ponds, ditches, &c. are 
 usually allotted to it. It is propagated by 
 seed, which is to be sown soon after it is 
 ripe, about September, being almost useless 
 if preserved until the spring, as at that sea- 
 son not one in forty will be found to have 
 preserved its vegetative powers ; if, however, 
 it be neglected until that season, the earlier 
 it is inserted the better. It may be sown 
 either broadcast moderately thin, or in drills 
 a foot asunder, and half an inch deep. 
 When arrived at a height of five or six 
 inches they must be thinned, and those re- 
 moved transplanted, to a distance of at least 
 two feet and a half from each other, either 
 in a bed, or on the sides of ditches, &c. as 
 the leaves extend very wide. Water in 
 abundance must be given at the time of re- 
 moval, as well as until they are established ; 
 but it is better to discontinue it during their 
 further growth, unless the application is re- 
 gular and frequent. In the May, or early 
 June of the second year, they flower, when 
 they must be cut down, which causes them 
 to sprout again ; and if this is carefully at- 
 tended to they will continue for three or 
 four years, but if permitted to run to seed 
 they perish soon after. A little seed should 
 be saved annually, as a resource in case of 
 any accidental destruction of the crop. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 Angelica is fragrant when bruised, and 
 every part of it is medicinal. The bruised 
 seeds are the most powerful. They are 
 cordial and sudorific. The leaves distilled 
 are healing in diseases of the womb. Three 
 table -spoonfuls of the distilled water is a 
 remedy for flatulence, and pains in the 
 stomach. A dram of the powdered dried 
 root in treacle water, or in distilled water of 
 tormentil, is an excellent drink in pestilential 
 fevers, and in diseases of the liver. A paste 
 of the fresh root of angelica beaten up in 
 vinegar used to be carried by physicians in 
 times - of great contagion, to apply to the 
 nose. Some preferred holding a dry piece 
 in their mouths, to resist infection. It has 
 always been celebrated against pestilential 
 and contagious diseases. The stalks of the 
 angelica candied are much esteemed in 
 winter desserts as a sweetmeat in England. 
 The Laplanders boil or bake the stalks till 
 extremely tender, and eat them as a delicacy. 
 The seeds bruised are cordial, stomachic, 
 and sudorific. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 ANGINA. In farriery, a name some- 
 times applied to the quinsy, or what in 
 animals is termed anticor. 
 
 ANGLE-BEIIRY. In farriery, a sort 
 112 
 
 of fleshy excrescence, to which cattle and 
 some other animals are subject under dif- 
 ferent circumstances ; and are supposed to 
 proceed from a rupture of the cutaneous 
 vessels, which give vent to a matter capable 
 of forming a sarcoma, or fleshy excrescence. 
 They frequently appear upon the belly and 
 adjacent parts, hanging down in a pendulous 
 manner. 
 
 ANGLERS. Persons who follow the 
 business of taking fish by the hook. (See 
 Fisheries ; and Animals, Stealing or.) 
 
 ANGORA GOAT. A particular species 
 of goat. 
 
 ANIMAL. A creature that is endowed 
 with life, and commonly with spontaneous 
 motion, though in some cases without it. 
 They are distinguished in general from vege- 
 tables, by having motion, though this gives 
 us no perfect definition ; as there are entire 
 classes of animals which are fixed to a place ; 
 as the lithophytes and zoophytes, which are 
 produced and die upon the same spot ; and, 
 on the other hand, certain vegetables have 
 as much motion in their leaves and flowers 
 as certain animals. However, by attending 
 to the most general characters, they may be 
 defined to be bodies endued with sensation 
 and motion necessary to preserve their life. 
 They are all capable of reproducing their 
 like : some, by the union of the two sexes, 
 produce small living creatures ; others lay 
 eggs, which require a due temperature to 
 produce young : some multiply without con- 
 junction of sexes; and others are reproduced 
 when cut in pieces like the roots of plants. 
 (See Botany ; also a series of articles on the 
 " History of British Animals," Quart. Journ. 
 Agric. vol. i. pp. 219 — 537. and vol. ii. 
 p. 637.) 
 
 ANIMALS, DANGEROUS. SeeNui- 
 
 SANCE. 
 
 ANIMALS, WILD, STEALING OF. 
 No larceny at common law (says Mr. Arch- 
 bold in his Crim. Law, p. 165.) can be com- 
 mitted of such animals, in which there is no 
 property either absolute or qualified ; as of 
 beasts that are ferce naturae, and unreclaimed, 
 such as deer, hares, and conies, in a forest, 
 chase, or warren ; fish in an open river or 
 pond ; or wild fowls, rooks, for instance, 
 (Hanman v. Mockett, 2 B. & C. 934. ; 4 D. & 
 R. 518.) at their natural liberty. (1 Hale, 
 511. ; Post. 366.) But if they are reclaimed 
 or confined, and may serve for food, it is 
 otherwise ; for of deer so enclosed in a park 
 that they may be taken at pleasure, fish in 
 a trunk or net, and pheasants or partridges 
 in a mew, larceny may be committed. (1 
 Hale, 511.; 1 Hawk. c. 33. s. 39.) Swans, it 
 is said, if lawfully marked, are the subject 
 of larceny at common law, although at large 
 in a public river (Dalt. Just. c. 156.) ; or 
 
ANIMALS, WILD. 
 
 whether marked or not, if they be in a pri- 
 vate river or pond. {Ib.) So, all valuable 
 domestic animals, as horses, and all animals 
 domitce natures, which serve for food, as 
 swine, sheep, poultry, and the like, and the 
 product of any of them, as eggs, milk from 
 the cow while at pasture (Foster, 99.), wool 
 pulled from the sheep's back feloniously 
 (JR. x. Martin, 1 Leach, 171.), and the flesh 
 of such as are ferai natural, may be the sub- 
 ject of larceny. (1 Hale, 511.) But as to 
 all other animals which do not serve for food, 
 such as dogs, ferrets though tame and sale- 
 able (R. v. Spearing v ~R. & R. 250.), and other 
 creatures kept for whim and pleasure, steal- 
 ing these does not amount to larceny at com- 
 mon law. (1 Hale, 512.) But now, to course, 
 hunt, snare, or carry away, or kill or wound, 
 or attempt to kill or wound, any deer kept 
 or being in the enclosed part of any forest, 
 chase, or purlieu, or in any enclosed land 
 wherein deer are usually kept, is felony, 
 punishable as simple larceny ; and if com- 
 mitted in the unenclosed part of any forest, 
 chase, or purlieu, the first offence is punish- 
 able upon summary conviction by fine not 
 exceeding 50/., and the second after a pre- 
 vious conviction is felony, and punishable 
 as simple larceny. (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 27.) 
 Summary punishment may also be imposed 
 by fine, not exceeding 201., upon any person 
 who shall have in his possession, or upon his 
 premises, with his knowledge, any deer, or 
 the head, skin, or other part thereof, or any 
 snare or engine for the taking of deer, 
 without satisfactorily accounting for such 
 possession (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 27.) ; or who 
 shall set or use any snare or engine whatso- 
 ever for the purpose of taking or killing 
 deer in any part of any forest, chase, or 
 purlieu, whether enclosed or not, or in any 
 fence or bank dividing the same from any 
 land adjoining, or in any enclosed land 
 where deer are usually kept, or shall de- 
 stroy any part of the fence of any land 
 where deer are then kept. (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. 
 s. 28.) To take or kill hares or conies in 
 the night-time, in any warren or ground 
 lawfully used for the breeding or keeping of 
 the same, is a misdemeanor; and to take 
 and kill them in any warren or ground in 
 the day-time, or at any time to set any snare 
 or engine for the taking of them, is punish- 
 able upon summary conviction by fine. (7 & 
 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 30.) Stealing dogs, or any 
 beast or bird ordinarily kept in a state of 
 confinement, not being the subject of larceny 
 at common law (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 31.) ; 
 knowingly being in possession thereof, or of 
 the skin or plumage thereof (7 & 8 G. 4. 
 c. 29. s. 32.) ; killing, wounding, or taking 
 any dove-house pigeon, under such circum- 
 stances as shall not amount to larceny at 
 113 
 
 ANIMAL MANURES. 
 
 common law (see R. v. Brooke, 4 C. & P. 
 131.; 7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 33.), is punishable 
 upon summary conviction by fine, imprison- 
 ment, and whipping, according to the nature 
 of the offence. So, to take or destroy any 
 fish in any water which shall run through, 
 or be in any land adjoining or belonging to 
 the dwelling-house of any person, being the 
 owner of such water, and having a right of 
 fishery therein, is a misdemeanor ; and to 
 take and destroy fish in any other water, 
 being private property, or in which there 
 shall be any private right of fishery ; and to 
 destroy fish by angling, in the day-time, in 
 either description of water, is punishable 
 upon summary conviction by fine, varying 
 according to the nature of the offence. (7 & 
 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 34.) And, lastly, to steal any 
 oyster or oyster brood from any oyster bed, 
 laying, or fishery, being the property of 
 another, and sufficiently marked out or 
 known as such, is larceny ; and to use any 
 dredge or any net, instrument, or engine 
 whatsoever within the limits of such oyster 
 fishery, for the purpose of taking oysters or 
 oyster brood, although none be taken, or to 
 drag upon the soil of any such fishery with 
 any net, instrument, or engine, is a misde- 
 meanor. (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29. s. 36.) 
 
 ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See Che- 
 mistry. 
 
 ANIMAL MANURES. For the in- 
 formation I have to furnish with regard to 
 animal manures, I must refer the farmer to 
 other heads of this work, such as Farm-yard 
 Manure, Night-soll, Bones, Liquid Ma- 
 nure, Fish, &c. A very elaborate paper 
 by Dr. C. Sprengel,translated by Mr. Hudson, 
 will be found in the Journal of the Roy. Ag. 
 Soc. of Eng., vol. i. p. 455., and to that I 
 am indebted for most of the general observ- 
 ations on animal manures in this article. 
 The excrements of animals vary with the 
 age of the animal, its food, &c. That of 
 young animals is poorer than that of the 
 aged, for the young and growing animal re- 
 quires, for its nourishment and increase in 
 size, a greater proportion of the phosphate 
 of lime, and other solid ingredients of its 
 food, than the more aged animal, because 
 the excrements or refuse matters of the ve- 
 getables consumed are proportionately di- 
 minished in quantity and in richness. The 
 richer the food, too, the better is the quality 
 of the manure. That from animals fed upon 
 oil-cake is the richest ; then that from corn- 
 fed animals ; then that from green crops, 
 hay ; and, lastly, that from straw-yard cattle 
 is decidedly the poorest. Then again, the 
 water consumed by animals to some extent 
 influences the quantity of their manure. In 
 the water usually drank by an ox, amount- 
 ing daily to about 80 lbs., is often found 
 i 
 
ANIMAL MANURES. 
 
 ANIMAL POISONS. 
 
 from half an ounce to an ounce of saline 
 matter. These consist of gypsum, common 
 salt, carbonate of lime, and carbonate of 
 magnesia. " It may be always regarded," 
 as is observed by M. Sprengel, as an in- 
 dication that the excrements of animals con- 
 tain many powerfully manuring substances 
 when they pass quickly into the putrefactive 
 state, and develope a large quantity of the 
 offensive gases, and ammonia; for in such 
 cases they contain not only much sulphur, 
 phosphorus, and nitrogen, but an abun- 
 dance also of chlorine, soda, potash, lime, and 
 magnesia, the whole of which are so much 
 the more important in vegetation, as the soil 
 manured with the excrements is deficient in 
 these particular substances." 
 
 The mode in which animal fertilisers ope- 
 rate varies, however, according to their 
 chemical composition. Some are enriching 
 from possessing peculiar saline substances, 
 which are direct food for plants. Thus 
 bones abound with phosphate of lime. Night- 
 soil and urine do the same. Farm-yard 
 compost contains all the essential ingredi- 
 ents of the farmer's crops, and they all co- 
 piously yield, by their decomposition, the 
 gases of putrefaction, such as the carbu- 
 retted hydrogen, and carbonic acid gas, as 
 well as various easily decomposable salts of 
 ammonia; all of which are found to be 
 highly nourishing when applied to the roots 
 of the plants, or even to their leaves. And, 
 in fact, some of the most powerful of the 
 animal fertilisers, such as train-oil, whale- 
 blubber, &c. can yield the plant nothing 
 else : they do not contain either saline or 
 earthy matters. It is their gaseous elements 
 only, therefore, which, when applied to the 
 roots of vegetables, produces such a rankness 
 of growth, such a dark green, as the farmer 
 invariably finds to follow in moist seasons 
 from their use. 
 
 The quantity of animal manures employed 
 in this country besides that produced by the 
 farmer's live stock, is annually increasing, 
 and it is a happy circumstance that it is so. 
 Not only are sprats and other cheap fish 
 bought up in every direction, but all north- 
 ern Europe, and even the South Sea, is 
 searched for bones ; refuse train oil, and 
 greaves are, to a considerable extent, also 
 used, and there are several manufactories 
 in the metropolis for the preparation of 
 manure powders of an animal description, 
 such as the urate of the London Manure 
 Company, and the disinfected night-soil of 
 M. Poittcvin. These are both, especially 
 the first, powerful enrichers, and are ad- 
 mirably adapted for application by the drill. 
 
 ANIMAL POISONS. Several animals 
 are furnished with liquid juices of a poison- 
 ous nature, which, when injected into fresh 
 114 
 
 wounds, occasion the disease or death of the 
 wounded animal. Well known examples 
 are furnished by the sting of serpents, bees, 
 scorpions, spiders, &c. The poison of the 
 viper is a yellow liquid, which lodges in two 
 small vesicles in the animal's mouth. These 
 communicate by a tube with the crooked 
 fangs, which are hollow, and terminate in a 
 small cavity. When the animal bites, the 
 vesicles are squeezed, and the poison forced 
 through the fangs into the wound. This 
 poisonous juice occasions the fatal effects of 
 the viper's bite. If the vesicles be extracted, 
 or the liquid prevented from flowing into 
 the wound, the bite is harmless. It has a 
 yellow colour resembling gum, but no taste ; 
 and when applied to the tongue occasions 
 numbness. The poison of the viper, and 
 of serpents in general, is most hurtful when 
 mixed with the blood. Taken into the sto- 
 mach, it kills if the quantity be considerable. 
 Fortana has ascertained that its fatal effects 
 are proportional to its quantity compared 
 with the quantity of the blood. Hence the 
 danger diminishes as the size of the animal 
 increases. Small birds and quadrupeds die 
 immediately when they are bitten by a viper ; 
 but to an adult the bite seldom proves fatal. 
 " Sweet oil," says Mr. Beckford, " has long 
 been esteemed as a certain antidote to the 
 bite of a viper ; some should be applied to 
 the part, and some taken inwardly ; but the 
 common cheese-rennet, externally applied, is 
 asserted to be a more efficacious remedy 
 than oil. Ammonia, or spirits of hartshorn, 
 has also been proposed as an antidote. It 
 was introduced in consequence of the theory 
 of Dr. Mead, that the poison was of an acid 
 nature. The numerous trials of that medi- 
 cine by Fontana robbed it of all its celebrity ; 
 but it has been lately revived and recom- 
 mended by Dr. Ramsay as a certain cure for 
 the bite of the rattlesnake." (Phil. Mag., 
 vol. xvii. p. 125.) 
 
 The venom of the bee and the wasp is 
 also a liquid contained in a small vesicle, 
 forced through the hollow tube of the sting 
 into the wound inflicted by that instrument. 
 From the experiments of Fontana we learn 
 that it bears a striking resemblance to the 
 poison of the viper. That of the bee is much 
 longer in drying when exposed to the air 
 than the venom of the wasp. The sting of 
 the bee should be immediately extracted; 
 and the best application is opium, and olive 
 oil ; one drachm of the former finely pow- 
 dered, rubbed down with an ounce of the 
 latter, and applied to the part effected by 
 means of lint, which should be frequently 
 renewed. (See Bee.) The poison of the 
 scorpion resembles that of the viper. But 
 its taste is hot and acid, which is the case 
 also with the venom of the bee and the wasp. 
 
ANJOU CABBAGE. 
 
 ANNOTTA. 
 
 No experiments upon which we can rely 
 have been made upon the poison of the 
 spider tribe. From the rapidity with which 
 these animals destroy their prey, and even 
 one another, we cannot doubt that their 
 poison is sufficiently virulent. {Mead and 
 Fontana onPoisons ; Thomson's Chem. vol.iv. 
 pp. 531—533.) 
 
 ANJOU CABBAGE. An excellent 
 vegetable both for the kitchen and the food 
 of cattle. 
 
 The great Anjou cabbage, said the Mar- 
 quis de Turbilly, is one of the most useful 
 leguminous plants for country use. It will 
 grow in almost any soil, not excepting even 
 the most indifferent, provided it be suffi- 
 ciently dunged. The seeds of this cabbage 
 are commonly sown in June, in a quarter 
 of good mould, in the kitchen-garden, and 
 watered from time to time in case of drought. 
 The plants will rise pretty speedily, and 
 should be thinned soon after, wherever they 
 stand too thick. The next care is to keep 
 them free from weeds whilst they continue, 
 by hoeing the ground between them. About 
 the first of November (probably September 
 or October would be better in this climate), 
 they should be transplanted into the field 
 where they are to remain. They should be 
 planted there in trenches dug with a spade, 
 pretty deep ; that is, they should be buried 
 almost up to the leaves. The distance be- 
 tween them should be two feet or two feet 
 and a half every way, according to the soil. 
 Particular care should be taken never to 
 plant them with a dibble, as gardeners plant 
 other sorts of cabbages. A layer of dung 
 should be spread along the bottom of the 
 trench, and the roots of the transplanted 
 cabbages covered therewith. The mould 
 taken out should then be returned back 
 upon the dung ; and, as the trench will then 
 no longer hold it all, there will remain a ridge 
 between each row of cabbages. Towards 
 the middle of the ensuing May, the ground 
 should be well stirred between the plants 
 with a spade, or some other proper instru- 
 ment, and its whole surface laid quite level. 
 After this, nothing more remains to be done, 
 except pulling up the weeds, from time to 
 time, as they appear. 
 
 In the month of June, such of these 
 cabbages as are already large, and do not 
 turn in their leaves for cabbaging, but still 
 continue green, begin to be fit for use, and 
 soon arrive at their full perfection, which 
 they retain till the next spring, when they 
 begin to run up, and afterwards blossom. 
 Their seeds ripen towards the end of July, 
 and what is intended for sowing should then 
 be gathered. In Anjou, when these cab- 
 bages are entirely run up, they generally 
 grow to the height of seven or eight feet ; 
 115 
 
 sometimes they reach to eight feet and a 
 half, or nine feet ; nay, some have even been 
 seen of a greater height. From the month 
 of June, when these cabbages begin to be 
 fit for use, their leaves are gathered from 
 time to time, and they shoot out again. 
 They are large, excellent food, and so tender 
 that they are dressed with a moment's boil- 
 ing. They never occasion any flatulencies 
 or uneasiness in the stomach ; and are also 
 very good for cattle, which eat them 
 greedily. They likewise greatly increase 
 the milk of cows. Such are the properties 
 of this kind of cabbage, which is greatly 
 esteemed in the districts formerly denomi- 
 nated Anjou, Poitou, Brittany, Le Maine, 
 and some other neighbouring provinces. In 
 the first, farmers were formerly bound by 
 their leases to plant early a certain number 
 of these cabbages, and to leave a certain 
 number of them standing when they quitted 
 their farms. 
 
 ANNONA (Triloba). The North Ame- 
 rican Papaw. This is the only sort which 
 will grow in the open air in England. Miller 
 says, it will thrive in a warm sheltered situa- 
 tion, if the plant be trained up in a pot and 
 sheltered for the two or three first winters 
 under cover. It may then be placed out 
 in the open ground. It rises in its native 
 country to ten feet high, having several 
 stems, and bears a fruit shaped like a pear 
 inverted. It loves a well dug light soil, and 
 casts its leaves in autumn. (X. Johnson.) 
 
 ANNOTTA, or ARNOTTA (Fr. rocou; 
 Ger. orlean ; It. oriand). In rural economy, 
 anatto or arnatto, for it is written in various 
 ways, is a colouring 'substance, or dye, ob- 
 tained from the skin or pulp of the kernel 
 of the Bixa orellana of South America and 
 the West Indies. 
 
 Of the preparation of this matter from 
 the red pulp which covers the seeds, Mr. 
 Miller gives the following account : — The 
 contents of the fruit are taken out and 
 thrown into a wooden vessel, where as much 
 hot water is poured upon them as is neces- 
 sary to suspend the red powder or pulp, and 
 this is gradually washed off with the assist- 
 ance of the hand, or of a spatula, or spoon. 
 When the seeds appear quite naked, they 
 are taken out, and the wash is left to settle ; 
 after which the water is gently poured 
 away, and the sediment put into shallow 
 vessels to be dried by degrees in the shade. 
 After acquiring a due consistence, it is 
 made into balls or cakes, (which are known 
 in commerce as the flag, or cake, and roll 
 Arnotto, and comes chiefly from Cayenne,) 
 and set to dry in an airy place until it be 
 perfectly firm. Some persons first pound 
 the contents of the fruit with wooden pestles ; 
 then, covering them with water, leave them 
 i 2 
 
ANNOTTA. 
 
 ANT-HILLS. 
 
 to steep six days. This liquor being passed 
 through a coarse sieve, and afterwards 
 through three finer ones, it is again put 
 into the vat or wooden vessel, and left to 
 ferment a week; it is then boiled until it 
 be pretty thick, and when cool spread out to 
 dry, and afterwards made up into balls, which 
 are usually wrapped up in Banana leaves. 
 
 Arnotta, when of good quality, is of the 
 colour of fire, bright within, soft to the 
 touch, and capable of being dissolved in 
 water. But the substance commonly met 
 with under this name is a preparation 
 made by the druggists, in which madder is 
 probably a principal ingredient ; it is of a 
 brick colour, and a hard compact texture. 
 Arnotto is much used in Gloucestershire, 
 and other cheese counties, and in the butter 
 dairies. The method of using the soft, or 
 genuine sort, is simply by dissolving such a 
 quantity as is necessary in a small portion of 
 milk ; allowing such particles as will not dis- 
 solve to settle to the bottom. The milk thus 
 coloured is then poured off, and mixed with 
 that which is to be made into cheese. But 
 when the hard preparation is used, pieces of 
 it are frequently under the necessity of 
 being rubbed against a hard, smooth, even- 
 faced pebble, or other stone, being pre- 
 viously wetted with milk to forward the 
 levigation, and to collect the particles as 
 they are loosened. For this purpose, a dish 
 of milk is generally placed upon the cheese- 
 ladder ; and, as the stone becomes loaded 
 with levigated matter, the pieces are dipped 
 in the milk from time to time, until the milk 
 in the dish appear to be sufficiently coloured. 
 The stone and the "colouring" being washed 
 clean in the milk, it is stirred briskly about 
 in the dish ; and, having stood a few minutes 
 for the suspended particles of colouring- 
 matter to settle, is returned into the cheese- 
 cowl ; pouring it off gently, so as to leave 
 any sediment which may have fallen down 
 in the bottom of the dish. The grounds are 
 then rubbed with the finger on the bottom 
 of the dish, and fresh milk added, until all 
 the finer particles be suspended : and in this 
 the skill in colouring principally consists. 
 If any fragments have been broken off in 
 the operation, they remain at the bottom of 
 the dish : hence the superiority of a hard 
 closely-textured material, which will not 
 break off or crumble in rubbing. The de- 
 coction of Arnotto has a peculiar smell and 
 a disagreeable flavour. An ounce of Ar- 
 notto will colour about twenty cheeses of 
 10 or 12 lbs. each. The rolls usually weigh 
 2 or 3 oz. each. In Gloucestershire, it is 
 usual to allow 1 oz. to a cwt. of cheese ; in 
 Cheshire, 8 pennyweights to a cheese of 60 
 lbs. By the Spanish Americans, it is mixed 
 with their chocolate. The average annual 
 116 
 
 import of Arnotto in the three years ending 
 in 1831 was 128,528 lbs. (Comp. Farm. ; 
 M'-CullocKs Com. Diet. ; Grays Supplement; 
 Loudon's Encyc. ; Thomson's Chem.) 
 
 ANNUAL HOLDING. See Landlord 
 and Tenant. 
 
 ANNUAL MEADOW-GRASS. See 
 Poa Annua. 
 
 ANNUAL PLANTS. Such as are 
 only of one year's duration, or which come 
 up in the spring and die in the autumn. 
 They are frequently denominated simply 
 annuals. Wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, 
 &c. are of this kind. 
 
 ANNULAR. Having the form or re- 
 semblance of a ring. This appearance is 
 observed in the wood of some kinds of trees 
 after they have been cut down ; and in the 
 horns of cattle and sheep, by which their 
 ages may in some measure be ascertained. 
 
 ANODYNE. In farriery, a term ap- 
 plied to such medicines as ease pain and 
 procure sleep. 
 
 ANOREXY. In farriery, a term ap- 
 plied to a want of appetite. 
 
 ANT. A sort of insect, extremely in- 
 jurious to pasture lands and gardens; in the 
 "former by throwing up hills, and in the 
 latter by feeding on the fruit, &c. The 
 best methods of keeping them from trees, 
 are those of having the earth round them 
 constantly dug up, and the application of 
 saw-dust, coal-ashes, or other matters of 
 the same kind, about their roots. The 
 same purpose may be effected by covering 
 the bottom part of the trees with tar ; but, 
 as it is prejudicial to the trees, night-soil 
 may, perhaps, answer better ; as it is found 
 to destroy them when spread upon or put 
 into their hills. A liquor, prepared by 
 boiling rain-water, with black-soap and sul- 
 phur, has been made use of for destroying 
 those animals, it is said, with considerable 
 success. Where this liquor is employed, care 
 should be taken that the ground where 
 they inhabit be perfectly saturated with it. 
 
 ANT-HILLS. The habitations of ants, 
 consisting of little eminences, composed 
 of small particles of sand or earth, lightly 
 and artfully laid together. These hills 
 are very detrimental to the farmer, de- 
 priving him of as much land as the hills cover, 
 which may often be computed at a tenth 
 part, or more, of his grass-lands. And in 
 some places, where negligence has suffered 
 them to multiply, almost half of it has been 
 rendered useless, the hills standing as thick 
 together as grass-cocks in a hay-field : and 
 what is very surprising is, that, bv some, 
 this indolence is defended, by affirming, that 
 the area or superficies of their land is thereby 
 increased ; whereas it is well known that 
 very little or no grass ever grows thereon ; 
 
ANT-HILLS. 
 
 ANTHOXANTHUM. 
 
 and, therefore, if the surface be increased, 
 the produce is proportionably decreased. 
 
 In order to remove the hills, and destroy 
 the insects, it has been a custom in some 
 places, at the beginning of winter, and often 
 when the weather was not very cold, to dig 
 up the ant-hills three or four inches below 
 the surface of the ground, and then to cut 
 them in pieces, and scatter the fragments 
 about. But this practice only disseminates 
 the ants, instead of destroying them, as they 
 hide themselves among the roots of the grass 
 for a little time, and then collect themselves 
 together again upon any little eminence, of 
 which there are great numbers ready for 
 their purpose, such as the circular ridges 
 round the hollows where the hills stood be- 
 fore. It is, therefore, a much better method 
 to cut the hills entirely off, rather lower than 
 the surface of the land, and to let them lie 
 whole at a little distance, with their bottom 
 upwards : by this means the ants, who con- 
 tinue in their habitations until the rains, 
 running into their holes of communication, 
 and stagnating in the hollows formed by the 
 removal of the hills and the frosts, which 
 now readily penetrate, will be destroyed. If 
 a little soot is sown on the places, it will con- 
 tribute to the intended effect. The hills, 
 when rendered mellow by the frosts, may 
 be broken and dispersed about the land. 
 By this method of cutting off the hills, one 
 other advantage is gained; the land soon 
 becomes even and fit for mowing, and the 
 little eminences being removed, the insects 
 are exposed to the rain, which is destructive 
 to them. In wet weather these insects are 
 apt to accumulate heaps of sandy particles 
 among the grass, called by labourers sprout- 
 hills, which quickly take off the edge of the 
 scythe. These hills, which are very light 
 and compressible, may be removed by fre- 
 quent heavy rolling. 
 
 ANTHELMINTIC. In farriery, a term 
 applied to such remedies as are supposed to 
 destroy or carry off the worms which lodge 
 in the intestines of an animal. 
 
 ANTHEMIS. See Chamomile. 
 
 ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM. 
 The sweet-scented vernal grass. This grass 
 constitutes a part of the herbage of pastures 
 on almost every kind of soil, though it only 
 attains to perfection on those that are deep 
 and moist. The chief property that gives 
 merit to this grass is its early growth, though, 
 in this respect, it is inferior to several other 
 species, which are alter in flowering. It 
 thrives best when combined with many dif- 
 ferent species, and is therefore a true per- 
 manent pasture grass. It does not appear 
 to be particularly liked by cattle, though 
 eaten in pastures in common with others. 
 Mr. Grant, of Leighton, laid down a field 
 117 
 
 of considerable extent, one half of which 
 was sown with this grass and white clover, 
 the other half with meadow fox-tail and red 
 clover. The sheep would not touch the 
 sweet-scented vernal and white clover, but 
 kept constantly on the fox -tail grass, though 
 the dwarfish nature of the sweet-scented 
 vernal had occasioned an unusual degree of 
 luxuriance of the white clover with which 
 it was combined. This would indicate that 
 it is not, when single, or when combined 
 with but two or three different species, ver.y 
 grateful to cattle. The chemical examination 
 of its nutritive qualities shows, that it does 
 not abound in saccharine matter, but chiefly 
 in mucilage ; and the insoluble extract is in 
 a greater proportion than in many other 
 grasses. Its merits, however, in respect to 
 early growth, continuing' to vegetate and 
 throw up flowering stalks till the end of 
 autumn, and its hardy and permanent nature, 
 sufficiently uphold its claim to a place in 
 the composition of all permanent pastures. 
 The superior nutritive qualities of its latter- 
 math, are a great recommendation for the 
 purpose of grazing, the stalks being of but 
 little utility, as they are generally left un- 
 touched by the cattle, provided there is a 
 sufficiency of herbage. It is said to give to 
 new-mown hay that delightful smell which 
 is peculiar to it ; if it is not the sole cause 
 of that pleasant smell, it is certainly more 
 powerful when combined with the grasses 
 which compose hay. About the middle of 
 April it comes into flower, and the seed is 
 ripe generally about the first or second week 
 of June. The fragrance of this, and some 
 other of the grasses, so abundant in our 
 English pastures, arises, it is said, from the 
 presence of benzoic acid. An essential oil 
 of an agreeable flavour may be extracted 
 from this grass, which is valued as a mild 
 aromatic, and stimulant. 
 
 Sir H. Davy has shown that the nutritive 
 matter of the grass, at the time the seed is 
 ripe, consists of mucilage, or starch, 43, sac- 
 charine matter, 4, and bitter extract and 
 salt 3=50. The leaves, or first growth of 
 the spring, afforded me of mucilage, 40, sac- 
 charine matter, 1, bitter extractive, 9=50. 
 The bitter extractive is here much greater 
 in the leaves than in the culms and leaves 
 combined, which is the case with all the 
 grasses I have made trial of, though in dif- 
 ferent proportions. 
 
 The proportional value which the grass, 
 at the time the seed is ripe, bears to that at 
 the time of flowering, is as 13 to 4. The 
 proportional value which the grass of the 
 latter-math bears to that of the seed crop, is 
 nearly as 13 to 9 ; and the proportional 
 value or nourishment contained in the au- 
 tumn grass, exceeds that of the first grass of 
 I 3 
 
ANTICOR. 
 
 APPETITE. 
 
 the spring as 9 to 7. The comparative I may be seen by reference to the following 
 produce of the herbage, at different periods, | table : — (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 Description of Grass. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Green Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Produce per Acre 
 of Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum, on 1st April - 
 , in flower - - 
 
 Brown sandy loam 
 
 IDs. 
 
 3,488 0 0 
 7,827 3 0 
 6,125 10 0 
 6,806 4 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,103 8 14 
 1,837 11 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 95 6 0 
 122 4 12 
 311 1 1 
 239 4 8 
 
 , seed ripe - - 
 
 . , latter-math - 
 
 ANTICOR. In farriery, a disease among 
 horses, arising from an inflammation in the 
 gullet and throat, or a kind of quinsey. The 
 swelling sometimes extends as far as the 
 sheath ; and is attended with fever, great 
 depression, weakness, and a total loss of ap- 
 petite. 
 
 ANTIDOTE. See Poison, and Animal 
 and Vegetable Poisons. 
 
 ANTIMONY, SULPHURET OF. In 
 farriery, a mineral substance, of a shining 
 striated appearance, hard, brittle, and very 
 heavy. It is employed as a remedy in 
 many diseases of horses and other animals, 
 and is said to have been given to fattening 
 cattle and hogs with advantage. An ounce 
 is the common quantity for a full-grown 
 animal, which may be repeated according to 
 circumstances. It is composed, according to 
 Dr. J.Davy {Phil Trans. 1812, p. 231.), of 
 
 Antimony - - 100 
 
 Sulphur - - 34-960 
 
 ANTISEPTIC SUBSTANCES. In 
 agriculture, are such substances as have a 
 tendency to resist the putrefaction and de- 
 cay of animal and vegetable matters. 
 
 ANTISPASMODICS. In farriery, are 
 such medicines as are suited to cure spas- 
 modic affections. Opium, assafoetida, and 
 the essential oils of many vegetables, are the 
 most powerful remedies of this kind. 
 
 ANTLER. (Fr. andouiller.) Properly 
 the first branches of a stag's horns ; but, 
 popularly and generally, any of his branches, 
 and so used, by poetic license, in all our 
 modern authors. 
 
 AORTAL ARTERIES, of vegetables. 
 The large vessels destined to convey the 
 elaborated juice or blood of plants to the 
 leaves and extremities, are so denominated 
 by Dr. Darwin. 
 
 APERIENTS. In farriery, are such re- 
 medies as are calculated to keep the bowels 
 of animals in a gentle open state. 
 
 APHERNOUSLI, or ARKENOUSLI. 
 A species of fir, pine or pinaster, which grows 
 wild on the Alps. 
 
 The timber of this tree is frequently large, 
 and has many uses for internal work. The 
 branches resemble those of the spruce-fir : 
 but the cones are more round in the middle, 
 being of a purplish colour, shaded with 
 118 
 
 black. The bark of the trunk, or bole of the 
 tree, is not reddish like the bark of the pine, 
 but of a whitish cast like that of the fir. The 
 husk, or sort of shell, which incloses the 
 kernels, is easily cracked, and the kernels 
 are covered with a brown skin, which peels 
 off ; they are about as large as a common 
 pea, triangular like buck-wheat, and white 
 and soft as a blanched almond ; of an oily 
 agreeable taste, but leaving in the mouth 
 that small degree of asperity which is pecu- 
 liar to wild fruits, and is not unpleasant. 
 These kernels sometimes make a part in a 
 Swiss dessert; they supply the place of 
 mushroom-buttons in ragouts, and are also 
 recommended in consumptive cases. 
 
 Wainscoting, flooring, and other joiner's 
 work, may be made with the planks of 
 aphernousli, which is a wood of a finer grain, 
 and more beautifully variegated than deal, 
 and the smell is more agreeable. The apher- 
 nousli is a tree of a healthy, vigorous growth, 
 and will bear removing when it is young, 
 even in dry warm weather. From this tree 
 is extracted a white odoriferous resin. The 
 wood also makes excellent firing in stoves, 
 ovens, and kilns. 
 
 APHIS. See American Blight. 
 
 APIUM. See Celery and Parsley. 
 
 APOPLEXY. In farriery, is a disease 
 which is often called the staggers, to which 
 horses and other animals are subject, and 
 by which they drop down suddenly, without 
 sense or motion, except a working of the 
 flanks. (See Sheep, Diseases of.) 
 
 APPETITE. In farriery, a certain pain- 
 ful or uneasy sensation, accompanied with 
 a desire to eat or drink. Horses, more than 
 most other creatures, are subject to diseases 
 of the stomach, particularly to a want of 
 appetite, and a vitiated or voracious appe- 
 tite. 
 
 Want of appetite is when a horse feeds 
 poorly, and is apt to mangle his hay, or leave 
 it in the rack, and at the same time gathers 
 little flesh, his dung being habitually soft, 
 and of a pale colour. This state of the sto- 
 mach evidently arises either from some error 
 in respect of diet and management, want 
 of grass, or from a relaxed constitution, 
 in which the stomach and bowels are more 
 particularly affected with debility. This 
 weakness of the digestive organs may be 
 
APPLE OF LOVE. 
 
 APPRAISEMENT. 
 
 either accidental or constitutional; and it 
 may proceed from the use of food ad- 
 ministered in an improper state, such as 
 too much scalded bran, or hot meat of any 
 kind, which relaxes the tone of the stomach 
 and bowels, and ultimately produces a weak 
 digestion, and consequently a loss of appe- 
 tite. The best method to strengthen and re- 
 cover horses in this state is to give them 
 gentle exercise in the open air, especially in 
 dry weather ; never to load their stomachs 
 with large feeds ; and to keep them as much 
 as possible to a dry diet, indulging them 
 now and then with a handful of beans among 
 their oats. But where the disorder has been 
 caused by over-feeding with dry food, and 
 the neglect of proper evacuation and exer- 
 cise, mashes, with gentle saline purges, would 
 seem to be the most suitable remedies ; and 
 where horses do not gain strength under 
 the above management, a run at grass will 
 most probably be the readiest method of 
 removing their complaints. 
 
 APPLE. See Malus. 
 
 APPLES OF LOVE. (Poma amoris ; 
 tomato.) These apples are juicy, and large 
 fruit, growing upon a low plant in gardens. 
 The flowers are yellow and small ; when the 
 fruit ripens, it becomes red, containing soft 
 juicy pulp and seeds. Its juice is cooling to 
 the system, and is applied externally to re- 
 move eruptions upon the skin. The juice 
 is also excellent in diseases of the eyes. 
 (L. Johnson.) See Tomato. 
 
 APPRAISEMENT. By the 55 G. 3. 
 c. 184., every person who shall exercise the 
 calling or occupation of an appraiser (ex- 
 cept he is a licensed auctioneer), or make 
 any appraisement or valuation hereinbefore 
 charged with a duty for or in expectation 
 of any gain, fee, or reward, shall take out a 
 license and pay ten shillings. The word 
 appraiser does not mean a person who, in 
 one single instance only, shall happen to 
 make a valuation for another, but is in- 
 tended to designate persons who exercise 
 the calling or occupation of an appraiser, 
 and who bear a known character as such. 
 (Atkinson v. Fell, 5 M. & S. 240.) In this 
 case, two resident parishioners, by the ap- 
 pointment of the parish officers, had valued' 
 the parish lands for the purpose of equal- 
 ising a poor rate. Upon which, Lord Ellen- 
 borough said, in giving judgment, " The 
 statute 46 G. 3. c. 3. s. 4. enacts, ' that 
 every person who shall appraise any estate, 
 real or personal, in expectation of any hire 
 or reward, shall be deemed to be an appraiser 
 within that Act.' Now, if these words are 
 to be construed literally, the consequences 
 will be that every person who, in one single 
 instance only, shall make a valuation, must, 
 without regard to circumstances, be subject 
 119 
 
 to the appraiser's duty. Now, the plaintiffs 
 were not appraisers in any sense of the 
 word ; but the one a farmer, the other a 
 tradesman, resident on their own property, 
 and being, from their situation in life, no 
 doubt acquainted with agricultural matters, 
 were applied to by the parish officers to 
 contribute their aid in valuing the parish 
 lands, with a view of equalising the parish 
 rates. There is hardly a farmer in the 
 kingdom who will not be obliged to take 
 out a license, if these plaintiffs must." And 
 if an appraisement is made for the inform- 
 ation of parties, and not made binding upon 
 them, it is not liable to an appraisement 
 stamp, by 55 G. 3. (Jackson v. Shepherd, 
 2 C.&M. 361.) 
 
 And by the same act, the appraisement 
 or valuation of any estate or effects, real or 
 personal, heritable or movable, or of any in- 
 terest therein, or of the annual value thereof, 
 or of any dilapidations, or of any repairs 
 wanted, or of the materials used or to be used 
 in any building, or: of any artificer's work 
 whatsoever, are subject to the following 
 stamp duties : — 
 
 Where the amount of such appraisement 
 or valuation shall not exceed 50/., £0 2 6 
 over 50/. and not exceeding 100/. 0 5 0 
 100/. - - 200/. 0 10 0 
 
 200/. - - 500/. 0 15 0 
 
 500/. - - 1000/. 1 0 0 
 
 Examples. — Appraisements or valuations 
 made in pursuance of the order of any court 
 of admiralty. Appraisements or valuations 
 of any property made for the purpose of 
 ascertaining the legacy duty, payable in re- 
 spect thereof. 
 
 It is not only customary, but essential to 
 the maintenance of the good condition of a 
 farm, that the outgoing tenant should be in- 
 duced to carry on the proper course of hus- 
 bandry up to the period of his quitting the 
 farm ; notwithstanding that much of the 
 labour and manure he bestows is for the 
 benefit of crops which a succeeding tenant 
 will reap. Hence the good practice has 
 arisen, that the outgoing tenant shall be al- . 
 lowed for these matters, according to agree- 
 ment, or, in its absence, by the custom of 
 the district, which varies considerably. (See 
 Custom of the Counties.) 
 
 The following real appraisement of a farm 
 in Surrey by Mr. Hewitt Davis, an eminent 
 appraiser of the Haymarket, London, will 
 afford the young farmer a complete view of 
 the matters usually included in such ap- 
 praisements. It is usual for these valua- 
 tions to be made by appraisers, one being 
 appointed by the outgoing, and the other 
 by the incoming tenants, who choose an 
 umpire to decide in case of difference, 
 i 4 
 
APPRAISEMENT. 
 
 Appraisement of the Tenant's Property on the 
 
 of Surrey, made this 29th September, 1841, 
 
 From 
 To 
 By 
 And 
 
 Farm, County 
 
 , outgoing tenant. 
 , incoming tenant. 
 , outgoing tenant's appraiser. 
 , incoming tenant's appraiser. 
 
 Made according to the terms of the Lease, which says, " at leaving the Landlord or In- 
 coming Tenant shall pay for the Turnips, Leys, Seeds sown, and Crops in or on the 
 Ground, Ploughings, Dressings, Half Dressings, Fallows, Half Fallows, and preparations 
 of the Land for the Manure and Underwoods, according to their growth, and all other 
 Matters and Things according to the Custom of the Country." 
 The farm is principally a light turnip soil, and consists of — 
 
 Arable - 227i acres 
 
 Grass - - - 48 — 
 
 Wood - - - 24 — 
 
 Hedges - - 10 — 
 
 309i — 
 
 And has been very highly cultivated on the Scotch Drill system. 
 
 DRESSINGS AND TILLAGES, viz., 
 
 Lodge Field, 17 Acres. — Swedes. 
 
 Ploughed, 2 horses, three times 
 Ridging and splitting - 
 Ox narrowed, four times - 
 Small harrowed, eight times 
 Rolled twice - 
 Handpicking - 
 
 Dung, 295 loads - - - - 
 
 Seed, 2 lb. per acre, per lb. 
 Drilling - 
 Scuffling twice - 
 Hand-hoeing - 
 Handpicking, rent, rates, and taxes, 
 
 Lower Loam Pit, 12 Acres. — Preparing for Wheal. 
 
 Half dressing, 230 loads dung at 3s. 
 
 Ploughed twice, 2 horses - - - 10*. 
 
 Harrowed, Finlayson - 3s. 
 
 Ox harrowed twice - Is. 6d. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 10s. 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 145. 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 9d. 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 6s. 
 
 88 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 0 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 8s. 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 30s. 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Middle Loam Pit, 7£ Acres. 
 One year's ley - 
 
 - Seeds. 
 
 at 60s. 
 
 Seeds. 
 
 Upper Loam Pit, 10 Acres.- 
 Two years' ley - - at 40s. 
 
 Lower Blighs, 7 Acres. — Pea Stubble. 
 Half dressing, 110 loads dung at 3s. 
 
 North Blighs, 8 Acres. — Wheat after Clover. 
 Clover ley 
 Ploughed, 3 horses 
 Harrowed small, four times 
 Seed, 16 bushels 
 Drilling - 
 
 
 
 at 60s. 
 
 24 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 12s, 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 9c?. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 10s. 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 3s. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 120 
 
 Carry forward 
 
 34 10 0 
 
 12 0 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 177 15 0 
 
 50 2 0 
 
 22 10 0 
 
 20 0 0 
 
 16 10 0 
 
 39 4 0 
 
 326 1 0 
 
APPRAISEMENT. 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 South Blighs, lh Acres Wheat. 
 
 Composition earth and lime, 164 loads 
 Ploughed, 3 horses - 
 Harrowed small, four times 
 Seed, 15 hushels - 
 Drilling - 
 
 Upper Blighs, 13 Acres. — Tares. 
 Ploughed, 2 horses - 
 Harrowed small, four times 
 Rolled, 2 horses - 
 Seed, 26 bushels - 
 Drilling - 
 
 at 3s. 
 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 12s. 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 9d. 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 105. 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 3*. 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 at 10s. 
 
 9d. 
 is. 6d. 
 
 12s. 
 3s. 
 
 East Blighs, 5 Acres. — Turnips, after Tares fed off. 
 
 Tillages for the tares 
 Ploughed twice, 3 horses 
 Harrowed, ox, twice 
 Harrowed small, four times 
 Ridging and splitting 
 Rolled, 2 horses, twice 
 Dung, 85 loads 
 Seed, 2 lbs. per acre 
 Drilling - 
 Scuffling three times 
 Hoed twice 
 Rent, rates, and taxes 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 at 12s. 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 14s. 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 
 6s. 
 
 25 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 1 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 
 8s. 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 30s. 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 Ten Acres, 10 Acres. — Clover. 
 
 One year's ley 
 
 at 60s. 
 
 Ox House, 14 Acres. — Turnips. 
 
 Ploughed three times, 2 horses 
 Harrowed, ox, twice 
 Harrowed small, four times 
 Rolled small, twice 
 Ridging and splitting 
 Dung, 220 loads - 
 Seed, 28 lb. 
 Drilling - 
 Scuffling twice - 
 Hoed twice - 
 Rent, rates, and taxes 
 
 Stack Yard, 12 Acres. — Winter Beans. 
 
 Ploughed, 3 horses - 
 Harrowed small, four times - - 
 
 •Beans, 24 bushels - 
 Drilling - 
 
 West Field, 7 Acres. — Clover Seeds. 
 
 Half dressing, 145 loads dung at 3s. 
 
 Half fallow - 50s. 
 
 Seed and sowing - - - - 16s. 
 
 West Starve Acre, 7^ Acres. — Clover. 
 Half dressing, 125 loads dung - - 3s. 
 
 Half dressing fallow ■< 50s. 
 
 Seeds - 16s. 
 
 
 at 10s. 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 6c?. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 9c?. 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 
 9d. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 
 14s. 
 
 9 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 
 6s. 
 
 66 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 8s. 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 
 30s. 
 
 21 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 12s. 
 
 9d. 
 
 5s. 
 3s. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 121 
 
 Carry forward 
 
 6 10 
 1 19 
 
 0 19 
 15 12 
 
 1 19 
 
 7 4 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 6 0 0 
 
 1 16 0 
 
 21 15 0 
 17 10 0 
 5 12 0 
 
 18 15 0 
 18 15 0 
 6 0 0 
 
APPRAISEMENT. 
 
 Brought forward 
 East Starve Acre, 8 Acres. — Swedes after Bye, Sheep fed. 
 
 Tillages for the rye - 
 Ploughed twice, 2 horses - 
 Ridging and splitting - 
 Harrowing small, four times 
 Dung, 139 loads - 
 Seed, 16 lbs. - 
 Drilling - 
 
 Scuffling three times - 
 Hoeing twice - 
 About 1^ acre reploughed and resown 
 Rent and taxes - 
 
 Sand Pit, 15 Acres. — Rye. 
 
 Ploughed, 2 horses - - - at 10s. 
 
 Harrowed small, four times - - 9</. 
 
 Seed, 30 bushels - 5s. 
 Drilling - 35. 
 
 Upper Kennel Field, 10 Acres. — Seeds. 
 
 Half dressings, 165 loads dung at 3s. 
 
 Half dressing fallow - 50*. 
 
 Seeds mixed, and sowing - - - 16*. 
 
 - 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 at 10s. 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 14s. 
 
 5 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 9d. 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 6s. 
 
 41 
 
 14 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 Is. 
 
 " 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 8s. 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 30s. 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Lower Kennel Field, 14 Acres. — Seeds. 
 
 Half dressings, 240 loads dung at 3s. 
 
 Half dressing fallow - 
 Seeds mixed, and sowing - 
 
 50s. 
 16s. 
 
 Upper Pond Field, 
 
 Ley one year old 
 Ashes, 1000 bushels 
 Carting, &c, 50 loads 
 
 Lower Pond Field, 1 1 Acres. 
 Nothing. 
 
 14 Acres. — Seeds. 
 
 at 60s. 
 
 lid. 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 Bean Stubble. 
 
 Middle Common, 7 Acres. — Potatoes, 
 Crop laid at 49 tons at 50s. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 In West Blighs, dung 1 62 loads 
 In yards, dung 100 loads 
 Ashes, 7 lumps 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Wheat, 32 loads 
 
 Oat, 58 loads 
 
 Bean, 14 loads 
 
 Pea, 41 loads - - 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Meadow, 18 loads 
 Rye grass, 14 loads 
 Clover, 27 loads 
 
 at 28s. 
 24s. 
 20s. 
 24s. 
 
 80s. 
 85s. 
 90s. 
 
 N.B. By the term of the lease, the tenant has the right to 
 sell off the hay and straw, which is therefore put at a market 
 price. 
 
 Carry forward 
 
 122 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 7 10 0 
 
 2 5 0 
 
 24 15 0 
 
 25 0 0 
 8 0 0 
 
 36 0 0 
 35 0 0 
 114 0 
 
 42 0 0 
 5 4 2 
 3 15 0 
 
 40 10 0 
 20 0 0 
 3 10 0 
 
 44 16 0 
 
 69 12 0 
 
 14 0 0 
 
 49 4 0 
 
 72 0 0 
 59 10 0 
 121 10 0 
 
APPRENTICES, PARISH. 
 
 APRICOT. 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Underwoods. 
 
 The Grove, 7 acres, 9 years growth 
 
 The Lower Wood, 5 acres, 7 years growth 
 
 The Shaw, 2 acres, 6 years growth 
 
 The Kennel Wood, 10 acres, 2 years growth, 
 
 The standing stuff in hedge-rows, after al- 
 lowing for re-making, all at 
 
 (Signed) 
 By 
 By 
 
 at 10*. 
 10s. 
 
 10.9. 
 
 10*. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1628 
 
 1 1 
 
 2 
 
 ni 
 o7 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 1702 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 for the outgoing tenant, 
 for the incoming tenant. 
 
 APPRENTICES, PARISH, are regu- 
 lated by the acts of the 43 Eliz. c. 2., 
 51 G. 3. c. 80., 56 G. 3. c. 139., 1 & 2 G. 4. 
 c. 32., and 3 & 4 W. 4. c. 63. Any person 
 residing or holding lands in a parish, is 
 compellable to receive a parish apprentice 
 {Rex v. Clapp, 3 T. R. 107.) ; even a tithe- 
 holder is not exempt. {Rex v. Saltern, Calde- 
 cott, 444.) The magistrates may apprentice 
 at any age except that of nurture, ibid. 
 The clergyman's consent is not necessary, 
 nor the signature of the apprentice : he may 
 be bound for an indefinite time. His ap- 
 prenticeship cannot be dissolved during his 
 minority without the consent of the parish 
 officers {Rex v. Austery, Burroughs, S.C. 
 441 .) ; but after he is of age the consent of the 
 parish is unnecessary {Rex v. Hacburton, 
 1 Bott's P.L. 615.), even though he is bound 
 till he is 24. {Bierlow v. Warslow, 1 W. 
 Black. 592.) But an indenture of appren- 
 ticeship is not avoided by its having been 
 fraudulently contrived between the parent 
 and the nominal master, for the purpose of 
 obtaining a premium, and keeping the infant 
 at home. {Rex v. Sheepy, 2 M. & R. 286.) 
 
 APRICOT. {Armeniaca vulgaris.') The 
 name of the apricot has been thought to be 
 derived from apricus, open and exposed to 
 the sun, or from prcecox, early ripe ; but 
 there can be no doubt that the word is a 
 corruption of the Arabic name of the fruit. 
 It is one of our earliest wall-fruits, and held 
 in the highest estimation. The fruit, when 
 gathered young to thin the crop, makes an 
 excellent tart ; and when ripe, it is second 
 to no fruit for preserves or jam : it gives an 
 excellent flavour to ice, and makes a delicious 
 liqueur : of all the fruits used in pastry, none 
 is more beautiful or agreeable than the ripe 
 apricot. To prolong the enjoyment of this 
 fruit in its natural state, we should be care- 
 ful to plant the earliest variety in the 
 warmest situation, as the frost often injures 
 the blossoms unless it is protected by a glass 
 shutter. The apricot, as well as the plum, 
 123 
 
 may be kept for our dessert two or three 
 weeks later, by gathering it when half ripe, 
 and placing it in an ice-house, a dairy, or 
 any cool place, where it slowly ripens. 
 
 Apricots, if not too ripe, agreeably astringe 
 and strengthen the stomach; but like all 
 other perfumed watery fruit, it loses its 
 aromatic and tempting flavour, becomes 
 clammy, and is less easy of digestion, when 
 over-ripe : they should therefore be gathered 
 at least twenty-four hours before they ac- 
 quire the last degree of maturity. 
 
 Of this excellent fruit, thirty-nine varieties 
 have been described in the Horticultural 
 Society's Catalogue. For a small garden, 
 Mr. Lindley recommends the following se- 
 lection. 
 
 Breda. Peach apricot. 
 
 Brussels. Red masculine. 
 
 Hemskirke. Roman. 
 
 Large early. Royal. 
 
 Moorpark. Turkey. 
 The Moorpark and Turkey have been 
 recommended where variety is not wanted, 
 the former being fine, and a good bearer ; 
 the latter not a good bearer, but very fine. 
 The apricot requires a rich soil, rather lighter 
 than the apple and pear. 
 
 The apricot tree was first brought to Eng- 
 land from Italy in the year 1524, by Woolf, 
 gardener of Henry VIII., who it appears in- 
 troduced several valuable fruits about the 
 same period. {GougJis British Topography, 
 vol. i. p. 133.) Turner, whose work was 
 written in 1564, and published in 1568, says, 
 " I have sene many trees of thys kynde in 
 Almany and som in England." Gerarde 
 in 1597 notices two varieties, that he tells 
 us " do grow in my garden, and now-adaies 
 in many other gentlemen's gardens through- 
 out all England." Parkinson notices but 
 two varieties of this fruit ; and Coles says 
 also, in 1657, " I am not assured that there 
 are more than two sorts of apricot trees." 
 
 Budding is generally performed from the 
 middle of June to the end of July, on 
 
APRICOT. 
 
 APRIL. 
 
 muscle or plum stocks two or three years 
 old. The breda, peach apricot, royal, and a 
 few others, are those generally budded upon 
 the muscle, " and although," says Mr. Lind- 
 ley, "the Moorpark is for the most part 
 budded upon the common plum, on which it 
 takes freely, yet I am persuaded that if it 
 were budded on the muscle, the trees would 
 be better, last longer in a state of vigour, 
 and produce their fruit superior both in 
 size and quality." 
 
 In planting out trees for training, young 
 plants, or those called maiden plants, should 
 be made choice of, being far preferable to 
 those which have been headed down, and 
 stood two years in the quarters of the nur- 
 sery ; observing in all cases, without ex- 
 ception, that the bud should stand outwards, 
 and the wounded part where the stock has 
 been headed down, inwards, or next the 
 wall. The apricot in general bears chiefly 
 upon the young shoots of the preceding 
 year, and also upon small spurs rising on the 
 two or three year old fruit branches. The 
 pruning of wall- apricots comprehends both 
 a summer and a winter course of regulation. 
 In May, the summer pruning commences by 
 the disbudding and removal of the super- 
 fluous shoots, and shortening the smaller 
 shoots to half an inch, which will occasion 
 many of them to form natural spurs for 
 blossoms at the base. This should be care- 
 fully done with a sharp thin-bladed knife. 
 Care must also be taken to select and train 
 as many of the best placed young shoots as 
 may be wanted to form the figure of the 
 tree, proceeding thus from year to year, till 
 it is completely furnished, both in its sides 
 and middle, for there ought not then to 
 be a blank space in any part within its ex- 
 tent. 
 
 For the winter pruning of apricots, every 
 shoot should be shortened according to its 
 strength, none being permitted to exceed 
 18 inches, while a few will require to be 
 even less than 6. By pruning thus short, 
 and training the branches thus, the trees 
 will be kept in vigour, the fruit will always 
 attain its full size under favourable circum- 
 stances, and its quality will be good. 
 
 When the fruit is found to be too nume- 
 rous, and growing in clusters, thinning must 
 be resorted to in May and June, leaving the 
 most promising fruit singly, at three or four 
 inches distance ; or from about two to six 
 on the respective shoots, according to their 
 strength. The retained fruit should in all 
 instances be situated at the sides of their 
 respective shoots, and no fore-right fruit be 
 suffered to remain ; for these being exposed 
 to the full power of the sun, will perish 
 before they can arrive at maturity. The 
 apricot is very liable to be attacked by wasps 
 
 and large flies, which should be kept off by 
 a net. The other insects and diseases of 
 this tree are the same as in the peach tree ; 
 but it is not nearly so obnoxious to their 
 attacks, probably owing to the comparatively 
 hard nature of its bark and wood, and 
 coriaceous leaves. (Phillip's Pom. Brit.; 
 Lindleys Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen 
 Garden.') 
 
 APRIL. The fourth month in the 
 
 year. 
 
 Farmer's Calendar. — Spring corn sow- 
 ing should be now finished ; let all remaining 
 turnips be cleared from the land. The 
 practice of keeping back turnips for late 
 feed being at the expence of the succeeding 
 corn crop, should be avoided; all plants 
 which are suffered to run towards seed, are, 
 in that stage, great exhausters of the soil. 
 The substitutes are rye, winter barley, and 
 the mixed grasses. Lucern is well sown 
 this month ; it delights in a rich deep soil ; 
 contains sulphate of lime ; gypsum, there- 
 fore, on most soils, makes it grow luxuriantly. 
 Live stock prefer gypsumed lucern to any 
 other. It is best sown in drills. By this 
 means it may be easily kept clean by the 
 hoe, and if the farmer takes the precaution 
 to previously trench or subsoil the ground, 
 it may be made to produce four or five good 
 crops per annum on inferior dry land. The 
 value of this grass in many parts of the 
 country is unknown. If the farmer has 
 procured any sprats or five-fingers, or any 
 other oily fish, or animal manures, in the 
 previous months, and mixed them with 
 earth, he may now be getting out the com- 
 post for his Swede turnips. In moist seasons 
 all such oily manures produce very large 
 crops. Cut and lay hedges, and roll and 
 bush-harrow grass land. All this work 
 should be finished early in the month, to 
 avoid the bleeding of the wood. Stone-pick 
 and clean meadows. Cubic petre, and salt- 
 petre, may be advantageously employed this 
 and the succeeding month, as a top-dressing 
 for wheat, oats, barley (from say the 10th 
 of April to the middle of May), and grass. 
 It does best when sown in fine powder (1J 
 cwt. per acre), on a moist morning. It in- 
 creases both the produce of grain and of 
 straw. It restores the colour of sickly look- 
 ing corn. Some comparative experiments 
 with nitrate of soda upon turnips are con- 
 tained in vol. i. of the Journal of the 
 Royal Agricultural Society, p. 428., by Mr. 
 Barclay, of which the following are the re- 
 sults : — 
 
 cwt. 
 
 20 rods of Swedish turnips, ma- 
 nured with bones, 15 bushels, 
 and ashes 15 bushels per acre, 
 produced - 30£ 
 
APRIL. 
 
 cwt. 
 
 20 rods, with 1 cwt. of cubic petre 
 per acre, drilled in, produced - 31 
 ' 20 rods, with seed and cubic, pro- 
 duced - - - -55 
 20 rods, seed, drilled, cubic, broad- 
 cast, produced - - - 38 
 There have been many recent experiments 
 with the nitrates of potash and soda, as fer- 
 tilisers. Sir Howard Elphinstone, Bart., of 
 Ore Place, Sussex, in a letter to Mr. M. Fo- 
 thergill, 40. Upper Thames Street, London, 
 thus describes an experiment with nitrate 
 of potash (saltpetre), in 1840 : — " Descrip- 
 tion of land, a clay loam and sandy loam ; 
 crop wheat ; quantity used, 1 cwt. per acre ; 
 dressed, 7 acres ; applied by hand beginning 
 of April. Result, most satisfactory. It was 
 discernible by change of colour from a fort- 
 night after its growth, by the superior length 
 of the straw. By actual measurement, 45 
 square yards produced 33J lbs. of wheat, 
 26 lbs. of straw, and H lbs. of chaff. The 
 adjacent land upon the same extent of sur- 
 face, slightly dressed with dung and mould, 
 produced 23 a lbs. of wheat, 19 lbs. of straw, 
 and 2i lbs. of chaff. Thus showing a dif- 
 ference of 10 lbs. of wheat, 7 lbs. of straw, 
 and 1 lb. of chaff, in favour of land dressed 
 with nitrate of potash." 
 
 In an experiment by W. Marsh, Esq., of 
 Park Hall, Epping, with nitrate of soda, in 
 1840. — "The land, rather light; crop, 
 wheat ; quantity used, 1 cwt. per acre ; of 
 land dressed, 22 acres. Sown broadcast 
 across the lands beginning of April, and 
 immediately after rain, it produced a much 
 darker green distinguishable to this time 
 (August 2.), at a greater distance, and the 
 plant appears thicker and taller, and I have 
 no doubt whatever of its proving in every 
 respect satisfactory." 
 
 Plant the main crop of potatoes, and do 
 not place the sets too deep ; the potato roots 
 require air, as well as the grasses. Use the 
 largest potatoes for seed. The produce is 
 much superior from these. This plant de- 
 lights in rich soil, and in waste vegetable 
 manure, such as sea-weed, chopped fern, &c. 
 Lime is injurious to it. But potatoes, we 
 have found, may be grown successfully, even 
 in partially reclaimed bogs, free from stag- 
 nant water, unfit for corn. It is admirable, 
 as the first crop for newly reclaimed land. 
 Paring and burning is usually in full opera- 
 tion this month. It is a practice, which, on 
 peat soils superabounding with vegetable 
 matters, may be attended with advantage, 
 but even there it is not essential. The 
 Lancashire peat-bog, Chat Moss, has been 
 brought into cultivation, without applying 
 fire. When clay soils need ashes, they are 
 much better dressed with burnt clay from 
 125 
 
 banks or headlands, and on light soils the 
 ill effects of paring and burning, especially 
 after the first crop, are very apparent. It 
 is a system which is gradually becoming 
 less and less employed by the skilful farmer. 
 The cultivator must not suppose that burn- 
 ing adds any thing to the soil, or alters its 
 chemical earthy composition ; it does neither ; 
 it merely dissipates almost all the organic 
 matters of the ground, and dresses the land 
 with the ashes from its own vegetable and 
 animal remains. Live stock now require 
 the farmer's vigilance; it is now that the 
 water meadows are so valuable to the cul- 
 tivator, to afford a supply of food between 
 the difficult periods when turnips are finished, 
 and the natural grasses are ready. Consider 
 the best modes of providing these. If you 
 have not a stream or reservoir of water, 
 then even the pump which drains half Lin- 
 colnshire, fills canals and empties lakes, may, 
 by wind-mills or the steam engine, in many 
 situations, be profitably and extensively 
 brought into operation for the purposes of 
 irrigation. Prepare also tanks for the pre- 
 paration of liquid manure. (Farm. Aim.) 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. — Kitchen Gar- 
 den. — Alexanders, sow. Angelica, sow. Ar- 
 tichokes, dress, plant b. Asparagus sow, 
 plant, force in hot-bed, dress established 
 beds ; Beans, plant, hoe, and attend to ad- 
 vancing. Beet (red, green, white), sow b. 
 Borecole, sow, prick out seedling, leave for 
 seed. Broccoli, sow, prick out seedlings, 
 leave for seed. Basil, sow. Borage, sow. 
 Burnets, sow and plant. Balm, plant. Cab- 
 bages, plant, prick out seedlings, sow, earth 
 up, &c, advancing crops. Carrots, sow, 
 weed advancing crops. Cardoons, sow. 
 Capsicum, sow. Cauliflowers, plant out 
 from glasses, prick out seedlings, sow b. 
 Celery, sow, earth up, and dress old plant- 
 ations, leave for seed. Colewort, plant. 
 Cucumber, sow, prick out seedlings, ridge 
 oiit, attend to advancing and productive 
 crops. Chervil, sow, leave for seed. Clary, 
 sow. Coriander, sow. Chamomile, plant. 
 Chives, plant. Caraway, sow. Cress 
 (American), sow. Dill, sow. Dung, pre- 
 pare for hotbeds. Endive, sow, e., leave for 
 seed. Earthing up, attend to. Fennel, sow 
 or plant. Finochio, sow. Garlic, plant b. 
 Horse-radish, plant, b. Hyssop, sow and 
 plant. Hot-beds, make and attend to. Je- 
 rusalem artichokes, plant b. Kale, sea, sow 
 and plant b. Kidney beans, attend to in 
 hot-beds. Leeks, sow b.e., leave for seed. 
 Lettuces, sow, plant out from frames, prick 
 out seedlings, tie up, &c. those of advanced 
 growth. Lavender, plant. Mint, plant. 
 Melons, sow, prick out, ridge out, attend to 
 advancing crops. Mustard and cress, sow, 
 leave for seed. Mushroom-bed, make, attend 
 
APRIL. 
 
 to. Marjorams, sow and plant. Marigolds, 
 sow. Nasturtiums, sow. Onions, sow b.e., 
 leave for seed, weed advancing crops. Po- 
 tato, plant b. Trees, plant. Orach, sow. 
 Potatoes, plant J., attend to, in forcing. 
 Parsnips, sow b., hand- weed advancing crops. 
 Parsley, sow, leave for seed. Hamburgh do., 
 sow. Peas, sow, hoe, stick, &c. advancing. 
 Pompions, sow b. Purslane, sow. Penny- 
 royal, plant. Rape, sow. Radishes, sow, 
 thin, &c. advancing. Rhubarb, plant Z>. 
 Rochambole, plant Z>. jRwe, plant. Spinach, 
 sow, thin, &c. advancing, leave some winter 
 standing for seed. Savoys, sow b., prick 
 out seedlings. Shallots, plant Z>. Savory, 
 sow. Sorrels, sow and plant, ^age, plant. 
 Small salading, sow. Salsafy, sow e. Scor- 
 zonera, sow e. Skirrets, sow <?. Slugs, 
 caterpillars, &c. search for, amongst lettuces, 
 &c. Tomato, sow. Thyme, sow and plant. 
 Tansey, plant. Tarragon, plant, thin ad- 
 vancing crops, and weed generally. Turnip 
 cabbage, sow, watering attend to in dry 
 weather. TFormwwoa 7 .?, sow. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Now place sticks to 
 every plant or stalk requiring support ; fix 
 the sticks, or light iron rods, firmly in the 
 ground; and tie the stems to each stick 
 neatly, in two or three places. 
 
 Some evergreens may yet "be removed, as- 
 laurels, laurustinus, Portugal laurel, cistuses, 
 arbutus, magnolias, pyracanthas, &c. ; pro- 
 pagate auriculas, by slipping off their suckers 
 and off-sets, this month. Sow carnation 
 and polyanthus seed still ; sow, also, peren- 
 nial and biennial seeds. 
 
 Where any perennial or biennial fibrous - 
 rooted flowers are wanted, transplant them 
 only in the first week of this month, and 
 they must have each a good ball of earth 
 attached to them, but this work should be 
 completed in February, or March at farthest. 
 
 Every sort of annual may now be sown. 
 Take care of your hyacinths, tulips, ranun- 
 culuses, and anemones now, for they will 
 be hastening into bloom. Place your au- 
 riculas, hyacinths, &c, which may be in pot, 
 in a sheltered place, during the heavy rains 
 or winds ; and shelter those flowers which 
 are in the borders as well as you can. Trim 
 them from dead leaves ; keep your lawn and 
 grass nicely mown and rolled, and your 
 borders free from weeds and rubbish. (Farm. 
 Almanac.} 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — This 
 month has ever been hailed as that in which 
 Nature is re-animated. Zif was its name 
 among the Hebrews, signifying brightness 
 and liveliness ; and Ijah, to come forth, be- 
 cause now the atmosphere is clear, and 
 animals as well as plants are arising from 
 the torpor of their winter existence. The 
 Greek name seems to have reference to the 
 12G 
 
 same phenomena; and the Latin, Aprilis, 
 from which its designation in our language 
 is derived, according to Horace, Plutarch, 
 Macrobius, and Ovid, was applied from the 
 verb aperire, to open, because vegetation is 
 expanding during its days. Our Saxon 
 forefathers termed it Eostre-monath, in 
 honour of their goddess Eostre; a name 
 perpetuated by its being still retained, from 
 usually occurring in this month, to the sea- 
 son in which we commemorate our Saviour's 
 suffering and triumph. Nero altered the 
 name of this month to Neroneus, but suc- 
 ceeding ages have refused to the tyrant such 
 a perennial memento. Romulus assigned to 
 this month thirty days ; but Numa added 
 one more, which it has ever since retained. 
 
 Every organic body appears now over- 
 flowing with life, activity, and happiness ; 
 and that man must indeed be gloomy, who 
 does not feel an expansion of heart, a very 
 elevation of his nature, amidst the universal 
 joy. Who has not walked forth and heard 
 the distant notes of the blackbird's evening 
 song ; the hum of the passing bee ; bathed 
 himself in the fresh air that passes softly 
 over him; looked over the distant land- 
 scape sprinkled with the cottage-homes of 
 England, and not felt his heart swell with 
 a general benevolence ? 
 
 Now we have those integrants of our 
 idea of spring, the swallow, the nightingale, 
 and the cuckoo ; and those other-passage 
 birds of this milder season, the beautiful 
 little wryneck, the yellow and willow wrens, 
 the ring-ousel, the white-throat, the red- 
 start, and the grasshopper lark, the smallest 
 of its genus. 
 
 One of the most interesting subjects for 
 observation in ornithology" is the architec- 
 ture of the nests of each species of birds. 
 A volume might be occupied with the dis- 
 cussion of the theme. The art and cunning 
 displayed in selecting a secret place for the 
 erection, and in rendering the exterior of 
 the nest similar in appearance to the objects 
 by which it is surrounded ; the neatness of 
 the structure ; the firmness and regularity 
 with which the parts are woven together, 
 are all points which might be curiously il- 
 lustrated, and are subjects of admiration. 
 
 It would be a long vocabulary even 
 merely to insert the names of plants which, 
 during this month, usually expand their 
 flowers — it is the very month of blossoms. 
 A more rich and gorgeous sight is not ex- 
 hibited in our country to the traveller, than 
 by the orchards of Hereford, Somerset, 
 and Devon, on bright sunny days during 
 this month. A view from the hills over 
 their brilliantly green pastures, relieved by 
 their hedge-rows, clustered with the pink 
 and white bloom of the universally culti- 
 
AQUATIC PLANTS. 
 
 ARBUTUS. 
 
 vated apple, is equal to any imaginary land- 
 scape in fairy-land. The white blossoms 
 of the cherry, and the roses of Kent, at 
 this month's close, are scarcely less at- 
 tractive. {Farmer s Almanac.) 
 
 AQUATIC PLANTS are such plants 
 and trees as grow in water, or watery situ- 
 ations. Thus, the willow, osier, alder, pop- 
 lar, &c. are aquatic plants. They are 
 proper for being planted where the soil is 
 inclined to moisture, though they succeed 
 best when they are not over-wet. 
 
 ARABLE SOILS. See Soixs. 
 
 ARBOR Y1TM. {Thuja.) The ge- 
 neric name of this tree is a corruption from 
 (3va of Theophrastus, or thya of Pliny, which 
 were derived from the verb thy o, 1 perfume ; 
 as the thya of the ancients gave out an 
 aromatic smoke when it was burnt. It is 
 called arbor vita, or tree of life, because it 
 keeps in full leaf winter and summer ; and 
 not in allusion to the tree of life mentioned 
 in the book of Genesis. The first mention 
 we have of it in England is by Gerard, in 
 his History of Plants, which was published 
 in 1597. He tells us that it was then grow- 
 ing plentifully in his garden at Holborn, 
 where it flowered about May, but it bad 
 not then ripened seed. 
 
 " The Thuja from China's fruitful lands," 
 
 being of a brighter green and thicker ver- 
 dure, has nearly superseded the arbor vitae 
 of Canada in our plantations. It is well 
 adapted to screen private walks or low 
 buildings, as it gives out flat spreading 
 branches near the ground; but it has a 
 sombre appearance, unless associated with 
 more cheerful foliage, or ornamented by 
 some gay climbing plant, as the everlasting 
 pea, the flaming nasturtium, or our native 
 bindweed. 
 
 The arbor vitse, which we have borrowed 
 from the extremity of the east and of the 
 west, as a mere ornament to our pleasure- 
 grounds, forms an article of utility and 
 profit to the inhabitants of its native soil. 
 It is reckoned the most durable wood in 
 Canada, where it is known by the name of 
 the white cedar. All the posts which are 
 driven into the ground, and the palisades 
 round the forts, are made of this wood. 
 The planks in the houses are made of it ; 
 and the thin narrow pieces of wood which 
 form both the ribs and the bottom of the 
 bark boats, commonly made use of there, 
 are taken from this wood, because it is 
 pliant enough for the purpose, when fresh, 
 and also because it is very light. The 
 thuja wood is reckoned one of the best for 
 the use of lime-kilns. Its branches are used 
 all over Canada for brooms, which leave 
 their peculiar scent in all the houses where 
 , 127 
 
 they are used. The arbor vitas affords the 
 Indian a remedy for the cough and the in- 
 termitting fever, and a medicine for rheum- 
 atic pains, in the fresh leaves, which are 
 simply pounded in a mortar, and mixed 
 with lard or other grease. This is boiled 
 together till it becomes a salve, which is 
 spread on linen, and applied to the part 
 where the pain is, to which it is said to give 
 certain relief in a short time. The oil is 
 recommended against the gout, being rubbed 
 on the part ; for it acts like fire, by stimu- 
 lating and opening. The leaves, bruised 
 with honey, dissolve tumours. The balsam 
 and oil of arbor vitae were very much used 
 during the time of the plague in Dresden. 
 
 The finest trees are always raised by 
 seed, but they are more easily propagated 
 by layers or cuttings. {Phil. Syl. Flor.) 
 
 ARBUTUS. A genus of evergreen 
 shrubs which is characterised by its fruit 
 being a berry, containing many seeds. 
 The only variety necessary to be enume- 
 rated in these pages is the Arbutus Unedo, 
 or strawberry tree. 
 
 The Greeks called this tree Ko/xapog, and 
 the fruit fxinainvkov ; the Latins named the 
 tree arbutus ; but in Pliny's time, when 
 Rome abounded in wine and oil, they called * 
 the tree unedo, which was an abridgment 
 of unum edo, meaning, " You will eat but 
 one." It has the name of strawberry-tree 
 with us, because its berries so nearly re- 
 semble in appearance that delicious fruit. 
 It is not known at what precise period the 
 arbutus was first cultivated in England. 
 Dr. Turner says, that he had not seen it 
 in this country in 1568. Gerard also de- 
 scribes the tree in 1597, but he does not say 
 that it was then planted in our gardens. 
 Parkinson notices in 1640, that "it came to 
 us from Ireland." Evelyn observes, as late 
 as the time of Charles II., that " the arbutus 
 is too much neglected by us, making that a 
 rarity which grows so common and naturally 
 in Ireland." It is found growing spon- 
 taneously on rocky limestone situations in 
 the west of Ireland, particularly in the 
 county of Kerry, near the lake of Killarney, 
 where the peasants eat the fruit. The ar- 
 butus is a native of the south of Europe, 
 Greece, Palestine, and many other parts of 
 Asia. 
 
 Horace celebrates the shade of this tree : — 
 
 " Nunc viridi membra sub arbuto 
 Stratus." 
 
 But Virgil describes its foliage as rather 
 thin {Eel. vii.), and recommends the twig 
 as a winter food for goats. 
 
 The arbutus tree succeeds best in a moist 
 soil, for when planted in dry ground it sel- 
 dom produces much fruit. It is therefore 
 
ARCHANGEL. 
 
 ARCHERY. 
 
 recommended to place it in warm situations ; 
 and if the earth is not naturally moist, there 
 should be plenty of loam and rotten neat's 
 dung laid about its roots, and in dry springs 
 it should be plentifully watered. 
 
 Miller says, " These plants are tolerably 
 hardy, and are seldom hurt, except in ex- 
 treme hard winters, which many times kill 
 the young and tender branches, but rarely 
 destroy the roots ; therefore, however dead 
 they may appear after a hard winter, yet I 
 would advise the letting them remain till 
 the succeeding summer has sufficiently de- 
 monstrated what are living and what are 
 dead." The arbutus trees may be propa- 
 gated by layers, but they are principally 
 raised from seed ; and they require to be 
 kept in pots for several years before they 
 are ready for the plantation. We meet with 
 a variety of this tree in our shrubberies 
 with double blossoms, and another with red 
 flowers. Aiton enumerates five different 
 species of the arbutus, and there are several 
 varieties of them in the Parisian gardens 
 not to be seen in our shrubberies. The 
 leaves of the arbutus are said to be usefully 
 employed by tanners in preparing their 
 leather. (Phillips's Sylva Florifera.) 
 
 This beautiful evergreen grows to the 
 height of ten and fifteen feet. Its flowers, 
 which are of a yellowish white or red colour 
 bloom in September, October, and Novem- 
 ber, and are succeeded by the fruit, which 
 remain till the flowers of the following year 
 are full blown, thus giving the tree a beau- 
 tiful appearance. 
 
 Propagate by layers made in the early 
 spring, or by seed, which is still better, as 
 soon as it has well ripened. Sow in pots of 
 light earth exposed to the south-east till 
 the seeds come up. Keep the pots in the 
 house during the first winter, then plant 
 out. The Andrachne arbutus, which comes 
 from the Levant, is not so hardy as the 
 above, but is very handsome in appearance, 
 bearing large deep red flowers. Propagated 
 by layers, or from seed, and the young 
 plants preserved in pots for three or four 
 years to gain strength. It likes a dry soil, 
 and must be secured always from frost. 
 (L. Johnson.') 
 
 ARCHANGEL. (Lamium album.) This 
 is a very common plant growing by hedges, 
 walls, highways, and in fields. It flowers 
 all through the summer, and its leaves are 
 very like the nettle leaf, only stingless. The 
 flowers are large and white, and are placed 
 at the joints of the leaves. This plant is of 
 a hotter and drier nature than nettles. It 
 is an admirable poultice, bruised with vine- 
 gar, to apply to wens, hard swellings, in- 
 flamed kernels under the ear, &c. The 
 flowers dried, or made into conserve in 
 128 
 
 May, is excellent for the whites, in all 
 weakness, and in strangury. The red arch- 
 angel, or red dead-nettle, is also common as 
 the above. It grows about six or seven 
 inches high only, and the flowers are like 
 the white archangel, but small and reddish. 
 This herb is used fresh, but it dries very 
 well. The decoction is good in floodings, 
 bleedings at the nose, and spitting of blood. 
 A poultice of the red archangel draws out 
 splinters and thorns, applied to wounds. 
 (L. Johnson.) See Nettle, Dead. 
 
 ARCHDEACONS, are ecclesiastical offi- 
 cers, appointed first by Arshbishop Lanfranc, 
 in 1075. The archdeacon ought to visit his 
 jurisdiction, which extends through either 
 the whole or a portion of the bishop's diocese, 
 annually ; and he has a court, where he may 
 impose penances, suspend, excommunicate, 
 prove wills, &c. It is the lowest of the ec- 
 clesiastical courts, and an appeal lies from 
 it by the 24 H. 7. c. 12. to the Bishop. He 
 has a ministerial duty to perform in swear- 
 ing in churchwardens, which he must do 
 gratis, except by custom (Salk. 330.), and he 
 cannot reject a churchwarden legally elected 
 by the parish. (Rex v. Rice, 1 Lord Ray. 
 138.; Prideaux's Office of Churchwardens; 
 Blackstone, vol. i. 383. iii. 64.) 
 
 ARCHED. A term employed among 
 horsemen. A horse is said to have arched 
 legs when his knees are bent archwise. This 
 only relates to the fore-quarters, and the 
 infirmity sometimes happens to such horses 
 as have their legs spoiled in travelling. 
 
 ARCHERY. (From arcus, Lat. a bow.) 
 The archers of England were, in early days, 
 celebrated amongst all the nations of the 
 earth. The ancient British bows were made 
 after the Saxon model, of elm, hazel, or 
 yew ; the arrows of fir tipped with bone, 
 flint, iron, or steel. An English archer, 
 says Blaine (Enc. of Rur. Sports), has been 
 known to shoot twelve arrows in a minute 
 into a circle not larger than a hat ; and the 
 cloth-yard arrows of the Cornish archers at 
 480 yards would pierce any ordinary armour. 
 The invention of gunpowder has long since 
 reduced archery to a mere pastime. The 
 Toxopholite Society of London was founded 
 by Sir Ashton Lever, in 1781. The Royal 
 Artillery Company of London owe their 
 origin to a body of noble and gallant archers, 
 who formed the body-guard of Queen Eli- 
 zabeth in the days of the armada. The 
 Royal Company of Archers of Scotland, 
 founded by the royal commissioners ap- 
 pointed to regulate the practice of archery, 
 still exist ; and in most counties of England 
 toxopholite societies are now to be found. 
 Modern bows are usually made from 5 feet 
 to 5 feet 10 inches in length ; the bow-strings 
 of Italian hemp well twisted ; the arrows of 
 
ARCHIMEDES'S PUMP. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS. 
 
 deal, ash, or lime, and from 20 to 24 or 28 
 inches in length. 
 
 ARCHIMEDES'S PUMP. A kind of 
 spiral screw pump for raising water, so 
 called from Archimedes, who is supposed to 
 have been the inventor of it. This, though 
 a very old method for raising water, is cer- 
 tainly not a despicable one for the purposes 
 of temporary drainage. 
 
 ARDERS. A provincial term employed 
 to signify fallowings, or frequent ploughings 
 of land. 
 
 ARGILLACEOUS. Any thing contain- 
 ing clay. 
 
 ARMAGH. An Irish county, for an ac- 
 count of whose agriculture by Mr. Lind- 
 say, see Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vii. p. 54. 
 
 ARM OF A HORSE. A term applied 
 to the upper part of the fore-leg. 
 
 ARNOTTO. See Annotta. 
 
 AROMATIC. An epithet applied to 
 such plants, and other bodies, as yield a 
 fragrant odour, and have a warm spicy taste. 
 
 AROMATIC REED. (Acorus calamus.) 
 The common sweet-flag. A marshy peren- 
 nial plant of the easiest culture, flowering 
 from June till August, which grows among 
 rushes in moist ditches and watery places, 
 about the banks of rivers, but not very 
 general. Root, thick, rather spongy ; leaves, 
 erect, two or three feet high, bright green, 
 near an inch broad. It rarely flowers unless 
 it grows in water, but when it does bloom, it 
 puts forth a mass of very numerous, thick- 
 set, brownish green flowers, which have no 
 scent except when bruised. Every part of 
 the herbage is stimulant, and very aromatic, 
 but the roots are especially so. The dried 
 root powdered is used by the country people 
 of Norfolk for curing the ague. It is af- 
 firmed to possess carminative and stomachic 
 virtues, having a warm, pungent, bitterish 
 taste, and is frequently used in preparing 
 bitters, though it is said to impart a nauseous 
 flavour. It is the Calamus aromaticus of the 
 shops, and Linnaeus says, the roots powdered 
 might supply the place of foreign spices. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 157. ; Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 ARON. See Arum. 
 
 ARPENT The French name for an 
 acre. 
 
 ARRACH, STINKING. See Orach. 
 
 ARROW-GRASS. (Triglochin.) Peren- 
 nial marsh herbs, of which there are two 
 kinds, the marsh arrow -grass and the sea 
 arrow-grass, both perennials, flowering from 
 May till August. They grow in wet boggy 
 meadows and salt marshes, &c. abundantly, 
 and are very grateful to domestic cattle, the 
 herbage containing a large proportion of 
 salt. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 200.) 
 
 ARROW-HEAD. (Sagittaria sagittifolia, 
 129 
 
 from sagitta, an arrow ; because of the 
 resemblance of the leaves to the head of that 
 weapon.) An indigenous, aquatic, perennial 
 herb, flow*ering in July or August. Root, 
 tuberous, nearly globular, with many long- 
 fibres. It is industriously cultivated in 
 China for its esculent properties : its mealy 
 nature rendering it easily convertible into 
 starch or flour. It is much relished by most 
 cattle. Nothing is more variable than the 
 breadth and size of the floating leaves, which 
 are diminished almost to nothing when 
 deeply immersed in the water, or exposed 
 to a rapid current. Hence has arisen the 
 several varieties mentioned by authors, but 
 which the slightest observation will discover 
 to be evanescent. This plant, especially 
 the seed, was formerly supposed to possess 
 medicinal properties, which time and im- 
 proved knowledge have demonstrated to be 
 imaginary. The leaves, however, feel cool- 
 ing when applied to the skin ; hence they 
 have been used and may be serviceable as a 
 a dressing to inflamed sores. (Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iv. p. 144. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 ARSENIC. See Poison. 
 
 ARSMART, or WATER PEPPER. 
 See Persicaria. 
 
 ARSON. Burning houses, &c. The 
 7 W. 4. & 1 Vict. c. 89. s. 3. enacts, says Mr. 
 Archbold, " that whosoever shall unlawfully 
 and maliciously set fire to any church or 
 chapel, or to any chapel for the religious 
 worship of persons dissenting from the U nited 
 Church of England and Ireland, or shall 
 unlawfully or maliciously set fire to any 
 house, stable, coach-house, outhouse, ware- 
 house, office, shop, mill, malthouse, hop-oast, 
 barn, or granary, or to any building or erec- 
 tion used in carrying on any trade or ma- 
 nufacture, or any branch thereof, whether 
 the same, or any of them respectively, shall 
 then be in the possession of the offender, or 
 in the possession of any other person, with 
 intent thereby to injure or defraud any per- 
 son, shall be guilty of felony, and, being 
 convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the dis- 
 cretion of the court, to be transported be- 
 yond the seas for the term of the natural life 
 of such offender, or for any term not less 
 than fifteen years, or to be imprisoned for 
 any term not exceeding three years." 
 
 ARTEMISIA. See Wormwoods. 
 
 ARTESIAN WELLS have been so 
 named from the opinion that they were first 
 used in Artois, in France. These wells 
 have been found extremely beneficial in the 
 low lands of Essex and Lincolnshire, and in 
 some other districts where good water is 
 scarce, and that of the surface of indifferent 
 quality. Some practical knowledge of geo- 
 logy is necessary in order to fix with judg- 
 ment upon the most eligible spot for sinking 
 
 K 
 
ARTICHOKE. 
 
 these wells, or else much labour and expense 
 may be uselessly applied. They are formed 
 by boring with a long auger and rod to such 
 a depth into the earth, that a spring is found 
 of sufficient power to rise to and run over 
 the surface. 
 
 ARTICHOKE. {Cynara.) From cinere, 
 according to Columella, because the land 
 for artichokes should be manured with 
 ashes. Parkinson derives it from the ash 
 colour of its leaves. There are two va- 
 rieties, — the oval green, or French, which 
 is considered by Miller as Cynara scolymus ; 
 and the globe, or red, which he names 
 Cynara hortensis. The latter is not only 
 the largest and most fleshy, but the first has 
 a taste so peculiarly perfumed as to be 
 disagreeable to most persons not accustomed 
 to it. Those plants produce the finest heads 
 which are planted in a soil abounding in 
 moisture, but in such they will not survive 
 the winter. Nevertheless, some persons 
 grow them here, and make a fresh plant- 
 ation annually. To enable them to survive 
 the winter, those for the supply of suckers, 
 as well as those for a lasting production, 
 must have a rich mouldy soil allotted to 
 them. Manure must be applied every 
 spring, and the best compost for them is a 
 mixture of three parts of well -putrefied 
 dung, and one part of fine coal-ashes. They 
 should always have an open exposure, • and, 
 above all, be free from the influence of 
 trees ; for, if beneath their shade or drip, 
 the plants spindle, and produce worthless 
 heads. The artichoke is propagated by 
 suckers, which are annually afforded by the 
 parent plants in the spring. For planting, 
 these must be slipped off in March or early 
 in April, when eight or ten inches in height, 
 with as much of their fibrous roots pertain- 
 ing as possible. Such of them should be 
 selected as are sound and not woody. The 
 brown, hard part, by which they are at- 
 tached to the parent stem, must be removed ; 
 and if that cuts crisp and tender, it is evi- 
 dence of the goodness of the plant ; if it is 
 tough and stringy, the plant is worthless. 
 Further, to prepare them for planting, the 
 large outside leaves are taken off so low, 
 that the heart appears above them. If they 
 have been sometime separated from the 
 stock, or if the weather is dry, they are 
 greatly invigorated by being set in water 
 for three or four hours before they are 
 planted. 
 
 The plants should be set in rows four and 
 a half feet by three feet apart, and about 
 half their length beneath the surface. Wa- 
 ter must be given them abundantly every 
 evening until they are established, as well 
 as during the droughts of summer, which 
 will increase the vigour of the heads con- 
 1.30 
 
 siderably. The only other attention they 
 require during the summer is the frequent 
 use of the hoe. They produce heads the 
 same year, from July to October, and will 
 continue to do so annually, if preserved in 
 succeeding years, from May until June or 
 July ; consequently, it is the practice, in 
 order to obtain a supply during the remain- 
 der of the summer and autumn, to make an 
 annual plantation in some moist soil, as the 
 plants are not required to continue. 
 
 As often as a head is cut from the per- 
 manent bed, the stem must be broken down 
 close to the root, to encourage the produc- 
 tion of suckers before the arrival of winter. 
 In November or December they should 
 receive their winter's dressing. The old 
 leaves being cut away without injuring the 
 centre or side shoots, the ground must be 
 dug over, and part of the mould thrown 
 into a moderate ridge over each row, close 
 about the plants, but leaving the hearts clear. 
 If this dressing is neglected until severe 
 frosts arrive, or even if it is performed, each 
 plant must be closed round with long litter 
 or pea haulm : it is, however, a very erro- 
 neous practice to apply stable-dung imme- 
 diately over the plants, previous to earthing 
 them up, as it in general induces decay. 
 Early in February all covering of this de- 
 scription must be removed. In March, or as 
 soon as the shoots appear four or five inches 
 above the surface, the ridges thrown up in 
 the winter must be levelled, and all the earth 
 removed from about the stock to below the 
 part from whence the young shoots spring. 
 All of these but two, or at most three of the 
 straightest and most vigorous, must be re- 
 moved, care being taken to select from those 
 which proceed from the under part of the 
 stock; the strong thick ones proceeding 
 from its crown having hard woody stems, 
 are productive of indifferent heads. Those 
 allowed to remain should be carefully pre- 
 served from injury. Every other sucker 
 must be removed and every bud rubbed 
 off, otherwise more will be produced, to the 
 detriment of those purposely left. These 
 must be separated as far apart as possible 
 without injury, the tops of the pendulous 
 leaves removed, and the mould then re- 
 turned, so as to cover the crowns of the 
 stocks about two inches. Some gardeners 
 recommend, as soon as the ground is level- 
 led, a crop of spinach to be sown, which will 
 be cleared off the ground before the arti- 
 chokes cover it ; but this mode of raising or 
 stealing a crop is always in some degree 
 injurious. 
 
 Although the artichoke, in a suitable soil, 
 is a perennial, yet after the fourth or fifth 
 year the heads become smaller and drier. 
 The beds, in consequence, are usually broken 
 
ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM. 
 
 ARUNDO. 
 
 up after the lapse of this period, and fresh 
 ones formed on another side. 
 
 If any of the spring-planted suckers 
 should not produce heads the same year, 
 the leaves may be tied together and covered 
 with earth, so as just to leave their tops 
 visible, and, on the arrival of frost, being 
 covered with litter, so as to preserve them, 
 they will afford heads either during the 
 winter, or very early in spring. 
 
 As a vegetable, the artichoke is whole- 
 some but not very nourishing; and as a 
 medicine, it is of little use. Sir John Hill, 
 M. D., states having known patients cured of 
 jaundice, by perseverance in this medicine 
 alone, without combining its virtues with 
 any other plant ; but the statement of Sir 
 J. Hill is of no value in the present day. 
 The flowers of the artichoke have the pro- 
 perty of rennet in curdling milk. The 
 heads of the second crop of artichokes, when 
 dried, are excellent baked in meat pies, with 
 mushrooms, as they dress them in France. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM. (He- 
 lianthus tuberosus, from 'HXiog, the sun, and 
 apQog, a flower.) It flourishes most in a 
 rich light soil, with an open enclosure. 
 Trees are particularly inimical to its growth. 
 As it never ripens its seeds here, though it 
 blossoms sometimes in October, the only 
 mode of propagation is by planting the 
 middle-sized tubers or cuttings of the large 
 ones, one or two eyes being preserved in 
 each. These are best planted towards 
 the end of March, though it may be per- 
 formed as early as February, or even in 
 October, and continued as late as the begin- 
 ning of April. 
 
 They are planted by the dibble, in rows, 
 three feet by two feet apart, and four inches 
 deep. They make their appearance above 
 ground about the middle of May. The only 
 attention necessary is to keep them free 
 from weeds, and an occasional hoeing, to 
 loosen the surface, a little of the earth being 
 drawn up about the stems. Some gardeners, 
 at the close of July, or early in August, cut 
 the stems off about their middle, to admit 
 more freely the air and light ; in other re- 
 spects it may be beneficial to the tubers. 
 
 The tubers may be taken up as wanted 
 during September ; and in October, or as 
 soon as the stems have withered, entire for 
 preservation in sand, for winters use. They 
 should be raised as unbroken as possible, 
 for the smallest piece of a tuber will vege- 
 tate, and appear in the spring ; for which 
 reason they are often allotted some remote 
 corner of the garden ; but their culinary 
 merits certainly demand a more favourable 
 treatment. (G. W.Johnsons Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. See Grasses. 
 131 
 
 ARUM. (Arum maculatum. Formerly 
 written aron.) Common Cuckow-pint or 
 Wake Robin. A native and hardy perennial, 
 growing in shady places, ditch banks, and 
 rough grounds ; flowering in May and June. 
 Root, tuberous ; herb, of a shining green ; 
 leaves, stalked, broadly arrow-shaped, erect, 
 spotted variously with black ; flower, solitary, 
 on a simple radical stalk, erect, pale green, 
 with a red tint and some occasional .spots ; 
 the naked summit of the stalk within dark 
 purple, reported to give out, at the time of 
 its perfection, a considerable degree of heat ; 
 berries scarlet, internally viscid, remaining 
 long after the leaves and all parts of the 
 flower have disappeared. Arum is known 
 by the name of " lords and ladies," in many 
 places. This genus contains some very 
 handsome species, while others are only 
 useful on account of their medicinal qua- 
 lities : the flowers are generally very dis- 
 agreeable, hence they are not favourites ; 
 they all succeed in any common soil, and 
 increase with little trouble from offsets. 
 Both the tuberous root and the leaves of this 
 plant are extremely acrid in a fresh state. 
 When dried and pulverised, the roots lose 
 all their acrimony, and afford an almost 
 tasteless farinaceous powder ; from which, 
 according to Withering, good bread may be 
 prepared, as well as an excellent starch. 
 Sir J. Smith also states, that the root " af- 
 fords plenty of white, wholesome, nutritious 
 flour, fit for making bread." In the island 
 of Portland, on the Weymouth coast, where 
 this plant is very common, a species of 
 British arrow- root is manufactured from the 
 grated root, in the same manner as potato 
 starch is made. The French make a harm- 
 less cosmetic, called " Cyprus powder," from 
 the dried and prepared root. (Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iv. p. 146. ; Paxton's Bot. Diet. ; Wil- 
 lictis Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 ARUNDO. A genus of grasses in which 
 a number of useful species was once com- 
 prehended ; but in consequence of the 
 altered views of botanists, regarding the 
 limits of genera, it is now confined to the 
 Arundo donax, and the species most nearly 
 agreeing with it. These are grasses of con- 
 siderable size, sometimes acquiring a woody 
 stem, and found only in the warm parts of 
 the world. (Penny Cyclop.) 
 
 Arundo arenaria. Sea-reed, marram, 
 starr, or bent. The nutritive matter of this 
 grass affords a large portion of saccharine 
 matter when compared with the produce in 
 this respect of other grasses. The Elymus 
 arenarius, however, affords about one-third 
 more sugar than the present plant. The 
 quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the 
 Elymus arenarius is superior to that af- 
 forded by the Arundo arenaria, in the pro- 
 k 2 
 
ASARABACCA. 
 
 ASH. 
 
 portion of 4 to 5. From experiments as to 
 the produce, it would appear that the A. 
 arenaria is unworthy of cultivation as food 
 for cattle, out of the influence of the salt 
 spray But from the habit of the plant in 
 its natural place of growth, it is of great 
 utility, particularly when combined with 
 the Elymus arenarius, in binding the loose 
 sands of the sea- shore, and thereby raising 
 a natural barrier, the most lasting against 
 the encroachments of the ocean upon the 
 land. So far back as the reign of William 
 III., the important value of the Elymus 
 arenarius and Arundo arenaria was so well 
 appreciated, as to induce the Scottish par- 
 liament of that period to pass an act for 
 their preservation on the sea-coasts of Scot- 
 land. And these provisions were, by the 
 British parliament in the reign of George 
 II., followed up by further enactments, ex- 
 tending the operation of the Scottish law 
 to the coasts of England, and in passing 
 further penalties for its inviolability, so that 
 it was rendered penal, not only for any in- 
 dividual, without even excepting the lord 
 of the manor, to cut the bent, but for any 
 one to be in possession of any within eight 
 miles of the coast. This plant is likewise 
 applied to many economical purposes, hats, 
 ropes, mats, &c. being manufactured from 
 it. {Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 ASARABACCA. (Asarum Europceum.) 
 An indigenous, but rather scarce, dwarf, 
 perennial plant, growing in the northern 
 wooded parts of this island. It produces 
 curious bell-shaped flowers," of a dusky 
 purple colour, which are frequently over- 
 looked among the leaves, and blossoms 
 in the beginning of May ; root, creeping, 
 entangled with numerous stout fibres, hav- 
 ing a pungent odour when bruised ; stems, 
 very short and simple, each bearing two 
 dark green, kidney-shaped leaves, and one 
 drooping flower. The herb increases plen- 
 tifully by seed without any care, as well as 
 by division of the root. Any common soil 
 suits them, but they prefer dry, shady si- 
 tuations. The leaves and roots are emetic, 
 cathartic, and diuretic, but they are now 
 out of use, except in farriery. The pow- 
 dered leaves, however, are still in repute as 
 a sternutatory, and form the basis of most 
 cephalic snuffs. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 342. ; 
 Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 ASCARIDES. See Worms, Intestinal. 
 
 ASH. (Frdxinus excelsior.) This tree 
 was called by the Greeks' /ifXiVr, and by 
 some fieXsa. The Latins, it is thought, 
 named it Fraxinus, quia facile frangitur, to 
 express the fragile nature of the wood, as 
 the boughs of it are easily broken. We are 
 thought to have given the name of ash to 
 this tree, because the bark of the trunk and 
 132 
 
 branches is of the colour of wood-ashes, 
 whilst some learned etymologists affirm that 
 the word is derived from the Saxon aesc 
 Virgil tells us that the spears of the Ama- 
 zons were of this wood, and Homer cele- 
 brates the mighty ashen spear of Achilles. 
 Many of the ancient writers highly extolled 
 the ash. It has been asserted that serpents 
 have such an antipathy to the ash that they 
 will not approach even within its morning 
 or evening shadows ; and Pliny tells us (he 
 says upon experience), that if a fire and 
 serpent be surrounded by ash boughs, the 
 serpent will sooner run into the fire than 
 into the boughs. There are many other 
 superstitious notions attached to the ash, 
 which it would be foreign to our purpose to 
 notice. 
 
 There are several varieties of the ash, 
 among which are, 1. the weeping, which forms 
 a beautiful arbour when grafted upon a 
 lofty stem ; it is said to have originated in- 
 cidentally in a field at Garntingay, Cam- 
 bridgeshire : 2. the entire leaved : 3. the 
 curl-leafed, which has a dark aspect : and 
 4. the wasted. 
 
 Ash plantations have lately been formed 
 in many parts of the kingdom to a very 
 considerable extent. The Romans used 
 the ash-leaves for fodder, which were es- 
 teemed better for cattle than those of any 
 other tree, the elm excepted; and they 
 were also used for the same purpose in 
 this country, before agriculture was so well 
 understood, and our fields clothed with arti- 
 ficial grasses. In Queen Elizabeth's time, 
 the inhabitants of Colton and Hawkshead 
 fells remonstrated against the number of 
 forges in the country, because they con- 
 sumed all the loppings and croppings which 
 were the sole winter food for their cattle. 
 In the north of Lancashire the farmers still 
 lop the tops of the ash to feed their cattle in 
 autumn, when the grass is on the decline ; 
 the cattle peeling off the bark as food. The 
 Rev. Mr. Gilpin tells us, that in forests, the 
 keepers make the deer browse on summer 
 evenings on the sprays of ash, that they 
 may not stray too far from the walk. The 
 branches are frequently given to deer in 
 time of frost. The ash-tree, in early days, 
 served both the soldier and the scholar. It 
 was also a principal material for forming the 
 peaceable implements of husbandry, as it con- 
 tinues to be with us to this day, in the shape 
 of carts, waggons, teeth and spokes of wheels, 
 ploughs, harrows, rollers, &c. The gardener 
 recognises it in his rake-stem, spade-tree, 
 and other tool handles. The hop-planter 
 knows its value for poles, the thatcher for 
 spars, the builder for ladders, the cooper for 
 hoops, the turner for his lathe, the shipwright 
 for pulleys, the mariner for oars and ship- 
 
ASHES. 
 
 blocks, the fisherman for tanning his nets and 
 drying his herrings; the wheelwright em- 
 ploys it usefully, and the coach-maker pro- 
 fitably, whilst the cabinet-maker palms it 
 upon us as green ebony. The ashes of this 
 wood afford very good potash, and the bark 
 is used in tanning calf-skins, and dyeing 
 green, black, and blue. The ash-keys were 
 formerly gathered in the green state, and 
 pickled with salt and vinegar, and served to 
 table for sauce. 
 
 Were we to transcribe all we have seen 
 written on the medicinal virtues of this 
 plant, it might naturally be asked how it hap- 
 pens that we do not meet our ancestors upon 
 earth, who had in this tree a cure for every 
 malady ? The Arabian as well as the 
 Greek and Roman physicians, highly extol 
 the medicinal properties of the seed which 
 the Latins named lingua avis, bird's tongue, 
 which it resembles. Drs. Taner, Robinson, 
 and Bowles, are amongst the later physicians 
 who commend the good qualities of this 
 little seed. The common ash propagates 
 itself plentifully by the seed, so that abun- 
 dance of young plants may be found in the 
 neighbourhood of ash-trees, provided cattle 
 are not suffered to graze on the land. 
 It produces its leaves and keys in spring, 
 and the seeds ripen in September. The 
 foliage changes its colour in October. (Bax- 
 ter s Lib. Ag. Kn. ; Phillips's Syl. Flor.) 
 
 ASHES. (Goth, atzgo, azgo, dust ; Sax. 
 apca ; Dutch and Germ, asche ; Su. Goth. 
 aska ) " Ashes contain a very fertile salt, 
 and are the best manure for cold lands, 
 if kept dry, that the rains doth not wash 
 away their salt." {Mort. Husb. ; Todd's 
 Johnson.) 
 
 The use of ashes may be traced to a very 
 early age. The Romans were well ac- 
 quainted with paring and burning. Cato 
 recommends the burning of the twigs and 
 branches of trees, and spreading them on 
 the land. Palladius says, that soils so 
 treated would require no other manure for 
 five years. They also burnt their stubbles, 
 a practice common among the Jews. The 
 ancient Britons, according to Pliny, used 
 to burn their wheat-straw and stubble, 
 and spread the ashes over the soil. And 
 Conradus Heresbachius, a German coun- 
 sellor, in his Treatise on Husbandry, pub- 
 lished in 1570, which was translated by 
 Googe, tells us, p. 20., that " in Lombardie, 
 they like so well the use of ashes, as they 
 esteem it farre aboue any doung, thinking 
 doung not meete to be used for the unhol- 
 somnesse thereof." 
 
 It is the earthy and saline matters of the 
 burnt soils, and combustibles employed, 
 which constitute the substance of the ashes 
 employed in agriculture. Their use as a 
 133 
 
 manure is very general in most parts of 
 England, although many errors are usually 
 committed in their application, and much 
 erroneous reasoning wasted in accounting 
 for their unsuccessful application in some 
 districts, or their general success in others. 
 Those usually employed for agricultural 
 and horticultural purposes in this country 
 are, 1. the ashes of coal; 2. ashes of wood; 
 3. peat ashes ; 4. the ashes from turf, as in 
 paring and burning ; 5. the ashes of burnt 
 clay ; 6. the ashes from soap-boilers. I will 
 remark upon these, in the order in which I 
 have enumerated them. 
 
 1. Coal ashes. — The only analysis of 
 coals that I am acquainted with is that of 
 earth- coal, by M. Klaproth : he found it to 
 be composed of — 
 
 Volatile matter 
 
 Charcoal 
 
 Lime 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 Oxide of iron 
 Alumina 
 Sand 
 
 62-25 
 
 20-25 
 
 02-001 
 
 02-05 
 
 01-00 
 
 00-05 
 
 11-05 
 
 82-5 
 
 17-5 
 
 100 
 
 The combustion of the coals dissipates 
 almost all the gaseous matters, and much of 
 the charcoal ; and the ashes, therefore, will 
 consist almost entirely of the various earths, 
 a small portion of charcoal, and the saline 
 matters, of which the sulphate of lime 
 (gypsum) and lime constitute about a 
 fourth. 
 
 The presence of these last-named sub- 
 stances gives to the coal- ash almost all its 
 value as a fertilizer, for these ashes are al- 
 ways most beneficially applied to those 
 crops which contain sulphate of lime in 
 sensible quantities, such as to lucern, sain- 
 foin, red clover, &c. In the garden, they 
 are more often employed for the purpose of 
 forming walks, and to prevent the ravages 
 of garden mice, than as a manure ; or, when 
 they are employed as an addition to the 
 soil, it is generally in considerable quanti- 
 ties, on stiff clay soils, with the-sintention, 
 by the mechanical operation of the cinders, 
 of rendering the soil more friable and per- 
 meable by the gases of the atmosphere. As 
 a top dressing for lucern, red clover, sain- 
 foin, and other grasses, there is no applica- 
 tion superior to coal ashes. This fact was 
 clearly proved in some comparative experi- 
 ments made by Lord Albemarle, with a va- 
 riety of manures, as a top dressing for 
 sainfoin. He found coal ashes far superior 
 in value to any other fertilizer. As a ma- 
 nure for gardens, it is generally employed 
 in quantities much too large ; and thence 
 an idea has been entertained by many gar- 
 it 3 
 
ASHES. 
 
 deners, that coal ashes are inimical to plants 
 and trees. Mr. Loudon has given several 
 experiments of this description. In these, 
 one gardener imbedded his potted chrysan- 
 themums, by placing a " large handful " at 
 the bottom of each of his pots, and then 
 was surprised that other pots, not thus 
 partly filled, produced better plants. An- 
 other " horticultural friend " states the case 
 of a Scotch gardener, who " coated over," 
 for two successive years, his garden with 
 coal ashes ; and then our experimentalist, 
 who was, doubtless, a persevering character, 
 finding that, with this over-dose of cinders, 
 the " fruit trees did not thrive so well as he 
 expected," actually took them up, and 
 placed under them a " substratum of ashes, 
 in order to lay them," as he said, " dry and 
 comfortable." The trees of course grew 
 worse, and were taken up. (Gard. Mag. 
 vol. vi. p. 224.) It is to be lamented that 
 such trials as these are ever brought for- 
 ward ; they are merely sources of erroneous 
 conclusions, and strong proofs of the igno- 
 rance of those who have thus been wasting 
 their master's time and property. 
 
 Mr. Loudon has, in another place (Gard. 
 Mag. vol. ii. p. 406.), given some experi- 
 ments of a very different character, which I 
 shall give in his correspondent's own words : 
 — "I sowed, on the 15th of May, 1826, 
 three rows of Swedish turnips. No. 1. 
 was manured with well-rotted dung from 
 an old melon bed. No. 2. with the tops of 
 cabbages just come into bloom. No. 3. with 
 coal ashes. They .vegetated about the same 
 time, but the row manured with the cabbage- 
 tops seemed to suffer most from the 
 drought ; the season being hot and dry, 
 they made little progress until the end of 
 August, and in November they were a 
 middling, or rather a bad crop. The row 
 manured with coal ashes had, all along, a 
 more luxuriant appearance than the other 
 two. The rows were 20 yards in length, 
 3 feet apart, and 15 inches from plant to 
 plant in the row. I took them up in Fe- 
 bruary, and they weighed as follows : — 
 No. 1. 78 lbs.; No. 2. 88 lbs.; No. 3. 121 
 lbs. ; which is very much in favour of the 
 coal ashes." It may be remarked, that sul- 
 phate of lime, which abounds in coal ashes, 
 is found in very sensible quantities in tur- 
 nips. In the garden, coal ashes are very use- 
 ful when spread over the surface, to prevent 
 the depredations of garden mice ; they can- 
 not burrow through them ; and, in the case 
 of early sown peas, it will be found that the 
 peas covered on the surface of the ground, 
 with coal ashes, say a quarter, or half an 
 inch in thickness, will be three or four days 
 earlier than those to which the ashes have 
 not been applied. This may be attributed 
 134 
 
 to the greater heat absorbed from the sun 
 by the black coal ashes. 
 
 Wood Ashes. — The wood of various trees, 
 &c, has been analysed by M. Saussure, 
 jun. ; the following was the result (Chem. 
 Bee. Veg.) : — 
 
 Parts of 
 Ashes. 
 
 1000 parts of the dry wood of a young 
 
 oak yielded - 2 
 1000 ditto of the bark of oak - - 60 
 1000 ditto of perfect oak wood - 2 
 1000 ditto of poplar wood - - 8 
 1000 ditto of poplar bark - - 72 
 1000 ditto of wood of hazel 5 
 1000 ditto bark of ditto - - - 62 
 1000 ditto wood of mulberry - - 7 
 1000 ditto bark of ditto - - - 89 
 1000 ditto wood of hornbeam - - 6 
 1000 ditto bark of ditto - -134 
 
 1000 ditto wood of horse chestnut - 35 
 1000 ditto straw of wheat - - 43 
 1000 ditto branches of the pine - 15 
 
 100 parts of these ashes were found to con- 
 sist of the following substances in varying 
 proportions. I have arranged the results in 
 a tabular form, by which my readers will 
 readily ascertain the composition of the 
 ashes procured by the combustion of various 
 woods, barks, &c. : — 
 
 The soluble salts of these ashes are chiefly 
 carbonate and muriate of potash. The 
 earthy phosphates are the phosphates of 
 lime and magnesia (or the principal salt of 
 bones) ; the earthy carbonates are those of 
 lime (chalk), and magnesia ; silica is the pure 
 earth of flint; and the oxides were those of 
 iron and manganese. 
 
 The cultivator will readily see, by the re- 
 sults of these valuable investigations, the 
 reason why wood ashes are so much su- 
 perior to those from coal as a manure. The 
 ashes from wood, he will notice, contain a 
 very considerable proportion of the phos- 
 phates of lime and magnesia; those from 
 the hazel, containing 35 per cent, and those 
 from the wood of young oak 25 per cent, 
 essential vegetable ingredients, of which the 
 
 
 Soluble 
 Salts. 
 
 Earthy 
 Phosphates. 
 
 Earthy 
 Carbonates. 
 
 Silica. 
 
 Metallic 
 Oxides. 
 
 Loss. 
 
 100 parts of ashes of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 young oak dry 
 
 
 
 
 0-12 
 
 
 
 wood, contain - - 
 
 26' 
 
 28-5 
 
 12-25 
 
 !• 
 
 •58 
 
 Bark of ditto, ditto - 
 
 y 
 
 45 
 
 63-25 
 
 0-25 
 
 1-75 
 
 22-75 
 
 Perfect oak wood, do. 
 
 38-6 
 
 4-5 
 
 32- 
 
 2- 
 
 2-25 
 
 2065 
 
 Poplar wood, ditto - 
 
 
 16-75 
 
 27' 
 
 3-3 
 
 1-5 
 
 24-5 
 
 Poplar bark, ditto - 
 
 6- 
 
 58 
 
 GO- 
 
 4- 
 
 1-5 
 
 23-2 
 
 Wood of the hazel, do. 
 
 24-5 
 
 35- 
 
 8- 
 
 0-25 
 
 012 
 
 32-2 
 
 Bark ditto, ditto - - 
 
 12-5 
 
 5-5 
 
 54- 
 
 0-25 
 
 1 75 
 
 26" 
 
 Mulberry wood, ditto 
 
 21- 
 
 2-25 
 
 56- 
 
 0-12 
 
 025 
 
 20 38 
 
 (Cut in November.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bark of ditto, ditto - 
 
 7- 
 
 8-5 
 
 45- 
 
 15-25 
 
 1-12 
 
 23- 13 
 
 Wood of hornbeam - 
 
 22- 
 
 23- 
 
 26- 
 
 0-12 
 
 2-25 
 
 26-63 
 
 Bark ditto 
 
 4-5 
 
 45 
 
 59- 
 
 1-5 
 
 0-12 
 
 3038 
 
 Wood of chestnut - 
 
 9-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Straw of wheat - - 
 
 22-5 
 
 6-2 
 
 1- 
 
 615 
 
 1- 
 
 7-8 
 
 Branches of the pine 
 
 15- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
ASHES. 
 
 ashes from coal are entirely destitute. The 
 phosphate of lime, it will be remembered, is 
 the chief fertilizing constituent of bones, in 
 which valuable manure it is invariably pre- 
 sent, in proportions varying from 37£ per 
 cent, in the bones of the ox, to 35 per cent, 
 in those of the hare. Wood ashes also con- 
 tain a considerable proportion of carbonate 
 of potash, a salt which is more or less pre- 
 sent in all vegetable substances, and for 
 which, therefore, it must be highly service- 
 able as a food. The carbonate of potash, 
 too, promotes the dissolution of dead vege- 
 table substances, and it also, from its attrac- 
 tion of moisture from the atmosphere, must 
 promote an increased supply to the soil. 
 Wood ashes are often very judiciously added 
 to common manure, the quality of which is 
 much improved by the mixture. The leaves 
 of trees, when burnt, generally produce 
 more ashes, or pot ashes as they are called, 
 (from being formerly produced by burning 
 vegetable substances in large open pots,) 
 than the branches, and the stem of the tree 
 the least of all ; herbs produce four or five 
 times, and shrubs three or four times, as 
 much as either. All vegetables produce 
 more ashes if burnt when green than when 
 they are previously dried. Davy {Lectures, 
 p. 113.) has given a table of the quantity of 
 pot ashes furnished by the combustion of 
 various common vegetable substances, which 
 I shall here insert, as the cultivator will see 
 by it that there is a very remarkable dif- 
 ference in the quantity produced by equal 
 weights of different trees and plants. 
 
 
 
 Parts of 
 
 
 Pot Ashes 
 
 10,000 parts of the poplar produced 
 
 - 7 
 
 
 beeeh — 
 
 12 
 
 
 oak — 
 
 15 
 
 
 elm — 
 
 39 
 
 
 vine — 
 
 55 
 
 
 thistle — 
 
 53 
 
 
 fern — 
 
 62 
 
 
 cow thistle — 
 
 196 
 
 
 beans — 
 
 200 
 
 
 vetches — 
 
 275 
 
 
 wormwood — 
 
 730* 
 
 
 fumitory — 
 
 790 
 
 Peat Ashes. — Peat ashes are made in 
 many parts of England for the use of the 
 farmer, by burning peat in large heaps, after 
 it has been sufficiently dried by the heat of 
 the sun ; and for grass lands and turnips 
 they have been found a very valuable 
 manure. They are usually applied as a top 
 dressing. The composition of peat ashes 
 more nearly resembles that of coal ashes, 
 than those from wood or vegetables — which 
 is a result hardly to be expected, when we 
 consider that the immense beds of peat, or 
 
 * Hence potash was formerly called " salt of worm- 
 wood." 
 
 135 
 
 turf, as it is sometimes called, which are 
 dispersed over Britain, are evidently com- 
 posed of the remains of vegetable sub- 
 stances; trunks of trees, leaves, fruits, 
 stringy fibres, the remains of water mosses, 
 &c, and this in some places to a depth of 
 15 yards. Peat ashes were analysed by 
 Davy, with much care : he came to the 
 conclusion that they owe most of their fer- 
 tilizing properties to the presence of gypsum 
 (or sulphate of lime). In the Berkshire 
 and Wiltshire peat ashes, he discovered a 
 considerable portion of it.. The Newbury 
 peat ashes he found to be composed of from 
 one-fourth to one-third gypsum, and in the 
 peat ashes of Stockbridge, in Hampshire, a 
 still larger proportion of the same substance. 
 The other constituents of peat ashes are 
 calcareous, aluminous, and silicious earths, 
 with varying quantities of sulphate of pot- 
 ash, a little common salt, and occasionally 
 oxide of iron, especially in the red varieties 
 of peat ashes. 
 
 " These peat ashes," said Davy, " are used 
 as a top dressing for cultivated grasses, par- 
 ticularly sainfoin, clover, and rye grass. I 
 found that they afforded considerable quan- 
 tities of gypsum, and probably this substance 
 is intimately combined as a necessary part 
 of their woody fibre ; if this be allowed, it 
 is easy to explain the reason why it operates 
 in such small quantities ; for the whole of a 
 clover or sainfoin crop on an acre, according 
 to my estimation, would afford, by inciner- 
 ation, only three or four bushels of gypsum. 
 In examining the soil in a field near New- 
 bury, which was taken from below a foot- 
 path, near the gate, where gypsum could not 
 have been artificially furnished, I could not 
 detect any of this substance in it, and at the 
 very time I collected the soil, the peat ashes 
 were applied to the clover in the field. I 
 have mentioned certain peats, the ashes of 
 which afford gypsum ; but it must not be 
 inferred from this, that all peats agree with 
 them. I have examined various peat ashes, 
 from Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and the 
 northern and western parts of England, 
 which contained no quantity that could be 
 useful ; and these ashes abounded in silicious, 
 aluminous earths, and in oxide of iron. 
 Lord Charleville found in some Irish peat 
 ashes, sulphate of potash. Vitriolic matter 
 is usually found in peats ; and if the soil or 
 substratum is calcareous, the ultimate result 
 is the production of gypsum. In general, 
 when a recent potash emits a strong smell 
 resembling that of rotten eggs (sulphuretted 
 hydrogen), when acted upon by vinegar, it 
 will furnish gypsum." {Agric. Chem. p. 336.) 
 
 In the valley of the Kennet, in Berkshire, 
 where the peat ashes are made in very con^ 
 siderable quantities, and are used by the 
 k 4 
 
ASHES. 
 
 farmers as a manure for both grass and 
 turnips, they are sold at three-pence per 
 bushel, and are applied at the rate of 40 or 
 50 bushels an acre broadcast. On most grass 
 lands there is no dressing equal to them ; 
 and on some soils, near to Hungerford, they 
 produce the most luxuriant crops of grass, 
 in cases where the effects of common farm- 
 yard manure are hardly perceptible. As a 
 manure for turnips, they answer best in wet 
 seasons. In very dry weather, the crops 
 growing on the ashed land are described by 
 the farmers as putting on a "burned" ap- 
 pearance. 
 
 Peat ashes are extensively employed in 
 Flanders as a manure; they are carefully 
 preserved by the householders, who burn 
 turf or peat, and are sold to the farmers by 
 the bushel, in the same way that those of 
 Newbury are in this country. Their use is 
 chiefly confined to clover, for which purpose 
 they are an excellent top dressing. Mr. 
 Radcliffe, in his Agriculture of Flanders, has 
 given an analysis of these ashes, from which 
 the farmer will see they owe nearly all their 
 fertilising properties to the presence of 12 
 per cent, of gypsum. 100 parts are com- 
 posed of — 
 
 Silicious earth - - - 32 
 
 Sulphate of lime - - - 12 
 
 Sulphate and muriate of soda - 6 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - - 40 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 3 
 
 Loss - - - - 7 
 
 100 
 
 Paring and burning Ashes. — This is hardly 
 the place to enter into the often argued and 
 yet undecided question, as to the advantages 
 of paring and burning. It is pretty uni- 
 versally agreed, that the practice is highly 
 injurious to sandy soils, beneficial to clay 
 lands, and still more advantageous to those 
 of a peaty description ; that is, to soils where 
 there is an excess of inert vegetable remains. 
 The cultivator of the soil will see, by the 
 results of the analysis by Davy, of the ashes 
 produced by the paring and burning of three 
 different descriptions of soil, the usual pro- 
 ducts of paring and burning. 200 grains of 
 the ashes from paring and burning a chalk 
 soil in Kent, yielded that great chemist 
 80 grains of chalk, 
 11 — gypsum, 
 9 — charcoal, 
 15 — oxide of iron, 
 3 — saline matter, consisting of sul- 
 phate of potash, muriate of 
 magnesia, and vegetable al- 
 kali, 
 
 82 — alumina (clay), and silica (flint). 
 200 
 
 136 
 
 According to the estimate of Mr. Boys, 
 who has published a treatise upon paring 
 and burning, it appears that, on the chalk 
 soils of Kent, about 2660 bushels of ashes 
 are usually produced by paring and burning 
 an acre of ground, and that this quantity 
 of ashes, which he calculates will weigh 
 172,900 lbs., will contain 
 
 Chalk - - - 69,160 lbs. 
 
 Gypsum - 9,509 
 Oxide of iron - - 12,967 
 
 Saline matter - - 2,594 
 
 Charcoal - - - 7,781 
 
 The second specimen of ashes was from a 
 soil at Coleorton, in Leicestershire, composed 
 of three-fourths sand, one-fourth clay, and 
 about 4 per cent, of chalk. 
 
 100 grains of the ashes yielded 
 
 6 grains charcoal, 
 
 3 — common salt, sulphate of potash, 
 and a trace of vegetable alkali, 
 9 — oxide of iron, 
 82 — sand, clay, and chalk. 
 
 100 
 
 The third variety of ashes was produced 
 by paring and burning a stiff clay soil at 
 Mount's Bay, in Cornwall. 
 
 100 grains of these were found to con- 
 tain 
 
 8 grains of charcoal, 
 
 2 — common salt, and other saline 
 matters, 
 
 7 — oxide of iron, 
 2 — chalk, 
 
 81 — clay and sand. 
 
 100 
 
 Such are the ashes from paring and burn- 
 ing. The cultivator of the soil will judge 
 whether any of these products are required 
 by his land, and whether all the good re- 
 sults of paring and burning might not be 
 generally obtained by other means, without 
 destroying that large portion of the vege- 
 table matters of the turf destroyed during 
 combustion. In those cases, however, where 
 it is practicable to transfer the ashes pro- 
 duced by paring and burning a chalk soil to 
 a clay, or, vice versa, the ashes of a clay soil 
 to a chalk, the result must, in general, be 
 highly and permanently beneficial to both. 
 
 The Ashes of burnt Clay. — The composition 
 of the ashes of burnt clay, although varying 
 according to the earthy proportions of the 
 soil, will be found pretty generally to accord 
 with the analysis of the ashes from the clay 
 soil, from Mount's Bay, given above under 
 the head, Paring and burning Ashes. Clay 
 burning is practised with decided success 
 in many districts of England, and, in every 
 point of view, is by far the most eligible 
 
ASHES. 
 
 mode of producing ashes for manure ; for 
 the soil of the field is not thereby impover- 
 ished of its vegetable remains, the clay 
 which is burnt being generally procured 
 from ditches, banks, hedgerows, &c. The 
 account of clay burning, given several years 
 since by General Vavasour, of Melbourne 
 Hall, in Yorkshire, is so practical and satis-, 
 factory, that I cannot do better than quote 
 his own words : — "I would recommend to 
 a beginner, that the kiln should be made 
 small, about three yards wide, and six yards 
 long in the inside ; as he becomes more 
 skilful, they may be made larger. The 
 walls of the kiln are to be made of sods, 
 two feet thick at the bottom, and one foot 
 thick at the top, leaving two flues on each 
 side, and one at each end, about one foot 
 square ; these walls may be built at first 
 four feet high. We then put in the wood, 
 beginning with the larger pieces at the 
 bottom, particularly near the flues, sup- 
 ported by sods to keep them open, adding 
 tops of firs, or any brushwood, until the 
 kiln is nearly filled. It might be burnt 
 with coal or peat, if more convenient. 
 Cover the wood with a layer of clay taken 
 from some bank or ditch in the field, ard 
 which has been digged some time before to 
 dry; it is not necessary that it should be 
 very dry. The fire is then to be lighted 
 at the flue, by means of straw previously 
 placed there. The greatest care is required, 
 that the fire shall not escape at the top ; 
 but fresh clay constantly thrown on, where- 
 ever it seems likely to burn out, at the same 
 time not overloading the kiln, so as to put 
 out the fire. As the quantity of clay is in- 
 creased, the walls should be raised, keeping 
 them a foot higher than the clay. About 
 six feet will be as high as can be conveni- 
 ently burned. The chief art seems to be, 
 to procure a great mass of fire at first, and 
 to let the fire rise through the clay as you 
 go on, to let it smoke in every part at the 
 top, but not to burn out. My men, who 
 burn by contract, watch the kilns by night 
 and day. I have applied the ashes almost 
 exclusively for wheat, upon a clay soil, 
 spreading them on a fallow after the last 
 ploughing, and harrowing them in with the 
 seed, at the rate of 30 tons per acre, on 
 80 acres. The longer the ashes remain 
 upon the land, before harrowing, the better, 
 that the lumps may fall, and mix with the 
 soil. If the walls are well made, one end 
 may be taken down, and, after the kiln is 
 emptied, rebuilt for a second burning ; if 
 not likely to stand, they may be entirely 
 burned in a succeeding kiln. If the weather 
 should not be moist, the kilns will burn for 
 some weeks, as the clay will continue hot 
 long after the wood is consumed." 
 137 
 
 Clay ashes have been used to a very con- 
 siderable extent by Mr. Hewitt Davis, of 
 Spring Park, near Croydon, on several of 
 his farms, and with the most decided success. 
 This excellent farmer and land-agent has 
 the clay dug out in spits, that it may be 
 more readily dried. He burns in heaps ; 
 and employs as fuel, collections of hedge- 
 clippings, furze, &c. ; and these he thinks it 
 best not to use in too dry a state, since one 
 great object in clay-burning, he is of opi- 
 nion, is, to produce a steady mouldering 
 heat, not too fast. A fire, therefore, should 
 not be suffered to flame. The fire in the 
 heaps usually works against the wind, when 
 those heaps are properly made. He applies 
 about 150 bushels of the ashes per acre ; 
 pays Id. to \\d. per bushel, for burning ; 
 dressing with them with great advantage all 
 kinds of soil, for turnips, &c. 
 
 Mr. Poppy, of Witnesham, in a pamphlet 
 published in 1830, after giving various di- 
 rections for burning clay, adds : — " Salt 
 (the only inexhaustible universal manure, 
 besides burnt earth,) does not increase the 
 bulk of straw ; and although it may be, 
 and is, beneficial to corn, it will not be very 
 extensively used, because its benefit is not 
 apparent to the eye : burnt earth produces 
 an abundance of straw. I have seen the 
 corn so luxuriant on the sites of the heaps, 
 where due caution was not used in laying 
 a floor of earth under the fire, that it was 
 rotted on the ground, and destroyed the 
 clover plant. I have seen the beans on the 
 site of a burnt-earth heap even too luxu- 
 riant ; and potatoes and mangel wurzel a 
 double produce to the rest of the crop. 
 There is no limit to burning earth on stiff 
 clay soils, because the most sterile subsoil 
 brought up purposely by the plough will, 
 by the action of fire, be converted into 
 useful manure. If it is converted into 
 staple, it increases the depth of titheable 
 soil, and acts both physically and mechani- 
 cally." The Suffolk plan of clay-burning 
 is similar to that adopted in Yorkshire. 
 " The common mode of burning earth is to 
 dig old borders, surfaces of banks, &c. ; 
 turn it over, and, when dry, cart it to a 
 heap, and burn ; formerly much wood was 
 used, but haulm, straw, dry weeds, and a 
 few bushes, whins, or any thing of that kind, 
 may be employed ; then build a circular 
 wall of turfs around it, cover the heap 
 slightly with turfs and earth, and set fire to 
 it in several places ; feeding with the most 
 inflammable materials at first, afterwards 
 clay or any earth will burn ; when all the 
 earth is on the heap, the walls may be 
 prilled down and thrown on, raising it by 
 degrees as the fire ascends, in the shape of 
 I a cone, till all is consumed." 
 
ASHES. 
 
 The expense of this kind of clay-burning 
 is thus estimated by Mr. Poppy : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Labour, digging, and burning 100 
 
 loads, at 9c?. per load - - 3 15 0 
 
 Filling Is. 6c?. per score — 7s. 6c?. ; 
 carting, three horses, and two 
 carts, 16s. - - - - 1 3 6 
 
 Filling and spreading after burning, 
 
 3c?. per acre - - - - 0 15 0 
 
 Carting, and laying out over two 
 acres 0 16 0 
 
 Total per 100 loads - ^696 
 
 Or Si. 4s. 9d. per acre for 50 loads, or Is. 4d. 
 per load. 
 
 Clay-burning, according to Mr. Poppy, is 
 certainly not a modern Suffolk improve- 
 ment. " I have constantly seen it practised 
 for half a century ; and the oldest man I 
 ever conversed with on the subject, spoke 
 of it as common as long as he could re- 
 member. I have a workman on the farm, 
 who is, I think, upwards of eighty years of 
 age, and has always followed the vocation 
 of burning earth." 
 
 The Ashes from Soap Boilers. — Soap 
 boilers' ashes are a mixture of a peculiar 
 description ; they are principally the in- 
 soluble portion of the barilla, pot ashes, or 
 kelp, employed in soap-making, mixed with 
 cinders, lime, salt, and other occasional ad- 
 ditions ; and also with muriate of potash, 
 common salt, and other saline matters. 
 
 The quantity of pearl and pot ashes im- 
 ported into the United Kingdom is very 
 considerable; in 1837, it amounted to 
 147,329 cwts. ; in 1838, to 127,101 cwts.: 
 of barilla, and alkali, in the same year, were 
 imported 102,135 cwts. and 72,587 cwts. 
 (M'Culloctis Dictionary of Commerce.) 
 
 The insoluble portion of barilla consists 
 principally of lime, charcoal, sand, and 
 oxide of iron. The insoluble portion of 
 potash, or ashes, as they are denominated 
 by the trade, will consist of a considerable 
 portion of the same ingredients, added to a 
 varying portion of phosphate of lime. Much 
 difference of opinion has subsisted among 
 farmers, with regard to the advantages of 
 soap-makers' ashes. It has been recom- 
 mended as very useful upon strong, cold 
 soils, on peat moss, and on cold wet pastures. 
 The quantity recommended to be applied 
 per acre, by Arthur Young, was 60 bushels 
 for turnips ; to be harrowed in with the 
 seed. For wet grass lands, six loads per 
 acre. For wet arable soils, seven loads per 
 acre. He describes the immediate effects 
 as very great. For poor loamy land, ten 
 loads per acre: the effect very satisfactory. 
 Dr. Cogan, who has written a paper on the 
 
 uses of soap ashes, has given this letter of 
 one of his correspondents, whom he de- 
 scribes as a plain, sensible farmer : — " My 
 experience of soapers' ashes is confined to 
 the application of it as a top dressing on 
 pasture land. About 12 years ago, I agreed 
 with a soap boiler for 1500 tons of soapers' 
 ashes. I used to apply about 20 waggon 
 loads per acre, and a single bushing would 
 let the whole in. I was laughed at, and 
 abused by every body, for my folly : these 
 wiseacres alleging that my land would be 
 burned up for years, and totally ruined ; all 
 which I disregarded, and applied my soapers' 
 ashes every day in the year, reeking from 
 the vat, without any mixture whatever. 
 
 " I tried a small quantity (say six acres), 
 mixed up with earth ; but I found it was 
 only doing things by halves. My land 
 never burned, but, from the time of the 
 application, became of a dark green colour, 
 bordering upon black, and has given me 
 more, but never less than two tons per acre, 
 ever since, upon being hayned, forty-two 
 days, viz. from May 31. to July 11. The 
 ground I so dressed was twenty-four acres ; 
 and I have had 120 sheep (hogs of the new 
 Leicester breed) on the ground, from last 
 August to this day (March 2.) ; but I al- 
 lowed them plenty of hay: and although 
 they were culled in August last, as the 
 worst I had out of 700 lambs, and selected 
 for this ground, on purpose to push them, 
 they are now as good as the best I have." 
 
 As by far the most considerable portion 
 of soap ashes is lime and chalk, wherever 
 lime or calcareous matter is a fertiliser to 
 the soil, soap-makers' ashes will generally, 
 if not invariably, succeed; but they must 
 be applied in quantities nearly as large as if 
 lime was employed. 
 
 Such are the chief agricultural properties 
 of the various ashes hitherto employed in 
 agriculture. The research is, however, by 
 no means nearly exhausted, for these fer- 
 tilisers have showed the fate generally 
 attendant upon all agricultural or horticul- 
 tural investigations : they have been lauded 
 as equally beneficial to every description of 
 soil, and in all situations ; or they have been 
 condemned, with equal folly, by the results 
 of blundering trials — begun in ignorance, 
 continued without care, and perhaps nearly 
 forgotten in the hurry of a conclusion. 
 
 They furnish ingredients, such as the 
 carbonate of lime, carbonate of potash, 
 charcoal, phosphate of lime, sulphate of 
 lime, &c, which, in limited quantities, enter 
 into the composition of all plants, as an ab- 
 solute constituent part ; and for these they 
 must, according to the natural deficiency of 
 the soil in these ingredients, be extremely 
 useful. They absorb moisture from the 
 
ASHES. 
 
 ASPARAGUS. 
 
 atmosphere, too, in quantities much superior 
 to what is generally believed, and in this 
 property the ashes of burnt clay and coal 
 ashes considerably exceed both chalk, lime, 
 gypsum, and even crushed rock salt, as will 
 be seen by the result of the experiments 
 given under the head Manures. 
 
 Some very valuable comparative expe- 
 riments on the influence of ashes upon the 
 growth of potatoes were made by the Rev. 
 Edmund Cartwright, of Hollenden House, 
 in Kent. {Com. Board of Agric, vol. iv. 
 p. 370.) " The soil on which these experi- 
 ments were made was previously analysed : 
 400 grains gave — 
 
 " Silicious sand, of different de- 
 grees of fineness - - 280 grs. 
 Finally divided matter - - 104 
 Loss in water - - - 16 
 
 400 
 
 " The finally divided matter contained — 
 
 " Carbonate of lime - 18 grs. 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 7 
 Loss by incineration (probably 
 
 vegetable decomposing matter) 17 
 
 Silex, alumina, &c. - - - 62 
 
 104 
 
 " It will appear," says Mr. Cartwright, 
 " from the above analysis, that these expe- 
 riments could not have been tried upon a 
 soil better adapted to give impartial results ; 
 for of its component parts there is no in- 
 gredient (the oxide of iron possibly ex- 
 cepted) of sufficient activity to restrain or 
 augment the peculiar energies of the sub- 
 stances employed." The beds were laid 
 out and planted on the same day, the 14th 
 of April ; they were manured as in the fol- 
 lowing table. These beds were each 40 
 yards in length, and one yard wide. Every 
 bed was planted with a single row of po- 
 tatoes, " and, that the general experiment 
 might be conducted with all possible accu- 
 racy, each bed received the same number of 
 sets." The potatoes were taken up on the 
 21st of September, when the produce of the 
 beds were as follows : — 
 
 Potatoes in 
 Bushels. 
 
 Land without any manure produced, per 
 
 acre - - - 157 
 
 — with 60 bushels of wood ashes - 187 
 
 — — 60 bushels of wood ashes, 
 
 salt 8 bushels - - 217 
 
 — — peat 363 bushels - - 159 
 
 — — peat ashes 368 bushels, salt 
 
 8 bushels - - - 185 
 
 — — peat 363 bushels,salt 8 bushels 171 
 
 Another series of experiments was made 
 139 
 
 by Dr. Cartwright, upon a cold, wet, tena- 
 cious clay, with burnt clay, wood ashes, and 
 soot ; in all of which the clay ashes had a 
 decided superiority of effect. The following 
 table shows the quantity of manure applied 
 per acre, and the produce of the land thus 
 fertilised. (Trans. Soc. Arts, vol. xxxvi.) 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Produce per Acre. 
 
 Swedes. 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Burnt clay, 400 bushels - 
 Wood ashes, 100 bushels - 
 Soot — 50 — 
 Soil simple - 
 
 tons.cwts. 
 25 2 
 23 12 
 16 12$ 
 10 4 
 
 Hush. 
 480 
 456 
 432 
 340 
 
 qrs. lbs. 
 
 4 4 
 4 2 
 4 2 
 3 0 
 
 The operation of burning clay produces 
 but a slight chemical alteration in the com- 
 position of the clay ; its tenacity is merely 
 destroyed, and a portion of soot and of car- 
 bonised animal and vegetable remains are 
 diffused through the ashes ; added to which, 
 the ashes of the wood employed for the 
 burning, which usually contain a quantity 
 of phosphate of lime and potash, are mixed 
 up with the mass. (Johnson on Fertilisers, 
 296. ; Brit. Farm. Mag., vol. i. p. 58.) 
 
 ASPARAGUS. (From the Greek aa-rra- 
 payos, a young shoot before it expands.) There 
 are only two varieties, the red-topped and 
 the green-topped ; the first is principally 
 cultivated. There are a few sub-varieties 
 which derive their names from the places of 
 their growth, and are only to be distin- 
 guished for superior size or flavour, which 
 they usually lose on removal from their na- 
 tive place. The soil best suited to this ve- 
 getable is a black, fresh, sandy loam, made 
 rich by the abundant addition of manure ; 
 it should be neither tenacious from the too 
 great preponderance of clay, nor too dry 
 from a superabundance of silica, but should 
 be retentive of moisture chiefly by reason of 
 its richness. To raise fine roots for hot- 
 beds, they may be raised in a much moister 
 soil (Millers Dictionary) ; but for natural 
 production this will not answer, as such 
 plants are much shorter lived. The site of 
 the beds should be such as to enjoy the in- 
 fluence of the sun during the whole of the 
 day, as free as possible from the influence 
 of trees and shrubs, and, if choice is allowed, 
 ranging north and south. The subsoil should 
 be dry, or the bed kept so, by being founded 
 on rubbish or other material to serve as a 
 drain. The space of ground required to be 
 planted with this vegetable for the supply 
 of a small family is at least eight rods, if less, 
 it will be incapable of affording one hundred 
 heads at a time (Marshall says six rods will 
 afford this quantity), so that part must be 
 kept two or three days after it is cut, espe- 
 cially in ungenial seasons, to allow time for 
 the growth of more to make a sufficient 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 number for a dish. Sixteen rods will, in 
 general, afford two or three hundred every- 
 day in the height of the season. To raise 
 plants the seed may be sown from the middle 
 of February to the beginning of April ; the 
 most usual time is about the middle of 
 March. The best mode is to insert them 
 by the dibble, five -or six inches apart and 
 an inch below the surface, two seeds to be 
 put in each hole ; or they may be sown in 
 drills made the same distance asunder, or 
 broadcast. If dry weather, the bed should 
 be refreshed with moderate, but frequent 
 waterings, and if sown as late as April, shade 
 is required by means of a little haulm during 
 the meridian of hot days, until the seeds 
 germinate. Care must be taken to keep 
 them free from weeds, though this operation 
 should never commence until the plants are 
 well above ground, which will be in the 
 course of three or four weeks from the time 
 of sowing. If two plants have arisen from 
 the same hole, the weakest must be removed 
 as soon as that point can be well determined. 
 Towards the end of October, as soon as the 
 stems are completely withered, they must 
 be cut down, and well putrefied dung spread 
 over the bed to the depth of about two 
 inches : this serves not only to increase the 
 vigour of the plants in the following year, but 
 to preserve them during the winter from in- 
 jury by the frost. About March in the next 
 year, every other plant must be taken up, 
 and transplanted into a bed, twelve inches 
 apart, if it is intended that they should at- 
 tain another, or two years' further growth, 
 before being finally planted out ; or they 
 may be planted immediately into the beds 
 for production. It may be here remarked, 
 that the plants may remain one or two years 
 in the seed-bed ; they will even succeed 
 after remaining three, but if they continue 
 four they generally fail : it is, however, 
 nearly certain that they are best removed 
 when one year old, for the earlier a plant 
 can possibly be removed, the more easily 
 does it accommodate itself to the change, and 
 less injury is it apt to receive in the removal. 
 Some gardeners sow the seed in the beds 
 where they are to remain for production. 
 This mode, too, has the sanction of Miller. 
 The time for the final removal is from the 
 middle of February until the end of March, 
 if the soil is dry and the season warm and 
 forward ; otherwise it is better to wait until 
 the commencement of April. The plan 
 which some persons have recommended, to 
 plant in autumn, is so erroneous, that, as 
 Miller emphatically says, the plants had 
 better be thrown away. Mr. D. Judd has 
 mentioned (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond., vol. ii. 
 p. 236.) a very determinate signal of the ap- 
 propriate time for planting, which is, when 
 140 
 
 the plants are beginning to grow : if moved 
 earlier, and they have to lie torpid for two 
 or three months, many of them die, or in 
 general shoot up very weak. 
 
 Immediately that the buds begin to swell 
 they should be removed, and this may easily 
 be ascertained by occasionally opening the 
 ground down to the stool. A successful 
 experiment, tried by Mr. J. Smith, gardener 
 to the Earl of Kintore, would evince that 
 one year old asparagus plants may be re- 
 moved even as late as June. The stems of 
 his plants, at the time of removal in that 
 month, were twelve or fifteen inches high : 
 they were removed and treated with the 
 greatest care, the earth being gently pressed 
 round the root, and water given plentifully ; 
 but although the experiment perfectly suc- 
 ceeded, for none of them died, and although 
 they surpassed in growth those left in the 
 seed-bed — so much so, that they might 
 have been cut from — yet still, for many 
 reasons, we are justified in considering that 
 this must have been tried under accidental 
 or very favourable circumstances of soil and 
 season, and it requires repeated experiments 
 from different counties before the practice 
 is confirmed. (Ceded. Hort. Mem., vol. i. 
 p. 71.) In forming the beds for regular pro- 
 duction, it is customary to have them four 
 or five feet wide. In the first instance, they 
 have three rows of plants, in the latter four. 
 The site of the bed being marked out, the 
 usual practice is to trench the ground two 
 spades deep, and then to cover it with well 
 rotted manure from six to ten inches deep ; 
 the large stones being sorted out and care 
 taken that the dung lies at least six inches 
 below the surface. To mix the manure 
 with the soil effectually, Mr. D. Judd, before 
 mentioned, trenches his ground two feet 
 deep, three times successively during the 
 autumn or winter, at intervals of a fortnight, 
 and then lays it in ridges until wanted, per- 
 forming the work in the absence of rain or 
 snow : he justly observes, that the prepara- 
 tion of the soil is of more consequence to be 
 attended to than all the after management. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond., vol. ii. p. 234.) In 
 France, however, where the beds are cele- 
 brated for the number of years they continue 
 in production, a pit is dug five feet in depth, 
 and the mould that is raised from it sifted, 
 care being taken to reject all stones, even 
 as small as a filbert; the best part of the 
 mould is laid aside for making up the bed. 
 The bed is then formed as follows, beginning 
 at the bottom ; six inches deep of common 
 manure — eight of turf, very free from 
 stones — six of manure — six of sifted earth 
 — eight of turf — six of very rotten dung — 
 eight of best earth ; finally, this last layer of 
 mould is well incorporated with the adjoining 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 one of dung. The bed is then ready for the 
 reception of the plants. (Dr. M'-Culloch, in 
 the Caled. Hort. Mem.) The plants being 
 taken from the seed-bed carefully with a 
 narrow, prolonged dung-fork, with as little 
 injury to the roots as possible, they must be 
 laid separate and even together, for the sake 
 of convenience whilst planting, the roots 
 being apt to entangle, and cause much 
 trouble and injury in parting them. They 
 should be exposed as short a time as pos- 
 sible to the air ; and to this end it is advis- 
 able to keep them until planted in a basket, 
 with a little sand, and covered with a piece 
 of mat. The mode of planting is to form 
 drills or narrow trenches five or six inches 
 deep and a foot apart, cut out with the spade, 
 the line side of each drill being made per- 
 pendicular, and against this the plants are 
 to be placed, with their crowns one and a 
 half or two inches below the surface, and 
 twelve inches asunder : in France eighteen 
 are allowed. The roots must be spread out 
 wide in the form of a fan, a little earth being 
 drawn over each to retain it in its position 
 whilst the row is proceeded with. If the 
 plants have begun to shoot, it is the practice 
 in France to remove the sprouts, and with 
 this precaution the planting is successfully 
 performed as late as July, and if any of those 
 die which were first planted they are re- 
 placed at that season. This is a practice to 
 be avoided as much as possible, for it obvi- 
 ously must weaken the plants, and be par- 
 ticularly detrimental to such young plants. 
 For the sake of convenience, one drill should 
 be made at a time, and the plants inserted 
 and covered completely, before another is 
 commenced ; the two outside drills must be 
 each six inches from the side of the bed. 
 When the planting is completed the bed is 
 to be lightly raked over, and its outline dis- 
 tinctly marked out. Care must be had never 
 to tread on the beds — they are formed 
 narrow to render that unnecessary — for every 
 thing tending to consolidate them is injuri- 
 ous, as, from the length of time they have to 
 continue without a possibility of stirring 
 them to any considerable depth, they have a 
 natural tendency to have a closer texture 
 than is beneficial to vegetation. Water must 
 be given occasionally in dry weather until the 
 plants are established. The paths between 
 the beds are to be two and a half feet wide. 
 Throughout the year care must be taken to 
 keep the beds clear of weeds. In the latter 
 end of October or commencement of No- 
 vember the beds are to have their winter 
 dressing : the stalks must be cut down and 
 cleared away, and the weeds hoed off into 
 the paths, care being taken not to commence 
 whilst the stems are at all green, for if they 
 are cut down whilst in a vegetating state, 
 141 
 
 the roots are very prone to shoot again, and 
 consequently are proportionably weakened. 
 This habit might perhaps be taken advan- 
 tage of in assisting our forcing this esculent : 
 cutting down the summer-produced stems 
 of such stools as are intended for the hotbed, 
 a considerable time before they lose their 
 verdant colour, would give them a natural 
 tendency to shoot again, and consequently 
 assist the effect of the artificial heat em- 
 ployed. It is generally recommended not 
 to add any manure until the bed has been 
 two or three years in production, and then 
 only to apply it every other year ; but I 
 consider it much more rational to manure re- 
 gularly every year from the time of forming 
 the bed, though in less quantity than if done 
 every other year. I put on about two 
 inches' depth of well decayed hotbed. By 
 this means a continued and regular supply 
 of decomposing matter is kept up, which is 
 not so perfectly effected by the usual mode ; 
 and from the experiments purposely insti- 
 tuted by Miller we learn that, on the rich- 
 ness of the ground and warmth of the season, 
 the sweetness of asparagus depends ; in pro- 
 portion to the poverty of the soil, it ac- 
 quires a strong flavour. The dung needs 
 merely to be laid regularly over the bed, 
 and. the weeds, as well as some manure, to 
 be slightly pointed into the paths, some of 
 the mould from which must be spread to the 
 depth of two inches over the dung just laid 
 upon the beds. In France the asparagus 
 beds at. this season are covered with six 
 inches depth of manure and four of sea-sand 
 if procurable, otherwise, of river- sand or 
 J fine earth. No forking is required ; but the 
 boundaries of the bed must be marked out 
 distinctly, as they should be kept, indeed, at 
 all times. In the end of March or early in 
 April, before the plants begin to sprout, the 
 rows are to be stirred between to a moderate 
 depth with the asparagus fork, running it 
 slantingly two or three inches beneath the 
 surface, as the object is merely to stir the 
 surface and slightly mix it with the dung. 
 Great care must be taken not in the least 
 to disturb the plants. Some gardeners re- 
 1 commend that the beds should only be hoed 
 1 again, so fearful are they of the injury 
 ! which may be done to the stools ; but if it 
 be done carefully as above directed, the 
 [ fork is the best implement to be employed, 
 ' as by more effectually loosening the soil, it 
 { is by far the most beneficial in its effects 
 upon the plants. This course of cultivation 
 is to be continued annually, but with thsi 
 ! judicious modification, that earth be never 
 taken from the paths after the first year, 
 but these merely be covered with dung, 
 j and which is only to be slightly dug in ; for 
 every gardener must have observed, that the 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 roots of the outer row extend into the alleys, 
 and are consequently destroyed if they are 
 dug over ; and rather than that should take 
 place, the beds should have no winter co- 
 vering, unless mould can be obtained from 
 some other source, as asparagus does not 
 generally suffer from frost, as is commonly 
 supposed. In May the beds are in full 
 production of young shoots, which when 
 from two to five inches high are fit for cut- 
 ting, and as long as the head continues 
 compact and firm. Care must be taken, in 
 cutting, not to injure those buds, which are 
 generally rising from the same root, in va- 
 rious grades of successional growth within 
 the ground. The knife ought to be narrow 
 pointed, the blade about nine inches in 
 length, and saw-edged : the earth being 
 carefully opened round the shoot, to observe 
 whether any others are arising, the blade is 
 to be gently slipped along the stalk until it 
 reaches its extremity, where the cut is to 
 be made in a slanting direction. It almost 
 always occurs, that the same stool produces 
 a greater number of small heads than large 
 ones, but the latter only should be cut ; for 
 the oftener the former are removed, the 
 more numerously will they be reproduced, 
 and the stools will sooner become exhausted. 
 Great attention must be paid to the seed. 
 For the obtaining it, some shoots should be 
 marked and left in early spring, for those 
 which are allowed to run up after the season 
 of cutting is over are seldom forward enough 
 to ripen their seeds perfectly. In choosing 
 the shoots for this purpose, those only must 
 be marked which are the finest, roundest, 
 and have the closest heads ; those having 
 quick opening heads, or are small or flat, are 
 never to be left. More are to be selected than 
 would be necessary if each stem would as- 
 suredly be fruitful ; but as some of them 
 only bear male or unproductive blossoms, 
 that contingency must be allowed for. Each 
 chosen shoot must be fastened to a stake, 
 which, by keeping it in its natural position, 
 enables the seed to ripen more perfectly. 
 The seed is usually ripe in September, when 
 it must be collected, and left in a tub for 
 four or six weeks, for the pulp and husk of 
 the berry to decay, when it may be well 
 cleansed in water. The seeds sink to the 
 bottom, and the refuse floats and will pass 
 away with the water as it is gently poured 
 off. By two or three washings the seeds 
 will be completely cleansed ; and when per- 
 fectly dried by exposure to the sun and air, 
 may be stored for use. Some gardeners 
 keep them in the pulp until the time of sow- 
 ing, unless required to be sent to a dis- 
 tance. 
 
 To force Asparagus. — Such plants must 
 be inserted in hotbeds as are five or six 
 142 
 
 years old, and appear of sufficient strength 
 to produce vigorous shoots : when, however, 
 any old natural ground plantations are in- 
 tended to be broken up at the proper season, 
 some of the best plants may be selected to 
 be plunged in a hotbed or any spare corner 
 of the stove bark-beds. When more than 
 ten years old, they are scarcely worth em- 
 ploying. To plant old stools for the main 
 forcing crop, is, however, decidedly erro- 
 neous ; for, as Mr. Sabine remarks, if plants 
 are past production, and unfit to remain in 
 the garden, little can be expected from them 
 when forced. The first plantation for forcing 
 should be made about the latter end of Sep- 
 tember : the bed, if it works favourably, will 
 begin to produce in the course of four or 
 five weeks, and will continue to do so for 
 about three ; each light producing in that 
 time 300 or 400 shoots, and affording a ga- 
 thering every two or three days. To have 
 a regular succession, therefore, a fresh bed 
 must be formed every three or four weeks, 
 the last crop to be planted in March or the 
 early part of April : this will continue in 
 production until the arrival of the natural 
 ground crops. The last-made beds will be 
 in production a fortnight sooner than those 
 made about Christmas. 
 
 The bed must be substantial, and propor- 
 tioned to the size and number of the lights, 
 and to the time of year — being constructed 
 of stable dung, or other material. The 
 common mode of making a hotbed is usually 
 followed;, but, as Mr. Sabine remarks, the 
 general appearance of forced asparagus in 
 December and the two following months 
 gives a sufficient indication of defective 
 management. The usual mode he considers 
 erroneous, inasmuch as that the roots of the 
 plants come in contact with, or are over a 
 mass of fermenting matter ; and the mode 
 of raising potatoes practised by Mr. Hogg, 
 which will be hereafter stated, first suggested 
 the plan for obviating this defect, and it has 
 been confirmed as correct by the successful 
 practice of Mr. Ross, gardener to E. Ellice, 
 Esq., of Brentford, who, by planting his 
 asparagus in the tan of his exhausted pine 
 pits, which consist of eighteen inches' leaves, 
 and over that the same depth of tan, and 
 applying hot dung, successively renewed, 
 round the sides, and thus keeping up a good 
 heat, produced in five weeks asparagus so 
 fine, and by admitting as much air as pos- 
 sible during the day, of such good colour 
 and so strong, as nearly to equal the natural 
 ground crops. It is the best practice to 
 plant the asparagus in mould laid upon the 
 tan, which, or some other porous matter, is 
 indispensable for the easy admission of the 
 heat from the linings. The bed must be 
 topped with six or eight inches of light rich 
 
ASPARAGUS. 
 
 ASPHODEL. 
 
 earth. If a small family is to be supplied, 
 three or four lights will be sufficient at a 
 time ; for a larger six or eight will not be 
 too many. Several hundred plants may be 
 inserted under each, as they may be crowded 
 as close as possible together ; from 500 to 
 900 are capable of being inserted under a 
 three-light frame, according to their size. 
 In planting, a furrow being drawn the 
 whole length of the frame, against one side 
 of it the first row or course is to be placed, 
 the crowns upright, and a little earth drawn 
 on to the lower ends of the roots ; then 
 more plants again in the same manner, and 
 so continued throughout, it being carefully 
 observed to keep them all regularly about 
 an inch below the surface : all round on 
 the edge of the bed, some moist earth must 
 be banked close to the outside roots. 
 
 If the bed is extensive, it will probably 
 acquire a violent heat ; the frames must 
 therefore be continued off until it has be- 
 come regular, otherwise the roots are liable 
 to be destroyed by being, as it is technically 
 termed, scorched or steam-scalded. When 
 the heat has become regular the frames may 
 be set on, and more earth be applied by de- 
 grees over the crowns of the plants, until it 
 acquires a total depth of five or six inches. 
 The glasses must be kept open an inch or 
 two, as long and as often as possible, with- 
 out too great a reduction of temperature 
 occurring, so as to admit air freely and give 
 vent to the vapours, for on this depends the 
 superiority in flavour and appearance of 
 the shoots. The heat must be kept up by 
 linings of hot dung, and by covering the 
 glasses every night with mats, &c. The 
 temperature at night # should never be below 
 50°, and in the day its maximum at 62°. In 
 gathering, for which the shoots are fit when 
 from two to five inches in height, the finger 
 and thumb must be thrust down into the 
 earth, and the stem broken off at the bottom. 
 This excellent vegetable possesses some diu- 
 retic properties. Its juice contains a pecu- 
 liar crystallisable substance, which was dis- 
 covered by Vauquelin and Robiquet, and 
 named by them Asparagine. It is hard, 
 brittle, colourless, and in the form of rhom- 
 boidal prisms : its taste is nauseous. The 
 decoction of the plant is sometimes used on 
 the Continent as a diuretic ; but it is rarely 
 or never prescribed in England. M. Dubois 
 of Paris has submitted asparagus berries to 
 fermentation, and procured a spirit from 
 them by distillation, with which he makes 
 an excellent liqueur. {Diet, des Drogues ; 
 G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden, 81. ; Mil- 
 ler's Dictionary; Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. ii. pp. 234. 263. 361.; Dr. Macculloch, 
 Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. i.) 
 
 ASPEN TREE (Populus tremula.) This 
 143 
 
 is a branch of the poplar family, which de- 
 rives its Latin name from the incessant 
 trembling of its leaves. The Greeks named 
 it icepiag, from Kfpfcw, the same as strepi- 
 tum do, to creak. The English name is 
 from the German cspe, which is the general 
 name for all poplars. The heart-shaped 
 leaves adhere to the twigs by a long and 
 slender stalk, the plane of which is at right 
 angles to that of the leaf, and consequently 
 allows them a much freer motion than other 
 leaves that have their planes parallel with 
 their stalks. This, with their cottony lining 
 below, and their hairy surface above, causes 
 that perpetual motion and quivering, even 
 when we cannot perceive by other means 
 the least breath of air stirring in the atmo- 
 sphere. This trepidation is attended of 
 course with a rustling noise, on which ac- 
 count country people often call it rattler. 
 The aspen tree may be planted so as to or- 
 nament large grounds, but its effect is lost 
 when crowded. When it meets the eye as 
 a fore-ground to plantations of firs, it has 
 both a pleasing and singular appearance, as 
 its foliage changes with the wind from a sil- 
 ver grey to a bright green ; for when the 
 sight goes with the wind, it catches only the 
 under side of the leaves which are covered 
 with a pale floss ; but when it meets the 
 current of air, the tree presents the upper 
 surface of its foliage to the view : thus its 
 tints are as changeable as its nature is tre- 
 mulous. Like its relative, the poplar, this 
 tree is of speedy growth, and will thrive in 
 any situation or soil, but worst in clay. It is 
 cultivated to the greatest advantage on such 
 as are inclined to be moist, without having 
 much stagnant surface water. In such si- 
 tuations they sometimes grow to a consider- 
 able size. It is accused of impoverishing 
 the land, and its leaves are charged with 
 destroying the grass, whilst its numerous 
 roots, which spread near the surface, will 
 not, it is said, permit any thing else to grow. 
 The wood is extremely light, white, soft, and 
 smooth, but it is of little value as timber, 
 being chiefly used for making milk-pails, 
 wooden shoes, clogs, and pattens, &c. From 
 its lightness it might, however, probably be 
 used to advantage for the construction of 
 common field-gates The bark is the fa- 
 vourite food of beavers, whilst the leaves 
 and the stalks form the nourishment and 
 birthplace of the tipula juniperina, a species 
 of long-legged fly. The aspen tree will not 
 bear lopping, like other species of the poplar. 
 (Phillips' Sylva Florifera.) 
 
 ASPHODEL. (Lat. Asphodelus luteus.) 
 Yellow king's spear. This is a very hand- 
 some perennial, growing four feet high. It 
 blooms its brilliant yellow flowers in May, 
 June, and July; it is raised easily from 
 
ASS. 
 
 seed, sown upon a hot-bed, and afterwards 
 multiplied by separating its roots. It likes a 
 good moist soil. The Asphodelus fistulosus is 
 an annual, bearing white starry flowers with 
 purple lines on the outside, and flowering in 
 July and August. This elegant tall plant 
 grows so freely in our gardens that we may 
 class it among our own productions. The 
 leaves are long and narrow. The root is 
 composed of several knobs. 
 
 ASS. (FwAne ; Ger. Esel; It. Asino; Lat. 
 Asiiius.) A well-known and useful domestic 
 animal, whose services might be rendered 
 even still more useful for various purposes 
 of husbandry, if it were properly trained and 
 taken care of. Buffon has well observed, that 
 the ass is despised and neglected, only because 
 we possess a more noble and powerful animal 
 in the horse ; and that if the horse were un- 
 known, the care and attention which are la- 
 vished upon him, being transferred to his 
 now neglected and despised rival, would 
 have increased the size, and developed the 
 mental qualities of the ass, to an extent which 
 it would be difficult to anticipate, but which 
 Eastern travellers, who have observed both 
 animals in their native climates, and among 
 nations by whom they are equally valued, 
 and the good qualities of each justly appre- 
 ciated, assure us to be the fact. 
 
 Indeed, the character and habits of these 
 two quadrupeds are directly opposed in al- 
 most every respect. The horse is proud, 
 fiery, and impetuous, nice in his tastes, and 
 delicate in constitution : like a pampered 
 menial, he is subject to many diseases, and 
 acquires artificial wants and habits which 
 are unknown in a state of nature. 
 
 The ass, on the contrary, is humble, pa- 
 tient, and quiet, and bears correction with 
 firmness. He is extremely hardy, both with 
 regard to the quantity and quality of his 
 food, contenting himself with the most harsh 
 and disagreeable herbs, which other animals 
 will scarcely touch. In the choice of water 
 he is, however, very nice ; drinking only of 
 that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks 
 with which he is acquainted. 
 
 This animal is very serviceable to poor 
 cottagers, and those who are not able to 
 buy or keep horses ; especially where they 
 live near heaths or commons, the barrenest 
 of which will keep the ass, who is contented 
 with any kind of coarse herbage, such as 
 dry leaves, stalks, thistles, briars, chaff, and 
 any sort of straw. Animals of this sort re- 
 quire very little looking after, and sustain 
 labour, hunger, and thirst, beyond most 
 others. They are seldom or never sick; 
 and endure longer than most other kinds of 
 animals. They may be made useful in hus- 
 bandry to plough light lands, to carry bur- 
 dons, to draw in mills, to fetch water, cut 
 144 
 
 chaff, or any other similar purposes. They 
 are also very serviceable in many cases for 
 their milk, which is excellent for those who 
 have suffered from acute diseases, and are 
 much weakened ; and they might be of much 
 more advantage to the farmer, were they 
 used, as they are in foreign countries, for the 
 purpose of breeding mules. 
 
 The subjugation of the ass appears, from 
 the records of the Bible, to have preceded 
 that of the horse ; and we infer from the 
 same authority, that this subjugation took 
 place prior to that of the dog. 
 
 The structural differences between the 
 horse and the ass are trifling ; perhaps that 
 on which the very different tones emitted 
 by the voice depends is one of the most 
 striking. In all other essential points the 
 organisation of the horse and ass is the same ; 
 and, with the exception of the lengthened ears 
 of the ass, their form, size, and proportions, 
 in a wild state, they differ - but little ; con- 
 sequently, they possess conditions more 
 favourable to the multiplication of species 
 than those afforded by any other nearly 
 allied animals. The ass is, properly speak- 
 ing, a mountain animal ; his hoofs are long, 
 and furnished with extremely sharp rims, 
 leaving a hollow in the centre, by which 
 means he is enabled to tread with more se- 
 curity on the slippery and precipitous sides of 
 hills and precipices. The hoof of the horse, 
 on the contrary, is round and nearly flat 
 underneath, and we accordingly find that he 
 is most serviceable in level countries ; and 
 indeed experience has taught us that he is 
 altogether unfitted for crossing rocky and 
 steep mountains. As, however, the more di- 
 minutive size of the a^s rendered him com- 
 paratively less important as a beast of bur- 
 then, the ingenuity of mankind early devised 
 a means of remedying this defect, by cross- 
 ing the horse and ass, and thus procuring 
 an intermediate animal, uniting the size and 
 strength of the one with the patience, in- 
 telligence, and sure-footedness of the other. 
 
 The varieties of the ass in countries 
 favourable to their developement are great. 
 In Guinea the asses are large, and in shape 
 even excel the native horses. The asses of 
 Arabia (says Chardin) are perhaps the hand- 
 somest animals in the world ; their coat is 
 smooth and clean ; they carry the head ele- 
 vated, and have fine and well formed legs, 
 which they throw out gracefully in walking 
 or galloping. In Persia, also, they are 
 finely formed, some being even stately, and 
 much used in draught and carrying burdens, 
 while others are more lightly proportioned, 
 and used for the saddle by persons of quality, 
 frequently fetching the large sum of 400 
 livres ; and being taught a kind of easy, am- 
 bling pace are richly caparisoned, and used 
 
ASSESSED TAXES. 
 
 only by the rich and luxurious nobles. 
 With us, on the contrary, the ass unfortu- 
 nately exhibits a stunted growth, and ap- 
 pears rather to vegetate as a sickly exotic, 
 than to riot in the luxuriant enjoyment of 
 life like the horse. 
 
 The diseases of the ass, as far as they are 
 known, bear a general resemblance to those 
 of the horse. As he is more exposed, how- 
 ever, and left to live in a state more ap- 
 proaching to that which nature intended, he 
 has few diseases. Those few, however, are 
 less attended to than they ought to be ; and 
 it is for the veterinary practitioner to ex- 
 tend to this useful and patient animal the 
 benefit of his art, in common with those of 
 other animals. The ass is seldom or never 
 troubled with vermin, probably from the 
 hardness of its skin. (Blaine 's Encyc. Rural 
 Sports.) 
 
 ASSESSED TAXES. The assessed 
 taxes are collected under the provisions of 
 the 43 G. 3. c. 99., 43 G.3. c. 150., and 43 
 G. 3. c. 161., and 3 Vic. c. 17. By these, 
 commissioners are appointed for the col- 
 lection of these taxes, who must have a cer- 
 tain qualification, and any two of whom can 
 act : they shall elect an assistant or clerk ; 
 they shall issue their precepts for the election 
 of parish assessors ; such assessors, previous 
 to acting, are to take an oath to bring in 
 their assessments on oath, on or before 
 June 5. in each year ; and are liable to a 
 penalty of not exceeding 20/. for refusing 
 to act. 
 
 Surveyors or inspectors may be appointed 
 by the Lords of the Treasury, who may 
 surcharge, giving notice to the party sur- 
 charged, leaving such notice at his usual 
 place of abode. Such surveyor, however, 
 who shall knowingly or wilfully through 
 favour under-rate, or omit to charge any 
 person or persons, or shall be guilty of any 
 corrupt, vexatious, and illegal practices in 
 the execution of his office, shall for every 
 such offence forfeit 100/., and be discharged 
 from his employment. Persons surcharged 
 may appeal, on giving ten days' notice to 
 surveyor ; out, in default of such notice, 
 the assessment must be confirmed. Sur- 
 veyors may attend to support surcharge, 
 but no attorney or counsel can be heard for 
 either party, either viva voce, or by writing ; 
 from the determination of the commissioners 
 there is no appeal. Persons giving false 
 evidence before them, are guilty of perjury. 
 Collectors may distrain in default of pay- 
 ment, without warrant, and sell the distress. 
 
 In any action, brought against any col- 
 lector or other officer in pursuance of this 
 act, one month's notice must previously be 
 given ; tender of amends may be given ; and, 
 in case of failure, the plaintiff will have to 
 145 
 
 I pay treble costs, and the collector must be 
 defended at the expense of the parish. 
 
 By the 3 Vict. c. 17., an additional ten per cent, is to 
 be added to the subjoined amount of the assessed taxes. 
 But this Act " shall not extend to charge any person 
 with duty with respect of any windows or lights which 
 such person shall have made or opened since the 5th of 
 April, 1835." 
 
 Armorial Bearings. £ s. 
 
 Persons using armorial bearings, and keeping a 
 carriage - - - - - 2 8 
 
 Not keeping carriage, but paying window duty - 1 4 
 Persons not keeping carriage, or paying for win- 
 dows - - - - - -02 
 
 Carriages with four Wheels. 
 Private Carriages. 
 
 No. Each Carriage. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 - - 6 0 0 
 
 2 - - 6 10 0 
 
 3 - . 7 0 0 
 
 £ s. 
 
 Carriages kept to be let for hire with post horses, 
 each - - - - - -5 5 
 
 If drawn by one horse, each - - - 4 10 
 Carriages let by coachmakers without horses, 
 each - - - - - -60 
 
 Carriages with two wheels. 
 Each carriage - - - - - 3 5 
 
 Ditto drawn by two or more horses or mules - 4 10 
 Reduced duties by 1 W. 4. c. 35. 
 
 Four-wheeled carriages with wheels of less dia- 
 meter than thirty inches, drawn by ponies or 
 mules above twelve hands and not above thir- 
 teen hands in height, each - - - 3 5 
 Exempt. — Carriages with less than four wheels, not 
 kept for hire or profit (except for the conveyance of 
 prisoners or paupers), and drawn by one horse only, 
 provided that the price of such carriage shall not exceed, 
 or at any time have exceeded, the sum of 21/. ; every such 
 carriage must have the name, place of abode, and occu- 
 pation of the owner, painted in straight lines. 
 
 Carriages not let for hire, with less than four wheels, 
 of a diameter under 30 inches, drawn by ponies not ex- 
 ceeding twelve hands. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 Dogs. — Every greyhound - - - 1 0 
 
 Every hound, pointer, setting-dog, spaniel, 
 lurcher, or terrier ; and for every dog where 
 two or more are kept, of whatever denomin- 
 ation the same may be, except greyhounds - 0 14 
 Every other dog, where only on,e is kept - 0 8 
 Persons compounding for their hounds - 36 0 
 
 Exemptions Dogs only used in the care of sheep or 
 
 cattle, if not of the descriptions chargeable with the du- 
 ties of \l. and 145. ; and dogs under six months old. 
 Game Certificates. £ s. d. 
 
 If a servant to any person charged with duty 
 
 in respect of such servant - - - 1 5 0 
 If such person shall not be a servant as above 3 13 6 
 Every other person using a dog, or killing 
 game - , - - - -3 13 6 
 Hairpowher - - -136 
 
 Horses for riding, or drawing carriages : 
 
 No. 
 
 Each Horse. 
 
 No. 
 
 Each Horse. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 
 
 1 8 9 
 
 8 
 
 2 19 9 
 
 2 
 
 2 7 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 0 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 12 3 
 
 10 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 15 0 
 
 11 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 5 
 
 2 15 9 
 
 12 
 
 3 3 6 
 
 6 
 
 2 18 0 
 
 13 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 7 
 
 2 19 9 
 
 14 
 
 3 3 9 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Race-horse, each - - - - 3 10 0 
 Horse let for hire not paying post-horse duty, 
 
 each - - - - - 1 8 9 
 
 Horse rode by butchers in trade, each - 1 8 9 
 Where two only kept, the second - - 0 10 6 
 
 Horse for riding, not exceeding the height of 
 
 13 hands, each - - - - 1 1 0 
 
 Exempt. — Horses used in husbandry, or by market 
 
 gardeners in business. 
 
 Horse used for the purpose of riding, or for drawing a 
 
 carriage, not chargeable with duty. 
 
 Horse used for riding by bailiff, shepherd, or herdsman, 
 
 where only one such horse is kept. 
 
 Horse used for riding, or drawing a carriage, not 
 L 
 
ASSESSED TAXES. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. 
 
 chargeable with duty, by a clergyman (including dissen- 
 ters) ; person keeping only one such horse, and income 
 arising from his ecclesiastical appointment or otherwise, 
 under 120Z. per annum. 
 Mares kept tor breeding. 
 
 Horses kept by postmasters may be used in husbandry, 
 and drawing fuel, manure, corn or fodder, free from 
 duty. 
 
 Horsed f.alers exercising the business within Bills £ s. 
 of Mortality - - - - - 25 0 
 
 Elsewhere 12 10 
 
 Windows : 
 
 No. of 
 Windows. 
 
 Duty Yearly, 
 
 No. of 
 Windows, 
 
 Duty Yearly. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. d. 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 24 
 
 1 
 
 4 9 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 13 3 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 2G 
 
 8 
 
 1 9 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 8 
 
 10 0 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 28 
 
 8 
 
 18 6 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 29 
 
 9 
 
 7 0 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 15 3 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 31 
 
 10 
 
 3 9 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 32 
 
 10 
 
 12 3 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 33 
 
 11 
 
 0 6 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 11 
 
 9 0 
 
 19 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 11 
 
 17 3 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 11 
 
 S 
 
 36 
 
 12 
 
 5 9 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 37 
 
 12 
 
 14 3 
 
 22 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 38 
 
 13 
 
 2 6 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 39 
 
 13 
 
 11 0 
 
 Exemptions Dairies and cheese-rooms, if not used 
 
 to sleep in, and " dairy and cheese-room " is painted over 
 door. Windows in a farm-house occupied by tenant 
 at rack-rent less than 200/. per annum; a farm-house 
 occupied by the owner or tenant of a farm, of yearly value 
 under 100/. per annum, if the owner of such farm-house 
 has not a yearly income exceeding 100/. from any other 
 source. 
 
 Glass doors, or lights over doors, are windows, and 
 windows of out-houses. A window lighting two rooms, 
 in two frames, to pay as two windows. 
 Servants, in the capacity of footman, coachman, groom, 
 stable-boy, or helper in the stables, gardener, hunts- 
 man, whipper in, or other male servant. 
 
 No. 
 
 Each 
 Servant. 
 
 No. 
 
 Each 
 Servant. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 
 
 1 4 0 
 
 5 
 
 2 9 0 
 
 2 
 
 1 11 0 
 
 6 
 
 2 11 6 
 
 3 
 
 1 18 0 
 
 7 
 
 2 12 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 8 
 
 2 16 0 
 
 Bachelors pay 1/. extra for each servant. 
 
 Exempt. — Any male servant, occasionally employed 
 by person residing in parish in which servant shall have 
 legal settlement ; if such servant shall not have attained 
 the age of 18 years. 
 
 ASTER. (Lat. Aster chinensis, starwort.) 
 
 A beautiful annual plant, growing from one 
 to two feet in height. It is a native of 
 China, from which- cause it is known by the 
 familiar term of China aster. Its handsome 
 variegated flowers blow in August and Sep- 
 tember ; indeed, they are only banished by 
 the setting in of frost. They are raised by 
 seed sown in a hotbed in spring, and pricked 
 out into borders and beds, when the plants 
 have acquired five or six leaves. They 
 like a good rich soil. Plant each aster six 
 inches distant from each other, as they will 
 branch out in every direction if the soil is 
 sufficiently light and rich. The China aster 
 is a very important and gay flower in the 
 garden. 
 
 ASTRINGENT. (Astringo, Lat.) In 
 farriery, a term applied to such remedies as 
 have the property of constringing or binding 
 the parts. 
 
 ATMOSPHERE. The name given to 
 the elastic invisible fluid, which, to a con- 
 siderable height, surrounds our globe. It is 
 composed chiefly of two simple or unde- 
 composed gases, viz. 
 
 Azote, or nitrogen - 79*16 
 Oxygen - - 20-82 
 
 100* 
 
 It contains, also, about x^o-th of its 
 weight of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, a 
 considerable portion of aqueous vapour 
 (which is always the most considerable in 
 amount in dry weather), and occasionally 
 foreign substances. (See Aerolites.) The 
 average proportion in which these exist in 
 the atmosphere are — 
 
 Air - - 98-9 
 
 Watery vapour - - V 
 
 Carbonic acid gas - - -l 
 
 100- 
 
 (Thomson's Chem. vol. iii. 181.) 
 
 Monthly Atmospherical Observations. 
 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 March. 
 
 April. 
 
 May. 
 
 June. 
 
 July. 
 
 Aug. 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Barometer, average mean ~i 
 height in degrees - J 
 
 29-921 
 
 30-067 
 
 29-843 
 
 29-881 
 
 29-888 
 
 30 036 
 
 29-874 
 
 29-891 
 
 29-931 
 
 29-774 
 
 29 776 
 
 29-693 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 30-770 
 
 30-820 
 
 30-770 
 
 30-540 
 
 30-380 
 
 30-460 
 
 30-300 
 
 30-260 
 
 30-410 
 
 30-610 
 
 30-270 
 
 30-320 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 28-890 
 
 29-170 
 
 28-870 
 
 29-200 
 
 29-160 
 
 29-600 
 
 29-390 
 
 29-350 
 
 29-410 
 
 28-740 
 
 29-080 
 
 29-120 
 
 Thermometer, average^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 mean temperature 
 
 
 31-1 
 
 38- 
 
 439 
 
 49-9 
 
 54- 
 
 587 
 
 61- 
 
 616 
 
 57-8 
 
 489 
 
 42-9 
 
 393 
 
 degrees 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Highest 
 
 
 52- 
 
 53- 
 
 66- 
 
 74- 
 
 70- 
 
 90- 
 
 76- 
 
 82- 
 
 76- 
 
 6.8- 
 
 62- 
 
 55- 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 11- 
 
 21- 
 
 24- 
 
 29- 
 
 33- 
 
 37- 
 
 42- 
 
 41- 
 
 36- 
 
 27- 
 
 23- 
 
 17- 
 
 Rain, mean quantity 
 inches 
 
 
 1-483 
 
 0-746 
 
 1-440 
 
 1-786 
 
 1-853 
 
 1-830 
 
 2-516 
 
 1-453 
 
 2- 193 
 
 2-073 
 
 2-400 
 
 2-426 
 
 Evaporation of earth 
 inches (mean) 
 
 ?i 
 
 0-413 
 
 0-72 
 
 1-488 
 
 2-290 
 
 0-286 
 
 3-760 
 
 3293 
 
 3-327 
 
 2-620 
 
 1-488 
 
 0-770 
 
 0-516 
 
 W.nc/s in days : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North 
 
 
 3i 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 North-east 
 
 
 A k 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 8| 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 3? 
 
 3 
 
 
 East - 
 
 
 l| 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1* 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 P 
 
 South-east 
 
 
 1 
 
 % 
 
 2 
 
 3i 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 South 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 l 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 South-west 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 ? 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 Wert 
 
 
 
 
 
 P 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 4 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 North-west 
 
 
 
 si 
 
 "4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 i 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 14G 
 
 British Almanac. 
 
ATROPHY. 
 
 AUCTION, SALES BY. 
 
 It fulfils a very essential office with regard 
 to the growth of plants. (See Gases, their 
 use to Vegetation.) The composition of 
 the atmosphere is always the same, although 
 it has been analysed when obtained from 
 the most elevated mountains, the lowest 
 marshes, from crowded cities, and the sur- 
 face of the ocean, in all winds, and in all 
 states of the barometer. It has been searched 
 in vain by Liebig and other able chemists, 
 for the ammonia which it has been supposed 
 to contain, although, from some very incon- 
 clusive experiments, it has been supposed 
 to exist in snow. {Organic Chem., 74 — 76.) 
 
 ATROPHY. In farriery, a morbid 
 wasting and emaciation, attended with a 
 great loss of strength in animals. 
 
 ATTAINT. Among farriers, signifies a 
 knock or hurt in a horse's leg, proceeding 
 either from a blow or from an over-reach. 
 
 The mode of cure, where the skin is newly 
 removed by a blow or over-reach, is to re- 
 place it as soon as possible, and keep it close - 
 and free from any extraneous matters, by 
 means of a bandage, or some other conve- 
 nience ; but, in the case of wind-galls, the 
 best method is to have recourse to embro- 
 cations of the stimulant kind, and slight 
 blisters. 
 
 ATTENUANTS. In farriery, are such 
 remedies as lessen the cohesion of the fluid, 
 or other parts of the bodies of animals. 
 
 ATTICKI. A term applied to a breed 
 of Arabian horses. 
 
 AUBIN. In horsemanship, a pace in a 
 horse, between an amble and a gallop. 
 
 AUCTION, SALES BY. (Audio, Lat.) 
 This common mode of disposing of property 
 is as old as the days of Rome. These con- 
 querors of the world in this way parted with 
 the spoils of their enemies. Sales of goods 
 by auction are within the statute of frauds, 
 Kenworthy v. Scolejield, 4 D. & R. 566., and 
 lands also, Walker v. Constable, 1 B. & P. 306. 
 
 The duties levied upon goods sold by 
 public auction are not charged according to 
 any uniform scale. Sheep's wool of British 
 growth, sold for the benefit of the growers, 
 is subject to an auction duty of 2d. for every 
 205. of the purchase money. By the 45 G. 3. 
 c. 30., a duty of Id. in the pound is payable 
 upon the amount of any sale by auction, of 
 any interest in possession or reversion, in 
 any freehold, copyhold, or leasehold estates, 
 whether in land or buildings ; shares in the 
 joint stock of corporate or chartered com- 
 panies ; reversionary interest in any of the 
 public funds ; and of ships or vessels. 
 Household furniture, pictures, • books, and 
 the like kinds of personal property, are made 
 to pay Is. in the pound. Many exceptions 
 have been made by the legislature, when 
 imposing these duties. Thus piece goods, 
 147 
 
 wove or fabricated in this kingdom, which 
 shall be sold entire* in the piece or quantity, 
 as taken from the loom, and in lots of the 
 price of 20/. and upwards, are exempted 
 from the payment of duty. The same ex- 
 emption extends to the produce of the whale 
 and seal fisheries, elephants' teeth, palm oil, 
 drugs, and other articles for the use of 
 dyers ; mahogany and other woods used by 
 cabinet makers ; and all goods imported by 
 way of merchandise from any of the British 
 American colonies, the same being the 
 growth, produce, or manufacture of such 
 colony, and sold by the original importer 
 within 12 months from the time of import- 
 ation. Neither is any duty chargeable upon 
 property sold by order of the courts of 
 chancery or exchequer ; nor on any sale 
 made by the East India or Hudson's Bay 
 company ; nor by order of the commissioners 
 of custom, excise, or any other government 
 board of commissioners. 
 
 In like manner, sales made by the sheriff 
 for the benefit of creditors in execution of 
 judgment, and bankrupt's effects sold by 
 assignees, are not held liable to the payment 
 of auction duty ; which last species of ex- 
 emption are made upon the principle of not 
 aggravating their losses to innocent suf- 
 ferers. For the same reason, goods damaged 
 by fire, or wrecked and stranded, which are 
 sold for the benefit of insurers, are not 
 charged with duty. Wood, coppice, the 
 produce of mines and quarries, cattle, corn, 
 stock, or produce of land, may be sold by 
 auction free of duty, while they continue 
 on the lands producing the same. In case 
 the sale of an estate be declared void, 
 through defect of title, the duty that has 
 been paid may be claimed again, within 
 three months after the time when the defect 
 has been discovered. 
 
 Putting in papers at a meeting, or tender, 
 with an understanding that the highest 
 sum marked on the paper shall be the pur- 
 chaser, is a sale under the 17 G. 3. c. 50., and 
 19 G. 3. c. 56. ( Walker v. Advocate General, 
 lDowling, 111. RexY. Taylor, 13 Price, 636.) 
 
 Conditions of Sale. — The conditions of a 
 sale by auction, printed and pasted up under 
 the auctioneer's box, where he declares merely 
 that the conditions are as usual, is sufficient 
 notice to purchasers (Mesnard v. Aldridge, 
 SEspinasse, 271.); but the verbal declara- 
 tions of the auctioneer at the sale are not 
 admissible in evidence to contradict the 
 printed conditions (Ghunnis v '. Erhart, 1 H. 
 Blackstone, 289.) ; or as to the parcels or 
 qualities of the lots (Skelton v. Livius, 2 C. & 
 J. 411.); or to amend false statement or 
 title. (Bradsliaw v. Bennet, 5 C. & P. 48.) 
 
 A bidder, under the usual conditions that 
 the highest bidder shall be the purchaser, 
 l 2 
 
AUCTION, SALES BY. 
 
 AUGRE, DRAINING. 
 
 may retract his bidding at any time before 
 the fall of the hammer. (Payne v. Case, 
 3 T. R. 148.) And if the same person is de- 
 clared the highest bidder for several lots, a 
 distinct contract arises for each lot. (Em- 
 merson v. Heeles, 2 Taunton, 28. Roots v. 
 Dormer, 1 N. & M. 667.) If a person, by 
 any statement or other means, prevents 
 other persons from bidding against him at a 
 sale, he cannot compel the delivery of the 
 lot, even though he has paid a deposit. 
 (Fuller v. Abrahams, 6 Moore, 316.) If a 
 person employs puffers at a sale, he must 
 announce it, or else the sale is void 
 (Wheeler v. Collier, M. & M. 125. Howard 
 v. Castle, 6 T. R. 642. Crowder v. Austen, 
 3 Bingham, 368. Bramley v. All, 3 Vesey 
 jun., 624. Rex v. Marsh, 3 Y. & J., 331.) ; 
 but there is no objection to one bona fide 
 bid to prevent the lot going below a certain 
 price. (Smith v. Clarke, 12 Vesey jun., 477.) 
 But the agent for the vendor cannot bid 
 for the purchaser. (Twining v. Morrice, 
 2 Bro. C. C. 326.) The owner's putting 
 up certain lots at certain prices, does not 
 render it, if there are no bidders, liable to the 
 auction duty (Crusov. Crisp, 3 East. 337.) ; 
 this, however, was doubted in Walker v. 
 Advocate General, 1 Dowling, 115.), but the 
 auction duty becomes payable though the sale 
 is imperfect. (Jones v. Nanney, 13 Price, 76.) 
 
 The average annual value of goods subject 
 to duty which were sold by auction in the 
 10 years ending with 1833, was 7,556,7327., 
 yielding an average annual net revenue of 
 260,293/. An auctioneer must take out an 
 annual license, renewable on the 5 th July 
 in every year, and for which he pays 51. He 
 must also enter into a bond, with sufficient 
 sureties, to deliver to the officers of excise, 
 within a certain period, a true and particular 
 account of every sale held by him, and to 
 pay the amount of auction duty accruing 
 therefrom ; 28 days being allowed for this 
 purpose, within the limits of the chief office 
 of excise in London, and six weeks beyond 
 those limits. Two days' notice prior to a 
 sale being held must be given within the 
 limits of the chief office, and three days 
 when beyond that jurisdiction. Though 
 bound to take care of goods entrusted to 
 him for sale, he is not liable for inevitable 
 accidents. (Maltby v. Christie, 1 Esp. 340.) 
 If he has notice that the goods he is about 
 to sell do not belong to his principal, he is 
 personally liable if he continues to sell, for 
 the produce of the sale. (Hardacre v. 
 Stewart, 3 Esp. 103.) He is also personally 
 Liable if, in selling goods, he deviates from 
 the Strict Letter of the conditions. (Jones v. 
 Nanney, 13 Price, 16.) If he is directed 
 merely not to sell under a certain price, he 
 may knock the lot down to the highest 
 148 
 
 bidder ; but if he is directed to put the lot 
 up at a certain price, then he is personally 
 liable if he neglects. (Bexwell v. Christie, 
 Cowper, 393.) He cannot purchase an es- 
 tate he is employed to sell. The Court of 
 Chancery set aside a sale under these cir- 
 cumstances, after a lapse of 13 years. (Oliver 
 v. Court, 1 Daniel, 301.) He may sue for 
 the price of the lot sold, though the goods 
 belong to another person. (Williams v. 
 Millington, 1 H. Blackstone, 81.) And the 
 urchaser may set off a debt owing to him 
 y the owner of the lots. (Coppin v. Walker, 
 7 Taunt. 237. Coppin v. Craig, 7 Taunt. 
 243.) The auctioneer is bound to retain the 
 deposit on the sale of an estate till the pur- 
 chase is complete, and it is ascertained to 
 whom the money belongs. (Gray v. Gut- 
 teridge, 1 M. & R. 614.) The number of 
 auctioneers' licenses issued in England in 
 1824, was 2939; in 1833, 3040. 
 AUGHTENPART LANDS. An an- 
 • cient kind of tenure, or condition of land, 
 in which it lies in a sort of run-ridge 
 manner. Some remains of it are still met 
 with in the northern parts of Scotland. 
 
 AUGRE, BORING. An implement for 
 boring into the soil. An augre of the above 
 kind, when made of a large size, and with 
 different pieces to fix on to each other, may 
 be very usefully applied to try the nature of 
 the under soil, the discovering springs, and 
 drawing off water from lands, &c. In order 
 to accomplish the first purpose, three augres 
 will be necessary ; the first of them about 
 three feet long, the second six, and the 
 third ten. Their diameters should be near 
 an inch, and their bits large, and capable of 
 bringing up part of the soil they pierce. 
 An iron handle should be fixed cross-ways 
 to wring it into the earth, from whence the 
 instrument must be drawn up as often as it 
 has pierced a new depth of about six inches, 
 in order to cleanse the bit, and examine the 
 soil. 
 
 AUGRE, DRAINING. An instrument 
 employed for the purposes of boring into the 
 bottoms of drains or other places, in order 
 to discover and let off water. It is nearly 
 similar to that made use of in searching for 
 coal or other subterraneous minerals. The 
 augre, shell, or wimble, as it is variously 
 called, for excavating the earth or strata 
 through which it passes, is generally from 
 two and a half to three and a half inches in 
 diameter ; the hollow part of it one foot 
 four inches in length, and constructed nearly 
 in the shape of the wimble used by carpen- 
 ters, only the sides of the shell come closer 
 to one another. The rods are made in sepa- 
 rate pieces of four feet long each, that screw 
 into one another to any assignable length, 
 one after another as the depth of the hole 
 
AUGRE, DRAINING. 
 
 AUGUST. 
 
 requires. The size above the augre is about 
 an inch square, unless at the joints, where, 
 for the sake of strength, they are a quarter 
 of an inch more. 
 
 There is also a chisel and punch, adapted 
 for screwing on, in going through hard 
 gravel, or other metallic substances, to ac- 
 celerate the passage of the augre, which 
 could not otherwise perforate such hard 
 bodies. The punch is often used, when the 
 augre is not applied, to prick or open the 
 sand or gravel, and give a more easy issue 
 to the water. The chisel is an inch and a 
 half or two inches broad at the point, and 
 made very sharp for cutting stone ; and the 
 punch an inch square, like the other part of 
 the rods, with the point sharpened also. 
 
 As it is remarked by Johnstone, in his 
 account of Elkington's mode of draining, to 
 judge when to make use of the borer is a 
 difficult part of the business of draining. 
 Many who have not seen it made use of in 
 draining, have been led into a mistaken no- 
 tion, both as to the manner of using it, and 
 the purpose for which it is applied. They 
 think, that if by boring indiscriminately 
 through the ground to be drained, water is 
 found near enough the surface to be reached 
 by the depth of the drain, the proper direc- 
 tion for it is along these holes where water 
 has been found ; and thus make it the first 
 implement that is used. The contrary, 
 however, in practice, is the case, and the 
 augre is never used till after the drain is 
 cut ; and then for the purpose of perforating 
 any retentive or impervious stratum, lying 
 between the bottom of the drain and the 
 reservoir or strata containing the spring. 
 Thus it greatly lessens the trouble and ex- 
 pense that would otherwise be requisite in 
 cutting the trench to that depth to which, 
 in many instances, the level of the outlet 
 will not admit. The manner of using it is 
 simply thus : — in working it, two, or rather 
 three men, are necessary. Two stand above, 
 on each side of the drain, who turn it round 
 by means of the wooden handles, and when 
 the augre is full they draw it out ; and the 
 man in the bottom of the trench clears out 
 the earth, assists in pulling it out, and di- 
 recting it into the hole, and who can also 
 assist in turning with the iron handle or key 
 when the depth and length of rods require 
 additional force to perform the operation. 
 The workmen should be cautious in boring 
 not to go deeper at a time, without drawing, 
 than the exact length of the shell, otherwise 
 the earth, clay, or sand, through which it is 
 boring, after the shell is full, makes it very 
 difficult to pull out. For this purpose the 
 exact length of the shell should be regularly 
 marked on the rods, from the bottom up- 
 wards. Two flat boards, with a hole cut 
 149 
 
 into the side of one of them, and laid along- 
 side of one another over the drain, in the 
 time of boring, are very useful for directing 
 the rods in going down perpendicularly, lor 
 keeping them steady in boring, and for the 
 men standing on when performing the ope- 
 ration. 
 
 AUGUST. The eighth month of the 
 year. 
 
 Farmer's Calendar. — This is too com- 
 pletely the harvest month of the farmer in 
 the south of England for him to have leisure 
 to attend to more than the crowning labours 
 of the season. Do not let the corn become 
 too ripe before you begin to cut ; it is a very 
 common error — is attended with several 
 disadvantages — the crops become ripe al- 
 together, the labourers cannot cut it with 
 sufficient rapidity, much seed is lost, and if 
 wet comes on, the corn the sooner sprouts or 
 becomes mouldy. The days get shorter, 
 the night dews increase, seed sowing is re- 
 tarded. Turnip hoeing, however, must now 
 be going on, and on no account neglected, 
 for on these depend more than one harvest 
 of the farmer. Coleseed, or better, the 
 " six weeks' turnips," may also be sown in 
 the early part of the month in some of the 
 ploughed stubbles. The practice of the 
 Flemish farmers is admirable ; they grow 
 rye or early peas for the purpose of suc- 
 ceeding these by transplanted rape or cab- 
 bage, which they, immediately after planting, 
 water with their liquid manure. In har- 
 vesting corn prefer stacking : wheat, " the 
 farmer's chief hope," and barley, are safer 
 from vermin when on frames ; the sample is 
 always of a better colour, and you may cart 
 it earlier for stacking than for the barn. 
 Beans, without they lay some days before 
 they are tied, must be in small sheaves, and 
 then hardly any weather will hurt them. 
 Regulate the proceedings of the gleaners by 
 public notice ; do not stand too tightly upon 
 your rights with these little harvesters, for 
 their calling is older than your Bible : they 
 have, however, no common law right to enter 
 your fields to glean, and their being legally 
 settled in the parish makes no difference ; 
 they are strictly in law trespassers. {Steel 
 v. Houghton, 1 H. Black., 51.) Long good 
 custom, however, has sanctioned the prac- 
 tice, a spirit which in some measure seems 
 derived from the levitical law. Levit. xix. 
 9. ; xxiii. 22, &c. Judge Gould, in Steel v. 
 Houghton, delivered a learned judgment in 
 favour of the right of the poor to glean, but 
 the other three judges were against him. 
 Turn the ram to the ewes for early fat lambs. 
 If you have spare time, collect together the 
 earth on which you intend to form your 
 compost heaps ; this can hardly be done with 
 too much care. The practice of mixing 
 l 3 
 
AUGUST. 
 
 AVENA. 
 
 earth with chalk or marl, and well mixing 
 them by the plough or the spade for some 
 months before the dung heap is formed on 
 it, is excellent. These earth-beds should 
 be formed deeper at the sides than in the 
 centre, to allow of some of it being spared 
 for covering over the heaps. 
 
 This is a good time, especially if the wea- 
 ther is moist, to improve poor worn out 
 pastures, either by sowing grass seeds, or 
 by using the sub-turf plough ; or both rye 
 and winter barley should be sown this month, 
 and towards the end a small crop of tares 
 for first feed. (Farmer's Almanac.} 
 
 Gardener's Calendar, — Kitchen gar- 
 den. — Alexanders, sow. Angelica, sow. 
 Aromatic herbs may still be planted, gather 
 for drying and distilling. Artichokes, break 
 down, &c. Asparagus beds, weed. Balm, 
 plant, gather for drying. Beans, plant b. 
 Borage, sow. Borecole, plant. Broccoli, 
 plant Cabbages, plant out, sow b. Ce- 
 lery, prick out, plant. Chervil, sow. Corn 
 salad, sow. Cauliflowers, plant, sow e. 
 Coleworts, sow for b. plant. Celeriac, earth 
 up. Cardoons, earth up. Carrots, sow b. 
 Cress, American, sow. Cucumbers, plant or 
 sow b. Cucumbers, attend to advancing. 
 Dill, is fit for gathering, earthing up attend. 
 Endive, plant, sow b., blanch, &c, advancing 
 crops. Fennel, sow and plant. Finochio, 
 earth up. Garlic, take up. Hoeing, attend. 
 Kidney beans, sow b. Leeks, plant b. Let- 
 tuces, sow, plant out. Melons, attend to. 
 Mint, gather for drying. Mushroom beds, 
 make, attend to. Nasturtium berries, gather. 
 Onions, sow b. and e. Parsley, sow b. Peas, 
 sow b. Radishes, sow pods, gather for pick- 
 ling. Rape, edible rooted, sow. Rochambole, 
 take up. Shallots, take up. Savoys, plant 
 b. Seed, gather as ripe. Small salading, 
 sow. Spinach, sow, stir between plants in 
 rows, &c. Turnips, sow b., thin, &c. Turnip 
 cabbage, plant. Weeding and watering at- 
 tend to. Wormwood, plant b. 
 
 Flower Garden. — You may now begin to 
 propagate some double-flowered and ap- 
 proved fibrous rooted plants the end of the 
 month if they have done flowering ; such, for 
 instance, as the double rose, campion, catch- 
 fly, double scarlet lychnis, double rocket, 
 double ragged robin, bachelors' buttons, gen- 
 tianella, polyanthuses, auriculas, &c. Sow 
 auricula and polyanthus seed on a warm dry 
 day, and remove carnation layers to some 
 place where they may remain till October 
 to gain strength. Sow seeds of bulbs. Sow 
 anemone and ranunculus seed. Remove all 
 bulbs which have done flowering. Cut and 
 trim edgings of box, clip holly, yew, and 
 privet hedges ; gather flower seeds ; plant 
 autumnal bulbs if any arc still above ground, 
 such as colchicums, autumnal narcissus, 
 150 
 
 amaryllis, and autumn crocus. Trim the 
 flower plants ; mow the lawn and grass 
 walks, and keep every department in order. 
 
 General monthly Notices. — This month 
 derived its name from Augustus, the Roman 
 emperor : it was called Sextilis, or the sixth 
 month in the Alban calendar, in which it 
 had only twenty-eight days assigned to it. 
 Romulus added two, and Augustus a third, 
 which number it has since retained. The 
 Anglo-Saxons called it either Barn Monaih, 
 alluding to this being the period when their 
 barns were commonly filled, or Weod Mo- 
 nath, clothing month, alluding to their fields 
 being then clothed with corn — just as the 
 Romans dedicated this month to Ceres, the 
 goddess of harvests. This is indeed a period 
 of joy and gladness to all nations. We even 
 allude to a person's success in life by saying 
 he has made his harvest : the French do the 
 same, only they say he has made his August. 
 The earth is now rapidly ripening her fruits 
 and seeds of all kinds, the leaves of the elm 
 begin to change their colour, the young 
 starlings now congregate in flocks, the golden 
 sparwort and the sunflower are in bloom, 
 the poisonous berries of the deadly night- 
 shade ripen, meteors abound in the atmo- 
 sphere. (Farmer s Almanac.) 
 
 AURICULA. (Lat. Primula auricula, 
 bear's ears.) This superb flower is a native 
 of Switzerland, and is hardy ; but it blooms 
 all the better for a little care, in frost, heats, 
 and heavy rains. They are propagated by 
 seed, and by rooted slips, and olF-sets, and 
 they should be parted every three years, 
 otherwise they become weakly, and blow 
 badly. Sow auricula seed in March, in 
 boxes, cover them very lightly, and water 
 very gently. Miller says, it is good to sow 
 seed from August to December. Auriculas 
 love a good, rich soil, and bloom finest if a 
 little sea-sand is mixed in the compost. 
 When the young plants have five or six 
 leaves, transplant them till they become 
 strong, and then remove them into pots, or 
 the flower-beds. The auricula produces in- 
 exhaustible varieties of blooms. (L. Johnson.) 
 
 A VENA. A genus of grasses ; the oat- 
 grass. Some of the species may be culti- 
 vated to advantage in suitable situations, 
 intermixed with a due proportion of other 
 grasses. 
 
 Avena flavescens. Golden oat, or yellow 
 oat-grass. This is one of those grasses which 
 never thrives when cultivated simply by it- 
 self : it requires to be combined with other 
 grasses to secure its continuance in the soil, 
 and to obtain its produce in perfection. It 
 thrives best when combined with the Hor- 
 deum pratense (meadow barley), Cynosurus 
 cristatus (crested dog's-tail), and Anthoxan- 
 thufn odoratum (sweet-scented vernal-grass). 
 
AVENA. 
 
 It affects most a calcareous soil, and that which 
 is dry. It grows naturally, however, in al- 
 most every kind of meadow : it is always 
 present in the richest natural pastures. From 
 the details given in the table below, it will 
 be seen that its produce is not very great, 
 nor its nutritive qualities considerable. The 
 nutritive matter it affords from its leaves 
 (the properties of which are of more im- 
 portance to be known than those of the 
 culms, for a permanent pasture grass,) con- 
 tains proportionally more bitter extractive 
 than what is contained in the nutritive mat- 
 ters of the grasses with which it is more 
 generally combined in natural pastures, and 
 which have just now been mentioned. This 
 latter circumstance is the chief claim it has 
 to a place in the composition of the produce 
 of rich pasture land ; but more particularly, 
 if the land be elevated, and without good 
 shelter, this grass becomes more valuable, 
 as it thrives better under such circumstances 
 than most other grasses, and sheep eat it as 
 readily as they do most others. The seed 
 is very small and light ; but it vegetates 
 freely if sown in the autumn, or not too 
 early in the spring. I have sown the seeds 
 of this grass in almost every month of the 
 year, and after making due allowance for 
 the state of the weather, the third week 
 in May, and the first week of August to 
 September, were evidently the best. It 
 flowers in the first, and often in the second 
 week of July, and ripens the seed in the 
 beginning of August. The value of the 
 grass, at the time of flowering, is to that at 
 the time the seed is ripe, as 5 to 3. 
 
 The value of the grass, at the time of 
 flowering, exceeds that of the latter-math, 
 as 3 to 1 ; and the value of the grass at the 
 time the seed is ripe, is to that of the latter- 
 math, as 9 to 5. 
 
 Avena pratensis. Meadow oat-grass. This 
 species of oat-grass is much less common 
 than the Avena pubescens, or Avena fiaves- 
 cens. It is found more frequent on chalky 
 than on any other kind of soils : I have also 
 found it in moist meadows as well as on dry 
 heaths. This property of thriving on soils 
 of such opposite natures is not common to 
 the different species of grass. When this 
 grass was planted in an irrigated meadow, 
 
 the produce did not appear to exceed that 
 which it afforded on a dry elevated soil, 
 though it appeared more healthy, by the 
 superior green colour of the foliage ; and it 
 thus appears to thrive under irrigation. The 
 produce and nutritive powers, however, seem 
 to be inferior to many other species of the 
 secondary grasses. The produce or value 
 of the yellow oat is superior to that of the 
 meadow oat in the proportion nearly of 7 
 to 3. The downy oat-grass is also superior 
 to the meadow oat-grass in the quantity of 
 nutritive matter it affords from the crops of 
 one season, in the proportion nearly of 3 to 
 2. From these facts and observations it 
 cannot justly be recommended for cultiva- 
 tion in preference to either of the two spe- 
 cies with which it has now been compared. 
 Its nutritive matter contains a less propor- 
 tion of bitter extractive and saline matters 
 than any other of the oat-grasses that have 
 been submitted to experiment. It flowers 
 in July, and the seed is ripe in August. 
 
 Avena pubescens. Downy oat-grass. This 
 grass has properties which recommend it 
 to the notice of the agriculturist, being hardy, 
 and a small impoverisher of the soil ; the re- 
 productive power is also considerable, though 
 the foliage does not attain to a great length 
 if left growing. Like the Poa pratensis, it 
 seldom or never sends forth any flowering 
 culms, after the first are cropped, which is a 
 property of some value for the purpose of 
 permanent pasture, or dry soils, which are 
 sooner impoverished by the growth of plants 
 than those that are moist. Among the se- 
 condary grasses, therefore, I hardly know 
 one whose habits promise better for the 
 purpose now spoken of. The nutritive 
 matter it affords contains a greater propor- 
 tion of the bitter extractive principle than 
 the nutritive matter of those grasses that 
 affect a similar soil, which lessens its merits 
 in those respects, and must prevent its being 
 employed in any considerable quantity as a 
 constituent of a mixture of grasses for lay- 
 ing down such soils to grass. In one part 
 of Woburn Park, where the soil is light and 
 silicious, the downy oat grows in consider- 
 able abundance. The downy hairs which 
 cover the surface of the leaves of this grass 
 when growing on poor, dry, or chalky soils, 
 
 Description of Grass. 
 
 Soil. 
 
 Green Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Produce per Acre 
 of Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Avena flavescens, in flower ... 
 
 — — , in seed, ripe 
 
 — . , latter-math 
 
 Clayey loam 
 Sandy loam 
 
 lbs. 
 
 8,167 8 0 
 12,251 4 0 
 4,083 12 0 
 6,806 4 0 
 9,528 12 0 
 15,654 6 0 
 6,806 4 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 2,858 10 0 
 4,900 8 0 
 
 1,871 11 8 
 2,858 10 0 
 5,870 6 4 
 1,361 4 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 478 9 0 
 430 11 5 
 79 12 2 
 239 4 8 
 148 14 3 
 366 14 6 
 212 11 2 
 
 A. pratensis, in flower - 
 
 , in seed, ripe - 
 
 A. pubescens, in flower ... 
 , in seed, ripe - 
 
 151 
 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 ii 4 
 
AVENS, COMMON. 
 
 AVERDUPOIS. 
 
 almost disappear when cultivated on richer 
 soils. The crop at the time of flowering 
 is superior to that at the time the seed is 
 ripe, in the proportion nearly of 5 to 3. 
 The grass of the latter-math, and that at 
 the time the seed is ripe, are of equal pro- 
 portional value. It flowers in the second 
 or third week of June, and the seed is 
 ripe about the beginning or in the middle of 
 July. 
 
 AVENS, COMMON, or HERB BEN- 
 NET. (Geum urbanum.) An indigenous 
 perennial plant, which grows plentifully in 
 woods and about shady dry hedges, produc- 
 ing small bright yellow flowers from May 
 till August. The stalks of this useful plant 
 attain two feet high, they are erect, round, 
 finely hairy, branched at the upper part, 
 bearing several flowers. The root consists 
 of a root- stock and many stout brown fibres, 
 which are astringent, and in some degree 
 aromatic in spring. They are said to impart 
 an agreeable clove-like flavour when infused 
 in beer or wine. In medicine, the powdered 
 root of the common Avens has been em- 
 ployed with good effect in conjunction with 
 Peruvian bark, or quinine, in cases of ague 
 and intermittent fever, and it is also valu- 
 able in long-standing cases of diarrhoea, and 
 in the last stage of dysentery. The dose is 
 from thirty to sixty grains. Sheep are ex- 
 tremely fond of its herbage, which may like- 
 wise, when young, be used for culinary pur- 
 poses, and especially in the form of salad. 
 It is stated (Trans, of Swed. Acad.) that 
 if a portion of the dried root be placed in a 
 bag and hung in a cask of beer, it will pre- 
 vent the beer from turning sour. There is a 
 variety of this plant called the great-flowered 
 Avens. (Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 429. ; Wil- 
 UcKs Dom. Ency.) 
 
 AVENS, WATER. A variety of the 
 before-named plant, which is common in 
 moist meadows and woods, especially in 
 mountainous countries, and is not rare in 
 the north of England, Scotland, Wales, nor 
 even in Norfolk. It has drooping flowers, 
 which distinguish it from the common 
 Avens. It is readily produced by trans- 
 planting the wild roots into a dry gravelly 
 soil, by which the flowers become red, as 
 well as double and proliferous, with many 
 strange changes of leaves into petals, and 
 the contrary. (Smith's Eng. Flora.) 
 
 AVENUE. (Fr.) An alley or walk 
 planted on each side with trees. These 
 kinds of walks were formerly much more 
 the fashion than they are at present. When 
 they are to be made, the common elm 
 answers very well for the purpose in most 
 grounds, except such as arc very wet and 
 shallow, and is preferred to most other trees, 
 because it bears cutting, heading, or lopping 
 152 
 
 in any manner. The rough Dutch elm is 
 approved by some, because of its quick 
 growth ; and it is a tree that will not only 
 bear removing very well, but that is green 
 in the spring almost as soon as any plant 
 whatever, and continues so equally long. 
 It makes an incomparable hedge, and is 
 preferable to all other trees for lofty es- 
 paliers. The lime is very useful on account 
 of its regular growth and fine shade ; and 
 the horse- chesnut is proper for such places 
 as are not too much exposed to rough winds. 
 The common chesnut does very well in a 
 good soil, or on warm gravels, as it rises to 
 a considerable height when planted some- 
 what close ; but, when it stands single, it is 
 rather inclined to spread than grow tall. 
 The beech naturally grows well with us in 
 its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for 
 avenues than others, because it does not 
 bear transplanting well. The abele may also 
 be employed for this use, as it is adapted to 
 almost any soil, and is the quickest grower 
 of any forest tree. It seldom fails in trans- 
 planting, and succeeds very well in wet 
 soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. 
 The oak is but seldom used for avenues, 
 because of its slow growth. 
 
 The old method of planting avenues was 
 by regular rows of trees, a practice which 
 has been adhered to till lately; but now, 
 when they are used, a much more orna- 
 mental way of planting them is adopted, 
 which is by setting the trees in clumps or 
 platoons, making the opening much wider 
 than before, and placing the clumps of trees 
 from one to three hundred feet distant from 
 each other. In these clumps there should 
 always be planted either seven or nine trees ; 
 but it must be observed that this method is 
 only proper to be practised where the 
 avenue is of considerable length, as in short 
 walks such clumps will not appear so sightly 
 as single rows of trees. The avenues made 
 by clumps are the. most suitable for large 
 parks. The trees in the clumps in such 
 should be planted thirty feet asunder ; and 
 a trench thrown up round each clump to 
 prevent the deer from coming to the trees 
 and barking them. 
 
 AVER. A local name for a labouring 
 beast of any kind. 
 
 AVERAGES. (Fr. aver; Lat. avera- 
 gium.) In the corn trade, is the average 
 amount of the prices at which the several 
 kinds of corn are sold in the chief corn 
 markets of England, as ascertained by the 
 returns of certain inspectors, according to 
 the act of the 9 G. 4. c. 60. (See Corn 
 Laws.) 
 
 AVERDUPOIS, or AVOIRDUPOIS 
 WEIGHT. (Avoir du poids, Fr., Dr. 
 Johnson says, but he should have added, 
 
AVER LAND. 
 
 averm ponderis, Lat., literally goods of 
 weight, goods sold by weight ; aver in old 
 French, and avoir in modern, signifying 
 goods, like the low Lat. averium, averum, 
 avere.) That kind of weight commonly 
 made use of for weighing most kinds of 
 large and coarse goods, as cheese, butter, 
 salt, hops, flesh, wool, &c. According to it, 
 sixteen drachms make an ounce, sixteen 
 ounces one pound, one hundred and twelve 
 pounds one hundred weight, and twenty 
 hundred weight one ton. It is most com- 
 monly written avoirdupois. 
 
 AVER LAND. Such lands as were 
 ploughed by the tenants for the use of their 
 lord were formerly so termed. 
 
 AVIARY. (Lat. avis, a bird.) A place 
 set apart for the feeding and propagating 
 birds. 
 
 AVOCET. In ornithology, the Recnr- 
 virostra avosetta, is" thus described by Yar- 
 rell : — " The beak black, about 3i inches in 
 length, having very much the appearance of 
 two thin flat pieces of whalebone coming 
 to a point, and curving upwards ; the irides 
 reddish brown ; top of the head, occiput, 
 nape, and back of the neck, black ; upper 
 part of the back, white ; legs and toes, pale 
 blue. The food of the avocet consists of 
 worms, aquatic insects, and the thinner 
 skinned crustaceous animals, which they 
 search for in soft mud. The nest, a small 
 hole in the drier part of marshes. The eggs 
 only two in number, of a clay colour, about 
 two inches in length by one and a half in 
 breadth. The length of the avocet is about 
 18 inches. {Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 555.) 
 
 AWNS. (Goth, ahana ; Sw.agri.) The 
 needle-like bristles which form the beards 
 of wheat, barley, and other grasses. The 
 word is, in some parts of England, pro- 
 nounced ails and iles. 
 
 AXIS (Lat., axel, Sw.), or axle-tree. 
 The strong piece of wood or iron which 
 supports the weight of waggons, carts, car- 
 riages, &c. and round the extremities of 
 which the wheels turn. Messrs. J. Aird and 
 J. Dunlop have recently invented an im- 
 proved axle and nave for the wheels of 
 waggons on railways ; a description of which 
 is given in Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 65. 
 
 AZALEA. American honey-suckle ; the 
 white flowered. (Lat. Azalea viscosa.) A 
 hardy shrub growing three feet high, and 
 blowing its white flowers in June and July. 
 Azalea nudifiora, also a native of North 
 America, grows three feet high, with red 
 flowers blooming in May and June ; and 
 Azalea pontica, a native of the neighbour- 
 hood of the Black Sea, blooming yellow 
 flowers in May : it grows three feet high. 
 These hardy shrubs love shade and a moist 
 soil. Propagate by layers and suckers : the 
 153 
 
 4ZOREAN FENNEL. 
 
 seed does not ripen well in this climate. 
 Do not prune, only cut out the dead wood. 
 Remove the young well-rooted plants witli 
 a good ball of earth in the autumn or early 
 in spring. 
 
 AZURE AN FENNEL. Anethum azori- 
 cum, or Finochio. (From avtjOov, on ac- 
 count of its running up straight.) A plant 
 kept in our kitchen gardens ; it is not in 
 much esteem here, its peculiar flavour being 
 agreeable to few palates. It is served with 
 a dressing like salads. For the first crop, a 
 rich light soil must be selected; for the 
 succeeding sowings a more retentive one, 
 but for the two last a return must be had 
 to a drier and warmer situation. These 
 precautions are absolutely necessary, for in 
 either extreme of moisture or dryness the 
 plants will not thrive. A small bed will be 
 only required at each sowing : one 20 feet 
 by 4 is sufficient for the largest family. It 
 is propagated by seed, which may be sown 
 for successional crops, from the beginning of 
 March until the close of July, at intervals 
 of a month, for after attaining its full growth 
 it immediately advances for seed. The seed 
 is sown in drills two feet asunder, to remain, 
 scattered thinly, that is, about two inches 
 apart, and about half an inch below the 
 surface. When well come up, about three 
 or four weeks after sowing, they must be 
 small-hoed, to kill the weeds, from which 
 they should be kept completely clear 
 throughout their growth, but at that time 
 only thin to 3 or 4 inches asunder, as it 
 cannot thus early be determined which will 
 be the most vigorous plants. After the 
 lapse of another month they may be finally 
 thinned to 7 or 8 inches' distance from each 
 other. Moderate waterings are required 
 throughout their growth, during dry wea- 
 ther ; and in the meridian of hot days the 
 beds are advantageously shaded, until after 
 the plants are well up. When of advanced 
 growth, about ten weeks after coming up, 
 the stems must be earthed up to the height 
 of 5 or 6 inches, to blanch for use, which 
 will be effected in 10 or 14 days. In the 
 whole about 12 or 14 weeks elapse between 
 the time of sowing, and their being fit for 
 use. In autumn, if frosty mornings occur, 
 they should have the protection of some 
 litter or other light covering. The seed 
 coming from Italy is generally worthless ; 
 and in this country it is saved with dif- 
 ficulty, the plants of the last sowings, if left, 
 being killed by the winter, and if some of 
 the earliest are allowed to remain, they 
 never ripen until late in the year, and are 
 often killed by early severe frosts. It would 
 be a good practice, perhaps, to sow a little 
 seed under a frame early in February : this 
 would forward them. (G. W. Johnson.) 
 
AZOTE. | 
 
 AZOTE, is as commonly known by the 
 name of nitrogen. The name of azote (de- 
 rived from the Greek a, from, and £oe, life) 
 was given to it by the French chemists, from 
 animals being unable to breathe it. This 
 gas, which constitutes 79*16 parts per cent, 
 of the air we breathe, was discovered in 
 1772 by Dr. Rutherford. Before his time 
 there had been much confusion with regard 
 to the composition of the atmospheric and 
 other gases : they were chiefly regarded by 
 the old chemists as being all of the same 
 kind, but mixed with various unknown sub- 
 stances. When all the oxygen is absorbed 
 from a confined portion of atmospheric air, 
 the remainder is nearly pure azote ; it is 
 known only in the state of gas. Azotic 
 gas is invisible and elastic, and has no smell ; 
 its specific gravity is 0*969. Animals can- 
 not breathe it : when they are placed in a 
 jar of it they die as rapidly as if immersed 
 in water ; neither will it support combustion. 
 It unites with oxygen in various propor- 
 tions : thus, — 
 
 Parts. Parts. 
 
 1-75 azote and 2 oxygen forms nitrous gas. 
 
 1«75 — 5 — nitric acid, or aquafortis. 
 
 ]-75 — 4 178 — nitrous acid. 
 
 Azote, or nitrogen, abounds in animal 
 substances, for it forms 16-998 per cent, 
 of gelatine; 15*705 per cent, of albumen 
 (white of egg), &c, and these are commonly 
 present in all animal substances. Azote 
 unites also with hydrogen gas and forms the 
 volatile alkali ammonia, which is composed 
 of— 
 
 Azote - - - 26 parts. 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 74 
 
 Now, as both these substances exist in 
 animal matters, when such substances pu- 
 trefy or are subjected to the destructive 
 distillation, they readily unite and form the 
 volatile alkali ammonia. 
 
 Azote exists also in gluten ; and wherever 
 this substance is present in vegetable mat- 
 ters, there, in consequence, azote is to be 
 found, but otherwise it does not often enter 
 into the composition of vegetable substances. 
 And yet it is worthy of remark, that although 
 azote cannot be regarded as a direct food of 
 plants, yet most of those substances which 
 contain it are exceedingly grateful to them, 
 such as ammonia, saltpetre, animal matter, 
 &c. ; and again, vegetables certainly emit, 
 and probably inhale, this gas. Thus some 
 plants of Vinca minor being made to vege- 
 tate in a confined portion of air for six days, 
 and the composition of the air being ascer- 
 tained by M. Saussure (Rcch. Chim. p. 40.), 
 the following were the results in cubic 
 inches : — 
 
 154 
 
 BACK. 
 
 Composition of Atmosphere, 
 when put in. when taken out. 
 
 Azote - - 211-92 - - 218-95 
 
 Oxygen - 56-33 - - 71-05 
 
 Carbonic acid - 21*75 - - 0-00 
 
 290- 290* 
 
 The plants therefore had evidently in- 
 creased the proportion of azote and oxygen, 
 but had entirely exhausted the air of its 
 carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Similar experiments made with the Men- 
 tha aquatica, Cactus opuntia, Lythrum sala- 
 caria, and the Pinus genevensis, afforded 
 similar results. 
 
 Azote, therefore, evidently fulfils a more 
 considerable office in vegetable economy 
 than we are yet exactly aware of, and it is 
 more than probable that considerable dis- 
 coveries are yet to be made in the inves- 
 tigation of its uses to vegetable life. See 
 Gases, their use to vegetation. (Davy's 
 Chem. Phil. p. 255. ; Thomson's Chem.*) 
 
 B. 
 
 BAC or BACK. The common name for 
 a large flat tub in which wort is cooled. 
 
 BACCIFEROUS. (From bacca, a berry, 
 and fero, to bear.) A term applied to trees 
 bearing berries. 
 
 BACK, the spine. The back of a horse 
 should be straight, in order that it may be 
 strong : when it is hollow, or what is termed 
 saddle-backed, the animal is generally weak. 
 
 Pack sore. A complaint which is very 
 common to young horses when they first 
 travel. To prevent it, their backs should 
 be cooled every time they are baited, and 
 now and then washed with warm water, and 
 wiped dry with a linen cloth. The best cure 
 for a sore back is a lotion of 1 oz. of Gou- 
 lard's extract (sugar of lead and vinegar), 
 1 oz. of turpentine, 1 oz. of spirit of wine, 
 and 1 pint of vinegar. 
 
 Pack sinews, sprain of the. This is often 
 occasioned by the horse being overweighted, 
 and then ridden far and fast, especially if 
 his pasterns are long ; but it may occur 
 from a false step, or from the heels of the 
 shoes bein«" too much lowered. Sprain of 
 the back sinews is detected by swelling and 
 heat at the back of the lower part of the 
 leg ; puffiness along the course of the 
 sinews ; extreme tenderness, so far as the 
 swelling and heat extend ; and very great 
 lameness. 
 
 The first object is to abate the inflamma- 
 tion, and this should be attempted by bleed- 
 ing from the plate vein ; by means of which 
 blood is drained from the inflamed part. 
 Next, local applications should be made to 
 
BACK. 
 
 BADGER. 
 
 the back of the leg in the form of foment- 
 ations of water sufficiently hot and fre- 
 quently repeated. At the same time, as 
 much strain as possible should be taken from 
 the sinew by putting a high calkin on the 
 heel of the shoe. When the inflammation 
 is abated the deposit between the tendon 
 and the sheath should be taken up by ban- 
 dages, which should be gradually tightened 
 every day. In very bad cases it may be 
 necessary to fire the leg. (Clater's Far. 
 pp. 253—256.) 
 
 BACKING A COLT. The breaking to 
 the saddle, or bringing him to endure a rider. 
 
 BACKSTONE. A provincial term, ap- 
 plied in Yorkshire to a flat stone put over 
 the fire to bake cakes upon. 
 
 BACON". Probably from baken, that is, 
 dried flesh. Dr. Johnson says, and Mr. 
 Home Tooke contends, that it is evidently 
 the past participle of the Saxon bacan, to 
 bake or dry by heat. {Div. of Pur. vol. ii. 
 p. 71.) I may, however, refer perhaps as 
 strongly to the old French bacon, which 
 means dried flesh and pork. The Welsh 
 also have bacwn. The flesh of the hog after 
 it has been salted and dried, and it is either 
 smoked or kept without smoking, when it is 
 termed green bacon. (Todd.) 
 
 Such hogs as have been kept till they are 
 full grown, and have then attained to a 
 large size, are for the most part converted to 
 the purpose of bacon. The seasons for 
 killing hogs for bacon are between October 
 and March, but it of course varies according 
 to custom and circumstances in peculiar 
 districts. The process of curing bacon is so 
 well known throughout the country, that it 
 is scarcely necessary to add any thing on 
 the subject; but the following practical 
 hints may not be without their utility. In 
 order to have good bacon the hair should be 
 swealed off, not scalded, the flesh will be 
 more solid and firm. The best method of 
 doing this is to cover the hog thinly with 
 straw, and to set light to it in the direction 
 of the wind. As the straw is burnt off, it 
 should be renewed, taking care, however, 
 not to burn or parch the skin. After both 
 sides have been treated in tins way, the hog 
 is to be scraped quite clean, but water must 
 not be used. After the hog has been pro- 
 perly cut up, the inside, or flesh-side of each 
 flitch is to be well rubbed with salt, and 
 placed above each other in a tray, which 
 should have a gutter round its edge to drain 
 off the brine. Once in four or five days 
 the salt should be changed, and the flitches 
 frequently moved, putting the bottom one 
 at top, and then again at the bottom. Some 
 
 ersons, in curing bacon, add for each hog 
 
 alf a pound of bay salt, and a quarter 
 of a pound of saltpetre, and one pound of 
 155 
 
 very coarse sugar or treacle. Very excel- 
 lent bacon may, however, be made with 
 common salt alone, provided it be well 
 rubbed in, and changed sufficiently often. 
 Six weeks, in moderate weather, will be 
 time sufficient for the curing of a hog of 
 twelve score. Smoking the bacon is much 
 better than merely drying it. The flitches 
 should, in the first place, be rubbed over with 
 bran or fine saw-dust (not deal), and then 
 hung up in a chimney out of the rain, and 
 not near enough to the fire to melt. The 
 smoke must be from wood, stubble, or litter. 
 If the fire is tolerably constant and good, 
 a month's smoking will be sufficient. The 
 flitches are afterwards frequently preserved 
 in clear, dry wood ashes, or very dry sand. 
 
 The counties of England most celebrated 
 for bacon, are York, Hants, Berks, and 
 Wilts. Ireland produces great quantities, 
 but it is neither so clean fed, nor so well cured 
 as the English, and is much lower priced. 
 Of the Scotch counties, Dumfries, Wigtown, 
 and Kirkcudbright, are celebrated for the 
 excellence of their bacon and hams, of which 
 they now export large quantities, principally 
 to the Liverpool and London markets. The 
 imports of bacon and hams from Ireland 
 have increased rapidly of late years. The 
 average quantity imported during the three 
 years ending the 25th of March, 1800, only 
 amounted to 41,948 cwt. ; whereas during 
 the three years ending with 1820, the 
 average imports amounted to 204,380 cwt. ; 
 and during the three years ending with 
 1825, they had increased to 338,218 cwt. 
 
 In V825 the trade between Ireland and 
 Great Britain was placed on the footing of a 
 coasting trade; and bacons and hams are 
 imported and exported without any specific 
 entry at the Custom-house. We believe, 
 however, that the imports of these articles 
 into Great Britain from Ireland amounts, at 
 present, to little less than 500,000 cwt. a year. 
 The quantity of bacon and hams exported 
 from Ireland to foreign countries is inconsi- 
 derable, not exceeding 1500 or 2000 cwt. a 
 year. The duty on bacon and hams being 
 28s. the cwt. is in effect prohibitory. By 
 the 7 G. 4. c. 48. bacon is not to be entered 
 to be warehoused except for exportation 
 only; and if it be so warehoused, it cannot 
 be taken out for home use. (Baxter s Agr. 
 Lib.; M'-Culloclis Com. Diet.) 
 
 BADGER, (bedour; French, metis.) An 
 animal that earths in the ground, common in 
 some parts of England, and which is known 
 imder the several local and provincial names 
 of a grey, a brock, a boresor, a bansor. 
 
 The badger, in the zoological classification 
 of Linnaeus, was grouped with the bear, and 
 he certainly has several characters in com- 
 mon with that animal. Like the bear, the 
 
BAGGING. 
 
 BAILIWICK. 
 
 badger remains during the winter in a semi- 
 torpid state, and it is also said to be equally 
 as fond of honey. Its internal organs of 
 assimilation prove it to be omnivorous ; and 
 while we know it capable of living on ve- 
 getable matter, it presents sufficient tokens 
 of carnivorous aptitudes ; nor are we by 
 any means satisfied that the prejudice 
 against this animal for destroying game, 
 poultry, &c, is wholly without foundation. 
 The badger breeds annually, and brings 
 forth four or five young in the spring. The 
 young of this animal when found, and reared 
 by hand, become very tame and docile. In 
 China, the flesh of the badger is a most 
 common food; but the hind quarters are 
 the only parts eaten in this country, and 
 the hams are considered by many as supe- 
 rior in flavour to those of the hog. The fat 
 is in great request for ointments ; the skin 
 dressed with the hair on is used for pistol 
 furniture : the Highlanders also make their 
 pendant pouches of it; and the hair fur- 
 nishes the artist with brushes to soften and 
 harmonise the shades in painting. The 
 badger is sometimes hunted at night, that 
 being the time he roves abroad in quest of 
 food. Many fanciful tales are told of this 
 animal : one is, that pork will entice him out 
 of his retreat in the day, which is equally 
 true with an olden opinion, that his legs of 
 one side are shorter than those of the other. 
 
 BAGGING. A mode of reaping corn 
 or pulse with a hook, in which the operator 
 effects his object by striking the straw or 
 haulm, instead of drawing the hook through 
 it. In other words, it is separating the 
 straw or haulm from the root by chopping, 
 instead of by a drawing cut. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BAILIFF. A word of doubtful etymo- 
 logy, but borrowedby us from baillie, French. 
 In old vocabularies written baity, and so a 
 steward is still called in many places. The 
 under steward of a manor ; also a superior 
 sort of farm-servant, who has often the 
 whole care and management of the farm. 
 
 A farming Bailiff. — He should, says an 
 excellent periodical, be industrious, active, 
 intelligent. He should be first in the morn- 
 ing, and last at night. He should not only 
 order men to work, but lead the way ; and 
 should on all occasions move from one 
 department to another without delay, assist- 
 ing and directing where requisite, but al- 
 ways keeping the adage in view, the " Eyes 
 of a master do more than the hands." He 
 should be the first power to the machine, 
 and the best implement on the farm, and 
 should assist his master to manage the men, 
 not the men to manage the master. He 
 should be punctual in li is accounts, honest 
 in his dealings, regular in his business. He 
 156 
 
 should every night note down in a book the 
 operations of the day, the labour of the 
 men, the corn and food consumed by the 
 cattle and horses, the corn bought and sold, 
 and having done this, write down what is 
 required to be performed on the following 
 day on the opposite side, which the next 
 night's account will confirm ; he should then 
 inspect the premises — see that all the locks 
 are secure, the cattle safely housed, and re- 
 tire early to bed, as the only certain step to 
 rising early in the morning. He, by follow- 
 ing these directions, will find next morning 
 no difficulty in carrying out his arrange- 
 ments, and will learn thereby that method 
 and order are the first principles of action ; 
 this will, by his example, be communicated 
 to the whole concern. The workmen will 
 be regular, and even the horses will partake 
 of the benefit ; working tools, sacks, and 
 implements will be taken care of, " there 
 will be a place for every thing, and every 
 thing in its place : " if the articles are lent 
 to others they should be charged to their 
 account, and credit given to them when re- 
 turned — it is by thus attending to the mi- 
 nutiae of farming matters that the profit is 
 obtained : " take care of the pence, and the 
 pounds will take care of themselves." He 
 will take care at all times to be prompt and 
 decisive with the workmen, and if they 
 are idle, dissolute, or disorderly, admonish 
 them : if no reform takes place, discharge 
 them. He will, on the other hand, always 
 treat them with kindness and civility, and 
 will not fail to obtain the same in return — 
 he will never allow his men to indulge in 
 abusive or blasphemous language, or in 
 drunkenness, much less will he ever, by 
 precept, give them encouragement to follow 
 the example, or allow them to suppose he 
 can be guilty of such practices himself, or 
 he will do well to discharge all that are in 
 the continual practice of either. He will 
 endeavour to pay them fair wages, as the 
 only sure mode to have work well per- 
 formed, and to encourage his labourers to 
 be honest. He will ascertain what is a fair 
 price for labour by the piece, and give it — 
 if he lowers the price in consequence of 
 their making good earnings, he will, by so 
 doing, check the exertions of the men, and 
 induce them to cheat him on every occasion ; 
 for if men at piece-work are not allowed to 
 exceed certain wages weekly, they will 
 always require a great price for their work, 
 which they will, by their duplicity, make 
 him believe is due for their exertions, when 
 their labour is only half-bestowed. 
 
 BAILIWICK. (Fr. baillie, and Sax. 
 pic.) The place of the jurisdiction of a 
 bailiff within his hundred, or the lord's 
 franchise. . It is that liberty which is ex- 
 
BAIRNWART. 
 
 BAKEWELL, ROBERT. 
 
 empted from the sheriff of the county, over 
 which the lord of the liberty appointeth a 
 bailiff cowel. 
 
 BAIRNWART. A provincial name for 
 the daisy. 
 
 BAIT. (Sax. bacan, German, baitzen.) A 
 feed of oats, or any other material given to 
 an animal employed in travelling or labour. 
 These should always be proportioned to the 
 condition of the animal, and the nature of 
 his labour. It also signifies any thing ap- 
 plied with the view of catching an animal. 
 
 BAITS, for angling, are of two kinds ; 
 first, the matters which constitute the usual 
 or the occasional food of fishes ; and, se- 
 condly, the artificial representations of such 
 matters as they are known to seek after. 
 Fishes being as we know nearly omnivorous, 
 the list of their edibles must necessarily 
 be extensive and diversified. The angler 
 need therefore never be fettered by the 
 trammels of rules in procuring fish baits ; 
 for experience will convince him that the 
 localities of every water will always furnish 
 the means of support to its inhabitants. 
 Baits may, therefore, be considered as al- 
 ways at hand ; and the ingenious mind will 
 be able to devise means for obtaining them. 
 Judgment in the selection of baits depends 
 considerably on experience in the gastro- 
 nomy of the fishes of well-fed rivers, or the 
 influence of seasons, and on the locality and 
 geography of the country. Full particulars 
 on the subject of living and artificial baits 
 may be found in Blaine's Eneyc. of Rural 
 Sports, p. 998. et seq. and Walton's Angler. 
 
 BAITING OF ANIMALS. The prac- 
 tice of setting smaller or weaker beasts to 
 attack or harass greater and stronger ones. 
 This custom is nearly extinct in this coun- 
 try. Lawrence long since observed of this 
 relic of barbarism, that " chaining and 
 staking down wretched captives to be wor- 
 ried and torn to pieces by other animals, 
 purposely trained for such useless barbarity, 
 is a foul disgrace of common sense, and 
 never ought to be tolerated for a moment 
 in a government which claims to be insti- 
 tuted for the protection of rights, and the 
 advancement of morality. The origin of the 
 infamous practice of baiting bulls, which had 
 afterwards the sanction of an ignorant and 
 barbarous legislature, is said to have been 
 as follows : By custom of the manor of 
 Tutbury, in Staffordshire, a bull was given 
 by the prior to the minstrels. After under- 
 going the torture of having his horns cut, 
 his ears and tail cropped to the very stumps, 
 and his nostrils filled with pepper, his body 
 was besmeared with soap, and he was turned 
 out in that pitiable state, in order to be 
 hunted. This was called bull-running ; and 
 if the bull was taken, or held long enough 
 157 
 
 to pull off some of his hair, he was then tied 
 to the stake, and baited. 
 
 BAKEWELL, ROBERT. A celebrated 
 agriculturist and improver of live stock. 
 He was born about the year 1725, on his 
 paternal estate at Dishley, in Leicestershire, 
 and died there, October 1. 1795. Though 
 it does not appear that he contributed any 
 thing to literature, even on the subjects to 
 which he, devoted his life, yet his efforts, 
 particularly to improve the breed of sheep, 
 justly procured for him a widely extended 
 reputation. The cross breed which he in- 
 troduced is well known as the Dishley, or 
 new Leicestershire breed. He is to be dis- 
 tinguished from a Mr.Robert Bakewell, who, 
 in 1808, published Observations on Wool, 
 with notes, by Lord Somerville. (Penny 
 Cyclop.; Gent. Mag. vol. lxv. p. 969.) Of 
 his cattle, Arthur Young remarked, in 1783, 
 and Young was no flatterer — when speaking- 
 of another excellent farmer — " His cattle 
 are of Bakewell' s breed, which is giving them 
 sufficient praise." (Ann. vol. ii. p. 156.) And 
 in the same volume, p. 379., when noticing 
 his breed of sheep, he says, " I have not a 
 doubt that it is, without any exception, the 
 first in the world." To attain this excellence 
 Bakewell devoted himself. Travelling in 
 search of stock to breed from, not only over 
 England, but into Ireland and Holland. In 
 1787 his fame enabled him to reap some 
 reward for these labours ; for in that year 
 he let three rams for 1250/., and was offered 
 1050/. for twenty ewes. The principles 
 which guided him in the breeding of stock 
 are given, in Ann. of Agr. vol. vi. p. 466. by 
 Arthur Young, who twice visited him at 
 Dishley. He kept constantly in view, in all his 
 exertions, these objects — the most meat from 
 the least food — the least offal, and the size of 
 the best joints. He thought, it seems, that the 
 pale coloured beasts yielded finer meat than 
 the dark ones : he was one of the first who 
 generally introduced the practice of feeling 
 stock under examination ; not but what it 
 was a practice partially adopted, even in 
 the days of old Holinshed. Young describes, 
 vol. viii. p. 473., the Dishley sheep, and 
 Bakewell's neat cattle at p. 486., which were, 
 perhaps, the finest of his day ; and then his 
 great heavy black cart horses, speaking of 
 them as " by far the finest I have seen of that 
 breed." Bakewell did much, too, in the con- 
 struction of water-meadows (Ibid. p. 490.), 
 and it is evident from his various observ- 
 ations reported by Young, that he was an 
 enlightened and successful agriculturist, as 
 well as breeder. The Dishley sheep have 
 long been celebrated for their aptness to 
 fatten, their quietude, and the smallness of 
 their bones — they will long hand down the 
 name of Bakewell as one of the farmers' 
 
BAKING. 
 
 BALM. 
 
 best benefactors. Bake-well made no secret 
 of his modes of improving stock, and rarely, 
 if ever, entered into controversies with rival 
 breeders. That with Mr. Chaplin of Tath- 
 well, in Lincolnshire, is perhaps the only 
 exception. (Young's Ann., vol. x. p. 562.) 
 
 BAKING. The application of heat in 
 the preparation of bread. See Bread. 
 
 BAKING OF LAND. A term applied 
 to such kinds of land as are liable, from the 
 large proportions of clayey or other matter 
 which they contain, to become hard and 
 crusty on the surface. In order to prevent 
 this, the best practice is to lessen the tenacity 
 of such soils by the application of substances 
 capable of rendering them more open and 
 friable, as lime, and other calcareous ma- 
 terials, rich earthy composts, sand, &c. 
 
 BALANCE. See Weights and Mea- 
 sures. 
 
 BALD MONEY or SPIGNEL. (Meum 
 athamanticum.) A plant of the fennel spe- 
 cies : is found in mountainous pastures in 
 the north, in Westmoreland, Lancashire, the 
 north of Yorkshire, and Merionethshire, and 
 abundantly in the Highlands of Scotland. 
 It is a perennial, flowering in May and June. 
 The whole plant, and especially the root, is 
 highly aromatic, with a flavour like melilot, 
 which it communicates to milk and butter, 
 from the cows feeding upon its herbage in 
 spring. A strong infusion of this herb is 
 said to give cheese the taste and odour of 
 the Swiss chapziegar. (Smith's Eng. Flora.} 
 
 BALK. From the Dutch and German 
 balk ; Welsh and Saxon bale. Also derived 
 by Skinner from the Italian valicare, to 
 pass over, and the Su-Goth. balk. (Todd.) 
 
 A provincial term applied to a piece of 
 land which has been either casually over- 
 slipped, and not turned up in ploughing, 
 or purposely left untouched by the plough, 
 for a boundary between lands. Much va- 
 luable land is in this way, in many parts 
 of England, needlessly left useless. It also 
 signifies the great beam or dormar of a 
 house, and the frame posts on which corn 
 stacks are placed. And balks, or bawks, 
 implies poles or rafters laid over an outhouse, 
 stable, or barn for a roof. 
 
 BALL. Whatever was round was called 
 by the ancients either bal, or bel, and like- 
 wise bol and bid. In farriery, a well-known 
 form of medicine, for horses or other ani- 
 mals, which may be passed at once into the 
 stomach. They should be made of a long 
 oval shape, and about the size of a small 
 egg, being best conveyed over the root of 
 the tongue by the hand. This method of 
 administering medicines is preferable in most 
 cases to that of drenches. 
 
 BALLARD. A provincial term used in 
 Devonshire to signify a castrated ram. 
 158 
 
 BALLS. (Dan. and Dutch bol. Lite- 
 rally, any thing made in a globular form.) 
 In farriery, this is a mode of administering 
 medicine to horses, by far the safest and the 
 easiest/ I subjoin the recipes for a few of 
 those most commonly used by the farmer. 
 
 Mild Physic Ball 
 Barbadoes aloes - - 6 drachms. 
 
 Powdered ginger - -2 — 
 
 Castile soap - - -2 — 
 
 Oil of cloves - - - 20 drops. 
 
 Syrup of buckthorn sufficient to form a ball. 
 
 Strong Physic Ball. 
 Barbadoes aloes - - 8 drachms. 
 
 Ginger, powdered - - 2 — 
 
 Castile soap - - - 2 — 
 
 Oil of cloves - - - 20 drops. 
 
 Syrup of huckthorn sufficient to form a ball. 
 
 Calomel Ball for a Riding Horse. 
 
 Calomel - - - 1 drachm. 
 
 Aloes, powdered - - 6 — 
 
 Ginger, powdered - - 2 — 
 
 Castile soap - - - 2 — 
 
 Oil of cloves - - - 20 drops. 
 
 Syrup of buckthorn sufficient to make into 
 a ball. 
 
 Calomel Ball for a Cart Horse. 
 
 Aloes, powdered - - 8 drachms. 
 
 Otherwise same as the last. 
 
 Diuretic Ball. 
 
 - 4 ounces. 
 
 - 2 — 
 . 2 — 
 
 Castile soap - 
 Nitre, powdered 
 Rosin, powdered 
 Oil of juniper 
 Aniseed powder and treacle sufficient to 
 make into eight balls. 
 
 Cordial Ball. 
 
 Cummin seed, powdered - 4 ounces. 
 
 Aniseed, powdered - - 4 — 
 
 Caraway seed, powdered - 4 — 
 
 Liquorice powder - - 4 — 
 
 Ginger, powdered - - 2 — 
 Honey sufficient to make into balls the size 
 of a hen's egg. 
 
 BALM, or BAUM. (Melissa officinalis. 
 From Gr. /xt\i, honey, on account of the bee 
 being supposed to collect it abundantly from 
 their flowers.) Balm is used both as a me- 
 dicinal and culinary herb. The leaves are 
 employed green, or dried. 
 
 The soil best suited to its growth is any 
 poor friable one, but rather inclining to 
 clayey than silicious. Manure is never re- 
 quired. An eastern aspect is best for it. 
 It is propagated by offsets of the roots, and 
 by slips of the young shoots. The first mode 
 may be practised any time during the spring 
 
BALM, BASTARD. 
 
 BANDS. 
 
 and autumn, but the latter only during May 
 or June. If offsets are employed, they may 
 be planted at once where they are to remain, 
 at ten or twelve inches ; but if by slips, they 
 must be inserted in a shady border, to be 
 thence removed, in September or October, 
 to where they are to remain. At every re- 
 moval, water must be given, if dry weather, 
 and until they are established. During the 
 summer they require only to be kept clear 
 of weeds. In October the old beds require 
 to be dressed, their decayed leaves and stalks 
 cleared away, and the soil loosened by the 
 hoe or slight digging. 
 
 Old beds may be gathered from in July, 
 for drying, but their green leaves, from 
 March to September ; and those planted in 
 spring will even afford a gathering in the 
 autumn of the same year. For drying, the 
 stalks are cut with their full clothing of 
 leaves to the very bottom, and the process 
 completed gradually in the shade. {G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitchen Garden?) 
 
 This very common and well-known plant ! 
 in our kitchen gardens is fragrant in smell, 
 and its root creeps and spreads rapidly and 
 abundantly. It flowers in July, and is best 
 taken as an infusion when fresh, as it loses 
 considerable power when dried. Its me- 
 dicinal qualities are derived principally 
 from the proportion of volatile oil, resin, 
 and bitter extractive, which it contains. It 
 is occasionally used in consequence of its 
 moderately stimulant powers, in conjunc- 
 tion with more potent drugs, to produce 
 profuse perspiration. Mixed with honey 
 and vinegar, it forms a good gargle for an 
 inflamed sore throat. 
 
 BALM, BASTARD. There are two 
 varieties found in the woods and hedges of 
 the south and west of England. The red- 
 dish bastard-balm {Melittis melisophyllum), 
 and the purple and white bastard-balm {M. 
 grandifiord). The plant when it begins to 
 dry becomes highly fragrant, like woodruff, 
 or vernal grass. 
 
 BALOTADE. The leap of a horse. 
 
 BALSAM. {Impatiens Balsamina.) This 
 favourite flower is a native of the East In- 
 dies and Japan, where the natives, accord- 
 ing to Thunberg, use the juice prepared 
 with alum for dyeing their nails red. It is 
 a tender annual, rising from one to two feet 
 high, with a succulent branchy stem, ser- 
 rated leaves, and various coloured flowers. It 
 blows from July to October, and its flowers 
 are single and double, red, pink, white, or 
 variegated. It loves a good soil, and shelter 
 from a hot sun. It blooms very handsomely 
 in a window. Sow the seed early in March 
 in a hot bed. Pot the plants singly, and 
 accustom them by degrees to the open air. 
 Place them in larger pots, or put them out 
 159 
 
 in the garden in May. They will require 
 no watering, after being well rooted. Stir 
 the earth round each plant frequently, and 
 do it gently, with a small trowel. 
 
 The varieties are infinite, but not so 
 marked or permanent as to have acquired 
 names. The seed from one plant will hardly 
 produce two alike. 
 
 BALSAM TREE. {Tacamahacca.) This 
 tree possesses considerable medicinal virtues. 
 It is known among us as the Tacamahac tree, 
 from its similitude to the real tree of that 
 name, which is a native of the East and 
 of America. The leaves of our balsam tree 
 are long, of a dusky green on the outside, 
 and brown underneath. The buds of the 
 tree in spring are very fragrant, and a 
 sticky substance surrounds each bud, which 
 adheres to the fingers on touching them. 
 
 BALSAM, YELLOW. {Noli me tangere, 
 Touch me not.) Is sometimes but very 
 rarely met with in vatery shady places in 
 the north. In several parts of Westmore- 
 land, also in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and 
 Wales, Ray tells us it is met with more fre- 
 quently ; and on the banks of Wyndermere 
 in little brooks and watery places near Rydall 
 Hall, more plentiful. {Smith's Eng. Flora.) 
 
 BANDAGE. In farriery, a long narrow 
 slip, or fillet, of flannel, cotton, or linen, made 
 use of by veterinary surgeons, to retain 
 dressings, &c. upon wounds, as well as to 
 assist their healing, by its gentle uniform 
 mechanical pressure. 
 
 BAN-DOG. A corruption of band-dog, 
 a large kind of fierce dog, which was for- 
 merly kept chained up as a watch-dog. 
 
 BANDS. The cords by means of which 
 sheaves and trusses are tied. They are 
 formed of twisted straw or hay. 
 
 Bands, where the straw is tender, should 
 be made in the morning, that they may not 
 crack ; for the straw will not twist so well 
 after the sun is up. The turning of three 
 or four of the stubble or bottom ends of the 
 straw to the ears of the band sometimes 
 tends greatly to add to their strength and 
 toughness. 
 
 The bands for the sheaves should not be 
 spread out, except in fair weather, because 
 they will grow sooner than any other part 
 of the corn if rain should come ; for they 
 cannot dry, on account of their lying un- 
 dermost. But though the bands may be 
 made while the morning dew is upon them, 
 the sheaves ought never to be bound up 
 wet ; for, if they are, they will grow mouldy. 
 
 BANDS OF A SADDLE are two pieces 
 of iron, made flat, and three fingers broad, 
 nailed upon the bows of a saddle, one on 
 each side, contrived in such a way as to hold 
 the bows in the situation that makes the 
 form of the saddle. 
 
 i 
 
BANE. 
 
 BARB. 
 
 BANE. The disease in sheep generally 
 termed the rot. 
 
 BANE BERRIES (Actaa), and 
 BLACK BANE BERRIES (Herb Cristo- 
 pher). Perennial herbs, natives of cold 
 countries, with compound or lobed cut leaves 
 and clustered white flowers. The berries of 
 the former are black, red, or white, of the 
 latter, purplish, black, juicy, the size of cur- 
 rants, and have fetid, nauseous, and dan- 
 gerous qualities. These herbs are found 
 sometimes in bushy, mountainous, limestone 
 situations, and frequently in the north-west 
 part of Yorkshire : toads are reported to en- 
 joy the fetid odour of this plant. (Smith's 
 Engl. Flora.) 
 
 BANE-WORT. See Deadly Night- 
 shade. 
 
 BANGLE-EARS. An imperfection in 
 the ears of horses. 
 
 BANKS, of rivers and marshes, &c. (banc, 
 Sax.) In agriculture, are heaps or mounds 
 of earth piled up to keep the water of rivers, 
 lakes, or the sea, from overflowing the 
 grounds which are situated contiguous to 
 them on the inside. (See Embankments.) 
 
 The 7 & 8 G. 4. c. 30. s. 12. enacts, that if 
 any person shall unlawfully and maliciously 
 break down or cut down any sea-bank, or 
 sea-wall ; or the bank or wall of any river, 
 canal, or marsh, whereby any lands shall be 
 overflowed or damaged, or shall be in danger 
 of being so, or shall unlawfully and maliciously 
 throw down, level, or otherwise destroy any 
 lock, sluice, flood-gate, or other work on 
 any navigable river or canal, every such of- 
 fender shall be guilty of felony ; and, being 
 convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the dis- 
 cretion of the court, to be transported be- 
 yond the seas for life, or for any term not 
 less than seven years, or to be imprisoned 
 for any term not exceeding four years ; and 
 if a male, to be once, twice, or thrice pub- 
 licly or privately whipped (if the court shall 
 so think fit), in addition to such imprison- 
 ment. And if any person shall unlawfully 
 and maliciously cut off, draw up, or remove 
 any piles, chalk, or other materials fixed in 
 the ground and used for securing any sea- 
 bank, or sea-wall, or the bank or wall of any 
 river, canal, or marsh, or shall unlawfully 
 and maliciously open or draw up any flood- 
 gate, or do any other injury or mischief to 
 any navigable river or canal, with intent so 
 as thereby to obstruct or prevent the carry- 
 ing on, completing, or maintaining the navi- 
 gation 1 hereof, every such offender shall be 
 guilty of felony, and, being convicted thereof, 
 Shall be liable, at the discretion of the court, 
 to be transported beyond the seas for the 
 term of seven years, or to be imprisoned for 
 any term not exceeding two years; and, if 
 a male, to be once, twice, or thrice publicly 
 160 
 
 or privately whipped (if the court shall so 
 think fit), in addition to such imprisonment. 
 (Archbold's Crim. Law.) 
 
 BANKS, SIR JOSEPH, was born at 
 Revesby Abbey, the seat of his father, in 
 Lincolnshire, in 1743. He was educated at 
 Eton and Oxford, which university he left 
 in 1761, on the death of his father. He in- 
 herited an ample fortune, yet the active 
 pursuit of scientific discoveries was more to 
 his taste than literary ease. In 1763 he 
 made a voyage to Labrador and Newfound- 
 land. In 1768 he went round the world 
 with Cook, and in 1772 made a voyage to 
 Iceland and the Western Isles of Scotland. 
 Natural history was the favourite of his 
 scientific studies, and every department of 
 it was enriched by his researches. He was 
 elected, in 1771, LL.D. at Oxford. In 
 1778 he was created a Knight of the Bath, 
 and made president of the Royal Society, 
 and three years afterwards he was made a 
 baronet. He at first gave much dissatisfac- 
 tion to some of the members of the Royal 
 Society, so as nearly to cause it to divide, 
 but it gradually passed away ; and from that 
 time until his death, May 9. 1820, he was 
 universally hailed as a munificent friend of 
 science and literature. He is entitled to 
 the grateful remembrance of the farmer, for, 
 amongst other things, his valuable researches 
 into the nature and origin of rust and 
 mildew. (G. Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 BANNOCK. The Scotch name for a 
 small loaf or cake of oatmeal. 
 
 BARB. A general name for horses im- 
 ported from Barbary. The barb, one of the 
 most celebrated of the African racers, is to 
 be met with throughout Barbary, Morocco, 
 Fez, Tripoli, and Bornou. It seldom exceeds 
 fourteen hands and a half in height. The 
 countenance of the barb is usually indicative 
 of its spirit, and the facial line, in direct con- 
 tradiction to that of, the Arabian, is often 
 slightly rounded ; the eyes are prominent ; 
 the ears, though frequently small and 
 pointed, are occasionally rather long and 
 drooping ; the neck is of sufficient length ; 
 the crest is generally fine, and not overladen 
 with mane ; the shoulders are flat and ob- 
 lique ; the withers prominent, and the chest 
 almost invariably deep ; the back is usually 
 straight ; the carcass moderately rounded 
 only; the croup long, and the tail placed 
 rather high ; the arms and thighs being 
 commonly muscular and strongly marked ; 
 the knee and hock are broad and low placed ; 
 the back sinews singularly distinct and well- 
 marked from the knee downwards ; the pas- 
 terns rather long, and the feet firm, and but 
 moderately open. 
 
 The barb requires more excitement to 
 call out his powers than the Arabian ; but 
 
BARBEL, COMMON. 
 
 BARBERRY, COMMON. 
 
 when sufficiently stimulated, his qualities of 
 speed and endurance render him a powerful 
 antagonist, while the superior strength of his 
 forehand enables him to carry the greater 
 weight of the two. The Godolphin barb, 
 which was imported from France at the con- 
 clusion of the last century, about 25 years 
 after the Darley Arabian, was one of those 
 most worthy of note. The former appears 
 to have rivalled the latter in the importance 
 of his get. He was the sire of Lath, Cade, 
 Babraham, Regulus, Bajazct, Tarquin, Dor- 
 mouse, Sultan, Blank, Dismal, and many 
 other horses of racing note ; and without 
 doubt the English blood-breeds were more 
 indebted to the Darley Arabian and the 
 Godolphin barb than to all the other east- 
 ern horses which had previously entered 
 the country. Among other barbs of some 
 notoriety, introduced in the 18th century, 
 we may mention the Thoulouse, the Curwen 
 Bay, Old Greyhound, St. Victors, Tarran's 
 Black, Hutton's Bay, Cole's Bay, and 
 Compton's Barb. (Blaine s Encyc. Rural 
 Sports, p. 243.) 
 
 BARBEL, COMMON - . (Cyprinus bar- 
 bus.) Bluish -white carp, with four beards, 
 and olive-coloured back. It is a fresh- 
 water fish, and, in some situations, acquires 
 a large size, occasionally measuring nearly 
 three feet in length, and weighing from 
 twelve to eighteen pounds. It has some- 
 what of an elongated, elliptical form. The 
 body is covered with small pale gold- 
 coloured scales, edged with black on the 
 back and sides, and white on the belly : the 
 head is smooth and the eyes are large. The 
 barbel is found chiefly in deep ponds and 
 slow-flowing rivers. It is a social fish, 
 always swimming in company. This fish 
 may be caught with red worms, gentles, 
 greaves, cheese, and the young brood of 
 wasps, hornets, and. bees.* Barbels spawn 
 about the middle of April, and are in 
 season about a month after. The roe of 
 the barbel is said to have very poisonous 
 qualities, causing vomiting, diarrhoea, and 
 swellings in those who eat it. It is at best 
 a dry fish, in reference to the table. ( Wal- 
 ton! s Angler; Blaine's Encyc. Rur. Sports, 
 p. 1056.) 
 
 BARBERRY, COMMON, or PIP- 
 PERIDGE BUSH. (Berberis vulgaris.) An 
 indigenous thorny shrub, bearing bunches of 
 pale yellow drooping flowers in May, which 
 are succeeded by oblong scarlet berries, 
 ripening in September. The branches are 
 flexible, covered with alternate tufts of de- 
 ciduous, egg-shaped, pinnated leaves, finely 
 fringed on the edge. Sharp three-cleft 
 thorns rise at the base of each leaf-bud. 
 The barberry likes any kind of soil, and 
 makes good hedges. It may be propa- 
 161 
 
 gated by seed, or by layers, which should 
 remain two years before they are removed. 
 The gross shoots, if the shrub stands singly, 
 should be pruned away, and it will fruit 
 better. The berries are gratefully acid, 
 and the juice, when diluted with water, 
 may be used as lemonade in fevers. The 
 leaves, eaten in salad, are like sorrel. 
 The fruit, made into conserve, is good. 
 It is also excellent as a pickle and a pre- 
 serve. 
 
 The common barberry bush is a native of 
 this country; and, notwithstanding the high 
 state of cultivation this kingdom has now ar- 
 rived at, it is still to be found growing wild 
 in many parts of the northern counties. 
 Gerarde says, in his time (1597), most of the 
 hedges near Colnbrook were nothing else but 
 barberry-bushes. It is now very properly 
 introduced into our gardens and shrubberies, 
 being both ornamental and useful ; but it 
 should not be planted near the house or 
 principal walks, on account of its offensive 
 smell when in blossom. The flowers are 
 small but beautiful ; and, on their first ap- 
 pearance, have a perfume similar to that of 
 the cowslip, which changes to a putrid and 
 most disagreeable scent, particularly towards 
 the evening and at the decay of the flowers. 
 Barberries are of an agreeable, cooling, as- 
 tringent taste, which creates appetite. The 
 fruit and leaves give an agreeable acid to 
 soup. The Egyptians were used to employ 
 a diluted juice of the berries in ardent and 
 pestilential fevers ; but it is merely an 
 agreeable acidulous diluent. The inner 
 bark, with alum, dies a bright yellow, and, 
 in some countries, is used for colouring 
 leather, dyeing silk and cotton, and stain- 
 ing wood for cabinet and other purposes. 
 Cows, sheep, and goats, are said to feed on 
 the leaves ; but horses and swine refuse 
 them. A very singular circumstance has been 
 stated respecting the barberry-shrub ; that 
 corn sown near it becomes mildewed, and 
 proves abortive, the ears being in general 
 destitute of grain ; and that this influence 
 is sometimes extended to a distance of 300 
 or 400 yards across a field. This, if correct, 
 is a just cause for banishing it from the 
 hedge-rows of our arable fields, for which 
 otherwise its thorny branches would have 
 made a desirable fence. 
 
 I will cite a few instances which have 
 been brought forward in proof of the in- 
 jurious effects of this plant upon standing 
 corn. Mr. Macro, a very respectable farmer 
 at Barrow, in Suffolk, planted a barberry 
 bush in his garden, on purpose to ascertain 
 the disputed fact. He set wheat round it 
 three succeeding years, and it was all so 
 completely mildewed that the best of the 
 little grain it produced was only about the 
 
 M 
 
BARBERRY, COMMON. 
 
 BARK. 
 
 size of thin rice, and that without any flour. 
 He adds, that some, which he set on the 
 opposite side of his garden on one of the 
 years before mentioned, produced very good 
 grain, although the straw was a little mil- 
 dewed. From this observation, Mr. Phillips 
 was induced to try the experiment by sow- 
 ing clumps of canary seed in his shrubbery. 
 Those which were planted immediately un- 
 der the barberry bush certainly produced no 
 seed ; but other plants of this grass yielded 
 seed, although not at many yards' distance. 
 The celebrated Duhamel and M. Bous- 
 sonet, who have paid such particular atten- 
 tion to agriculture, assure us that there is 
 no just reason for ascribing this baneful 
 effect to the barberry bush ; and Mr. G. W. 
 Johnson is of the same opinion. (See Mil- 
 dew.) On the other hand, we have it 
 affirmed to be most destructive and injurious 
 to all kinds of crops of grain and pulse, as 
 proved by various observations, experiments, 
 and testimonies made in Brandenburgh, 
 Hanover, Prussia, and Germany. (See Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. vii. pp. 1 1 8 — 126.; and the 
 writer there says, towards the conclusion of 
 his article, " To those still inclined to regard 
 the barberry as innocent, notwithstanding 
 all the above proofs to the contrary, I would 
 only make the request that they no longer 
 urge their opinion on abstract and general 
 grounds, until they have collected the result 
 of impartial observation and careful experi- 
 ment.") 
 
 The Rev. Dr. Singer, in the Trans. High. 
 Soc, vol. vi. p. 340., in considering the bar- 
 berry as the cause of rust or mildew on 
 corn crops, says, when quoting the survey 
 of Dumfries-shire, " On one farm alone, that 
 of Kirkbank, the tenant lost about 100Z. in 
 his oat-crops yearly ; and altogether the 
 annual damage in the county was consider- 
 ably above 1000Z. The views of Sir Joseph 
 Banks, and of some intelligent practical 
 farmers, relative to the evil influence of the 
 Herberts vulgaris, induced the late Admiral 
 Sir William Johnstone Hope to give orders 
 for the total extirpation of the barberry 
 bushes which grew intermixed with thorns 
 in his hedgerows ; and since that was 
 done, and for above twenty years, no such 
 distemper has appeared in these fields. The 
 same thing has been done in some parts 
 of Ayrshire, and the like result has fol- 
 lowed. " These facts," adds Mr. Singer, 
 " appear to indicate some connection be- 
 tween the occurrence of rust or mildew on 
 growing corn and the neighbourhood of 
 barberry bushes." Phillips inquires {Pom,. 
 Brit.) whether the blighting effects of this 
 shrub may nol in some degree he accounted 
 lor by its May-flowers alluring insects, which 
 breed on tin; branches, ami then feed their 
 162 
 
 progeny on the nutritious juices of the sur- 
 rounding blades of young corn ? 
 
 BARFAN. A provincial term used to 
 denote a horse-collar. 
 
 BARGAIN. See Buying and Selling. 
 
 BARILLA. See Soda. 
 
 BARING Roots of Trees. A practice 
 formerly much adopted, but which later 
 experience has shown to be highly injurious 
 and hurtful to their growth. 
 
 BARK. (Dan. Barck ; Dutch ; berck, 
 from the Teutonic bergen, to cover.) The 
 rind or covering of the woody parts of a 
 tree. The bark of trees is composed of 
 three distinct layers, of which the outer- 
 most is called the epidermis, the next, the 
 parenchyma, and the innermost, or that in 
 contact with the wood, the cortical layers. 
 The epidermis is a thin, transparent, tough 
 membrane : when rubbed off, it is gra- 
 dually reproduced, and in some trees it 
 cracks and decays, and a fresh epidermis 
 is formed, pushing outwards the old : hence 
 the reason why so many aged trees have 
 a rough surface. The parenchyma is ten- 
 der, succulent, and of a dark green. The 
 cortical layer, or liber, consists of thin 
 membranes encircling each other, and these 
 seem to increase with the age of the plant. 
 The liber, or inner bark, is known by its 
 whiteness, great flexibility, toughness, and 
 durability : the fibres in its structure are 
 ligneous tubes. It is the part of the stem 
 through which the juices descend, and the or- 
 gan in which the generative sap from whence 
 all the other parts originate is received 
 from the leaves. The bark in its interstices 
 contains cells which are filled with juices of 
 very varying qualities ; some, like that of 
 the oak, remarkable for their astringency ; 
 others, like the cinnamon, abounding with 
 an essential oil ; others, as the jesuits' bark, 
 containing an Hlkali ; some mucilaginous, 
 many resinous. Several of these barks have 
 been analysed by various chemists : "they 
 have found them to consist chiefly of carbon, 
 oxygen, and hydrogen, with various saline 
 and earthy substances. (Thorn. Chem.\o\.\\. 
 p. 231.) The Quinquina bark was analysed 
 by M. Fourcroy : he found in the ashes ob- 
 tained from 9216 grains of the bark, — 
 
 grs. 
 
 Carbonate of potash - - 10 
 
 Sulphate of potash - - 12 
 
 Muriate of potash (chloride of potas- 
 sium) - - - 38 
 Phosphate of lime - - - 20 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - 420 
 Silica (flint) - - 4 
 
 Red Peruvian bark, when burnt, leaves an 
 ash, consisting of — 
 
 Carbonate of potash - - 1-9 
 
 Muriate of potash - 0*6 
 
BARK. 
 
 Sulphate of potash - - 0-5 
 Carbonate of lime - - 9-0 
 
 12- 
 
 But much superior analyses have been 
 since effected in a different manner, and the 
 following are the constituents of the best 
 Cinchona, or Quinquina bark, (or, as it is 
 known in the market, Crown bark,) by Bu- 
 cholz, — 
 
 Kinate of cinchonia 
 
 
 - 1-53 
 
 Kinate of lime 
 
 
 - 1-30 
 
 Hard resin 
 
 
 - 9-97 
 
 Bitter soft resin 
 
 
 - 1-56 
 
 Fatty matter 
 
 
 - 0-78 
 
 Tannic acid, with some 
 
 chloride of 
 
 calcium 
 
 
 - 5-80 
 
 Gum 
 
 
 - 4-43 
 
 Starch 
 
 
 - 0-20 
 
 Lignin (woody fibre) 
 
 
 - 74-43 
 
 
 
 100- 
 
 But, in burning Cinchona bark, many of 
 the substances contained in this list must 
 necessarily be decomposed, and converted 
 into the salts mentioned by Fourcroy. De- 
 structive analysis, however, gives only the 
 results of the process, not the real consti- 
 tuents of the bark which has been submitted 
 to investigation by its means. It is there- 
 fore, a good mode of determining the value 
 of bark as a manure, but it affords no cor- 
 rect information respecting the constituents 
 of the barks. 
 
 M. Saussure (Chem. Rec. Veg.) found in 
 100 parts of the ashes of the barks of various 
 trees the following substances : — 
 
 
 Oak. 
 
 Hazel. 
 
 Poplar. 
 
 Mul- 
 berry. 
 
 Horn- 
 beam. 
 
 Soluble salts - 
 
 T 
 
 12-5 
 
 6- 
 
 7- 
 
 4'5 
 
 Earthy phosphates - 
 
 3- 
 
 55 
 
 53 
 
 8-5 
 
 45 
 
 Earthy carbonates - 
 
 66- 
 
 54- 
 
 60- 
 
 45- 
 
 59- 
 
 Silica ... 
 
 1-5 
 
 025 
 
 4- 
 
 15-12 
 
 1-5 
 
 Metallic oxides 
 
 2- 
 
 1-75 
 
 1-5 
 
 1-12 
 
 0-12 
 
 From this analysis the farmer will see 
 that the earthy and saline ingredients of 
 the bark of forest trees must be consider- 
 able fertilisers: it is only to the slowness 
 with which refuse tanner's bark undergoes 
 putrefaction that its neglect by the cul- 
 tivator must be attributed. It might cer- 
 tainly, however, be mixed with farm-yard 
 compost with very considerable advantage, 
 as has been often done with saw-dust and 
 peat, in the manner so well described by 
 Mr. Dixon of Hathershew (Journ. of Roy. 
 Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 135.), see Farm- 
 Yard Manure ; and in its half putrefied 
 or even fresh state it produces on some 
 grass lands very excellent effects as a top 
 dressing ; and in instances where car- 
 riage is an object, even its ashes would be 
 found, from the quantity of earthy car- 
 163 
 
 bonates and phosphates which they contain, 
 a very useful manure. 
 
 The different uses of barks in tanning and 
 dyeing are numerous and important. The 
 strength or fineness of their fibres is also of 
 consequence : thus, woody fibres are often so 
 tough as to form cordage, as exemplified in 
 the bark of the lime, the willow, and the 
 cocoa-nut ; the liber of some trees, as for 
 example the lime and the paper mulberry, 
 is manufactured into mats ; and it is scarcely 
 requisite to refer to hemp and flax for spin- 
 ning and weaving. The bark of the papyrus, 
 or flag of the Nile, was first used for paper ; 
 that of the mulberry is still employed in the 
 cloth of Otaheite ; that of the powdered 
 Swedish pines, as bread for the poor pea- 
 sants of Scandinavia. In England, the bark 
 of the oak is used for affording tannic acid 
 in the manufacture of leather ; but other 
 barks, such as that of the Spanish chestnut 
 and the larch, are also employed. The fol- 
 lowing table of Davy will show the relative 
 value of different kinds of bark to the tanner: 
 it gives the quantity of tannic acid afforded 
 by 480 lbs. of different barks in that great 
 chemist's own experiments. {Led. p. 83.) 
 
 Average from the entire bark of — lbs. 
 
 Middle-sized oak, cut in spring - 29 
 
 — cut in autumn - 21 
 
 Spanish chestnut - - - 21 
 
 Leicester willow (large size) - - 33 
 
 Elm - - - - - 13 
 
 Common willow (large) - - 11 
 
 Ash - - - - - 16 
 Beech - - - - ' - 10 
 
 Horse chestnut - - - 9 
 
 Sycamore - - - - 11 
 
 Lombardy poplar - - - 15 
 
 Birch - - - - 8 
 
 Hazel - - - - - 14 
 
 Blackthorn - - - - 16 
 
 Coppice oak - - - - 32 
 
 Larch, cut in autumn - - - 8 
 
 White interior cortical layers of oak bark 72 
 
 The difference of seasons makes a con- 
 siderable variation in the produce of tannic 
 acid; it is the least in cold springs. The 
 tannic acid most abounds when the buds are 
 opening, and least in the winter ; 4 or 5 lbs. 
 of good oak bark of average quality are re- 
 quired to form 1 lb. of leather. The con- 
 sumption of oak bark in Great Britain is 
 about 40,000 tons, more than one half of 
 which is imported from the Netherlands. 
 
 Cork is the outer bark of a species of oak, 
 which grows abundantly in the south of 
 Europe. The average quantity imported 
 annually, is about 44,551 cwts. 
 
 The quantity of Quercitorn bark, which 
 is the production of black oak, (Quercus 
 nigra,) is 22,625 cwts. 
 
 The quantity of Cinchona, or Peruvian 
 m 2 
 
BARK-BOUND. 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. 
 
 bark, is on an average about 300,000 lbs., 
 but the consumption does not exceed 45,000 
 lbs. : the remainder is re-exported. 
 
 The bark of trees is best cleansed from 
 the parasitical mosses with which it is wont 
 to be infected, by being washed with lime- 
 water or a solution of common salt in water 
 (4 oz. to a gallon), applied by a plasterer's 
 brush. 
 
 BARK-BOUND. A disease common to 
 some fruit and other trees, which is capable 
 of being cured by making a slit through the 
 bark, from the top of the tree to the bottom, 
 in February or March ; where the gaping is 
 pretty considerable, fill it up with cow-dung, 
 or other similar composition. 
 
 BARKER. A term used provincially in 
 Devonshire, to signify a rubber or whet- 
 stone. It is also applied to those persons 
 "wlio fo&rk tr66s. 
 
 BARKING IRONS, are instruments for 
 removing the bark of oak and other trees. 
 They consist of a blade or knife for cutting 
 the bark, while yet on the trunk, across at 
 regular distances, and of chisels or spatulae, 
 of different lengths and breadths for separ- 
 ating the bark from the wood. 
 
 BARKING OF TREES. The operation 
 of stripping off the bark or rind. It is com- 
 mon in this country to perforin the operation 
 of oak-barking in the months of May and 
 June, as, at that season, the bark, by the 
 rising of the sap, is easily separated from the 
 wood. This renders it necessary to fell the 
 trees in these months. The tool commonly 
 made use of in most counties is made of bone 
 or iron. If of the former, the thigh or shin- 
 bone of an ass is preferred, which is formed 
 into a two-handed instrument for the stem 
 and larger boughs, with a handle of wood 
 fixed at the end. The edge being once given 
 by the grinding-stone, or a rasp, it keeps 
 itself sharp by wear. 
 
 Two descriptions of persons are usually 
 employed in this business, the hagmen or 
 cutters, and the barkers. The latter chiefly 
 consists of women and children. The cut- 
 ters should be provided with ripping-saws, 
 widely set, with sharp, light hatchets, and 
 with short-handled pruning hooks. The 
 barkers are provided with light, short- 
 handled, ashen mallets, the head being 
 about eight inches long, three inches dia- 
 meter in the face, and the other end blunt, 
 somewhat wedge-shaped ; with sharp ashen 
 wedges, somewhat spatula-shaped, and which 
 may either be driven by the mallet, or, 
 being formed with a kind of handle, may be 
 pushed with the hand ; and with a smooth- 
 skinned whin, or other land-stone. The 
 cutters are divided into two parties; hatchet- 
 men, who sever the stem, and hook-men, 
 who prune it of small twigs, and cut it into 
 164 
 
 convenient lengths. Small branches and 
 twigs are held by one hand on the stone ; the 
 bark is then stripped off, and laid regularly 
 aside, as in reaping of corn, till a bundle of 
 convenient size be formed. The trunk and 
 branches, as large as the leg, &c. are laid 
 along the ground ; the bark is started, at 
 the thick end, by thrusting or driving in the 
 wedge, which, being run along the whole 
 length, rips it open in an instant ; the wedge 
 is applied on both sides of the incision, in 
 the manner of the knife in skinning a sheep. 
 A skilful barker will skin a tree or branch 
 as completely as a butcher a beast. But 
 the point most particularly to be observed 
 in this art is, to take off the bark in as long 
 shreds or strands as possible, for the conve- 
 nience of carriage to, and drying it on, the 
 horses. These are formed of long branches ; 
 and pieces of a yard in length, sharpen- 
 ed at one end, and having a knag at the 
 other to receive and support the end of the 
 former. 
 
 The horses or supports may stand within 
 four or five feet of each other, and are al- 
 ways to be placed on a dry, elevated spot, 
 that the bark may have free air in drying. 
 At the end of each day's work, the bark 
 is carried to, and laid across, the horses, 
 to the thickness of about six or eight inches. 
 The large pieces are set up on end, leaning 
 against the horses, or they are formed into 
 small pyramidal stacks. Due attention must 
 be paid to turning the bark once, or per- 
 haps twice a day, according to the state of 
 the weather. Good hay weather is good bark- 
 ing weather. Gentle showers are beneficial ; 
 but long continued rains are productive of 
 much evil ; nor is the bark the better for 
 being dried too fast. A careful hagman 
 will take pains to lay the strong pieces of 
 the trunk in such a manner as to shoot off 
 the wet, in continued rains, from the smaller 
 bark of the extremities ; at the same time, 
 preserving as much as possible the colour 
 of the inner bark, and consequently the 
 value of the whole, by turning the na- 
 tural surface outwards. For it is chiefly by 
 the high brown colour of the inner rind, 
 and by its astringent effect upon the palate 
 when tasted, that the tanner or merchant 
 judges of its value. These properties are 
 lost, if through neglect, or by the vicissi- 
 tudes of the weather, the inner bark be 
 blanched or rendered white. 
 
 After it becomes in a proper state, that is, 
 completely past fermentation, if it cannot 
 conveniently be carried off the ground and 
 housed, it must be stacked. An expe- 
 rienced husbandman who can stack bay can 
 also stack bark. But it may be proper to 
 wain him against building his stack loo 
 large, and to caution him to thatch it well. 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 The method of drying bark in Yorkshire 
 is generally the common one of setting it in 
 a leaning posture against poles lying hori- 
 zontally on forked stakes. But in a wet 
 season, or when the ground is naturally 
 moist, it is laid across a line of top-wood, 
 formed into a kind of banklet, raising the 
 bark about a foot from the ground. By 
 this practice no part of the bark is suffered 
 to touch the ground; and it is, perhaps, 
 upon the whole, the best practice in all sea- 
 sons and situations. 
 
 BARLEY. (Lat. hordeum.) A species of 
 bread corn, which ranks next to wheat in 
 importance, and of which there are several 
 varieties. The generic name seems either 
 hordeum, from horreo, on account of its long 
 awns, or, as it was anciently written, fordemn, 
 rather from <pep€(i>, to feed or nourish, 
 whence <pop6i) and forbea, and, changing the 
 b into d,fordeum. (Vossius.) The name is, 
 however, derived by Junius from the He- 
 brew The plant belongs to the natural 
 order Graminece, or grasses. It readily ac- 
 commodates itself to any climate, bearing 
 the heat of the torrid zone, and the cold of 
 the frigid, and ripening in both equally well. 
 Of the genus Hordeum, says Professor Low, 
 the following species may be enumerated as 
 cultivated for their seeds : — 
 
 1. Two-rowed barley (Hordeum disti- 
 chum). 
 
 2. Two-rowed naked barley (H. gymno- 
 distichum). 
 
 3. Two-rowed sprat, or battledore barley 
 (H. disticho-zeocriton). 
 
 4. Six-rowed barley (H. hexastichum). 
 
 5. Six-rowed naked barley (H. gymno- 
 hexastichum). 
 
 6. Six-rowed sprat, or battledore barley 
 (H. hexasticho-zeocritori). 
 
 The two leading species of this grain in 
 cultivation are (No. 1.) the two-rowed, or 
 common barley, and (No. 4.) the six-rowed 
 barley. The minor varieties of two-rowed 
 barley are numerous, and are distinguished 
 chiefly by the quality of the grain, and by 
 their habit of early or later ripening ; and 
 some varieties are more productive than 
 others : effects apparently dependent upon 
 differences of climate and situation. 
 
 Barley is an annual plant, but like wheat it 
 may be sown in autumn, and then it acquires 
 the habit of later ripening, and is termed 
 winter barley. 
 
 Two-rowed naked barley is said to have 
 been introduced into England in the year 
 1768. It is now little cultivated, and is by 
 some asserted, though without any evidence, 
 to merge into the common species. 
 
 The next species, two-rowed sprat, or 
 battledore barley, is scarcely cultivated in 
 this island, the shortness of the straw being 
 165 
 
 regarded as an objection ; but it is much es- 
 teemed in Germany, where it is termed rice 
 barley, owing to its smelling like rice in 
 boiling, when it is decorticated. 
 
 The fourth enumerated species is six- 
 rowed barley. When sown before winter, 
 this species acquires the habit of late ripen- 
 ing, and is then termed winter barley. 
 
 One of the kinds of six-rowed barley, and 
 the best known in this country, is bere, bear, 
 or bigg. Bigg ripens its seeds in a shorter 
 period than the two-rowed barleys. It is 
 cultivated very generally in the north of 
 Scotland, in Denmark, Sweden, and other 
 parts of Europe, and in the south of Eng- 
 land for green food in spring, and for 
 this purpose is sown early in the autumn. 
 The number of its grains is greater than in 
 the two-rowed kinds, but they do not weigh 
 so heavy in proportion to their bulk. It is 
 hence regarded as an inferior crop, and is 
 only cultivated in the more elevated parts 
 of the country. It ripens very early when 
 sown in spring, thence the advantages which 
 it possesses in a late climate. (Low's Prac. 
 Agr. p. 240.) 
 
 The six-rowed naked barley is cultivated 
 in various parts of Europe, and is greatly 
 esteemed for its fertility. In some parts of 
 Germany it is regarded as the most valuable 
 kind of barley, and by the French, on account 
 of its supposed productiveness, it has been 
 termed orge celeste. An excellent variety 
 of this naked barley has been produced by 
 Mr. C. Alderman of Kintbury, in Berkshire, 
 and M. Mazucco, in a French paper, ear- 
 nestly recommends the more general culti- 
 vation of naked barley, as he states that it 
 weighs as much as the best wheats, and its 
 quality resembles them so much, that it may 
 be used for the purpose of making good 
 bread, and also for pearl barley. In moun- 
 tainous countries, its produce is twenty- 
 four to one. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. iii. 
 p. 373.) This and the other superior kinds 
 of barley deserve more attention than they 
 have yet received. Mr. Warren Hastings, 
 (in an article in the Com. to the Board of 
 Arg. vol. vi. p. 304.), after twelve years' ex- 
 perience in the cultivation of naked barley, 
 very' justly observes, " that it is of the 
 greatest importance to promote the culture 
 of this sort of grain." " It is," he adds, 
 " the corn that, next to rice, gives the great- 
 est weight of flour per acre, and it may be 
 eaten with no other preparation than that 
 of boiling. It requires little or no dressing 
 when it is sent to the mill, having no husk, 
 and consequently produces no bran. It is 
 gathered into the barn, and may even be 
 consumed, when the seasons are favourable, 
 in about eighty or ninety days after being 
 sown ; and there is no species of grain better 
 M 3 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 calculated for countries where the summer 
 is short, provided the vegetation be rapid." 
 
 The last of the species to be mentioned, 
 says Professor Low, is six-rowed sprat, or 
 battledore barley. This has been sometimes 
 termed six-rowed barley ; whereas the cha- 
 racter of six-rowed barley does not belong 
 to it alone. An examination of the plant 
 will show that it is the common battledore 
 barley, with all the florets entire. Much 
 confusion has arisen in the arrangement by 
 agriculturists of the cultivated barleys, and 
 in an especial degree, by their speaking of 
 four-rowed and six-rowed kinds. There is, 
 however, no barley to which the term four- 
 rowed can be applied. Barley is termed 
 two-rowed, or six-rowed, according to the 
 number of its fertile florets. In two-rowed 
 barley, one row of florets on each of the two 
 sides of the spike is fertile, and consequently 
 one row of seeds on each side is perfected. 
 
 In six-rowed barley, three rows on each 
 side are perfected. In this sense only it is 
 termed six-rowed barley. But there is no 
 species known to us in which only two rows 
 on each side of the spike are fertile. Slightly 
 examined, indeed, six-rowed barleys fre- 
 quently present the appearance of four rows ; 
 but this is in appearance only, for such bar- 
 leys have always the three rows on each side 
 perfect. In poor soils and unfavourable si- 
 tuations, two of the rows run much into each 
 other, and this has perhaps given rise to the 
 mistake ; but the two rows which thus run 
 into each other in appearance are on the 
 opposite side of the rachis. I have ventured, 
 adds Professor Low (from whose work the 
 above preliminary observations are taken), 
 to propose a new arrangement of the cul- 
 tivated barleys ; under which it will be seen 
 that the Hordeum vulgare of some botanists 
 is Hordeum hexastichmn, and that the Hor- 
 deum hexastichum of some botanists is Hor- 
 deum hexasticho-zeocriton. Particular vari- 
 eties have been in great repute at different 
 times, when first introduced, and then seem 
 to have, on many soils, lost their superiority. 
 " Of this kind is the Moldavian barley, which 
 was much sought after some years ago ; 
 and lately, the Chevalier barley, so called 
 from the gentleman who first Drought it 
 into notice, has risen into great repute. 
 It is said, that, having observed an ear of 
 barley in his field greatly superior to the 
 rest, he carefully sowed the seed, and cul- 
 tivated it in his garden, till he had a suffi- 
 cient quantity to sow a field. It has since 
 been extremely multiplied and diffused 
 through the country, borne eminent malt- 
 sters and brewers have declared, that it 
 forms more saccharine matter than any 
 other sort ; and the trials hitherto made have 
 convinced most agriculturists that it is not 
 166 
 
 only heavier in the grain, but more pro- 
 ductive. In 1832 Lord Leicester, who was 
 always foremost in all agricultural experi- 
 ments and improvements, sowed a consider- 
 able portion of land with this barley, and 
 the result is said to have been perfectly 
 satisfactory. In 1833 two acres of Chevalier 
 barley were sown in the same field with 
 some of the best of the common barley. 
 The soil was poor, light sand, but in good 
 order and very clean. The produce of the 
 whole was nearly the same, 4 quarters per 
 acre ; but the Chevalier barley weighed 
 57 lbs. per bushel, while the common barley 
 weighed only 52. This gives the farmer an 
 advantage of ten per cent. The sample was 
 very fine, and the whole that the cultivator 
 could spare was eagerly purchased by his 
 neighbours for seed at his own price. It is 
 long in the ear, and very plump, and the 
 plant tillers so much, that half a bushel of 
 seed may be saved per acre. This is pro- 
 bably owing to its grains being all perfect, 
 and vegetating rapidly. The straw, like that 
 of the other long-eared barleys, appears 
 weak in proportion to the ear; it is said 
 also to be harder, and not so palatable to 
 cattle. These are circumstances which ex- 
 perience alone can ascertain. That hitherto 
 it has a decided superiority over the common 
 sorts, no one who has tried it fairly in well- 
 prepared lands seems to deny." {Penny Cyc.) 
 
 A new and seemingly very superior va- 
 riety has lately been introduced, called the 
 Annat barley. (See Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. v. p. 618.) It is the produce of three 
 ears, which were picked by Mr. Gorrie in a 
 field in Perthshire in the harvest of 1830, 
 since which period it has been grown at 
 Annat Gardens, thence its name. In 1834, 
 it was sown on a ridge in the middle of a 
 field, with common barley on the one side, 
 and Chevalier barley on the other. In bulk 
 of straw it seemed to have the advantage of 
 both these kinds ; it was five days earlier 
 ripe than the former, and about a fortnight 
 before the latter, and it was also 2i lbs. per 
 bushel heavier than the Chevalier. At a 
 meeting of the Stoke Ferry Farmers' Club, 
 in February of the present year (1841), it 
 was stated by one of the members, that the 
 Chevalier was decidedly the best stock for 
 good barley land ; but for very poor soils 
 he preferred the Moldavian ; though, pro- 
 bably, even this was surpassed by the stock 
 usually known as the old field barley. The 
 Annat barley was alluded to by one gentleman 
 who had tried it last season ; but not having 
 thrashed it, he could only say that from its 
 appearance it augured well. He always 
 adopted the drill system, using Avide, winged 
 coulters, so as to disperse the grain in the 
 row? as much as possible, giving the field 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 the appearance of having been ploughed in. 
 Very little difference of opinion existed as 
 to the superiority of the Chevalier over any 
 other variety, on the average of soils. One 
 member had grown 15 coombs an acre on 
 it ; but he acknowledged it was on very ex- 
 cellent land. A curious fact was elicited in 
 connection Avith this stock of barley ; which 
 was, that however much the crop might be 
 laid and beaten down, either by storms or 
 by its own weight, the grain did not receive 
 that injury to which any other sort under 
 similar circumstances would be liable. (B?nt. 
 Farm. Mag. vol. v. p. 190.) " 
 
 There can be no doubt of the general su- 
 periority of the Chevalier as a malting barley. 
 Its introduction has occasioned a complete 
 revolution in certain districts, where for- 
 merly no such thing as malting barley was 
 thought of. It is one of the greatest im- 
 provements of modern times, and now com- 
 mands a higher price in the market than 
 other barleys by two or three shillings a 
 quarter. 
 
 Barley is evidently a native of a warmer 
 climate than Britain ; for in this moist at- 
 mosphere it is observed to degenerate, when 
 either neglected or on a poor soil. We 
 have the best authority for its having been 
 cultivated in Syria so long back as 3153 
 years ; therefore that part of the world may 
 be fairly fixed as its native soil. We find 
 that the Romans obtained barley from 
 Egypt, and other parts of Africa, and Spain. 
 It was also grown in France, as Columella 
 calls one variety of barley Galaticum. 
 
 Barley, like all grains, is liable to diseases, 
 namely smut, the burnt ear, blight, and mil- 
 dew, for an account of which I must refer 
 the reader to these words. It is also apt 
 to germinate in the ear even before it is 
 reaped, in wet weather, giving the ear a sin- 
 gular appearance, and rendering the grain, 
 even when kiln-dried, unfit for malting, and 
 only of use to feed fowls or pigs. The diseases 
 of barley are not so numerous or fatal as 
 those of wheat. It is attacked by the larvse 
 of certain flies. The smut, which attacks it 
 in a partial degree, is generally the fungus 
 uredo segetum. 
 
 Barley is now extensively cultivated in 
 most European countries, and in the tem- 
 perate districts of Asia and Africa. It may 
 also be raised between the tropics, but not 
 at a lower elevation than from 3000 to 4000 
 feet, and then it is not worth cultivating. 
 In Spain and Sicily it produces two crops 
 in the year. Large quantities of barley 
 have been for a lengthened period raised 
 in Great Britain. Recently, however, its 
 cultivation has been supposed, though pro- 
 bably on no good grounds, to be declining. 
 In 1765, Mr. Charles Smith estimated the 
 167 
 
 number of barley consumers in England 
 and Wales at 739,000 ; and as a large pro- 
 portion of the population of W ales, West- 
 moreland, and Cumberland continue to 
 subsist chiefly on barley bread, I am in- 
 clined to think that this estimate may not, 
 at present, be very wide of the mark. 
 " Barley " (husked), says Pliny, " was the 
 most ancient food in old times, as will 
 appear by the ordinary custom of the 
 Athenians, according to the testimony of 
 Menander, as also by the surname given to 
 sword fencers, who, from their allowance or 
 pension of barley, were called Hordearii, 
 barley men." (Book xviii. chap. 7.) It was 
 not until after the Romans had learnt to 
 cultivate wheat, and to make bread, that 
 they gave barley to their cattle. They 
 made barley-meal into balls, which they put 
 down the throats of their horses and asses, 
 after the manner of fattening fowls, which 
 was said to make them strong and lusty. 
 
 There are no means of ascertaining 
 whether barley was cultivated in Britain 
 when the Romans discovered this country ; 
 but as Caesar found corn growing on the 
 coast of Kent, it is probable that this species 
 of grain had been obtained from Gaul. 
 
 In the rot ation of crops, barley may succeed 
 to summer fallow, to potatoes, turnips, or 
 any other green crop, and to any of the pulse 
 crops. It now generally follows turnips, 
 and is a very important crop in the rotation, 
 best adapted to light soils. The principal 
 barley counties of England are Norfolk, 
 Suffolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Herts, Lei- 
 cester, Nottingham, the upper parts of 
 Hereford, Warwick, and Salop. The pro- 
 duce varies according to soil, preparation, 
 season, &c, from about 25 to 60 or 70 
 bushels an acre. The usual crop is from 28 
 to 36 or 38 bushels. The Winchester biishel 
 of good English barley generally weighs 
 about 50 lbs. ; but the best Norfolk barley 
 sometimes weighs 53 or 54 lbs. Its produce 
 in flour is about 12 lbs. to 14 lbs. of the grain. 
 
 Barley is said to contain 65 per cent, of 
 nutritive matter ; wheat contains 78 per 
 cent. A bushel of barley weighing 50 lbs. 
 will therefore contain about 32 lbs. of nu- 
 triment ; while a bushel of wheat weighing 
 60 lbs. contains 47 lbs. Good oats weighing 
 40 lbs. contain about 24 lbs. of nutritive 
 matter ; so that the comparative value of 
 wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding cattle, 
 may be represented by 47, 32, and 24, the 
 measure being the same. The experiments 
 on which this calculation is founded were 
 carefully made by Einhof, and confirmed on 
 a large scale by Tha'er, at his establishment 
 at Mogelin, the account of the results being 
 accurately kept. 
 
 Barley is a tender plant, and easily hurt 
 m 4 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 in any stage of its growth. It is more haz- 
 ardous than wheat, and is, generally speak- 
 ing, raised at a greater expense, so that its 
 cultivation should not be attempted except 
 where the soil and climate are favourable 
 for its growth. There is no grain perhaps 
 more affected (says Baxter in his Lib. of 
 Agr. Knowledge, p. 36.) by soil and culti- 
 vation than barley, the same species exhi- 
 biting opposite qualities, modified by the 
 nature of the soil from which it is produced : 
 these opposite productions of the same indi- 
 vidual will, if sown at the same period, on 
 the same land, and under the same course 
 of cultivation, exhibit corresponding differ- 
 ences, which are manifested during the 
 growth of the crop, and subsequently in the 
 quality of the sample when in hand. Thus 
 the finest samples, the growth of suitable 
 and well-cultivated lands, would, if sown 
 on a poor and sterile soil, become alike 
 coarse in appearance, and indifferent in 
 quality. This fact, however important, has 
 hitherto but little engaged the attention of 
 the farmer ; and the spring or -early barley 
 is therefore indiscriminately sown, as being 
 found more productive for the purpose of 
 malting than any of the afore-mentioned 
 varieties. The sprat, or battledore barley, 
 makes good malt ; and being short and erect 
 in the ear, and tapering in the stem, is, on 
 strong lands, less liable to injury from fall- 
 ing, and is consequently preferred by a few 
 individuals. The common, or long-eared 
 barley, being long in the ear and weak in 
 the straw, is very liable to lodge early, 
 whereby the grain is rendered inferior in 
 quality, and is, therefore, not extensively 
 cultivated. Naked barley, or wheat barley, 
 is so termed in consequence of the grain 
 separating readily from the chaff when 
 thrashed. It is a native of the north, and 
 will bear sowing early in the season ; it is 
 not, however, in much estimation in the 
 south of England, and is seldom cultivated, 
 although it makes strong malt, and is ex- 
 cellent for fattening of hogs and cattle. 
 Winter barley, or square -eared barley, is 
 grown to considerable extent in the north- 
 western part of England, and in Scotland. 
 It is usually sown for the feeding of sheep 
 in the south of England, and mixed with 
 tares for the soiling of cattle. As food for 
 sheep, it is far more productive than rye, 
 as it admits of being fed down eveiy two or 
 three days during summer ; and if intended 
 for seed, it may previously be fed off by 
 sheep early in the season, without injury to 
 the crop. 
 
 The land that produces the best barley is 
 generally of a silicious, light, dry nature : 
 for a good mellow preparation and free soil 
 are essential to the growth of malting bar- 
 168 } 
 
 leys. Cold wet soils, which are peculiarly 
 retentive of water, are ill adapted to the 
 growth of this grain, both in reference to 
 its weight and its malting qualities. The 
 whole matter of barley and its straw con- 
 tains more silicious particles than that of 
 any other grain cultivated by the British 
 farmer ; and hence one reason why a sandy 
 soil is most congenial to the growth of this 
 plant. Barley is propagated by seed sown 
 either broadcast or in drills, the quantity 
 varying according to the quality of the soil, 
 cultivation, and time of sowing ; less being 
 required on rich mellow lands than on poor 
 soils; early sowing, with good tillage, re- 
 quiring less seed than late sowing with in- 
 different tillage. The quantity of seed 
 generally varies from 1\ to 4 bushels the 
 acre (or sometimes more), when sown 
 broadcast ; but when drilled, the quantity of 
 seed need not exceed two bushels to the 
 acre. 
 
 Barley is an early ripening grain ; and 
 therefore it may be sown at a late period, 
 as the month of May ; but the usual period 
 is April, and the sooner the better. The 
 more early that barley can be sown, the 
 produce in grain is the* surer, though the 
 bulk of the straw will be less. The com- 
 mon sprat barleys may be sown from the 
 second week in March, if the weather prove 
 dry, until the 10th of May. The bigg, a 
 variety of the winter barley, will stand 
 against the wind, and may be sown either 
 in the autumn or the beginning of March. 
 The bear, or square barley, should be sown 
 as early in the autumn as the clearing of 
 the harvest will admit, and may be sown 
 after wheat, barley, oats, or any pulse crop, 
 being a plant of sturdy growth. In the 
 choice of seed, great care should be taken 
 that it is not of a reddish hue, as, in that 
 case, it is more than probable that a great 
 part of it will never vegetate : the sample 
 should be of a pale, lively colour, and uni- 
 form. Some farmers, not aware of its im- 
 portance, are in the habit of sowing thin 
 corn ; but unless the land is quite adapted, 
 from its nature and cultivation, for the 
 fullest encouragement of the plant, it will 
 in the end be found a " penny-wise and 
 pound-foolish " speculation. In all cases it 
 will be well for the farmer to select the 
 finest samples and the plumpest grain ; for 
 in unfavourable seasons the crop from thin 
 grain is always delicate, and assumes an 
 unkindly hue, whilst, on the contrary, 
 plump seed throws up strong healthy stems, 
 capable of resisting the effects of inclement 
 seasons, and, in more congenial weather, 
 pushing forth with renewed vigour and re- 
 doubled strength. Barley, for the most 
 part, succeeds best after turnips, tares, 
 
BAllLET. 
 
 potatoes, carrots, mangel wurzel, or other 
 green ameliorating crops ; but does not suc- 
 ceed so well after wheat or other white 
 straw crops, nor after rape so well as other 
 green crops, except on the South Downs 
 of Sussex, and certain lands adjoining the 
 sea-coast, where both the quantity of grain 
 is greater, and the quality better, after wheat 
 (particularly wheat sown upon a clover ley), 
 and also after rape, than from any other 
 course of tillage. The lands require more 
 or less ploughing, according to the quality 
 of the soil, and the state in which it is found 
 after the season for the working of it com- 
 mences. On retentive soils, as compact 
 gravelly clay, if the turnips have been fed 
 off during wet weather, the earth breaks up 
 in large clods, and requires to be reduced 
 by the roller, and at least a second ploughing 
 should be given before the barley can be 
 safely sown. On light soils of the best 
 quality one ploughing may be sufficient ; 
 but if the land is twice ploughed in the 
 spring, as soon as it is sufficiently dry for 
 that purpose, it will be found amply to 
 repay both the labour and expense. After 
 the grass-seeds are sown, the barley-land 
 admits of no further tillage. Should any 
 larger weeds appear, they may be pulled up 
 by the hand ; but it is the evidence of bad 
 husbandry if a spring-sown barley crop 
 requires weeding during the comparatively 
 short period in which it is on the ground. 
 If weeding be necessary, it should be at- 
 tended to early, or the crop will be injured 
 by treading, and the roller should be used 
 before the blade becomes spindled. 
 
 In the harvesting of barley more care is 
 requisite than in taking any of the other 
 white crops, even in the best of seasons ; 
 and in bad years it is often found very diffi- 
 cult to save it. When the period of harvest 
 arrives, barley must be allowed to be suffi- 
 ciently ripe, but not become what is termed 
 " dead ripe." It may be cut either by the 
 scythe or the sickle. Barley, says Professor 
 Low, on account of the softness of its 
 stem, and the tendency of its ears to vege- 
 tate, is more apt to be injured, and even 
 destroyed, by wet weather than any of the 
 other cereal grasses. For this reason the 
 safer course, in a humid climate like ours, 
 is to place it when cut down in sheaves and 
 shocks, and not to allow it, as is frequently 
 practised, to lie loose upon the ground. By 
 some farmers, however, it is suffered to lie 
 in the fields until the straw is quite dry, 
 being turned over early in the morning 
 while the dew is still upon it. This prac- 
 tice, they say, is found to improve the colour 
 of the skin, and thereby render the grain 
 of more value to the maltster. It should 
 never be carried unless perfectly dry, 
 169 
 
 otherwise it is in danger of being heated 
 in the mow, which reduces the value very 
 materially, for the undue action of the heat 
 destroys the spear, or germination of the 
 grain ; the malting process is consequently 
 very unequally performed, and as the duty 
 has to be paid upon the whole bin, maltsters 
 will scarcely purchase such samples, unless 
 for the purpose of grinding, and then always 
 at an inferior price. It will be prudent, 
 therefore, not to carry barley until the heat 
 of the sun has evaporated the dew from it, 
 when it should be carried in a perfectly dry 
 state the remainder of the day, until the 
 dew is again deposited in the evening. It 
 is a very common practice to sow clover 
 and other grass seeds with this crop ; but 
 great care must be taken that they are tho- 
 roughly harvested, for otherwise consider- 
 able fermentation will be created, and the 
 sample injured. It not unfrequently occurs, 
 that when it is supposed to be well harvested, 
 heat is soon found to subsist in the mows, 
 which should be daily examined, by placing 
 a long iron spit, that should be kept for that 
 purpose, deep into the mow ; when, if the 
 heat is found to increase, no delay should 
 take place, but the middle should be in- 
 stantly cut asunder, and taken out in pro- 
 portion to the size of the mow, when it will 
 generally escape without further injury. 
 This operation, however, must not be de- 
 ferred, as the injury sustained rapidly in- 
 creases. By heating in the stack, it quickly 
 becomes discoloured and injured. When 
 barley is grown in large quantities, it is 
 usual to tread the mows with horses or oxen, 
 to get as much as possible into the barns, in 
 which case more guarded caution is neces- 
 sary than when thrown loosely over the 
 floor. 
 
 This grain should never be thrashed by 
 a machine, as the injury done thereby is 
 frequently of a very serious nature ; it 
 bruises the malting spear, which is as in- 
 jurious to the maltsters as if heated in the 
 mow, and, therefore, should be guarded 
 against. Care must also be taken not to 
 have too large heaps lying together without 
 frequent examination, as, until it has under- 
 gone a proper fermentation in the mow, it 
 will be very apt to heat in the heap ; in 
 order to prevent which it requires to be 
 moved daily, or every other day, till cleaned 
 up from the chaff, which, from the fineness 
 of its texture, scarcely admits the introduc- 
 tion of air, and consequently promotes fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 The principal demand for barley in Great 
 Britain is for conversion into malt, to be 
 used in the manufacture of ale, porter, and 
 British spirits ; and though its consumption 
 in this way has not certainly increased pro- 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 portionally to the increase of wealth and 
 population, still there does not seem to be 
 any grounds for supposing that it has dimi- 
 nished. 
 
 But it is not only the most useful for 
 making into malt, it is the best food for 
 promoting the fattening of hogs, after they 
 have been fed to a certain extent with 
 beans, peas, &c, from which it has been 
 found that the meat is not only more 
 tender, but increases in boiling ; whilst the 
 meat of those fed on beans and peas alone 
 has not only been hard, but has not yielded 
 any increase. Barley is employed for va- 
 rious other purposes. It is excellent for 
 fattening poultry. The flour is still used 
 in some parts for bread ; but the bread, 
 though sufficiently nutritious, is dark and 
 strong-tasted. Barley, in its green state, 
 especially the Siberian winter-barley, makes 
 excellent spring food for milch cows, as is 
 well known to the cow-keepers about Lon- 
 don ; it comes in early, and greatly increases 
 the milk. For sheep it is more nourishing 
 than rye, and is earlier. When fed off 
 quite close in April, it will spring up again, 
 and on good land produce a fair crop of 
 grain in August ; but, in general, it is 
 ploughed up as soon as it is fed off, and 
 succeeded by spring tares or turnips. It is 
 also good food for horses, when given in the 
 spring of the year in small proportion with 
 oats, sparingly at first, and after being soaked 
 in water, and allowed to vegetate. It is in 
 general use in the south of Europe. (Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 298.) Mixed with 
 other grain, in its ground state, it has been 
 found an excellent food for fattening bullocks. 
 The straw is employed partially for fodder, 
 but chiefly for litter. It is lighter than the 
 straws of oats and wheat, and less esteemed 
 than either. The awns are given to stock, 
 either in their natural state or boiled. Malt 
 is the great purpose, however, to which bar- 
 ley is applied in this country. To under- 
 stand the process of malting, it may be ne- 
 cessary to observe, that, in the germination 
 of grasses and grains before the young plant 
 is produced, the fecula of the seed is changed 
 by the heat and moisture of the earth into 
 sugar and mucilage. Malting grain is only an 
 artificial mode of effecting this object. The 
 grain is steeped in cold water during a cer- 
 tain period; the water is then allowed to 
 drain off, the grain is spread out into a deep 
 heap : it gradually heats, the rootlets begin 
 to shoot out, afterwards the plumula begins 
 to grow ; and when this has grown to a cer- 
 tain extent within the grain, the further 
 germination is checked by exposing the grain 
 on a kiln, heated by fire to such a degree as 
 extinguishes the vitality of the seed. At this 
 period it is found thai fcne starch is, in a great 
 170 
 
 measure, converted into saccharine matter, 
 and by subsequent fermentation, or distilla- 
 tion, either beer or spirits is obtained. (See 
 Fermentation, Malting, and Brewing.) 
 It is only necessary to add here that malt 
 requires the best and heaviest barley, with 
 its germinating powers entire. 
 
 Barley was formerly in general use in this 
 country as bread corn : it is still, for this 
 purpose, much used on the Continent. It is 
 generally used in the warmer climates as the 
 food for horses, for which purpose, in fact, 
 it appears to answer equally as well as oats. 
 In this country, in some seasons, a consider- 
 able saving may be made by using for this 
 purpose inferior barley. This was done in 
 the season of 1840 by Mr. Hewitt Davis, of 
 Spring Park, who sold his oats at the same 
 price that he gave for the barley. And to 
 this end the farmer should remember, that 
 two parts of barley are fully equal, in feed- 
 ing properties, to three parts of oats. In 
 Germany they grind the barley, and form 
 it into cakes, with which they feed their 
 horses ; and it is no unusual circumstance, 
 in travelling in that country, to see the 
 driver take a slice off the loaf with which 
 he baits his horses. 
 
 Wine made from malt, when kept to a 
 proper age, has a good body, and a flavour 
 nearly as agreeable as the generality of Ma- 
 deira wines. The wort of malt is useful in 
 scurvy, but it is apt to increase the diarrhoea 
 which attends that disease. Barley was used 
 by the ancients for many medicinal purposes. 
 Pot barley, pearl barley, and French barley, 
 are only barley freed from the husk by a 
 mill ; the distinction between them being, 
 that the pearl barley is reduced to the size 
 of small shot, all but the very heart of the 
 grain being ground away. For a descrip- 
 tion of the mode of manufacture, I refer the 
 reader to the Penny Cyclop, vol. iii. p. 466. 
 Barley-water is a decoction of either of these, 
 and is reputed soft and lubricating ; a very 
 useful cooling drink or gruel in many dis- 
 orders, and is recommended to be taken 
 with nitre in fevers. Its use is of great an- 
 tiquity, as Hippocrates wrote a whole book 
 on the merits of gruel made of barley. 
 Barley-water is an admirable liquid to ad- 
 minister any medicine in, being pleasant, 
 emollient, and cooling. The French or 
 Scotch barley is principally used to thicken 
 broth and soup. 
 
 A German chemist, Einhof, has analysed 
 ripe barley, and found 100 parts to consist 
 of 70*05 parts of meal, 18*75 of hush, and 
 11*20 of water. The meal lie found to eon- 
 tain 67*18 parts of starch, 5*21 of imcrystal- 
 izable sugar, 4*62 of gum, 3*52 of gluten, 1*15 
 of albumen, 0*24 of supejyhosplxitc of lime, 
 and 10*79 of water and loss, in 100 parts. 
 
BARLEY. 
 
 BARLEY 1IUMMELLER. 
 
 The husk contains a bitter principle which 
 is tasted in the decoction of entire barley. 
 
 M. Saussure has carefully analysed the 
 ashes produced by burning barley and its 
 straw, and the result of his experiments is 
 given in Recherches Chem. sur la Veg., Paris, 
 1804. 
 
 The grain reduced to ashes, with its skin, 
 gave, out of 100 parts, 18 of ashes, which 
 contained : — 
 
 Potash 
 
 18* 
 
 Phosphate of potash 
 
 9-2 
 
 Sulphate of potash 
 
 1-5 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 0-25 
 
 Earthy phosphates 
 
 32-5 
 
 Silica - 
 
 355 
 
 Metallic oxides 
 
 0-25 
 
 Loss - 
 
 2-8 
 
 
 100- 
 
 1000 parts of the straw produced 42 of 
 ashes, containing : — 
 
 Potash - - 16- 
 
 Sulphate of potash - - 3*5 
 
 Muriate of potash - - 0*5 
 
 Earthy phosphates - - 7*75 
 
 Earthy carbonates - - 12*5 
 
 Silica - - - - 57" 
 
 Metallic oxides - - 0*5 
 Loss - 2-25 
 
 100- 
 
 These products no doubt vary in different 
 soils ; but the proportion of silica in the 
 straw and in the skin of barley is remark- 
 able. This barley grew on a chalky soil. 
 In addition to these the cubic saltpetre, or 
 nitrate of soda, is usually found in minute 
 proportions in barley. 
 
 The average price in England, per Win- 
 chester quarter of barley, according to 
 M'Culloch, was in 
 
 
 £ s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1771 - 
 
 - 1 5 
 
 8 
 
 1800 - 
 
 -300 
 
 1775 - 
 
 - 1 6 
 
 0 
 
 1805 - 
 
 - 2 4 8 
 
 mo - 
 
 - 0 17 
 
 0 
 
 1810 - 
 
 - 2 7 11 
 
 1785 - 
 
 - 0 17 
 
 2 
 
 1315 - 
 
 - 1 10 3 
 
 1790 - 
 
 - 1 5 
 
 6 
 
 1819 - 
 
 - 2 6 8 
 
 1795 - 
 
 - 1 17 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 1820 - 
 
 - 1 13 
 
 10 
 
 1835 - 
 
 - 1 9 11 
 
 1825 - 
 
 -20 
 
 1 
 
 1840 - 
 
 - 1 12 8 
 
 1830 - 
 
 - 1 12 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 The account in imperial quarters of the 
 foreign barley and barley-meal entered for 
 home consumption every five years since 
 1815, was (M'Culloch: s Com. Diet.) — 
 
 qrs. 
 
 1815 - 160- 
 1820 - - - — 
 
 1825 - - - 270-679 
 
 1830 - - - 52-107 
 
 1835 - - - 137-374 
 
 The annual average, from 1801 to 1825, 
 of barley imported into England, in Win- 
 chester quarters, was from 
 171 
 
 Russia 
 
 ~ 
 
 qrs. 
 7*112 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 
 "987 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 18-808 
 
 Prussia 
 
 
 18*718 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 24*839 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 
 9'500 
 
 France and Southern Europe 
 
 1'097 
 
 United States 
 
 
 31' 
 
 British North America 
 
 
 51* 
 
 Other countries 
 
 
 2*194 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 33 331 
 
 For further particulars as to the prices of 
 Barley, the quantities imported and exported, 
 &c, see Corn Laws and Corn Trade, and 
 Malt. And for further details as to its 
 consumption and culture, see Smith's Tracts 
 on the Corn Trade, 2d ed. p. 182. ; Penny 
 Cyclop., vol. iii. p. 461. ; Brown on Rural 
 Affairs, vol.ii. p. 42.; and Elements of Prac. 
 Agr., by Prof. Low, p. 246., &c. ; to which 
 last-named valuable work I have, in this, 
 and other articles, been under very con- 
 siderable obligation. 
 
 (Phillip) s Cult. Veg.; M'-Culloclis Com. 
 Diet. ; Com. Board of Ag. vol. vi. ; Hitchin 
 in Baxter s Ag. Lib. ; Professor Low's Ele. 
 of Ag. ; Branded Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BARLEY-BRAKE. A kind of rural 
 play, at which the trial of swiftness is the 
 principal exhibition. From an appointed 
 goal numbers start, whom one is to catch, 
 after they have reached a given distance, 
 before which he stirs not from his post. 
 Those whom he catches are obliged to assist 
 him in overtaking the remainder ; the game 
 closes with the person last captured, and re- 
 commences with him who had been first 
 captured as the catcher. Dr. Jamieson says, 
 that in Scotland it is generally played in a 
 corn-yard, whence the Scottish expression 
 barla-bracks, about the stacks ; and that a 
 stack is the goal from which they start. 
 The game has, however, fallen into disuse 
 in Scotland. 
 
 BARLEY GRASSES. Some coarse 
 kind of grasses which are known under the 
 several names of meadow barley grass, wall 
 barley grass, way-bennet, and mouse barley, 
 and are of little use to the farmer. (See 
 Hordeum murinum, and H. pratense?) 
 
 BARLEY HUMMELLER. This is an 
 instrument worked by the hand, which is 
 employed when the thrashing machine is not 
 in use, or performs its work imperfectly. It 
 consists of a set of parallel iron plates fixed 
 to- a frame, and worked by the hand like a 
 paver's instrument. The barley to be hum- 
 melled is laid upon the barn-floor, and by 
 repeated strokes of the hummeller is freed 
 from its awns. Messrs. Grant, wheelwrights 
 of Aberdeenshire, have described this in- 
 strument very fully, with some improve- 
 ments, in Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 334. 
 
BARLEY MILL. 
 
 BARN-FLOOR. 
 
 BARLEY MILL. A mill for the pur- 
 pose of preparing barley for various do- 
 mestic uses. (See Mill.) 
 
 BARLEY MOW. A pile, rick, or heap 
 of reaped barley, stowed away for future use. 
 
 BARM. The foam or froth of beer or 
 any other liquor in a state of fermentation, 
 which is used as a leaven in the making of 
 bread, &c. (See Yeast.) 
 
 BARN. A covered building, constructed 
 for the purpose of laying up grain, &c. 
 Farms should always be furnished with 
 barns proportioned to the quantity of grain 
 they produce ; but since the practices of 
 stacking, and thrashing by mills have be- 
 come more general, there is much less need 
 of large barns. They should have a dry 
 situation, and be placed on the north or 
 north-east side of the farm yard, so that the 
 sun at noon -day may shine on the thrash- 
 ing-floor ; and the lean-toos for stock in the 
 yard be thus open only to the south. Every 
 farm should have at least two thrashing- 
 floors, that different kinds of grain may be 
 thrashing at the same time. Barns may 
 either be constructed of timber, or be built 
 of brick or stone, whichever the country 
 affords in the greatest plenty, but wooden 
 barns are best for the corn ; and in either case 
 there should be such vent-holes or openings 
 in their sides or walls, as to afford free ad- 
 mittance to the air, in order to prevent the 
 mouldiness, that would otherwise occur from 
 the least dampness, lodging in the grain. The 
 foundations, and for two feet out of the 
 ground, are best made of brick or stone, on 
 account of greater solidity, and the protection 
 from vermin ; the whole may be roofed with 
 either thatch, slate (which is the best of all), 
 or tiles, as can be most conveniently pro- 
 cured. They should have two large double 
 folding- doors facing each other, one in each 
 side of the building, for the conyenience of 
 carrying in or out waggon-loads ; and these 
 doors should be of the same breadth as 
 the thrashing-floor, to afford the more light 
 and air. Formerly a much larger expen- 
 diture in the number and size of these 
 buildings was incurred, than is now requisite 
 since the practice of stacking has become 
 general. It is found that all grain is a 
 better sample from stacks than from barns; 
 vermin have less chance of injuring it, in- 
 deed may be set at defiance, and at harvest 
 the corn may admit of being carried two 
 days sooner for stacking than for housing. 
 (See Barn-floor.) 
 
 BARNACLE or CLARIS. (See Goose.) 
 
 BARNACLES. A name given to horse 
 twitchers or brakes, a sort of instrument 
 used by farriers to put upon horses' noses, 
 when they will not stand quietly to be shod, 
 bled, or dressed. 
 172 
 
 BARNED. A term used to signify 
 housed or secured in the barn. 
 
 BARN -FLOOR. The portion, space, or 
 floor in the barn, on which the grain is 
 thrashed out. It is for the most part made 
 in the middle of the barn, but may be laid 
 down in any other part, if more convenient, 
 and should always be so formed as to be 
 perfectly close, firm, and strong. It is some- 
 times called the thrashing-floor. In con- 
 structing these floors, various sorts of ma- 
 terials are employed, such as compositions 
 of different earthy kinds, stones, lumps or 
 bricks, and wood. The last substance, when 
 properly laid and put together, is the best 
 and most secure from the defects and causes 
 •which are liable to injure the grain, such 
 as those of damps, &c. The floors of barns, 
 when made of wood, are sometimes so con- 
 trived as to be moveable at pleasure, which 
 is a great convenience in many cases. Barn- 
 floors are made of different dimensions, but 
 from twelve to fourteen by eighteen or 
 twenty feet are in general proper sizes for 
 most purposes ; when of timber, they should 
 be laid hollow, to admit of the more ready 
 destruction of vermin, and by this plan the 
 timber is also better preserved from damp. 
 
 The best barn-floor, both for thrashing 
 upon and for keeping corn, is that which is 
 the driest, smoothest, most completely solid, 
 and consequently freest from cracks and 
 holes, in which insects and vermin may 
 shelter themselves, and breed. The ancients 
 were remarkably careful in this respect, as 
 is evident from the writings of Cato, Varro, 
 and Columella. The last of those excellent 
 writers relates particularly the great pains 
 they took, first to dig up the ground to 
 some depth, in order to moisten it with fresh 
 lees of oil, &c, but not with any that had saline 
 matters in them ; then to mix it thoroughly 
 with chaff, and ram it down as close as pos- 
 sible ; afterwards as it dried, to stop all the 
 cracks and crevices that appeared, to con- 
 tinue beating it down with great force, to 
 render it quite level; and, lastly, to strew it 
 again with chaff, which they trod in, and 
 then left it to be completely dried by the 
 sun. All of them agree, that the lees of oil, 
 thus used, prevented the growth of weeds in 
 the floors, and contributed to preserve the 
 corn from being plundered by the mice and 
 ants. In this they were, however, pro- 
 bably mistaken. Their barns were always 
 seated high, and as dry as possible. A floor 
 made in the above manner, was usually 
 preferable either to stone, or the earthen 
 floors common in many parts of England, 
 from which such dampness lias been com- 
 municated to the corn, as has rendered 
 wheat, for example, much worse, either for 
 keeping or exporting; and to these ends 
 
BARN OWL. 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 ■we would suggest, that the modern asphalte 
 would form an admirable floor, probably 
 better than any other. 
 
 Boarded thrashing-floors, made of sound, 
 thick, well-seasoned planks, are excellent for 
 service, will last a long time, and may after- 
 wards be converted into good floorings for 
 rooms, by planing them down, after they have 
 become too uneven for the purpose originally 
 intended. These are much the best for corn. 
 
 There are many different methods of con- 
 structing and laying down barn-floors, when 
 formed of wood. The most usual is that of 
 nailing the planks, or boards of which they 
 are composed, after their edges have been 
 shot true, and well fitted and jointed, close 
 down to wooden joists or sleepers, firmly 
 placed and secured upon the ground, or 
 other place for the purpose. But in the 
 midland districts, another practice is pur- 
 sued ; instead of the planks being nailed 
 down to sleepers in the ordinary way, the 
 floor is first laid with bricks, and the planks 
 spread over these, with no other confine- 
 ment than that of being " dowled " together, 
 that is, ploughed and tongued, and their 
 ends let into sills or walls, placed in the 
 usual way, on each side the floor. By this 
 method of putting down the planks, pro- 
 vided the brick-work be truly level, vermin 
 cannot have a hiding-place beneath them ; 
 and a communication of damp air being ef- 
 fectually prevented, floors thus laid are 
 found to wear better than those laid upon 
 sleepers. The planks for this method of 
 laying ought to be thoroughly seasoned. 
 
 It is evident, that where barn -floors can 
 be made hollow, they must be much better 
 for the purpose of thrashing upon than 
 such as are either placed on brick-work, or 
 the ground. From their great pliability 
 and elasticity in thrashing upon, the grain 
 is of course thrashed out with more ease, 
 certainty, and despatch. But in whatever 
 manner wooden floors are formed or con- 
 structed, they become expensive, and do not 
 last any great length of time. For various 
 hints with regard to the construction of 
 barns, &c, I am indebted to Mr. Hewitt 
 Davis, a very extensive land agent, of the 
 Haymarket, London. For an excellent ar- 
 ticle on barn management, I would refer the 
 reader to the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. 
 p. 980. 
 
 BARN OWL. (Strix flammea.) The 
 white, or screech owl, unlike some of the 
 species, is resident in this country throughout 
 the year, and is so peculiar in the colour of 
 its plumage, and so generally diffused, that it 
 is probably the best known of all the British 
 species of owls. It inhabits churches, barns, 
 old malting kilns, or deserted ruins of any 
 sort, and also holes in decayed trees. If un- 
 173 
 
 molested, the same haunts are frequented, 
 either by parent birds or their offspring, for 
 many years in succession. As a constant de- 
 stroyer of rats and mice, and that to a very 
 considerable extent, the services performed 
 by barn owls for the agriculturist have ob- 
 tained for these birds toleration at least, 
 while by some they are, as they deserve to 
 be, strictly protected in return for benefits 
 received. Unless disturbed, these birds 
 seldom leave their retreat during the day ; 
 and, if the place of concealment be ap- 
 proached with caution, and a view of the 
 bird obtained, it will generally be observed 
 to have its eyes closed, as if asleep. About 
 sunset, the pair of owls, particularly when 
 they have young, issue forth in quest of 
 food, and may be observed flapping gently 
 along, searching lanes, hedge rows, orchards, 
 and small enclosures near out-buildings. 
 " In this irregular country," says White of 
 Selborne, " we can stand on an eminence 
 and see them beat the fields over like a 
 setting dog, and often drop down in the 
 grass or corn." Besides rats and mice, 
 they feed on shrews, small birds, insects, 
 &c, and have sometimes been known to 
 capture and eat fish. It is said of this owl, 
 that, when satisfied, it will hide the re- 
 mainder of its meat like a dog. The barn 
 owl lays from three to five eggs, which are 
 oval and white, measuring one inch six 
 lines in length, and one inch three lines in 
 breadth. Young birds are found from July 
 to September, and occasionally as late as De- 
 cember. The young birds are easily tamed, 
 and live in harmony, with other birds. The 
 barn owl is common in most, if not all, 
 the counties of England, and, according to 
 Mr. Thompson, it is also the most common 
 owl in Ireland. In Scotland, it is less nu- 
 merous. Over the temperate part of the 
 European continent, and in North America, 
 it is generally diffused. Its form and colour 
 are too common to need description. The 
 whole length of the bird is about fourteen 
 inches. (Yai*relFs Brit. Birds, vol. i.) 
 
 BARN-YARD. The straw or fold yard 
 which immediately adjoins the barn or 
 stack-yard. 
 
 BAROMETER. The word is derived 
 from two Greek words, which signify the 
 measurer of weight. This, the most valu- 
 able instrument for meteorological observa- 
 tions in the farmers possession, was invented 
 about the middle of the 17th century, by 
 Torricelli, an Italian philosopher. Some 
 observations of Galileo had, perhaps, led 
 the way to the discovery ; the attention of 
 this great philosopher, according to a well- 
 known story, having been drawn to the fact 
 that water would not rise higher than 32 
 feet in a tube exhausted of air, by some 
 
BAROMETER. 
 
 BARREN FLOWERS. 
 
 workmen of the Duke of Florence, who had 
 vainly endeavoured to construct a common 
 lifting pump to raise watera greater height. 
 Galileo explained the phenomenon, by saying 
 that nature had a horror of a vacuum, but 
 that this horror had its limits. It was 
 found by Torricelli, that a column of water 
 of about 32 feet exactly balanced the weight 
 of the atmosphere which surrounds our 
 earth, and that this was equal to the weight 
 of a column of mercury of about 28 inches. 
 Now this column of mercury, under various 
 outward shapes, forms the barometer, or 
 weather-glass, so useful to the farmer. For 
 as the pressure of the atmosphere commonly 
 varies with approaching changes in the 
 weather, the consequent rise or fall of the 
 mercury merely marks its amount : one end 
 of the bent mercurial tube is hermetically 
 sealed, and is void of air, so that the quick- 
 silver rises or falls in it unresisted ; but the 
 other end of the tube is open, and upon its 
 quicksilver, therefore, the atmosphere ope- 
 rates by its varying pressure. And it will 
 be evident to the farmer that the pressure 
 of the mercury down one leg of the bent 
 tube forces it up the other leg, which is, in 
 most barometers, exposed to view. When, 
 therefore, the quicksilver rises, the atmo- 
 spheric pressure is increasing ; when it falls, 
 the pressure is diminishing : a fact, how- 
 ever, which is entirely opposed to the very 
 common erroneous conclusion. 
 
 It is more from this rising and falling of 
 the barometer, observes Mr. Forster, than 
 from its height or lowness, that we are to 
 infer fair or foul weather. In very hot 
 weather, the falling of the mercury indicates 
 thunder : in winter, the rising indicates 
 frost ; and in frosty weather, if the mercury 
 fall three or four divisions, there will follow 
 a thaw ; but, in a continued frost, if the 
 mercury rises, it will snow. When foul 
 weather happens soon after the falling of 
 the mercury, it will not continue ; and, on 
 the contrary, you may expect, if the weather 
 becomes fair as soon as the mercury rises, 
 that it will be of short duration. In foul 
 weather, when the mercury rises much and 
 high, and so continues for two or three 
 days before the foul weather is quite over, 
 then expect a continuance of fair weather 
 to follow. 
 
 Many are the natural indications of ve- 
 getables which portend changes in the 
 weather ; thus, the Pimpernel, or Anagallis 
 arvensis, is styled the poor man's weather- 
 glass. 'This little plant blooms in June, in 
 Our stubble fields and gardens, and con- 
 tinues in flower all the summer. When 
 lliis plant is seen in the morning with its 
 little red flowers widely extended, we may 
 generally expect a fine day ; on the con- 
 174 
 
 trary, it is a sign of rain when its petals are 
 closed. (The Farmers Almanac.) 
 
 The following table has been constructed 
 from a long series of observations made in 
 London ; they will apply, however, to a 
 considerable distance around the metro- 
 polis : — 
 
 
 Barometer, 
 mean Height. 
 
 Thermom. 
 mean Tem- 
 perature. 
 
 Mean quan- 
 tity of Rain 
 in Inches. 
 
 January - 
 
 29-921 
 
 36-1 
 
 1-483 
 
 Feb. 
 
 30-067 
 
 38' 
 
 0-746 
 
 March - 
 
 29-843 
 
 43-9 
 
 1-440 
 
 April 
 
 29-881 
 
 49-9 
 
 1-786 
 
 May 
 
 29-898 
 
 54- 
 
 1-853 
 
 June 
 
 30-020 
 
 58-7 
 
 1-830 
 
 July 
 
 29-874 
 
 61- 
 
 2-516 
 
 August - 
 
 '29-891 
 
 61*6 
 
 1-453 
 
 Sept. 
 
 29-931 
 
 57-8 
 
 2193 
 
 Oct. 
 
 29-774 
 
 48-9 
 
 2-073 
 
 Nov. 
 
 29-776 
 
 42-9 
 
 2-400 
 
 Dec. 
 
 29*693 
 
 39-3 
 
 2-426 
 
 BARRED SHOES. See Bar Shoe. 
 
 BARREL. A cask or vessel for holding 
 liquids, particularly ale and beer. For- 
 merly the barrel of beer, in London, con- 
 tained only 32 ale gallons = 32^ Imperial 
 gallons. By a statute of 1 W. Sf M., the 
 ale and beer barrels were equalised for 
 every part of England, except London, and 
 ordered to contain 34 gallons ; but it was 
 enacted by 43 Geo. 3. c. 69., that 36 gallons of 
 beer should be taken to be a barrel ; and by 
 the 6 Geo. 4. c. 58., it is enacted, that when- 
 ever any gallon measure is mentioned in any 
 excise law, it shall always be deemed and 
 taken to be a standard Imperial gallon. At 
 present, therefore, the barrel cantains 36 
 Imperial gallons. It may be worth while 
 observing, that the barrel or cask is exclu- 
 sively the produce of European ingenuity, 
 and that no such article is known to any 
 nation of Asia, Africa, or America, who 
 have not derived it from Europeans. The 
 term barrel was formerly used to denote, in 
 a rough way, other sorts of goods. Thus, a 
 barrel of salmon was 42 gallons ; a barrel of 
 soap, 256 pounds. In common language, 
 any hollow cylinder is called a barrel. 
 Air and water-tight iron barrels coated with 
 waterproof composition are now used in the 
 navy, and might be made useful to the 
 farmer. (M'Culloctis Com. Diet. ; Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BARREL DRAIN. See Drain. 
 
 BARREN CORN. (Fr. baraigne, sterile, 
 unfruitful.) See Abortive Corn. 
 
 BARREN FLOWERS are those which 
 either have stamens and no pistil, or which 
 have neither stamens nor pistil. The latter 
 are the production of art. 
 
 BARREN LAND. See Waste Land. 
 
BARREN SOILS. 
 
 BASIL, SWEET. 
 
 BARREN SOILS, in general, owe their 
 sterility to the presence of too great a pro- 
 portion of particular earths — saline, or or- 
 ganic matters. No soil can be productive in 
 which 19 parts out of 20 are composed of 
 any one earth or other substance. — The im- 
 provement of such soils constitutes the great 
 art of all manuring and tillage. Lands con- 
 taining an excess of calcareous matter may 
 be improved by the addition of clay or sand. 
 — Sands may be dressed with clay or marl, 
 or vegetable matter. Where organic mat- 
 ters are in excess, the earths may be applied. 
 Water must be removed by draining. (Davys 
 Lectures, p. 203.) See Soils. 
 
 BARRENWORT, ALPINE. (Epi- 
 medium alpinum.) A perennial plant, grow- 
 ing a foot high, which is found in York- 
 shire, Cumberland, and near Glasgow and 
 Edinburgh. It blooms in April and May 
 a cluster of very handsome, and singular 
 drooping flowers, whose dark red petals are 
 contrasted with the pale lemon-coloured 
 nectaries, which are full of honey, and very 
 peculiar. It is a native of the south of 
 Europe, and loves shade and moisture, fre- 
 quenting mountain thickets. It is propa- 
 gated by parting the roots. It will flower 
 to the end of August, if kept out of the 
 sun's rays. The flower stalks are brittle 
 and often crooked ; leaves thrice ternate, 
 and of a dull green colour ; root fibrous. 
 
 BARROWS. The common term for 
 tumuli, or huge mounds of earth which were 
 raised in former times over the bodies of 
 heroes and warriors : many of which exist 
 to the present day on the plains of Wilts and 
 the downs of Dorset, Surrey, Sussex, and 
 other counties. Barrow is also the name 
 for a hog, and for any kind of carriage 
 moved or borne by the hand. The most 
 common barrows in use at present are the 
 wheel-barrow, which is employed for the 
 carriage of light loads, as of earth to short 
 distances, lime for building, manure from 
 the heaps for spreading, and the like. The 
 hand-barrow is, under certain circumstances, 
 substituted for the wheel-barrow. The 
 load-barrow is used for carrying filled 
 sacks to and from the granary, &c. 
 
 BARS. In farriery, a term applied to 
 those portions of the crust or hoof of horses 
 that are reflected inwards, and which form 
 the arches that are situated between the 
 heels and the frog. 
 
 Bars of a Horse's Mouth. — The fleshy 
 rows that run across the upper part of the 
 mouth, and reach almost quite to the palate, 
 very distinguishable in some young horses. 
 They form that part of the mouth on which 
 the bit should rest, and have its effect. 
 
 BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of shoe, 
 which is sometimes of necessity used to pro- 
 175 
 
 tect a tender frog from injury, the hinder 
 part of the shoe being thickened and hol- 
 lowed over the frog ; but unless it is made 
 exceedingly heavy, it will soon be flattened 
 down, and in the mean time it will most in- 
 juriously press upon the heels. 
 
 BARTER. (Span, baratar ; Fr. barrater ; 
 Ital. barratare, which signify to cheat as 
 well as to barter : hence also our word barra- 
 try.) The exchanging one commodity for 
 another, without the payment of money. 
 The term barter seems to have been de- 
 rived from the languages of southern Europe. 
 This rude mode of trade grows into de- 
 suetude as a country or nation advances in 
 commercial knowledge, and progresses in 
 civilisation ; and even where an actual ex- 
 change of commodities does take place be- 
 tween merchants and traders, their compa- 
 rative value is expressed by certain current 
 monies, and balanced accordingly, and not by 
 the proportionate value one article bears to 
 another. The exchanges of a civilised people 
 amongst themselves, or with other countries, 
 are principally carried on by bills of exchange. 
 The actual money payments in a country by 
 no means represent the amount of its com- 
 mercial transactions. (Penny Cyclop.} 
 
 BARTH. A provincial term, which sig- 
 nifies a warm inclosed place or pasture for 
 calves, lambs, and other young animals. 
 
 BARTON, or BARKEN. (Sax. bepe-cun, 
 an area.) A term employed in some districts 
 to signify the yard of a farm-house. Blount 
 describes this word as meaning the demesne 
 lands of a manor; the manor-house itself, 
 and sometimes the out-houses. Most of our 
 old lexicographers explain it as an enclosed 
 place, or inner yard, where poultry is kept, 
 or husbandry used. Blount's is the pro- 
 vincialism of the west of England ; the latter 
 is still used in other places. 
 
 BASE. (Fr. Bas.) An old rustic play, 
 in several counties culled prison-bars or -base, 
 in which some are pursuers and others pri- 
 soners, one party being opposed to another 
 in the trial of swiftness : it is yet in use. Fre- 
 quent allusion is made to the game in the 
 works of our poets ; thus Drayton says, " at 
 hood-wink, barley-brake, at tick, or prison- 
 base ; " and Davies, in Witte's Pilgrimage — 
 
 '* Beauties do run at base, and kindly take 
 
 Each other prisoners, for sweet beauty's sake." 
 
 BASIL, SW^EET. (Ocymum. Proba- 
 bly from o£w and ncvi», on account of its 
 lasting fragrance.) A culinary aromatic 
 exotic used in salads and soups ; the pecu- 
 liar flavour of mock-turtle soups is chiefly 
 derived from this valuable pot-herb. There 
 are two species commonly cultivated, both 
 annuals, and originally coming from the 
 East Indies. 1. The sweet-scented or larger 
 basil (O. basilicum), and, 2. the dwarf-bush 
 
BASIL, COMMON WILD. 
 
 BAT. 
 
 basil (O. minimum). They thrive most in a 
 rich light soil, entirely free from any over- 
 shadowing body ; but they require, espe- 
 cially for the earliest plants, a sheltered 
 border. In wet earth, the seed always rots. 
 
 BASIL, COMMON WILD. (Chenopo- 
 dium vulgare.) This is also slightly aro- 
 matic, and is a perennial succulent herb, 
 growing in bushy places, about hedges, and by 
 road sides, on a gravelly or chalky soil. The 
 herb rises about a foot high on a wavy, light 
 green, hairy stem, with ovate leaves, an inch 
 long, serrated, and the ribs beneath armed 
 with bristly hairs. The whole of the flowers 
 are also bristly, on branched hairy stalks, 
 both arising from the axilla of the leaves 
 and the top of the stem, of a light purple 
 colour. The flowers blow in July and Au- 
 gust. This plant flourishes abundantly in 
 gardens. It is well known among kitchen 
 herbs. Its very odour is fragrant and re- 
 freshing. 
 
 BASIL- Thyme. (Thymus acina.) A 
 leafy, small annual plant, much branched and 
 spreading, but scarcely nine inches high, 
 with acute, bluntly serrated leaves, rough 
 at the edges, and slightly aromatic. The 
 flowers are in axillary whorls of a bluish 
 colour, variegated at the tip with white and 
 dark purple ; six on a whorl on simple 
 stalks. It grows luxuriantly in cultivated 
 fields, especially on a sandy, gravelly, or 
 chalky soil. (Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 
 BASIL. The skin of a sheep tanned. 
 
 BASILISK. (Lat.) The name for a 
 serpent. 
 
 BASIN, or BASON. (Fr. hassin; It. 
 bacino.) In agriculture, a natural or arti- 
 ficial hollow or excavation in the ground, 
 for the reception and preservation of water. 
 (See Pond.) 
 
 BASKETS. (Basged, Welsh ; bascauda, 
 Lat., probably from bass, of which baskets 
 were often made.) They are made prin- 
 cipally of the interwoven twigs of willow, 
 osier, and birch, &c, but frequently also 
 of grass, rushes, splinters of wood, straw, 
 &c. They are made to hold all sorts of 
 dry goods, and constructed of every va- 
 riety of quality and shape, from the small 
 fruit-pottle to the bushel basket. For 
 market baskets the osiers are used whole. 
 Besides the vast quantities produced at 
 home, some of the finer kinds are imported 
 under an ad valorem duty of 20 per cent. 
 In 1832 this duty produced 1044/. 7*. 9d. t 
 showing that the value of the foreign baskets 
 entered for home consumption in the same 
 year had been ^221/. 18*. 9d. The fishing- 
 basket, pannier, or creel for the angler, 
 should be made of wicker-work, with two 
 openings for a leather strap to pass through, 
 which strap should encircle one shoulder 
 17G 
 
 and be buckled, so that it may be let down 
 or taken up as occasion may suit. There 
 are great varieties of these panniers ; some 
 are made of sufficient width to carry a fish 
 of four or five pounds at full length. 
 
 BASS. The material of which packing 
 mats are made. It consists of the bark of 
 the lime tree. 
 
 BASTARD ALKANET. (Corn Grom- 
 well, Lithospermum arvense.) An annual 
 weed common in waste grounds and corn- 
 fields, especially among rye, flowering in 
 May and June. It may be easily known by 
 its tapering root, with a bright red bark, 
 which communicates its colour to oily sub- 
 stances, as well as to paper, linen, and pale 
 faces ; and it is therefore occasionally used 
 by the young girls in Sweden to colour their 
 cheeks. This colouring matter is also used 
 to tinge some ointments, especially lip- 
 salves, of a red colour. From the root 
 visually rises a single stem, about a foot, 
 high, rough, and generally branched and 
 spreading at the top ; sometimes decumbent. 
 The flowers are small and white, surrounded 
 with five long, narrow, hairy leaves. Wil- 
 denow says, he has seen a variety with blue 
 flowers. (Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 
 BASTARD -TOADFLAX. (Thesium 
 linophyllum.) An English perennial wild 
 plant, with terminal clusters of whitish or 
 yellowish blossoms, many-flowered, erect, 
 generally branched or subdivided, flowering 
 in July. Its root is woody and yellowish, 
 stems widely spreading, angular, leafy, a 
 span or more in length ; leaves turned to one 
 side, rough-edged, light-green, an inch long 
 at most. Found in high open chalky pastures. 
 
 BAT, or FLITTERMOUSE. (Chei- 
 roptera, a hand and wing.) A mammife- 
 rous animal which has a body like a mouse, 
 with wings not feathered, but consisting of 
 a membranous skin extended. These wings 
 of the bat, osteologically considered, are 
 hands ; the bony stretchers of the cutaneous 
 membrane being the digital phalanges, or 
 fingers, extremely elongated ; one digit or 
 finger of each wing is tipped with a small 
 nail. Bats are widely spread over the 
 globe ; they are to be found in the Old and 
 New World, and in New Holland. A to- 
 lerably temperate climate seems necessary 
 for them, and the greatest development of 
 the form takes place in warm countries. 
 Generally speaking, they remain in con- 
 cealment during the day in caverns, ruin- 
 ous buildings, hollow trees, and such hiding 
 places, and flit forth at twilight or sunset to 
 take their prey. They feed mostly on flies, 
 insects, &c, but do not refuse raw flesh, so 
 that the notion that bats go down chimneys 
 and gnaw men's bacon is no improbable 
 story. 
 
BATEABLE HERBAGE. 
 
 BAY-T11EE. 
 
 Bats are divided into two classes, the omni- 
 vorous or fruit-eating, and the insectivorous. 
 Those who are desirous of further inves- 
 tigating the subject will find ample par- 
 ticulars under the head " Cheiroptera" in 
 the Penny Cyclo. vol. vii. p. 19. 
 
 BATEABLE HERBAGE. Provincially, 
 such herbage as has the tendency of readily 
 fattening stock of different kinds. 
 
 BAT FOWLING. A particular manner 
 of bird-catching in the night, while they are 
 at roost under the eaves of barns, or upon 
 trees or hedges. The fowler lights torches 
 or straw, and beats the bushes, upon which 
 the birds, dazzled by the light, fly into the 
 flames, and are then knocked down with 
 sticks, or caught either with nets or by other 
 means. 
 
 BATHING. In farriery, cold-bathing 
 has been found beneficial in the removal of 
 locked-jaw in a horse. It was applied by 
 swimming the animal, at certain intervals of 
 time, in a river or other water ; and the 
 same remedy has been applied in the removal 
 of lameness, from rigidity in the muscles. 
 Local bathing, where medicinal substances 
 have been diffused in the water, has likewise 
 been recommended in some cases. 
 
 The cold-bath invigorates the system, in- 
 creases the tone of the solids and circulation 
 of the fluids, and promotes insensible per- 
 spiration; hence it becomes a corroborant, 
 deobstruent, and general evacuant : whilst 
 the warm and vapour baths have the power 
 of relaxing the solids, determining the fluids 
 externally, and, by these means, greatly pro- 
 moting the sensible perspiration. They may 
 be considered as relaxants and evaeuants. 
 
 BATING. An abbreviation of abating. 
 From bate, to lessen any thing, to retrench, 
 to sink the price. Thus Locke says, " When 
 the landholder's rent falls, he must either 
 bate the labourer's wages, or not employ or 
 not pay him." It is also used synonymously 
 with barring, to except. 
 
 BATTEN. (Probably from the French 
 baton, from its slender width.) A name in 
 common use for a slip or scantling of wood 
 from 2 to 4 inches broad and one inch thick, 
 the length inconsiderable, but undefined. 
 If above seven inches wide, it is called deal. 
 
 It also signifies strong broad fencing rails. 
 It is sometimes written batton. 
 
 BATTIN. A provincial name for a truss 
 of straw. 
 
 BAVINS. Bundles of wood, or faggots 
 made, with the brushwood at full length. 
 
 BAWSIN. The old English name for a 
 badger. 
 
 BAY. (Lat. badius; old Fr. baye, bai, rouge 
 brun ; Ital. baio.) The term for a colour 
 inclining to a chestnut. In reference to the 
 horse this colour has various shades, from the 
 177 
 
 very light bay, to the dark bay, which ap- 
 proaches nearly to the brown ; but it is al- 
 ways more gay and shining. There are also 
 coloured horses that are called dappled bays. 
 All bay horses are commonly called brown. 
 Bay horses have black manes, which distin- 
 guish them from the sorrel, that have red or 
 white manes. There are light bays, and 
 gilded bays, which are somewhat of a yellow- 
 ish colour. The chestnut bay is that which 
 comes nearest to the colour of the chestnut. 
 
 The bay is one of the best colours of 
 horses, and horses of all the different shades 
 of bays are commonly good. 
 
 BAYARD. A provincial term for a bay 
 horse. 
 
 BAY OF A BARN. That part where 
 the mow is placed. Hence such barns as 
 have the thrashing-floor in the middle, and 
 a space for a mow on each side, are called 
 barns of two bays, &c. ■ 
 
 BAY-SALT. The salt made naturally 
 on the sea-shore at St. Ubes and other bays, 
 in the natural hollows of the sea-shore which 
 are only overflowed at spring tides. The 
 salt thus made at a low temperature by the 
 action of the sun and wind is the strongest 
 and best for butter and other agricultural 
 purposes. {Brownrigg on Salt. Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.') 
 
 Bay-salt is in large, moderately white 
 cubes. St. Ubes' salt contains 960 parts of 
 pure chloride of sodium in 1000 parts ; the 
 remainder consists of 28 parts of sulphate of 
 lime and of magnesia ; 3 parts of chloride 
 of magnesia, or bittern ; and 9 of insoluble 
 matter. It is consequently very pure. 
 Similar salt, but less pure, is made at St. 
 Martin and Oleven. (For its dietetical uses 
 and as a manure, see Salt, Salting.) 
 
 BAY-TREE. (Laurus nobilis.) This 
 plant, the laurel of antiquity, is a native of 
 classical ground. We cannot ascertain at 
 what exact period the bay-tree was first 
 cultivated in this country ; but in all pro- 
 bability it was planted by the Romans, and 
 felf with their villas. Chaucer, who wrote 
 in the time of Edward III., mentions it ; 
 and Turner, our oldest writer on plants, 
 says, in 1564, "the bay-tre in England is 
 no great tre, but it thryueth there many 
 parts better, and is lustier than in Germany." 
 We find that during the reign of Eliza- 
 beth it was common to strew the floors of 
 distinguished persons in England with bay- 
 leaves. And we may conclude that it was 
 rare in this country, even so late as the 
 beginning of the eighteenth century, for 
 Bradley says, in 1716, "they (bay-trees) 
 shovdd be put in pots or cases, and housed 
 in the winter, that their beauty may be 
 preserved." He states, that " he has seen 
 pyramids and headed plants of bays in- 
 
 N 
 
BAY-TREE. 
 
 BEAGLE. 
 
 troduced in parterre work, but lie cannot 
 advise the doing it, lest they should be 
 injured by the weather." There need be 
 no such care taken now, for they have 
 become thoroughly hardy and acclimated. 
 Bradley adds, the finest bay-trees he had 
 ever seen, either abroad or in England, 
 were then in the royal gardens of Kensing- 
 ton, and were of very great value. 
 
 The bay is a small tree, seldom exceeding 
 fifteen to twenty feet in height. The bark 
 is greenish, smooth, and aromatic : the leaves 
 lanceolate, sharp-pointed, wavy on the edge, 
 and leathery and smooth on both sides. The 
 flowers are four or six in a cluster, of a 
 yellowish white, glandular, and dotted. The 
 fruit is about the size of a large pea, black, 
 and succulent. 
 
 Observation instructs us to place this tree 
 in situations where it is sheltered from north 
 and north-east winds, which affect its beauty, 
 and often its growth. It thrives under the 
 very wings of larger trees, where it is diffi- 
 cult to make other shrubs prosper, and this 
 is of importance in our plantations. A 
 warm, dry, sandy, or gravelly soil is recom- 
 mended for the bay ; but it thrives well on 
 a rich loam. We are told by Mortimer, 
 that bay-trees, whose branches are killed by 
 the weather, or other accident, if cut down 
 to the ground, will send up strong shoots, 
 which we know by experience to be correct ; 
 therefore, the roots should not be grubbed 
 up too hastily. This tree should never have 
 a branch taken from it but in the spring. 
 The directions for raising these trees from 
 seed are given in the same manner by all 
 writers on the subject, from Pliny down to 
 Miller. It is, to gather the fruit when quite 
 ripe, which is not before January or Feb- 
 ruary. The berries are then to be preserved 
 in dry sand until the middle of March, when 
 they may be sown in a shady border of rich, 
 loose, undunged earth. The berries, should 
 be dropped in rows as French beans are 
 planted, and covered with fine, rich mould 
 about an inch thick. The young plants will 
 require frequent but moderate watering for 
 the first two years. The French nurserymen 
 raise them under glass, or in an orangery. 
 The bay- tree will grow by cuttings, but 
 these should be planted in a moderate hot- 
 bed, and kept moist and covered from the 
 heat of the sun during summer, and from 
 the frost in winter. April is the proper 
 time to plant cuttings, but layers may be 
 Laid down either in March or August, 
 which, by the second spring, will make good 
 plants. 
 
 The variegated bay is increased by bud- 
 ding it on l lie common sort. Neither the 
 broad nor the narrow-leaved varieties 
 are so hardy as the common bay. The 
 178 
 
 leaves and berries of the bay-tree have 
 an aromatic, bitter, astringe t taste, and 
 a fragrant smell ; and are accounted sto- 
 machic, carminative, and narcotic ; but they 
 are not much used in medicine at the 
 present day, although old writers are very 
 voluminous in describing their virtues. 
 {Phillips s Syl. Flor.) 
 
 This well-known evergreen is always 
 handsome in shrubberies, and grows well. 
 It prefers a northern aspect : indeed, we 
 may almost consider the bay-tree a native 
 of our island, since gardens and shrubberies 
 are now rarely formed without their pre- 
 sence. The leaves and berries are used as 
 medicine ; the leaves should be dried in the 
 proper way, pounded, and kept in glass- 
 bottles ; they are said to be cordial and bene- 
 ficial in nervous complaints, and in pa- 
 ralysis : in large doses they prove emetic. 
 The green leaves applied to the part 
 allays the pain of the sting of bees. The 
 berries of the bay-tree contain both volatile 
 and fixed oil, wax, resin, uncrystalizable 
 sugar, gums, starch, some salts, and a 
 peculiar substance, which has been named 
 laurin, and bears some resemblance to 
 camphor. The dried berries are given in 
 powder or infusion in flatulent colic; but 
 they are of little value. 
 
 BEACE. A provincial word used to 
 signify cattle, evidently a vulgar corruption 
 of beasts. It also sometimes implies a 
 cattle-stall. 
 
 BEACH. See Sand, Sea. 
 
 BEAGLE. (Fr. bigle.) A small well- 
 proportioned hound, slow but sure, having 
 an excellent nose and most enduring dili- 
 gence ; formerly much in fashion for hunt- 
 ing the hare, but now comparatively neg- 
 lected, its place being occupied, where hare- 
 hunting is patronised, by the harrier. There 
 are still several varieties of beagles, but for- 
 merly there appear to have been many more, 
 from the deep-flewed diminutive type of 
 the old southern hound, to the fleet and ele- 
 gant fox-hound beagle, to which we may 
 add the pigmy breed called lap-dog beagles. 
 Beagles were formerly distinguished into the 
 rough and the smooth, The rough, wire- 
 haired, or terrier beagle, is now seldom met 
 with, although it was a hardy, and altogether 
 a vermin-loving breed, and very strongly 
 formed. (Blaine s Encyclopedia of Rural 
 Sports.) 
 
 BEAKED PARSLEY. (Anthriscus vul- 
 garis.) This wild herb is an annual growing 
 on banks and waste grounds, chiefly near 
 large towns, on a stem 2 or 3 feet high ; up- 
 right, leafy, round; very smooth, and po- 
 lished ; swelled under each joint ; leaves of a 
 most beautiful light green, especially when 
 young ; their edges, ribs, and stalks a little 
 
BEAK OF A BIRD 
 
 BEANS. 
 
 hairy. The whole herb has a sweetish, aro- 
 matic flavour, approaching to the garden 
 chervil, to which it is in habit very nearly 
 allied. (Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 
 BEAK OF A BIRD. (Fr. bee; Welsh, 
 pig ; Bret, beg ; Dutch, beik, beck. — Todd's 
 Johnson.} The bill or horny mouth of a bird. 
 In botany, a hard sharp termination of any 
 part of the fructification. It is Latinised 
 by rostrum. 
 
 BEAK-RUSH. (Rhjnchospora.) Of the 
 beak-rush there are two kinds, the white 
 and the brown. The white beak-rush is a 
 perennial, flowering in July and August ; 
 found on turfy bogs, most frequent in 
 mountainous countries. The whole plant 
 is smooth and slender, from 6 to 12 inches 
 high, heads abrupt, stamens two, leaves 
 tapering, and numerous bristles at the base 
 of the seed. The brown beak-rush is smaller 
 than the white, and its leaves are narrower, 
 of a more even thickness, not tapering. It has 
 three stamens ; heads ovate- oblong ; leaves 
 thread- shaped. It is met with occasionally, 
 but rarely, in bogs. (Smith's Eng. Flora.} 
 
 BEAL. A local word applied to the 
 bellowing of cattle. 
 
 BEALE, DR. JOHN, was an ardent 
 promoter of horticulture and agriculture, 
 especially orcharding. He was a native of 
 Herefordshire, which country he greatly 
 benefited. His family, which had long 
 flourished in Herefordshire, seemed to in- 
 herit a zeal for the plantation of orchards ; 
 and the individual, of whom we are now 
 sketching the biography, was fully gifted 
 with the family hereditament. He so im- 
 proved the orchards of his country, and 
 their produce, that in a few years it gained 
 some hundred, thousands of pounds by the 
 increased reputation. (GougKs Antiquities, 
 p. 193.) His enthusiastic love of the agri- 
 colan arts is manifested in every one of his 
 writings. He was a man of talent, and Hie 
 companion of men of genius. Many of his 
 letters are preserved in Boyle's works. 
 That philosopher thus speaks of him : " There 
 is not in life a man in this whole island, nor 
 on the continents beyond the seas, that 
 could be made more universally useful to 
 do good to all." He was in the church. 
 Born in 1603, and died in 1683. He wrote, 
 
 1. A Treatise on Fruit Trees. Oxford. lG53and 1657- 
 4to. — 1665. 12ntio. 2. The Hereford Orchards; a Pat- 
 tern for the Whole'of England. By J.'B. ; London. 1657. 
 12mo. — 1724. 8vo. This is dedicated to Samuel Hartlib, 
 and is the most celebrated of his works. 3. Observations 
 on some Parts of Bacon's Natural History, as it concerns 
 Fruit Trees, Fruits, and Flowers. Oxford. 1658. 4to. 
 
 4. Advertisement concerning Cider, in Evelyn's Sylva. 
 
 5. Letters on Nurseries, Orchards, &c. London. 1677. 
 4to. 6. Experiments on Vegetation. 7. The connection 
 of certain Parts of the Tree with Fruit. These two in 
 the Phil. Trans. 1669. 8. Remarks on the Vinetum 
 Britannicum. Some writers have made two persons 
 authors of the above works. From No. 6. downwards, 
 being by Dr. John Beale, and those preceding by Mr. 
 John Beale. (G. IV. Johnson's Hist. Gard.) 
 
 179 
 
 BEAM. The principal piece of timber 
 which supports a building. 
 
 BEAM OF A PLOUGH. The upper 
 principal timber into which the handles and 
 all the other parts of the tail of the plough 
 are fixed. It is most commonly made of ash 
 wood, somewhat bent in its form, and of dif- 
 ferent lengths according to the nature of 
 the plough. (See Ploughs.) 
 
 BEAM-TREE. The Pyrus Aria of bo- 
 tanists. The white beam-tree or wild pear- 
 tree, is a deciduous British tree of small 
 growth inhabiting the mountainous parts of 
 the country, and resembling a small apple tree 
 with berries like those of the mountain ash. 
 Its leaves are strongly veined, in a plaited 
 manner, and white underneath ; the wood is 
 hard, compact, and tough, and is vised for 
 axle trees, naves of wheels, and cogs of ma- 
 chinery. (Brande's Diet. Science.) 
 
 BEANS. (ViciaFaba.) A well known 
 vegetable of the pulse species, largely cul- 
 tivated both in gardens and fields. Sax. 
 bean ; vicia is the Latin name for the tare or 
 vetch ; derived, according to Varro, a vici- 
 ardo, because its tendrils entwine or bind 
 round other plants. The bean was called 
 in Greek Kua/xoc ; by the Falisci, a people of 
 Etruria (now Tuscany), Haba, whence the 
 name Faba seems to be taken. Mart nius 
 derives the word from 7raa,-, to feed, as if it 
 were Paba ; Isidorus from (pdyw, to eat. Its 
 cultivation is of much importance in rural 
 economy, inasmuch as it has gone far to su- 
 persede fallows on strong loams and clays. 
 The bean is a plant of considerable impor- 
 tance to the farmer, as affording him a va- 
 luable food for both horses and swine ; its 
 varieties are numerous, but as it is culti- 
 vated both for agricultural and horticultural 
 purposes, it will be necessary, in treating of 
 its cultivation, to adopt the following ar- 
 rangement : — 1. Field beans; 2. Garden 
 beans. The English growth of beans has 
 of late years diminished, a large portion of 
 the consumption of this country now coming 
 from abroad ; yet I am of opinion that beans 
 or peas, according to the soil, should enter 
 into the rotation of the crops of all farms : 
 for if drilled and well horse-hoed, it is one 
 of the finest preparations for wheat. And 
 it may be well to observe, that the Russian 
 or winter bean may be successfully culti- 
 vated on moist soils. 
 
 The flowers of the bean emit a most agree- 
 able perfume. Of all the pulse kind, this 
 was held in the first rank in ancient times. 
 We find the Athenians used beans sodden, 
 in their feasts dedicated to Apollo ; and the 
 Romans presented beans as an oblation in 
 their solemn sacrifice called Fabaria. Pliny 
 informs us that they offered cakes made of 
 bean meal unto certain gods and goddesses 
 n 2 
 
BEANS. 
 
 in these ancient rites and ceremonies. Lem- 
 priere states that bacon was added to the 
 beans in the offerings to Cama, not so much 
 to. gratify the palate of the goddess, as to 
 represent the simplicity of their ancestors. 
 One of the most noble and powerful families 
 of Rome derived the name of Fabii from 
 some of their ancestors having cultivated 
 the bean called Faba. The meal of beans 
 is the heaviest made from pulse, and was 
 called in Latin lomentum. This was mingled 
 with frumentii corn, whole, and so eaten by 
 the ancients ; but they sometimes bruised it 
 first; it was considered a strong food, and 
 was generally eaten with gruel or pottage. 
 Many superstitious customs and notions 
 were in olden times attached to this pulse. 
 The ancients made use of beans in gathering 
 the votes of the people, and for electing the 
 magistrates. A white bean signified abso- 
 lution, and a black one condemnation. From 
 this practice, no doubt, was derived the plan 
 of black-balling obnoxious persons. The 
 Roman husbandmen had a religious cere- 
 mony respecting this pulse, somewhat re- 
 markable : when they sowed corn of any 
 kind, they took care to bring some beans 
 from the field for good-luck's sake, super- 
 stitiously thinking that by such means their 
 corn would return home again to them ; 
 these beans were then called Refrince or Re- 
 ferine. The Romans carried their super- 
 stition even further, for they thought that 
 beans mixed with goods offered for sale at 
 the ports would infallibly bring good luck 
 to the seller. 
 
 In some places bean meal is still mixed 
 with other meal in making coarse bread ; 
 or the beans are boiled into a mess with fat 
 meat, in which state sthey are very nutritious. 
 Bean meal given to oxen soon makes them 
 fat ; mixed with water and given as a drink 
 to cows, it greatly increases their milk. A 
 small quantity of beans is generally mixed 
 with new wheat when ground to flour : the 
 millers pretend that soft wheat will not 
 grind well without beans, and they generally 
 contrive that there shall be no deficiency in 
 the necessary proportion. Thus a quantity 
 of beans is converted into what is considered 
 as wheaten flour. 
 
 The bean came originally from the east, 
 and was cultivated in Egypt and Barbary 
 in the earliest ages of which we have any 
 records. It spread thence into Spain and 
 Portugal, from whence some of the, best va- 
 rieties have been introduced into this coun- 
 try. The proportion of nutritive matter in 
 beans, compared with other grain, is, accord- 
 ing to Einhof, as follows : — 
 
 By weight. Or in a bushel. 
 
 Wheat - 74 per cent. - about 47 lbs. 
 
 Rye - 70 — - — 39 
 
 180 
 
 By weight. Or in a bushel. 
 
 Barley - 65 per cent. - about 33 lbs. 
 
 Oats - 58 — - — 23 
 
 Beans - 68 — - 45 
 
 Peas - 75 — - — 49 
 
 French beans 84 — - 54 
 
 The same chemist obtained from 3840 
 parts of marsh beans (Vicia Faba), of 
 Starch - - - - 1312 
 
 Albumen - - - - 31 
 
 Other matters, nutritive, gummy, 
 starchy, fibrous, analagous to ani- 
 mal matter - 1204 
 And from kidney beans (Phceseolus vulgaris) 
 of 
 
 Starchy matters - - - 1805 
 
 Albumen, and matter approaching to 
 
 animal matter in its nature - 851 
 Mucilage - - - 799 
 
 (Davy Ag. Chem., p. 132.) 
 
 Beans are best given broken, especially to 
 aged live stock. On the opposite page is 
 an outline of an excellent bean mill con- 
 structed by the Messrs. Ransome of Ipswich. 
 
 This mill will break one quarter of beans 
 in an hour ; and it is also made with an extra 
 roller and plate for malt ; and is sometimes 
 constructed so as to render it suitable 'for 
 horse power. 
 
 Field Beans. — The sorts usually culti- 
 vated in the fields are, the tick bean, the 
 horse bean, and the small Dutch Heligoland, 
 or prolific bean. In some situations the 
 mazagon, longpod, and winter or Russian 
 bean, have produced good crops in the field : 
 the first three are, however, best suited for 
 general cultivation. The last, a new and 
 useful variety, has been more recently in- 
 troduced, and has lately come into very ge- 
 neral cultivation in various parts of the 
 kingdom. It is planted in autumn in the 
 usual manner, and is superior to the common 
 be»n, inasmuch as it is capable of resisting 
 the severest frost, and is ready for harvest- 
 ing two months earlier. 
 
 There are several varieties of beans, which 
 differ but little in their appearance. Expe- 
 rience is the best guide in choosing the seed 
 which suits particular soils and situations. 
 The small, round, regular-shaped beans are 
 generally preferred, as obtaining the best 
 prices in the markets, especially in large 
 towns where there is a great consumption 
 of beans by hard-working horses. 
 
 All the varieties thrive best on strong 
 clay soils, heavy marls, and deep loams of a 
 moist description. In such soils the pro- 
 duce is sometimes 30 to 60 bushels per acre, 
 but an average crop on moderate land is 
 about half that quantity. The Heligoland^, 
 and especially the Russian bean, have been 
 found very productive when grown upon 
 
BEANS. 
 
 BEAN MILL. 
 
 hazel moulds, and deep chalk soils inter- 
 mixed with loam, as they do not require so 
 close a soil as the other varieties. The last- 
 named varieties seldom, succeed sufficiently 
 to repay the grower, if attempted to be 
 raised on light lands ; indeed, sandy soils 
 or late climates are ill adapted to the suc- 
 cessful cultivation of the bean. On very 
 rich land, beans have produced extraordinary 
 crops, by being sown broadcast and very 
 thick, the stems being brought up to a great 
 height in favourable seasons. A small field 
 of very rich land, in the county of Sussex, 
 was sown in the year 1832 with four bushels 
 of the small tick bean, which came up so 
 thick, that the proprietor thought of thinning 
 out the plants by hoeing ; but he was ad- 
 vised to see what the produce would be, 
 and when they were thrashed out, there 
 were ten quarters and one bushel of beans. 
 He had the ground accurately measured, 
 and it was found to be one acre and twenty- 
 nine perches, which makes the crop above 
 sixty-eight bushels per acre. 
 
 Beans are propagated by seed, which 
 may be sown broadcast, drilled, or dibbled ; 
 if sown broadcast, three or four bushels of 
 seed per acre will be required, which should 
 be ploughed or harrowed in ; if drilled, two 
 and a half or three bushels per acre will be 
 181 
 
 sufficient. Beans are tolerably hardy, and 
 will bear moderate dry frosts ; but they 
 suffer much from alternate frost and thaws, 
 which in this climate are so common in Fe- 
 bruary. The end of February or the be- 
 ginning of March is, therefore, generally 
 preferred for bean sowing. When the season 
 is remarkably mild, early sowing is a great 
 advantage. As a general rule, spring beans 
 may be sown from the middle of February 
 to the middle of March. There are two 
 modes of drilling beans. In one of these, 
 the lands or ridges are divided by the plough 
 into ridgelets, or " one bout- stitches," at in- 
 tervals of about twenty-seven inches. 
 
 If dung is applied to beans, the seed ought 
 to be deposited first, as it is found inconve- 
 nient to run the drill machine afterwards. 
 The dung may then be drawn out from the 
 carts in small heaps, one row of heaps serv- 
 ing for three or five ridgelets ; which is evenly 
 spread and equally divided among them. 
 The ridgelets are next split back or reversed, 
 either by means of the common plough, or 
 one with two mould-boards, which covers 
 both the seed and the manure in the most 
 perfect manner. When beans are sown by 
 the other method in the bottom of a common 
 furrow, the dung must be previously spread 
 over the surface of the winter or .spring 
 n 3 
 
BEANS. 
 
 ploughing. Three ploughs then start in 
 succession, one immediately behind the other, 
 and a drill -harrow either follows the third 
 plough, or is attached to it, by which the 
 beans are sown in every third furrow, or at 
 from 24 to 27 inches asunder, according to 
 the breadth of the furrow-slice. 
 
 Another improved mode of sowing beans 
 when dung is applied at seed time, is to 
 spread the dung and to plough it down with 
 a sti'ong furrow ; after this, shallow furrows 
 are drawn, into which the seed is deposited 
 by the drill machine. Whichever of these 
 modes of sowing is followed, the whole field 
 must be carefully laid dry, by means of 
 channels formed by the plough, and when 
 necessary, by the shovel ; for neither then 
 nor at any former period should water be 
 allowed to stagnate on the land. It is a 
 common practice with many farmers to mix 
 and sow with beans a proportionate part of 
 peas, about one fourth, which, when grow- 
 ing, are called Polts, and are thus cultivated 
 both on the drill and broadcast system. In 
 either case the seed should be put into the 
 ground by the latter end of January, or as 
 soon after as the weather and state of the 
 land will permit. By this intermixture of 
 peas and beans, the straw or haulm is said to 
 be greatly improved. In some places the 
 peas are sown on the headlands, and the 
 haulm is used to tie the beans with ; but 
 peas cling round the bean-stalks and impede 
 the setting of the pods ; they also interfere 
 with the hoeing and weeding, so that the 
 practice is not to be recommended. Peas 
 require a lighter soil, and are best sown se- 
 parately, except when they are sown broad- 
 cast mixed with beans, in order to be mown 
 in a green state as fodder for cattle or pigs. 
 Sowing beans for this last-mentioned pur- 
 pose is not much practised in England, but 
 is found very useful on the Continent, es- 
 pecially in Flanders ; in this case they are 
 mown like tares, soon after the pods are 
 formed. In order to have a succession of 
 this green food, they should be sown at dif- 
 ferent times within a week or a fortnight of 
 each other. By this means a great deal of 
 grass is saved, which may be reserved for 
 hay. The cattle fed in the stables or yards 
 thrive well on this food, and produce a quan- 
 tity of rich manure, chiefly in a liquid state, 
 which fills the tanks and reservoirs, which 
 are indispensable appendages to every far m- 
 yard. By having winter tares when the 
 turnips are consumed, peas and beans after 
 the first crop of clover, and summer tares to 
 succeed them, cattle may be fed in the sta- 
 bles all the year round with great advantage; 
 the land may be tilled at the best season of 
 the year and prepared for wheat, as well as 
 by a clear fallow, while the green crop will 
 182 
 
 fully repay all the expenses. Three bushels 
 of beans, and two of peas, mixed together, 
 are required per acre when sown broadcast, 
 or drilled in each furrow after the plough. 
 It is often advantageous to cut in a green state 
 those beans which were sown for a general 
 crop, when food for pigs is scarce. They 
 will go nearly as far in this way in feeding 
 store pigs, as the beans would have done 
 when ripe : and the ground is left in a much 
 better state for the following crop. (Penny 
 Cyclop., vol. iv. p. 82.) 
 
 Many farmers have long and advantage- 
 ously adopted the practice of dibbling in 
 their beans, by which a great saving of seed 
 is effected ; neither are they required to be 
 planted so early as by the old system. Be- 
 sides being more evenly deposited in the 
 soil, and properly covered over, they are 
 better preserved from rooks, and other ver- 
 min, that would destroy them. Drilling, 
 however, is still preferred by most agri- 
 culturists, as being a less expensive course. 
 Both drilling and dibbling have each great 
 advantages over the broadcast system, as by 
 the latter method the land cannot be kept 
 clean. 
 
 Some parties recommend the topping of 
 beans just as the blossoms are set, and 
 assert that it not only improves the quality, 
 but increases the quantity, and causes them 
 to ripen sooner. They may be switched off 
 with an old scythe-blade, set in a wooden 
 handle, with which one man can easily top 
 two acres a day. Others object, and with 
 much justice, to this indiscriminate hacking 
 and topping. The reason for doing this in 
 garden culture is, that when a plant has 
 borne pods a certain time, it is most ad- 
 vantageous to remove it, and the top blos- 
 soms, of course, never come to perfection. 
 In the field this is not the case, there being 
 no succession of plants ; and, unless the top 
 blossoms are very late, or the black dolphin 
 (aphis) begins to appear, which is shown by 
 the honey- dew on the upper shoots, no ad- 
 vantage is gained by topping the plants, and 
 the labour is thrown away. The bean crop 
 is generally harrowed to destroy annual 
 weeds ; sometimes just before the plants 
 make their appearance, and sometimes after 
 the beans have got their first green leaves, 
 and are fairly above ground. After the 
 beans have made some growth, the horse- 
 hoe is employed in the intervals between 
 the rows, and followed by the hand-hoe, for 
 the purpose of cutting down such weeds as 
 the horse-hoe cannot reach ; all the weeds 
 that grow among the beans, should be pulled 
 up with the hands. The same operations 
 are repeated as often as the condition of the 
 land in regard to cleanliness may require. 
 
 When the leaves of the beans begin to 
 
BEANS. 
 
 lose their green colour, and the pods to turn 
 black, the crop should be reaped with the 
 sickle, and made into small sheaves, tied 
 with straw -bands or tarred twine, and set 
 up in the field to dry. But if the haulm is 
 short, as that of the long-pod and mazagan 
 generally are, it is a more profitable course 
 to pull them up by the roots, and lay them 
 in sheaves, the same as if cut, by which 
 means the lowest and earliest pods are 
 better preserved and harvested. Mr. J. C. 
 Curwen, M. P. {Com. to the Board of Agr., 
 vol. iv. p. 390.) gives some details of the 
 result of experiments made in 1803 and 
 1804, of cutting beans whilst in a perfectly 
 green and fresh state. 40 acres of beans 
 were drilled in February 1804, and from 
 May to the middle of July the ploughs and 
 harrows were constantly at work in it. By 
 the 10th of August the beans had shot the 
 black eye, which is the criterion of seeds 
 being perfectly formed. The weather prov- 
 ing unfavourable, prevented their being 
 reaped immediately, but they were even- 
 tually cut on the 20th of August, spread 
 thinly, and exposed two days to the sun 
 previous to binding and removing to an 
 open pasture, where they remained three 
 weeks, and were then found perfectly dry 
 and fit for stacking. Mr. Curwen adds, as 
 a strong proof of the benefit resulting from 
 these early cuttings, that he was enabled, 
 previous to drilling with wheat, to give the 
 ground two ploughings, harrowings, &c, 
 and in some parts three (the extreme foul- 
 ness of this piece of land requiring what in 
 few instances would be necessary) ; and to 
 cart and spread 60 loads of compost per 
 acre, and to complete the whole by the 20th 
 September. Mr. John Sherif, of Hading- 
 ton (Com. Board of Agr., vol. iv. p. 172.), 
 also says of harvesting beans, " This crop 
 should be cut down as soon as the eye has 
 attained its deepest dye, and instantly, if 
 dry weather, sheaved. The sheaves of any 
 grain or pulse ought not to exceed 9 inches 
 in diameter; and I think that sheaves 
 from 6 to 8 inches would be far safer in 
 this variable climate. By cutting at this 
 period of the state of the crop, the bean 
 straw will be of triple value of what stands 
 till the leaves fall off; the grain too will be 
 superior to that bleached by the weather 
 for weeks, after the haulm and grain of the 
 first is secured in the rick. Shocks of any 
 crop of pulse or grain ought not to exceed 
 6 sheaves of the above-mentioned size." 
 The Rev. John Ramsay, of Ayrshire, and 
 Mr. John Boys, of Kent, also give the result 
 of their observations on bean husbandry 
 {Com. Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 141 — 146.), 
 which, though valuable, are of too confined 
 and local a nature for me to notice. 
 183 
 
 The diseases to which beans are subject, 
 are the rust, mildew, which is a minute 
 fungus that grows on the stems of leaves, 
 and is caused by cold fogs and frequent 
 sudden transitions of weather, and the 
 black dolphin or fly, also called the collier, 
 an insect of the aphis tribe. For the mil- 
 dew no remedy has yet been found. When- 
 ever it has attacked the plants, generally 
 before the pods are filled, the best method 
 is to cut down the crop in its green state ; 
 and if it cannot be consumed in the farm- 
 yard, to plough it into the ground, where it 
 will decay rapidly, and be an excellent 
 manure for the succeeding crop of wheat. 
 If allowed to stand, the crop will not only 
 be unproductive, but the weeds will infest 
 the ground, and spoil the wheat crop by 
 their seeds and roots, which will remain in 
 the soil. Whenever the tops of the beans 
 begin to be moist and clammy to the feel, it 
 is the forerunner of the aphis. They should 
 then be immediately cut off, and this, if 
 done in time, may save the crop from the 
 ravages of the insects ; but the most effec- 
 tual way to prevent any disease from at- 
 tacking the plants in their growth, is to have 
 the ground in good heart, and well tilled ; 
 to drill the beans at a sufficient distance 
 between the rows, to allow the use of the 
 horse-hoe, and thus to accelerate the growth 
 of the plants, and enable them to outgrow 
 the effect of incipient disease, which seldom 
 attacks any but weak plants. In the year 
 1831, there were imported from abroad 
 23,388 qrs. of beans. The largest proportion 
 came from the following countries ; Den- 
 mark, 1299 qrs.; Prussia, 1157 qrs.; Ger- 
 many, 7664 qrs. ; the Netherlands, 7070 
 qrs. ; France, 1454 qrs. ; Italy, 3691 qrs. ; 
 Malta, 1031 qrs. The total quantity of 
 pulse (for beans and peas are included in 
 the return) entered for home consumption 
 in 1834, was 102,080 qrs. ; in 1835, 94,540 
 qrs. {Appendix to Second Agr. Report for 
 1836, p. 282. ; Phillips's Cultivated Vege- 
 tables ; Penny Cyc. vol. iv. ; Baxter s Agr. 
 Lib. ; Prof. Lows work on Agr. ; Com. 
 Board of Agr., vols. iv. and vi. ; M^Cid- 
 loch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 Garden Beans. — The following varieties 
 are those principally cultivated : — Early 
 mazagan, a great bearer, and a good sort. 
 Early Lisbon, or Portugal bean, a small 
 and sweet kind. Common sword, and 
 other long-pods, the most abundant bearers, 
 and consequently more generally found in 
 the cottager's garden than any other sort. 
 Small Spanish. Broad Spanish. Toker, a 
 good bearer, middling large. White and 
 black blossomed, good sorts, and bear well ; 
 middling size : the seed, when old, is apt 
 to degenerate if not saved with care, 
 n 4 
 
BEANS. 
 
 Windsor, one of our best-tasted beans 
 when young ; but not a hardy kind. Green 
 nonpareil, smallish. Besides these, there 
 are the Munford, Dwarf-cluster, or Fan, 
 and the Red blossomed, varieties of little 
 value. In some places the Fan is, however, 
 much grown. It grows only from 6 to 12 
 inches high ; the branches spread out like a 
 fan, and the pods are produced in clusters. 
 The soil should vary with the season. For 
 the winter- standing and early crops, a 
 moderately rich and dry soil is best adapted 
 to them, since, if too moist, the seed is apt 
 to decay, &c, whilst a moist aluminous one 
 is best for the spring and summer insertions. 
 Although the bean will succeed in much 
 lighter soils than is generally imagined, yet, 
 if such are allotted to it when thus late in- 
 serted, the produce is much diminished. 
 The situation cannot be too unincumbered, 
 but still a protection from violent winds is 
 very beneficial, as no plant is more liable to 
 suffer if its leaves are much injured. It is 
 propagated by seed. For the first produc- 
 tion, in the following year, a small planta- 
 tion may be made at the close of October, 
 or during November, and a rather larger 
 one in December. These should be inserted 
 on a south border, in a row, about a foot 
 from the fence, or in cross rows. If intended 
 for transplanting, the seed may be sown 
 likewise during these months. Regular 
 plantations may be continued to be made 
 from the beginning of January to the end 
 of June, once every three weeks. Early in 
 July and August the two last crops must be 
 inserted. The Windsor, which is the prin- 
 cipal variety then planted, should have a 
 south border allotted ; it comes into pro- 
 duction about Michaelmas. 
 
 The experiments of Bradley serve as a 
 • guide in some respects, whereby to appor- 
 tion the extent of the plantations. He found 
 that a rod of ground, containing 14 rows, 
 in pairs, at 2 feet distance, the plants in 
 which are 6 inches apart, or 34 in number, 
 will yield 47 quarts of broad beans. Smaller 
 varieties only from one-half to one-third as 
 many. {General Treat, on Husband, and 
 Garden., vol. iii. p. 16.) If the plants are 
 intended to be transplanted, which is only 
 practised for the early crops, the seed must 
 be sown thick, about an inch apart, in a bed 
 of light earth, in a sheltered situation, and 
 of such extent as can be covered with a 
 frame. If frames and hand-glasses are 
 deficient, matting or litter, kept from 
 pressing on and injuring the plants, by 
 means of hooping &c, are sometimes em- 
 ployed. These, however, afford such imper- 
 ii it shelter, that there is scarce any advan- 
 tage superior to the mode of sowing at once, 
 where the plants are to remain, since the 
 184 
 
 intention of this practice is to keep them in 
 vigour, and to forward their growth, by se- 
 curing them from ungenial weather. Care 
 must be taken that they are not weakened 
 from a deficiency of air or light ; to guard 
 against this, the lights should be taken en- 
 tirely off every day that excessive wet or cold 
 does not imperatively forbid their removal. 
 The usual time for removing them into the 
 open ground, in a south border, is February ; 
 if, however, the season is inclement, they 
 may be kept under the frame until May ; 
 but then a week previous to their removal, 
 Bradley informs us, they ought to be cut 
 down within two inches of the ground. 
 {Gen. Treat, on Husband, and Garden.) 
 When removed, as much earth as possible 
 should be retained round the roots of 
 plants ; and they must be set at similar 
 distances as the main crops. No water is 
 required, unless the season be very dry. 
 When sown to remain, the seed may be in- 
 serted in rows, by a blunt dibble, or in 
 drills, drawn by the hoe, from two and a 
 half to three feet apart, from two to four 
 inches apart in the row, and two deep, the 
 earliest crops and shortest varieties being 
 set at the smallest distances. These spaces 
 may be considered as large by some gar- 
 deners ; but the beans, Miller, from expe- 
 rience, asserts, are more productive than if 
 set twice as close. Previous to sowing, in 
 summer, if dry weather, the seed should be 
 soaked for two or three hours in water, or 
 if sown in drills, these must be well watered 
 immediately before the insertion. When 
 advanced to a height of two inches, hoeing 
 between, and drawing earth about the stems 
 of the plants, may commence. This must 
 be often repeated, and even sooner begun 
 to the early and late crops, as it affords con- 
 siderable protection from frost and wind. 
 As soon as the various crops come into 
 blossom, two or three inches length of each 
 stem is broken off ; this, by preventing its 
 increase in height, causes more sap to be 
 afforded to the blossom, consequently causing 
 it to advance with more rapidity, and set 
 more abundantly. Some gardeners recom- 
 mend the tops to be taken off when the 
 plants are young, not more than six inches 
 high, declaring it makes them branch, and 
 be more productive. This may be ultimately 
 the effect, but it is certainly incorrect to state 
 that it brings them into production sooner : 
 the effect in this respect is much the con- 
 trary. The winter-standing crops require, 
 in the early stages of their growth, the 
 shelter of dry litter, prevented touching 
 the plants by small branches, &c. This is 
 only requisite during very severe weather ; 
 it must be constantly removed in mild open 
 days, otherwise the plants will be spindled 
 
BEAN (KIDNEY). 
 
 and -weakened. For the production of seed, 
 plantations of the several varieties should 
 be made about the end of February, in a 
 soil lighter than that their produce is after- 
 wards to be grown upon. No two varieties 
 should be grown near each other; and in 
 order to preserve the early ones as uncon- 
 taminated as possible, those plants only 
 which blossom and produce their pods the 
 first should be preserved. Water ought to 
 be given two or three times a week, from 
 the time of their blossoming until their pods 
 have done swelling. None of the pods ought 
 to be gathered for the table from them ; the 
 after-production of seed is never so fine, and 
 the plants raised from it are always deficient 
 in vigour. They are fit for harvesting when 
 the leaves have become blackish, which oc- 
 curs at the end of August or early in Sep- 
 tember. They must be thoroughly dried, 
 being reared against a hedge until they are so, 
 before the seed is thrashed out and stored ; 
 and those only should be preserved that are 
 fine and perfect. Some gardeners even re- 
 commend the pods from the lower part of 
 the stem alone to be selected. Seed beans 
 will sometimes vegetate after being kept for 
 eight or ten years, but are seldom good for 
 any thing when more than two. The plants 
 arising from seed of this age are not so apt 
 to be superluxuriant as from that produced 
 in the preceding year. 
 
 BEAN, KIDNEY. (Phaseolus vulgaris, 
 from its pods resembling a species of ship, 
 supposed first to have been invented at Pha- 
 selis, a town of Pamphylia.) Of this vege- 
 table there are two species, the one being a 
 dwarf bushy plant, the other a lofty climbing 
 one. 
 
 Of the Dwarfs there are twelve va- 
 rieties : — ■ 
 
 Early liver-coloured. Black speckled. 
 Early red-speckled. Brown speckled. 
 
 Early white. Streaked or striped. 
 
 Early negro, or black. Large white. 
 Battersea white. Dun-coloured. 
 Canterbury white. Tawney. 
 
 Of the Runners there are six varieties : — 
 
 Scarlet runner. Canterbury small-white. 
 Large white. Small white. 
 
 Large white Dutch. Variable runner. 
 
 The soil for them may be any thing rather 
 than wet or tenacious, for in such the greater 
 part of the seed, in general, decays without 
 germinating; whilst those plants which are 
 produced- are contracted in their produce and 
 continuance. A very light mellow loam, 
 even inclining to a sand, is the best for the 
 earliest sowings, and one scarcely less sili- 
 cious, though moister, is preferable for the 
 late summer crops ; but for the later ones a 
 recurrence must be made to a soil as dry as 
 185 
 
 for the early insertions. In all cases the 
 subsoil must be open, as stagnant moisture 
 is inevitably fatal to the plants or seed. For 
 the early and late crops, a sheltered border 
 must always be allotted, or in a single row 
 about a foot from a south fence, otherwise 
 the situation cannot be too open. 
 
 Dwarfs. — The sowing commences with 
 the year. They may be sown towards the 
 end of January in pots, and placed upon the 
 flues of the hot-house, or in rows in the 
 mould of a hotbed, for production in March, 
 to be repeated once every three weeks in 
 similar situations during February and 
 March, for supplying the table during April, 
 May, and June. At the end of March and 
 April a small sowing may be performed, if 
 fine open weather, under a frame without 
 heat, for removal into a sheltered border 
 early in May. During May, and thence 
 until the first week in August, sowings may 
 be made once every three weeks. In Sep- 
 tember forcing recommences, at first merely 
 under frames without bottom heat, but in 
 October, and thence to the close of the year, 
 in hotbeds, &c. as in January. Sowings, 
 when a removal is intended, should always 
 be performed in pots, the plants being less 
 retarded, as the roots are less injured, than 
 when the seed is inserted in patches or rows 
 in the earth of the bed. It is a good prac- 
 tice likewise to repeat each sowing in the 
 frames without heat after the lapse of a 
 week, as the first will often fail, when a 
 second, although after so short a lapse of 
 time, will perfectly succeed. In every in- 
 stance the seed is buried li or 2 inches 
 deep. The rows of the main crops, if of the 
 smaller varieties, may be 1^, if of the larger 
 two feet apart, the seed being inserted either 
 in drills or by the dibble four inches apart; 
 the plants however to be thinned to twice 
 that distance. 
 
 If any considerable • vacancy occurs, it 
 may always be filled by plants which have 
 been carefully removed by the trowel from 
 where they stood too thick. A general re- 
 mark, however, may be made, that the trans- 
 planted beans are never so productive or 
 continue so long in bearing (although some- 
 times they are earlier) as those left where 
 raised. The rows of the earlier crops are 
 best ranged north and south. The seed in- 
 serted during the hottest period of summer, 
 should be either soaked in water for 5 or 
 6 hours, laid in damp mould for a day or 
 two, or the drills be well watered previous 
 to sowing. The only after-cultivation re- 
 quired, is the destruction of weeds, and earth 
 to be drawn up round the stems. 
 
 The pods of both species are always to be 
 gathered while young ; by thus doing, and 
 care being had not to injure the steins in 
 
BEAN" (KIDNEY). 
 
 detaching them, the plants are rendered as 
 prolific and long-lived as possible. 
 
 Forcing. — The hot-bed must be of mo- 
 derate size, and covered with earth 8 or 9 
 inches thick. When the heat has become 
 regular, the seed may be inserted in drills a 
 foot apart, and the plants allowed to stand 
 6 inches asunder in the rows. Some gar- 
 deners erroneously sow thick' in a hotbed, 
 moulded over about six or seven inches 
 deep, and remove the plants, when two or 
 three inches high, to the above-mentioned dis- 
 tances, in another for producing, water and 
 shade being afforded until they have rooted. 
 Air must be admitted as freely as to the melon. 
 The same precautions are likewise necessary 
 as to keeping up the temperature, taking 
 the dull off the water, &c, as for that plant. 
 When the seed begins to sprout, the mould 
 should be kept regularly moistened; and 
 when grown up, water may be given mo- 
 derately three times a week. The tempe- 
 rature should never be less than 60°, nor 
 higher than 75°. 
 
 Some plants of the hotbed sowing at the 
 end of March, are often, after being gra- 
 dually hardened, planted in a warm border : 
 this will at most hasten the plants in pro- 
 duction a fortnight before those sown in the 
 open ground in May. 
 
 Those sown under frames in March for 
 transplanting into a border, when two or 
 three inches in height, must in a like 
 manner be hardened gradually for the expo- 
 sure, by the plentiful admission of air and the 
 total removal of the glasses during fine days. 
 If any are raised in pots in the hot-house, 
 they must in a like manner be prepared for 
 the removal, by setting them outside in fine 
 days, and there watering them with colder 
 water. If the season is too ungenial after 
 all to remove them even to a warm border, 
 the plants are often inserted in patches, to 
 have the protection of frames or hand-lights 
 at night, or as the weather demands. It has 
 been lately stated in a provincial paper, that 
 kidney-beans appear of a perennial nature. 
 In Somersetshire, they have been observed 
 to vegetate for several years — the plants 
 being in the vicinity of a steam-engine, and 
 so situated that the frost could not penetrate 
 to the roots. I have not yet had an op- 
 portunity of putting this statement to the 
 test of experiment. 
 
 Runners. — As these are more tender, and 
 the seed is more apt to decay, than those of 
 the Dwarfs, no open ground crop must be 
 inserted before the close of April, or early 
 in May, to be continued at intervals of four 
 weeks through June and July, which will 
 ensure a supply from the middle of this last 
 month until October. Some gardeners force 
 them in a similar manner to the Dwarfs: 
 ]8f> 
 
 they certainly require similar treatment ; but 
 they will endure a higher temperature by a 
 few degrees. They are so prolific, and such 
 permanent bearers, that three open-ground 
 sowings of a size proportionate to the con- 
 sumption will, in almost every instance, be 
 sufficient. 
 
 The runners are inserted in drills, either 
 singly, three feet apart, or in pairs, ten or 
 twelve inches asunder, and each pair four 
 feet distant from its neighbour. The seed is 
 buried two inches deep and four inches apart 
 in the rows, the plants being thinned to 
 twice that distance. If grown in single rows, 
 a row of poles must be set on the south side 
 of each, being fixed firmly in the ground : 
 they may be kept together by having a light 
 pole tied horizontally along their tops, or 
 a post fixed at each end of a row, united 
 by a cross-bar at their tops ; a string may 
 be passed from this to each of the plants. 
 If the rows are in pairs, a row of poles must 
 be placed on each side, so fixed in the 
 ground, that their summits cross, and are 
 tied together. They are sometimes sown in 
 a single row down the sides of borders, or 
 on each side of a walk, having the support 
 of a trellis work, or made to climb poles 
 which are turned archwise over it. 
 
 As the plants advance to five or six inches 
 in height, they should have the earth drawn 
 about their stems. Weeds must be con- 
 stantly cleared away as they appear. When 
 they throw up their voluble stems, those that 
 straggle away should be brought back to the 
 poles, and twisted round them in a direction 
 contrary to that of the sun : nothing will 
 induce them to entwine in the contrary 
 direction, or from left to right. 
 
 For the production of seed, forty or fifty 
 plants of the Dwarf species will be sufficient 
 for a moderate-sized family, or thirty of the 
 Runner. They must be raised purposely in 
 May, or a like number from the crop in that 
 month may be left ungathered from ; for the 
 first pods always produce the finest seeds, and 
 ripen more perfectly. In autumn, as soon 
 as the plants decay, they must be pulled, 
 and, when thoroughly dried, the seed beaten 
 out and stored. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden?) 
 
 BEAN-FLY. A beautiful bluish-black 
 fly, generally found on bean flowers. It is 
 sometimes called the collier. The aphides 
 of beans are invariably brought on by very 
 dry weather ; they are most prevalent on 
 the summits of the plants. (See. Beans.) 
 The larvae of the lady-bird, or lady-cow, 
 {Coccinella septempunctata), as well as the 
 perfect insects, devour the aphis greedily, 
 feeding almost entirely upon these insects. 
 Several of the summer birds also live upon 
 them among which are the largest willow 
 
BEAN-GOOSE. 
 
 BEARDED TIT. 
 
 wren, middle and smallest wren, whitethroat 
 and lesser whitethroat, black-cap, and Dart- 
 ford warbler. See American Blight. 
 
 BEAN-GOOSE. (Anserferus.) A spe- 
 cies of wildfowl, which is to be distinguished 
 from the wild goose (A. palustris) by its 
 comparatively small and short bill, which is 
 more compressed towards the end, and also 
 differs in colour and other peculiarities. In 
 the bean-goose the base of both upper and 
 lower mandibles and the nails of both are 
 black, the rest being of a reddish flesh colour, 
 inclining to orange-red. In the true wild 
 goose the bill is orange-red, and the nail 
 greyish white. The wings of the bean- 
 goose, when closed, reach beyond the tail. 
 Selby gives the following account of its 
 habits from personal observation : — "In 
 Britain it is well known as a regular winter 
 visitant, arriving in large bodies, from its 
 northern summer haunts, during September 
 or the beginning of October, and seldom 
 taking its final departure before the end of 
 April or the beginning of May. The various 
 flocks, during their residence in this country, 
 have each their particular haunts or feeding 
 districts, to which, on each ensuing season, 
 they invariably return. They feed much 
 upon the tender wheat, sometimes injuring 
 the fields to a great extent ; and they fre- 
 quent also the stubbles, particularly such as 
 are laid down with clover and other grasses. 
 In the early part of spring they often alight 
 upon the newly sown bean and pea fields, 
 picking up greedily such of the pulse as is 
 left on the surface ; and I am inclined to 
 think that their trivial name has been ac- 
 quired from their apparent predilection for 
 beans as food, rather than from the shape 
 and aspect of the nail of the upper mandible, 
 to which it has been generally attributed. 
 In bulk, the bean-goose is generally rather 
 less than the grey lagg, or true wild goose ; 
 and it is accordingly sometimes called pro- 
 vincially the small grey goose ; but it not 
 unfrequently equals the other in size and 
 weight. The head and upper part of the 
 neck incline to brown, with a greyish tinge, 
 and the feathers of the latter hue are so dis- 
 posed as almost to produce a furrowed ap- 
 pearance. The lower parts of the body are 
 ash-grey, with transverse darker shades ; 
 and the back and scapulars are brown with 
 a grey tinge, the feathers being edged with 
 white." (Penny Cyclop) 
 
 The bean-goose flies in lines forming a 
 wedge shape ; and, on the wing, maintains a 
 cackling, in which the voices of the sexes 
 can be distinguished. 
 
 BEAR. A species of barley, called also 
 winter barley, square barley, and big. It is 
 sometimes written here. This grain is 
 chiefly cultivated in Scotland, the northern 
 187 
 
 parts of England, and Ireland. It yields a 
 very large return, but is not esteemed so 
 good for malting as the common barley, for 
 which reason it is very little cultivated in 
 the southern parts of England. 
 
 BEAR BERRY (Arctostaphylos ; Uva 
 ursi.) The wild arbutus. Smith defines 
 two sorts of this shrub, the black and the red 
 bear-berry. Both grow on stony moun- 
 tainous heaths, and are not uncommon on 
 the most dry and barren moors of Scotland. 
 The stem is woody and trailing, covered 
 with a peeling bark ; the leaves small, lea- 
 thery, evergreen, glossy above, pale beneath, 
 the margin entire and rounded. The flowers 
 are terminal, clustered, consisting of a pitcher 
 shaped corolla, of a pinkish colour, transpa- 
 rent at the base. The fruit of the first-named 
 sort has smooth black berries, of the size and 
 flavour of black currants. The second has 
 globose, depressed, scarlet berries, mealy 
 within, which are very austere and astrin- 
 gent, and left untouched by birds. The 
 leaves of this plant, under the name Uva 
 ursi, are advantageously used as an astrin- 
 gent and tonic in medicine. The constituents 
 of the leaves of U. ursi are, in 100 parts, 
 37"6 of tannic and gallic acid; 4*4 of resin ; 
 15*7 acetic acid ; 17'6 extractive; 3' 11 salts 
 o f lime and soda ; and 15*6 lignin and water. 
 The tannic acid, when the powdered leaves 
 are swallowed, is separated by the digestive 
 process and taken into the blood, whence it 
 passes through the kidneys, and acts on the 
 urinary organs. In hemorrhages from the 
 bladder, the tannic acid is thus applied to 
 the diseased organ, and proves most bene- 
 ficial. It is also a useful astringent in 
 diarrhoea. In gravel it is of no value. 
 The dose of the powdered leaves is a 
 scruple to a drachm. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 253.) 
 
 BEAR-BIND. See Black Bind-weed. 
 
 BEARD. (Sax. beapb.) The same with 
 the awn of a plant. 
 
 BEARD OF A HORSE. The hairs 
 scattered on the under lip, or the place 
 where the curb or the bridle rests, are 
 sometimes thus denominated. 
 
 BEARD -GRASS. (Polypogon.) There 
 are two sorts, the annual beard-grass (P. 
 monspeliensis) and the perennial beard-grass 
 (P. littoralis). They are found in moist pas- 
 tures and near the sea, in muddy salt- 
 marshes, but are not often met with. 
 
 BEARDED OAT-GRASS. See Wild 
 Oats. 
 
 BEARDED TIT.' This British bird 
 lives mostly in marshy places, and builds 
 an open cup-shaped nest, which is placed on 
 the ground. The food of this species is 
 seeds, insects and their larva?, and small- 
 shelled snails. Their food during the winter 
 
BEAR'S-BREECH. 
 
 BEECH. 
 
 is principally the seed of the reed. In an 
 adult male, the beak and irides are of a most 
 delicate orange colour ; the head, neck, and 
 ear- coverts, pearl-grey : descending from the 
 space between the base of the beak under the 
 eye, is a black pendent whisker or moustache, 
 of three quarters of an inch in length, and 
 ending in a point ; back, greater wing-co- 
 verts, &c. fawn colour; chin, throat, and 
 breast, white, tinged with grey, and passing 
 into yellowish white on the belly. The 
 whole length rather more than six inches. 
 The eggs are from four to six in number, 
 rather smaller than those of the great tit, 
 and less pointed, eight lines and a half long- 
 by six lines and a half in breadth, white, 
 and sparingly marked with pale red lines 
 or scratches. (YarrelV s Brit Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 349.) 
 
 BEAR'S BREECH. (Acanthus mollis.) 
 This plant grows wild in moist and stony 
 places, and very freely in gardens : blooming 
 in summer, and ripening its seed in autumn. 
 The stalk is thick and round ; the leaves 
 spring from the root a foot in length, of a 
 dark glossy green. The flowers stand at 
 the top of the stalk intermixed with small 
 floral leaves, and are large and white. The 
 soft leaves make a useful poultice. 
 
 BEAR'S-EARS. (Auricula ursi.) This 
 is the botanical name for our beautiful 
 auriculas, which are so decorative to our 
 gardens in April and May. 
 
 BEAR'S FOOT. See Hellebore. 
 
 BEAST (Su. Goth, beest, Ger. bestie, 
 Fr. beste, Lat. bestia.) A term generally 
 applied to all such quadrupeds, or four- 
 footed animals, as are made use of for 
 food, or employed in labour ; but farmers 
 apply the term more particularly to neat 
 cattle. 
 
 BEATERS are such parts of mills or 
 machines as beat against substances intro- 
 duced into them ; thus, those parts of 
 thrashing machines which strike out the 
 grain are denominated beaters. 
 
 BEATING AXE. An implement for- 
 merly employed in the operation of paring 
 and burning. 
 
 BECK. (Sax. becc, Dutch bece, Dan. beck, 
 Ger. back.) A common word in the north 
 of England for a small stream. 
 
 BED. (The participle of the Sax. bebbian, 
 to spread.) A name given by some writers 
 on drill-husbandry to the spaces occupied 
 by the rows of corn, to distinguish them 
 from the intervals, or open spaces between 
 the beds, which they term alleys. 
 
 BED-STRAW, YELLOW, LADIES'. 
 (Galium verum.) It is sometimes termed 
 cheese -r owning and maid's hair, or petty 
 muguet or mugwort, and yellow goose-grass. 
 A perennial weed, flowering from June till 
 188 
 
 October, more common in the hedges and 
 waysides than in the body of pastures. Its 
 slender stalks rise to about a foot in height. 
 The leaves come out in whorls, eight or nine 
 together. They are long, narrow, and of a 
 green colour. Two little branches gene- 
 rally come out near the top of the stalk, 
 supporting a considerable number of small 
 golden yellow flowers, consisting of one 
 petal divided into four parts, and succeeded 
 by two large kidney-shaped seeds. The 
 flowers of this plant are said to coagu- 
 late boiling milk, and the better sorts of 
 Cheshire cheese are sometimes prepared 
 with them. A kind of vinegar is stated to 
 have been distilled from the flowering tops. 
 The French prescribe them in epileptic and 
 hysteric cases ; but they are of no value. 
 Boiled in alum-water, they tinge wood yel- 
 low. The roots dye a fine red not inferior 
 to madder, and are used for this purpose in 
 the island of Jura. Sheep and goats eat the 
 plant ; horses and swine refuse it ; cows are 
 not fond of it. Smith enumerates 17 species 
 of bed-straw : — 1. cross-wort bed-straw, or 
 mugweed ; 2. white water bed-straw ; 3. 
 rough heath bed-straw ; 4. smooth heath 
 bed-straw ; 5. rough marsh bed-straw ; 6. 
 upright bed-straw ; 7. grey spreading bed- 
 straw ; 8. bearded bed-straw ; 9. warty- 
 fruited bed-straw ; 10. rough-fruited corn 
 bed-straw, or three-flowered goose-grass ; 
 11. smooth-fruited corn bed-straw ; 12. least 
 mountain bed-straw ; 13. yellow bed-straw ; 
 14. great hedge bed-straw ; 15. wall bed- 
 straw ; 16. cross-leaved bed-straw ; 17. 
 goose-grass, or cleavers. (Hort. Gram. Wob. 
 p. 329. ; Smith's Eng. Flora, vol.i. pp. 199. 
 —210.) 
 
 BEECH. Fagus sylvatica. Sax. bece, 
 or boc.) The beech is one of the hand- 
 somest of our native forest trees, and in 
 stateliness and grandeur of outline vies even 
 with the oak. Its silvery bark, contrasting 
 with the sombre trunks of other trees, ren- 
 ders its beauties conspicuous in our woods ; 
 while the gracefully spreading pendulous 
 boughs, with their glossy foliage, mark its 
 elegance in the park or paddock. There 
 is only one species, the difference in the 
 wood arising from the effects of soil and 
 situation. The beech is a native of the 
 greater part of the north of Europe. The 
 finest beeches in England are said to grow in 
 Hampshire. The tree is also much grown in 
 Wiltshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. The 
 forest of St. Leonard's, near Horsham, Sus- 
 sex, abounds with noble beech trees. The 
 shade of the beech tree is very injurious to 
 most sorts of plants that grow near it, but it is 
 believed by the vulgar to be very salubrious 
 to human bodies. The wood of this tree, 
 which is hard, and rather handsome, Brande 
 
BEECH. 
 
 BEE-EATER. 
 
 tells us (in his Diet, of Science, p. 193.) is 
 brittle and perishable, and liable to become 
 worm-eaten. Phillips admits, that it is subject 
 to worms, when exposed to the air without 
 paint; but says, that the timber of these 
 trees, in point of actual utility, follows next 
 to the oak and the ash, and is little inferior 
 to the elm for water-pipes. It is used, he 
 adds (Hist, of Fruits, p. 60.), by wheel- 
 wrights and chairmakers, and also by 
 turners for making domestic wooden ware, 
 such as bowls, shoveis, churns, cheese-vats, 
 dressers, shelves for dairies, &c. it being as 
 white as deal, free from all disagreeable 
 smell, and without any inconvenient soft- 
 ness. Bedsteads and other furniture are 
 often made with this timber ; and no wood 
 splits so fine, or holds so well together, as 
 beech, so that boxes, sword-sheaths, and a 
 variety of other things, are made from it. 
 The baskets called pottles, in which straw- 
 berries or raspberries are usually sold in 
 London, are made from beech twigs and 
 cuttings, and the wood is also much in use for 
 poles, stakes, hoops, &c. Near large towns it 
 is in great demand for billet wood. It affords 
 a large quantity of potash and good charcoal. 
 It is manufactured into a great variety of 
 tools, for which its great hardness and uni- 
 form texture render it superior to all other 
 sorts of wood. It is not much used in build- 
 ing, as it soon rots in damp places, but it is 
 useful for piles in places which are con- 
 stantly wet. The purple and copper beeches 
 seen in plantations are seedling varieties of 
 Fagus sylvatica. The beech-tree thrives 
 best and attains to a great size on clayey 
 loams incumbent on sand; silicious sandy 
 soils are also well adapted for its growth, 
 and it will prosper on chalky, stony, and 
 barren soils, where many other timber trees 
 will not prosper ; and it is found to resist 
 winds on the declivities of hills better than 
 most other trees. Where the soil is tolerably 
 good, beech will become fit to be felled in 
 about twenty-five years. The tree bears 
 lopping, and may, therefore, be trained to 
 form very lofty hedges. 
 
 The leaves of the beech, gathered in au- 
 tumn before they are much injured by the 
 frost, are said to make better mattresses than 
 straw or chaff, as they remain sweet and 
 continue soft for many years ; they are also 
 profitably employed in forcing sea-kale, as- 
 paragus, &c. in hot-beds. The beech is pro- 
 pagated by sowing the nuts, or mast, which 
 should be gathered about the middle of Sep- 
 tember, when they are ripe, and begin to fall, 
 and spread out on a mat in an airy place 
 for a week to dry, when they may be sown. 
 It is, however, recommended to keep them 
 dry in sand until the spring, as there is less 
 danger of their being then destroyed by field 
 mice and other vermin. These nuts do not 
 189 
 
 require to be covered more than an inch 
 deep in mould, and it will be observed that 
 only apart of them germinates the first year. 
 Two or three bushels of seed are sufficient 
 for an acre, to be sown mixed with sand, in 
 the same manner as the ash. 
 
 The flowers of this tree come forth in 
 May, and its kernels ripen in September. 
 The Romans used beech leaves and honey 
 to restore the growth of hair which had 
 fallen of ; but the moderns have not found 
 it efficacious. 
 
 The nuts or seed of this tree, termed leech 
 mast, are the food of hogs, and of various 
 small quadrupeds. They are often called 
 buck-mast in England, from the eagerness 
 with which deer feed on them. 
 
 An oil, nearly equal in flavour to the 
 best olive oil, with the advantage of keep- 
 ing longer without becoming rancid, may 
 be obtained from the nuts by pressure. It 
 is very common in Picardy, and other parts 
 of France, where the mast abounds ; in 
 Silesia it is used by the country people in- 
 stead of butter. And in the reign of 
 George I. we find a petition was presented, 
 praying letters -patent for making butter 
 from beech nuts. 
 
 The cakes which remain from the pres- 
 sure, after the oil is made, are given to fat- 
 ten swine, oxen, or poultry. A bushel of 
 mast is said to produce a gallon of clean 
 oil ; but the beech tree seldom produces a 
 full crop of mast oftener than once in three 
 years. This nut is palatable to the taste, 
 but when eaten in great quantities occasions 
 headache and giddiness ; nevertheless, when 
 dried and ground into meal, it makes a 
 wholesome bread. Like acorns, the fruit of 
 the beech was long the food of mankind be- 
 fore the' use of corn. Roasted, the mast has 
 been found a tolerable substitute for coffee. 
 (Phillips's Hist, of Fruits, p. 56. ; M' Cut- 
 lock's Com. Diet. ; Baxters Agr. Library ; 
 Brande's Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BEE-EATER. (Merops apiaster.) This 
 small bird is a native of Africa. A few every 
 year frequent this country. The birds of 
 this genus take their prey, consisting of 
 wasps, bees, &c. like the swallows, while on 
 the wing. Their brilliant plumage, of colours 
 which change, according to exposure to light, 
 the prevalent hues being azure and green, 
 remind the observer of the kingfisher's 
 gorgeous dress. The colour of the male bird 
 is a rich reddish-brown on the top of the 
 head, neck, back, and wing-coverts, passing 
 on the rump to saffron-yellow ; chin and 
 throat rich saffron-yellow, bounded below by 
 a bar of bluish black ; breast, belly, &c. ver- 
 digris-green. The females are not so bright 
 in colour as the males ; the yellow on the 
 throat is paler, and the green colour tinged 
 with red ; the whole length to the end of the 
 
BEEF. 
 
 BEER. 
 
 elongated tall feathers eleven inches. (Far- 
 reVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 200.) 
 
 BEEF (Fr. bceuf ), is used either fresh 
 or salted. Beef is also sometimes used for 
 the name of an ox, bull, or cow, considered 
 as fit for food. Formerly it was usual for 
 most families, at least in the country, to 
 supply themselves with a stock of salt beef 
 in October or November, which served for 
 their consumption until the ensuing sum- 
 mer ; but in consequence of the universal 
 establishment of markets where fresh beef 
 may be at all times obtained, the practice is 
 now nearly relinquished, and the quantity 
 of salted beef made use of as compared with 
 fresh beef is quite inconsiderable. Large 
 quantities of salted beef are, however, pre- 
 pared at Cork and other places for export- 
 ation to the East and West Indies. During 
 the war large supplies were also required 
 for victualling the navy. The vessels engaged 
 in the coasting trade, and in short voyages, 
 use only fresh provisions. The English 
 have at all times been great consumers of 
 beef ; and at this moment more beef is used 
 in London, as compared with the population, 
 than any where else. We import consider- 
 able supplies of beef and of live cattle for 
 slaughter from Ireland. See Cattle. 
 (M'Culloch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 BEELD, or BIELD. (Sax. behhfoan ; 
 Icel. boele, a dwelling.) A term provincially 
 applied in the north of England to any thing 
 which affords shelter, such as a clump or 
 screen of trees planted for the protection 
 of live-stock. 
 
 BEE NETTLE. See Nettle. 
 
 BEER. (Welsh, Mr; Germ, bier ; Sax. 
 beap ; Goth, bar, barley.) A liquor made 
 from malt and hops, which is distinguished 
 from ale either by being older or smaller. It 
 may be prepared from any of the farinaceous 
 grains, but barley is most commonly em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Beer is, properly speaking, the wine of 
 barley. The meals of any of these grains 
 being extracted by a sufficient quantity of 
 water, and remaining at rest in a degree of 
 heat requisite for this fermentation, are 
 changed into a vinous liquor. But as these 
 matters render the water mucilaginous, fer- 
 mentation proceeds slowly and imperfectly. 
 On the other hand, if the quantity of fari- 
 naceous matter be so diminished that its 
 extract or decoction may have a convenient 
 degree of fluidity, this liquor will be im- 
 pregnated with so small a quantity of fer- 
 mentable matter, that the beer or wine of 
 the grain will be weak, and have little taste. 
 These inconveniences are therefore remedied 
 by preliminary operations which the grain 
 is made to undergo. These preparations 
 consist in steeping it in cold water, that it 
 
 may soak and swell to a certain degree ; and 
 in laying it in a heap with a suitable degree 
 of heat, by means of which, and of the im- 
 bibed moisture, a germination begins, which 
 is to be stopped by a quick drying, as soon 
 as the bud shows itself. To accelerate this 
 drying, and to prevent the farther vege- 
 tation of the grain, which would impair its 
 saccharine qualities, the grain is slightly 
 roasted, by means of a kiln, or making it 
 ass down an inclined canal sufficiently 
 eated. This germination, and this slight 
 roasting, change considerably the nature of 
 the mucilaginous fermentable matter of the 
 grain, and it becomes the malt of commerce. 
 This malt is then ground ; and all its sub- 
 stance, which is fermentable and soluble in 
 water, is extricated by means of hot water. 
 This extract or infusion* is evaporated by 
 boiling in caldrons ; and some plant of an 
 agreeable bitterness, such as hops, is added 
 to heighten the taste of the beer, and to 
 render it capable of being longer preserved. 
 Lastly, this liquor is put into casks, and 
 fermented, assisted by the addition of barm. 
 
 Beer is nutritious from the sugar and 
 mucilage it contains, exhilarating from the 
 spirit, and strengthening and narcotic from 
 the hops. Mr. Brande obtained the follow- 
 ing quantities of alcohol from 100 parts of 
 different beers : — Burton ale, between 8 
 and 9 ; Edinburgh ale, 6 to 7 ; Dorchester 
 ale, 5 to 6. The average of strong ale being 
 between 6 and 7 ; brown stout, 6 to 7 ; 
 London porter about 4 (average) ; London 
 brewers' small beer between 1 and 2. (See 
 Brewing.) "The distinction between ale 
 and beer, or porter, has been," says Mr. 
 M'Culloch, " ably elucidated by Dr. Thomas 
 Thomson in his valuable article on brewing 
 in the supplement to the Encyc. Brit.''' 
 
 " Both ale and beer are in Great Britain 
 obtained by fermentation from the malt of 
 barley, but they differ from each other in 
 several particulars. Ale is light-coloured, 
 brisk, and sweetish, or at least free from 
 bitter; while beer is dark-coloured, bitter, 
 and much less brisk. What is called porter 
 in England is a species of beer ; and the 
 term 'porter' at present signifies what was 
 formerly called strong beer. The original 
 difference between ale and beer was owing 
 to the malt from which they were prepared : 
 ale malt was dried at a very low heat, and 
 consequently was of a pale colour; while 
 beer or porter malt was dried at a higher 
 temperature, and had of consequence ac- 
 quired a brown colour. This incipient 
 charring had developed a peculiar and agree- 
 able bitter taste, which was communicated 
 to the beer along with the dark colour. 
 This bitter taste rendered beer more agree- 
 able to the palate and less injurious to the 
 
BEER. 
 
 BEES. 
 
 constitution than ale. It was consequently 
 manufactured in greater quantities, and 
 soon became the common drink of the lower 
 ranks in England. When malt became 
 high priced, in consequence of the heavy- 
 taxes laid upon it, and the great increase in 
 the price of barley which took place during 
 the war of the French revolution, the 
 brewers found out that a greater quantity 
 of wort of a given strength could be pre- 
 pared from pale malt than from brown malt. 
 The consequence was, that a considerable 
 proportion of pale malt was substituted for 
 brown malt in the brewing of porter and 
 beer. The wort, of course, was much paler 
 than before ; and it wanted that agreeable 
 bitter flavour which characterised porter, 
 and made it so much relished by most 
 palates. At the same time various sub- 
 stitutes were tried to supply the place of 
 the agreeable bitter communicated to porter 
 by the use of brown malt ; quassia, cocculus 
 indicus, and we believe even opium, were 
 employed in succession ; but none of them 
 was found to answer the purpose sufficiently." 
 The use of the articles other than malt, re- 
 ferred to by Dr. Thomson, has been ex- 
 pressly forbidden under heavy penalties by 
 repeated acts of parliament. The classi- 
 fication of the different sorts of beer ac- 
 cording to their strength, originated in the 
 duties laid upon them ; and now that these 
 duties have been repealed, ale and beer 
 may be brewed of any degree of strength. 
 The sum charged for brewers' licenses varies 
 according to the nature and extent of the 
 manufacture, from 10/. to 51. 5s. annually. 
 The following is an account of the different 
 sorts of beer made in England and Wales, 
 and the total produce of the duties (English 
 ale gallons) for the last half century, com- 
 puted from parliamentary returns. 
 
 During the 5 years ending with 1750, the 
 ale brewed amounted, at an average, to 
 3,803,580 barrels of strong, and 2,162,540 
 barrels of small. (Hamilton s Principles of 
 Taxation, p. 255.) 
 
 Ten years 
 ended 5th July. 
 
 Barrels 
 StrongBeer. 
 
 Barrels 
 Table Beer. 
 
 Total 
 Amount of 
 Duty. 
 
 1796 
 1806 
 1816 
 1825 
 (9 years.) 
 5 years ended 
 5th Jan. 
 1830 
 (This include 
 which \ 
 
 42,253,466 
 54,007,941 
 57,318,622 
 51,680,971 
 
 32,601,908 
 s 149,142 ban 
 mid duty at 4 
 
 5,614,813 
 10,273,638 
 15.926.056 
 13,031,747 
 
 7,653,748 
 els of interm 
 s. lid. per ba 
 
 £ 
 
 21,061,492 
 25,395,158 
 30.251,916 
 27,146,049 
 
 16,021,909 
 ediate beer, 
 rrel.) 
 
 The rate of duty on strong beer was 
 8s. per barrel until 1802, when it was 
 raised to 9s. 5d. In 1804 it was further 
 advanced to 105. In 1825, there were two 
 191 
 
 descriptions of duty in force, 9s. and 9s. lOd. 
 The rate of duty on table beer remained at 
 35. until 1820, when two rates of duty, Is. 9±d. 
 and Is. ll^d. per barrel, came in force. 
 
 In the ten years ending with 1796, 
 1 3,7 45,767 barrels of small beer were brewed, 
 which was less strong than table beer, and 
 on which a duty of Is. 3d. per barrel was 
 payable. In the six years ending with 1 802, 
 a further quantity of 9,671,570 barrels had 
 been brewed ; but after that the article 
 seems not to have been in request, for no 
 further duty was paid on this description 
 of beer. In 1825 a quality called inter- 
 mediate beer came into manufacture, which 
 was subject to a duty of 5s. per barrel. 
 
 The duty on beer being repealed in 1830, 
 there are no later accounts of the quantity 
 brewed. 
 
 The number of barrels of strong beer 
 brewed in Scotland in the five years ending 
 1830, was 597,737 ; table beer, 1,283,490 ; 
 amount of duty paid thereon, 393,136/. 
 (Pari. Paper, No. 190. Sess. 1830.) 
 
 No account has been kept of the quantity 
 of beer brewed in Ireland since 1809, when 
 it amounted to 960,300 barrels. (Moreivood 
 on Intoxicating Liquors, p. 353.) Perhaps 
 it may now amount to from 1,000,000 to 
 1,200,000 barrels. Ale or beer exported 
 to foreign parts is allowed a drawback of 
 5s. the barrel of 36 gallons, Imperial mea- 
 sure. The number of barrels of strong beer 
 annually exported is, from England, about 
 70,000 barrels ; Ireland, 15,000, and Scot- 
 land, 3,000. (M'Culloch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 BEER SHOP. See Alehouse. 
 
 BEES. (Sax. beo, Lat. apies.) These 
 industrious and useful insects are worthy 
 the attention of all classes, and will repay 
 the utmost care that can be taken in their 
 management. 
 
 No farm or cottage garden is complete 
 without a row of these busy little colonies, 
 with their warm, neat, straw roofs, and 
 their own particular, fragrant bed of thyme, 
 in which they especially delight. Select a 
 sheltered part of the garden, screened by a 
 wall or hedge from the cutting north and 
 easterly winds ; let them enjoy a southern 
 sun, but do not place them facing his early 
 beams, because bees must never be tempted 
 to quit their hive in the heavy morning 
 dew, which clogs their limbs, and impedes 
 their flight. Place them, if possible, near a 
 running stream, as they delight in plenty of 
 water; but if none is within their easy reach, 
 place pans of fresh water near the hives, in 
 which mix a little common salt ; and let bits 
 of stick float on the surface, to' enable the 
 bees to drink safely, instead of slipping down 
 the smooth sides of the vessel, and perish. 
 Never place hives in a roofed stand : it heats 
 
BEES. 
 
 them, and induces the bees frequently to 
 form combs outside of their hives, instead 
 of swarming. Let the space before the hives 
 be perfectly clear of bushes, trees, and every 
 impediment to their movements, that they 
 may wing their way easily to seek food, and 
 return without annoyance. Bees, returning 
 heavily laden and wearied, are unable to 
 bear up against any object, should they hit 
 themselves and fall. Let their passage to 
 and from their hives be clear ; but trees and 
 bushes in the vicinity of their residence are 
 advisable, as they present convenient spots 
 for swarms to settle, which might otherwise 
 go beyond sight or reach. A swarm seldom 
 goes far from home, unless the garden is un- 
 provided with resting-places, to attract the 
 queen, who takes refuge in the nearest 
 shelter. In the month of November remove 
 your hives upon their stools, into a cool, dry, 
 and shady room, or outhouse, where they 
 will be protected as well from the winter 
 sun as from the frosts. Warm days in 
 winter often tempt bees to quit their cells, 
 and the chilling air numbs and destroys 
 them. Let them remain thus until February 
 or March, should the spring be late and cold. 
 Do not be satisfied with stopping the mouth 
 of the hive with clay ; the bees will soon 
 make their way through it. Remove them. 
 Bees are very subject to a disease in the 
 spring, similar to dysentery. Before you 
 place the hives in their summer quarters, 
 examine the state of the bees by turning up 
 the hive, and noticing the smell proceeding 
 from it. If the bees are healthy, the odour 
 will be that of heated wax ; but if diseased, 
 it will appear like that of putrefaction. In 
 this case, a small quantity of port wine or 
 brandy, mixed with their food, will restore 
 them. In the early spring feed them, and 
 do the same when the flowers pass away in 
 autumn, until they are taken into the house ; 
 then disturb them no more. The proper 
 food is beer and sugar, in the proportion of 
 one pound to a quart ; boil it five minutes 
 only. In May, bees begin to swarm, if the 
 weather is warm. New and dry hives must 
 be prepared, without any doorway ; the en- 
 trance must be cut in the stool. This is re- 
 commended by " An Oxford Conservative 
 Bee Keeper." 
 
 Sticks across the inside of the hive are 
 useless, and very inconvenient. Let the hive 
 be well washed with beer and sugar, before 
 you shake the bees into it. After swarming, 
 place it upon a cloth with one side raised 
 upon a stone ; shade it with boughs, and let 
 it alone till quite dusk, then remove it to 
 the stool where it is to stand. The " Oxford 
 Bee Keeper " advises food to be given to a 
 BWftrm alter hiving, for three or four days. 
 Large hives are best : they do not consume 
 192 
 
 more food than small ones ; this is a fact, 
 and the same writer mentions it. Smarts 
 and casts are the second and third swarms 
 from a hive : they seldom live through the 
 winter, and ought to be united to each other, 
 or to a weak hive. This is the plan recom- 
 mended by several writers ; as also returning 
 a smart or cast to the parent hive, if you 
 have no hive weak enough to require an 
 increase of numbers. In this last case, 
 Huish recommends the following plan : Place 
 the back of a chair parallel with the entrance 
 of the hive, over which spread a sheet ; then 
 holding the hive containing the smart over 
 it, give a few sharp knocks at the top, and 
 the bees will immediately fall down on the 
 cloth ; proceed then, either with your finger 
 or a stick, to guide a few of the bees to the 
 entrance of the parent hive, and they will 
 instantly crowd into it. The queen bee 
 should be caught and secured as they pro- 
 ceed : if this is not done, they kill her, but 
 in a less merciful way. 
 
 To form a junction of two weak hives, 
 or a swarm and a hive, Huish discovered 
 the following method : Smoke each hive, as 
 if for taking, only with a less destructive 
 fume, which will be mentioned presently. 
 Spread all the bees of one hive upon a table, 
 and search carefully for the queen ; destroy 
 her ; sweep the bees of both hives together 
 into one, sprinkling them with some beer 
 and sugar mixed ; replace the hive. The 
 fungus used for smoking bees is that called 
 frog's cheese, found in damp meadows ; take 
 the largest, and put it into a bag ; squeeze 
 it to half its size, then dry it in an oven or 
 before the fire, but not by a very quick 
 heat. Take a piece of this dried fungus, the 
 size of two eggs, and put it in a stick split at 
 one end, and sharp at the other, which is to 
 be fixed into the bottom of an empty hive 
 turned upside down, to receive the stupefied 
 bees as they fall. 
 
 To prevent swarming, the " Oxford Bee 
 Keeper " recommends this treatment : — 
 
 " You see in the following figure a wooden 
 
 bottom board, with the doorway a a cut in 
 it. It has another doorway, b b, on the right 
 side. The ring is meant to show where a 
 hive stands on it. The other bottom board 
 is just like it, only the second doorway is on 
 the left hand, so as to fit exactly to the side 
 entrance of the first board, when pushed 
 close together. As* soon as the bees begin 
 to hang out, in May, push the two boards 
 
BEES. 
 
 BEET. 
 
 close together. In the evening, when they 
 are all in, stop up the entrance a a, and open 
 the right hand one b b. Put an empty hive 
 on the new board, with a glass worked into 
 the back for observation. Each doorway 
 has a bit of tin laid over as much of it as 
 juts out beyond the hive. The bees must 
 then find their way out by the new door- 
 way ; rub it with a little honey, and they will 
 soon take to it. When the second hive is 
 full, remove it thus : in the heat of the day? 
 when many bees are out, slip a piece of tin 
 or card between the two doorways, shut up 
 the doorway c c, and open the old doorway 
 a a. If the bees go on working quietly all 
 day, you will be sure that the queen is in 
 the old hive, and all is right. About half 
 an hour before dusk, open again the door- 
 way cc, and the bees, frightened by their 
 long imprisonment, will hurry from one 
 doorway to another to join the queen. As 
 soon as they are gone, take away the full 
 hive for yourself. If the old hive is very 
 uneasy all day, you may be sure the queen 
 is shut up in the new hive ; if so, draw out 
 the card or tin to join them again, and wait 
 till another day." 
 
 Never destroy a bee ; this is the first 
 great principle in their treatment. Bees 
 only live one year, therefore by killing them 
 in September you destroy the young vi- 
 gorous ones ready to work the following 
 spring : the year-old bees die in August. 
 When a hive is to be taken, smoke the bees 
 as directed for joining hives ; replace them 
 in a fresh hive, taking care to ascertain 
 that the queen is safe among them, and feed 
 them through the autumn and spring ; they 
 will be ready to work with the rest, and a 
 hive is thus added to the general stock. 
 The queen is easily known from the working 
 bees, as the size is larger. 
 
 By fumigating the bees with tobacco 
 smoke while operating upon a hive, they are 
 rendered perfectly harmless. It is well to 
 protect the face, neck, and hands, to prevent 
 alarm or the chance of accident. When 
 stung, extract the sting, and apply Goulard 
 water immediately, or laudanum, or sweet 
 oil. In February bees first begin their la- 
 bours. May is their busiest month. In 
 November their labours end, and they re- 
 main torpid for the winter. For more par- 
 ticular instructions, see Huish on Bees; 
 The Conservative Bee Keepers Letter to 
 Cottagers; Wildmarfs Treatise on Bees; 
 The Honey Bee, by Dr. Sevan; Penny 
 Cyclo.; Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 594. ; Baxter s Agr. Lib. pp. 46 — 53. 
 
 BEE'S NEST. A provincial name for 
 the wild carrot. (See Wild Carrot.) It is 
 sometimes written bird's nest. 
 
 BEESTING or I&ESTING, written 
 193 
 
 also BEESTNING. (Flem. biest, biest- 
 melch.) The first milk taken from cows after 
 calving ; it is thick and yellow. This milk 
 is commonly in part taken away from the 
 cow upon her first calving, lest, when taken 
 in too large a quantity by the calf, it should 
 prove purgative. 
 
 BEE-SUCKER. A term applied to the 
 ash when its bark is in a black, cankerous, 
 and tinged condition. 
 
 BEET. (Lat. beta ; Celt, bett, red ; also 
 said to be so named from the Greek charac- 
 ter beta, which its seeds resemble when they 
 begin to swell.) The sweet succulent root 
 of beta vulgaris, a chenopodiaceous plant of 
 biennial duration. It is used, in the winter,, 
 as a salad, for which purpose the red and yel- 
 low beets of Castelnandari are the best ; for 
 the food of cattle, that which is named man- 
 gel wurzel being most used ; and for the ex- 
 traction of sugar, a white-rooted variety with 
 a purple crown is the most esteemed. Sea 
 beet (beta maritima) is a well known and 
 excellent substitute for spinach. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science, p. 139.) 
 ■ The genus beta comprehends several 
 biennial species. Miller enumerates 5. 
 1. The common white beet. 2. The common 
 green beet. 3. The common red beet. 4. 
 The turnip-rooted red beet. 5. The great 
 red beet. 6. The yellow beet, 7. The 
 Swiss, or chard beet. We have now nine 
 varieties of this esculent, which are de- 
 scribed with considerable discrimination by 
 Mr. Morgan, gardener to H. Browne, Esq. 
 Mimms Place, Herts. (Hort. Trans, vol. iii.) 
 Of the red beet, Mr. Morgan enumerates 
 seven varieties ; of these, the three follow- 
 ing are generally chosen for cultivation : 
 1. The long-rooted, which should be sown 
 in a deep sandy soil. 2. The short or turnip- 
 rooted, better adapted to a shallow soil. 
 3. The green-leaved, red-rooted, requiring 
 a depth of soil equal to that of the long- 
 rooted. There are two distinct species of 
 beet commonly cultivated, each containing 
 several varieties ; the one called the Cicla 
 or Hortensis, or white beet, producing suc- 
 culent leaves only, the other the red beet 
 {Beta vulgaris), distinguished by its large 
 fleshy roots. 
 
 The white beet is chiefly cultivated in 
 gardens as a culinary vegetable, and forms 
 one of the principal vegetables used by 
 agricultural labourers, and small occupiers 
 of land in many parts of Germany, France, 
 and Switzerland. A variety known by the 
 name of Swiss chard produces numerous 
 large succulent leaves, which have a very 
 solid rib running along the middle. The 
 leafy part being stripped off and boiled is 
 used as a substitute for greens and spinach, 
 and the rib and stalk are dressed like as- 
 o 
 
BEET (WHITE). 
 
 paragus or scorzenera ; they have a plea- 
 sant, sweet taste, and are more wholesome 
 than the cabbage tribe. In a good soil the 
 produce is very abundant ; and if cultivated 
 on a large scale in the field, this species 
 would prove a valuable addition to the 
 plants raised for cattle. By cultivating it in 
 rows, and frequently hoeing and stirring 
 the intervals, it would be an excellent sub- 
 stitute for a fallow on good light loams. 
 All cattle are fond of the leaves of this beet, 
 which add much to the milk of cows, with- 
 out giving it that bad taste which is un- 
 avoidable when they are fed with turnips 
 or cabbages, and which is chiefly owing to 
 the greater rapidity with which the latter 
 undergoes the putrefactive fermentation. 
 If sown in May, in drills two feet wide, and 
 thinned out to the distance of a foot from 
 plant to plant in the rows, they will produce 
 an abundance of leaves, which may be 
 gathered in August and September, and 
 will grow again rapidly, provided a bunch 
 of the centre leaves be left on each plant. 
 They do not sensibly exhaust the soil. 
 These leaves when boiled or steamed with 
 bran, cut with chaff or refuse grain, are an 
 excellent food for pigs or bullocks put up 
 to fatten. {Penny Cyclo. vol. iv. p. 158.) 
 
 The white beet is an excellent root, and 
 is preferred by many to the larger and more 
 common intermediate varieties. It has 
 lately been in great repute in France and 
 Belgium, and indeed all over the continent of 
 Europe, for the manufacture of sugar. The 
 process is given in detail by Mr. Samuel 
 Taylor in the sixth vol. of the Gardener s 
 Magazine ; and there are some able articles, 
 entering extensively into detail on the sub- 
 ject, in the Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. i. p. 624., 
 and vol. ii. pp. 892. and 907. (For an ac- 
 count of the common field beet for cattle, 
 see Mangel, Wurzee.) 
 
 BEET, WHITE. {Beta cicla.) This is 
 also known as the chard, or carde. We have 
 two species in common cultivation, the 
 green and the white. They receive their 
 names from the colour of their footstalks ; 
 but the variation is considered by some as 
 fugitive, and that both are produced from 
 seed obtained of the same plant ; but this 
 the experience of Mr. Sinclair denies. 
 The French have three varieties of the 
 white — the white, the red, and the yellow 
 — which only differ from ours in having 
 a larger foliage, and thicker, fleshier stalks, 
 but they are less capable of enduring frost. 
 They are cultivated for their stalks, which 
 are cooked as asparagus. Mangel wurzel 
 is sometimes grown for the same purposes ; 
 but as it is much inferior, the notice that it 
 may be thus employed is sufficient. Beets 
 require a rich, mouldy, deep soil ; it should, 
 
 however, be retentive of moisture, rather 
 than light, without being tenacious, or having 
 its aluminous constituent too much pre- 
 dominating. Its richness should preferably 
 arise from previous application, than from 
 the addition of manure at the time of sow- 
 ing ; and to effect this the compartment in- 
 tended for the growth of these vegetables is 
 advantageously prepared as directed for 
 celery. On the soil depends the sweetness 
 and tenderness of the red and yellow beets, 
 for which they are estimated; and it may 
 be remarked that on poor, light soils, or 
 heavy ones, the best sorts will taste earthy. 
 Again, on some soils the better varieties 
 will not attain any useful size, or even a 
 tolerable flavour, whilst in the same com- 
 partment inferior ones will attain a very 
 good taste. The situation should be open, 
 and as free from the influence of trees as 
 possible ; but it is of advantage to have the 
 bed shaded from the meridian sun in sum- 
 mer. I have always found it beneficial to 
 dig the ground two spades deep for these 
 deep-rooting vegetables, and to turn in the 
 whole or part of the manure intended to be 
 applied, according to the richness of the soil 
 near the surface, with the bottom spit, so as 
 to bury it ten or twelve inches within the 
 ground. Salt is a beneficial application to 
 this crop, one reason for which undoubtedly 
 is their being natives of the sea shore. 
 Both species are propagated by seed, and 
 may be sown from the close of February 
 until the beginning of April : it being borne 
 in mind that they must not be inserted until 
 the severe frosts are over, which inevitably 
 destroys them when in a young stage of 
 growth. The best time for inserting the 
 main crop of the beet root for winter sup- 
 ply is early in March ; at the beginning of 
 July or August, a successional crop of the 
 white beet may be sown for supply in the 
 winter and following spring. 
 
 It is best sown in drills a foot asunder, 
 and an inch deep, or by dibble, at the same 
 distance each way, and at a similar depth, 
 two or three seeds being put in each hole : 
 it may, however, be sown broadcast and 
 well raked in. 
 
 During the early stages of its growth, 
 the beds, which, for the convenience of t cul- 
 tivation, should not be more than four feet 
 wide, must be looked over occasionally, and 
 the largest of the weeds cleared away by 
 hand. In the course of May, according to 
 the advanced state of their growth, the beds 
 must be cleared thoroughly of weeds, both 
 by hand and small hoeing ; the beet roots 
 thinned to ten or twelve inches apart, and 
 the white beet to eight or ten. The plants 
 of this last species which are removed may 
 be transplanted into rows at a similar dis- 
 
BEETLE. 
 
 tance, and will then often produce a finer 
 and more succulent foliage than those re- 
 maining in the seed bed. Moist weather 
 is to be preferred for performing this oper- 
 ation ; otherwise, the plants must be watered 
 occasionally until they take root : they must 
 be frequently hoed and kept clear of weeds 
 throughout the summer. 
 
 It is a great improvement to earth up 
 the stalks of the white beet in the same 
 manner as celery, when they are intended 
 to be peeled and eaten as asparagus. 
 
 In October the beet root may be taken 
 up for use as wanted, but not entirely for 
 preservation during the winter until No- 
 vember or the beginning of December, then 
 to be buried in sand in alternate rows, under 
 shelter ; or, as some gardeners recommend, 
 only part at this season, and the remainder 
 in February; by this means they may be 
 kept in a perfect state for use until May or 
 June. If prevented running to seed, they 
 will produce leaves during the succeeding 
 year ; but as this second year's production is 
 never so fine or tender, an annual sowing is 
 usually made. For the production of seed 
 some roots must be left where grown, giving 
 them the protection of litter in very severe 
 weather, if unaccompanied with snow ; or if 
 this is neglected, some of»the finest roots that 
 have been stored in sand, and have not had 
 the leaves cut away close, may be planted in 
 February or March. Each species and 
 variety must be kept as far away from the 
 others as possible, and the plants set at least 
 two feet from each other. They flower in 
 August, and ripen their seed at the close of 
 September. Seed of the previous year is 
 always to be preferred for sowing, but it 
 will succeed, if carefully preserved, when 
 two years old. 
 
 As a medicine, the seed of the beet is diu- 
 retic. The juice of beet root snuffed up into 
 the nostrils promotes sneezing, and is bene- 
 ficial in headache and toothache. 
 
 BEETING. A term applied in planting 
 to the filling up the vacancies produced by 
 the death or destruction of such trees as 
 have been first planted out. (See Planting 
 and Plantations.) 
 
 BEETLE. (Scarabceidece ; Sax. bytel.) 
 The generic name of a class of insects, of. 
 which there are a great many species, all of 
 them having elytra or sheaths over their wings 
 to defend them from hard bodies, which they 
 may meet with in digging holes in the 
 ground, or gnawing rotten wood with their 
 teeth, to make themselves houses or nests. 
 These insects are extremely destructive to 
 many sorts of crops. The beetles most de- 
 structive to vegetables and animals are the 
 weevil beetle, the turnip-flea beetle, the wood- 
 boring beetle, and some others, which are 
 195 
 
 BEHEN (WHITE). 
 
 described at length by Mr. J. Duncan in 
 the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 394. 
 
 BEETLE. A large wooden instrument in 
 the form of a mallet, with one, two, or three 
 handles for as many persons, used in driving 
 piles, wedges, hedge-stakes, and in splitting 
 wood, &c. 
 
 BEETLE, CLODDING. A sort of im- 
 plement made use of in reducing the clods of 
 tillage-lands, in clayey and other stiff tena- 
 cious soils, to a fine powdery condition. This 
 business may be much sooner performed, 
 and at less expense, by means of rollers 
 constructed for the purpose. (See Roller.) 
 
 BEEVES. The plural of beef. A ge- 
 neral name employed by farmers for oxen 
 or black cattle. 
 
 BEGGAR'S NEEDLE. The vulgar 
 name for the weed, also called Shepherd's 
 needle ; which see. 
 
 BEHEN, RED. (Statice Jimonum.) 
 Common sea lavender, or blue-spiked thrift. 
 This plant grows wild on muddy sea-shores 
 and about the mouths of large rivers, a foot 
 high. It flowers in a branched panicle. The 
 calyx is tinged with red ; the petal, of a 
 fine blue, paler internally. From the spikes 
 which form the branches of the panicles, the 
 plant is known by the familiar appellation 
 of sea lavender. It is a perennial, flowering 
 in July and August. Its stalks are tough, 
 branched, and of a pale-green colour. To- 
 wards the bottom of these stalks are clusters 
 of large broad leaves, usually two or three 
 inches long, of a deep green, rounded at 
 their ends. The root is woody and tough, 
 long, and somewhat red. The seed is very 
 astringent. As a medicine, the plant is 
 almost forgotten, and certainly neglected, 
 though its effects are still appreciated by 
 the humble inhabitants of the Essex coast. 
 If grown in gardens, salt should be cau- 
 tiously administered to the red behen. All 
 sea-coast plants love salt, or they do not 
 thrive when removed inland. The matted 
 thrift, or sea lavender (S. reticulata), is 
 found chiefly on the eastern coast of Eng- 
 land, and in salt marshes, all along the 
 northern coast of Norfolk, very abundant. 
 Its leaves are smaller than the before-men- 
 tioned variety, and it bears a few purplish- 
 blue flowers. (Smith's Eng. Flora.) 
 
 BEHEN, WHITE. (Behen album.) 
 Sometimes written Been. A species of 
 chickweed, frequently ca\ledspattli?ig-poppy. 
 This is common in our corn fields and pas- 
 tures, by way-sides, &c. flowering from 
 May till the end of August. It stands two 
 feet high, and the stalk is thick, round, and 
 of a whitish colour. The leaves are broad, 
 oblong, and of a blue-green colour, growing 
 two at each joint of the stalk, and not 
 dented at their edges : they grow directly 
 
BELLADONNA. 
 
 BELT. 
 
 from the joints, which are large, and have 
 no stalk of their own. The flowers are 
 white, of a moderate size, and prickly, 
 standing upon a disk. The root is long, 
 white, and woody : this should be gathered 
 up before the stalks rise, and dried for use. 
 
 BELLADONNA. {Atropa belladonna.) 
 In botany, the Deadly Nightshade. It is an 
 acro-narcotic poison. This name, belladonna, 
 (signifying Handsome Lady), according to 
 Ray, was given to it by the Italians, because 
 the Italian ladies make a cosmetic of the 
 juice. 
 
 The belladonna, although perennial in 
 reference to the root, is annual in its herb- 
 age, which is of quick growth, branching, 
 and shrub-like. The leaves are lateral, 
 generally two together, ovate, acute, entire, 
 smooth, and clammy. The flowers are soli- 
 tary, stalked, rising in the axillae of the 
 leaves, bell shaped, and of a lurid purple 
 colour. The fruit is a shining, black, 
 sweetish berry, seated in the permanent 
 calyx, about the size of a cherry. The 
 plant is poisonous, having a peculiar alkali, 
 named atropia, which, in combination with 
 malic acid is found in every part of the 
 plant. Its influence is chiefly exerted on 
 the brain and nervous system, causing de- 
 lirium, movements of the body resembling 
 intoxication, confused speech, uttered with 
 pain, and other symptoms of narcotic poi- 
 soning. Buchanan, the Scottish historian, 
 informs us, that the Scots under Macbeth in- 
 toxicated the Danes under Sweno by mixing 
 their wine with the juice of the berries of 
 belladonna during a truce, which enabled 
 Macbeth readily to overcome them. Shakes- 
 peare alludes to it in the interview between 
 Macbeth and the witches, when the former 
 says — 
 
 Or have we drank 
 Of the insane root which takes the reason prisoner ? 
 
 Macbeth, Act 1. 
 
 The beauty of the berries frequently entices 
 children to eat them ; and, although not 
 often fatal, they cause very distressing ef- 
 fects to the little sufferers. In such cases, 
 the stomach should be quickly emptied by 
 an emetic, and, afterwards, vegetable acids 
 and decoction of nut-galls should be given. 
 Belladonna is an excellent medicine ; but it 
 should not be intrusted to the ignorant. 
 
 BELL-FLOWER. {Campanula.) Sir 
 James Smith, in his English Flora, enume- 
 rates 10 varieties of this little wild herb or 
 flower : — 1 . round-leaved bell-flower, or 
 harebell ; 2. spreading bell-flower ; 3. ram- 
 pion bell-flower; 4. peach-leaved bell-flower; 
 5. giant bell-flower ; C). creeping bell-flower ; 
 7. nettle-leiivcd bell-flower; 8. clustered 
 bell-flower; 9. corn bell-flower; 10. ivy- 
 leaved bell-flower. The bell-flower is a 
 196 
 
 milky herb, which is seldom shrubby. The 
 first variety is a perennial, found very com- 
 monly on heaths, walls, banks, and about 
 the borders of fields. The root is somewhat 
 creeping, and rather woody; the herb 
 smooth and dark green : stems more or less 
 crowded, upright, round, sometimes a little 
 downy; about a span high ; slightly, if at all 
 branched, each terminating in a loose cluster 
 of a- few drooping blue flowers, on long, 
 slender, tremulous stalks. The leaves are 
 numerous, some heart-shaped and kidney- 
 shaped, and others ovate. They' all usually 
 wither very soon ; so that the plant, when 
 in flower, is found with stem-leaves only. 
 Sometimes, though rarely, the flowers are 
 white. It is sometimes called the witch's 
 thimble. There is hardly a plant, that 
 indicates more the extreme barrenness of 
 a soil than this. It flowers in July and 
 August. In our gardens it is usually white, 
 and grows luxuriantly under a frame, or in 
 the open border, being, doubtless, a con- 
 stant and very distinct species, characterised 
 by the numerous serrated stem-leaves, to 
 say nothing of its smaller size and brighter 
 green hue. The other varieties call for 
 little further notice. They are found occa- 
 sionally in pastures, on banks, the borders 
 of fields and hedges, in moist woods and 
 thickets, by the side of rivulets. The root 
 of the rampion bell-flower is spindle-shaped, 
 white, milky, and sweet, with a bitterish 
 pungency, which is rendered milder by cul- 
 tivation. It was formerly eaten raw, or va- 
 riously dressed. In the peach-leaved bell- 
 flower the stem is round, very smooth, and 
 there are but few flowers, the flowers being 
 often solitary in wild specimens, but they 
 are very large, above an inch wide, of a 
 fine blue. In gardens, where they are 
 generally double, and often of a brilliant 
 white, there are always several on each 
 stem. In the nettle-leaved variety, the 
 leaves much resemble the common perennial 
 nettle, and the bristles of the leaves are 
 often as pungent as those of the nettle, 
 though not venomous. The Latin name 
 Trachelium, from rpax^og the neck, al- 
 ludes to the reputed virtues of this plant in 
 disorders of the throat, to which the other 
 appellations of old authors allude. A de- 
 coction of the herb, which is bitter and 
 somewhat acrid, was used as a gargle. {Eng. 
 Flora, vol. i. pp. 287 — 294.) 
 
 BELL-WETHER. A sheep which leads 
 the flock, with a bell on his neck. 
 
 BELT. To belt, in some districts, sig- 
 nifies to shear the buttocks and tails of sheep. 
 
 BELT. In planting, a strip or portion of 
 land planted with trees for the purpose of 
 ornament, or warmth and shelter. Much 
 advantage may be derived in this way in 
 
BENT-GRASS. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, STAR OF. 
 
 improving the climate of the district. (See 
 Plantation.) 
 
 BENNET, HERB. See Avens. 
 
 BENNET, WAY. See Hordeum. 
 
 BENT, or STARR. See Arundo Are- 
 
 NARIA. 
 
 BENT-GRASS. A species of Agrostis 
 very common in pasture grounds, the bent 
 and creeping stems of which are very diffi- 
 cult to eradicate. (See Agrostis.) 
 
 BENTS. The withered stalks of grass 
 standing in a pasture after the seeds have 
 dropped. It also sometimes signifies a spe- 
 cies of rush (Juncus squarrosus), which 
 grows on moorland hills. 
 
 BENZOIN and BENZOIC ACID. See 
 Acids. 
 
 BERBEREN. A yellow bitter prin- 
 ciple contained in the alcoholic extract of 
 the root of the barberry tree. 
 
 BERBERRY. (Berberis.) See Bar- 
 berry. 
 
 BERE. Goth, bar, Sax. bepe.) The com- 
 mon name for a species of barley, which is 
 also frequently termed big, bear, and square 
 barley. Thus, in Huloet, an old writer, we 
 find " beer-corn, barley-bygge, or mon- 
 corne." 
 
 BERGAMOT. (Fr. bergamotte.) A kind 
 of pear. Menage {Diet. Ftymolog.) says, 
 that bergamot is derived from Turkish 
 words, which give it the signification of 
 chief of pears : the fruit is vulgarly called 
 bergamy. There is, also, a species of citron, 
 to which the name of bergamot is given, the 
 fruit of the Citrus bergamia (Risso). This 
 tree is cultivated in the south of Europe. 
 It is a moderate sized tree with oblong, 
 acute, or obtuse leaves, with a pale under- 
 side, and supported on winged footstalks. 
 The flowers are small and white ; the fruit 
 is pyriform, of a pale yellow colour, and the 
 rind studded with oil vesicles ; the pulp is 
 slightly acidulous. The oil, which is pro- 
 cured from the rind, is imported from the 
 south of Europe, under the name of oil or 
 essence of bergamot. It is of a pale greenish 
 colour, lighter than water, and used merely 
 as an agreeable perfume. 
 
 BERRY. (Bacca.) A succulent pulpy 
 fruit, which contains one or more seeds, 
 or granules, imbedded in the juice. 
 
 BERRY-BEARING ALDER, or AL- 
 DER BUCKTHORN. (Rkamnus fran- 
 gula.) A shrub found in woods and thickets 
 in England, but rather rare in Scotland. It 
 stands on a stem of 3 or 4 feet high, with 
 numerous alternate, leafy, round, smooth, 
 blackish branches. The leaves are alternate, 
 not opposite, of a deep green, with many 
 parallel transverse ribs. It bears its fruit, 
 dark purple berries, each with two large 
 seeds, in July. (Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 197 
 
 BERRY, HENRY. An able and dis- 
 tinguished English farmer and breeder of 
 live stock ; was originally educated for the 
 law, but leaving that profession for the 
 church, he became rector of Acton Beau- 
 champ, in Herefordshire, where he farmed 
 largely. He resigned his living, however, 
 in 1829, and took " a fine old pasture farm" 
 at Pensham, near Penshore, whence he re- 
 moved, in 1832, to Dinham near Chepstow. 
 He died at Liverpool (where he had been 
 presented by the corporation with the rec- 
 tory of St. Michael's), August 24. 1836, in 
 the 44th year of his age. Berry was the 
 originator and editor of the British Farmer s 
 Magazine, and published several Prize 
 Essays and other works on the excellent 
 Short-horned Breed of Cattle, of which he 
 was a warm advocate, and successful breeder. 
 To his valuable labours as a cattle breeder 
 and experimental farmer, says the excellent 
 editor of the Farmer s Magazine, during a 
 short but active life, posterity will not fail 
 to do justice ; they are such, indeed, as will 
 at all times command the tribute of public 
 gratitude. In his agricultural writings — 
 the diction of which is always polished, and 
 sometimes elegant — the most determined 
 disputant found in Mr. Berry an honour- 
 able, a high-minded, and a gentlemanly op- * 
 ponent. Diffident, almost to injustice, of a 
 knowledge he was known to possess in an 
 eminent degree, he ever kept in view, as a 
 golden rule of life, that while " grievous 
 words stir up anger," it is the virtue of a 
 " soft answer to turn away wrath." " I am 
 resolved (he would say to a querulous 
 casuist) to take nothing which has been 
 written on this occasion in a personal sense ; 
 because I have reason to believe it is not so 
 intended; or, if intended, written under 
 misapprehension," Again, of his attainments 
 he would thus modestly speak — " The little 
 knowledge I may possess on the subject of 
 breeding, has been to me difficult of attain- 
 ment, and has been laboriously toiled after." 
 
 BET. See Wager. 
 
 BETHLEHEM, STAR OF. (Ornitho- 
 galum.) Smith points out four varieties of 
 this flower : — the yellow star of Bethlehem, 
 O. luteum ; the common star of Bethlehem, 
 O. umbellatum ; the tall star of Bethlehem, 
 O.pyrenaicum; and the drooping star of 
 Bethlehem, O. nutans. The first is met with 
 sometimes, but not very frequently, in grove 
 pastures. The second is found in meadows, 
 pastures, and groves in various parts of 
 England. The last is found mostly in fields 
 and orchards, probably naturalised. All 
 are elegant spring flowers. The last is 
 common in country gardens, whence it may 
 have escaped into the fields. Yet the plant 
 may as well be a native of England as of 
 o 3 
 
BETONY WOOD. 
 
 BIND -WEED. 
 
 Denmark, Austria, or other parts of Eu- 
 rope, where it is found in similar situations. 
 The bulb of the drooping star of Bethlehem 
 is ovate, commonly deep in the ground; 
 leaves few, 12 to 18 inches long, flaccid 
 bright green ; stalk central, erect, round 
 and smooth, bearing a simple, nearly upright 
 cluster of several large flowers, all pendulous 
 towards one side. {Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. 
 ii. p. 141—145.) 
 
 BETONY WOOD. (Betonica officinalis.) 
 This is a common perennial herb, growing 
 in all woods, thickets, and shady places. It 
 flowers in June. The flowers are crimson, 
 purplish, or yellowish, growing on almost 
 naked stalks a foot high. They are small, 
 and shaped like mint flowers. Many leaves 
 grow from the root, and they are broad, 
 an inch long, dark green, hairy, blunt at 
 their points, and indented about the edges. 
 The long stalks on which the flowers grow 
 are dark- coloured and hairy, with leaves 
 on them standing two at a joint, but very 
 distant from each other, giving the stalk a 
 naked look. Betony must be gathered just 
 previous to flowering ; it dries very well. 
 The " water betony " is not really a betony, 
 as it does not possess the qualities of this 
 plant. It belongs to the figwort tribe, 
 and is classed as a figwort. Betony tea, 
 taken for a length of time, will cure in- 
 veterate headachs, by strengthening the 
 seat of all disorders, the stomach. Be- 
 tony formerly ranked high among " the 
 simples" for its sovereign virtues. The 
 root is rather woody. This herb is scarcely 
 aromatic, but the fine rigid hairs which 
 cover the surface, cause it, when powdered, 
 to produce sneezing. Hence betony is 
 generally made use of in herb snuffs. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora.) 
 BETTING. See Gaming. 
 BEVER. (Ital. bevere; old French, 
 beivre.) To drink : a word now almost ob- 
 solete, but from which we derive beverage. 
 The provincial term amongst labourers for 
 the meal between dinner and tea. 
 
 BIENNIAL. (Lat. biennis.) Any thing 
 that continues or endures two years. This 
 term is usually applied to plants which grow 
 one year and flower the next, after which 
 they perish. They only differ from annuals 
 in requiring a longer period to fruit in. 
 Most biennials, if sown early in the spring, 
 will flower in the autumn and then perish, 
 thus actually becoming annuals. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BIER-BALK. The church road for bu- 
 rials, along which the corpse is carried. Our 
 ancestors, before roads and highways were 
 so common, were; wont to leave untilled of 
 their land, abroad and sufficient "bier-balk" 
 to carry the corpse to Christian sepulture. 
 198 
 
 BIESTINGS. See Beestings. 
 
 BIGG. A term sometimes applied to bere 
 or square barley. (See Bere and Barley. 
 Also the vulgar name in some parts of the 
 country for the pap or teat of an animal. 
 
 BILBERRY, or BLEABERRY. See 
 Whortleberry. 
 
 BILL. (Bille ; Sax. tibile, a two-edged 
 axe.) A kind of hatchet with a hooked 
 point, and a handle shorter or longer, ac- 
 cording to the particular uses for which it 
 is intended. It is mostly employed by 
 husbandmen for cutting hedges and felling 
 underwood ; and J ohnson tells us it takes 
 its name from its resemblance, in form, to 
 the beak of a bird of prey. 
 
 BILLET. (Fr. bilot.) A small log of 
 wood for the chimney. 
 
 BIN. (Sax. binne.) A small box or other 
 contrivance in which grain of any kind is 
 kept. It is sometimes written binn. Bin 
 also signifies a sort of crib for containing 
 straw or other bulky fodder in farm-yards. 
 
 BIN, CORN-. A sort of convenient box 
 or chest fixed in the stable for the purpose 
 of containing grain or other provender for 
 horses. We have also hop-bins, wine- 
 bins, &c. 
 
 BIND -WEED. (Lat. convolvulus.) A 
 troublesome genus of weeds, of which there 
 are three species, the smaller, the great, and 
 the sea bind-weed. The climbing buck- 
 wheat (Polygonum convolvulus) is also 
 known by the name of black bind-weed. 
 The first, or smaller bind-weed (C. arven- 
 sis), frequently called gravel bind-weed, 
 is very common in hedges, fields, and gar- 
 dens, and upon dry banks and gravelly 
 ground in most districts, and is an almost 
 unconquerable weed. Its presence is ge- 
 nerally a sign of gravel lying near the sur- 
 face. Its branching creeping roots penetrate 
 to a great depth in the soil. The flowers 
 are fragrant like the heliotrope, but fainter, 
 very beautiful, of every shade of pink, with 
 paler or yellowish plaits, and stains of crim- 
 son in the lower part ; sometimes they are 
 nearly white. They close before rain. 
 The second kind, or great bind-weed (C. 
 sepium), is also an equally troublesome and 
 injurious weed to the husbandman. It 
 grows luxuriantly in moist hedges, osier 
 holts, and thickets. In an open, clear spot 
 of ground, when the plants are kept con- 
 stantly hoed down for three or four months, 
 it may sometimes be effectually destroyed ; 
 as when the stalks are broken or cut, a 
 milky juice exudes, by which the roots are 
 exhausted, and decay. Every portion of 
 the root will grow. The roots of this spe- 
 cies are long, creeping extensively, and 
 rather fleshy ; the steins twining, several 
 feet long, leafy, smooth, and slightly 
 
BIND-WEED. 
 
 BIRCH. 
 
 branched. Flowers solitary, large, purely 
 white for the most part, occasionally of an 
 uniform flesh or rose colour. It is a peren- 
 nial, flowering in July and August. 
 
 The sea bind- weed (C soldanella) is found 
 mostly on the sandy sea-shore, flowering in 
 June and July. This herb is smooth and 
 rather succulent, and has white roots ex- 
 tensively creeping ; stems one to two feet 
 long, weak, round, and purplish green in 
 colour. The flowers are bell- shaped, very 
 large in proportion, and remarkably hand- 
 some, on long solitary stalks, their four 
 angles bordered, and purplish ; of a deli- 
 cate purplish pink, with pale yellow plaits. 
 The flowers expand in the sunshine only, 
 and are of short duration. 
 
 If any part of the plant or root is crushed 
 a milky juice issues from the fracture. 
 Gather the whole plant fresh, just when it 
 is going to flower, and boil it in ale or beer, 
 with a clove or two. This acts as a pur- 
 gative, but it is so strong, that only robust 
 persons should drink it. It is as good as 
 any other brisk purgative for rheumatism 
 and dropsy. The juice oozing from the 
 plant and root should be preserved, and 
 it will harden into a substance for keeping, 
 like scammony. 
 
 Black bind-weed, or climbing buck- wheat, 
 (Polygonum convolvulus) is in some places 
 called bear-bind ; but in the fens simply 
 bind- weed, because such land produces none 
 ofthe perennial rooted species. It is found 
 plentifully in corn-fields, gardens, hedges, 
 and osier-grounds. An annual, flowering 
 in June and September. Root small and 
 tapering ; stem twining, from left to right, 
 round every thing in its way to the height 
 of five or six feet. Leaves alternate, 
 stalked, bright green, generally with a red 
 mid-rib, wavy, smooth, arrow-shaped, a 
 little approaching to a heart-shape. Flowers 
 drooping, greenish white or reddish. 
 
 Several of the convolvulaceae have medi- 
 cinal properties, and strong purgative roots. 
 Scammony is obtained from C. scammonia, 
 and jalap from a species of Ipomcea. Occa- 
 sionally the purgative principle is so much 
 diffused among the faecula of the root, 
 as to be almost inappreciable, as is the 
 case in the C. batatas, or sweet potato of 
 South America. The root of the great 
 bind-weed is a strong purgative, fresh ga- 
 thered and boiled in a little warm liquid, 
 being near akin to the acrid and violent 
 scammony. The humbler classes boil it in 
 beer or ale, and find it a never-failing re- 
 medy. Among delicate constitutions it 
 should be taken with caution, as its effects 
 are very powerful. In Northamptonshire 
 it grows most abundantly A decoction of 
 the roots also causes perspiration. 
 199 
 
 BINK. A provincial term, applied to a 
 sort of raised bench or seat at the doors of 
 cottages, mostly formed of stones ; but 
 sometimes of earth, planted on the top with 
 chamomile, or some other similar plant. 
 
 BIRCH. (Sax. bine ; Lat. betula.) The 
 English word birch seems, however, to be 
 derived from the German birke, or the 
 Dutch berk. All the European languages are 
 similar in the pronunciation of the name of 
 this tree. A very hardy, ornamental, and, 
 in some respects, a useful tree, inhabiting 
 the north of Europe, Asia, and America. 
 There are many species of birch, but that 
 best known, and most generally cultivated 
 in this country, is the common birch (Betula 
 alba). The common birch is valuable for 
 its capability of resisting extremes of both 
 heat and cold : its timber is chiefly em- 
 ployed for fire-wood. Its bark is extremely 
 durable : its consists of an accumulation of 
 ten or twelve skins, which are white and 
 thin like paper, the use of which it sup- 
 plied to the ancients ; and as a proof of its 
 imperishable nature, we are told that the 
 books which Numa composed, about 700 
 years before Christ, which were written on 
 the bark of the birch tree, were found in 
 a perfect state of preservation in the tomb 
 of that great king, where they had re- 
 mained 400 years. Although this species 
 is not much valued for its timber, it is 
 extremely useful for many other purposes. 
 Russia skins are said to be tanned with 
 its bark, from which the peculiar odour 
 of such leather is derived; and it is said 
 to be useful in dyeing wool yellow, and 
 fixing fugacious colours. The Highlanders 
 weave it into ropes for their well-buckets. 
 The poor people of Sweden were formerly 
 accustomed to grind the bark to mingle 
 with their bread corn. And in Denmark, 
 Christopher III. received the unjust sur- 
 name of Berka Kanung (king of bark), be- 
 cause in his reign there was such a scarcity, 
 that the peasants were obliged to mix the 
 bark of this tree with their flour. Cordage 
 is obtained from it by the Laplanders, who 
 also prepare a red dye from it ; the young 
 shoots serve to nourish their cattle, and 
 the leaves are said to afford good fodder 
 for horses, kine, sheep, and goats. The 
 vernal sap of these trees is well known to 
 have a saccharine quality, and from it the 
 forest housewife makes an agreeable and 
 wholesome wine. During the siege of 
 Hamburgh, in 1814, by the Russians, al- 
 most all the birch trees of the neighbour- 
 hood were destroyed by the Bashkirs and 
 other barbarian soldiers in the Russian ser- 
 vice, by being tapped for their juice. Vi- 
 negar is obtained from the fermented sap. 
 The inhabitants of Finland use the leaves 
 o 4 
 
BIRCH. 
 
 for tea ; and both in Lapland and Green- 
 land, strips of the young and tender bark 
 are used for food. From the timber are 
 manufactured gates and rails, packing-cases, 
 hoops, yokes for cattle, turners' ware, such 
 as bowls, wooden spoons, wooden shoes and 
 clogs, and other articles in which lightness, 
 without much durability, is sufficient. 
 Baskets, hurdles, and brooms, are often 
 made of part of its shoots. The broom- 
 makers are constant customers for birch in 
 all places in the vicinity of London, or 
 where it is near water-carriage ; but in 
 most other parts the hoop-benders are the 
 purchasers. The larger trees are often 
 bought by the turners. In some of the 
 northern parts of Europe, the wood of this 
 tree is likewise greatly used for making of 
 carriages and wheels, being hard, and of 
 long duration. The most general and the 
 most profitable use to which birch at present 
 can be turned is, unquestionably, the ma- 
 nufacture of small casks, as herring barrels, 
 butter tubs, &c. For the latter purpose it 
 is admirably suited, because it is stout, 
 clean, and easily wrought, and communi- 
 cates no peculiar taste or smell to the 
 butter. The timber of the birch was more 
 used and more valued in former times. It 
 was not so strong as the ash for harrows and 
 other farming implements, but it was not 
 so ready to split, and for roofing cottages 
 it is still held in estimation. In Russia, 
 Poland, and other northern countries, the 
 twigs of this tree cover the dwellings of 
 the peasant, instead of tile or thatch. It 
 afforded our ancestors arrows, bolts, and 
 shafts, for their war implements. The 
 whole tree is adapted for burning into char- 
 coal of the best quality, and suited for the 
 manufacture of gunpowder. 
 
 The birch will grow in any soil, but best 
 in shady places. It may, therefore, in some 
 situations, be turned to good account, since 
 it will grow to advantage upon land where 
 other timber will not thrive. Miller says, it 
 loves a dry barren soil, where scarcely any 
 thing else will grow ; and will thrive on any 
 sort of land, dry or wet, gravelly, sandy, 
 rocky, or boggy, and those barren, heathy 
 lands which will scarcely bear grass. It is 
 said to attain sometimes the height of 70 
 feet, with a diameter of 2 feet ; in England 
 it does not acquire such considerable di- 
 mensions. The birch is propagated by 
 seeds, which are easily taken from bearing 
 trees, by cutting the branches in August, 
 before they are quite ripe. The seed may 
 be thrashed out like corn, as soon as the 
 branches dry a little; they should be then 
 kept in dry cool sand until they are sown, 
 either in tin; autumn or spring. A great 
 deal of nicety and attention is required in 
 200 
 
 rearing the birch from the seed ; they must 
 be sown in the shade, and covered very 
 lightly with soil made as fine as possible, 
 and watered according to the wetness or 
 dryness of the season. The planting out of 
 this tree is performed in the same manner 
 as in the ash. If planted for underwood, it 
 should be felled before March to prevent its 
 bleeding. The tree bears removing with 
 safety, after it has attained the height of six 
 or seven feet ; and is ready to plash as 
 hedges in four years after planting. When 
 old they are transplanted with considerable 
 difficulty. 
 
 The other European birches are the 
 weeping birch {Betula pendula), which is 
 very common in different parts of Europe, 
 along with the last, in the properties of 
 which it appears to participate, and with 
 which it is often improperly confounded. 
 It differs from the common birch not only 
 in its weeping habit, but also in its young 
 shoots being quite smooth, bright chestnut 
 brown when ripe, and then covered with 
 little white warts. The Betula pontica of 
 the nurseries is a slight variety, of a less 
 drooping habit. 
 
 The third species is the downy birch 
 {Betula pubescens), a smaller species than 
 the first, found in the bogs of Germany ; a 
 variety of it is called Betula urticifolia in 
 gardens. 
 
 The fourth and last European species is 
 the Dwarf birch {Betula nana), a small bush 
 found in Lapland and the mountainous parts 
 of other northern countries. To the people 
 of the south this plant has no value, but to 
 the Laplanders it affords a large part of their 
 fuel, and its winged fruits are reported to 
 be the favourite food of the ptarmigan. The 
 Asiatic species are the Indian paper birch 
 (B. Bhojpattra) ; tapering-leaved birch (B. 
 acuminata) ; shining birch (B. nitida) ; cy- 
 lindrical spiked birch (B. cylindrostachya). 
 The principal American birches are, 1. The 
 poplar-leaved or white American birch (B. 
 populifolia). It is very like the European 
 B. pendula. 2. The red birch (B. nigra). 
 In this country it is generally called B. 
 angulata, and by some, B. rubra. The 
 Messrs. Loddiges, of Hackney, were the first 
 importers of this fine but little known 
 species. 3. The yellow birch (B. excelsa). 
 4. The paper or canoe birch (B. papyracea), 
 which is employed by the North American 
 Indians for a variety of useful purposes. 5. 
 The soft black or cherry birch {B. lenta). 
 None of the American birches produce 
 timber so valuable as this, whence one of 
 its American names is mountain mahogany. 
 Its wood is hard, close-grained, and of a 
 reddish brown ; it is imported into this 
 country in considerable quantity, under the 
 
BIRD -CHERRY. 
 
 BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL. 
 
 name of American birch, for forming the 
 slides of dining tables, and for similar pur- 
 poses. It is rarely seen in this country, 
 although it is perhaps one of the best suited 
 to our climate. All the species of birches, 
 except the common and weeping, are mul- 
 tiplied by layers in the usual way. 
 
 The juice of the birch tree, produced 
 from punctures in the spring of the year, 
 is diuretic. The wine made from this sap 
 is said to be aperitive, and detersive. Old 
 medical writers tell us that the wood was 
 esteemed the best to burn in times of pes- 
 tilence and contagious distempers ; but, 
 like many old medical saws, that opinion 
 is of no value. {Phillips's Syl. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 123. ; Pen. Cyc. vol. iv. p. 348. ; Baxter s 
 Agr. Lib.) 
 
 BIRD -BOLT. A short arrow, having a 
 ball of wood at the end of it, and sometimes 
 an iron point, formerly used for shooting 
 birds. 
 
 BIRD-CHERRY. (Primus Padus.) The 
 Latin name for this tree was derived, ac- 
 cording to Parkinson, from the offensive 
 smell of the wood; but we are more dis- 
 posed, says Phillips, to think that the 
 Romans named it after their celebrated 
 river Padus, now called the Po. The berries 
 are eagerly sought after by birds, and as 
 the leaf and fruit resemble that of the cherry 
 tree, hence the name of bird- cherry. In 
 Scotland it is called hogberry. This abori- 
 ginal of our woods possesses beauties that 
 should oftener secure it a situation in the 
 shrubbery, and more frequently a place in 
 ornamental hedge-rows. The bird-cherry 
 rises from ten to fifteen feet in height, 
 spreading to a considerable distance its 
 branches, which are covered with a purplish 
 bark. It flowers in April and May, and the 
 small black fruit, which hangs in bunches 
 ripen in August. Although the fruit is 
 austere, and bitter to the taste, it gives 
 an agreeable flavour to brandy, and many 
 persons add it, for the same reason, to 
 their made wines. Birds soon devour the 
 fruit, which is nauseous and probably dan- 
 gerous, though perhaps, like that of the 
 cherry laurel, not of so deadly a quality as 
 the essential oil, or distilled water of the 
 leaves, which is highly dangerous from con- 
 taining much Prussic acid. Jhe wood is 
 hard and close-grained, and is used for whip 
 and knife handles. Linnseus says, that 
 kine, sheep, goats, and swine eat the leaves, 
 but that horses refuse them. The scent of 
 the leaves, when bruised, resembles rue. 
 The variety with red fruit, commonly called 
 the Cornish cherry, flowers two or three 
 weeks earlier, and is therefore not so de- 
 sirable for the shrubbery. The bird-cherry 
 may be propagated by layers, which should 
 201 
 
 be performed in autumn, but the hand- 
 somest trees are raised from seed, which 
 may be sown at the same season. A wet 
 soil is not congenial to this tree. (Phillips's 
 Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 134. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 354.) 
 
 BIRD'S EYE. (Veronica Chamcedrys.) 
 The Germander Speedwell, or wild ger- 
 mander. A troublesome weed in fields. It 
 is found very commonly in groves, meadows, 
 pastures, and hedges. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in May and June. Herbage light 
 green. Flowers numerous, transient, but 
 very beautiful, bright blue with dark streaks 
 and a white centre ; their outside pale and 
 flesh-coloured. The flowers expand in fine 
 weather only. Some take this for the German 
 " Forget-me-not." It vies in beauty with 
 the true one, Myosotis palustris. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 23.) 
 
 BIRD'S FOOT, COMMON. (Orni- 
 thopus perpusillus, .) A weed found most 
 generally in sandy or gravelly- pastures. 
 Root fibrous, annual, though it is sometimes 
 propagated by subterraneous lateral knobs 
 in the manner of a potato, in which case the 
 seeds are abortive. The stems, often nu- 
 merous, are procumbent, from 3 to 10 or 
 12 inches long. Leaves alternate, of from 
 5 to 10 or 12 pair, of small uniform elliptical 
 leaflets. Flowers 3 or 4 in each little head 
 or tuft. 
 
 The species of bird's foot are curious on 
 account of their jointed pods, but not worth 
 culture as plants of ornament. (O.sativus 
 is, however, a most valuable agricultural 
 plant. 
 
 BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL, or CLO- 
 VER. (Lotus.) The common name of a genus 
 of plants that flourishes in a singular manner 
 the most exposed and dry situations. On 
 bowling-greens and mown lawns it forms a 
 fine green close herbage, even in hot sea- 
 sons ; and in meadow and pasture grounds 
 it is frequently abundant. Its very strong 
 deep tap root is the cause of its resisting 
 drought. Smith describes four species : — 
 1. Common bird's-foot trefoil (L. cornicu- 
 latus), a perennial, flowering in the second 
 week of June, and ripening the seed about 
 the end of July, and successively to the end 
 of autumn ; common in open grassy pastures. 
 Some botanists have considered the following 
 species (L. major) to be a variety of the 
 Carniculatus, but the difference between 
 them is obvious at first sight ; and this dif- 
 ference remains permanent when the plant 
 is raised from seed, and cultivated on dif- 
 ferent soils. What renders a specific dis- 
 tinction here of most importance to the 
 farmer, is the difference which exists be- 
 tween them in an agricultural point of view. 
 Heads depressed, of few flowers, root branch- 
 
BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL. 
 
 ing, somewhat woody ; the fibres beset with 
 small granulations ; stems several, spreading 
 on the ground in every direction, varying 
 in length from 3 to 10 inches, simple or 
 branched. Flower stalks erect or recum- 
 bent, five times as long as the leaves, each 
 bearing from 2 to 5 bright yellow flowers, 
 dark green when dried, and they change to 
 orange when verging towards decay. This 
 species is recommended for cultivation, 
 though under the erroneous names of milk- 
 vetch and Astragalus glycyphyllos, by the 
 late Dr. Anderson, in his Agricultural Essays, 
 as being excellent for fodder as well as for 
 hay. Mr. Curtis and Mr. Wood also recom- 
 mended it. Linnaeus says that cows, goats, 
 and horses eat it ; and that sheep and swine 
 are not fond of it. With regard to sheep, 
 (says the late Mr. G. Sinclair, Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. p. 310.) as far as my observations have 
 extended, they eat it in common with the 
 herbage with which it is usually combined ; 
 the flowers, it is true, appeared always un- 
 touched, and in dry pastures little of the 
 plant is seen or presented to cattle, except 
 the flowers, on account of its diminutive 
 growth in such situations. This, however, 
 is nearly the case with white or Dutch 
 clover ; sheep seldom touch the flowers 
 while any foliage is to be found. Mr. 
 Woodward informs us that it makes ex- 
 tremely good hay in moist meadows, where 
 it grows to a greater height than the trefoils, 
 and seems to be of a quality equal, if not 
 superior, to most of them. Professor Martyn 
 observes, that, in common with several other 
 leguminous plants, it gives a substance to 
 hay, and perhaps renders it more palatable 
 and wholesome to cattle. The clovers con- 
 tain more bitter extractive and saline mat- 
 ters than the proper natural grasses, and the 
 bird's-foot trefoils contain more of these ve- 
 getable principles than the clovers. In pas- 
 tures and meadows, therefore, where the 
 clovers happen to be in small quantities, a 
 portion of the trefoil (Z. corniculatus) would 
 doubtless be of advantage ; but it appears 
 to contain too much of the bitter extractive 
 and saline matters to be cultivated by itself, 
 or without a large intermixture of other 
 plants. It does not spring early in the 
 season, but continues to vegetate late in the 
 autumn. In irrigated meadows, where the 
 produce is generally more succulent than in 
 dry pastures, this plant cannot with safety 
 be recommended, at least in any consider- 
 able quantity. It is more partial to dry 
 soils than the next species (Z. major) ; it 
 attains to a considerable height when growing 
 among shrubs, and seems to lose its pros- 
 trate or trailing habit of growth entirely in 
 such situations. 2. The greater bird's-foot 
 trefoil (Z. major) flourishes in wet bushy 
 202 
 
 places, osier holts and hedges; very dif- 
 ferent from the foregoing species in general 
 habit, and now technically distinguished 
 by several clear and sufficient characters. 
 The stems are from 1 to 2 or 3 feet high, 
 upright, clothed more or less with long 
 loosely-spreading hairs. Leaves fringed 
 with similar hairs ; flowers from 6 to 12 
 in each head, of a duller orange than the 
 former. The weight of green food or hay is 
 triple that of the foregoing species, and its 
 nutritive powers are very little inferior, 
 being only as 9 to 8. These two species of 
 bird's-foot trefoil may be compared to each 
 other with respect to habits in the same 
 manner as the white clover and perennial 
 red clover ; and were the latter unknown, 
 there appear to be no plants of the legu- 
 minous order, that, in point of habits, would 
 so well supply their place as the common 
 and greater bird's-foot trefoil. They are, 
 however, greatly inferior to the clovers. 
 The white clover is superior to the common 
 bird's-foot trefoil in the quantity of nu- 
 tritive matter it affords, in the proportion of 
 5 to 4. It is much less productive of her- 
 bage, and is much more difficult of culti- 
 vation, the seed being afforded in much 
 smaller quantities. The produce of the 
 greater bird's-foot trefoil is superior to that 
 of the perennial red clover on tenacious or 
 moist soils, and on drier and on richer soils 
 of the first quality ; but the produce is in- 
 ferior in the proportion of nutritive matter 
 it contains as 5 to 4. The nutritive matter 
 is extremely bitter to the taste. It does 
 not appear to be eaten by any cattle when 
 in a green state, but when made into hay, 
 sheep, oxen, and deer, all eat it without re- 
 luctance, and rather with desire. It does 
 not seem to perfect so much seed as the 
 former species, but this is abundantly re- 
 medied in its propagation by the creeping 
 or stoloniferous roots which it spreads out 
 in all directions. In moist clayey soils it 
 would doubtless be a most profitable sub- 
 stitute for red clover ; but the excess of 
 bitter extractive and saline matters it con- 
 tains seems to forbid its adoption without a 
 considerable admixture of other plants. It 
 flowers about the third week of June, and 
 the seed is ripe about the end of the fol- 
 lowing month. The following analysis will 
 show the comparative value of the two 
 species : — 
 
 Lotus corniculatus 
 L. major 
 
 Green Prod, 
 per Acre. 
 
 Dry Prod, 
 per Acre. 
 
 Nutriment 
 per Acre. 
 
 lbs. 
 10,209 6 0 
 21,780 0 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 3,190 G 0 
 8,142 8 0 
 
 lbs. 
 
 358 4 9 
 680 10 0 
 
 3. Spreading bird's-foot trefoil (Z. de- 
 cumbens) is, like the two preceding species, a 
 
BIRDLIME. 
 
 BIRD PEPPER. 
 
 perennial flowering in July. It is found in 
 fields and meadows. The flower-stalks are 
 four or five times the length of the leaves, 
 smooth, stout, and firm, each bearing an 
 umbel of from three to six bright yellow 
 flowers. 4. Slender bird's-foot trefoil (L. 
 angustissimus) is an annual flowering in May 
 and June, found in meadows towards the 
 sea on the south and western coasts of Eng- 
 land. It is smaller, in general, than any of 
 the foregoing species. A species of tri- 
 folium (T. ornithopodioides) also bears the 
 name of bird's-foot trefoil ; but Sir J. Smith 
 very justly observes {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 298.) it can scarcely, without violence, be 
 retained in the genus Trifolium ; yet no one 
 has thought fit to make it a distinct one, 
 however plausible might be the reasons for 
 such a measure. It is an annual plant, 
 flowering in June and July, found in barren, 
 gravelly, grassy pastures ; root fibrous, stems 
 several, spreading flat on the ground, flowers 
 two or three, long, pale, reddish. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. pp.298. 312.; Sinclair's 
 Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 BIRDLIME. This glutinous vegetable 
 product is procured either by boiling mistle- 
 toe berries in water until they break, pound- 
 ing them in a mortar, and washing away the 
 husky refuse with other portions of water ; 
 or, which is the chief mode in which it is 
 made (chiefly in Scotland) for the purposes 
 of bird- catching, &c. from the middle bark 
 of the holly. The bark is stripped in J une 
 or July, and boiled for six or eight hours in 
 Avater, until it becomes tender ; the water 
 is then separated from it, and it is left to 
 ferment for two or three weeks, until it be- 
 comes a mucilage, which is pounded in a 
 mortar into a mass, and then thoroughly 
 rubbed by the hands in running water till 
 all the branny matters and other impurities 
 are washed away ; the birdlime is then suf- 
 fered to remain fermenting by itself in an 
 earthen vessel for some weeks. (The bird- 
 catchers, when they make their own, place 
 the vessel in a dunghill.) The bark of 
 the wayfaring tree is sometimes employed. 
 (Gray's Supplement, p. 226. ; Nich.Journ. 
 b. xiii. p. 145. ; Thomson, vol. iv. p. 119.) 
 
 BIRD'S NEST LISTERA. SeeTwAY- 
 Blade. 
 
 BIRD'S-NEST, YELLOW. (Mono- 
 tropa hypopitys.} A weed occasionally met 
 with in poor and gravelly soils. It is also 
 found sometimes about the roots of beeches 
 and firs, in woods, frequent in all the mid- 
 land counties. Root fibrous, much branched, 
 and somewhat creeping, growing among 
 dead leaves, or in half decayed vegetable 
 mould. Stem solitary, 5 or 6 inches high, 
 flowers in a drooping cluster. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 249.) 
 203 
 
 BIRD PEPPER. A species of small 
 capsicum, which affords the best Cayenne 
 pepper. (See Capsicum.) 
 
 BIRD'S-TONGUE. See Ragwort. 
 
 BIRTH- WORT. (Aristolochia clematitis.) 
 A perennial plant growing two feet high, 
 with pale yellow flowers, blooming from 
 July to August. Propagate by parting its 
 roots in autumn. The long Birth-wort 
 (Aristolochia longd) blooms from June till 
 October. It is a perennial, and a native of the 
 south of France. Its flower is reddish-brown 
 at the top, and bluish-violet below. Pro- 
 pagate as above. The bitter acrid roots of 
 this genus have, from remote antiquity, been 
 celebrated for their stimulating effects on 
 the human constitution ; and the present 
 species, though dangerously emetic, seems to 
 have been greatly in use in this country. 
 It is found occasionally wild in woods and 
 thickets, and it grows in our gardens when 
 cultivated : it also grows wild in Italy and 
 France. An opinion prevails, that if abun- 
 dant in vineyards, it spoils the wines. The 
 flowers of this birth-wort are long, hollow, 
 and inflated at the base. The root is round 
 and large, and is the medicinal part. There 
 are three sorts of birth- wort — the long, the 
 climbing, and the round. The last is the best. 
 
 BISCUIT. (Lat. bis, twice; Fr. cuit, 
 baked ; Ital. biscoto.) A kind of hard dry 
 bread cake. Biscuits are more easily kept 
 than other kinds of bread, and as they con- 
 tain no ferment, they are better fitted than 
 loaf bread for persons of weak stomachs, and 
 for the pap of infants, who are under the 
 misfortune of being brought up by hand. 
 
 The best biscuits, and the most whole- 
 some, are those prepared for the use of the 
 navy They are of two kinds, captains' and 
 seamen's biscuits. The latter are composed 
 of wheaten flour from which the bran only 
 has been taken ; consequently, they are 
 more nutritive than the finer sort. In the 
 government bake-houses at Weevil and 
 Deptford, the biscuits are preferable to 
 those baked by ordinary bakers, owing to 
 the extent of the operations, and the purity 
 of the wheat-meal : 102 lbs. of perfectly 
 dry biscuits are procured from 112 lbs. of 
 meal. 
 
 BISHOPING. A cant term made use of 
 among horse-jockeys, implying the practices 
 employed to conceal the age of an old horse, 
 or the ill properties of a bad one. (See Age 
 or Horses.) 
 
 BISHOPS WEED. (Ammimajus.) The 
 common bishop's weed grows by hedge sides, 
 and flowers in June and July, ripening its 
 seeds in August. It somewhat resembles 
 parsley when in flower. It grows about 
 two feet high, the stalk being firm, round, 
 and striated. The flowers are white and 
 
BISON. 
 
 BITTERN. 
 
 small, and stand in large tufts at the top 
 of the stalks. Each flower is succeeded by- 
 two seeds, which are warm and aromatic, 
 therefore easily discovered by their taste. 
 
 BISON. The buffalo or bonasus of 
 America. 
 
 BISSLINGS. A provincial word applied 
 like biestings, to the first milk of the newly- 
 calved cow. (See Beestings.) 
 
 BISTORT, GREAT, or SNAKEWEED. 
 (Polygonum JBistorta.) Bistort loves shady 
 and moist places, but grows freely in our 
 fertile meadows and pastures, flowering in 
 May and June. It grows a foot and a half 
 or two feet high. Its leaves are broad and 
 handsome, and the flowers grow on the top of 
 the stalks of a bright red colour. A number 
 of large and beautiful long broad leaves 
 spring from the root, of a fine green, stand- 
 ing upon round, erect stems. The spike or 
 ear of the flowers is long and thick. The 
 root is creeping, thick, and contorted, rather 
 blackish outside, but red within. The root 
 is medicinal, being a good and powerful as- 
 tringent. Held in the mouth for some 
 minutes repeatedly, it strengthens the gums 
 and fastens the teeth. It is useful in 
 diarrhoea. 
 
 The Alpine Bistort (P. mviparum) is 
 another species, having the same astringent 
 properties in the root. It is found in pas- 
 tures, or moist fissures of rock in alpine 
 situations. Like the last in habit, but much 
 smaller, and essentially distinct. The stem 
 is from 3 to 6 inches high. Flowers stalked, 
 pale red. (Smith's Eng. Flor. ii. 237.) 
 
 BITCH. See Dog. 
 
 BITE. (Sax. bitan, Sued, bita.) In far- 
 riery, a kind of wound mostly inflicted by 
 one animal biting another. The separation 
 of the fleshy parts thus produced is, in 
 general, to be considered and managed as a 
 lacerated wound ; since the teeth, though 
 more or less capable of incision, are not 
 adapted to produce such a wound as can 
 readily be united by what is termed the first 
 intention. The proper treatment consists 
 in approximating the sides of the wound, 
 and confining them moderately with ad- 
 hesive plaster, or by a bandage, or by both, 
 but not by ligature until the sore begins to 
 discharge ; after which it should be dressed 
 daily with any simple ointment spread on 
 tow. 
 
 Where the bite is of the venomous kind, 
 as from the viper, the wound must be well 
 washed to remove the poison, and then 
 treated as above ; when it has been inflicted 
 by a hydrophobic animal, a mad dog, for ex- 
 ample, the only safe mode is immediately 
 to extirpate all the parts that may have 
 come in contact with the poison. (See 
 Hydrophobia.) 
 204 
 
 BITER, a provincial term applied to the 
 black-cap bird. (See Black-cap.) 
 
 BITTERN. (Lat. Ardea stellaris ; Fr. 
 butour ; Ital. bittore, sometimes written 
 bittour.) Of this genus of birds, Yarrell 
 describes three kinds, the little bittern, the 
 common bittern, and the American bittern. 
 The little bittern is a summer visiter to this 
 country. It inhabits marshes by the sides of 
 rivers, plantations of osiers, and other moist 
 situations, in which reeds and aquatic her- 
 bage grow luxuriantly. It feeds upon the fry 
 of fish, frogs, and other small reptiles, mol- 
 lusca, and insects. The nest is formed of flag 
 leaves and bits of grass, attached to upright 
 reeds ; eggs four or five, one inch in length, 
 by one inch and half a line in breadth, of a 
 uniform dull white ; whole length of bird 
 about thirteen inches. Colour of adult 
 bird, — beak, lore, and irides yellow ; top of 
 head, occiput, shoulders, wing primaries, and 
 tail feathers of a shining bluish black ; wing- 
 coverts, breast, belly, thighs, and side of neck, 
 buff- coloured ; legs, toes and claws greenish 
 yellow. 
 
 The common bittern was formerly very 
 frequently met with in this country, but 
 since extensive marshes and waste lands 
 have been brought into cultivation, and its 
 haunts disturbed, this bird now rarely breeds 
 in the British islands. The bittern was also 
 held in some estimation as an article of 
 food for the table : the flesh is said to re- 
 semble that of the leveret in colour and 
 taste, with some of the flavour of wildfowl. 
 The nest is composed of sticks, reeds, &c. 
 placed on the ground near the water's edge, 
 among the thickest herbage ; eggs 4 or 5, of 
 an uniform pale brown, same shape at both 
 ends ; 2 inches 2 lines in length by 1 inck 
 6 lines in breadth. In choice of food not 
 particular, feeding on small mammalia, birds, 
 fishes, warty lizards, and frogs, &c, which 
 are usually swallowed whole. Colour, — 
 beak greenish-yellow ; lore green ; irides 
 yellow ; top of head black, tinged with bronze 
 green ; all upper surface of body pale brown- 
 ish buff, irregularly marked with black and 
 dark reddish brown ; cheeks, side of neck, 
 and under surface of body, buff ; legs and 
 feet grass-green ; claws pale horn colour. 
 Whole length of an adult bird from 28 to 30 
 inches. 
 
 The American bittern is not often met 
 with in this country. Nest in swamps among 
 long grass ; Cggs four, cinereous green, two 
 inches in length by one inch and a half, of a 
 broadly oval shape, pointed at the smaller 
 end. Food, fish, frogs, &c. ; beak brownish 
 yellow ; lore green ; irides yellow ; crown 
 of head brown tinged with red; chin and 
 front of neck mixture of white, buff, and 
 dark brown in streaks ; breast and belly 
 
BITTER PRINCIPLE. 
 
 BLACK-CAP. 
 
 buff; legs and toes greenish brown. (Yar- 
 relFs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. pp. 469—484.) 
 
 BITTER PRINCIPLE. This term has 
 been applied to certain products of the ac- 
 tion of nitric acid upon animal and vegetable 
 matters of an intensely bitter taste. (Brandos 
 Diet of Science.) The most important of 
 the plants cultivated with us for their bitter 
 principle are the hop, the common broom, 
 mugwort, ground ivy, marsh trefoil or buck- 
 bean, and the gentian family of plants. 
 Quassia, the wood of a tree, is also a very 
 intense bitter, and is used in medicine, and 
 clandestinely in the brewing of beer. The 
 chief combinations of the bitter principle 
 used in medicine are narcotic, aromatic, as- 
 tringent, acid, and purgative bitters. {Lowe's 
 El.ofAg. pp.371— 373.) 
 
 BITTERS. A spirituous liquor in which 
 bitter herbs or roots are steeped. An ex- 
 cessive habit of taking bitters may finally 
 prove detrimental to the stomach, by over- 
 excitement, or by inducing a kind of artificial 
 demand for food in greater quantity than is 
 salutary to the general health. 
 
 BITTER-SWEET, or WOODY 
 NIGHTSHADE. (Solanum dulcamara.) 
 This wild plant loves moist places, therefore 
 grows most freely in hedges and thickets, 
 near ditches, rivers, and damp situations. It 
 flowers in June and July, and ripens its . 
 berries in August, which are of a red colour, 
 juicy, bitter, and poisonous. Its flowers are 
 an elegant purple, with yellow threads in 
 their middle, and the berries are oval or ob- 
 long in shape. The stalks are shrubby, and 
 run, when supported, to ten feet in length ; 
 of a bluish colour, and when bruised or 
 broken have an odour not very fragrant or 
 desirable, savouring of rotten eggs. A de- 
 coction of its wood, and the young shoots 
 sliced, is a valuable medicine, but not to 
 be trifled with. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 317.) 
 
 BITTERWORT. The old English name 
 for the yellow gentian. See Gentian. 
 BIXA. See Annotta. 
 BLACK. (Sax.) A common colour in 
 horses. Horses of this colour are most es- 
 teemed when they are of a shining jet black, 
 and well marked, without having white on 
 their legs. The English black horses have 
 generally more white about them than the 
 black horses of other countries. Those that 
 partake most of the brown are said to be 
 the strongest in constitution ; for the English 
 black cart horses are found., not to be so 
 hardy as the bays or chestnuts. 
 BLACKBERRY. See Bramble. 
 BLACK BINDWEED. See Bindweed. 
 BLACKBIRD. This is a species of bird 
 so generally known, that but little need be 
 "said of its habits or its haunts. Numbers 
 are bred in this country every season, and 
 205 
 
 those thus reared, it is believed, do not mi- 
 grate. Its food varies considerably with the 
 season. In spring and early summer, larva) 
 of insects, worms, and snails ; as the season 
 advances, fruit of various sorts. When the 
 enormous number of insects and their larvae, 
 with the abundance of snails and slugs, all 
 injurious to vegetation, be duly considered, 
 it may fairly be doubted whether the value 
 of the fruit is not counterbalanced by the ser- 
 vices performed. Nest, of coarse roots and 
 strong bents of grass, plastered with dirt, 
 and lined with finer grass. Eggs, four or 
 five, light, speckled with pale reddish brown, 
 occasionally uniform blue without any spots, 
 one inch two lines long, ten lines broad, 
 length of bird about ten inches : beak and 
 edges of eyelids in adult male, gamboge yel- 
 low ; whole plumage black, under surface, 
 of wings shining greyish black ; legs, toes, 
 and claws, brownish black. {YarrelFs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 202.) 
 
 BLACK CANKER. A disease in turnip 
 and other crops, produced by a species of 
 caterpillar. (See Bone Dust.) 
 
 BLACK-CAP. {Sylvia Atricapilla.) This 
 bird is a true sylvan warbler, visiting this 
 country from the south and east every spring, 
 arriving about the middle of April, some- 
 times rather earlier, depending on the state 
 of the season, but never, according to Mr. 
 Selby, till the larch trees are visibly green ; 
 and it leaves us again, with an occasional 
 exception, in September. Like the night- 
 ingale, the males of this species, which are 
 readily distinguishable by their jet black 
 head, arrive some days before the females, 
 and their song soon betrays their retreat. 
 They are inferior only to the nightingale in 
 the quality of their song. The nest is usually 
 fixed on a bush two or three feet from the 
 ground, constructed of bents and dried her- 
 bage lined with fibrous roots mixed with 
 hair. Eggs, generally five, nine lines in 
 length by seven lines in breadth, of a pale 
 greenish white, matted with light brown 
 and ash colour, a few spots and streaks of 
 dark brown. Food, berries, insects, and 
 fruit, particularly raspberries and red cur- 
 rants. In adult male, beak is a dark horn 
 colour ; irides dark brown ; all upper part 
 of head above the eyes jet black ; nape of 
 neck, chin, throat, and breast, ash grey ; 
 back, wings, and tail, ash brown ; belly and 
 under wing-coverts white ; legs and toes 
 lead colour ; claws brown ; length five 
 inches and three quarters. The female is 
 larger than the male, measuring six inches 
 and one quarter ; top of the head chestnut ; 
 other parts of plumage more tinged with 
 brown than that of male. {YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 280.) The term " black-cap." 
 is generally applied and understood to sig- 
 
BLACK COCK. 
 
 BLACK REDSTART. 
 
 nify this warbler ; but it is also occasionally 
 given to the great titmouse (Parus fringil- 
 lago) ; the marsh titmouse (Parus palustris) ; 
 the black-headed bunting (Embcriza Schce- 
 niculus) ; the stone chat (Rubetra Rubecold) ; 
 and even to the black-headed gull. (Branded 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 BLACK CATTLE. See Cattle. 
 
 BLACK COCK. (Tetrao Tetrix.) The 
 name of a native species of grouse, which 
 inhabits in small numbers a few particularly 
 wild localities in some of the southern coun- 
 ties of England, but is much more nume- 
 rous in the north ; and from Northumberland, 
 throughout the greater part of Scotland, is 
 found in considerable quantities, where well 
 wooded and mountainous districts afford 
 shelter and winter food. Nest on the ground, 
 under shelter of some low thick bush ; eggs 
 six to eight, yellowish-white, spotted with 
 orange brown, two inches in length by one 
 inch five lines in breadth. Food ; in summer, 
 seeds, the tender shoots of heath, leaves, and 
 some insects. In autumn, berries of various 
 sorts, and the loose grain to be found in 
 corn fields and stubbles. Adult male, co- 
 lour, beak black ; irides, dark brown ; semi- 
 lunar patch of naked skin over the eye, 
 bright scarlet ; head, neck, back, breast-belt, 
 rump, tail, and wing coverts, black ; vent, 
 thighs, and legs, mixed black and white ; 
 toes and claws blackish brown. Whole 
 length, 22 inches. Female, usually called 
 the grey hen, has the beak brown, irides 
 hazel, general colour of the plumage pale 
 chestnut brown, barred and freckled with 
 black. Length, 17 to 18 inches. Several 
 instances have occurred of hybrids between 
 the pheasant and black grouse. (YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 304.) 
 
 BLACK COUCH GRASS. A provin- 
 cial name for the marsh bent grass, or Agros- 
 tis alba. (See Agrostis.) 
 
 BLACK DOLPHIN. A term applied 
 to a small insect which is frequently very 
 destructive to bean, turnip, and some other 
 green crops. 
 
 BLACK FLY. An insect of the beetle 
 tribe, very injurious to turnips in their early 
 stage. (See Fly.) For angling, the early 
 small black fly and black gnat (Culex rep- 
 tans) are artificially imitated for use in the 
 month of March. 
 
 BLACK-HEADED BUNTING, or 
 REED BUNTING. This bird is a well 
 known inhabitant of marshy places, the sides 
 of lakes and large ponds, banks of rivers or 
 Canals, rush-grown water, meadows, and 
 beds of osiers, and though local from the 
 partiality the bird exhibits to live in the 
 vicinity of water, it is not a rare species in 
 situations which accord with its habits, and 
 it remains in this country throughout the 
 206 
 
 year. The contrast afforded byvthe black 
 head of this bird as opposed to the white 
 collar on the neck, and the varied colours 
 of the back, give it an agreeable and inviting 
 appearance ; and it is accordingly a favour- 
 ite with many. Nest generally on the 
 ground among coarse long grass or rushes, 
 composed of moss with coarse grass, lined 
 with finer grass and hairs. Eggs four or 
 five, pale purple brown, streaked with darker 
 brown ; length nine lines and a half by seven 
 lines in breadth. Food ; grain, seeds, insects, 
 and their larvae. Male bird, beak dusky 
 brown ; irides, hazel ; head, cheeks, and ear 
 coverts, velvet black, bounded by a collar 
 of white, which descends to the breast ; chin, 
 and throat, black ; sides of the chest before 
 each wing, breast, belly, and under tail co- 
 verts, white ; legs, toes, and claws, brown ; 
 whole length six inches. The female is ra- 
 ther smaller thant he male ; head and ear- 
 coverts reddish brown, varied with a darker 
 shade; under surface of the body more 
 clouded with brown than in the males ; legs 
 and toes pale brown. ( YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. i. p. 438.) 
 
 BLACK LEGS. A provincial name given 
 in some places to a disease frequent among 
 calves and sheep. In Staffordshire it is 
 called the wood evil. It is a bloody gela- 
 tinous humour, settling in their legs, and 
 often in the neck between the skin and the 
 flesh, making them carry their necks awry. 
 
 BLACK MUZZLE. See Sheep, Dis- 
 eases or. 
 
 BLACK-NEBBED CROW. A provin- 
 cial term applied to the carrion crow. (See 
 Crow.) 
 
 BLACK OATS. A species of oats much 
 cultivated in some parts of England. The 
 oats of this habit have the corolla very dark, 
 are awned, and the seeds are small. They 
 are rather an inferior class of oats, but are 
 hardy and ripen early, and it is this property 
 which suits them for cultivation in cold and 
 elevated climates. {Prof. Low. JEle. Ag. 
 p. 256.) (See Oats.) 
 
 BLACK REDSTART. This bird is at 
 once distinguished from the well known and 
 common redstart, by being sooty black on 
 the breast and belly, where the other is a 
 reddish brown. Its manners and habits are 
 somewhat similar to those of the redstart ; 
 but it prefers stony places, and is rarely seen 
 on the plains. Its food consists of worms, 
 insects in their various stages, the smaller 
 fruits and berries. It makes its nest in the 
 clefts of rocks, and when it frequents towns 
 or villages, it chooses holes in walls, roofs of 
 houses, and sometimes the elevated parts of 
 churches. Nest formed of grass, lined with 
 hair ; eggs five or six, ten lines in length by * 
 seven in breadth ; white, smooth, and shin- 
 
BLACK TAIL. 
 
 BLADDER-SENNA. 
 
 ing. Adult-male beak black ; irides blackish 
 brown ; top of head, neck, and back dark 
 bluish grey ; wing-coverts greyish black ; 
 rump and tail-coverts chestnut ; cheeks, 
 throat, breast, and sides, dark sooty grey, 
 becoming slate grey on the belly ; legs, toes, 
 and claws black. Whole length of bird five 
 inches and three quarters. ( YarrelFs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 241.) 
 
 BLACK TAIL. {Perca cornua, Linn.) 
 A kind of perch, by some called ruffs, or 
 popes. It is known as the sub-olivaceous 
 perch, speckled with black, with fifteen 
 spines in the dorsal fin. It is about the size 
 of a minnow, and found in shoals in the 
 Thames and other tributary rivers. Bait, 
 red worms, or ground bait. Buffs form a 
 good table treat, broiled in buttered paper. 
 (Blaine's Ency. Bur. Sports, p. 1071.) 
 
 BLACK THORN, or SLOE. (Prunus 
 spinosa.) This rigid bushy shrub is well 
 known, growing commonly in hedges and 
 thickets. It is frequently used in making 
 fences, especially in exposed situations. But 
 it is not reckoned so good for this purpose 
 as the white thorn, because it is apt to run 
 more into the ground, and is not so certain 
 of growing ; however, when cut, the bushes 
 are much the best, and most lasting of any 
 for dead hedges, or to mend gaps : cattle are 
 not so apt to crop fences of this kind as those 
 of the white thorn. 
 
 The fruit is well known in the country, 
 and from its acid, astringent, and very aus- 
 tere flavour, it is not eatable except when 
 baked, or boiled with a large proportion of 
 sugar, and it is then not good. The juice, 
 when inspissated over a slow fire, is a sub- 
 stitute for the Egyptian acacia, or Indian 
 catechu. In some form or other this juice 
 is used in adulterating port wine. The 
 leaves also are reckoned among the adul- 
 terated substitutes for tea in England. A 
 water distilled from the blossoms of the sloe 
 is said to be used medicinally in Switzerland 
 and Germany. 
 
 The juice of sloes checks purgings when 
 no inflammation is present. (SmitWs Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 357.) 
 
 BLACK TWITCH. (Agrostis alba.) A 
 noxious weed of the sub-aquatic marsh-bent 
 genus. It chokes up drains and underwood, 
 and flourishes even in extremely dry situa- 
 tions, proving very injurious to many crops. 
 It is also known under the name of black 
 couch and black wrack. (See Marsh Bent 
 Grass.) 
 
 BLACK WASH. A lotion composed of 
 calomel and lime water. 
 
 BLACK WATER. See Sheep, Dis- 
 eases OF. 
 
 BLADDER. (Sax. blabbpe, Dutch, 
 blader.) The viscus or bag destined for 
 207 
 
 the temporary reception of the urine in 
 animals. 
 
 BLADDER-FERN. (Cystea.) These 
 ferns, of which Smith enumerates four spe- 
 cies, are all perennials, and are found for 
 the most part abundantly on wet, shady 
 rocks, on the walls of old buildings, and in 
 mountainous woods, or other elevated posi- 
 tions. • They are too well known to need 
 description ; and as they will be treated of 
 more fully under the head Ferns, I shall 
 content myself with setting out the known 
 species of bladder ferns. They are, 1 . brittle 
 bladder fern {Cystea fragilis) ; 2. toothed 
 bladder fern (C. dentata) ; 3. deep cut moun- 
 tain bladder fern (C. angustata) ; 4. lacin- 
 iated bladder fern (C. regia). (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. pp. 297 — 304.) 
 
 BLADDER-NUT. (Staphylea pin- 
 nata.) The common bladder nut is a smooth, 
 branching, hardy, indigenous shrub, which 
 grows from fifteen to twenty feet high, with 
 foliage resembling some kind of ash, and 
 throwing up many suckers. It blows pale 
 greenish yellow, or sometimes white flower ; 
 bell-shaped, pendulous ; inodorous from 
 May to July ; seeds pale brown, appearing 
 as if varnished. It thrives in any situation 
 and soil, and is propagated by suckers. 
 Haller says, children eat the kernels ; but, 
 according to Gerarde, their first sweetness 
 is succeeded by a nauseous taste, and an 
 emetic effect. Singularity rather than beauty 
 procures this plant a place in gardens. 
 (Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 110.) 
 
 The three-leaved bladder nut (Staphylea 
 trifolid) is equally hardy, but does not grow 
 so high ; it blows a white flower in May and 
 June. It is a native of Virginia. Propa- 
 gate by suckers. 
 
 BLADDER-SENNA. (Colutea arbo- 
 rescens.) A shrub from the south of France, 
 Italy, and the Levant. It grows from ten 
 to fifteen feet high, blowing its yellow flowers 
 through the whole summer. The flowers 
 and fruit appear at the same time, which 
 has a curious effect. It loves a chalky soil. 
 It appears from Turner's Herbal, that this 
 plant was common in his time (1568). In 
 the neighbourhood of Athens it was used in 
 ancient times to fatten sheep. 
 
 Oriental bladder-senna, or Pocock's blad- 
 der-senna (Colutea cruentd), blows dark red 
 flowers marked with yellow in June and 
 July, and grows six or seven feet high. 
 
 The scarlet-flowered bladder-senna (Co- 
 lutea frutescens) is a hardy African shrub, 
 growing four feet high, and blooms in July. 
 The three varieties love chalk, and are pro- 
 pagated by layers ; but those raised from 
 suckers are never so fine as those produced 
 from seed. If raised from seed, sow it in a 
 rich soil in a shady place, and plant them out 
 
BLADDERWORT. 
 
 BLEEDING. 
 
 the following spring. Parkinson tells us, 
 that the leaves of bladder senna are a vio- 
 lent purgative ; but later writers affirm, that 
 they do not answer the purposes of senna. 
 The seeds in the quantity of a drachm or 
 two excite vomiting. (Phillips's Sylv. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 138.) 
 
 BLADDERWORT, or HOODED 
 MILFOIL. (Utricularia.) Aquatic pe- 
 rennial herbs, floating by means of bladders 
 attached to thin stems or leaves, which 
 latter are finely divided. The yellow flowers 
 are raised on a central stalk above the water. 
 They are found wild in ditches, deep stand- 
 ing pools, and spongy bogs, flowering in 
 June and July. There are three species, the 
 greater bladderwort, intermediate bladder- 
 wort, and the lesser bladderwort. (Smith's 
 Engl Flor. vol. i. p. 29.) 
 
 BLADE. (Sax. blaeb, bleb ; Fr. bled; 
 Low Lat. bladus.) The .spire of grass be- 
 fore it grows to seed ; the green shoots of 
 corn which rise from the seed. (Todd.) 
 
 BLADE-BONE. In farriery, the popu- 
 lar name for the shoulder-blade (scapula) of 
 an animal. 
 
 BLAIN. (Sax. blesene; Dutch, bleyne, 
 from the Iceland, blina, a pustule.) In 
 farriery, inflammation of the tongue, a dis- 
 ease in cattle, which frequently affects them 
 in the spring of the year or beginning of 
 summer. The disease (says Clater) is 
 neither so frequent nor so fatal in the horse 
 as it is in cattle ; but it does sometimes 
 occur, and the nature of it is frequently 
 misunderstood. The horse will refuse his 
 food, hang his head, and a considerable 
 quantity of ropy fluid will be discharged 
 from the mouth. On examining the mouth, 
 the tongue will be found considerably en- 
 larged, and, running along the side of it, 
 there will be a reddish or darkish purple 
 bladder, and which sometimes protudes 
 between the teeth. The neighbouring sali- 
 vary glands are enlarged, and the discharge 
 of saliva is very great, while the soreness of 
 the swelled and blistered part causes the 
 horse obstinately to resist every motion of 
 the jaws. The cure is very simple : the 
 bladder must be deeply lanced from end to 
 end : there will not be any great flow of 
 blood. This will relieve or cure the horse 
 in twenty-four hours. If he can be spared 
 from his work, a dose of physic will remove 
 the stomach affection and any slight degree 
 of fever that might have existed. If the 
 disease is neglected, the swelling will at 
 length burst, and corroding ulcers will eat 
 deeply into the tongue, and prove very 
 difficult to heal. (Clater s Farriery, p. 64.) 
 
 BL A K E . (Teut. blceck, pale.) A pro- 
 vincial term sometimes applied to the colour 
 which has a yellow similar to bee's wax. 
 208 
 
 BLANKET PEAR. A kind of pear 
 
 sometimes written blanquet. (See Pear.) 
 
 BLAST. A vegetable disease, the same 
 as blight. In farriery, it is also a vulgar 
 name for any circumscribed swelling or in- 
 flammation in the body of an animal. (See 
 Mildew.) 
 
 BLASTING OF STONES. The oper- 
 ation of tearing asunder large stones or 
 rocks, which are in the way of the plough, 
 or other instruments employed in breaking 
 up ground, by means of gunpowder. Logs 
 of wood, the roots of trees, and other ob- 
 structions, are removed by the same agent. 
 In stone quarries, blasting is a necessary 
 business. Perhaps one of the greatest and 
 most successful blasts ever effected was at 
 Craigleith quarry, Scotland, on the 18th of 
 October, 1834, when, by 500 lbs. of Sir 
 Henry Bridge's double-strong blasting pow- 
 der, a mass of upwards of 20,000 tons of 
 solid rock was displaced. (Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. v. p. 463.) 
 
 BLAY. (Oyprinus alburnus.) The 
 vulgar name for the small white river fish 
 the bleak, properly the silvery carp ; called 
 also the blea, or bley, and whiting. This 
 fish (says Mr. Daniel) is ever in motion, 
 and is by some termed the fresh-water sprat ; 
 it is frequently substituted for the anchovy. 
 The bleak is seldom more than six inches 
 long, head small, skull transparent, gills 
 silvery, body slender, greatly compressed 
 sideways, back green, sides and belly silvery ; 
 found in almost every river in the kingdom. 
 They spawn early in the spring. Angling 
 for bleak is practised both by float-fishing 
 and whipping. Black gnat and natural 
 house-fly are good baits. (Blame's Encyc. 
 Rur. Sports, p. 1044.) 
 
 BLAZE. A white mark or star in the 
 face of a horse. 
 
 BLEA. A provincial word applied to a 
 dusky blue or lead colour. 
 
 BLEA-BERRY. One of the names of 
 the bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus). See 
 Whortleberry. 
 
 BLEA FISH and BLEAK. The fresh- 
 water sprat, or silvery carp. (See Blay.) 
 
 BLEB, or BLOB. A provincial term 
 for a blister or bubble. 
 
 BLEE. (Sax. bleo.) A country term 
 for colour or complexion. 
 
 BLEEDING. (Sax. bkban.) An opera- 
 tion frequently necessary in the disorders 
 of different kinds of cattle, particularly 
 horses. Such horses as stand much in the 
 stable, and are full-fed, require bleeding 
 more than those which arc in constant ex- 
 ercise ; but especially when their eyes look 
 heavy and dull, or red and inflamed ; and 
 when they look yellow, and the horse is in- 
 flamed in his lips and the inside of his 
 
BLEMISH. 
 
 BLISTERING. 
 
 mouth ; or when he seems hotter than usual, 
 and mangles his hay. These indications 
 not only show that bleeding is required, 
 but likewise the lowering of the diet. The 
 spring is the common season for bleeding 
 horses ; but periodical bleeding, without its 
 necessity being indicated, should never be 
 practised. In summer, it is often necessary 
 to prevent fevers, always choosing the cool 
 of the morning for the operation, and keep- 
 ing them cool the remaining part of the 
 day. Some farriers bleed horses three or 
 four times a year, or even oftener, by way 
 of prevention, taking only a very small 
 quantity at a time, as a pint or a pint and 
 a half. There is, however, this inconveni- 
 ence from frequent bleeding, that it grows 
 into a habit, which, in some cases, cannot 
 be easily broken off without hazard; and, 
 besides, horses become weak from frequent 
 bleeding. 
 
 BLEMISH. In farriery, any kind of 
 imperfection in a horse, or other animal. 
 
 In horses, they consist of broken knees, 
 loss of hair in the cutting places, mallenders 
 and sallenders, cracked heels, false quarters, 
 splents, or excrescences which do not occa- 
 sion lameness ; and wind-galls and bog-spa- 
 vins, where they prevail to any great degree. 
 
 In planting, the knots on the outside of 
 trees, and shakes internally, are termed 
 blemishes. 
 
 BLEEDINGS. A provincial word ap- 
 plied to mixed crops, such as peas and beans 
 when grown together. 
 
 BLEND-WATER. In farriery, the name 
 of a distemper incident to neat or black 
 cattle, in which the liver is affected. 
 
 BLIGHT. The general name for various 
 injuries received by, and diseases incident 
 to, corn, fruit-trees, plants, &c. See Mil- 
 dew, Rust, and Smut. 
 
 BLIND, MOON-. In farriery, a disease 
 in the eyes of horses, which is commonly 
 the forerunner of cataract, and generally 
 ends in blindness. 
 
 BLINDNESS. A deprivation or want 
 of sight, originating from various causes ; a 
 complaint more frequent in horses than in 
 neat-cattle or sheep. 
 
 Blindness in horses may be discerned by 
 the walk or step being uncertain and un- 
 equal, so that they dare not set down their 
 feet boldly ; but when they are mounted by 
 an expert horseman, the fear of the spurs 
 will frequently make them go resolutely 
 and freely, so that their blindness can 
 hardly be perceived. Another mark by 
 which horses that have lost their sight may 
 be known, is, that when they hear any body 
 enter the stable, they prick up their ears, 
 and move them backwards and forwards in 
 a pai'ticular manner. 
 209 
 
 Blindness in sheep. A complaint that 
 sometimes occurs in these animals, from 
 their being much exposed to either great 
 dampness or long continued snows. 
 
 BLIND NETTLE. A provincial term 
 for the wild hemp plant. 
 
 BLINDWORM. A term sometimes 
 applied to the slow- worm (Anguis fragilis). 
 See Slow Worm. 
 
 BLINKERS. Expansions of the sides 
 of the bridle of a horse, intended to prevent 
 him from seeing objects on either side, but 
 at the same time not to obstruct his vision 
 in front. 
 
 BLINKS, WATER, or WATER 
 CHICK WEED. (Montea fontana.) An 
 annual herb found in watery places by the 
 sides of little clean rills, especially on a 
 gravelly soil. Root fibrous; herb smooth, 
 rather succulent ; stem two or three inches 
 high, much branched ; flowers small white ; 
 seeds black. {Engl. Flora, vol. i. p. 186.) 
 
 BLISTERING. . (Dutch, bluyster.) In 
 farriery, the operation of stimulating the 
 surface of some part of the body of an ani- 
 mal, by means of acrid applications, so as to 
 raise small vesications upon it. It is fre- 
 quently employed for the purpose of remov- 
 ing local affections of different kinds, such 
 as hard indolent tumours. 
 
 BLISTER FLY. The Cantharis, or 
 Spanish fly. 
 
 BLISTER LIQUID is composed, of pow- 
 dered alkanet two ounces, and a gallon of 
 spirit of turpentine ; adding, on the fourth 
 day, a pound of powdered Spanish flies ; and 
 macerating the whole for a month, when 
 the clear fluid will form a strong liquid 
 blister. If so powerful an external stimulant 
 be not required, this liquid may be diluted 
 with an equal part of spermaceti oil. (Cla- 
 ters Farriery!) 
 
 BLISTER OINTMENT. One ounce 
 of powdered Spanish flies ; half an ounce of 
 powdered euphorbium ; four ounces of lard. 
 One ounce of this well rubbed in is suf- 
 ficient to blister a horse's leg. That com- 
 monly sold by farriers generally contains 
 oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), to make it 
 raise the blister without the trouble of rub- 
 bing in the ointment ; and, in consequence, 
 a blemish is produced. 
 
 BLITE. (Blitum.) See Goosefoot. 
 
 BLOOD. (Sax. blob ; old French, bloed.) 
 The fluid which circulates in the bodies of 
 all animals. Blood, when drawn from the 
 body, and allowed to rest, speedily separ- 
 ates into two portions, viz. the fluid, or 
 serum, and the solid clot, crassamentum, or 
 cruor. 
 
 These have been examined by M. Ber- 
 zelius, who found in 1000 parts of the serum 
 of the blood of the bullock — 
 p 
 
BLOOD-HOUND. 
 
 BLOODWORT. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - 905- 
 Albumen - - 79999 
 
 Lactate of soda, and extractive 
 
 matter - 6 ' 175 
 
 Muriate of soda and potash - 2-556 
 Soda and animal matter - 1'52 
 
 Loss - 
 
 1000 
 
 The clot, or cruor, was examined by the 
 same chemist : he found it to be composed of — 
 
 Colouring matter (hcematosine) - 64 
 
 Fibrin and albumen - - - 36 
 
 100 
 
 In the ashes of the colouring matter of 
 the blood has been found — 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 50* 
 
 Sub-phosphate of iron - - 7*5 
 
 Phosphate of lime and magnesia - 6* 
 
 Lime - - - -20- 
 
 Carbonic acid and loss - - 16-5 
 
 100 
 
 In quadrupeds, as well as in man, the blood 
 is of two kinds, namely arterial and venous ; 
 the former is lighter, warmer, of a richer 
 red colour than the latter, and affords the 
 nutriment of the body ; the latter pos- 
 sesses neither nutritious nor stimulant pro- 
 perties. In quadrupeds, in general, the 
 temperature of the blood is higher than in 
 man. In the sheep, it ranges from 102° to 
 103°; in man it is 98° in a state of health. 
 The equal distribution of the blood in the 
 animal system is as essential to the health of 
 quadrupeds as of man. When it is irre- 
 gularly circulated, and more sent to any 
 organ than it should share, that part be- 
 comes oppressed, diseased action is set up 
 in it ; and if the organ be a vital one, life is 
 endangered or destroyed. 
 
 Blood is an excellent manure for fruit 
 trees ; and, mixed with earth, forms a very 
 rich compost. {Ann. of Phil. vol. ii. p. 202.) 
 BLOOD-FLOWER. See ILemanthus. 
 BLOOD-HORSE. See Horse. 
 BLOOD- HOUND. A hound celebrated 
 for its exquisite scent and unwearied perse- 
 verance, qualities which were taken ad- 
 vantage of, by training it not only to the 
 pursuit of game, but to the chase of man. 
 The blood-hound of the olden breed was a 
 dog somewhat taller than our full-sized fox- 
 hound, and withal stronger in his build. His 
 colour was a reddish brown, here and there 
 shaded with darker tintings. His muzzle 
 and jaws wen: wide, his ears deep and pen- 
 dulous, and he altogether exhibited a ('nunc 
 in which great strength and some speed were 
 united This dog, without doubt, was ori- 
 210 
 
 ginally used in the pursuit of large animals, 
 as the bear, wild boar, and the stag at force ; 
 and as his scent is acute in the extreme, his 
 strength great, and his determination invin- 
 cible, so he must have been a valuable sport- 
 ing agent ; but when hunting began to as- 
 sume a different character, and the pursuit 
 was made after beasts of rapid flight, then 
 other varieties of hound were cultivated, 
 as the stag-hound, fox -hound, harrier, &c. 
 The blood-hound was held in high esteem 
 with our ancestors ; especially on the con- 
 fines of England and Scotland, where the 
 borderers were continually preying on the 
 herds and flocks of their neighbours. 
 (Blaine's Encyc. Rural Sports, p. 401.) 
 The use of the blood-hound, in this coun- 
 try, is now almost extinct ; he is sometimes 
 used to track sheep-stealers, but is else only 
 used as an object of curiosity or ornament. 
 The use which was made of him in the Ma- 
 roon war, in which the Cuban blood-hound 
 was employed, is a matter of history too 
 recent to demand particular notice. 
 BLOOD-ROOT. See Bloodwort. 
 BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a popular 
 term for that red appearance which the eye 
 exhibits when inflamed. The best treatment 
 is to bathe the eye with a lotion composed 
 of one drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of 
 zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water. 
 
 BLOOD -SPAVIN or BOG-SPAVIN. 
 In farriery, a swelling of the vein that runs 
 along the inside of the hock of the horse, 
 forming a little soft tumour in the hollow 
 part, often attended with weakness or lame- 
 ness of the hock. Clater (Farriery, p. 272.) 
 says, a blister is the proper application. 
 
 'BLOODWORT. (Sanguinaria Cana- 
 densis.') A hardy American perennial, 
 flowering in April. It loves a shady si- 
 tuation and bog soil ; and may be propa- 
 gated by parting the roots in spring or 
 autumn. The root of bloodwort throws 
 out a bright red juice, when pressed, which 
 the Indians paint themselves with. It 
 operates as an emetic and narcotic. 
 
 BLOODWORT. (Rnmex sanguineus.) 
 This is a beautiful dock, growing wild in 
 many parts of England, but introduced 
 lately into gardens, for its fine deep-red ap- 
 pearance. It grows from two to three feet 
 high, and the stalks are firm, stiff, reddish, 
 and branched. The leaves are long and 
 narrow, heart-shaped at the base, and taper 
 gradually towards their point. Sometimes 
 the leaves are a deep green, only stained, or 
 veined with red ; sometimes they are entirely 
 a deep blood colour, which gives them a 
 beautiful appearance. The flowers are in 
 terminal clusters, small, and numerous. 
 They blow in June and July, and the seed 
 ripens in August. The dried root, either 
 
BLOOM. 
 
 BLUE-TIT. 
 
 in powder or in decoction, is astringent; 
 and may be used in spitting of blood, and 
 violent purgings. 
 
 BLOOM or BLOSSOM. A general 
 name for the flowers of plants, but more 
 especially of fruit-trees. The office of the 
 blossom is partly to afford protection, and 
 partly to draw or supply nourishment to the 
 fertilising organs of the plant, for the per- 
 fecting of" the embryo, fruit, or seed. 
 
 BLOSSOM. A colour in horses, formed 
 by the intermixture of white hairs with sorrel 
 and bay ones. 
 
 BLOW-BALL. A local name for the 
 flower of the dandelion. 
 
 BLOW-FLY. The large flesh-fly (Musca 
 carnaria), which is artificially imitated for 
 angling. It is used in the month of July. 
 
 BLOW-MILK. The milk from which 
 the cream has been blown off. 
 
 BLOWN. In farriery, a diseased state 
 of the stomach and bowels of cattle, caused 
 by the sudden extrication of air in large 
 quantities from some of the grosser kinds of 
 green food. See Hoven. 
 
 BLOWS. A provincial term used to sig- 
 nify the blossoms of beans, &c. 
 
 BLUBBER. See Fish. 
 
 BLUE-BELLS. (Scilla nutans.) A com- 
 mon name given to a bulbous-rooted plant 
 of the hyacinth kind, frequently met with 
 in woods and other places. Its bulb is glo- 
 bular, white, and coated ; its leaves linear, 
 chanelled, shining, and drooping in their 
 upper half ; the flowers form a cluster on an 
 upright stalk, drooping in the upper half; 
 they are blue, pendulous, nearly an inch long, 
 and scented. The bulb is acrid, but loses its 
 acrimony in drying, in which state it answers 
 as a substitute for gum-arabic in the art of 
 dyeing, by being simply dried and powdered. 
 
 BLUE-BOTTLE. (Centaurea.) This 
 is a large herbaceous genus, which con- 
 tains several species known as weeds ; 
 that, however, which is peculiar to corn 
 fields is the corn blue-bottle (Centaurea 
 cyanns.) It grows amongst corn, and its 
 presence indicates careless farming. It is 
 an annual, ripening its seeds in autumn. 
 It is also known by the names of knap- 
 weed, matfellon, centaury, corn-flower, and 
 hurt-sickle. The expressed juice of its blue 
 flower, when mixed with cold alum-water, 
 may be used as a water colour for painting, 
 being a permanent colour. See Centaury. 
 
 This pretty wild flower has been intro- 
 duced into our gardens for its elegance. 
 The blue-bottle grows a foot high ; the stalk 
 is firm and white, and the leaves are narrow, 
 and of a whitish-green. The root is hard 
 and fibrous. A decoction of the flowers with 
 galls and copperas affords a good writing ink. 
 This plant is sometimes known among the 
 211 
 
 common people by the name of "wound herb." 
 Any reliance on the styptic properties of the 
 leaves might prove dangerous by losing time, 
 and a consequent waste of blood, before pro- 
 per assistance can be procured in extensive 
 wounds. Small wounds can unite without 
 its aid. An infusion of the flowers is slightly 
 diuretic. 
 
 BLUE-BOTTLE FLY. The common 
 fly with a large blue belly, suited for angling 
 in April and May, for trout, grayling, dace, 
 and chub. It is most frequently seen in 
 May, and will in warm evenings, and during 
 warm breezes on a cloudy day, answer as 
 bait for killing trout and grayling. Dace 
 and chub, but particularly dace, will take it 
 readily whenever offered, except in the mid- 
 dle of a very bright day. 
 
 BLUE BREAST. The English name 
 for the pretty bird, which, as Bechstein ob- 
 serves, may be considered as the link between 
 the redstart and common wagtail, having 
 strong points of resemblance to both. In 
 England it is very rarely seen. {Penny 
 Cyclo.) See Blue-throated Warbeer. ' 
 
 BLUE-CAP. See Beue-tit. 
 
 BLUE DUN. (Ephemera.) A fly for fish- 
 ing, generally used in the earliest part of the 
 angling season. It is the blue fox of Taylor 
 and the bloa Avatchel of Cotton. It comes 
 in early in March, and continues through 
 April, when it is succeeded by a race of 
 flies in which the blue dun tinge predomi- 
 nates in various proportions. In favourable 
 days, the blue dun will kill in all the fishing 
 hours, particularly in April, but best to- 
 wards mid-day. 
 
 BLUE MILK. Milk that has been 
 skimmed, or had the cream taken off. In 
 large dairies it is chiefly used for feeding hogs. 
 
 BLUE STONE. The common name for 
 blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. 
 
 BLUE- THROATED WARBLER. 
 (Phcenicura Suecica, Selby.) Very rarely 
 seen in England, although described by Yar- 
 rell among the British birds. Food, earth- 
 worms, insects, and berries. Nest on the 
 ground, composed of dead grass and a little 
 moss, lined with finer grass. Eggs from 4 to 
 6 in number, greenish blue, 8 lines long, and 
 5 j in breadth. The top of head, upper sur- 
 face of body and wings, clove brown ; chin, 
 throat, fore part of neck and upper part of 
 breast, ultra-marine blue, with a spot in the 
 centre sometimes pure white, but in very old 
 males red ; belly, dirty white ; legs, toes, and 
 claws, brown. Whole length of bird 6 inches. 
 
 BLUE-TIT. This, like the great tit, is 
 very generally distributed in this country ; 
 and although a very pretty bird both as to 
 colour and markings, as well as active and 
 lively, it is but little noticed, and not at all 
 appreciated, probably only because it is ex- 
 p 2 
 
BLYTHE, WALTER. 
 
 BOG-RUSH (BLACK). 
 
 eeedingly common. Frequents small woods, 
 orchards, and gardens ; and is said to do in- 
 jury to fruit trees when searching for food, 
 by destroying the buds as well as the insects. 
 Experienced observers, however, believe it 
 does more good than harm. Builds in a 
 hole of a wall or tree ; nest made of profu- 
 sion of moss, hair, and feathers. Eggs vari- 
 able ; from 8 to 10, however, is the more 
 common number ; white, spotted with pale 
 red, 7h lines in length, 6 in diameter ; goes 
 by the name of " billy biter" among the bird- 
 nesting boys of several counties. Male has 
 beak of a dusky horn colour, almost black ; 
 forehead bluish white ; crown of the head 
 azure blue; from nostril to eye, and ear- 
 coverts to nape of neck a stripe of Prussian 
 bine ; irides dark hazel ; above the eye and 
 under blue of crown of head is a white 
 band, which isolating the blue colour above 
 it has given rise to the term " blue-cap," 
 another name by which this bird is known. 
 Under surface of body sulphur yellow, with 
 a central longitudinal patch of dark blue ; 
 legs, toes, and claws, bluish black ; length, 4| 
 inches. ( YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 330.) 
 
 BLUNT-LEAVED SPHAGNUM. See 
 Sphagnum. 
 
 BLYTHE, WALTER ; was an officer in 
 the army of Oliver Cromwell. Dr. Beale 
 calls him " Honest Captain Blythe." He 
 was instrumental in introducing many im- 
 provements into Ireland and Scotland. He 
 wrote, 
 
 ]. The English Improver improved ; or the Survey of 
 Husbandry surveyed. 4to. 1649. 3d edit. 1653. Professor 
 Martvn terms it " an original and incomparable work for 
 the time." 2. Survey of Husbandry, discovering the best 
 Methods of improving all Sorts of Lands. 1649. folio. 
 G. W. Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard. p. 96. 
 
 BOAR. (Sax. ban; Dutch, Jeer.) The male 
 of the swine-tribe of animals. See Hog and 
 Swine. 
 
 In horsemanship, a horse is said to boar 
 when he shoots out his nose level with his 
 ears, and tosses his nose in the wind. 
 
 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. A so- 
 ciety established in London in 1794, under 
 the patronage of his Majesty Geo. III., " For 
 the Encouragement of Agriculture, and In- 
 ternal Improvement," consisting of a presi- 
 dent, and 30 ordinary members, with proper 
 officers for conducting the business of the 
 institution. The plan and design of this 
 highly useful establishment, though previ- 
 ously suggested by several writers on rural 
 improvements, was chiefly brought forward, 
 and carried into execution by the unwearied 
 efforts and persevering industry of Sir John 
 Sinclair, to whom the nation is certainly 
 under much obligation. It was discontinued 
 aboul the year 1812, in consequence of the 
 withdrawal by government of the annual 
 parliamentary grant of 3000J. for its support, 
 chiefly owing to the society's interference 
 212 
 
 with political themes, foreign to the im- 
 provement of agriculture. A full account 
 of the nature, origin, and plan, with the 
 charter of incorporation of this excellent in- 
 stitution, may be seen in the first volume of 
 the " Communications " published by the 
 Board, which extended to 7 vols. ; and these 
 contain some excellent papers on various 
 important matters connected with husbandry 
 and agriculture in general. 
 
 BOAR-THISTLE. A provincial term 
 applied to the spear-thistle. 
 
 BOG, and BOG GRASSES. See Peat 
 
 SoiES. 
 
 BOG- ASPHODEL, LANCASHIRE. 
 
 (Narthecium ossifragum.) Found in turfy 
 black bogs. Root tuberous, herb smooth, 
 rather fine and rigid stem, roundish, leafy, 6 
 or 8 inches high. The flowers in our British 
 species are bright yellow, spreading widely 
 with scarlet anthers. Seeds brown. Much 
 has formerly been written about the power 
 of this herb to soften the bones of cattle 
 feeding upon it, and it has been supposed 
 to cause the rot in sheep. Linnaeus, in his 
 Fl. Lapp., combats both these opinions. 
 (Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 151.) 
 
 BOG-BEAN. See Buck-bean. 
 
 BOG-ORCHIS. (Malaxis.) There are 
 two species of bog-orchis, both perennial. 
 
 1. The least bog-orchis. (M. paludosa.) 
 
 2. The two-leaved bog-orchis. (M. Lceselii.) 
 The first is found in spongy, turfy bogs. 
 Root bulbous, increasing by offsets, often 
 stalked, and throwing out radicals from the 
 base. Herb, the smallest of our native 
 Orchidece, and probably of the whole tribe. 
 Leaves, three or four, ovate, various in 
 lengthy often somewhat fringed. Stalk, from 
 2 to 4 inches high, angular, smooth, bearing 
 a dense cluster of very small pale green re- 
 versed flowers. The second species is found 
 in sandy bogs, among rushes, and is 3 or 4 
 times as large as the preceding, especially 
 the leaves, which are almost universally 
 two, bright green, with one central rib and 
 many smaller ones. Bulb, ovate greenish. 
 Stalk from between the leaves, and about 
 twice their height; triangular, smooth ; naked 
 cluster of from 3 or 4 to 8 flowers, much 
 larger than those of M. paludosa. Calyx 
 leaves of a pale lemon colour. Petal nearly 
 the same hue. Lip of a deeper yellow. 
 (Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. iv. p. 47.) 
 
 BOG-RUSH, BLACK. (Schcenus nigri- 
 cans.) Is found on turfy bogs. Root scarcely 
 creeping, of very long, strong fibres, crowned 
 with black, shining, erect, folded sheaths, a 
 few of which bear very narrow, acute, up- 
 right leaves, and embrace the bottom of the 
 otherwise naked stem, which is from 8 to 12 
 inches high. Head black. Anth. long, yel- 
 low. Stigm. 3, dark purple. Seed white 
 
BOHEMIAN WAX-WING. 
 
 BOLTING FOOD. 
 
 and polished. (Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 50.) 
 
 BOG-SPAVIN. See Blood-Spavin. 
 
 BOHEMIAN WAX-WING. This is 
 one of the most beautiful of the birds that 
 visit this country, combining as it does a 
 graceful form with a plumage of brilliant 
 and varied colours. It is, however, only a 
 winter visiter, and comes to us in flocks from 
 the north. Food, fruit of the juniper, and 
 other berries ; breeds among rocks. Colour, 
 beak almost black, irides dark red, forehead 
 reddish chestnut, feathers on top of head 
 light broccoli brown, forming a crest ; on lore, 
 round the eye, and passing backward round 
 the occiput, under the back part of the crest, 
 an elongated circle of black ; nape of neck 
 light broccoli brown, darker on back, sca- 
 pulas, &c. ; some of wing feathers black and 
 straw colour ; tertials purple brown, tipped 
 with pure white ; four of secondary quill 
 feathers, and from one to four of the tertials, 
 depending on size and age of bird, termi- 
 nate in a small flat, oblong, coloured, horny 
 appendage, resembling red sealing-wax. 
 Under chin is a patch of velvet black; 
 under surface of body, pale broccoli brown ; 
 all plumage silky and soft to the touch ; 
 legs, toes, and claws black. Whole length 
 of bird rather more than eight inches. (Yar- 
 reWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 356.) 
 
 BOIL. (Sax. bile.) In farriery, an in- 
 flammatory suppurating tumour affecting 
 cattle or sheep. In order to cure this sort 
 of tumour, it will be necessary to bring it 
 to a head by the application of plasters com- 
 posed of wheat-flour and tar ; and when the 
 boil feels soft under the finger, to open it 
 with a lancet, and let out the matter or 
 pus. 
 
 BOKE-LOAD. A provincial term ap- 
 plied to a top-heavy load. 
 
 BOLE. A term signifying the body or 
 trunk of a tree, and sometimes the stalk or 
 stem of corn. This word is written and 
 pronounced in the north of England boll, 
 and "boilings" is the name for pollards, 
 trees whose tops and branches are lopped off. 
 
 BOLE, or BOLL. (Lat, holla.) In Scot- 
 land, a common measure of grain, containing 
 four bushels. In the old measure of Scot- 
 land, for oats and barley, 
 
 4 lippies = 1 peck. 
 
 4 pecks = 1 firlot. 
 
 4 firlots = 1 boll. 
 
 16 bolls = 1 chalder. 
 
 The boll of oatmeal weighs 140 lbs. For 
 wheat, peas, and rye, 3 oat firlots make 
 1 boll. (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 500.) 
 
 BOLE OF SALT. A measure that con- 
 tains two bushels. 
 
 BOLETUS. See Mushroom. 
 213 
 
 BOLSTERS. In horsemanship, those 
 parts of a great saddle which are raised <>n 
 the bows both before and behind, to rest the 
 rider's thighs, and keep him in a post ure to 
 withstand the irregular motions of the horse. 
 
 BOLT and BOLTING. Terms pro- 
 vincially applied to the trussing of straw. 
 
 BOLTER. A sort of framed sie ve, hav- 
 ing its bottom made of linen stuff", hair, or 
 wire, according to circumstances. The 
 bakers employ bolters that may be worked 
 by the hand, but millers have larger ones 
 that move by the machinery of the mill. It 
 is sometimes called boulter. 
 
 BOLTING, or BOULTLNG. The oper- 
 ation of separating flour or meal of any 
 kind from the husks or bran, by means of a 
 bolter. 
 
 BOLTING CLOTH. Linen or hair, 
 cloth made for the purpose of sifting meal 
 or flour through. They are made of differ- 
 ent degrees of fineness, and numbered ac- 
 cordingly ; hence we have cloths of No. 2., 
 No. 3, &c. 
 
 BOLTING FOOD. This is a very com- 
 mon vice in greedy horses, especially when 
 they feed out of the same manger. The 
 only remedy is not to let them fast too long, 
 and to mix chaff* in their corn. The teeth 
 of such horses should be examined to see 
 whether the bolting of the corn arises from 
 any unevenness of the grinders. 
 
 BOLTING MILL. A mill or machine 
 having much lateral or circular motion, by 
 which means the business of sifting meal or 
 flour can be performed with great facility 
 and expedition. The framed sieve that 
 moves within it is termed a bolter. 
 
 BOLUS. See Ball. 
 
 BONASUS. A kind of buffalo, or wild 
 bull. 
 
 BON CHRETIEN. (Fr.) A species of 
 the pear. 
 
 BONES. (Sax. ban; Su. Goth, been; 
 Germ, bein.) The more solid parts of the 
 body of animals. When crushed, a valuable 
 manure. 
 
 The introduction of bones as a fertiliser 
 is perhaps one of the most important and 
 successful agricultural efforts of modern 
 days, and has been certainly one great 
 means of sufficiently increasing the national 
 production of corn to keep pace with an an- 
 nually enlarging population. It required, 
 however, like all other agricultural improve- 
 ments, much perseverance and unshaken 
 energy in the promoters of this manure, to 
 induce its general adoption ; many a long 
 and stubborn argument had to be answered ; 
 many hundred loads of the bone refuse of 
 Sheffield and Birmingham had to be given 
 away, before the cautious and suspicious 
 Yorkshire farmers could be generally per- 
 p 3 
 
BONES. 
 
 suaded of the fallacy of the assertion, that 
 " there is no good in bones." To this tardy 
 conviction the erroneous mode of employing 
 them originally adopted mainly contributed, 
 for they were at first used without even 
 roughly breaking them, and in consequence, 
 they decomposed so very slowly in the soil 
 that the farmer's patience was naturally 
 exhausted : he sought in vain for immediate 
 and striking results.* 
 
 The introduction of machinery, however, 
 by enabling the cultivator to procure them 
 in a crushed state, did away with this objec- 
 tion, for when crushed they decompose with 
 much greater rapidity ; and this has long 
 since induced a consumption of this manure 
 more than adequate to the national produce 
 of bones. It has been necessary, in conse- 
 quence, to search in other countries for a 
 supply ; and for the last fifteen years the 
 quantity of bones imported from abroad has 
 been steadily increasing. Thus the declared 
 value of all the bones imported into Eng- 
 land — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 In the year 1821 was 15,898 12 11 
 
 — 1824 — 43,940 17 11 
 
 — 1827 — 77,956 6 8 
 
 — 1830 — 58,223 16 8 
 
 — 1833 — 97,900 6 4 
 1835 — 127,131 14 10 
 
 — 1836 — 171,806 0 0 
 _ 1837 — 254,600 0 0 
 
 Into the port of Hull alone, in 1815, were 
 imported about 8000 tons : this had in- 
 creased to 17,500 tons in 1833, and to 
 25,700 tons in 1835. These came princi- 
 pally from the Netherlands, Denmark, and 
 the Baltic, but they have been imported 
 from much more distant places, such as 
 Buenos Ayres and the Mediterranean ; and 
 I am confident that if the seal fishermen of 
 North America and other distant stations 
 were aware of the fact that the bones of fish 
 are nearly, if not quite, as valuable for the 
 farmer, as those of other animals, they 
 would not suffer any falling off in the sup- 
 ply. By the 3 & 4 W. 4. c. 56. a duty of 
 one pound per cent, on the declared value 
 is payable on all bones imported for farming 
 or other purposes. 
 
 The following table, extracted from one 
 by Richard Tottie, Esq., of Hull, will sIioav 
 to the farmer from whence the great supply 
 of foreign bones is derived. This table con- 
 tains the imports during 1827, in which 
 year the following number of vessels entered 
 the port of Hull loaded with bones : — 
 
 * It is said, in the Doncaster Agricultural Society's 
 Report, upon the use of bones, " Colonel St. Leger, then 
 residing at Warmsworth, was the first person who is 
 known to have used them, and his introduction of them 
 was in 1776s the early progress does not seem to have 
 been rapid, from the practice of laying them on, almost 
 unbroken, and in very large quantities." 
 
 214 
 
 From Russia 
 
 — Prussia - - 9 
 
 — Sweden and Norway 6 
 
 — Denmark - - 57 
 
 — Hanseatic towns - 61 
 
 — Netherlands - 76 
 
 — Mecklenberg "1 
 
 — Hanover L - 33 
 
 — Oldenberg J 
 
 Total - 248 
 
 Vessels. Tons of Bones. 
 6 carrying 822 
 
 1174 
 
 362 
 3778 
 3760 
 6110 
 
 1702 
 
 17,718 
 
 The import of bones into Hull has since 
 been regularly increasing : it was, according 
 to a letter with which Mr. Tottie favoured 
 me, equal to 23,900 tons in 1834, and to 
 25,700 in 1835. It would certainly be well 
 to look to other quarters, besides the Con- 
 tinent, for a future supply, since in some of 
 the German states a duty on their export 
 has been recently imposed. So considerable, 
 indeed, has the demand become, that by 
 many unprincipled dealers several kinds of 
 adulterations are used. These, according to 
 Mr. Halkett (Quar. Journ. of Agric. vol. ii. 
 p. 181.), are the lime that has been used in 
 tan-works to take off the wool and hair, old 
 plaster lime, soap boilers' waste, saw -dust, 
 rotten wood, oyster shells, &c. The best re- 
 medy for these frauds is for the farmer to deal t 
 with only respectable crushers, and to pay 
 a fair price for the bones. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no manure of whose 
 powers the chemical explanation is more 
 easy; for of the earthy and purely animal 
 matters of which bones are composed, there 
 is not a single particle which is not a direct 
 constituent or food of vegetables ; thus if 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, are found in 
 the abounding oil and cartilage of bones, 
 they are equally common, nay, ever present, 
 in all vegetable matters ; and if carbonate 
 and phosphate of lime are almost equally 
 common in plants, they are still more uni- 
 versally present in all bones. 
 
 The bones of animals do not vary much 
 in composition : they all contain phosphate 
 and carbonate of lime, with a portion of 
 cartilage or animal matter, with other minor 
 ingredients. The bone of the ox has been 
 analysed by M. Berzelius : he found, that 
 by calcining these bones, every 100 lbs. lost 
 38 lbs. in weight. 100 parts of these bones, 
 before calcination, consisted of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Cartilage - - - 33-3 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 55*35 
 
 Filiate of lime ( Derby shire spar) 3- 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - 3*85 
 Phosphate of magnesia - 2-05 
 
 Soda, with a little common salt 2-45 
 
 100- 
 
BONES. 
 
 Bones, however, vary slightly in compo- 
 sition, according to the age and condition 
 of the animal, for MM. Fourcroy and Vau- 
 quelin found some ox bones, which they 
 analysed, to be composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Gelatine and oil - 51 
 
 Phosphate of lime - 37*7 
 
 Carbonate of lime - 10 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia - 1 3 
 
 100- 
 
 The enamel of teeth is the only portion 
 of bones, hitherto analysed, which is entirely 
 destitute of cartilage. It is true that fossil 
 bones contain none ; but these have pro- 
 bably, in a former state of the earth, been 
 acted upon by fire ; for Mr. Hatchett found, 
 in some bones from Hythe in Kent, taken 
 out of a Saxon tomb, the same proportion 
 of cartilage as in a recent bone. Teeth 
 have been analysed by Mr. Pepys : he found 
 
 them to be composed of — 
 
 Adults'. Children's. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 64 62 
 
 Carbonate of lime 6 6 
 
 Cartilage - 20 20 
 
 Loss - - 10 12 
 
 100 100 
 
 M. Merat Guillot has furnished us with a 
 statement of the earthy constituents of 1 00 
 parts of the bones of different animals ; from 
 which the farmer will perceive that the 
 composition of the bones of all animals is 
 very similar. 
 
 Bones. 
 
 Phosphate 
 of Lime. 
 
 Carbonate 
 of Lime. 
 
 Animal 
 Matter. 
 
 Calf 
 
 54 
 
 
 46 
 
 Horse 
 
 67-5 
 
 1-25 
 
 31-25 
 
 Sheep 
 
 70 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 Elk - - 
 
 90 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 Hog 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 47 
 
 Hare 
 
 85 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 
 Pullet 
 
 72 
 
 1-5 
 
 26-5 
 
 Pike 
 
 64 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 Carp 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 50 
 
 Teeth of the 
 
 
 
 
 horse 
 
 85-5 
 
 20-5 
 
 
 Ivory 
 
 64 
 
 1 
 
 •35 
 
 Lobster shells, egg shells, &c, are all 
 composed of the same ingredients as bone. 
 The poor of Dublin are often employed for 
 the purpose of pounding oyster shells for 
 the use of the cultivator of the soil ; and a 
 similar plan might, I should imagine, be 
 very advantageously adopted in some of the 
 populous districts in this country : for, 
 although such shells do not contain the same 
 proportion of phosphate of lime as bone, yet 
 they contain a sufficient quantity to render 
 215 
 
 them highly valuable as fertilising substances. 
 100 parts of lobster shells yield — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) 60 
 Phosphate of lime - 14 
 
 Cartilage - - 26 
 
 100 
 
 100 parts of cray-fish shells contain — 
 Carbonate of lime - 60 
 
 Phosphate of lime - 12 
 
 Cartilage - - 28 
 
 100 
 
 100 parts of hens' egg-shells contain — 
 Carbonate of lime - 89-6 
 
 Phosphate of lime - 5-7 
 
 Animal matter - - 4*7 
 
 100- 
 
 There is yet another source from whence 
 the phosphate of lime might be obtained in 
 large quantities for the use of the farmer, 
 viz. the fossil bones or native phosphate of 
 lime, which is found in various districts of 
 this country, in very considerable quantities, 
 and would only require crushing or powder- 
 ing to render it nearly as useful to the 
 farmer as the recent bones. That the 
 cartilage or oily matter of the bone does not 
 constitute the chief fertilising quality is 
 shown by the fact, that the farmers who use 
 bone-dust will as readily employ that which 
 has first been steamed, and all its fatty 
 portion extracted by the preparers of cart 
 grease, as they will the unused fresh bones. 
 It is acknowledged, says the Doncaster Agr. 
 Soc. in their Report, to be a prevalent 
 opinion amongst intelligent farmers that 
 manufactured bones are equal, in their 
 effects, to the raw bones. Mr. Short, in the 
 year 1812, "boned twenty-four acres, at 
 the rate of fifty bushels an acre. On one 
 part of the field he put London bones, which 
 had the oil stewed out of them ; and another 
 part was tilled with bones collected from 
 Nottingham, which were full of marrow, 
 and a third part with horses' bones, having 
 much flesh upon them. He could not see 
 any difference in the turnips produced from 
 these : they all produced a good crop. But 
 the next crop was not so good where the 
 fleshy bones had been laid." And Mr. 
 Horncastle adds, "A strong fermentation 
 takes place in the boiled bones : when thrown 
 in aheap they become extremely offensive, and 
 when they obtain this bad smell, I consider 
 they are in a state to break up for manure." 
 — And, says Mr. Halkett of New Scone, in 
 Perthshire, " After numerous trials between 
 what we call green bones with all the marrow 
 p 4 
 
BONES. 
 
 and fat in them, and dry ones free from it, 
 I have always found that the latter raised 
 by far the best crops. Therefore I have 
 arrived at the conclusion that the less animal 
 fat in them the better, and that the boiling 
 of them before crushing, instead of impairing 
 them, is a benefit." (Quar. Joum. of Agric. 
 vol. ii. p. 180.) 
 
 The mineral substance, called the Apatite, 
 found in the Cornish tin mines, is nothing 
 but phosphate of lime ; 100 parts being 
 composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Phosphoric acid - - 45 
 
 Lime - - - 55 
 
 100 
 
 The phosphate of lime is also found in 
 many parts of the north of England, in 
 Hungary, and, in immense beds, in Spanish 
 Estremadura, where it is said to be so com- 
 mon in many places, that the peasants make 
 their walls and fences of it. 100 parts of 
 this substance, called by mineralogists the 
 phosphorite, contain — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Phosphoric acid and lime - 93 
 
 Carbonate acid - - 1 
 
 Muriatic acid - - 0 - 5 
 
 Fluoric acid - - 2*5 
 
 Silica r - - 2 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 1 
 
 100- 
 
 The horns of the deer are similar in com- 
 position to bones ; but those of black cattle 
 are totally different ; they approach nearer 
 in composition to animal muscle, as may be 
 seen by the following analysis of Dr. John ; 
 100 parts of the horns of black cattle yielding 
 
 this chemist — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Albumen - - 90 
 
 Ditto with gelatine - 8 
 
 Fat - - 1 
 
 Various salts, &c. &c. - 1 
 
 100 
 
 100 parts, however, of a fossil horn, ana- 
 lysed by M. Braconnot, yielded — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 - 69-3 
 
 Water 
 
 - 11 
 
 Gelatine 
 
 4-6 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 - 4-5 
 
 Bitumen 
 
 - 4-4 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 4 
 
 Phosphate of magnesia 
 
 1 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 07 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 0-5 
 
 
 100- 
 
 216 
 
 
 The excrements of those birds and animals 
 which feed upon animal matters approach 
 very nearly to bone in chemical composition ; 
 and I have little doubt but that the dung of 
 sea birds might be profitably collected from 
 some of the rocky islands on our coasts. 
 This is actually done among the South Sea 
 Islands by the Peruvian farmers, and to 
 such an extent, that, according to M. Hum- 
 boldt, fifty vessels, each carrying from fifteen 
 hundred to two thousand cubic feet, are an- 
 nually loaded with this manure at the island 
 of Chinche alone. This manure is known 
 in South America under the name of Guano, 
 and is too powerful to be used in large 
 quantities. It abounds in phosphate of 
 lime. (A quantity has recently been im- 
 ported into this country : it contains 36 per 
 cent, of phosphate of lime.) Some of the 
 dung of sea-fowl, collected on a rock on the 
 coast of Merionethshire, was tried at the 
 request of Sir H. Davy, at Nannau, by Sir 
 Robert Vaughan, and produced a very 
 powerful, though transient effect, on some 
 grass land. The very soil of some of the 
 rocks which have been for so many ages 
 tenanted by these water-fowl must be com- 
 pletely impregnated with the earthy matters 
 of bones. See Gi/ano. 
 
 All the constituent parts of bones are 
 found in vegetable substances. The car- 
 tilage of bones is composed, according to 
 the examination of Mr. Hatchett, of a sub- 
 stance nearly identical in all its properties 
 with solid albumen. Now, 100 parts of 
 albumen are composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - 52*888 
 
 Oxygen - - 23-872 
 
 Hydrogen - 7*54 
 Azote - - 15705 
 
 100- 
 
 It is perfectly needless to specify any 
 vegetable substances into which the three 
 first of these substances enter, for the 
 vegetable world is almost entirely composed 
 of them, and occasionally a portion of azote 
 is also found in vegetable substances, but 
 the three first are invariably present. The 
 flour of wheat, the poison of the deadly 
 night-shade, the oxalic acid of the wild 
 sorrel, the narcotic milk of the lettuce, the 
 stinking odour of the garlic, and the perfume 
 of the violet, are, by the contrivance of their 
 divine architect, only some of the results 
 of the mixture of carbon, oxygen, and 
 hydrogen. 
 
 But the chief constituent present in all 
 bones we have already seen is the phosphate 
 of lime; and how absolutely necessary fchia 
 substance is for the healthy vegetation of 
 plants will be apparent from the following 
 
BONES. 
 
 table, which contains the results of the ex- 
 amination by MM. Saussure, Vauquelin, 
 and a few other distinguished chemists, of 
 the ashes or solid contents of a number of 
 vegetable substances : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 100 parts of the ashes of the grain of the 
 oat yielded of phosphate 
 of lime - - - 39-3 
 
 100 parts of straw of wheat yielded of 
 phosphates of lime and 
 magnesia - -6*2 
 
 — seeds of wheat - - 44*5 
 
 — bran - - - 46'5 
 
 — seeds of vetches - -27*92 
 
 — golden rod (Solidago vir- 
 
 gaurea) - - -II* 
 
 — plants of turnsole (Helian- 
 
 thus annus), bearing ripe 
 seeds - - - 22-5 
 
 — chaff of barley - -775 
 
 — seeds of barley - - 32*5 
 
 — seeds of oats - - 24 
 
 — leaves of oak - - 24 
 
 — wood of oak - - 4*5 
 
 — bark of oak - - 4*5 
 
 — leaves of poplar - - 13 
 
 — wood of ditto - - 1675 
 
 — leaves of hazel - - 23 
 
 — wood of hazel - - 35 
 
 — bark of hazel - - 5*5 
 
 — wood of mulberry - - 2*25 
 
 — bark of mulberry - - 8*5 
 
 — wood of hornbeam - - 23 
 
 — bark of hornbeam - - 4*5 
 
 — seeds of peas - - 17 '5 
 
 — bulbs of garlic - - 8*9 
 
 Phosphate of lime has also been found in 
 the marsh bean ( Vicia Faba), and in the pea- 
 pod or husk, by Einhof ; in rice, by Bra- 
 conot ; in the Scotch fir, by Dr. John ; in 
 the quinquina of St. Domingo, by Four- 
 croy ; in the fuci, by Gaultier de Claubry, 
 and in many others ; in short, as Dr. 
 Thomson remarks (System of Chem. vol. iv. 
 p. 319.), " phosphate of lime is a constant 
 ingredient in plants." 
 
 The cultivator of the soil will not be in- 
 credulous as to the power of vegetables to 
 dissolve and feed upon the hard substance 
 of the crushed bones of animals, when he is 
 reminded that the ashes of the straw of 
 wheat are composed of 61£ per cent of 
 silica (flint), a still harder substance than 
 the hardest bone. And this is not a solitary 
 instance ; for the same earth abounds in i 
 still greater proportion in the straw of other 
 grain. Vauquelin found 60f per cent, of 
 it in the ashes of the seeds of the oat ; and 
 the Dutch rush contains it in such abund- 
 ance, that it is employed by the turner to 
 polish wood and even brass. 
 
 To the mode and effect of applying bones 
 as a manure, either whole, broken, or in a 
 217 
 
 state of powder, the Doncaster Agricultural 
 Association paid considerable attention, and 
 they have made a very valuable report of 
 the result of their inquiries, in which they 
 say : — " The returns received by the Asso- 
 ciation satisfactorily establish the great 
 value of bones as a manure. Our corre- 
 spondents, with only two exceptions, all con- 
 cur in stating them to be a highly valuable 
 manure, and on light dry soils superior to 
 farm-yard dung and all other manures. In 
 copying the language of one of them, in re- 
 ference to dry sandy soils, we express the 
 opinions repeated in a far greater number 
 — ' I consider bone tillage one of the most 
 useful manures which has ever been dis- 
 covered for the farmer's benefit. The light- 
 ness of carriage, its suitableness for the 
 drill, and its general fertilizing properties, 
 render it peculiarly valuable in those parts 
 where distance from towns renders it impos- 
 sible to procure manures of a heavier and 
 more bulky description.' For, as stated by 
 another farmer, the carting of six, eight, or 
 ten loads of manure per acre is no trifling 
 expense. The use of bones diminishes la- 
 bour at a season of the year when time is of 
 the first importance ; for one waggon load, 
 or 120 bushels of small drill bone-dust, is 
 equal to forty or fifty loads of fold manure. 
 Upon very thin sand land its value is not to 
 be estimated ; it not only is found to be- 
 nefit the particular crop to which it is ap- 
 plied, but extends through the whole course 
 of crops." The report adds that bones have 
 been found highly beneficial on the lime- 
 stone soils near Doncaster, on peaty soils, 
 and on light loams ; but that on the heavy 
 soils and on clay they produce no benefit. 
 The late Mr. George Sinclair, of New Cross, 
 has given (Transact. High. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 78.) the analysis of two soils on which 
 bone manure produced very opposite re- 
 sults. 400 parts of the soil on which the 
 bone manure had very beneficial effects con- 
 
 sisted of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silicious sand - - 167 
 
 Calcareous sand - 43 
 
 Water of absorption - - 99 
 
 Animal and vegetable matter - 24 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 25 
 
 Silica (flint) - - - 23 
 
 Alumina (clay) 9 
 
 Oxide of iron 3 
 Soluble vegetable and animal 
 
 matter 5 
 
 Moisture and loss - 2 
 
 400 
 
 The soil on which the bone manure had 
 such beneficial effect contained, in 400 
 parts, 
 
BONES. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 f ^.;ilpr>T*pr»nc Cijnrl nx\<\ cvnvpl ( npnrlv 
 
 vaivai cvuo dciuva cliJU. gitivti ^utaiiy 
 
 
 nnvp ovnpT\f\x\*A\c* rii lump i — 
 pule Lai UUllalc Ul lillicy 
 
 217 
 
 Animal nnH *vpcrptan.lp mattprs — 
 
 17 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 39 
 
 Silica - - 
 
 85 
 
 Alumina - - 
 
 20 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 
 
 5 
 
 Soluble matter with gypsum 
 
 4 
 
 Moisture or loss - r 
 
 13 
 
 
 400 
 
 The mode of applying them, adds the 
 Doncaster Report, is either by sowing 
 broadcast or by the drill ; either by them- 
 selves, or, what is much better, previously 
 mixed with earth and fermented. Bones 
 which have been thus fermented are de- 
 cidedly superior to those which have not 
 done so. Mr. Turner, of Tring, adopted 
 the practice of mixing with his bone-dust 
 an equal quantity of the dung of the sheep, 
 collected for the express purpose, at an ex- 
 pense of 2±d. per bushel for labour. He 
 prepared the mixture in winter, by laying 
 the sheep-dung in heaps with the crushed 
 bones, and allowing them to ferment to- 
 gether for some months. By this plan the 
 two manures are thoroughly incorporated, 
 and he considers that thirty-five bushels of 
 the mixture are fully equal in effect to 
 twenty-five bushels of the bones. (My Es- 
 say on Crushed Bones, p. 14.) The quantity 
 applied per acre is about twenty-five bushels 
 of bone-dust, and forty bushels of large 
 broken bones. The dust is best for imme- 
 diate profit ; the broken half-inch bones 
 for more continued improvement. Mr. 
 Birks say, " If I were to till for early profit, 
 I would use bones powdered as small as 
 sawdust ; if I wished to keep my land in 
 good heart, I would use principally half- 
 inch bones, and in breaking these I should 
 prefer some remaining considerably larger." 
 The reason for this is very obvious; the 
 larger the pieces of bone, the more gra- 
 dually will a given bulk dissolve in the soil. 
 
 Crushed bones are employed with decided 
 success for turnips. The ease with which 
 they are applied by the drill, the ample 
 nourishment they afford the young plants, 
 on the very poorest soils, and the avidity 
 with which the roots of the turnip encircle 
 and mat themselves around the fragments 
 of crushed bone, clearly evinces how grate- 
 ful the manure is to this valuable crop. The 
 evidence in its favour is copious, and deci- 
 sive of its merits. In a recent report of the 
 East Lothian Agricultural Society, Mr. 
 John Brodie, of Aimsfield Mains, has given 
 the result of his experiments upon (he com- 
 parative cost of crushed bones and other 
 218 
 
 commonly employed manure for turnips, 
 which are worthy of attention : — 
 
 £ s. 
 
 1st exp. — 20 cart loads of street dung, 
 
 per Scotch acre, at 5s. 6c?. per load - 5 10 
 2d exp. — i ton of rape dust, 
 
 at 110*. - - 2 15 
 
 3 quarters crushed bones, at 19s. 2 17 
 
 5 12 
 
 3d exp. — 16 loads of farm-yard dung, 
 
 at 7s. - - - 5 12 
 
 " The whole turnips," says Mr. Brodie, 
 " brairded beautifully, and from the first to 
 the time of lifting, it was impossible to de- 
 cide which was the weightiest crop. I 
 therefore determined in the last week in 
 November to take up alternate rows of the 
 whole, and weigh each separately after the 
 roots and tops were taken off, and the result 
 was found to be as follows : — 
 
 cwt. lbs. 
 
 1st exp. — The portion examined of 
 a Scotch acre, manured with the 
 street dung, produced of common 
 globe turnip - 301 92 
 
 2d exp. — The same quantity of 
 ground manured with the rape and 
 bone-dust, produced - - 301 99 
 
 3d exp. — Ditto with farm-yard 
 
 dung - - - - 312 30 
 
 " Mr. Watson of Keilor," says the Hon. 
 Capt. Ogilvy of Airlie (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. iv. p. 238.) "introduced the use of bone 
 manure in Strathmore. The great deficiency 
 of farm-yard dung in 1827 (consequent on 
 the almost failure of the crop of the previous 
 year) first induced me to try four acres of 
 turnip without other manure, sown with 
 fifteen bushels of bone-dust per acre : it 
 costs 3s. per bushel, or 21. 5s. per acre. The 
 crop of turnips on these four acres was, at 
 least, equal to the rest raised with farm-yard 
 manure ; but as the whole of the turnips 
 were pulled, and.the land received some dung 
 before the succeeding crop, much stress 
 cannot be laid on the circumstance of the 
 following white crop and grass being good. 
 
 " Next year, 1828, eight acres were sown 
 with turnip, solely with bone-dust ; the soil 
 a light sandy loam ; the subsoil gravel and 
 sand, coming in some places nearly to the 
 surface, which is very irregular, but in gen- 
 eral has a south exposure. This field had 
 been broken up with a crop of oats in 1827, 
 after having been depastured six years prin- 
 cipally by sheep. The quantity of bone-dust 
 applied was twenty bushels per acre, and cost 
 2.9. 6d. per bushel, or 21. 10s. per acre. The 
 turnip crop was so heavy that, notwith- 
 st muling the very light nature of the soil, it 
 was judged advisable to pull one-third for 
 the feeding cattle, two drills pulled, and four 
 left to be eaten on the ground by sheep. 
 
BONES. 
 
 The following year, 1829, these eight acres 
 were sown with barley and grass-seeds ; and 
 the produce was 57 bolls 1 bushel, or 7 bolls 
 1 bushel nearly per acre, of grain equal in 
 quality to the best in the Dundee market, 
 both in weight and colour. Next year, a 
 fair crop of hay for that description of land 
 was cut, about 150 stones an acre ; and 
 though I am now convinced that the field 
 should rather have been depastured the first 
 year, yet the pasture was better than it had 
 ever been known before for the two fol- 
 lowing seasons, 1831 and 1832. It is worthy 
 of remark, as a proof of the efficacy of the 
 bone manure, that in a small angle of this 
 field, in which I had permitted a cottager 
 to plant potatoes, well dunged, and which, 
 after their removal, was included in one of 
 the flakings of sheep, and had (one might 
 have supposed) thereby had at least equal 
 advantage with the adjacent bone-dust tur- 
 nip land, both the barley and grass crops 
 were evidently inferior, and this continued 
 to be observable until the field was again 
 ploughed up. A very bulky crop of oats has 
 been reaped this season, probably upwards 
 of eight bolls per acre, but no part of it is 
 yet thrashed. 
 
 " Having detailed what may be considered 
 a fair experiment, during the whole rotation 
 of the above eight acres, I may add, that 
 turnip raised with bone manure and fed off 
 with sheep, has now become a regular part 
 of the system on this farm. Fifteen, twenty, 
 and last year twenty-five acres were fed off, 
 and invariably with the same favourable 
 results, with the prospect of being able to 
 adopt a five-shift rotation, and to continue 
 it without injury to the land. Every person 
 in the least acquainted with the management 
 of a farm, of which a considerable portion 
 consists of light, dry, sandy loam, at a dis- 
 tance from town manure, must be aware of 
 the importance of this, from knowing the 
 expense at which such land was formerly 
 kept in a fair state of cultivation : indeed, 
 the prices of corn, for some years past, would 
 not warrant the necessary outlay ; and large 
 tracts of land, capable of producing barley 
 little inferior to that of Norfolk, must 
 speedily have been converted into sheep pas- 
 ture,but for the introduction of bone manure." 
 
 In the valuable experiments of Mr. Ro- 
 bert Turner, of Tring in Hertfordshire, the 
 soil on which they were made, hitherto a 
 common, producing only furze, is sandy, 
 with a substratum of clay, and then chalk. 
 He began the use of bone manure in 1831 on 
 this land, and has continued its employment 
 for the last three years on a very bold scale, 
 and with unvaried success. The quantity ge- 
 nerally employed was from twenty-four to 
 thirty bushels per acre, of the description 
 
 of half-inch and dust, and the bones were 
 invariably applied to the turnip crop. The 
 bones were usually drilled with the seed at 
 a distance of eighteen inches, and the tur- 
 nips were always horse-hoed. The year 
 1831 was a peculiarly good season for this 
 crop generally. The turnips manured with 
 bone-dust, like most others in the district, 
 were very luxuriant. About 2000 bushels 
 of bone manure were this year used by Mr. 
 Turner. In 1 832 the turnips were in general 
 a very bad plant, the fly committing general 
 devastation ; many cultivators unsuccessfully 
 sowing four or five times. On the turnip 
 land of Mr. Turner, seventy-four acres were 
 manured with bones, and of this breadth 
 only the last sown four acres were a failure, 
 and there was, in no instance, any necessity 
 to repeat the sowing. The turnips were a 
 much better crop than in 1831. In 1833 
 the turnips in the neighbourhood of Tring 
 were a very partial crop. On the farm of 
 Mr. Turner, about fifty acres were manured 
 with bones. The effect, with the exception 
 of the very last sown turnips, was again 
 most excellent, the crop being very heavy, 
 and that too on land now first cultivated. 
 In 1835 and 1836, Mr. Turner continued 
 the use of bones for his turnips, to the same 
 extent, and with equal success. These ex- 
 periments the cultivator will deem of the 
 very first importance. The soil was not 
 manured with any other fertilizer except 
 bones, and in drilling, every now and then, 
 for the drill's breadth, the bones were 
 omitted. 
 
 On the soil not boned, the failure of the 
 turnips was general and complete : they ve- 
 getated, it is true, and came up, but they 
 were wretchedly small, and of no use. The 
 turnips being fed off", and the sheep folded 
 on the soil without any distinction between 
 boned and unboned land, the comparative 
 experiments upon the succeeding crop were 
 rendered uncertain. The experience of two 
 moreyears, Mr. Turner informs me (1836-7), 
 has confirmed all his former experiments : 
 he continues the use of this valuable fer- 
 tilizer, with the most satisfactory results ; 
 his plot of turnips drilled with bones having 
 been, in that dry season, most excellent. 
 
 In no part of England is the use of bone- 
 dust more extensive, and more absolutely 
 essential to the growth of turnips, than in 
 Lincolnshire. A brief account of its intro- 
 duction will be found in the following ex- 
 tract from a letter with which I was favoured 
 in the spring of 1836, from Thomas Brails- 
 ford, Esq., of Barkwith. 
 
 " The use of bones crushed small enough 
 to pass the drill, began in Lincolnshire about 
 twenty or twenty-five years ago, and may now 
 be considered as general over the greatest 
 
BONES. 
 
 part of the county, and universal over the 
 great natural divisions — the heath, and (the 
 corn brash and upper oolite) the cliff, and the 
 wolds (the chalk and green sand-stone 
 measures of geologists). The effect pro- 
 duced has been wonderful ; it has converted 
 large tracts of thin-skinned, and weak lands 
 into the most fertile districts. The quantity 
 now drilled varies from twenty strikes of 
 half-inch bone, with the dust in it, per acre ; 
 and it is used almost exclusively for turnips, 
 experience having proved that it is more 
 profitably adapted to the cultivation of that 
 crop than any other. It may be right to 
 add, that, in this county, it is considered 
 that the feeding quality of turnips raised 
 from bones exceeds that produced by dung. 
 Last year," adds Mr. Brailsford, " I used 
 sulphur with my crushed bones, mixing 7 lbs. 
 of the former with 100 lbs. of the latter : a 
 few days before I drilled them with the 
 turnip seed, a moderate fermentation took 
 place, which rendered the sulphur active, 
 and produced a pretty considerable smell of 
 brimstone, and had the effect of most effec- 
 tually defending the young turnip plants 
 from the fly." 
 
 An opinion has been sometimes enter- 
 tained, that the black grub or caterpillar, 
 which has for the last two or three years 
 been so destructive of the turnip crop, has 
 been introduced in the bones imported 
 from abroad for manure ; and many equally 
 idle and learned papers have appeared to 
 warn the farmer of the dangers he was 
 incurring by their use. A more absurd 
 supposition, perhaps, was never enter- 
 tained ; for, saying nothing of the total ab- 
 sence of every thing like proof of a single 
 black grub being discovered in an imported 
 bone, all the accurate experiments, and long 
 experience of those who have used bones, 
 render the supposition laughable. 
 
 In the numerous experiments at which I 
 have assisted and witnessed, it has been 
 always found that the black grub appeared 
 equally numerous among the boned and 
 unboned turnips : that in those portions of 
 the field, or in the entire field, where bones 
 were drilled with the turnips, the grubs 
 were not more numerous than on those 
 lands which were manured with common 
 manure, or drilled without any manure at all. 
 
 Again, the very habits of this black grub 
 betray the fact that he is not of animal 
 origin ; he lives, he feeds upon, he is com- 
 posed of vegetable matter. The farmer 
 well knows "that the grub or caterpillar 
 which is bred on a cabbage or turnip can- 
 not sustain life, nay, cannot eat animal 
 matters ; it would perish if placed on the 
 most dainty bone. And on the contrary, if 
 a grub bred in a bone is placed, however 
 220 
 
 cautiously and skilfully, on a turnip or cab- 
 bage, he dies of absolute starvation, for ve- 
 getable matters are not food for him ; his 
 habits, his very nature, make him revolt 
 from the novel food presented to him. 
 
 And again, if he really be imported from 
 Belgium in the bones, he must be able to 
 resist a very considerable temperature ; for 
 it has been clearly established, that the 
 turnip fields which are manured with the 
 refuse boiled bones of the size and cart- 
 grease makers have been just as much co- 
 vered with the black caterpillars as those 
 which have been manured with fresh bones. 
 He can live, therefore, even in boiling hot 
 water : or if he come in the shape of cater- 
 pillar eggs, then the believers in this absurd 
 doctrine must be convinced that caterpillar 
 eggs can be hatched even after they have 
 been boiled for hours in a temperature of 
 212°. 
 
 But grubs and black caterpillars are not 
 the first living substances which have been 
 supposed to have been imported in the 
 foreign bones. Thus, the Nottingham and 
 Lincolnshire farmers, many years since, 
 found that, by the use of bones, the growth 
 of white clover was surprisingly encou- 
 raged ; and that, in fact, wherever a load of 
 crushed bones was spread, in that place the 
 clover sprung up as if by magic. " They 
 appeared," says his Grace the Duke of Port- 
 land, in a letter with which he honoured 
 me in February 1836, " so much to en- 
 courage the growth of white clover, that I 
 had almost formed the opinion that it was 
 superfluous to sow the seed." The honest 
 farmers of that fine district naturally had 
 many a puzzling learned cogitation upon 
 this strange yet regular appearance of the 
 white clover, wherever bones were applied ; 
 but then, they recollected that the bones 
 came from the very land of fine white clover 
 seed ; and that the seed must, therefore, as 
 a natural consequence, come hid in the 
 bones. The Lancasterian and Cheshire far- 
 mers, however, did not fall into this mis- 
 take, since they found that the white clover 
 sprung up just as copiously after the use of 
 the boiled bones, as upon the lands manured 
 with those in a fresh or green state. 
 
 The chemical explanation will occur to 
 every scientific farmer. The white clover 
 abounds in phosphate of lime ; it cannot, 
 therefore, grow vigorously in soils which do 
 not contain it. Bones supply this necessary 
 food, or constituent ; and enable the white 
 clover to contend successfully in the turf 
 with other and coarser grasses, and finally 
 extirpate them. There are few soils in 
 England which do not contain the seeds of 
 this plant ; it has been not iced to spring up 
 in the most unlikely situations, even in 
 
BONES. 
 
 London, after a fire ; and for precisely the 
 same reason — the ashes of wood abound in 
 phosphate of lime. Bones have been hitherto 
 principally employed upon the turnip crop, 
 but there is another, the potatoe plant, to 
 which they seem admirably adapted ; and of 
 this opinion was Mr. Knight, the late Pre- 
 sident of the Horticultural Society : he ob- 
 served to me, in a communication dated 
 March 26, 1836, written with his usual 
 anxious solicitude to assist on every occasion 
 in any researches which tended to the im- 
 proved cultivation of the earth, — "I have 
 one large farm, upon which rises a sufficient 
 quantity of spring water to work a thrashing 
 machine, and a bone mill, at all seasons ; and 
 upon that I have erected a machine for 
 crushing bones, which my tenant has used 
 largely. The soil is generally strong and 
 argillaceous, but upon this the bone manure 
 operates well, and it is applied by a drill to 
 the turnip ground. My tenant finds that it 
 acts according to the quantity of oleaginous 
 matter which it contains ; and I cannot help 
 thinking, that taking away that part must 
 destroy to a very great extent the operation 
 of the manure during at least one year ; 
 particularly if the bones be crushed nearly 
 to dust before boiling. I have tried other 
 animal substances, such as hair, feathers, 
 and the parings and dust of white leather, 
 and none of these have operated till they 
 have had some weeks to decompose. The 
 white leather parings, being almost entirely 
 composed of gelatine, I expect operate very 
 soon, but I found that turnips drilled in 
 over a very sufficient quantity of it did not 
 begin to grow kindly till September ; and I 
 do not entertain a shadow of a doubt but 
 that if bones, after being crushed, were 
 mixed with four or five times their weight 
 of earth, their operation as a manure, im- 
 mediately, would be greatly increased. It 
 could not, however, then be conveniently 
 drilled in with the seed, and that process, 
 whenever the soil is poor, is very important, 
 because by being placed close to the seedling 
 plant, that gets well nourished while young. 
 I cannot doubt but the bone manure must 
 continue to operate as long as decomposition 
 of the. original substance continues, and 
 under this impression I am willing to find 
 capital to purchase it, upon the tenant's 
 paying a fair amount of increased rent. 
 Much would, of course, depend .upon the 
 bones being more or less crushed; but I 
 cannot think that a good manuring of bone- 
 dust can, under any circumstances, be soon 
 entirely expended. I have seen bone-dust 
 applied in considerable quantities in planting 
 stone fruit trees, as peaches and plums, with 
 good effect, though such are almost always 
 greatly injured or destroyed by the appli- 
 221 
 
 cation of stable-yard dung in the same way. 
 My tenant applies his bone manure wholly 
 to his turnips, and the stable-yard manure 
 to the wheat field, in opposition certainly to 
 my opinion ; as I think wheat crops yield 
 best when the soil is firm, and turnip crops 
 best when it is hollow, and he purposes to 
 try the effect of reversing the process. If 
 the turnip plant is capable of deriving 
 nourishment from fragments of bones, which 
 have been boiled, after being crushed, their 
 roots must, I conceive, have a power of de- 
 composing the substance of the bone ; which 
 appears very improbable, though many 
 plants appear to exercise such power on 
 silicious earth. I have somewhere read an 
 account of experiments, which appeared to 
 prove that the silex found in the epidermis 
 of the different species of Equisetum, grapes, 
 &c. is really dissolved and taken up from 
 the soil, and subsequently deposited in an 
 organic form ; but as the plants which were 
 subjected to experiment might, owing to 
 having been feeble and sickly, not have de- 
 posited any, or the usual portion of silex, 
 I am not satisfied, that the remaining half 
 of flint, after its oxygen has been driven off j 
 is a simple substance. The number of sim- 
 ple elements (admitting the existence of 
 matter) I suspect to be very small; such 
 was the opinion of my late lamented friend, 
 Sir H. Davy. I think it probable that quick- 
 lime, if applied to bones containing much 
 oily matter, would operate powerfully by 
 reducing such oil to the state of soap, readily 
 soluble in water ; but a part of the ammonia 
 might by this process be dissipated and 
 lost. Valuable as bone-dust certainly is as 
 a manure to the turnips, I doubt whether 
 it may not be employed with more advantage 
 as manure for the potato ; and my tenant 
 is inclined to think that the potato crop, 
 though wholly consumed upon the farm, 
 will best repay him. The bone manure, 
 when employed to nourish the potato plant, 
 might be buried in the soil two months be- 
 fore it would be materially wanted; and 
 the crops of barley and oats, upon all except 
 light soils, are much better after potatoes 
 than after turnips, both being carted off the 
 ground. Early varieties which do not blos- 
 som are the most valuable, as they afford 
 the most certain crops, and will be quite 
 ready to be taken up in August, after which 
 the ground may be well prepared for wheat. 
 Of such potatoes I have obtained a produce 
 equivalent to 963^ bushels of 80 lbs., and 
 1248f bushels of 60 lbs. But early potatoes 
 vegetate again late in autumn, and they 
 then become much better food, without 
 being steamed, than previously." 
 
 The way in which bone-dust is usually 
 employed as a manure for potatoes is de- 
 
BONES. 
 
 eidedly wrong ; it is used in much too fresh 
 a state. This error long deceived and per- 
 plexed the turnip growers of the east of 
 England, who now invariably let the bone- 
 dust ferment, either by itself or mixed with 
 earth, for some weeks before it is applied to 
 the soil. And all my experiments have 
 concurred in their result with those of my 
 neighbours in Essex, that if the bones are 
 mixed with five or six times their bulk of 
 earth, and are turned over, and mixed to- 
 gether some weeks before they are spread 
 on the potato ground, the more valuable is 
 the application. And this remark is not con- 
 fined to its use for potatoes ; oats and bar- 
 ley are proportionally benefited by the 
 previous fermentation, and partial disso- 
 lution of the bones in the mixed earth. 
 
 It is impossible, in any agricultural ex- 
 periment, to give very minute directions 
 for the farmer's guidance, since soil, climate, 
 and situation, as regards temperature and 
 easy access to the proposed fertilizer, must 
 be of necessity taken into the agriculturist's 
 consideration ; and these observations par- 
 ticularly apply to those manures of a purely 
 animal nature, whose value I have been 
 endeavouring to illustrate. Thus, with re- 
 gard to bones, the quantity applied per acre 
 must of necessity vary with circumstances ; 
 but, by many carefully conducted experi- 
 ments, at some of which I have personally 
 assisted, it has been found that the bones 
 remain in the soil for a length of time pro- 
 portionate to the size of the pieces,— the 
 dust producing the most immediate effect, 
 the larger description showing the longest 
 advantage ; thus, on arable lands, the good 
 effects of the half-inch or inch bones are 
 observable for four or five years ; while, on 
 pasture land, the advantage derived from 
 their application is observable for eight or 
 nine. But, as practical experience is alone 
 the substitute for our want of general sci- 
 entific knowledge founded on experiments, 
 the farmer should, in experimenting upon 
 all manures, for the sake of correct inform- 
 ation, apply them in varying quantities per 
 acre, and on no account omit to leave, by 
 way of comparison, a fair portion of the field 
 without any manure. 
 
 There is no delusion more common than 
 that a correct agricultural experiment is 
 easily accomplished — that it may be taken 
 up as a mere amusement, carried on with- 
 out care, and concluded without any la- 
 borious attempts at accuracy. Some ex- 
 perience in these delightful pursuits, amongst 
 some of the most talented farmers of the 
 east of England, has long convinced me of 
 the folly of such a conclusion, and of the 
 extreme care and caution necessary for 
 such valuable researches; for, otherwise, 
 222 
 
 all kinds of errors are almost sure to 
 arise. In applying weight and measure, 
 also, to the crop, there is no need for the 
 farmer to weigh and measure large plots ; a 
 square rod or two, carefully examined, fur- 
 nishes results nearly as accurate and valu- 
 able as the examination of acres. 
 
 The application of bones to grass lands is 
 very common in Cheshire and Lancashire. 
 I have already noticed its effect in the pro- 
 duction of white clover, a phenomenon well 
 known to the farmers in the neighbourhood 
 of Manchester, who are also fully aware of 
 the amazingly increased produce of their 
 grass lands by the application of the refuse 
 bones of the size makers. The .quantity 
 which they employ is very large, varying 
 from forty-five to eighty bushels per acre. 
 The result, however, is fully commensurate 
 with the outlay, for they calculate that the 
 produce of their grass fields is nearly doubled 
 by the application. 
 
 I cannot give a better account of its ap- 
 plication for grass than that very kindly 
 communicated to me in March 1836 by 
 Dr. Stanley, the present Bishop of Norwich. 
 " Bone-dust has been used in Cheshire," 
 said his lordship, " as a manure, to a very 
 considerable extent, for the last seven years, 
 but partially for a much longer period. 
 Formerly, it was laid on pasture ground 
 only, and in large quantities, and in large 
 pieces, which rendered it very expensive, 
 and the advantage comparatively slow ; but 
 some pastures that were bone-dusted twenty 
 years ago now show, almost to a yard, 
 where this manure was applied. Bones 
 are now used on every description of soil in 
 this county with the best results, provided 
 the wet sands are first effectually drained. 
 Some thousands of tons are annually con- 
 sumed, and the demand is daily increasing. 
 The quantity per statute acre varies ; but 
 the average may be, on pasture, from 30 to 
 40 cwt. of Manchester or calcined bone, or 
 20 cwt. of raw or ground bones, to the 
 statute acre. For turnips, from 20 to 30 
 cwt. of calcined bones. For oats or barley 
 (of this latter, however, the quantity grown 
 in Cheshire is very trifling), with clover and 
 grass seeds, 20 to 30 cwt. of calcined bones, 
 or one ton of raw or ground bones. Pasture 
 ground should be well scarified or harrowed 
 previous to sowing the bones, and immedi- 
 ately afterward rolled with a heavy roller, 
 for turnips. The bones should be pounded, 
 or ground very small, and drilled in with 
 the seed. With spring corn rolled in, with 
 clover and seeds, it should be here remarked, 
 that raw bones particularly should be al- 
 lowed to remain for some days in heaps to 
 ferment before they are applied. They 
 have been used for potatoes; but experi- 
 
BONES. 
 
 enced persons say they prefer dung. I am 
 also informed, though my informant states 
 his observations to be limited, that on old 
 meadows the result has not been found to 
 be so satisfactory as on pastures. On clover, 
 bones have a most extraordinary effect. On 
 old pastures that have been boned, although 
 previously the clover was not to be seen, 
 luxuriant crops have soon shown themselves. 
 The best proof, indeed, of their beneficial 
 effect, is the fact, that the farmers, six 
 years ago, in this immediate neighbourhood, 
 had so strong a prejudice against bones, that 
 it was with some difficulty they were in- 
 duced to use them, although given by way 
 of reduction of rent ; but, for the last three 
 years, they have been most anxious to ob- 
 tain them, and are now quite willing to be 
 at half the expense. The rents have latterly 
 been well paid, and there is good reason for 
 believing that it is in a great measure owing 
 to the advantage they are deriving from the 
 boned land. On some estates in the county, 
 the proprietors have boned a considerable 
 quantity of the pasture land, the tenants 
 willingly agreeing to pay, as an increased 
 rent, from 8 to 10 per cent, on the cost of 
 bones. There is some difference of opinion 
 as to the most advantageous sorts of bones 
 for use, some preferring the dust to the 
 ground bones. The dust, or calcined bones, 
 are 31. per ton, and the ground bones 71. 
 per ton. For turnips, the dust is generally 
 preferred, as being more immediate in its 
 effects. On a very poor peat soil, about 
 35 cwt. of bone-dust was applied to a statute 
 acre for Swedish turnips. The crop was a 
 fair average one. The turnips were carted 
 off, and the ground sown with wheat, which 
 produced near 25 measures (of 75 lbs. per 
 measure) to the statute acre. Oats suc- 
 ceeded with seed, principally red clover, a 
 most excellent crop of oats ensuing. The 
 clover, also, proved a very heavy full crop, 
 and was mown twice. No manure was ap- 
 plied for this course, except the first set of 
 bones for the turnips. The remainder of 
 the field, of exactly the same description of 
 soil, was well manured with farm-yard dung, 
 for potatoes, mangel wurzel, and vetches, 
 to be used for soiling. This was then sown 
 with wheat ; but, being first well set over 
 with a compost of lime and soil, the wheat 
 plant on this part during winter and spring 
 looked much better than the boned part of 
 the field, but did not prove so good a crop ; 
 but the difference in favour of the bones 
 was not much. Oats succeeded here, also, 
 with seeds, but the oat crop did not prove 
 half so productive any where as on the part 
 boned; and the clover was still more in- 
 ferior, and mowed only once, the second 
 crop not being considered worth mowing, 
 223 
 
 while the part boned, along side of it, was 
 as much as could be well mown." 
 
 There appears to be on many grass soils 
 some care requisite to ensure the greatest 
 advantage from the application of the bones ; 
 and this observation is not confined to any 
 particular district, since it is strongly al- 
 luded to in the following extract from a 
 letter of Mr. William Lewis, of Trentham 
 in Staffordshire, transmitted to me in Sep- 
 tember last, in an obliging communication 
 of his Grace the Duke of Sutherland : — 
 
 u I have never," says this intelligent 
 farmer, " applied less than one ton of crushed 
 bones per acre for turnips drilled in, and 
 have been generally successful in growing 
 that crop ; and their good effects (I mean 
 the bones) are most conspicuously shown 
 and felt on the grass crop that follows the 
 turnips, showing to an inch how far the 
 ground has been manured with them. I 
 have no genuine fertile land, it being nearly 
 all of a light, dry, sandy, hungry nature ; 
 but I have now excellent pastures for sheep, 
 which I greatly ascribe to the use of bones ; 
 for the pastures following barley which have 
 been manured with dung I find very in- 
 ferior to that manured with bones — (the 
 difference in the barley crop not being per- 
 ceivable) — so much so, that I am upon the 
 eve of breaking up some of my pasture 
 fields which have lain three years, and were 
 intended for permanent pasture ; for those 
 manured at the same time with bones are 
 still looking beautiful, with a close, fine, 
 even bottom. I have also applied bones to 
 pastures, and they have generally improved 
 the herbage and verdure very greatly. The 
 top-dressing with the bones I would recom- 
 mend to be done in moist weather, when 
 the ground is pretty well covered with 
 grass. I consider from one and a half to 
 two tons per acre to be a fair dressing. 
 After sowing them, the ground should be 
 well brushed, harrowed length and breadth- 
 ways, then heavily rolled, and all stock 
 taken from the field for at least ten days. 
 I have seen bones applied to bare pastures, 
 with little or no covering, done in hot, dry 
 weather, showing no beneficial effects what- 
 ever afterwards." There is no doubt of the 
 superior advantage of rolling the bones into 
 the soil ; for fresh, or green bones, as they 
 are called in Cheshire, when they are ex- 
 posed to the atmosphere for some time, lose 
 from one fifth to one fourth of their weight ; 
 and even boiled bones, under similar cir- 
 cumstances, are reduced one third in weight. 
 A bushel of crushed green bones, of the 
 three-quarter inch size, weighs about 45 
 lbs. — the same bulk of bone-dust 54 lbs.: 
 75 bushels of crushed green bones weigh 
 about one ton and a half, the same bulk of 
 
BONES. 
 
 boiled bones about two tons. The average 
 weight of the bones of an ox is about 2 cwt., 
 or about one fourth of the carcase free from 
 offal; the bones of a sheep, about 21 lbs., 
 supposing the carcase to average 84 lbs. 
 So that, according to this calculation, al- 
 lowing twenty bushels of crushed bones to 
 manure an acre, the bones of five bullocks 
 or horses, or of fifty sheep, are requisite to 
 supply the necessary dressing. 
 
 In manuring the light lands, cultivated 
 on the four-course system, with bones and 
 with bones only, for a long series of years, 
 
 1 would advise the farmer, whenever he 
 finds any symptoms of his ground failing to 
 produce clover so well as it was once used 
 to do, to add in that case a dressing of 
 gypsum, either with the bones or with the 
 grass seeds. The value of this latter 
 manure, which is amply sufficient, when 
 applied in quantities of not exceeding 
 
 2 cwt. per acre, being in most situations 
 trifling. There is every reason to believe, 
 that in those cases which have puzzled the 
 Nottinghamshire farmers, where the land, 
 after a long course of successful bone-dress- 
 ing, has at last refused to produce clover, 
 that the gradual exhaustion of the soil of 
 the sulphate of lime, so essential to the 
 growth of clover, has been the sole cause of 
 the failure; and that the following facts, 
 published by his Grace the Duke of Port- 
 land, in April 1838 (to whom I have on 
 more than one occasion been obliged for 
 valuable agricultural information), are rea- 
 dily to be explained in this way — the 
 farm-yard dung, with which a portion of 
 the overboned clover field was dressed in 
 these experiments would return to that 
 section of the field a portion of the sulphate 
 of lime, and hence the superior product of 
 clover on the soil to which it was applied. 
 
 " In 1834, two fields of sand land adjacent 
 to Clumber Park, the one at right angles to 
 the other, each containing about twenty 
 acres, were sown with seeds among barley ; 
 whenever these fields had been sown with 
 turnips, for twenty years before 1825, they 
 had always been manured with bones ; in 
 that year they were largely so manured. 
 The seeds sown with barley in 1826 having 
 been burnt up in that dry summer, in 1828 
 the land in both those fields was again 
 broken up. In 1829 it was again fallowed 
 with turnips, and manured with bones. In 
 1833 both these fields were again sown with 
 turnips, parts of each of which were ma- 
 nured with bones, and the remainder with 
 farm-yard dung. {The Times Newspaper., 
 A\>nl 18th, 1838.) 
 
 " In 1 834, when the corn was cut, it was 
 found that the seeds had failed in each of 
 these fields where the bones bad been ap- 
 224 
 
 plied, and that they were very good where 
 they had been manured with dung. In one 
 of these fields the failure exactly followed 
 the line of the difference of the manures, 
 with two exceptions, that the seeds did not 
 quite fail in two spots where formerly there 
 had been dung-heaps. In the other field, 
 the failure did not so exactly follow the line 
 of demarcation, but the exceptions were 
 very few. Generally speaking, the manured 
 land is better than the boned land, but the 
 difference of quality is not great ; the crop 
 of barley on the manured land had been at 
 the rate of five quarters per acre, on the 
 other four. 
 
 "Immediately after harvest, fresh seeds 
 were sown on the boned land ; they came 
 up very thick, but in six weeks died and 
 disappeared. During the winter the land 
 was again fallowed, and fresh seeds were 
 again sown in the spring of 1835. They 
 cannot be said to have failed, but they were 
 a very inferior crop ; and notwithstanding a 
 manuring of farm-yard dung applied as a 
 top-dressing the following spring, they have 
 not yet recovered a parity with the rest of 
 the fields. In this case it seems impossible 
 to attribute the failure of these seeds, where 
 they have failed, to any other cause than 
 the bones, which had certainly been applied 
 with unusual abundance ; and it is the more 
 surprising, that such a cause should have 
 produced such an effect ; because, in the 
 early periods of the use of that manure, it 
 appeared to be in no respect more advan- 
 tageous than in its tendency to encourage 
 the growth of the clovers. Of this ten- 
 dency, the most remarkable instances have 
 been repeatedly seen on very poor land, 
 and none more so than one which occurred 
 on a very poor piece of land prepared for a 
 plantation by a crop of turnips, manured 
 for with forty bushels per acre, on which, 
 between the trees, a great deal of clover has 
 spontaneously sprung up. Previously to 
 this land having been broken up for turnips, 
 scarcely a plant of clover was to be seen. 
 Now, the fields on which the seeds have 
 failed had (as above stated) received, much 
 more frequently than usual, complete dress- 
 ings of bones. 
 
 " If the preceding statement required any 
 confirmation, it has received it in 1837. In 
 this year a field, which had been turnips in 
 1836, had been laid down to grass. The 
 north side of this field is very inferior sand 
 land, and as, till lately, it was supposed that 
 such land would not pay for the expense of 
 bones, they had never been applied to it. 
 For the first time, in 1836, bones were used 
 for the turnip fallow. The south side of 
 this field, which lor many years has always 
 been manured with bones, when in fallow 
 
BONES. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 for turnips, was divided into four divisions ; 
 the western side was manured with farm- 
 yard dung ; that next to it with bones ; the 
 two eastern divisions were manured, the 
 one with rape dust, and the other with malt 
 culms. After harvest, the seeds on the 
 north side appeared to be best ; then those 
 on the western side of the field ; then those 
 on the two eastern divisions, which were 
 rather inferior ; and those on that where 
 the bones had been applied were visibly the 
 worst. The frost has been so injurious to 
 the seeds, that this difference between the 
 three eastern divisions is not now so marked 
 as it was before the frost; but the supe- 
 riority of the northern side and the western 
 division is very apparent." 
 
 Bone manure presents to the cottager, or 
 cultivator of small plots of poor ground, as 
 under the allotment system, a ready and 
 cheap mode of permanently- improving the 
 land. It would be well, perhaps, in some 
 instances, if the managers, under this ex- 
 cellent plan, were to apply the manure for 
 the holder; and that, too, if they even 
 thought it necessary to add, in consequence, 
 to the amount of the rent. For ornamental 
 plantations of trees there can be no manure 
 more advantageous than bones. There is a 
 considerable portion of phosphate of lime 
 in all timber trees, and there is no manure 
 of a mixed animal, earthy, and saline 
 nature which remains so long in the soil, 
 mixed with earth ; and thus previously fer- 
 mented bones are an excellent dressing for 
 vines, and have been used with decided ad- 
 vantage. As a manure for the use of the 
 conservatory and the flower-garden, there is 
 no fertilizer more useful than bone-dust; 
 or, what is a still more elegant application, 
 the turnings and chippings of the bone 
 turners. Those of Birmingham have long 
 been employed by my friend, Maund, of 
 Bromsgrove, the able author of The Bo- 
 tanic Garden. He finds that their use not 
 only promotes the luxuriance of the plant, 
 but the beauty of the flowers. The Shef- 
 field florists are well aware of the value of 
 bone turnings. It is hardly necessary to 
 add more authorities in favour of bone ma- 
 nure. The reader may refer, however, to 
 the experiments of Captain Ogilvy, of Airlie 
 Castle {Trans, of High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 238.) ; 
 of Mr. Watson, of Keillor, Cupar-Angus 
 {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vi. p. 41 — 43.) ; 
 and of Mr. Boswell, of Kingcaussie {Trans, 
 of High7 Soc. vol. i. p. 73. ; Comparative 
 Trial of Bones, Farm-yard Manure, and 
 Rape Cake) : to those of Mr. Billyse on their 
 use for the pastures of Cheshire {Journ. of 
 Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng. vol. ii. p. 91.). See 
 also Johnson, On Fertilizers, p. 125. {Brit. 
 Farm. Mag. vol. vi. p. 308.). The bone mill 
 225 
 
 is described by Mr. Anderson of Dundee 
 {Trans, of High. Soc. vol. i. p. 401.), and 
 again in the Penny Cyclopaedia. 
 
 BONE SPAVIN (Fr. Fspavent; Ital. 
 Spavano) in horses, is a disease of the 
 hock joint usually brought on by over- 
 exertion, accelerated by bad shoeing. When 
 this is forming there is commonly lame- 
 ness, but this diminishes or ceases when 
 the bony matter, whose deposit causes the 
 spavin, is completely formed, at least when 
 the horse is warm with exercise. It impedes 
 his rising when down, and in consequence 
 spavined horses lie down with reluctance. 
 A spavined horse generally does slow work 
 well enough, and when used in the farm 
 his disease is commonly ameliorated or 
 cured. Repeated blisters will either en- 
 tirely remove or ameliorate the symptoms. 
 It is only as a last resort that the hot iron 
 should be used. 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. As the merchant, 
 the manufacturer, and the tradesman all 
 find it necessary to keep a set of account 
 books which shall shew them the amount of 
 capital employed, the debts owing to and 
 by them, and the profit or loss arising from 
 their different transactions, so to the farmer 
 is this good practice equally essential. The 
 Dutch have a proverb, that no one ever 
 goes to ruin who keeps a correct set of ac- 
 counts. There is great truth in this saga- 
 cious observation of the plodding Dutchmen ; 
 for by consulting correct accounts the farmer 
 will be either warned to retrace his steps, or 
 to persevere in the path he is pursuing. The 
 time required for keeping these books is al- 
 ways to be found of an evening after the 
 labours of the day are over. The necessary 
 books to give him this information are, first, 
 a cash book, in which shall be entered on 
 one side all moneys received, and from whom ; 
 and, on the other side, all payments, and 
 to whom made ; secondly, a journal, in which 
 should be entered all deliveries, and articles 
 received ; and thirdly, a stock book, in which 
 should be every week entered all addition 
 to or substraction from the stock of the 
 farm ; fourthly, an invoice book, to receive 
 all bills of account ; fifthly, a wages book, to 
 keep each labourer's time and Avages ; and 
 sixthly, a ledger, which shoxdd contain every 
 person's account with whom the farmer 
 has transactions. With these statements 
 carefully kept, and an account and valu- 
 ation of his stock in trade made annually, 
 as if he were about to quit the farm, no 
 farmer's affairs can reasonably go wrong; 
 for not only by good booking is fraud 
 prevented, and economy promoted, but by 
 this means the farmer always knows his real 
 position. I am supported in these opinions 
 by a very considerable farmer and land- 
 Q 
 
BORAGE. 
 
 BORECOLE. 
 
 agent, Mr. Hewitt Davis, of Spring Park in 
 Surrey. 
 
 BOOSE. (Sax. popis; Su. baas.) A stall 
 for cattle to stand in ; thus, an ox or cow- 
 boose signifies an ox or cow -stall, &c. 
 
 BOOSE-STAKE. A provincial term ap- 
 plied to the stake to which stalled cattle 
 are fastened. It is in some districts called 
 boosing-stake. 
 
 BOOSINGS. A provincial word used to 
 signify the stalls of cattle. 
 
 BORAGE. (Borago officinalis.) Sup- 
 posed to be derived from corago ; or cor, the 
 heart, and ago, to give, alluding to the reno- 
 vating power of which it was supposed to be 
 possessed. This is a well-known plant in all 
 gardens, growing two feet high, with large 
 leaves, and bright blue flowers. The stalks 
 are round, juicy, and thick, and so hairy that 
 it is almost prickly to touch. The leaves 
 are broad, rough, wrinkled, and hairy. The 
 flowers have five bright blue petals or parts, 
 with a black centre ; they blow all through 
 the summer, and continue till late in autumn. 
 For the spring and summer sowing any 
 mouldy soil and open situation may be al- 
 lotted, provided the first is not particularly 
 rich ; but for those which have to withstand 
 the winter, a light dry soil, and the shelter 
 of a south fence, is most suitable. A very 
 fertile soil renders it super-luxuriant, and 
 injures the intensity of its flavour. It is pro- 
 pagated by seed, which, is sown in March or 
 April, and at the close of J uly for production 
 in summer and autumn, and again in August 
 or September, for the supply of winter and 
 succeeding spring. These sowings may be 
 performed broadcast, and regularly raked in, 
 but preferably in shallow drills, six inches 
 asunder. When of about six weeks' growth 
 the plants are to be thinned to six inches 
 apart ; and the plants thus removed of the 
 spring and autumn sowings may be trans- 
 planted at similar distances, but those of the 
 summer will seldom endure the removal, 
 and at all times those left unmoved prosper 
 most. At the time of transplanting, if at 
 all dry weather, they must be occasionally 
 watered moderately until established; water 
 must also be frequeutly applied to the seed- 
 bed of the summer sowings, otherwise the 
 vegetation will be slow and weak. They 
 must be kept perfectly clear of weeds. To 
 save seed, some of those plants which have 
 survived the winter must be left ungathered 
 from. They will begin to flower about 
 June, and when their seed is perfectly ripe, 
 the stalks must be gathered and dried com- 
 pletely before it is rubbed out. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) Borage was for- 
 merly considered cordial. The leaves and 
 flowers tied in a bundle, and warmed up in 
 beer, is a great remedy among the poor. 
 226 
 
 They consider them cordial, opening, and 
 cooling; and in many parts of England, 
 they make Borage one of their materials in 
 brewing. The whole plant, says Smith 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 265.), has an odour 
 approaching to cucumber and burnet, which 
 gives a flavour to a cool tankard ; but its 
 supposed exhilarating qualities, which caused 
 Borage to be reckoned one of the four 
 cordial flowers along with alkanet, roses, 
 and violets, may justly be doubted. The 
 flavour is nauseous in any other beverage. 
 
 BORAGE of Constantinople. {Borago 
 orientalis.) A hardy perennial, blowing its 
 pretty blue flowers in April and May. It 
 loves a light soil, and a dry situation. It is 
 propagated by parting its roots in spring or 
 autumn. 
 
 BORDER. (Germ, and Fr. lord; Sax. 
 bojib.) A term which signifies the portion 
 of land next the hedges in fields ; but in 
 ploughed grounds is mostly applied to the 
 parts at the ends on which the teams turn. 
 
 BORD-LANDS. The lands or demesnes 
 which, under the feudal system, lords kept 
 in their own hands, for the maintenance of 
 their boards or tables, 
 
 BORD-SERVICE. The tenure of 
 board-lands, by which, under the feudal 
 system, the tenants were to procure provi- 
 sions for their lord's tables. There are still 
 some remains of this tenure existing ; but 
 the tenants pay only a small rent per acre, 
 instead of finding the provisions formerly 
 required. 
 
 BORECOLE. (Brassica oleracea fim- 
 briata.) A species of winter cabbage, of 
 which the following are the principal vari- 
 eties commonly cultivated in the garden : — 
 
 I. Brussels borecole. 2. Green borecole 
 (Brassica oleracea selenisia). 3. Purple bo- 
 recole (B. o. laciniata). 4. Variegated bore- 
 cole. 5. German, or curled kale or curlies. 
 
 6. Scotch, or Siberian kale (B. o. sabellica). 
 
 7. Chou de Milan. 8. Egyptian or Rabi 
 kale. 9. Ragged Jack. 10. Jerusalem kale. 
 
 II. Buda, Russian, Prussian, or Manchester 
 kale. 12. Anjou kale. Like the other mem- 
 bers of the cabbage tribe, it is propagated 
 by seed. The first crop to be sown about 
 the close of March, or early in April ; the 
 seedlings of which are fit for pricking out 
 towards the end of April, and for final plant- 
 ing at the close of May, for production late in 
 autumn and at the commencement of win- 
 ter ; the sowing must be repeated about the 
 middle of May ; for final planting, during 
 July, and lastly in August, for use during 
 winter and early spring. If transplanting 
 is adopted, their fitness for pricking out is 
 known when their leaves are about two 
 inches in breadth; they must be set six inches 
 apart each way, and watered frequently 
 
BORING. 
 
 BOTANY. 
 
 until established. In four or five weeks they 
 will be of sufficient growth for final removal. 
 When planted, they must be set in rows two 
 feet and a half apart each way; the last 
 plantations may be six inches closer. They 
 must be watered and weeded, as directed for 
 the other crops; as they are of large spreading 
 growth, the earth can only be drawn about 
 their steins, during their early growth. If 
 during stormy weather any of those which 
 acquire a tall growth are blown down, they 
 must be supported in their erect posture by 
 stakes, when they will soon firmly re-es- 
 tablish themselves. For the production of 
 seed, such plants of each variety as are of 
 the finest growth, and are true to the cha- 
 racteristics primarily given, must be selected, 
 and either left where grown, or removed 
 during open weather in November or before 
 the close of February, the earlier the better, 
 into rows three feet apart each way, and 
 buried down to their heads. The seed 
 ripens about the beginning of August. (G. 
 W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 BORER. See Auger. 
 
 BORING. A practice sometimes em- 
 ployed in order to ascertain the nature of 
 the different strata that lie beneath the soil ; 
 and also for the purpose of discovering 
 springs, and tapping them, so as to draw off 
 the water, that injures the grounds below or 
 in the neighbourhood. See Draining. 
 
 BOS. The generic name for quadrupeds 
 whose horns are in the form of a crescent. 
 See Cattle. 
 
 BOSCAGE. A word we have borrowed 
 from the French, signifying a woody grove, 
 or woodlands. 
 
 BOTANY (from the Gr. poTawrj, an 
 herb), in the most confined sense of the 
 term, is the science which teaches us the 
 arrangement of the members of the vege- 
 table kingdom in a certain order or system, 
 by which we are enabled to ascertain the 
 name of any individual plant with facility 
 and precision. Such arrangement is only 
 to be considered as useful in proportion as 
 it facilitates the acquirement of a knowledge 
 of their economical and medicinal qualities, 
 which cannot be perfectly ascertained with- 
 out an acquaintance with vegetable phy- 
 siology, the parts of plants, their functions, 
 and uses. Botany, in its most comprehen- 
 sive form, teaches us the names, arrange- 
 ment, parts, functions, qualities, and uses of 
 plants. 
 
 This science may be consulted by the 
 agriculturist with considerable benefit. For 
 instance (and several other advantages will 
 readily suggest themselves to the intelligent 
 farmer), the plants growing wild on a soil 
 ever afford some tolerable indication of the 
 nature of the soil and its subsoil. Thus, 
 227 
 
 the heath on elevations indicates a dry soil ; 
 the fern that it is deep as well as dry. The 
 deer hair (Scirpus ccespitosus) grows com- 
 monly over bogs, resting on clay. In the 
 lower situations the broom (Spartium sco- 
 parium) tenants the deep light gravels. The 
 whin, coarser gravels upon a clay subsoil. 
 The rush (Juncus conglomerates) tells the 
 negligent farmer that good land is rendered 
 useless for want of drainage. The common 
 sprit (Juncus articulatus), that the land is not 
 fertile. Sweet gale (Myrica Gale), that it is 
 still worse. The rag weed (Senecio jaco- 
 bcea) in arable land betrays an ill-cultivated 
 loam. The marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) 
 or the wild water-cress in water meadows, 
 tells the owner that the land is fully irri- 
 gated. The common rattle (Rhinanthus 
 cristi), that a meadow is exhausted. The 
 pry (Car ex dioica), that water is stagnating 
 beneath its surface. And these are only a 
 few of the truths which wild flowers teach t he 
 intelligent cultivator. Botanists have, in- 
 deed, long been at work for the farmer — a 
 fact no one will be willing to dispute who 
 remembers that the sloe, the' blackberry, 
 and the crab are nearly all the fruits indi- 
 genous to England ; and that hardly a grass, 
 a flower, or a vegetable that is now culti- 
 vated is a native of the island. 
 
 In 1825 and 1827 the Highland Society 
 of Scotland offered as a prize theme, " The 
 indications to be formed regarding the na- 
 ture and qualities of soils and subsoils, ac- 
 cording to the plants growing upon them, 
 having regard to elevation, exposure, cli- 
 mate, &c." And in the first volume of their 
 Transactions will be found several valuable 
 °ssays on the subject, by Mr. Macgillivray, 
 p. 81., Mr. Gorie, p. 113., Dr. Singer, p. 264., 
 Mr. Hogg, p. 271., all ably illustrating the 
 value of the study of plants to the cultivator. 
 
 The definition of a plant to a superficial 
 observer may appear easy ; but those who 
 have studied natural history are aware of the 
 difficulty of drawing a just line of distinc- 
 tion between the animal and the vegetable 
 kingdoms. It is easy to distinguish a horse, 
 or even a worm, from a rose tree or a fun- 
 gus ; but to distinguish a sensitive plant, &c. 
 by descriptive marks from many zoophytes 
 has hitherto baffled the acutest botanists. 
 Many plants, as will be presently seen, are 
 gifted with spontaneous motion ; whilst many 
 animals, as the corallines, are devoid of loco- 
 motion ; so that neither of these qualities 
 avails us in distinguishing the two kingdoms. 
 In short, whilst the zoophytes, most of which 
 take root, grow up into stems, and multiply 
 by buds and slips, must still be considered 
 as animals, no one can correctly define how 
 plants differ from them. It is, however, 
 fortunate, that the student is seldom placed 
 ' Q 2 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 in a situation where these nice distinctions 
 are to be made. Where specimens are to 
 be examined which admit of the doubt whe- 
 ther they belong to the lower classes of ani- 
 mals or to the vegetable tribes, chemistry 
 may be called to our aid ; if, when burnt, 
 they emit an ammoniacal smell resembling 
 that of feathers, similarly treated, we need 
 not hesitate to consider them as animal pro- 
 ducts ; if that of burning wood, we may con- 
 sider them as fit objects for our botanical 
 researches. 
 
 A few facts will demonstrate that it is 
 impossible to deny that vegetables possess 
 some degree of sensation. The Venus's fly- 
 trap (Dioncea muscipuld) has jointed appen- 
 dages to the leaves, which are furnished on 
 their edges with a row of strong prickles. 
 Flies, attracted by honey, which is secreted 
 in glands on their surface, venture to alight 
 upon them; no sooner do their legs touch 
 these parts than the sides of the leaves 
 spring up, and, locking their rows of prickles 
 together, squeeze the insects to death. The 
 well known sensitive plant (Mimosa sensi- 
 tiva and pudicd) shrink from the slightest 
 touch. Oxalis sensitiva and Smithia sensi- 
 tiva are similarly irritable ; as also are the 
 stamens of the flower of the barberry. One 
 of this tribe (Hedysarum gyrans) has a 
 spontaneous motion — its leaves are fre- 
 quently moving in various directions with- 
 out order or co-operation. When an insect 
 inserts its proboscis between the converging 
 anthers of a kind of dog's bane (Apocynum 
 androscemifolium), they close with a power 
 usually sufficient to detain the intruder 
 until his death. If from these, and many 
 other considerations which we shall notice 
 as we pursue our study, we conclude that 
 plants are endowed with a certain degree 
 of sensation, or at least of irritability, we can 
 pursue that path of the science no further. 
 Such are the results of life ; what constitutes 
 the living principle no human eye can dis- 
 cover. 
 
 We gaze on a rose as it waves in the 
 plenitude of its vigour, admire the tints of 
 its petals, the verdure of its foliage, the 
 gracefulness of its form, the delicacy of its 
 fragrance. We may come on the morrow, 
 and it has been blasted — those petals are 
 scattered on the borders — those leaves are 
 withered and sapless — and scarcely a vestige 
 of its loveliness remains. Wherefore is this 
 change ? The same components remain — 
 the same food was ready for its nourish- 
 ment: but some invisible governing prin- 
 ciple — some unknown agent — has silently 
 departed, without one vacancy to point out 
 where it had resided, but a total ruin, to 
 show that it had pervaded the whole. Let 
 a lew more hours pass away, when the air, 
 and moisture, and heat, external agents 
 228 
 
 which were subservient to its welfare, now 
 concur in completing its destruction — it is 
 partly dissipated in pestilential exhalations, 
 partly reduced to a few earthy and saline 
 particles. Life, whilst it continued, pre- 
 vented this ruin; but still, like its Great 
 Author, " no one hath seen it at any time." 
 
 To explore our path satisfactorily, and 
 that one step may naturally explain the way 
 to the succeeding, we had better first con- 
 sider the most obvious parts of plants, and 
 their functions. 
 
 The root and its uses.— A. root usually 
 consists of two parts, the caudex or body, 
 and the fibres or radicula. The last only 
 are essential for the imbibing of nourish- 
 ment, but the whole serves to steady or fix 
 the plant firmly in a commodious situation 
 and position. Roots are annual, biennial, 
 or perennial. The first belong to those 
 plants whose term of existence is confined 
 to a portion of a year, as barley ; the second 
 to such as, being raised during one year, 
 survive its winter, and produce flowers 
 during a succeeding year, as wheat. Peren- 
 nial roots belong to such plants as live for 
 several years. All plants are considered as 
 biennials that are raised from seed one year, 
 and flower during another, whether that 
 year is the next, or whether the flowering is 
 deferred during several, provided the flowers 
 occur but once. This is often the case with 
 the tree mallow (Lavatera arhored), &c. 
 Attention must be paid to these circum- 
 stances, or we may often mistake the natural 
 term of a plant's existence. Mignionette 
 (Reseda odorata), in our borders, is an an- 
 nual ; but in the shelter of a room or green- 
 house, it may be made, by proper manage- 
 ment, to blossom during several successive 
 seasons. The nasturtium (Tropceolum), 
 naturally a shrubby perennial, is an annual 
 in our gardens.. 
 
 Plants search for food by means of their 
 roots, and to obtain it have been known, 
 by their aid, to overturn walls by piercing 
 their foundations. A tree growing on the 
 top of a wall has been observed to extend 
 its roots down the sides, until they reached 
 the earth at its bottom. If a flower-pot, 
 divided by a perpendicular section, be on 
 one side filled with common earth, and on 
 the other with similar earth mixed with a 
 little potass, the roots of a geranium or other 
 plant, growing in it, will, by degrees, all 
 move into the alkaline portion. It has also 
 been proved that the root is gifted with the 
 power of rejecting what is hurtful, and se- 
 lecting what is beneficial to its parent plant, 
 from any mixed solution of substances not 
 corrosive or poisonous. 
 
 Botanists distinguish seven kinds of roots. 
 
 1. The fibrous root {radix filwosa), con- 
 sisting of fibres alone, either branched or 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 undivided, as that of the Poa annua, that 
 species of grass so troublesome in gravel 
 walks, &c. 
 
 2. The creeping root (r. repens). This 
 spreads and branches horizontally, throwing 
 out fibres in its course, as some kinds of 
 mint (Mentha), and the couch-grass, or 
 twitch (Triticum repens). 
 
 3. Tapering root (r.fusiformis) as that of 
 the carrot, &c. 
 
 4. Abrupt root (r. prcemorsa) appears 
 inclined to be a tapering one, but, from 
 some natural decay or habit, becomes abrupt, 
 or apparently bitten off, as in the devil's-bit, 
 scabious (Scabiosa succisa), and several of 
 the hawk-weeds. 
 
 5. Tuberous root (r. tuber osa) consists 
 of fleshy tubers connected by fibres, as in 
 the potato (Solanum tuberosum) It is the 
 premature formation of the tubers which 
 prevents the blooming of the Jerusalem ar- 
 tichoke, and some of the early varieties of 
 the potato. If the tubers are removed as 
 soon as they are formed, the plants blossom. 
 
 6. Bulbous root (r. bulbosa) is solid, as in 
 the crocus ; tunicate, composed of concen- 
 tric layers, as in the onion (Allium cepa) ; 
 or scaly, as in the lillies. 
 
 7. Jointed or granulated root (r. arti- 
 culata or granulata) is a cluster of either 
 little bulbs or scales, connected by a com- 
 mon fibre, as in the wood-sorrel (Oxalis 
 acetosella), and white saxifrage (Saxifraga 
 granulata). 
 
 The roots of plants sometimes change 
 their form with the situation in which they 
 grow. Those of some grasses are bulbous 
 in a dry situation, and fibrous in a moist 
 one. Thus we see the care of Providence 
 is manifested even in providing for the wel- 
 fare of a weed ; bulbous roots being, as it 
 were, reservoirs of moisture, enable such 
 plants to perfect their seed in the driest 
 season. Again, the fibrous roots of grasses 
 growing in sandy sterile places are remark- 
 ably downy; by this means they retain 
 firmly their hold in so yielding a medium, 
 and their absorbing surfaces are likewise 
 increased, not unnecessarily, where nourish- 
 ment is so scanty. 
 
 Seven kinds of stalks or stems are dis- 
 tinguished by botanists : — 1. A stem (caulis) 
 is confined to such as bear both leaves and 
 flowers, which is the case with the trunks of 
 all trees. It is either simple as in the white 
 lily, or branched as in most cases. In 
 general it grows upright, but sometimes it 
 is more or less recumbent. Some cling to 
 other bodies, by fibres, for support, as the 
 ivy (Hedera helix) ; or by tendrils, as the 
 vine. Others twine round such plants as 
 come in their way. A remarkable distinc- 
 tion is to be observed in twining plants. 
 229 
 
 Honeysuckles, &c. twine from left to right ; 
 whilst others, as the kidney-bean, twine 
 from right to left, nor can any art induce 
 them to alter their course. Some trail along 
 the ground ; some are jointed, as in the sam- 
 phire and Indian fig. They are of various 
 forms, round, three-sided, square, &c. Their 
 surfaces are smooth, viscid, rough, bristly, 
 hairy, &c. Internally they are solid or 
 hollow. Plants without stems are termed 
 acaules. 
 
 2. A culm or straw (culmus) is only a 
 variety of the caulis, but, being peculiar to 
 the grasses, rushes, and other plants nearly 
 allied to them, has been deemed worthy of 
 a separate name. It is without joints, as in 
 the common rushes ; jointed, as in wheat, 
 &c. ; bent like a knee, as in Alopecurus ge- 
 niculate. It varies in being hollow, solid, 
 hairy, &c. 
 
 3. A stalk (scapus) springing from the 
 root bears only flowers and fruit, as that of 
 the primrose (Primula vulgaris) and cow- 
 slip (P. veris). In the first it is simple, in 
 the latter subdivided and many flowered. 
 It is sometimes scaly ; in which case the 
 scales are apt to sport into leaves, and thus 
 render it a proper caulis. It greatly varies 
 as to length, manner of growth, &c. 
 
 4. A flower stalk (pedunculus) springing 
 from the stem, bears only fruit and flowers. 
 A partial flower stalk (pedicellis) is the ul- 
 timate division of a general one, as in the 
 cowslip before instanced. Flowers without 
 stalks are termed sessile, as the dodders, &c. 
 
 5. The leaf stalk (petiolus) signifies the 
 stalk of a leaf only. It is solitary or simple, 
 as in the lilac and all other simple leaves, 
 It is common in the rose, &c. It is usually 
 channelled on its upper side. 
 
 6. A frond (frons) is now used only in 
 describing the class Cryptogamia, and sig- 
 nifies a leaf which produces both flowers 
 and fruit, as in the ferns, lichens, &c. 
 
 7. A stipe (stipes) is the stem of a frond. 
 It will be better to defer the consideration 
 
 of the functions of roots and stems until we 
 take a connected view of the phenomena of 
 vegetable life. 
 
 Leaves are a very general, but not an uni- 
 versal part of the vegetable body ; they are 
 wanting in the samphires, creeping cereus, 
 &c. Such plants are called plantceaphyllce 
 (leafless plants). The situations, forms, in- 
 sertions, and surfaces of leaves are of great 
 use in botanic descriptions ; a few must at 
 present suffice : — 
 
 Folia radicalia spring from the root, as in the 
 primrose. 
 
 Folia caulina and ramea spriog respectively 
 
 from the stem or branch. 
 Folia bina terna, &c. leaves in pairs, or three 
 
 together, &c. 
 
 Q 3 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 Folia verticillata, -whorled, several opposite, or 
 growing in a circle round the stem. 
 
 Folia peltata, peltate, having the footstalk in 
 the centre, as the nasturtium. 
 
 Folia sessilia, sessile, having no footstalk. 
 
 Folia perfoliata, perfoliate, when the stem runs 
 through their centre. 
 
 Leaves are nearly circular, roundish, egg- 
 shaped or ovate, oblong, lanceolate, &c. ; 
 they terminate abruptly, or are sharp, 
 jagged, pointed, cirrhose (i. e. tipped with a 
 tendril), &c. Their margins are entire, 
 spinous, toothed, wavy, &c. Their surfaces 
 are dotted, rugged, veiny, coloured (i. e. 
 tinted with any colour but green, white, or 
 yellow ; in the two latter cases they are 
 termed variegated), &c. They are tubular, 
 awl-shaped, three-edged, evergreen, &c. 
 Compound leaves consist of two or more 
 leaflets, combined by a common footstalk, 
 as in the rose ; they are binate when they 
 consist of two leaflets ; ternate, of three, &c. ; 
 pinnate, when several proceed sideways or 
 laterally from the common footstalk, as in 
 the rose. Leaves are sometimes twice and 
 thrice compounded. 
 
 The jlower is the most essential, yet the 
 most transitory part of plants. By means 
 of the seed, which it is the great agent in 
 producing, plants may be indefinitely mul- 
 tiplied and perpetually renewed; whereas 
 all other modes of propagation, by cuttings, 
 grafts, &c. are but extensions of an in- 
 dividual, Hence, though many plants from 
 unfavourable modes of cultivation, &c. are 
 seldom known to blossom, yet Providence 
 has wisely ordained that no plant is inca- 
 pable of producing and perfecting seed. 
 As our systems of botany are founded 
 chiefly upon the flower, we will proceed to 
 consider it at large. A flower is divided 
 into seven parts : — 
 
 1 . The calyx or outer covering, resembling 
 leaves in texture ; is not present in many 
 flowers, as the tulip. 
 
 There are six kinds of calyx: — 1. The 
 perianth is close to, and forms part of, the 
 flower, as in the rose, and is, in fact, the 
 only true calyx. 2. The involucre is an 
 appendage to the one form of inflorescence, 
 namely, the umbel. It is remote from the 
 corolla, as in all the umbelliferous plants, 
 carrot, &c. 3. The spathe is a floral ap- 
 pendage which bursts longitudinally, being 
 more or less remote from the flower, as in 
 the snowdrop, narcissus, &c. 4. The glume, 
 or hush, is the peculiar calyx or chaff of 
 the grasses, as in wheat, &c. 5. Perechoe- 
 tium, a scaly sheath, enclosing the fertile 
 flowers of some mosses. 6. Volva is the 
 membrane that covers the parts of fructi- 
 fibation, or gills of the fungi, as in the com- 
 mon mushroom ; but it is also applied to 
 230 
 
 the fleshy covering which encloses some 
 fungi when young. 
 
 2. The corolla, or more delicate coloured 
 leaves or leaf, properly called petals, is situ- 
 ated within the calyx. This is absent in 
 many flowers. It comprehends both the petal 
 and the nectary. By petal is meant what 
 are commonly called the coloured leaves of 
 a flower. By nectary is meant an appendage 
 to the corolla, supposed to be for the pur- 
 pose of secreting honey. The little cells, 
 for example, at the bottom of the flower of 
 the crown imperial, each full of a sweet 
 liquid, are called nectaries, but they vary in 
 form and situation in different flowers. 
 When a corolla is formed of one petal, it is 
 said to be monopetalous. It may be bell- 
 shaped, as in the Canterbury bell ; funnel- 
 shaped, as in lung-wort (Pulmonarid) ; 
 salver-shaped, as in the primrose ; wheel- 
 shaped, the same as the preceding, only 
 with a short tube, as in borage ; ringent, 
 like the mouth of an animal, as in the dead 
 nettle ; personate, like the mask of an ani- 
 mal, as in snap-dragon. Corollas of more 
 than one petal are termed polypetalous. 
 It is cruciform, as in the wall-flower ; rosa- 
 ceous, as in the rose ; papilionaceous, as in 
 the pea ; incomplete, when some part, found 
 in kindred flowers, is wanting. 
 
 3. The stamen or stamens are essential 
 for the perfecting of the seed, and are only 
 absent in double flowers, in which they are 
 changed into petals. They vary in different 
 species, from a single one to several hun- 
 dreds, and surround the pistil or pistils, 
 which occupy the centre of the flower. A 
 stamen usually consists of two parts; the 
 filament, or slender stem, which is some- 
 times absent, bearing otherwise on its sum- 
 mit, the anther, a cellular organ of various 
 forms in different species of plants, being the 
 part for holding the pollen. 
 
 4. The pistil or pistils are in the centre of 
 the flower, and usually fewer in number 
 than the stamens. They are sometimes 
 situated in flowers distinct from the stamen, 
 and even on different plants. No seed can 
 be perfected without the pistil, which con- 
 sists of the germen, or rudiment of the fruit 
 and seed, and, of course, is never absent. 
 The style, or little stem, proceeding from 
 the germ, which is not essential, serving 
 chiefly to elevate the stigma — this must al- 
 ways be present : it varies in form and size, 
 being either scarcely more than a point, or 
 forming an orbicular head, or being vari- 
 ously lobed. 
 
 5. The seed-vessel is the germen enlarged, 
 varying in form, texture, and size in almost 
 every species. What old botanists called 
 naked seeds, are seed vessels or carpels 
 containing only one seed ; and which do 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 not open when ripe ; the strawberry, wheat, 
 maize, are examples. The only naked seeds 
 are those of the fir cones, and the Cycadece. 
 
 There are seven kinds of seed-vessels : — 1 . 
 A capsule is woody or membranous, contain- 
 ing one or more cells, as in the poppy. 2. A 
 pod is long, dry, and solitary, formed of two 
 valves, divided by a linear partition into two 
 cells, as in the wall-flower. 3. A legume is 
 solitary, formed of two oblong valves without 
 any partition, consequently is one-celled, as 
 the pea. 4. A drupe has a fleshy coat, closely 
 enclosed in a hard nut, as the cherry, peach, 
 &c. 5. A. pome has a fleshy coat, enclosing a 
 capsule, as the apple, pear, &c. 6. A berry 
 is fleshy, containing its seed or seeds within 
 its pulp, without valves, as the currant. A 
 compound berry is instanced in the black- 
 berry, &c. 7. A cone is a catkin hardened 
 into a seed-vessel, as in the fir, birch, &c. 
 
 6. The seed. To the perfecting of this 
 part all the other parts of the fructification, 
 and even of the whole plant, are subservient ; 
 annuals perish immediately after it is per- 
 fected, and, in our climate, even perennials 
 begin to droop as soon as it is ripe. A seed 
 consists of several parts : — 1 . The embryo 
 is the part the welfare of which all the other 
 parts unite in promoting. It is the ru- 
 diment of the future plant. It is very ap- 
 parent in the bean, pea, &c, and has the 
 form of a heart in the walnut. It is usually 
 within the substance of the seed, as in the 
 above instance ; in the grasses, however, it 
 is on the outside. 
 
 Upon removing the skin of a pea or bean, 
 it divides easily into two parts, these are the 
 cotyledons ; this is the usual number. In 
 the pine tribe they are four ; in the grasses, 
 &c. only one ; hence the last are called mo- 
 nocotyledons. The cotyledons, when the seed 
 has sprouted, usually rise, in the course of 
 germination, out of the ground, and perform 
 the functions of leaves for awhile : this is 
 never the case in wheat, or any other of the 
 monocotyledons ; their seeds consist chiefly' 
 of the albumen or white, which is either fa- 
 rinaceous, horny, or fleshy, and remains in 
 the ground nourishing the embryo, until its 
 leaves and roots are sufficiently perfected 
 for that purpose. Although the albumen is 
 wanting in a distinct form in several tribes, 
 as those with compound and cruciform 
 flowers, &c. yet the farinaceous matter 
 lodged in the cotyledons is evidently in- 
 tended to supply the embryo with nourish- 
 ment during the first efforts of germination. 
 Many plants have it distinct from the coty- 
 ledons. Vitellus, the yolk, like the albumen, 
 serves to nourish the embryo in the com- 
 mencement of germination. If the albumen, 
 as a distinct organ, is present also, the vitellus 
 is situated between it and the embryo. 
 231 
 
 Testa, the skin, envelopes all the pre- 
 ceding parts, and gives them their form, 
 ■being itself of a permanent shape, whilst 
 they are in a liquid state. It is of various 
 textures and substance ; sometimes single, 
 but usually lined with a finer membrane. 
 Hilum, or scar, marks where the seed was 
 connected with the seed-vessel, or receptacle. 
 In describing the form or external parts of a 
 seed, it is always to be considered as the base. 
 
 There are several occasional appendages 
 to seeds, which may as well be considered in 
 this place. The pellicle closely adheres to 
 some seeds, so as to conceal their actual 
 skin. It varies, being downy, membranous, 
 and mucilaginous, or not perceptible until 
 moistened. The tunic envelopes the seed 
 more or less loosely, being attached only at 
 the base. The seed-down is the chaffy, 
 bristly, or feathery crown, originating from 
 the partial calyx remaining attached to the 
 summit of a seed, somewhat resembling a 
 parachute, which we see bearing along the 
 seed of the dandelion, thistle, &c. A tail is 
 the permanent style, which remains as an 
 elongated, feathery termination to some 
 seeds, as clematis. A wing, a membranous 
 appendage, serving, as the seed-down, to 
 transport the seed it is attached to through 
 the air. It is solitary, except in some um- 
 belliferous plants. 
 
 We may now proceed to the last division 
 of the flower, which is, 7thly, the receptacle. 
 — This is the common base or point of con- 
 nection of the other parts. In compound 
 flowers it serves as a distinguishing mark, 
 and therefore is of importance. In the daisy 
 it is conical ; in the chrysanthemum, convex ; 
 carduus has it hairy ; chamomile scaly ; 
 picris naked ; onopordum cellular. 
 
 A compound flower is formed by the union 
 of several sessile florets, or lesser flowers, 
 within a common calyx ; each, however, 
 must possess five stamens, their filaments 
 divided, but their anthers united into a cy- 
 linder, through which passes the style of a 
 solitary pistil, much longer than the stamens, 
 and having a stigma divided into two parts, 
 which roll backwards. There are various 
 forms, as the thistle, daisy, sunflower, &c. 
 
 When the flowers are collected round a 
 stem in a complete ring, or merely on two 
 of its sides, it is denominated a whorl, as in 
 the dead nettle (Lamium). Flowers on then." 
 own stalks, standing somewhat distant from 
 each other on a common one, or axis, are de- 
 nominated a raceme, as a bunch of currants. 
 When they are placed close together on one 
 common axis, they form a spike, as in laven- 
 der (Lavandula). If flowers standing on 
 a common stalk have, in proportion as they 
 stand on it lower down, longer foot-stalks, so 
 that the flowers all stand nearly on a level, it 
 Q 4 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 is denominated a corymb, as in Spircea opuli- 
 folia, common in our gardens ; in the common 
 cabbage, a corymb of flowers becomes a ra- 
 ceme of fruit. Flowers on partial stalks 
 variously divided and inserted, collected 
 closely together and level at top, is a fascicle, 
 as in the Sweet William (Dianthus barbatus). 
 Sessile flowers collected together in a glo- 
 bular figure form a head or tuft, as in 
 Statice armeria. When several flowers on 
 stalks of nearly equal length spring from a 
 common centre on a general stalk, they form 
 form an umbel, as in the parsley. This is 
 either general or partial ; the latter is 
 termed an umbellule. When flowers on 
 separate foot-stalks, springing from a com- 
 mon centre, have their foot-stalks vari- 
 ously subdivided, it is termed a cyme, as 
 in the elder (Sambucus). Flowers growing 
 on partial foot-stalks without any order, but 
 loosely spread on a common one, form a 
 panicle, as in the oat (Avena). When the 
 flowers of a panicle grow closely together, 
 somewhat approaching an ovate form, as 
 a bunch of grapes, the lilac, &c. it is termed 
 a thyrsus, or bunch. When the flowers are 
 all barren and sessile upon a common axis, 
 it forms the amentum. 
 
 The exterior covering of plants is called 
 the epidermis or cuticle, answering the same 
 purpose as the scarf-skin or cuticle of ani- 
 mals, viz. protecting the interior and more 
 tender parts from the injuries that might 
 arise from excessive heat, cold, &c. yet, being 
 porous, it allows the absorption and emission 
 of moisture and air, and the admission of 
 light. It cannot but have been observed how 
 the epidermis varies in different plants ; 
 how smooth it is over the petals of most 
 flowers — how downy on the fruit of the 
 peach — how rough on the oak — on the net- 
 tle, clothed with perforated poisonous hairs. 
 The cuticle peels off in some plants, as in 
 the cork tree. In some plants, especially the 
 Dutch rush (Equisetum hyemale), it is so im- 
 pregnated with silicious or flinty matter as to 
 serve as a polish for the cabinet maker, &c. 
 
 Immediately beneath the epidermis is the 
 cellular integument; this is usually the seat 
 of colour, being red in the petals of the red 
 rose, blue in the common violet, &c. Leaves 
 appear to be little else than masses of cel- 
 lular integument, enclosed in a case of 
 epidermis, and traversed by numerous sap 
 vessels. Next to the cellular integument 
 occurs the bark. In stems and branches 
 but one year old, this consists but of one 
 layer; in older ones there are to be ob- 
 served a layer for every year of age; these, 
 however, are of little import to the plant, 
 the vital functions for the time being are 
 carried on in the layer immediately in con- 
 tact with the wood. This innermost ring is 
 t ( l ined the liber. The bark is very con- 
 232 
 
 spicuous in some roots, as the parsnip, car- 
 rot, &c. ; the thick outer ring, observable 
 when these are cut transversely, is the bark. 
 The bark consists of woody fibres, chiefly 
 running longitudinally, but beautifully in- 
 terwoven. In one of the mezereon tribe, a 
 native of Jamaica, and called the lace bark, 
 it may be separated into elegant layers of 
 lace- work. In the bark the peculiar pro- 
 perties of the plant principally reside ; wit- 
 ness the resin in the pine, the fragrant oil of 
 the cinnamon, &c. 
 
 Next to the liber occurs the wood, which 
 forms the chief bulk of trees. A layer or 
 more of this occurs in all exogenous plants, 
 for in the portion of it which adjoins the 
 liber, and is named the alburnum, are the sap 
 vessels which convey the fluid from the root 
 to the leaves, whence it descends into vessels 
 situated in the liber, as we shall see hereafter. 
 In trees, a fresh layer of wood is deposited 
 every year adjoining the liber, from which 
 it is formed or deposited ; hence the age of a 
 tree may be known by counting the concen- 
 tric rings. In the middle of the wood occurs 
 the medulla or pith, commonly a porous, juicy, 
 yellowish, or greenish substance ; even the 
 hollow stems of the onion, &c. are lined with 
 a film of it. It seems to be an extra re- 
 servoir of nourishment, required for the 
 formation of the leaves and more recent 
 parts of plants ; at all events, in old stems 
 and branches it is usually obliterated. Bo- 
 tanists are not determined as to its uses. 
 
 When a seed is committed to the ground, 
 if moisture, air, and heat are not all present 
 in certain favourable proportions, it refuses 
 to germinate. (See Water, its uses to ve- 
 getation.) No seed will vegetate in dry 
 earth, nor in a temperature at or below the 
 freezing point ; all require a free admission 
 of air. These circumstances being favour- 
 able, the seed swells — the skin bursts — and 
 the radicle, or embryo root, makes its ap- 
 pearance, and sinks into the earth. The 
 cotyledons, if the seed has more than one, 
 by degrees develope themselves, and rise 
 above the surface, affording nourishment to 
 the embryo stem, situated between them, 
 until the radicle has become sufficiently a 
 root to supply food for its growth; when 
 thus rendered useless, they decay. 
 
 Animal and vegetable matters rendered 
 soluble in water by putrefaction, various 
 salts and earths, and water, are the chief 
 nourishment plants derive from the soil ; 
 but it is also certain, that the roots absorb 
 air, which in part accounts for the benefit 
 afforded to them by loosening the soil about 
 them, and for planting them near the sur- 
 face. When a plant has got its leaves de- 
 veloped, it possesses another source of ac- 
 quiring nourishment from the atmosphere 
 (See Gases, their use to vegetation.) 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 The atmosphere, which to our eyes ap- 
 peal's a simple uniform fluid, has been demon- 
 strated by chemists to be composed of three 
 different gases or airs, with which is con- 
 stantly mixed the vapour of water. The gases 
 are known as oxygen, carbonic acid, and 
 azote or nitrogen. Carbonic acid gas is car- 
 bon or charcoal combined with oxygen. 
 Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen 
 gases. These facts, by a little attention, will 
 be easily remembered, and render all that 
 follows comprehensible. The nourishment 
 which is absorbed by the roots being in a 
 fluid state, proceeds along the sap vessels 
 situated in the alburnum of the wood, and 
 spreads through the leaves, flowers, &c. 
 Here, and during its course up the stem, by 
 the varied absorption and decomposition of 
 water and carbonic acid, and the emission 
 of oxygen, the sap is converted into various 
 substances, varying in every species of 
 plants ; gum is formed in the cherry, resin 
 in the fir, &c. ; these are deposited as the sap 
 descends through the vessels of the liber. 
 From the sap likewise is derived the nourish- 
 ment from whence is formed the wood, 
 &c. ; in fact, it is the source of the growth of 
 the parts. Our knowledge of chemistry and 
 vegetable physiology is yet too imperfect to 
 enable us to mark the various shades of dif- 
 ference in the processes of each plant with 
 any degree of precision. We know that in 
 the light all plants absorb carbonic acid 
 gas, and emit oxygen whilst in the dark ; on 
 the contrary, they absorb the latter and 
 give out the former by the same surfaces ; 
 but we are utterly unable to point out how 
 the same organs secrete a poison in the 
 nightshade and a wholesome food in the 
 potato, which so closely resembles the first 
 in form. A few very simple experiments 
 will serve to fix the above facts upon our 
 memories. We may prove that the sap 
 rises through the alburnum, and descends 
 through the bark, by placing the cut end of 
 a leafy twig of the fig tree in an infusion of 
 Brazil wood ; after some hours cut off about 
 half an inch of the extremity, when a circle 
 of red dots will mark where the infusion 
 ascended, and an outer circle of white dots, 
 will show where the juices descend. 
 
 That leaves throw off moisture, or per- 
 spire, is demonstrated by inverting a tumbler 
 over two or three leaves placed in the light ; 
 the inside of the glass will soon be percept- 
 ibly covered with dew. 
 
 That leaves throw off gas from their sur- 
 faces is demonstrated by plunging one in a 
 vessel of water; air bubbles will soon be 
 perceived to be emitted by and attached 
 to it. 
 
 In due course of time the flowers of a 
 plant open ; the anthers of the stamens swell, 
 233 
 
 burst, and scatter a dust, termed pollen, 
 secreted by them, and which is caught im- 
 mediately by the moist stigmas of the pistils, 
 or is carried to them by the wind, or acci- 
 dental contact of some insect. This contact 
 of the pollen with the stigma is found to be 
 absolutely necessary before the seed can be 
 perfected. This course of vegetation is re- 
 peated for a series of years in perennials, 
 but the plant decays as soon as the seed is 
 perfected in annuals. 
 
 Botanists at present are acquainted with 
 nearly 100,000 species of plants ; and the 
 care with which Providence has provided 
 for the well-being of plants is an earnest of 
 their importance. That they may never 
 become extinct, the number of" their seeds is 
 often immense ; Kay counted 32,000 in one 
 poppy-head ! Where the seeds are less 
 numerous, their safety is secured by the 
 extra strength of the seed-vessel, their 
 nauseous poisonous nature, and other means. 
 The various modes in which they are spread 
 over the face of' the country is equal evi- 
 dence of a peculiar providential care. The 
 seed-down bears some through the air to a 
 distance ; some cling by their rough ap- 
 pendages to the coats of animals ; others are 
 borne by neighbouring streams, or by the 
 winds to an immense distance ; cocoa nuts 
 float from the tropics to the shores of Nor- 
 way ; African seeds are blown over the 
 southern coasts of Spain; birds, animals, 
 and even the seed-vessels themselves, by an 
 ejective power, all perform a part in the 
 office of dissemination. Then, again, the 
 various kinds of defence with which they are 
 endowed : cuticles, woolly, and thorny, and 
 flinty, to preserve an equable temperature, 
 and to prevent injurious wounds. The buds, 
 which contain the embryo of leaves to appear 
 the following year, how enveloped are they 
 in scales, and often coated with resin or gum ! 
 
 Independent of any general arrangement, 
 plants are divided into species, genera, and 
 varieties. 
 
 By species is to be understood a plant, 
 which by certain permanent signs can be 
 distinguished from all others ; for instance, 
 every one can determine that the damask 
 rose differs from every other ; and botanists, 
 having shewn by what specific marks it may 
 always be distinguished, have determined it 
 to be a species : but there are many other 
 roses which, though having specific points 
 I of difference, very closely resemble the 
 j damask rose ; these botanists have therefore 
 collected into one family, which they term 
 a genus, under the general name of Rosa. 
 Rosa, then, is the generic or family name ; 
 but, to distinguish the species, every one has 
 a separate second or specific name — thus, 
 the damask rose is Rosa centifolia ; the dog- 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 rose, Rosa canina ; these second names are 
 therefore termed the specific names. By va- 
 riety is meant a plant varying in an esta- 
 blished species, but which cannot produce 
 an exact resemblance of itself by seed : thus, 
 all our apples are varieties of one species, 
 the crab (Pyrus), and all plants raised from 
 their seed invariably differ from each other 
 and their parent. The whole vegetable 
 kingdom, then, is divided into families, or 
 genera, composed of a greater or less number 
 of species. In botany the varieties are little 
 noticed. These genera are distributed by 
 LinnEeus into classes, in what, from him, is 
 denominated the Linnasan System of Botany. 
 
 These classes are twenty-four in number, 
 founded on the number, situation, or pro- 
 portion of the stamens. In the eleven first 
 classes the number of the stamens is ex- 
 clusively considered : — 
 
 1. 
 
 Monandria, 
 
 plants with 
 
 1 stamen 
 
 2. 
 
 Diandria 
 
 
 2 — 
 
 3. 
 
 Triandria 
 
 
 3 — 
 
 4. 
 
 Tetrandria 
 
 
 4 — 
 
 5. 
 
 Pentandria 
 
 
 5 — 
 
 6. 
 
 Hexandria 
 
 
 6 — 
 
 7. 
 
 Heptandria 
 
 
 7 — 
 
 8. 
 
 Octandria 
 
 
 8 — 
 
 9. 
 
 Enneandria 
 
 
 9 — 
 
 10. 
 
 Decandria 
 
 
 10 — 
 
 11. 
 
 Dodecandria 
 
 
 12 to 19. 
 
 Insertion is considered 
 classes : — 
 
 in the two next 
 
 12. Icosandria 
 
 13. Polyandria 
 
 f Stamens 20 or more, in 
 \ serted in the calyx. 
 
 {Stamens numerous, in- 
 serted into the re- 
 ceptacle. 
 
 The length of the stamens is characteristic 
 in the two following classes : — 
 
 14. Didynamia - 2 long and 2 short stamens. 
 
 15. Tetradynamia 4 long and 2 short stamens. 
 In the three next classes, the union of the 
 
 filaments of the stamens is characteristic : — 
 ] 6. Monadelphia, Stamens united into 1 tube. 
 17. Diadelphia Stamens united into 2 parcels. 
 
 ' Stamens united into more 
 than 2 parcels. 
 Plants with anthers united 
 
 into a tube. 
 Stamens attached to the 
 pistil. 
 
 {Stamens and pistils in se- 
 parate flowers, but grow- 
 ing on the same plant. 
 ["Stamens and pistils in se- 
 -| parate flowers, and also 
 |_ on separate plants, 
 f Stamens and pistils sepa- 
 rate in some flowers, 
 j united in others, either 
 on the same plant, or on 
 two or three separate 
 ones. 
 
 18. Polyadelphia 
 
 19. Syngenesia 
 Gynandria 
 
 20 
 
 21. Monoecia - 
 
 22. Dioecia 
 
 23. Polygamia 
 
 234 
 
 (Stamens and pistils present, 
 or not ascertained to be 
 so. 
 
 The plants of the above classes are fur- 
 ther arranged in subdivisions, denominated 
 orders. The orders of the first thirteen 
 classes are founded on the number of pistils 
 the plants belonging to them contain : — 
 
 Monogynia, plants with 1 pistil. 
 
 Digynia — 2 — 
 
 Trigynia — 3 — 
 
 Tetragynia — 4 — 
 
 Pentagynia — 5 — 
 
 Hexagynia ■ — 6 — 
 
 Heptagynia — 7 — 
 
 Octagynia — 8 — 
 
 Enneagynia — 9 — 
 
 Decagynia — 10 — 
 
 Dodecagynia — 12 to 19 
 
 Polygamia — many pistils. 
 
 The orders of the 14th class are distin- 
 guished by their seed-vessels : — 
 
 , r, . f Seeds apparently naked, 
 
 1. Gymnospermia < fi * 
 
 J r l_ generally four. 
 
 2. Angiospermia - Seeds in a capsule, many. 
 The two orders of the 15th class are dis- 
 tinguished by the form of the seed-vessel : — 
 
 1. Siliculosa - Seed-vessel, a roundish pod. 
 
 2. Siliquosa - Seed-vessel, a long pod. 
 
 The orders of the 16th, 17th, and 18th 
 classes, are founded on the number of the 
 stamens, that is, on the characters of the 
 first 13 classes. 
 
 The orders of the 19th class {Syngenesia) 
 are marked by the nature of the florets. 
 
 1. Polygamia sequalis. Florets all perfect, 
 each having stamens, a pistil, and one seed. 
 
 2. Polygamia superflua. Florets of the disk, 
 or centre of the flower, with stamens and 
 pistils, those of the rays with a pistil only ; 
 but both kinds are capable of perfecting 
 seed. 
 
 3. Polygamia frustranea. Florets of the disk 
 with stamens and pistil ; those of the rays 
 either with a pistil incapable of perfecting 
 seed, or without any pistil. 
 
 4. Polygamia necessaria. Florets of the disk 
 with stamens alone, those of the rays with 
 pistils only. 
 
 5. Polygamia segregata. Several flowers, 
 either simple or compound, but with united 
 anthers, and separate calyx, included in one 
 general calyx. 
 
 The orders of the 20th, 21st, and 22d 
 classes are distinguished by the characters 
 of some of the classes that preceded them, 
 that is, by the number or proportion of the 
 stamens, the union of the anthers not being 
 attended to. 
 
 The orders of the 23rd class are distin- 
 guished upon the principles of the two 
 preceding classes. 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 1. Monoecia: has flowers with stamens and 
 pistils, and others with pistils only, or sta- 
 mens only, or all three descriptions of flowers 
 in the same plant. 
 
 2. Dicecia : has the two or three descriptions 
 of flowers on two different plants. 
 
 3. Tricecia : in this they are on three separate 
 plants. 
 
 The 24th class (Cryptogamid) is divided 
 into five orders : — 
 
 1. Ferns 3. Liverworts 
 
 2. Mosses 4. Algai 
 
 5. Mushrooms. 
 
 I shall conclude with an enumeration of 
 the various classes and orders, and by men- 
 tioning a specimen plant of each. 
 
 Monandria has two orders. 
 Monogynia; to this belongs the Samphire 
 
 (Salicornia). 
 Digynia - - The Strasburgh blite 
 
 (Blitum). 
 
 Diandria has three orders. 
 Monogynia - - The Lilac (Syringa). 
 
 Digynia - - Sweet-scented vernal 
 
 grass (Anthoxanthum). 
 Trigynia - - Has only the Pepper 
 
 (Viper). 
 
 Triandria has three orders. 
 Monogynia - - The Crocus. 
 
 Digynia - - Wheat, and nearly all 
 
 the grasses. 
 Tryginia - - Holosteum. 
 
 Tetrandria has three orders. 
 Monogynia - - Plantain (Plantago). 
 
 Digynia - - Bastard Chickweed 
 
 (Buffonia tenuifolia). 
 Tetragynia - - Holly (Ilex). 
 
 Pentandria has six orders. 
 Monogynia - - Convolvulus. 
 
 Digynia - - Parsnip (Pastinaca). 
 
 Trigynia - - Elder (Sambucus). 
 
 Tetragynia - - Parnassia. 
 
 Pentagynia - - Flax (Linum). 
 
 Polygynia - - Mouse-tail (Myosurus). 
 
 Hexandria has six orders. 
 Monogynia - - Lily. 
 
 Digynia - - Rice (Oryza). 
 
 Trigynia - - Dock (Rumex). 
 
 Tetragynia - - Petiveria alliacea. 
 
 Hexagynia - - Stratiotes. 
 
 Polygynia - - Water plantain (Alis- 
 
 ma). 
 
 Heptandria has four orders. 
 Monogynia ~ - Horse-chestnut (JEscu- 
 
 lus). 
 
 Digynia - - Limeum. 
 
 Tetragynia - - Saururus. 
 
 Heptagynia - - Septas. 
 
 Octandria has four orders. 
 Monogynia - - Heaths (Erica). 
 
 235 
 
 Digynia - - Galenia Africana. 
 
 Trigynia - - Polygonum 
 
 Tetragynia - - Bulbous Fumitory 
 
 (Adoxa). 
 
 Enneandria has three orders. 
 Monogynia - - Bay tree (Laurus). 
 
 Trigynia - - Rhubarb (Rheum). 
 
 Hexagynia - - Flowering Rush (Bu- 
 
 tomus). 
 
 Decandria has five orders. 
 Monogynia - - Rue (Ruta). 
 
 Digynia - - Pinks (Dianthus). 
 
 Trigynia - - Silene. 
 
 Pentagynia - - Sorrel (Oxalis). 
 
 Decagynia - - Phytolacca. 
 
 Dodecandria has six orders. 
 Monogynia - 
 
 Digynia 
 
 - Willow herb (Ly- 
 ihrum). 
 
 - Agrimony (Agrimo- 
 nia). 
 
 Trigynia - - Mignionette (Reseda). 
 
 Tetragynia - - Aponogeton. 
 
 Pentagynia - - Glinus. 
 
 Decagynia - - Houseleek (Sempervi- 
 
 vum). 
 
 Icosandria has three orders. 
 
 Monogynia - - Cherry, peach, &c. 
 
 Pentagynia - - Apple, pear, &c. 
 
 Polygynia - - Rose. 
 
 Polyandria has seven orders. 
 
 Monogynia - - Poppy (Papaver). 
 
 Digynia - - Peony. 
 
 Trigynia - - Larkspur (Delphinium). 
 
 Tetragynia - - Tetracera. 
 
 Pentagynia - - Columbine (Aquilegia). 
 
 Hexagynia - - Stratiotes. 
 
 Polygynia - - Anemone. 
 
 Didynamia has two orders. 
 
 Gymnospermia - Lavender. 
 Angiospermia - Fox-glove (Digitalis). 
 
 Tetradinamia has two orders. 
 
 Siliculosa - - Honesty (Lunaria). 
 
 Siliquosa - - Mustard (Sinapis). 
 
 Monadelphia has eight orders. 
 
 Triandria - - Tamarindus. 
 
 Pentandria - - Crane's bill (Exodium). 
 
 Heptandria - - Pelargonium. 
 
 Octandria - - Aitonia. 
 
 Decandria - - Geranium. 
 
 Endecandria - Brownea. 
 
 Dodecandria - Pentapetes. 
 
 Polyandria - - Mallows (Malva). 
 
 Diadelphia has four orders. 
 
 Pentandria - - Monnieria. 
 
 Hexandria - - Fumaria. 
 
 Octandria - - Polygala. 
 
 Decandria - - Pea, broom, &c 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 Polyadelphia has three orders. 
 
 Dodecandria - Orange (Citrus). 
 
 Icosandria - - Melaleuca. 
 
 Polyandria - - Hypericum. 
 
 Syngenesia has five orders. 
 
 Polygamia a;qualis - Dandelion, &c. 
 Superflua - - Daisy (Bellis). 
 
 Frustranea - - Sun-flower (Helian- 
 
 thus). 
 
 Necessaria - - Marigold (Calendula). 
 
 Segregata - - Globe-thistle (Echi- 
 
 nops). 
 
 Gynandria has seven orders. 
 Mohandria - - Orchis. 
 
 Diandria - - Ladies-slipper (Cypri- 
 
 pedium). 
 Triandria - - Salacia. 
 
 Tetrandria - - Nepenthes. 
 
 Pentandria - - Pergularia. 
 
 Hexandria - - Aristolochia. 
 
 Octandria - - Cytinus. 
 
 Moncecia has eight orders. 
 
 Monandria - 
 
 Diandria 
 Triandria - 
 Tetrandria - 
 Pentandria - 
 Hexandria - 
 Polyandria - 
 Monadelphia 
 
 Bread Fruit (Artocar- 
 
 pus). 
 Anguria. 
 Sedge ( Carex). 
 Nettle ( Urtica). 
 Amaranthus. 
 Zizania. 
 Oak (Quercus). 
 Fir (Pinus). 
 
 Dicecia has eight orders. 
 
 Monandria - - Brosimum. 
 
 Diandria - - Valisneria. 
 
 Triandria - - Empetrum. 
 
 Tetrandria - - Trophis. 
 
 Pentandria - - Hop (Humulus). 
 
 Hexandria - - Tamus. 
 
 Polyandria - - Poplar (Populus). 
 
 Monodelphia - Yew (Taxus). 
 
 Polygamia has three orders. 
 Moncecia - - Orach (Atriplex). 
 
 Dicecia - - Hippophae. 
 
 Trioecia - - Fig (Ficus). 
 
 Cryptogamia has five orders. 
 Filices - - Ferns. 
 
 Musci - - Mosses. 
 
 Hepaticae - - Liverworts. 
 
 Algae - - Flags. 
 
 Fungi - - Mushrooms. 
 
 The natural system of M. Jussieu. Every 
 person must have observed, that plants in 
 many instances are arranged by nature in 
 families ; for instance, the grasses, liliaceous 
 plants, the umbelliferous plants, mosses, 
 sea-weeds, ferns, &c. are composed of indi- 
 viduals bearing a very striking resemblance 
 to each other in their forms. The same re- 
 semblance holds in their internal qualities, 
 between such plants as resemble one another 
 in configuration. Thus the grasses are all 
 236 
 
 nutritious ; the liliaceous plants in general 
 poisonous ; umbelliferous plants growing on 
 high dry soils are generally wholesome ; 
 those of wet situations are generally poi- 
 sonous. The importance of keeping these 
 families undivided in a botanical classifica- 
 tion is evident, and if plants were univer- 
 sally separable into such distinct families as 
 those above mentioned, a natural system 
 would be easy and perfect : but plants are 
 too diversified ; they approach each other in 
 such various shades, that it is certain a 
 complete natural system can never be per- 
 fected, or must be too intricate for general 
 use. Jussieu's system, with all its merit, is 
 open to both these objections ; it is imper- 
 fect, were it only from being founded upon 
 the structure of the seed, that part of plants 
 which is, perhaps, seldomer than any other 
 capable of being observed by the botanist. 
 The following synopsis of the classes and 
 orders are demonstrative of its intricacies ; 
 there are 15 classes and 100 orders. 
 
 The classes have no particular names, 
 but are distinguished by numbers, with a 
 short statement of essential characters. The 
 orders are named after some principal genus 
 in each. There are some inaccuracies in 
 the arrangement; many plants, considered 
 by Jussieu as monocotyledonous, are now 
 known to be without any cotyledons. 
 
 Class I. Acotyledones (plants having no 
 cotyledon). 
 
 Order 1. Fungi. 6. Naiades, containing 
 
 2. Algae. several water plants, 
 
 3. Hepaticae. as the Duck-weeds 
 
 4. Musci. (Lemna), &c. 
 
 5. Filices. 
 
 Class II. Monocotyledones (plants with one 
 cotyledon). Stamens inserted beneath the 
 germen. 
 
 Order 7. Orchideae, as Arum. 
 
 8. Typheae - Typha, &c. 
 
 9. Cyperoideae Cyperus, the sedges, 
 
 &c. 
 
 10. Gramineae Grasses. 
 
 Class III. Monocotyledones. Stamens in- 
 serted round the pistil, that is, on the co- 
 rolla or calyx. 
 
 Order 11. Palmae - Palms, cocoa nut, &c. 
 
 12. Asparagi - Asparagus, lily of the 
 
 valley, &c. 
 
 13. Junci - Rushes, &c. 
 
 14. Lilia - Lily, tulip, &c. 
 
 15. Bromelia - Pine apple, &c. 
 
 16. Asphodeli- Asphodelus, onion,&c. 
 
 17. Narcissi - Narcissus, snowdrop, 
 
 &c. 
 
 18. Irides - Iris, crocus, &c. 
 
 Class IV. Monocotyledones. Stamens in- 
 serted on the germen or style. 
 
BOTANY. 
 
 Order 19. Musae - Plaintain tree, &c. 
 
 20. Cannae - Sugar cane, &c. 
 
 21. Orchidese - The orchises. 
 
 22. Hydrocha-| HydrocharidiS) 
 
 &c. 
 
 Class V. Dicotyledones (plants with two 
 cotyledons) without petals. Stamen on the 
 germen or style. 
 
 Order 23. Aristolochiae, Aristolochia, &c. 
 
 Class VI. Dicotyledones without petals. 
 Stamens inserted into the calyx. 
 Order 24. Elaeagni - Elaeagnus, &c. 
 
 25. Thymeleae Daphne, &c. 
 
 26. Proteae - Protea, &c. 
 
 27. Lauri - Laurel, &c. 
 
 28. Polygoneae Polygonum, rhubarb, 
 
 &c. 
 
 29. Atriplices - Atriplex, &c. 
 
 Class VLT. Dicotyledones without petals. 
 Stamens inserted beneath the germen. 
 Order 30. Amaranthi Amaranthus, &c. 
 
 31. Plantagines Plantago, &c. 
 
 32. Nyctagines Marvel of Peru, &c. 
 
 33. PJumbagines Plumbago, &c. 
 
 Class VIII. Dicotyledones. One petal 
 inserted under the germen. 
 
 Order 34. Lysimachiae Primrose, &c. 
 
 35. Pediculares Veronica, &c. 
 
 36. Acanthi Acanthus, &c. 
 
 37. Jasmineae Lilac, &c. 
 
 38. Vitices - Verbena, &c. 
 
 39. Labiataa - Sage. 
 
 40. Scrophulariae Antirrhinum. 
 
 41. Solaneae - Potato, &c. 
 
 42. Borragineae Borage, &c. 
 
 43. Convolvuli Convolvulus, &c. 
 
 44. Polemonia Polemonium, &c. 
 
 45. Bignoniae - Bignonia, &c. 
 
 46. Gentianae - Gentian, &c. 
 
 47. Apocina3 - Apocynum, &c. 
 
 48. Sapotss - Jacquinia, &c. 
 
 Class IX. Dicotyledones. One petal in- 
 serted into the calyx. 
 
 Order 49. Guaiacanae Styrax, &c. 
 
 50. Rhododen-1 
 
 dra J 
 
 51. Ericae - Heaths. 
 
 Rhododendron. 
 
 52. Campanu- 
 laceae 
 
 Harebell, &c. 
 
 Class X. Dicotyledones. One petal crown- 
 ing the germen ; anthers united into a tube ; 
 flowers compound. 
 
 Order 53. Cichoraceae Lettuce, &c. 
 54. Cinaroce- 
 
 55. Corymbife 
 
 ST } fistic & c. 
 7^ bife "] Chrysanthemum 
 
 Order 57. Rubiacea! 
 58. Caprifolia 
 
 Blackberry, &c. 
 Ivy, &c. 
 
 Class XI. Dicotyledones. One petal 
 crowning the germen ; anthers distinct. 
 
 Order 56. Dipsacea; - Scabious, &c. 
 237 
 
 Class XII. Dicotyledones. Several petals ; 
 stamens upon the germen. 
 Order 59. Aralia; - Panex, &c. 
 60. Umbelliferae Carrot, &c. 
 
 Class XIII. Dicotyledones. Several pe- 
 tals ; stamens inserted under the germen. 
 Order 61. Ranuncula-1 An 
 
 cese J ' 
 
 62. Papaveraceae Poppy, &c. 
 
 63. Cruciferae - Cabbage, &c. 
 
 64. Capparides Mignionette, &c. 
 
 65. Sapindi - Sapindus, &c. 
 
 66. Acera - Maple, &c. 
 
 67. Malpighia- Malpighia, &c. 
 
 68. Hyperica - Hypericum, &c. 
 
 69. Guttiferas - Gambogia, &c. 
 
 70. Aurantia - Orange, &c. 
 
 71. Meliae - Melia, &c. 
 
 72. Vites - Vine, &c. 
 
 73. Gerania - Geraniums, &c. 
 
 74. Malvaceae Mallow, &c. 
 
 75. Magnoliae - Magnolia. 
 
 76. Anonae - Anona, &c. 
 
 77. Menisperma Menispermum. 
 
 78. Berberides Berberry, &c. 
 
 79. Tiliaceae - Lime tree. 
 
 80. Cisti - Cistus. 
 
 81. Rutaceae - Rue, &c. 
 
 82. Caryophy-jj,.^ &( . 
 
 Class XIV. Dicotyledones. Several petals ; 
 stamens inserted into the calyx or corolla. 
 Order 83. Sempervivae Houseleek, &c. 
 
 84. Saxifragae Saxifrage, &c. 
 
 85. Cacti - Creeping cereus. 
 
 86. Portulaceae Purslane, &c. 
 
 87. Ficoideae - Ice plant, &c. 
 
 88. Onagrae - Fuchsia, &c. 
 
 89. Myrti - Myrtle, &c. 
 
 90. Melastomae Rhexia, &c. 
 
 91. Salicariae - Willow herb, &c. 
 
 92. Rosaceae - Rose. &c. 
 
 93. Leguminosae Kidney bean, &c. 
 
 94. Terebinta- "1 Q , p 
 
 > Sumach, &c. 
 
 ceae J ' 
 
 95. Rhamni - Holly, &c. 
 
 Class XV. Dicotyledones. Stamens in 
 separate flowers from the pistils. 
 
 Order 96. Euphorbia? Box, &c. 
 
 97 ' CU c U eaf a " ) Cucumber, &c. 
 
 98. Urticae - Nettle, &c. 
 
 99. Amentaceae Oak, &c. 
 
 100. Coniferae - Cypress, &c. , 
 
 At the end Jussieu places a large assem- 
 blage of genera, consisting of plants, the 
 construction of whose seed is undetermined. 
 This, of course, is an imperfection, but not 
 peculiar to Jussieu's system. It must be 
 the case with all systems founded on nature, 
 
BOTS. 
 
 BOWEL DISEASES. 
 
 unless their contrivers could have at once 
 before them a specimen of every species of 
 plant, that the various portions of our globe 
 produce. This system has been greatly 
 modified and improved by Decandolle, 
 Lindley, and others ; and it is now justly 
 preferred to the artificial system of Linnaeus. 
 (G. W. Johnson; Dr. Lindley; G. Sinclair, 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol. i. p. 81.) 
 
 BOTS. In farriery, a kind of worms 
 very troublesome to horses. Bots are the 
 larvae or maggots of a species of gad-fly (the 
 CEstrus equi), which deposits its eggs on the 
 legs, mane, or those parts of the horse that 
 the animal is most apt to lick. The egg is im- 
 mediately hatched by the warmth and mois- 
 ture of the tongue, and the little worm con- 
 veyed into the mouth, whence it crawls down 
 the oesophagus into the stomach. It adheres 
 to the cuticular coat of the stomach by means 
 of little hooks, with which its mouth is fur- 
 nished ; and there it remains from the sum- 
 mer of one year to the spring of the next, 
 nourished by the mucus of the stomach, or 
 the food which it contains. Then having 
 attained its full size as a maggot, it loosens 
 its hold, and is carried along the intestines 
 with the other contents of the stomach, and 
 evacuated with the faeces. Before it drops, 
 it generally clings for a while to the verge of 
 the anus, and tickles and teazes the horse 
 to a very great degree. Except they exist 
 in most unusual numbers, bots do neither 
 good nor harm during their residence in 
 the stomach of the horse. It is the habita- 
 tion which nature has assigned to them ; and 
 the safety of so noble an animal as the horse 
 would not have been compromised for the 
 sake of a maggot and a fly. The best ad- 
 vice that can be given, therefore, is to let 
 them alone, or at most to be content with 
 picking them off when they appear under 
 the tail. There are two good reasons for 
 this ; the first is, that there is not any medi- 
 cine that will expel them ; the strongest 
 and even the most dangerous purgative is 
 insufficient. The second reason is, that if 
 the bots are let alone, they will, in due time, 
 come all away without our help or meddling. 
 (Clater's Farriery, p. 168 — 170.) Green 
 food, however, expels them readily, as does 
 common salt in the proportion of two to 
 four ounces to a quart of water. The most 
 simple and efficient remedy is a quart of 
 milk, mixed well with a quarter of a pound 
 of honey, or brown sugar, given fasting. 
 This is much better than aloes. 
 
 BOUDS. A name given in some districts 
 to the weevils, which breed in several kinds 
 of grain, malt, &c. 
 
 BOUND. (Sax. bunbe; from binban, to 
 bind.) In veterinary medicine, a term of 
 various application. Any part of an animal 
 2.38 
 
 that is embraced with an unnatural force is 
 said to be bound : thus horses are liable to 
 be hoof-bound, hide-bound, &c. Or the bowels 
 may be constricted so as not to part with 
 the faeces : in which case the belly is said to 
 be bound. 
 
 BOW. (Sax. bos.) See Archery. 
 
 BOWEL DISEASES. (Mod. Fr. 
 boyaux; old Fr. boailles.) The horse and 
 other quadrupeds are liable to various dis- 
 eases affecting the bowels. Of inflammation 
 of the bowels there are two kinds ; that of the 
 external and that of the internal coat. The 
 former is a very frequent and fatal disease, 
 and is recognised by the farrier under the 
 name of red colic. It is frequently caused 
 by the application of cold to the belly of the 
 horse, either by taking him into the water, 
 or washing him about the belly with cold 
 water ; or suffering him to drink plentifully of 
 it when he is heated, or by exposure to rain, 
 over exertion on a full stomach, &c. From 
 whatever cause it arises, it runs its course 
 with fearful rapidity, and sometimes destroys 
 the horse in less than twenty-four hours. 
 The symptoms should be carefully studied. 
 One of the earliest is the expression of very 
 acute pain. The animal paws, rolls, strug- 
 gles violently, lies upon his back, groans ; 
 his legs and mouth are cold, the flanks heave 
 violently, the horse shivers and sweats, &c. 
 The violence of the symptoms soon abate, 
 and the horse becomes weak, and scarcely 
 able to stand. Prompt and copious bleeding 
 should be at first resorted to, until fainting 
 nearly or quite succeeds ; and mild aperients 
 may be next administered. The whole of the 
 belly should be stimulated with the strong 
 blistering liquid, or with spirit of turpentine, 
 and these appliances should be rubbed in as 
 hardly and thoroughly as the tender state 
 of the belly will allow. The horse should 
 be kept quiet, warmly clothed, and his legs 
 bandaged. Inflammatio^of the inner coat 
 of the bowels is usually the consequence of 
 physic, either of bad quality, or given in an 
 over dose ; or the horse may have been ridden 
 or driven far and fast with nothing but green 
 meat in his belly. This disease can scarcely 
 be confounded with the foregoing. The 
 horse does not roll so violently nor kick so 
 desperately, nor is there any heat nor much 
 tenderness of the belly. At the same time 
 he is purged, instead of exhibiting the ob- 
 stinate costiveness which generally accom- 
 panies the former. Plenty of tolerably thick 
 gruel or starch should be forced down, which 
 will possibly sheathe the coats of the stomach 
 from the effect, either of some portion of 
 the physic or the acrimony of the secretion, 
 and the purging will gradually stop. If 
 this should have no effect, bleeding, carefully 
 watched, and stopped when the pulse falters, 
 
BOWLDERS. 
 
 BRACKEN. 
 
 must be resorted to ; and thicker gruel and 
 astringent medicine must be administered. 
 As in the last species, warm clothing and 
 bandages about the legs will be of essen- 
 tial service. (Claters Farriery, p. 173 — 
 178.) 
 
 BOWLDERS, or BOULDERS. Aterm 
 in geology, implying rounded masses of rock ; 
 it is also provincially applied to a kind of 
 round stone, common in the soils of the 
 midland districts. In the north it is pro- 
 nounced sometimes homier or booder, and 
 also boother. 
 
 BOWLDER-WALL. A wall generally 
 on the sea-coast, constructed of large peb- 
 bles or bowlders of flint, which have been 
 rounded by the action of water. 
 
 BOW-LEGGED. In horsemanship, is a 
 defective conformation or posture of the 
 fore-legs of a horse. 
 
 BOWLING-GREEN. A level piece of 
 ground with a smooth grassy surface, kept 
 solely for bowlers. 
 
 BOWS OF A SADDLE are two pieces 
 of wood laid archwise to receive the upper 
 part of the horse's back, to give the saddle 
 its due form, and keep it steady. 
 
 BOX DRAIN. An underground drain, 
 regularly built, with upright sides, and a flat 
 stone or brick cover ; so that the close section 
 has the appearance of a square box. See 
 Drains and Draining. 
 
 BOX TREE. (Sax. box ; It. bosso ; Fr. 
 buis ; Lat. Buxus semper vir ens ^) We con- 
 sider the English name of this plant to be a 
 corruption of the Latin word buxus, or from 
 the Spanish box, and that it gave the name 
 to the wooden cases made by the carpenter 
 and turner, rather than derived its own from 
 these cases. The box was formerly much 
 more plentiful in England than at present. 
 Boxwel, in Gloucestershire, was named from 
 this tree, and it also gave the name of Box- 
 hill to those delightful downs near Dork- 
 ing, in Surry, where this shrub seems to 
 have grown naturally, as it is known to 
 have abounded there long before the time 
 that the Earl of Arundel retired to that 
 spot, and, as it is stated, planted the box. 
 In 1815 the box trees cut down on Box- 
 hill produced upwards of 10,000/. This 
 evergreen bush, or small tree, is found all 
 over Europe, as well as upon the chalk hills 
 of England; but it acquires its largest di- 
 mensions in the south. The duty on box- 
 wood is quite oppressive ; being 57. a ton if 
 brought from a foreign country, and 11. a 
 ton if from a British possession. It is from 
 Turkey that the principal part of the wood 
 is imported into England ; whether or not 
 all this is really furnished by Buxus semper- 
 virens is not known. It is not improbable 
 that Buxus balearica, a larger species, too 
 239 
 
 tender to thrive in this country, may furnish 
 a part, at least, of that which comes from 
 the Mediterranean. It is said, that the wood 
 of this species is coarser, and of a brighter 
 yellow than that of the common species. At 
 an average of the three years ending with 
 
 1831, the entries of box-wood for home con- 
 sumption amounted to 382 tons a year. In 
 
 1832, the duty produced 1867Z. 17s. 4d. 
 Turkey box-wood sells in the London market 
 for from 71. to 141. a ton, duty included. 
 Box is a very valuable wood. It is of a yel- 
 lowish colour, close-grained, very hard, and 
 heavy ; it cuts better than any other wood, 
 is susceptible of a very fine polish, and is 
 very durable. In consequence it is much 
 used by turners and mathematical and mu- 
 sical instrument makers. It is too heavy 
 for furniture. It is the only wood used by 
 the engravers of wood- cuts for books ; and, 
 provided due care be exercised, the number 
 of impressions that may be taken from a 
 box wood-cut is very great. In France, 
 box-wood is extensively used for combs, 
 knife handles, and button moulds. The 
 value of the box-wood sent from Spain to 
 Paris is reported to amount to 10,000 fr. a 
 year. 
 
 Where box trees are required, they should 
 be raised from seed, which should be sown 
 soon after it is ripe, in a shady border of 
 light loam, or sand ; but it is generally pro- 
 pagated by cuttings planted in the autumn, 
 and kept moist, until they have taken root. 
 The box plant is best known for its use in 
 gardens as edgings to borders ; the kind so 
 employed is a dwarf variety. It is very 
 useful, as it grows freely under the drip and 
 shade of trees. Dwarf box is increased by 
 parting the roots, or planting the slips. The 
 best time for transplanting this shrub is 
 October ; though it may be removed almost 
 at any time, except summer, if it be taken 
 up with a good ball of earth. 
 
 With respect to its medicinal properties, 
 box-wood has been substituted for guaia- 
 cum as a sudorific in rheumatism ; but is 
 now seldom prescribed. Oil of box root is a 
 cure for the toothache, when dropped on 
 cotton, and put into a carious tooth. (Phil- 
 lips' 's Sylv. Flor. vol. i. p. 44. ; Brandos Diet, 
 of Science ; M^CvIlocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 BOX of a Wheel. The aperture wherein 
 the axis turns. 
 
 BOX of a Plough. The cross-piece in the 
 head of the plough which supports the two 
 crow-staves. 
 
 BRACE. The general name for a couple, 
 or pair, of such animals as bucks, hounds, 
 partridges, &c. It is also applied to any thing 
 that serves to strengthen or support. 
 
 BRACKEN. It is written also broken, 
 and sometimes pronounced brechin in the 
 
BRADLEY, RICHARD. 
 
 BRAMBLE. 
 
 north of England. The same with brake or 
 fern. See Fern. 
 
 BRADLEY, RICHARD, was one of 
 the first writers on agriculture and horticul- 
 ture, who sought in any considerable degree 
 the light of other sciences for their improve- 
 ment. His first writings were in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions for 1713, " On the 
 Motion of the Sap in Vegetables; and Micro- 
 scopical Observations on Vegetation, and on 
 the quick Growth of Mouldiness on Melons " 
 (vol. xxix. p. 486. 490.). 
 
 The following is a list of his works : — 
 
 1: Historia Plantarum Succulentarum, &c. 4to. ; com- 
 menced in 1716, in decades, of which five only appeared. 
 1717, 1725, and 1727; republished in 1734. 2. New Im- 
 provements of Planting and Gardening, both Philoso- 
 phical and Practical. London. 1717. 8vo. 1718,1719,1724, 
 1731 . 3- A new Improvement of Planting and Gardening, 
 both Philosophical and Practical, explaining the Motion 
 of the Sap and Generation of Plants. 1720. 8vo. 4. A 
 Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature. 1721. 
 4to 5. A Treatise on Husbandry and Gardening. 1721. 
 8vo. 6. The Monthly Register of New Experiments and 
 Observations in Husbandry and Gardening. 1722, 1723. 
 8vo. 7. A general Treatise of Husbandry and Gardening. 
 1723. 8vo. 8. A Philosophical Treatise of Agriculture. 
 
 1723. 9. Family Dictionary, containing the most appro- 
 ved Methods for improving Estates and Gardens. 1726. 
 2 vols, folio. 10. Practical Discourses concerning the 
 Four Elements, as they relate to the Growth of Plants. 
 1727, 1733. 8vo. 11. Dictionarium Botanicum, or a Bo- 
 tanical Dictionary for the Use of the Curious in Husbandry 
 and Gardening. 1728. 2 vols. Svo. (Plunket considers this 
 the first Botanical Dictionary that appeared in England.) 
 12. The Vineyard, a Treatise on Vines, &C.1728. 8vo. 13. 
 The Gentleman and Gardener's Kalendar. London. 1718 ; 
 the 3d edition, 1720. 8vo. 14. A general Treatise of 
 Hushandry and Gardening. 1726. 2 vols. 8vo. ; a com- 
 pressed edition of this appeared with notes in 1757. 1 vol. 
 8vo. 15. Calendarium Universale. London. 1718, and 
 1726. 12mo. 16. A Catalogue of Seed Plants. London. 
 1720. 17. The Country Gentleman, and Farmer's Monthly 
 Director. London. 1721, 1727, 1729, and 1732. 8vo. 18. 
 New Experiments relative to the Generation of Plants. 
 
 1724, 1734. Svo. 19. Treatise on Fallowing Ground. 
 London. 1724. 4to. 20. A Survey of Ancient Husbandry 
 and Gardening. 1725. Svo. 21. Experimental Husband- 
 man and Gardener. 1726. folio. 22. Discourses concerning 
 the Growth of Plants. 1727. 8vo. 23. A complete Body 
 of Husbandry. London. 1727. 8vo. 24. The Weekly 
 Miscellany for the Improvement of Husbandry. 1727- Svo. 
 25. The Science of good Husbandry; or the ^conomicks 
 of Xenophon. London. 1727. Svo. 26. An Account of 
 Mr. Cowell's Aloe, 1729. 8vo. 27. Proposals for the Im- 
 provement of Waste Lands. 8vo. 1723. 28. British 
 Housewife and Gardener's Companion. 1726. 2 vols. Svo. 
 29. The Riches of a Hop Garden explained. 1729. 
 
 (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Eng. Gard.) 
 
 BRAIRD. In the agriculture and gar- 
 dening of Scotland, the term braird is ap- 
 plied to the springing up of seeds, which, 
 when they come up well, are said to have a 
 fine braird. 
 
 BRAKE. The name of a wooden instru- 
 ment for dressing hemp and flax, used to 
 bruise or break the bun or stem, &c. in order 
 to separate the cortical part or rind from it. 
 It is sometimes applied 'to a thicket, or the 
 place where fern grows ; and is another 
 name for the barnacles, or pincers, used by 
 farriers. Brake is also a sharp bit, or snaffle 
 for horses. A smith's brake is a machine 
 in which horses unwilling to be shod are 
 confined during that operation. Some spe- 
 cies of large heavy harrows are frequently 
 called brakes, See Harrow. 
 240 
 
 1 BRAKES, or FEMALE FERN. (Pteris.) 
 
 j Smith describes two species : — 1 . The com- 
 mon brakes (P. aquilina), which grows 
 every where most abundantly. It has a 
 perennial root, long, tapering, creeping, ex- 
 ternally black. Fronds annual, erect, from 
 one to six feet high, repeatedly compound, 
 with horizontal spreading branches, whose 
 ribs are smooth, all of a light bright green. 
 The main stalk is angular and sharp-edged, 
 wounding the hands severely if plucked in- 
 cautiously. When cut across, the pith has a 
 branched appearance, resembling a spread 
 eagle, whence the Latin name. This common 
 fern is impatient of severe cold in the spring, 
 and its curled scaly shoots will scarcely bear 
 any frost, though its natural situation is 
 often the most exposed and bleak possible. 
 The roots are generally killed by transplant- 
 ing. There is a singularly delicate variety 
 with rounded, more distant, barren leaflets 
 or segments, and very slender stalks, which 
 is found on maritime rocks or damp walls in 
 towns, but rarely. 2. Curled or rock brakes, 
 is found in open stony mountainous situa- 
 tions. Root moderately creeping, dark brown 
 with many fibres. Fronds annual, tufted, 
 erect, smooth, from six to twelve inches 
 high, of a bright pea-green hue, and an 
 elegant feathery aspect ; thin stalks, long, 
 pale, polished. (Smith's Eng.Flor. vol.iv. 
 d.317.) 
 
 BRAMBLE, FLOWERING. (Rubus 
 odoratus.) A hardy exotic shrub, five or six 
 feet in height, blowing a pinkish violet- 
 coloured flower in June and August. It 
 loves shade and moisture, and is propagated 
 by suckers. It is known also as the flowering 
 raspberry. 
 
 BRAMBLE or BRAMBLE-BERRY. 
 (Sax. bnaembel, formerly written bremble ; 
 Lat. Rubus.) The bramble, or blackberry, 
 the generic name of a large family of shrubs 
 which creep along the hedge of every soil. 
 The common bramble (Rubus frulicosus) 
 derives both its Latin and English common 
 name from the colour of its fruit at different 
 stages of ripeness. However generally the 
 bramble is reprobated as a troublesome weed, 
 we must acknowledge that, when either in 
 fruit or flower, it forms a principal among the 
 numberless hedgerow beauties, and is not 
 without its utility in particular soils, especi- 
 ally in poor sandy lands, where the growth of 
 other hedges is slow, and where, by reason of 
 the looseness of the soil, the ditch is no de- 
 fence. When planted in such situations, it 
 will, by its quick growth, soon entwine its 
 thorny branches in the dead hedge, and form 
 an almost impervious fence against the inva- 
 sions of cattle, sheep, and other trespassers. 
 Brambles mixed with other hedge plants will 
 render them thicker and stronger. The ob- 
 
BRAMBLE. 
 
 BRAN. 
 
 jections urged against the more general adop- 
 tion of bramble fences are, that, by the yearly- 
 decay of a portion of the shoots, they soon fill 
 the hedge with dead wood, which has not only 
 an unsightly appearance, but is also hurtful 
 to the other plants ; and again it is said, that 
 the leaves are so broad and numerous as to 
 smother every other plant, by depriving it 
 of both sun and air. When brambles are 
 in considerable abundance, as is often the 
 case in waste and other lands that require 
 to be brought into cultivation, they should 
 always be grubbed or hoed up ; and if the 
 land be afterwards ploughed with a good 
 furrow, the remaining roots will be torn up, 
 and the plants at length destroyed. This 
 shrub, which is only used by the chance pas- 
 senger occasionally plucking its fruit, pos- 
 sesses, however, several advantages which 
 deserve our attention. Its long branches 
 can, in case of need, be employed as cords ; 
 and its fruit produces an excellent wine, 
 the mode of making which is as follows : — 
 Five measures of the ripe fruit, with one of 
 honey and six of wine, are taken and boiled ; 
 the froth is skimmed off, the fire removed, 
 and the mixture being passed throv.gh a 
 linen cloth, is left to ferment. It is then 
 boiled anew, and allowed to ferment in a 
 suitable cask. In Provence bramble-berries 
 are used to give a deep colour to particular 
 wines. (Allgem. Forst-und Jagd-Zeiiung, 
 Feb. 1828, p. 104.) The juice of the black- 
 berry, mixed with raisin wine before it has 
 fermented, will give it both the colour and 
 flavour of claret. " The berries," says Pliny, 
 " have a desiccative and astringent virtue, 
 and are a most appropriate remedy for the 
 gums and inflammation of the tonsils." The 
 flowers, as well as the berries of the bramble, 
 were ignorantly considered by the ancients 
 as remedies against the most dangerous 
 serpents. They are diuretic ; and the juice 
 pressed out of the tendrils, or young shoots, 
 and afterwards reduced to the consistency 
 of honey by standing in the sun, is, adds the 
 above author, " a singularly efficacious me- 
 dicine, taken inwardly or applied outwardly, 
 for all the diseases of the mouth and eyes, 
 as well as for the quinsy, &c." But Pliny 
 has lost his celebrity as a medical authority, 
 if he ever had any ; and modern black- 
 berries have also lost their virtue. Boer- 
 haave affirms, that the roots taken out of 
 the earth in February or March, and boiled 
 with honey, are an excellent remedy against 
 the dropsy. 
 
 Syrup of blackberries, picked when only 
 red, is cooling and astringent in common 
 purgings or fluxes. The bruised leaves, 
 stalks, and unripe fruit, applied outwardly, 
 are said to cure ringworm. 
 
 Billington, in his work on Planting, says, 
 241 
 
 " To the poor in the vicinity of Newcastle it 
 is of great importance ; many of whom go a 
 great number of miles to gather blackberries 
 while they are in season, and carry them 
 from ten to twenty miles, to Newcastle, 
 Shields, and Sunderland, where they some- 
 times sell them as high as Sd. and 4d. per 
 quart, for puddings, tarts, preserves, or jel- 
 lies, and even making of wines." The fruit 
 is, in particular, much esteemed and sought 
 after by the wives and mothers of sailors, to 
 send on board the ships, as it is found to be 
 very healthful to the men to eat with their 
 biscuits, as well as for puddings, much 
 more so than their common fare of salt beef 
 and pork. All through the season, after the 
 gooseberries are over (for apples, plums, 
 &c. are often scarce and dear), the people 
 are regaled with the fruit of the bramble 
 as the greatest domestic luxury, and would 
 probably lay in a store for future consump- 
 tion if sugar were cheaper. The leaves of 
 the dwarf crimson bramble (Rubus arcticus) 
 are often used to adulterate tea. (See 
 Whortleberry.) 
 
 Of the Rubus fruticosus, or common 
 bramble, we have (says Phillips) five va- 
 rieties ; and as one has been discovered in a 
 hedge near Oxford by Bobart which pro- 
 duces a white fruit, it will be necessary to 
 adopt the proper name of bramble-berry for 
 this fruit, to avoid the contradictory appel- 
 lation of white blackberry. The variety with 
 a double flower is now one of the ornaments 
 of the shrubbery ; the other varieties are, one 
 with variegated leaves, one with cut leaves, 
 and the bramble without thorns. Smith, 
 in his English Flora, describes fourteen 
 species of bramble (Rubus) ; which include 
 the raspberry, cloudberry, and dewberry. 
 Several reputed varieties of the common 
 bramble have also been observed in Britain 
 (says Smith, vol. ii. p. 400.), differing in the 
 shape and pubescence of their leaflets, not to 
 mention other characters. These have re- 
 cently been proposed as species in a very able 
 work, with excellent plates partially coloured, 
 by Dr. A. Weihe and Prof. Ch. G. Nees ab 
 Esenbeck of Bonn, under the title of Rubi 
 Germanica. Notwithstanding the colour of 
 the flowers, I cannot suppose our British 
 R. fruticosus to differ from theirs. (Smith's 
 Engl. Flora, vol. ii. ; Phillips's Hist, of 
 Fruits, p. 63. ; Quarterly Journ. of Ag?\ vol. i, 
 p. 816. ; vol. iii. p. 182.) 
 
 BRAN. (Old Fr. bren ; Ital. brenna.) 
 The thin skins or husks of corn, particularly 
 wheat, ground and separated from the meal 
 by a sieve or boulter. It is gently laxative ; 
 owing to the mechanical irritation it excites. 
 An infusion of it, under the name of bran tea, 
 is frequently used as a domestic remedy for 
 coughs and hoarseness. Infusions of bran 
 
 R 
 
BRANCH. 
 
 BREAD. 
 
 also remove scurf and dandriff. Calico- 
 printers employ bran and warm water with 
 great success, to remove colouring matter 
 from those parts of their goods that are not 
 mordanted. Bran is an useful ingredient, 
 when well scalded, and employed occasion- 
 ally in moderate quantities, in mashes for 
 horses ; but the constant use of it, whether 
 raw or scalded, is prejudicial, as it is apt to 
 weaken the horse's bowels, and thereby ex- 
 pose him to many disorders. It is also 
 highly useful in stall-feeding cattle, and 
 for sheep, when given as a dry food. Ac- 
 cording to the analysis of M. Saussure, 100 
 parts of the ashes of the bran of wheat con- 
 tain (Chem. Rec. Veg.), — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Soluble salts - - - 44-15 
 Earthy phosphates - - 46*5 
 Silica - - - - 0-5 
 Metallic oxides - - 0-25 
 Loss - - 8-6 
 
 BRANCH. (Fr. branche; Lat. bra- 
 chium.) The arm or bough of a tree ; or 
 that part which, sprouting from the trunk, 
 helps to form the head or crown. It also 
 signifies the part of a river which empties 
 itself into a larger branch or the main 
 
 BRANCHES OF A BRIDLE are two 
 pieces of iron bent, which, in the interval 
 between one and the other, bear the bit- 
 mouth, the cross- chains, and the curb ; so 
 that on one end they answer to the head- 
 stall, and on the other to the reins, in order 
 to keep the horse's head in subjection. 
 
 BRAND-GOOSE, or BRENT-GOOSE. 
 A kind of wildfowl, less than a common 
 goose, having its breast and wings of a dark 
 colour. (See Goose.) 
 
 BRANK. A provincial name sometimes 
 applied to buckwheat, which see. 
 
 BRAWN. The flesh of the boar, after 
 being boned, rolled up, or collared, boiled, 
 and pickled. Brawn is made of the flitches, 
 and some other parts, the oldest boars 
 being chosen for the purpose, it being a 
 rule that the older the boar the more horny 
 the brawn. 
 
 The method of making it is generally as 
 follows: — The bones being taken out of the 
 flitches, or other parts, the flesh is sprinkled 
 with salt, and laid in a tray, that the blood 
 may drain off ; after which it is salted a little, 
 and rolled up as hard as possible. The 
 Length of the collar of brawn should be as 
 much as one side of the boar will bear ; so 
 that, when rolled up, it may be nine or ten 
 inches in diameter. After being thus rolled 
 up, it is boiled in a copper or Large kettle, 
 till ii is so tender thai you may almost run 
 a stiff straw through it; when it is set by 
 till thoroughly cold, and then put into a 
 
 pickle composed of water, salt, and wheat- 
 bran, in the proportion of two handfuls of 
 each of the latter to every gallon of water ; 
 which, after being well boiled together, is 
 strained off as clear as possible from the 
 bran, and, when quite cold, the brawn put 
 into it. (Willich's Dom. Encycl.) 
 
 BRAXY. In sheep. See Sheep, Dis- 
 eases or. 
 
 BREACHY or BREECHY WOOL, is 
 
 the short coarse wool of a sheep, such as 
 that which comes from the breech of the 
 animal. 
 
 BREAD. (Sax. bpeob; Ger. brod.) This 
 forms an important and principal article in 
 the food of most civilised nations, and con- 
 sists of a paste or dough formed of the flour 
 or meal of different sorts of grain, mixed 
 with water, with or without yeast or fer- 
 ment, and baked. 
 
 Bread may be divided, in the first in- 
 stance, into leavened and unleavened bread. 
 When stale dough or yeast is added to the 
 fresh dough of flour and water to make it 
 swell, it is said to be leavened; when no- 
 thing of this sort is added, the bread is said 
 to be unleavened. These may again be 
 subdivided into various kinds and qualities. 
 The principal sorts in use are white, wheaten, 
 household, and brown bread, which differ 
 from each other in their degrees of purity. 
 In the first, all the bran is separated from 
 the flour ; in the second, only the coarser 
 parts of it ; and in the third scarcely any at 
 all : so that fine bread is made only of flour ; 
 wheaten bread of flour, with a mixture of 
 fine bran ; and household bread of the whole 
 substance of the grain, without taking out 
 scarcely any either of the coarse bran or the 
 fine flour. We have also manchet or roll- 
 bread, and French bread, which are fine 
 white breads made of the purest flour ; in roll- 
 bread there is sometimes an addition of milk, 
 and in French bread butter is used. There 
 is likewise ginger-bread, maslin-bread, made 
 of wheat and rye, or sometimes of wheat and 
 barley ; and other breads, made with various 
 substitutes for flour, as oat-bread, rye- 
 bread, pea and bean bread, &c. 
 
 The President de Goguet has endeavoured 
 {Origin of Laws, 8fc. vol. i. pp. 95 — 105., 
 Eng. trans.) to trace the successive steps by 
 which it is probable men were led to dis- 
 cover the art of making bread ; but nothing 
 positive is known on the subject. It is 
 certain, however, from the statements in 
 the sacred writings, that the use of un- 
 leavened bread was common in the days of 
 Abraham (Gen. xviii. 8.) ; and that leavened 
 bread was used in the time of Moses 
 (Exod. xii. 15.). The method of grinding 
 corn by hand-mills was practised in Egypt 
 and Greece from a very remote epoch ; but 
 
BREAD. 
 
 for a lengthened period, the Romans had 
 no other method of making flour than by 
 beating roasted corn in mortars. The con- 
 quests of the Romans diffused, amongst 
 many other useful discoveries, a knowledge 
 of the art of preparing bread, as followed in 
 Rome, through the whole south of Europe. 
 
 The use of yeast in the raising of bread 
 seems, however, from a passage of Pliny (lib. 
 xviii. c. 7.), to have been taken advantage of 
 by the Germans and Gauls before it was 
 practised by the Romans ; the latter, like the 
 Greeks, having leavened their bread by in- 
 termixing the fresh dough with that which 
 had become stale. The Roman custom 
 seems to have superseded that which was 
 previously in use in France and Spain ; for 
 the art of raising bread by an admixture of 
 yeast was not practised in France in modern 
 times till towards the end of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 For the formation of bread, a certain 
 degree of fermentation, not unlike vinous 
 fermentation, is requisite, care being taken to 
 avoid the acetous fermentation, which ren- 
 ders the bread sour, and, to most persons, 
 disagreeable. This fermentation is called 
 panary. If dough be left to itself in a 
 moderately warm place (between 80"? and 
 120°), a degree of fermentation comes on, 
 which, however, is sluggish, or, if rapid, 
 is apt to run into the acetous; so that, to 
 effect that kind of fermentation requisite 
 for the production of the best bread, a fer- 
 ment is added, which is either leaven, or 
 dough in an already fermenting state, which 
 tends to accelerate the process of the mass 
 to which it is added ; or yeast, the peculiar 
 matter which collects in the form of scum 
 upon beer in the act of fermentation. (See 
 Yeast.) Of these ferments, leaven is slow 
 and uncertain in its effects, and gives a sour 
 and often slightly putrid flavour to the bread. 
 Yeast is more effective ; and, when clean 
 and good, it rapidly induces panary fer- 
 mentation ; but it is often bitter, and some- 
 times has a peculiarly disagreeable smell and 
 taste. Bread well raised and baked differs 
 from unfermented bread, not only in being 
 spongy, less compact, lighter, and of a more 
 agreeable taste, but also in being more easily 
 miscible with water, with which it does not 
 form a viscous mass ; and this circumstance 
 is of great importance to health. All, then, 
 that is essential to make a loaf of bread is 
 dough, to which a certain quantity of yeast 
 has been added. This mass, or sponge, in 
 the language of the baker, is put into any 
 convenient mould or form, or it is merely 
 shaped into one mass ; and, after being kept 
 for a short time in rather a warm place, so 
 that fermentation may have begun, it is sub- 
 jected to the process of baking in a proper 
 243 
 
 oven. Carbonic acid is generated, and the 
 viscidity or texture of the dough preventing 
 the immediate escape of that gas from the 
 innumerable points where it forms, the 
 whole mass is puffed up by it, and a light 
 porous bread is the result. Along with the 
 carbonic acid alcohol is evolved, but the 
 quantity is so insignificant and the spirit so 
 impure as not to be worth notice ; thence 
 the attempts which have been made to col- 
 lect it upon a large scale have entirely failed 
 in an economical point of view. 
 
 The general process of making household 
 bread is this : — To a peck of meal or flour is 
 to be added about three ounces of salt, half 
 a pint of yeast, and three quarts of water, 
 cold in summer but warm in winter, and 
 temperate between the two ; the whole 
 being then well kneaded in a bowl or 
 trough, and being set by in a proper tem- 
 perature, rises in about an hour, according 
 to the season. It is then moulded into 
 loaves, and put into the oven to be baked. 
 In placing the dough aside, it is proper to 
 cover it ; this is termed setting the sponge, 
 and it undergoes a second kneading before 
 it is baked. 
 
 For French bread, take half a bushel of 
 fine flour, ten eggs, a pound and a half of 
 fresh butter (the eggs and butter, however, 
 are very seldom used), and the same quan- 
 tity of yeast with manchet ; and, tempering 
 the whole mass with new milk, pretty hot, 
 let it lie half an hour to rise ; which done, 
 make it into loaves or rolls, and wash it 
 over with an egg beaten with milk, taking 
 care that the oven is not too hot. 
 
 Other flour, besides that of wheat, will, 
 under similar circumstances, undergo panary 
 fermentation ; but the result is a heavy, un- 
 palatable, and often indigestible bread ; so 
 that the addition of a certain quantity of 
 wheat flour is almost always had recourse 
 to. It is the gluten in .wheat which thus 
 peculiarly fits it for the manufacture of 
 bread, chiefly in consequence of the tough 
 and elastic viscidity which it confers upon 
 the dough. 
 
 Wheat flour is composed chiefly of starch 
 and gluten ; the proportion of these and 
 other substances which it contains, accord- 
 ing to Vogel, are — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Starch - - - 68*0 
 
 Gluten - 24-0 
 
 Gummy sugar - - 5-0 
 
 Vegetable albumen - -1-5 
 
 Sir H. Davy states, that wheat sown in 
 autumn contains 77 per cent of starch, and 
 1 9 of gluten ; while that sown in spring 
 yields 70 of starch and 24 of gluten. The 
 wheat of the south of Europe contains a 
 larger proportion of gluten than that of the 
 b 2 
 
BREAD. 
 
 north ; and hence its peculiar fitness for mak- 
 ing macaroni and vermicelli. Oats yielded, 
 according to Davy's analysis, 59 of starch, 6 
 of gluten, and 2 of saccharine matter ; while 
 the same quantity of rye gave only 6'1 parts 
 of starch, and half a part of gluten. 
 
 Like all other farinaceous substances, 
 bread is very nourishing on account of the 
 gluten which it contains ; but if eaten too 
 freely, it is productive of acidity, which 
 deranges the intestines, and lays the foun- 
 dation of dyspepsia. Stale bread, in every 
 respect, deserves the preference over that 
 which is newly baked ; and persons troubled 
 with flatulency, cramp of the stomach, or 
 indigestion, should abstain from new bread, 
 and particularly from hot rolls. Bread 
 made from the best flour is necessarily 
 costly, but is more wholesome for those 
 persons who are liable to a relaxed state of 
 the bowels. Brown bread, on the contrary, 
 is the cheapest and most desirable for per- 
 sons whose habit of body is of the contrary 
 nature : but there is an intermediate kind 
 made from flour, in which the finer portion 
 of the bran is retained, called locally " se- 
 conds," which is preferable to either of the 
 above. (Quar. Jour. Agr. vol. ix. p. 585.) 
 
 The species of bread in common rise in a 
 country depends partly on the taste of the 
 inhabitants, but more on the sort of grain 
 suitable for its soil. The superiority of 
 wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the 
 manufacture of bread is so very great, that 
 wherever it is easily and successfully culti- 
 vated, wheaten bread is used to the nearly 
 total exclusion of most others. Where, 
 however, the soil or climate is less favour- 
 able to its growth, rye, oats, &c. are used in 
 its stead. A very great change for the better 
 has, in this respect, taken place in Great 
 Britain within the last century. It is men- 
 tioned by Harrison, in his Description of 
 England (p. 168.), that in the reign of 
 Henry VIII. the gentry had wheat sufficient 
 for their own tables, but that their house- 
 holds and poor neighbours were usually 
 obliged to content themselves with rye, 
 barley, and oats. It appears from the 
 household book of Sir Edward Coke, that 
 in 1596 rye bread and oatmeal formed a 
 considerable part of the diet of servants, 
 even in great families, in the southern 
 counties. In 1626, barley bread was the 
 usual ordinary food of the great bulk of the 
 people. At the Revolution, the wheat pro- 
 duced in England and Wales Avas estimated 
 by Mr. King and Dr. Davenant to amount 
 to 1,750,000 quarters. (Davenanfs Works, 
 vol. ii. ]>. 217.) Mr. Charles Smith, the very 
 well in Ion iicd author of the Tracts on the 
 Com Trade, originally published in 1758, 
 states that in his time wheat had become 
 244 
 
 much more generally the food of the com- 
 mon people than it had been in 1689; but 
 he adds (2d edit. p. 182. Lbnd. 1766), that, 
 notwithstanding this increase, some very 
 intelligent inquirers were of opinion, that 
 even then not more than half the people of 
 England fed on wheat. Mr. Smith's own 
 estimate, which is very carefully drawn up, 
 is a little higher ; for, taking the population 
 of England and Wales, in 1760, at 6,000,000, 
 he supposes that 3,750,000 were consumers 
 of wheat, 739,000 of barley, 888,000 of rye, 
 and 623,000 of oat bread. He further sup- 
 posed that they individually consumed, — 
 the first class, 1 qr. of wheat ; the second, 
 1 qr. and 3 bushels of barley ; the third, 1 
 qr. and 1 bushel of rye ; and the fourth, 2 
 qrs. and 7 bushels of oats. About the 
 middle of last century, hardly any wheat 
 was use,d in the northern counties of Eng- 
 land. In Cumberland, the principal families 
 used only a small quantity about Christmas. 
 The crust of the goose-pie, with which al- 
 most every table in the county is then sup- 
 plied, was, at the period referred to, almost 
 uniformly made of barley-meal. (Eden, 
 On the Poor, vol. i. p. 564.) 
 
 Every one knows how inapplicable these 
 statements are to the condition of the people 
 of England at the present time. Wheaten 
 bread is now almost universally made use of 
 in towns and villages, and almost every 
 where in the country. Barley is no longer 
 used ; oats are employed for bread only in 
 the northern parts of the island; and the 
 consumption of rye bread is comparatively 
 inconsiderable. The produce of the wheat 
 crops has been, at the very least, trebled 
 since 1760. And if to this immense in- 
 crease in the ^supply of wheat, we add the 
 still more extraordinary increase in the 
 supply of butcher's meat (see Cattle), the 
 fact of a very signal improvement in the 
 condition of the population, in respect of 
 food, will be obvious. When flour is con- 
 verted into bread, it is found, on weighing- 
 it when taken from the oven, that it has in- 
 creased from 28 to 34 per cent in weight 
 (3 lbs. of flour makes 3 lbs. 10 oz. of dough) ; 
 but when it has been kept thirty-six hours, 
 that which had gained 28 will lose about 4 per 
 cent. There are, however, several circum- 
 stances which influence the quantity of bread 
 obtained from a given weight of flour, such 
 as the season in which the wheat was grown 
 and the age of the flour : the better the 
 flour is, and the older, within certain limits, 
 the larger is the quantity of the bread pro- 
 duced. 
 
 According to the assize acts, a sack of 
 flour weighing 280 lbs. is supposed capable 
 of being baked into 80 quartern Loaves; 
 one fifth of the loaf being supposed to con- 
 
BREAD. 
 
 sist of water and salt, and four fifths of 
 flour. But the number of loaves that may 
 be made from a sack of flour depends en- 
 tirely on its goodness. Good flour requires 
 more water than bad flour. Sometimes 82, 
 83, and even 86 loaves have been made 
 from a sack of flour, and sometimes hardly 
 80. 96 are generally made, at 4 lbs. 6 oz. 
 before going into the oven, by the London 
 bakers. 
 
 It is well known that home-made bread 
 and bakers bread are very different; the 
 former is usually sweeter, lighter, and more 
 retentive of moisture, and will keep well 
 for three weeks, especially if a little rye 
 meal is mixed with it ; the latter, if eaten 
 soon after it has cooled, is pleasant and 
 spongy ; but if kept more than two or three 
 days, it becomes harsh and unpalatable, and 
 mouldy. Small quantities of alum are in- 
 variably used by the London bakers, with 
 the view of whitening or bleaching the 
 bread ; for it will be observed, that what- 
 ever may be the quality of the flour which 
 is used, home-made bread is always of a 
 comparatively dingy hue. By some respect- 
 able bakers it was formerly in extensive 
 use, and might still be used, with perfect 
 safety ; for in so small a quantity as a 
 quarter of a pound of alum to 1 cwt. of 
 flour, it could not be in the least degree in- 
 jurious. According to Mr. Accum {On the 
 Adulteration of Food), the requisite quan- 
 tity of alum for this purpose depends upon 
 the quality of the flour. The mealman, he 
 says, makes different sorts of flour from the 
 same kind of grain. The best flour is 
 chiefly used for biscuits and pastry, and the 
 inferior kinds for bread. In London, no 
 fewer than five kinds of wheaten flour are 
 brought into the market; they are called 
 fine flour, seconds, middlings, coarse mid- 
 dlings, and twenty-penny. 
 
 Beans and peas are also, according to the 
 same authority, frequently ground up with 
 London flour. The smallest quantity of 
 alum used is from three to four ounces to 
 the sack of flour of 240 lbs. Alum may 
 easily be detected in bread, by pouring 
 boiling water on it, pressing out the water, 
 boiling it away to one third, allowing it to 
 cool, filtering it through paper, and adding 
 to the clear liquor some solution of muriate 
 of lime {chloride of calcium). If considerable 
 muddiness now appear, it is proof of adult- 
 eration, and none other can well be suspected 
 than alum. Another article occasionally 
 employed in bread and ginger-bread making 
 is carbonate of ammonia. As it is wholly 
 dissipated by the heat of the oven, none 
 renin ins in the baked loaf. It renders the 
 bread light, and perhaps neutralizes any acid 
 that may have been formed (exclusive of 
 245 
 
 carbonic acid) ; but it is too dear to be much 
 employed. To some kinds of biscuits it gives 
 a peculiar shortness, and a few of the most 
 celebrated manufacturers use it largely. 
 According to Mr. E. Davy, bread, especially 
 that of indifferent flour, is materially im- 
 proved by the addition of a little carbonate 
 of magnesia, in the proportion of twenty to 
 thirty grains to the pound of flour ; it re- 
 quires to be very intimately mixed with the 
 flour. Salt, which, in small quantity, is ab- 
 solutely necessary to the flavour of the bread, 
 is used by fraudulent persons as an adult- 
 eration ; for a large portion of it added to 
 dough imparts to it the quality of absorbing 
 and retaining a much greater quantity of 
 water than it otherwise would, thus making 
 the loaf heavier. The taste of such bread is 
 a sufficient index to its bad quality. It is 
 rough in its grain. {Domestic Economy, 
 vol. i.) A long list of other articles which 
 are said to be used in the adulteration of 
 bread might be given, but no advantage 
 could result from such a statement. 
 
 Making bread at home is an operation 
 very easy of acquirement ; and, doubtless, 
 most of our farming friends are fortunate 
 in possessing worthy helpmates or experi- 
 enced servants who provide the families 
 with this daily necessary. To such a prac- 
 tical method of performing the art would 
 be deemed needless ; but others of our 
 readers, who may not have considered the 
 expediency of this bread, its superior salu- 
 brity, its decided economy, and the feasibi- 
 lity of its preparation, may be pleased to 
 meet with the details. We may refer them, 
 therefore, to the Quar. Journ. of Agr. (vol. 
 ix. pp. 289. and 583.), a work which is pro- 
 bably in the hands of the greater number 
 of the British farmers ; or they may con- 
 sult with advantage any of the works cited 
 at the end of this article, for our limits will 
 not permit us to go into the particulars. 
 The writer there states, that the addition of 
 potatoes is wholly unnecessary, unless it be 
 the intention of a housewife that her pro- 
 duct shall resemble that of the baker in 
 insipidity and whiteness ; both qualities 
 will result from the use of that root, which 
 enters largely into the composition of all 
 bread that is purchased. Notwithstanding 
 the prejudice in favour of the use of po- 
 tatoes, it has been proved, by careful calcu- 
 lation, that although even a third part of 
 the flour be exchanged for potatoes, so im- 
 mense is the quantity of water which they 
 contain, that the substitute would cause a 
 loss rather than a gain. 
 
 Substitutes for wheat flour. — Various 
 substances have been used for bread, instead 
 of wheat. In the year 1629-30, when 
 there was a dearth in this countrv, bread 
 E 3 
 
BREAD. 
 
 was made in London of turnips. And 
 again in 1693, when corn was very dear, a 
 great quantity of turnip bread was made in 
 several parts of the kingdom, but particu- 
 larly in Essex. The process is, to put the 
 turnips into a kettle over a slow fire, till 
 they become soft ; they are then taken out, 
 squeezed, and drained as dry as possible, 
 and afterwards mashed and mixed with an 
 equal weight of flour, and kneaded with 
 yeast, salt, and a little warm water. A 
 series of interesting experiments were made 
 some years ago by the Board of Agri- 
 culture, to determine what were the best 
 substitutes for wheaten flour in the compo- 
 sition of different kinds of bread. For this 
 purpose, all the sorts of grain, &c. commonly 
 sold in the markets in London were pro- 
 cured, ground into meal, and baked in va- 
 rious proportions into bread ; such as wheat, 
 rye, rice, barley, buck-wheat, maize, oats, 
 peas, beans, and potatoes. Many of these 
 form the principal nourishment of mankind 
 in various countries. Buck- wheat, made 
 into thin cakes, is the chief article of food in 
 Bretagne and parts of Normandy. Rice 
 nourishes, probably, more human beings 
 in the East than all other articles of food 
 taken together ; and, for its bulk, is sup- 
 posed to be the most nutritious of all the 
 sorts of grain. Maize is a principal article 
 throughout the south of Europe, and is 
 made into bread in Italy and in America. 
 Peas and beans have rarely, it is believed, 
 been used alone as bread ; but, it is suspected, 
 they enter largely, though clandestinely, into 
 its composition in various districts. 
 
 To ascertain the respective qualities of 
 all these grains, and to discover their oper- 
 ation on each other, in correcting by means 
 of one the defects of another, would be an 
 inquiry deserving great attention, but it 
 has not yet been experimentally investi- 
 gated. With almost all the several kinds of 
 grain enumerated, experiments were made 
 on seventy sorts of bread. But as all 
 these sorts were made at once, by several 
 bakers, in order to be examined at the 
 same time, the execution, it is observed, 
 was by no means such as gave the Board 
 of Agriculture, who instituted the inquiry, 
 satisfaction. One general result, however, 
 was, that very few, if any, of the loaves 
 then exhibited, were too bad for human 
 food in times of scarcity ; and it may be 
 observed, that though at first a change may 
 prove disagreeable, yet the practice of a 
 few days soon reconciles the stomach to 
 almost any species of food, by which, at 
 least in the same country, other individuals 
 can be supported. These experiments were 
 followed by others, which I will explain 
 under distinct heads. 
 246 
 
 Rice. — Of all the mixtures, none has 
 made bread equally good with rice, not 
 ground, but boiled quite soft, and then 
 mixed with wheaten flour. One third rice, 
 and two thirds wheat make good bread ; 
 but one fourth rice makes a bread superior 
 to any that can be eaten, better even than 
 all of wheat ; and as the gain in baking is 
 more than of wheat alone (since rice con- 
 tains 85 per cent of starch), there can be 
 no doubt of its nutritive quality. Rice 
 bread thus formed is sweetish to the taste, 
 and very agreeable ; but, as the proportion 
 of gluten is considerably less than in wheaten 
 bread, it is less nutritive. Excellent bis- 
 cuits are formed of the mixture. 
 
 Potatoes. — The experiments made with 
 this root were similar. It makes a pleasant 
 palatable bread with wheat in the propor- 
 tion of one third, but one fourth still lighter 
 and better. Specimens of barley and po- 
 tatoes, and also of oats and the same root, 
 made into bread, were submitted to the 
 Board, which promise well. In some cases 
 the potato was not boiled, but merely grated 
 down into a pulp and mixed with wheaten 
 flour, in which mode it made excellent 
 bread. It has been found by other trials, that 
 good bread may be made from equal quan- 
 tities of flour and potato meal, which has 
 been greatly the practice in those countries 
 most remarkable for the plentiful culture of 
 the potato. 
 
 Various experiments have been made to 
 combine the meal of wheat, barley, oat, 
 bean, and pea flour with vegetable sub- 
 stances, and which have been found to pro- 
 duce very wholesome and nutritive bread. 
 
 Using the potatoes after boiling, steaming, 
 or baking, and reducing them into a sort of 
 powder, seems, however, to be the most 
 ready method of making them into bread. 
 
 Oats. — It appears, from some experiments 
 made by Dr. Richard Pearson of Birming- 
 ham, that oats answer better mixed with po- 
 tatoes, than has been commonly apprehended. 
 
 He found that 3 pints (dry measure) of 
 fine oatmeal, 3 pints of seconds flour, and 
 1 quart of potato pulp kneaded into a 
 dough, with a proper quantity of yeast, salt, 
 and milk and water, made a bread of ex- 
 cellent quality. 
 
 Barley. — Mixed with an equal propor- 
 tion of wheat, or one fourth potatoes and 
 three fourths barley, barley bread is good. 
 The following method of making bread of 
 wheat and barley flour has been strongly 
 recommended. To 4 bushels of wheat, ground 
 to one sort of flour, extracting only a very 
 small quantity of the coarser bran, add 
 3£ bushels of barley flour. The oven should 
 be hotter than when bread is made of wheat 
 alone ; and the loaves should remain in the 
 
BREAD. 
 
 oven about two hours or more. The offal of 
 the barley is good food for hogs. This 
 bread appears to be improved by being 
 baked in half-gallon loaves. 
 
 Bye. — In several parts of the kingdom a 
 mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an 
 excellent species of bread. In Notting- 
 hamshire even opulent farmers consume 
 one third wheat, one third rye, and one 
 third barley ; but their labourers do not 
 relish it. As rye is well known to be a 
 wholesome and nutritious grain, its con- 
 sumption cannot be too strongly recom- 
 mended. The astringent quality of rice, 
 mixed Avith rye, corrects the laxative qua- 
 lity of the latter, and makes it equally strong 
 and nourishing with the same weight of 
 common wheaten bread. The principal 
 objection to rye is the circumstance of the 
 grain being sometimes ergotted, which ren- 
 ders the bread unwholesome. 
 
 Indian corn. — The flour of maize or Indian 
 corn, by itself, makes a heavy bread. The 
 right mode of manufacturing it is to boil the 
 flour to the consistency of paste, and then, 
 when mixed with wheat flour, it makes a 
 most excellent bread. If used by itself, it 
 is said to have at first a laxative effect, but 
 that diminishes by use, and at any rate can 
 easily be corrected by a mixture either of 
 barley or rice. It is stated, on very respect- 
 able authority, as the general opinion of the 
 inhabitants of the United States, but more 
 particularly of the people of Virginia, Mary- 
 land, Delaware, and Kentucky, where Indian 
 corn is raised in the largest quantity, and 
 applied to the greatest variety of uses, that 
 rather more nutriment is contained in a 
 bushel of Indian corn than of wheat. In the 
 four states above mentioned it constitutes 
 the almost entire food of the labouring class 
 of the people, and has supplanted the use of 
 wheaten bread. 
 
 There are several sorts of Indian corn 
 in America. The yellow flinty corn is 
 reckoned the sweetest and most nutritive. 
 The white-ground corn of the southern 
 states makes the fairest, but considerably 
 the weakest flour. Of this last species there 
 is one variety called the flour-corn, which is 
 scarce, but very valuable. 
 
 Buck-wheat. — This is not kiln-dried, but 
 dried in the sun, being reaped in October, a 
 month remarkably dry and serene in America. 
 The husk is taken off by what is called run- 
 ning it through the mill-stones. The fari- 
 naceous part of the grain is then easily se- 
 parated from the husk by winnowing ; and, 
 being afterwards ground fine, forms an 
 agreeable and nutritive aliment, and may 
 be made into bread with wheat flour or 
 other substances. 
 
 Beans and peas. — When these are used 
 247 
 
 as bread, in some places the flour is steeped 
 in water to take off the harsh flavour, and 
 afterwards, when mixed with wheat flour, 
 the taste is hardly to be perceived. Spe- 
 cimens of very good bread have been pro- 
 duced, mixed as follows : — 1 lb. bean flour, 
 1 lb. potatoes, and 4 lbs. of wheat flour. The 
 flour or meal both of beans and peas, by being 
 boiled, previous to its being mixed with 
 wheaten flour, incorporates more easily with 
 that article, and is probably much more 
 wholesome than it otherwise would be. 
 
 Bran may in times of scarcity be advan- 
 tageously employed in the making of com- 
 mon household bread; this is effected by 
 previously boiling the bran in water, and 
 then adding the whole decoction in the 
 dough; thus the bran will be sufficiently 
 softened and divested of its dry husky qua- 
 lity, while the nutritive part, which is sup- 
 posed to contain an essential oil, is duly 
 prepared for food. It is asserted, that the 
 increase in the quantity of bread, by the 
 addition of one fourth bran, or 14 lbs. 14 oz. 
 of bran to 56 lbs. of flour, is from 34 lbs. 
 to 36 lbs. of bread, beyond what is produced 
 by the common mode. 
 
 Dr. Davison considers that there are many 
 vegetables which would afford wholesome 
 nutriment either by boiling or drying and 
 grinding them, or by both these processes. 
 Amongst these may be reckoned, perhaps, 
 the tops and bark of gooseberry trees, holly, 
 hawthorn, and gorse.. The inner bark of 
 the elm may be converted into a kind of 
 gruel ; and the roots of fern, and probably 
 those of many other plants, such as some of 
 the grasses, and clovers, might yield nou- 
 rishment, either by boiling, baking, and se- 
 parating the fibres from the pulp, or by ex- 
 tracting the starch from those which possess 
 an acrid mucilage, such as the white bryony. 
 If, in these days of improved chemical know- 
 ledge, a quartern loaf of very good bread 
 can be made out of a deal board (see Quart. 
 Bev. No. civ., quoted also in Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. v. p. 626.), there is no reason 
 why many of our native herbs and shrubs, 
 which are now comparatively useless, should 
 not, as their various nutritive properties be- 
 come better known, be turned to consider- 
 able advantage in the production of a greater 
 or less proportion of cheap and wholesome 
 food. There are many other substances 
 which may be formed, by a proportionate 
 admixture of wheaten flour, into palatable 
 bread, and advantageously employed in the 
 manufacture of this indispensable article 
 of human sustenance. (Brande's Diet, of 
 Science and Art ; M'CullocKs Com. Diet.; 
 Benny Cyc. vol. v. ; WillicKs Domes. JE?icyc.) 
 
 BREAKING. (Goth, brikan ; Sax. 
 bptcccen.) In rural economy, the bringing 
 b 4 
 
BREAKING UP. 
 
 BREEDING-PONDS. 
 
 of an animal under subjection. The break- 
 ing of a colt is commonly, especially for 
 race-horseg, commenced when he is much 
 too young ; for this, as for all other breeds 
 of horses, too much caution and gentleness 
 can hardly be used. (Darvill, On Training.) 
 Of dogs, spaniels should begin to be broken 
 in at five or six months old. The water 
 spaniel, according to old Markham, as soon 
 as " even when you first weane him ; " and, 
 according to Blaine (Encyc. of Rural Sports), 
 the education of a pointer or a setter should 
 commence at five or six months. 
 
 BREAKING UP. A term that is often 
 applied to such lands as are ploughed from 
 leys, or which are cut or pared for the pur- 
 pose of being burned. 
 
 BREAM. (Fr. brame ; Cyprinus latus.) 
 An English fresh-water fish, breeding both 
 in rivers and ponds, and very rapidly in 
 some waters. Eyes large, narrow sucking 
 mouth, two sets of teeth. The French 
 esteem this fish highly; and, according to 
 Dugdale (Hist, of Warwick, p. 668.), in the 
 7 of Henry V., one was valued at 20d. The 
 best part of the bream is the belly and head. 
 The baits to catch bream are paste made of 
 brown bread and honey ; gentles, or the 
 young brood of wasps, hardened in an oven 
 or dried on a tile before the fire to make 
 them tough ; or a grasshopper with his legs 
 nipped off in June or July, or a large red 
 worm. (/. Walton's Angler, c. x.) 
 
 BREAST-PLATE, The strap of lea- 
 ther that runs from one side of the saddle 
 to the other over the horse's breast, in order 
 to keep the saddle tight, and hinder it from 
 sliding backwards. 
 
 BREAST-PLOUGH. A small plough, 
 contrived so that a man may easily shove it 
 before him. It consists of a cutting-iron 
 about eight or nine inches long, having one 
 of its sides turned up to cut the turf. This 
 iron is fixed to a pole bending upwards, 
 about five or six feet long, and forked at 
 the upper end, having a crutch, or cross 
 handle, mortised into the forks. Against 
 this crutch the ploughman places his breast, 
 and shoves the plough forwards, in order to 
 turn up the turf, its principal use being for 
 cutting up the surface of the ground in 
 paring and burning, or burn-baking. 
 
 BREASTS. Part of the bows of a saddle. 
 
 BRECK. A provincial word applied to 
 a breach or gap in a hedge. It is some- 
 times written brack. 
 
 BREED. (Sax. bpaeban.) A sort or va- 
 riety of any kind of live-stock. The breeds 
 of most domestic animals are numerous, and 
 distinguished by certain invariable marks 
 or appearances peculiar to each, as in Cattle, 
 Sheep, Horses, and Swine. See these dif- 
 ferent heads. 
 
 248 
 
 BREEDER. In agriculture, a farmer 
 who is much employed in breeding and rear- 
 ing animals of any of the domestic kinds. 
 
 BREEDING IN AND IN. The breed- 
 ing from close relations. " This plan," says 
 Professor Youatt (Cattle, p. 525.), " has 
 many advantages to a certain extent. It 
 may be pursued until the excellent form 
 and quality of the breed are developed and 
 established. It was the source whence 
 sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bake- 
 well, and the superior cattle of Colling ; but 
 disadvantages attend breeding ' in and in,' 
 and to it must be traced the speedy dege- 
 neracy, the absolute disappearance of the 
 new Leicester cattle, and in the hands of 
 many an agriculturist, the impairment of 
 constitution and decreased value of the 
 new Leicester sheep and the short-horned 
 beasts. It has therefore become a kind 
 of principle with the agriculturist to effect 
 some change in his stock every second or 
 third year : and that change is most conve- 
 niently effected by introducing a new bull 
 or ram. These should be as nearly as pos- 
 sible of the same sort, coming from a simi- 
 lar pasturage and climate, but possessing no 
 relationship, or at most a very distant one, 
 to the stock to which he is introduced." 
 These remarks apply to all descriptions 
 of live stock. In cattle, as well as in the 
 human species, defects of organisation and 
 permanent derangements of function obtain, 
 and are handed down when the relationship 
 is close. In Spain the deformed and feeble 
 state of the aristocracy arises from the al- 
 liances being confined to the same class ; 
 whilst in England, which can boast the 
 finest aristocracy in the world, the higher 
 classes are improved by constant alliances 
 being formed with the daughters of inferior 
 classes, where wealth has been accumulated. 
 See the heads, Cattle, Horse, Sheep, &c. 
 
 BREEDING-PONDS. Such ponds as 
 are employed for breeding fish. The qua- 
 lities of a pond, to make it profitable for 
 breeding fish, are very different from those 
 which are sufficient for the feeding of them ; 
 inasmuch as some particular ponds serve 
 only for one of these purposes, and others 
 for the other ; and scarcely ever the same 
 pond is found to answer for both. In ge- 
 neral, it is much more rare to find a good 
 breeding-pond than a good feeding one. 
 The indications of a good breeding-pond 
 are these, — a considerable quantity of rushes 
 and grass about its sides, with gravelly 
 shoals, such as horse-ponds usually have. 
 The spawn of fish is prodigiously great 
 in quantity; and where it succeeds, one 
 fish is able to produce some millions. Thus, 
 in one of these breeding-ponds, two or three 
 melters, and as many spawners, will, in a 
 
BREWING. 
 
 very little time, stock the whole country. 
 When these ponds are not meant entirely 
 for breeding, but the owner wishes to have 
 the fish grow to some size in them, the 
 method is to thin their numbers ; for they 
 would otherwise starve one another. It may 
 also be necessary to put in other fish that will 
 prey upon the young, and thin them in the 
 quickest manner. Eels and perch are the 
 most useful on this account, because they prey 
 not only upon the spawn itself, but upon the 
 young fry from the first hatching to the time 
 they are of a considerable size. Some fish are 
 observed to breed indifferently in all kinds of 
 waters ; of this nature are the roach, pike, 
 and perch. 
 
 BREWING. The process of obtaining 
 the saccharine solution from malt, or other 
 matters, and converting this solution into 
 spirituous liquors, ale, porter, or beer. 
 There is little doubt of the antiquity of this 
 art. The Egyptians are said to have been 
 the inventors of beer. The early Germans, 
 and our Saxon forefathers, were as fond of 
 beer, as the modern citizens of Lubec and 
 Rostock are now, or the English of all ages. 
 It is hardly necessary, in this work, to go 
 deeply into the description of a process 
 which most country persons understand so 
 well. The directions may be divided into 
 several heads. 1. The grinding of the malt : 
 in this there is, as in many other parts of 
 brewing, considerable difference of opinion ; 
 some prefer it ground between stones, 
 others crushed by rollers; some prefer a 
 fine grist, others a coarse one. 2. The 
 mashing is usually performed in a vessel of 
 wood, with a false bottom pierced full of 
 holes ; on this bottom the malt is laid ; the 
 water is then admitted, which, for pale ale, 
 or pale spirits, should be of the temperature 
 of from 170° to 185°, according to the quan- 
 tity mashed ; the heat being increased as 
 the mass diminishes. For porter, not higher 
 than 165°, or lower than 156°. For the 
 second mash, an increased temperature of 
 15° or 20° will be advisable. For the first 
 mash : for every quarter of malt, a barrel 
 and a half of water may be used, and the 
 grist well mixed with the water. The mash 
 is permitted to rest for some time, and 
 then allowed to run off into an auder- 
 back, whence it is pumped into the boiler, 
 where it is raised to the boiling tempera- 
 ture. When the wort is sufficiently drained 
 from the mash-tub, another portion of hot 
 water is added for a second mash. The 
 hops are next added, and the boiling is com- 
 pleted, which in general requires an hour 
 and a half, " or until the wort breaks bright 
 from the hops, when a sample is taken from 
 the copper." The wort is let off into coolers, 
 either of wood or iron ; where, when suffi- 
 249 
 
 ciently cooled, or' else in proper fermenting 
 tuns, the yeast or barm is added. The fer- 
 mentation speedily begins ; and wiien it is 
 thought that a sufficient quantity of alcohol 
 is formed, the fermentation is stopped, and 
 the yeast is separated by running it into 
 smaller vessels, and skimming off the barm ; 
 or else by allowing it to run off from the 
 bung-holes of the casks, which are, for this 
 purpose, kept completely filled. A small 
 portion of salt is commonly added, and 
 occasionally, especially by the professional 
 brewer, a portion of isinglass or other 
 finings. In all these operations, cleanliness 
 is a most essential part, for without this 
 it is impossible to have good beer. 
 
 The quantity of hops to be added varies 
 with the quality of the beer. 4 lbs. to the 
 quarter of malt is sufficient for beer for pre- 
 sent use, and from this to 28 lbs. have been 
 used for beer for long keeping, as for ex- 
 portation, &c. 
 
 The temperature of the fermentation 
 should range between 56° and 62°. Not 
 more than 60° for ale worts, nor more than 
 62° for porter. Great care should be taken 
 to have good, sound, healthy, and new yeast, 
 — and of this about 2 lbs. per barrel are com- 
 monly needed. Good malt and hops, of 
 course, are requisite ; but the quality of the 
 water is not of so much consequence as is 
 very often considered to be the case. Some 
 of the best ales in England are brewed 
 either with soft or with hard water, and 
 from rivers, or springs, or ponds. From 
 those issuing from the limestones of Not- 
 tinghamshire, the chalks of Dorsetshire, 
 the clays of Staffordshire, the gravels and 
 sands of Surrey and Middlesex, is made 
 some of the most excellent beer in the United 
 Kingdom. The quantity of alcohol, upon an 
 average, in brown stout is about 6*80, in ale 
 8*88, and in small beer from 2 to 3 per 
 cent. (Branded) Beer came under the ex- 
 cise in the year 1643, but the duties were 
 repealed in 1830. The exportation of beer 
 from this country was in — 
 
 Tuns. 
 
 1830 - - 10,212 
 1832 - - 11,330 
 1834 - - 10,406 
 The specific gravity of the wort, when it 
 is placed in the fermenting vessels, varies 
 from 1*060, when it contains 14*25 per cent, 
 of solid matter, to 1*127, when it contains 
 28*2 per cent. That of small beer varies 
 from 1*015 to 1*040, the first containing 
 about 3*5 per cent, of solid matter, the latter 
 about 9*5 per cent. The chief use of the 
 hops (ground ivy and other herbs were used 
 by our Saxon ancestors for this purpose) is 
 to communicate the peculiar bitter flavour 
 from the oil which is contained in them ; 
 
BRICKS. 
 
 BRINING OF GRAIN. 
 
 partly to hide the sweetness of the saccharine 
 matter, and partly to counteract the ten- 
 dency which wort has to run into acidity. 
 {Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. p. 376.) 
 
 " Hops," says Dr. Lardner {Domestic Eco- 
 nomy, vol. i.), " are by no means the only bitter 
 which may be made use of for preparing 
 and flavouring ales ; others can be much 
 more conveniently procured in certain situ- 
 ations. Mixtures, in various proportions, of 
 wormwood, powdered bitter oranges, gentian 
 root, and the rind of Seville oranges, will 
 afford an excellent bitter, perhaps more 
 wholesome than hops, and, if skilfully com- 
 bined, to the full as palatable ; in this po- 
 sition the brewers cannot refuse to bear me 
 out." Strasburg beer, which is much prized 
 on the continent, owes much of its excel- 
 lence to the use of avens {Geum urbanum). 
 It has been shewn by Mr. Dubrunfault, 
 that a good beer can be produced from 
 potatoes grated to a pulp, mixed with bar- 
 ley malt. In Ireland, beer is made from 
 parsnips. Cane sugar answers admirably 
 (14 lbs. of cane sugar, dissolved in 10 gallons 
 of boiling water, with lilbs. of hops). The 
 beer made in this way is pale coloured, it is 
 true ; but colour may be given readily by 
 scorched treacle, or the raspings of an 
 over-baked loaf. {Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. ii. p. 634.) Beer " which would not 
 disgrace a nobleman's table" has also been 
 made from mangel wurzel 150 lbs., and 1 lb. 
 of hops in 16 gallons of water. {Mechanic's 
 Mag.) It may also be made from the seeds 
 of the Fiorin grass (Donovon, Domestic 
 Economy), Indian and other corn. {Baxters 
 Lib. of Agriculture.) 
 
 BRICKS are building materials often em- 
 ployed by the farmer for the construction 
 of drains, besides the ordinary purposes, 
 for which they answer very well ; but they 
 are more expensive than draining tiles, 
 which see. By the 17 G. 3. c. 42., under a 
 penalty of 20*., and 10s. per 1000, all bricks 
 made in England for sale shall be 8£ inches 
 long, 4 inches wide, and 2£ inches thick; 
 and all pantiles 13i inches long, 9£ inches 
 wide, and £ an inch thick. If the farmer 
 wishes to make his own bricks, the London 
 plan is to mix 50 chaldron of coal ashes, or 
 breeze, with 240 cubic yards of clay, which 
 makes 100,000 bricks ; and to burn these, 
 15 chaldrons of coarse sifted breeze are re- 
 quired. The soils called brick earths vary 
 much in their composition ; they contain 
 alumina in different proportions. Potters' 
 clay is perhaps the richest in that earth, 
 being composed, according to M. Vauquelin, 
 {Bull. Phil, xxvi.) of— 
 
 Tarts. 
 
 Silica (flint) - - 43.5 
 
 Alumina - - 33*2 
 
 250 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lime - - - 3*5 
 
 Oxide of iron - 1 -0 
 
 Water - - - 18 -0 
 
 Loss - 0-8 
 
 100-0 
 
 BRIDLE. A contrivance made of straps 
 or thongs of leather, and pieces of iron, in 
 order to keep a horse in subjection, and 
 direct him in travelling. The several parts 
 of a bridle are, the bit or snaffle ; the head- 
 stall, or leather from the top of the head to 
 the rings of the bit ; the fillet, over the 
 forehead and under the fore-top ; the throat- 
 band, which buckles from the head-band 
 under the throat ; the nose-bands, going 
 through the loops at the back of the head- 
 stall, and buckled under the cheeks ; the 
 reins, or long thongs of leather that come 
 from the rings of the bit, and, being cast 
 over the horse's head, the rider holds in his 
 •hand. 
 
 BRIDLE-HAND, is the horseman's left 
 hand ; the right being called the spear or 
 sword hand ; and that in which the whip is held. 
 
 BRIDON. A sort of snaffle, with a very 
 slender mouth-bit, without any branches. 
 They are much used in this country. It is 
 sometimes written Bridoon. 
 
 BRILLS. In horsemanship, a vulgar 
 name for the hair growing on the horse's 
 eye-lids. 
 
 BRIM. A term applied to a sow when 
 she goes to the boar, which is called going 
 to brim. It is sometimes written Brimme. 
 
 BRINING OF GRAIN, is the practice 
 of steeping it in pickle, in order to pre- 
 vent smut or other diseases. The steep is 
 made with common salt and water, of 
 sufficient strength to float an egg; or of 
 sea-water, with salt added to it till it is of 
 the requisite strength. The seed is then 
 put into it, and well stirred about : the light 
 grains rise to the surface, and are skimmed 
 off ; the rest is put upon a sieve to drain, 
 and new-slaked lime sifted upon it : after 
 being carefully mixed, and when a little 
 dried, it is put into the earth. Urine, when 
 kept stale, is used in the same manner ; and, 
 if the seed be sowed directly, with good 
 effect. Brining the seed wheat is commonly 
 believed by the farmers to be a prevention 
 of smut, a disease which has been shown by 
 Sir Joseph Banks to be a parasitical fungus. 
 Recent experiments have suggested that it 
 may even be of use, when employed in larger 
 quantities, as a preventitive of mildew — 
 the most dreadful of the numerous diseases 
 to which the cultivated grasses are exposed. 
 The experiments of the late Rev. E. Cart- 
 wright strongly evidence, that when salt 
 
BRISTLE-PERN. 
 
 BROAD-CAST SOWING. 
 
 and water are sprinkled with a brush upon 
 diseased plants, it is actually a complete 
 cure, even in apparently the most desperate 
 cases. The proportion, one pound to a 
 gallon of water, laid on with a plasterer's 
 brush, the operator making his casts as when 
 sowing corn : it is instant death to the 
 fungus, but it also destroys some plants. 
 The time and expense are trifling. It ap- 
 peared, in the course of some inquiries 
 made by the Board of Agriculture, that a 
 Cornish farmer, Mr. Sickler, and also the 
 Rev. R. Hoblin, were accustomed to employ 
 refuse salt as a manure, and that their crops 
 were never infected with the rust or blight. 
 The farmer may see most of the authorities 
 collected together on this important fact in 
 Johnson, On Salt, p. 50. If potatoes are 
 immersed in a solution of ammoniacal water 
 for four or five days (one ounce of the com- 
 mon liquor ammonia? to a pint of water), 
 they will have, according to Mr. Webster, 
 their vegetative power completely checked 
 or destroyed, and may be in this way pre- 
 served throughout the year, without the 
 least injury to their general qualities — the 
 same effect is produced by immersing them 
 in a strong brine. This merely requires 
 subsequent ablution, and repeated changes 
 of water. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. vii. 
 p. 438.) 
 
 BRISTLE-FERN, Short-styled. (Tri- 
 chomanes brevisetum.) A perennial rare 
 English plant, growing in watery places, or 
 on wet rocks, flowering in May or June. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 325.) 
 
 BRISTLES. (Dut. borstels; Ger.borsten.) 
 The strong glossy hairs growing upon the 
 back of the wild boar and the hog. Those 
 for the use of brush-makers, saddlers, shoe- 
 makers, &c, are imported to a very con- 
 siderable extent from Russia, those of the 
 Ukraine being the best. At an average of 
 three years ending with 1831, says Mr. 
 M'Culloch, the entries for home consump- 
 tion amounted to 1,789,801 lbs. annually. 
 They contain a considerable quantity of 
 gelatine, which may be separated from them 
 by boiling water. 
 
 BRITTLE HOOF, is an affection of 
 the horse's hoof, very common, especially in 
 summer, in this country, from bad stable 
 management. A mixture of one part of oil 
 of tar, and two of common fish oil, well 
 rubbed into the crust and the hoof, will re- 
 store the natural pliancy and toughness of 
 the horn, and very much contribute to the 
 quickness of its growth. (Youatt, On the 
 Horse, p. 282.) 
 
 BRIZA MEDIA. Common quaking 
 grass ; ladies' tresses : a perennial grass, 
 flowering in May and June. It is distin- 
 guished by the panicle of short spikelets, 
 251 
 
 tinged with purplish brown. The spikelets 
 are ovate, on very slender stems, which 
 makes the panicle tremulous. This grass, 
 says Sinclair, is best fitted for poor soils ; its 
 nutritive powers are considerable, compared 
 with other grasses tenanting a similar soil. 
 It is eaten by horses, cows, and sheep ; and 
 for poor sandy and tenacious soils, where 
 improvements in other respects cannot be 
 sufficiently effected, to fit them for the pro- 
 ductions of the superior soils, the common 
 quaking grass will be found of value. 
 From a poor sandy soil, destitute of manure, 
 the produce of this grass per acre, at the 
 time of flowering, is 10,890 lbs., containing 
 nutritive matter 453 lbs. From a moist mi- 
 ni anured clayey soil, the produce was, at 
 flowering time, per acre, 8167 lbs., and 
 the nutritive matter 293 lbs. From a 
 rich black loam the produce, under similar 
 circumstances, was 9869 lbs. of grass, and 
 462 lbs. of nutritive matter. (Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. p. 206.) 
 
 BRIZE LANDS. A provincial term for 
 lands which have remained long without 
 tillage. Brize is also a name for the gad-fly, 
 used commonly in the days of Shakspeare 
 and Ben Jonson. (Tr. and Cress.', Poet- 
 aster, In. 1.) 
 
 BROAD-CAST SOWTNG. The primi- 
 tive rapidly diminishing method of putting 
 grain, turnip, pulse, clover, grasses, &c. into 
 the soil, performed by means of the hand. 
 This mode of sowing seems better adapted 
 to the stony and more stiff kinds of land 
 than that by machines ; as in such grounds 
 they are liable to be constantly put out of 
 order, and to deposit the seed unequally. 
 In this way, however, the seeds are scattered 
 over the ground, and not confined in regular 
 rows, as is the case with the drill husbandry, 
 which is in several ways more advantageous 
 to the farmer. This mode of sowing, perhaps 
 from its being that made use of in the in- 
 fancy of agriculture, has often been called 
 the old method. 
 
 In this method of sowing, the usual prac- 
 tice, especially where the ridges are equal 
 in breadth, and not of too great a width, as 
 five or six yards, is that of dispersing the 
 seed regularly over each land or ridge, in 
 once walking over ; the seedsman, by dif- 
 ferent casts of the hand, sowing one half in 
 going, and the other in returning. In doing 
 this, it is the custom of some seedsmen to 
 fill the hand from the basket or hopper, 
 which they carry along with them, as they 
 make one step forward* and disperse the 
 seed in the time of performing the next ; 
 while others scatter the seed, or make their 
 casts, as they are termed by farmers, in ad- 
 vancing each step. It is evident, therefore, 
 that in accomplishing this business with re- 
 
BROADS. 
 
 BROCCOLI. 
 
 gularity and exactness, upon which much of 
 the success of the crop must depend, there 
 is considerable difficulty, and the proper 
 knowledge and habit of which can only be 
 acquired by experience. This, however, by 
 long practice is done with surprising regu- 
 larity and precision. The broad-cast system 
 not only requires more seed, but it renders 
 the hoeing, so essential to the most profitable 
 growth of corn, much more difficult. Ma- 
 chines have been invented for distributing 
 the seed broad- cast, which they perform 
 with perfect precision : these are more espe- 
 cially useful for the grass seeds, and are 
 simple and economical ; a plate of one may 
 be seen in Professor Low's Ptwc.Ag.ip. 108., 
 and another in British Husb. vol. ii. p. 14. 
 These, however, require some attention in 
 their working, to prevent the clogging of 
 the seed. 
 
 BROADS. A provincial word applied 
 to lakes or broad portions of water. 
 
 BROAD-WHEELED WAGGON. A 
 four-wheeled carriage, in which the parts of 
 the wheels that act upon the road are of 
 considerable breadth. By the acts 3 G. 4. 
 e. 126. s. 12., and 4 5 W. 4. c. 81., waggons, 
 wains, and other four-wheeled carriages, 
 whether on springs or not, whose wheels 
 have their fellies of not less than four and 
 a half inches at the bottom or soles, are con- 
 sidered to be broad-wheeled. 
 
 BROCCOLI. (Brassica oleracea botry- 
 tis.) The varieties of this cabbage are now 
 numerous, and are chiefly the fruits of the 
 great attention which has been paid to its 
 cultivation of late years. For an uninter- 
 rupted supply, scarce any of these varieties 
 can be dispensed with ; but the purple and 
 white are those most generally cultivated. 
 With respect to their quality, it has been 
 remarked that they have less of the pecu- 
 liar alkalescent taste, and are more palatable, 
 in proportion as they approach a pale or 
 white colour. {Transact. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. i. p. 116.) 
 
 1. Purple Cape, or autumnal broccoli. 2. 
 Green cape, or autumnal broccoli. 3. Grange's 
 early cauliflower broccoli. 4. Green, close- 
 headed winter broccoli. 5. Early purple broc- 
 coli. 6. Early white broccoli. 7. Dwarf 
 brown close-headed broccoli. 8. Tall large- 
 headed purple broccoli. 9. Cream-coloured, 
 or Portsmouth broccoli. 10. Sulphur-co- 
 loured broccoli. 1 1 . Spring white, or cauli- 
 flower broccoli. 12. Late dwarf close-headed 
 purple broccoli. 13. Latest green, Siberian, 
 or Spanish broccoli*, 
 
 Broccoli is propagated by seed. As all of 
 the kinds are not generally at command, the 
 following times and varieties are specified 
 as being those employed in general practice, 
 and by which a supply nearly unfailing is 
 252 
 
 accomplished. A first sowing may be made 
 under a frame at the close of January, and 
 a second at the end of February, or early 
 in March, on an eastern wall-border, of the 
 purple Cape and early cauliflower varieties, 
 for production at the close of summer and 
 during autumn ; the seedlings from these 
 sowings are respectively fit for pricking 
 out, if that practice is followed, in March 
 and early in April, and for final planting at 
 the close of the latter month and May. In 
 April, another crop of the same varieties 
 may be sown, for pricking out in May, and 
 planting in June, to produce at the close of 
 autumn and in early winter. During the 
 middle of May, a fourth and larger crop than 
 any of the preceding, of the early purple 
 and white varieties, to be pricked out in 
 June and planted in J uly ; and finally, the 
 last open-ground crop may be sown in June, 
 to be pricked out in the succeeding month, 
 and planted in August and September ; the 
 plants will follow from the others in suc- 
 cession throughout winter and spring. In 
 a frame, however, they may be sown, like 
 the cauliflower, in the last days of August, 
 to remain until the following March, to be 
 then planted out for production in early 
 summer. By these repetitions, which, if for 
 a family, should be small, an almost continued 
 supply is afforded ; but in general for do- 
 mestic use, especially if the establishment is 
 small, three sowings of moderate extent will 
 be sufficient ; the first in the second week of 
 April, the second in the third week in May, 
 and the third in the middle of August in a 
 frame. Each variety should be sown sepa- 
 rately, and the sowing performed thin ; the 
 beds not more than three or four feet wide 
 for the convenience of weeding, which must 
 be performed as often as -tf eeds appear, as 
 they are very inimical to the growth of this 
 vegetable. The seed must not be buried 
 more than half an inch ; and the beds be 
 netted over to keep away the birds, which, 
 especially in showery weather, are very de- 
 structive. The fitness of the plants for 
 pricking out is intimated by their having 
 five or six leaves, rather more than an inch 
 in breadth ; they are set four or five inches 
 apart each way, and water given every night 
 until they have taken root. They must 
 have four or five weeks' growth before they 
 are again moved ; or not until they have 
 leaves nearly three inches in breadth. When 
 planted out, they must be set on an average 
 two feet asunder each way ; in summer a 
 little wider, in winter rather closer. Water 
 to be given at the time of planting, and oc- 
 casionally afterwards until they are esta- 
 blished ; during the droughts of summer it 
 may be given plentifully with the greatest 
 advantage. Tin 1 )- must be hoed between 
 
BROCCOLI. 
 
 BROKEN-KNEES. 
 
 frequently, and the mould drawn up about 
 their stems. To force forward the winter 
 standing varieties, it is a successful practice 
 to take them up in November, and after 
 trimming off the outer leaves to lay them 
 on their sides in a sloping position, in a bank 
 or terrace of light earth, so much space being 
 left between every two plants that their 
 heads do not come in contact. To continue 
 the supply uninterrupted, even in the mid- 
 winter of the severest years, Mr. Maher re- 
 commends that when the crop sown about 
 the third week in May has been planted 
 out, the weaker plants which remain should 
 be left eight or ten days to acquire strength, 
 and then planted in pots (sixteens), filled 
 with very rich compost ; to be shaded, and 
 watered until struck. These are to be 
 plunged in the ground at similar distances 
 as the main crops, and about three inches 
 below the surface, so as to form a cup for 
 retaining water round each ; these cups are 
 filled up by the necessary earthings, which 
 must be pressed firmly down to prevent the 
 wind loosening them. A few of the plants 
 generally flcwer early, and, to guard against 
 the first frosts, must have the leaves broken 
 over them : but on the approach of settled 
 frost in December or January, the pots must 
 be taken up and removed into a frame, shed, 
 or any place of shelter from the extreme 
 severity of the weather ; but to have air 
 when mild. ( Tra. Hort. Soc. L. vol. i. p. 1 1 8.) 
 
 To those crops which have to withstand 
 the winter in the open ground, salt is bene- 
 ficially applied, as it preserves them from 
 being frosted in the neck, and also their roots 
 from being worm-eaten ; which may also be 
 effected, Mr. Mackay of Errol House, N. B., 
 informs us, by pouring soap-suds between 
 the rows, which application is also very 
 beneficial to the plants. (Mem. Caled. Hort. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 275.) 
 
 To preserve the winter standing crops 
 from destruction by severe weather, it is 
 also a practice, early in November, to take 
 them up, injuring the roots as little as pos- 
 sible, and to lay them in a sloping direction 
 in the soil, with their heads to the north. 
 A modification of this plan, adopted by the 
 distinguished president of the Horticultural 
 Society, is, hoAvever, much preferable, as it 
 obviates the defect of few roots being pro- 
 duced, and consequently diminutive heads. 
 A small trench is made in the first week of 
 September, at the north end of each row, in 
 which the adjoining plant is laid so low, that 
 the centre of its stems at the top is put level 
 with the surface of the ground, the root 
 being scarcely disturbed ; it is then imme- 
 diately watered, and its roots covered with 
 more mould. Thus every plant is in suc- 
 cession treated ; and by the beginning of 
 253 
 
 November, it is scarcely perceptible that 
 they have been thus treated, though it cer- 
 tainly checks their growth. Before the ar- 
 rival of snow, a small hillock must be raised 
 round each plant, to support its leaves, and 
 prevent their being broken. (Trans. Hort. 
 Soc. Lond. vol. ii. p. 304.) If snow accom- 
 panies severe frost, advantage should be 
 taken of it, and the plants be heaped over 
 with it, which will afford them an effectual 
 protection. 
 
 For the production of seed, such plants of 
 each variety must be selected, in March or 
 April, as most perfectly agree with their pe- 
 culiar characteristics, and are not particu- 
 larly forward in advancing for seed. As 
 the stems run up, some gardeners recom- 
 mend the leaves to be taken away; but this 
 must be injurious. Mr. Wood of Queens- 
 ferry, North Britain, is particularly careful 
 that no foliage appears on the surface of the 
 flower: he always lifts his plants, and plants 
 them in another bed, watering abundantly ; 
 as this, from his long experience, he finds, 
 prevents their degenerating, or producing 
 proud seed ; and when the head begins to 
 open, he cuts out its centre, and leaves only 
 four or five of the outside shoots for bearing. 
 The sulphur-coloured he always finds the 
 most difficult to obtain seed from. (Mem. 
 Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 266.) As the 
 branches spread, four or six stakes should 
 be placed at equal distances round each 
 plant, and hooped with string, to support 
 them and prevent their breaking. When 
 the pods begin to form, water should be given 
 repeatedly, and occasionally some thrown 
 over the whole plant, which tends to prevent 
 mildew. Before the pods begin to change 
 colour, those from the extremity of every 
 shoot must be taken away ; as these yield 
 seed which produce plants very apt to run to 
 seed without heading, and by an early removal 
 the others are benefited. The branches 
 ought to be gathered as soon as the pods 
 upon them ripen. Varieties must never be 
 planted near each other, or they will reci- 
 procally be contaminated. The seed ripens 
 in August or September; and it is often re- 
 commended to preserve it in the pod until 
 wanted ; but the general practice is to beat 
 it out, and store it as soon as it is perfectly 
 dry. The plants raised in frames are ma- 
 naged as directed for cauliflowers in the 
 same situation. (G. W. Johnsons Kitchen 
 Garden.} 
 
 BROCK. Provincially the badger. 
 
 BROG. A provincial term used to sig- 
 nify to browse upon, or crop, as cattle in 
 underwood. 
 
 BROKEN-KNEES, in horses. The best 
 medical treatment, in slight cases, is to cleanse 
 them from dirt and gravel by a sponge and 
 
BROKEN- WIND. 
 
 BRONCHITIS. 
 
 warm water. In bad cases a veterinary 
 surgeon is absolutely necessary, who will 
 examine with his probe, and apply bandages, 
 and even, in need, the hot iron. 
 
 BROKEN-WIND, in horses, is, says 
 Professor Youatt, the rupture, dilatation, 
 or running together of some of the air cells, — 
 the inspiration by one effort, and the expi- 
 ration by two ; and is thus easily distinguish- 
 able from thick wind, in which the inspirations 
 and the expirations are equal in amount. 
 In healthy lungs, when the lungs are ex- 
 panded, the air will rush in easily enough, 
 and one effort of the muscles of expiration is 
 sufficient for the purpose of expelling it ; 
 but when these cells have run into each 
 other, the cavity is so irregular, and contains 
 so many corners and blind pouches, that it 
 is exceedingly difficult to force it out again, 
 and two efforts are scarcely competent fully 
 to effect it.' A dry husky cough accom- 
 panies this disease, of a peculiar sound. 
 Broken wind is usually caused by smart exer- 
 cise on a full belly. We do not, therefore, find 
 broken-winded horses on the race course ; 
 for, although every exertion of speed is re- 
 quired from them, their food lies in a small 
 compass ; the stomach is not distended, and 
 the lungs have room to play ; and care is 
 taken that their exertion shall be required 
 when the stomach is nearly empty. Carriage 
 and coach horses, from a similar cause, are 
 not often broken-winded. The majority of 
 broken-winded horses come from those for 
 whose use these pages are principally de- 
 signed ; the farmer's horse is the broken 
 winded horse, from being fed on bulky 
 food ; and because, after many hours' fasting, 
 the horses are often suffered to gorge them- 
 selves, and then, with the stomach pressing 
 upon the lungs, and almost impeding or- 
 dinary respiration, they are put again to 
 work, and sometimes to that which requires 
 considerable exertion. But the pressure of 
 the distended stomach upon the lungs is suf- 
 ficient to do this, without exertion; many a 
 horse goes to grass or the straw-yard sound, 
 and returns broken-winded. The cure of a 
 broken-winded horse no one has witnessed, 
 yet much may be done in the way of pallia- 
 tion ; the food should consist of much nu- 
 triment in little compass; the oats should be 
 increased, and the hay diminished; occasional 
 mashes will be found useful; water should 
 be given sparj^gly except at night, and the 
 horse should never be exercised on a full 
 stomach. Carrots are excellent food for 
 him. (The Horse; Lib. of Useful Know. 
 p. 195.) 
 
 BROMUS. The brome grasses; a genus 
 of which the chief species are as follows : — 
 
 Bromus arvensis, taper field brome grass, 
 has a spreading, drooping, compound pa- 
 254 
 
 nicle, with lanceolate, sharp-pointed spike- 
 lets. Each spikelet consists of eight imbri- 
 cated, smooth florets, with two close ribs 
 at each side. The leaves are hairy, and the 
 whole plant about three feet high. It is 
 confined to rich pastures and meadows ; 
 while the next two, Bromus multiflorus and 
 Bromus mollis, known by the leaves being 
 soft and downy, abound most on poor or 
 exhausted grass lands : they are all annuals. 
 The farmer considers them to be bad 
 grasses : the field brome grass, however, af- 
 fords an early bite in the spring for sheep 
 and lambs ; it does not exhaust the soil ; the 
 roots do not extend to any depth; its seeds, 
 which it sheds, readily and speedily take root 
 and yield food ; and it withstands the frost 
 well : it flowers on the second week in Au- 
 gust. At the time of flowering, the produce 
 of its grass grown on a sandy loam per acre 
 is 23,821 lbs.; of nutritive matter, 1488 lbs. 
 
 Bromus diandrus, upright annual brome 
 grass. Produce per acre, from a rich brown 
 loam, at time of flowering, 20,418 lbs. ; nu- 
 tritive matter, 957 lbs. 
 
 Bromus erectus, upright perennial brome 
 grass. The produce, at the time of flowering, 
 from a rich sandy soil, 12,931 lbs. per acre; 
 nutritive matter, 555 lbs. : it is common on 
 chalky soils. 
 
 Bromus inermis, smooth awnless brome 
 grass. When flowering, from a black siliceous 
 sandy loam, is obtained of this grass 12,251 
 lbs. ; of nutritive matter, 689 lbs. 
 
 Bromus littoreus, sea-side brome grass ; 
 from a clayey loam, when flowering, is ob- 
 tained per acre of this grass 41,518 lbs.; of 
 nutritive matter, 973 lbs. 
 
 Bromus mollis, soft brome grass : from a 
 sandy loam, when flowering, Sinclair ob- 
 tained of this grass 10,890 lbs. ; of nutritive 
 matter, 510 lbs. 
 
 Bromus multiflorus, many-flowered brome 
 grass (named from the spikelets containing 
 from ten to fifteen florets). The produce 
 per acre of this grass, when flowering, from 
 a sandy loam, is 22,460 lbs. ; nutritive mat- 
 ter, 1754 lbs. 
 
 Bromus sterilis, barren brome grass. The 
 produce per acre, from a sandy soil, at flow- 
 ering time, is 29,947 lbs.; of nutritive matter, 
 2339 lbs. : it grows principally under hedges 
 in the shade ; cattle refuse it. 
 
 Bromus tectorum, nodding-panicled brome 
 grass. Produce from a sandy light soil, 
 7486 lbs. ; nutritive matter, 350 lbs. 
 
 These were all examined with much skill 
 by Sinclair, but he had evidently a poor 
 opinion of them as field grasses. (Hort. 
 Gram. Wob.) 
 
 BRONCHITIS. A disease in horses. It 
 is, says Professor Youatt, acatarrh extending 
 beyond the entrance of the lungs. Symptoms, 
 
BROOD MARES. 
 
 BROOM, SPANISH. 
 
 quicker and harder breathing than catarrh, 
 peculiar wheezing, coughing up of mucus. 
 Treatment, moderate bleeding, chest blis- 
 tering, digitalis. Neglected bronchitis^ often 
 leads to thick wind. (On the Horse, p. 189.) 
 
 BROOD MARES. Mares generally com- 
 mence breeding at three or four years of age. 
 Some commence at two years, which is much 
 too early. A mare will, if only moderately 
 worked, continue to breed till nearly twenty. 
 She is in heat in the early part of the spring ; 
 averages about eleven months in foal; but 
 this varies considerably, some have been 
 known to foal four or five weeks before this 
 time, others five or six later. In race horses, 
 the colt's age is calculated the same, whe- 
 ther he is born in January or May. It is de- 
 sirable that the mare should go to the horse 
 as early as possible. But in ordinary cases 
 May is the best month ; for then the mare 
 foals at a period when there is an abundance 
 of her natural food. 
 
 BROOKLIME. (Myositis palustris.) 
 This herb loves shallow streams and wet 
 ditches, like the water-cress, which it re- 
 sembles in taste. It flowers and seeds in 
 June, July, and August. Brooklime is 
 known by its thick stalk, roundish leaves, 
 and its spikes of small bright blue flowers. 
 It grows about a foot in height, and it 
 strikes root at the lower joints, and the roots 
 are fibrous. The leaves are broad, oblong, 
 slightly indented, round at their edges, and 
 blunt at the point, to use an Irishism. The 
 flowers stand singly upon short foot- stalks, 
 one over another, forming a sort of loose 
 spike. Brooklime possesses slight medicinal 
 virtues ; but it should be used fresh, as it 
 loses its properties when dried. It is often 
 eaten in salads, which is a pleasant mode of 
 administering it ; but its flavour is in any 
 form warm and agreeable. 
 
 BROOK- WEED. (Samolus valerandi.) 
 Water pimpernel. Grows in watery situa- 
 tions, on a gravelly soil. It is found also in 
 New South Wales, and other parts of the 
 globe. (Smith's Flora, \ol. i. p. 323). 
 
 BROOM (the Spartium scoparium or 
 Cyticus scoparius of botanists). An ever- 
 green-branched shrub, native of sandy soils 
 throughout Europe. The broom, with its 
 gay yellow flowers, blooming from April 
 to J une, its tough stalks, and flat hairy pods, 
 is well known on all barren and waste 
 grounds, growing abundantly in dry gravelly 
 thickets and fields, and is often admitted 
 into shrubberies, for its delicate blooms and 
 curious appearance. It is sown extensively 
 in this country as a shelter for game. Its 
 branches, which are tough, are made up into 
 brooms, to which they have given their name. 
 The green stalks and tops of brooms are 
 medicinally employed. They have a bitter 
 255 
 
 nauseous taste, and a peculiar odour when 
 green. The green twigs, when burnt, yield 
 a large quantity of carbonate of potash, and 
 several other salts. Broom tops, adminis- 
 tered in strong infusion, are emetic and 
 purgative: in smaller doses they are diu- 
 retic ; and as such have been long employed 
 to excite the action of the kidneys in dropsy ; 
 but its efficacy depends on the nature of 
 the dropsy, and its cause. When inflam- 
 mation is present, broom tops do much 
 harm ; and, therefore, like other remedies, 
 its use should not be entrusted to non-pro- 
 fessional persons. It may be useful to know 
 that its action is promoted by dilution. 
 
 BROOM-RAPE. (Orobanche major.) This 
 is a parasitical plant which is found amongst 
 the red clover ; " meaning perhaps," says Mr. 
 Main, " a robber of broom, from its being 
 frequently found on waste grounds growing 
 on the roots of the common broom, and in 
 fields on the roots of clover. In its first 
 appearance it resembles the roots of as- 
 paragus, just as they break through the 
 ground; the stems rise from 6 to 10 inches 
 high, and without proper leaves, having what 
 are called bractes instead. The flowers are 
 arranged on the stem like those of a hya- 
 cinth, but not so showy, being of a dingy 
 brown colour, succeeded by oblong capsules 
 of seeds. A straggling individual plant is 
 sometimes met with amongst ley-wheat feed- 
 ing on a clover plant, which has escaped de- 
 struction by the plough and harrow at wheat 
 sowing ; but it never appears again until the 
 field is sown with clover. From a note by 
 Mr. Rham, quoting Von AelbrocKs Agri- 
 culture of Flanders, p. 283., it would seem 
 that the minute seeds of the broom-rape, 
 which can hardly be observed with the naked 
 eye, exude a glutinous substance, by which 
 they adhere to the seeds of the clover, and 
 with which they are in consequence often 
 sown. (Journ. Roy. Eng. Ag. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 175.) Orobanche is a powerful astrin- 
 gent, and might be advantageously used in 
 chronic diarrhoeas. 
 
 BROOM, SPANISH. (Spartium jun- 
 ceum.~) A handsome shrub, now common 
 in England. Its fragrant yellow blossoms 
 appear in July ; and Miller says, in cool 
 seasons, it Avill keep blowing until September. 
 It loves a sheltered situation. If raised by 
 seed, sow it as soon as it is ripe, in a shady 
 bed of common earth, kept free from weeds. 
 Plant out the seedlings the following autumn. 
 The white Spanish broom (Spartium mono- 
 spermum) is more tender ; therefore it should 
 be sheltered during the winter. It grows 
 well in shrubberies not exposed to a hot 
 sun. Raised from seed. Phillips recommends 
 the Spanish broom for shrubberies, from its 
 long continuance in bloom, from July to 
 
BROWN BENT. 
 
 BUCK-HUNTING. 
 
 October ; and he adds, the common broom 
 (S. scojiarium) may as judiciously be placed 
 at the foot of towering trees, where it will 
 shine as gay in the gloom as a cypress fire in 
 a forest. (Shrubbery, vol. i. p. 151.) 
 
 BROWN BENT. See Agbostis. 
 
 BRUISE. (Sax. bpyran ; anciently writ- 
 ten brise, or brese.) An injury caused by 
 the percussion of something blunt or heavy. 
 Bruises of cattle or horses are best treated 
 by cooling remedies, and by bleeding. For 
 a lotion, one ounce of turpentine, one ounce 
 of Goulard's extract (vinegar and sugar of 
 lead), one ounce of spirits of wine, one pint 
 of strong vinegar. Bathe the part affected 
 two or three times a day. A bruise of a 
 horse's foot is best treated by bleeding at 
 the toe, and by poultices. (Clater, p. 318.) 
 
 BRUSH. (Fr. brousse.) A provincial 
 word applied to stubble, as wheat or oat 
 brush. 
 
 BRUSHWOOD. Rough, close, shrubby 
 thickets. Small wood for fireing is some- 
 times called brushwood. Dr. Johnson al- 
 most fancies it is derived from browsewood, 
 or low wood, on which cattle browse, an 
 use of much more importance in northern 
 countries to the stock owner than with us. 
 Plantations of brushwood might very gene- 
 rally be turned to a more valuable account 
 than they are at present. " For in many 
 districts," says Dr. Singer, " large tracts of 
 land are occupied with brushwood in such 
 a way as to be unsightly to the eye, and al- 
 most useless to the persons concerned in the 
 soil. Nor is this all, or even the worst part ; 
 for it is frequently in good lands, and some- 
 times in soils that, by due attention, might 
 become almost the best on the respective 
 estates, that this useless brushwood ap- 
 pears ; affording perhaps a little shelter, but, 
 at the same time, occupying so much of the 
 soil, as to leave it incapable of producing 
 much grass for use to stock, and to prevent 
 all improvement." (Trans, of High. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 137. See also Mr. Blakie on the 
 same theme, Ibid. p. 360.) 
 
 BRYONY, BLACK. (Tamus communis. 
 Gr. fipvw, I grow rapidly.) This is a wild 
 native plant, and climbs like the white bry- 
 ony ; but it wreathes its stalk around the 
 bushes, having no tendrils. The stalk also 
 runs fifteen feet in length. The leaves are 
 broad, shaped like a triangle, smooth, po- 
 lished, and of a black green colour. The 
 flowers and berries resemble the white 
 bryony. 
 
 BRYONY, WHITE. (Bryonia dioica.) 
 This plant, with its tendrils and leaves, 
 somewhat resembles the vine, and clings like 
 it around the trees and bushes in its progress. 
 It grows in many parts of England under 
 hedges and thickets. The leaves are hairy 
 
 and broad. The flowers small, and of a 
 greenish white colour, blowing from May 
 till August. The berries are red, and full 
 of seeds. The root is large, rough, and 
 white, and the stalks from ten to twelve feet 
 in length. The root contains a peculiar bitter 
 principle, which has been termed bryonin. 
 The root is poisonous, being both violently 
 emetic and purgative, producing symptoms 
 resembling those of cholera. It is sold by 
 herbalists under the name of Mandrake root. 
 Many ignorant persons have been destroyed 
 by the employment of bryony root, in dis- 
 eases in which it is said to be useful in old 
 herbals. Decoctions made with one pound 
 of the fresh root are purgatives for cattle. 
 This is a powerful medicine, and should 
 be given cautiously in small doses, even to 
 cattle. 
 
 BUCK. The male of the deer, hare, 
 rabbit, &c. 
 
 BUCK-BEAN. (Menyanthes trifoliata.) 
 This is a beautiful wild flower, and de- 
 serving of cultivation. It naturally in- 
 habits turbaries, and marshy places. In a 
 garden it will live for many years, if planted 
 in a pot filled with peat earth mixed with 
 sphagnum or bog moss, and plunged in a 
 pan of water ; or better still, if planted out 
 in rich soil, where it can be supplied with 
 water from a pond or tank. It is not only 
 a beautiful, but a valuable gift of Providence, 
 — for it possesses powerful effects as a re- 
 medy against the fevers prevalent in marshy 
 districts. (Gardener s Chronicle.} Wither- 
 ing, in speaking of this plant, says it is pos- 
 sessed of powerful medicinal properties ; an 
 infusion of the leaves is extremely bitter, 
 and is prescribed in rheumatism and drop- 
 sies ; it may be used as a substitute for hops 
 in making beer, and is employed as a pur- 
 gative for calves. It is easily recognised, 
 possessing a very singular appearance. It 
 grows a foot high ; the leaf-stalks rise from 
 the roots, and upon each stalk stand three 
 large oblong leaves, somewhat resembling 
 the garden bean leaves. The stalks them- 
 selves are round, thick, and smooth. The 
 flowers are small, white, with a delicate tinge 
 of purple, and hairy inside. They grow 
 together, forming a short, thick spike, and 
 stand upon thick, round, whitish, and naked 
 stalks. The root is long, thick, and of a 
 whitish colour. Buck-bean leaves should 
 be gathered before the flower stalks appear, 
 and dried. Their powder, taken in tea, or 
 any liquid, is excellent for rheumatism and 
 ague. 
 
 BUCK-HEADING. A provincialism 
 applied to the cutting hedge-fences off, 
 fence-height. 
 
 BUCKIIORN. See Star of the Earth. 
 
 BUCK HUNTING. " In common par- 
 
BUCKLE-HORNS. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. 
 
 lance," says Mr. Blaine, " the hunting of a 
 fallow deer, whether male or female, is said 
 to be buck hunting." This, according to 
 Mr. Chafing, in the reign of James II., was 
 formerly practised after dinner ; it was so 
 fashionable, and so generally delighted in at 
 that period, that even the judges on the 
 circuit were accustomed to partake in it. 
 (Scotfs Field Sports, p. 435.) 
 
 BUCKLE-HORNS. A provincial name 
 for short crooked horns turning inward in 
 a horizontal manner. 
 
 BUCK-STALLING. A provincial term 
 applied to the operation of cutting hedge- 
 thorns, fence-height, &c. 
 
 BUCKTHORN, ALDER. See Berry- 
 bearing Alder. 
 
 BUCKTHORN, COMMON. (Rhamnus 
 catharticus.) A hardy indigenous prickly 
 shrub, common in hedge rows ; flowering 
 in May, and ripening its fruit in September. 
 The leaves have strong lateral nerves, are 
 ovate, toothed, with linear stipules; the 
 flowers are yellowish green, and are suc- 
 ceeded by a black berry, which is glossy, 
 and the size of a large pepper-corn, con- 
 taining three or four seeds, and a violet red 
 pulp. The bark is glossy and dark-coloured. 
 This shrub likes a sheltered situation, and 
 succeeds in any soil. It is propagated by 
 seed, layers, and grafts. The juice of the 
 unripe berries is a deep green dye, if boiled 
 with a little alum. The juice contains a 
 purgative principle, which enables it to 
 operate as a powerful cathartic ; but its 
 action is accompanied with much griping 
 and thirst. It was formerly often used as 
 a domestic purgative ; but the frequent 
 violence of its action has caused its disuse. 
 Dodoens, in his Herbal, published in 1619, 
 gives the following account of its medicinal 
 use, full of good sense, and applicable at 
 the present time : — " They be not meete 
 to be ministered, but to young and lustie 
 people of the countrie, which do set more 
 store of their money than their lives." 
 
 BUCKTHORN, SEA. See Saleow- 
 
 THORN. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT. (Germ, buchweizen.) 
 The name of a particular species of grain, 
 of which, for the sake of their seeds, there 
 are two species cultivated in Europe — 1 . the 
 common buckwheat {Polygonum Fagopy- 
 rurri), 2. the Tartarian buckwheat (P. ta- 
 taricum), and another in China and Tartary 
 (P. emarginatum). A new kind of buck- 
 wheat, known to the peasants of Germany 
 by the name of Le ble (Tltalie sauvage, 
 which they prefer to the common buck- 
 wheat, because it is more productive, hardier, 
 and has whiter and more savoury meal, is 
 described in the Bull, des Scien. Agr., April, 
 1831. (Quart. Journ,Agr.xolm.-p.368.) Its 
 257 
 
 flower is said to be deeper-coloured, and 
 smaller. 
 
 Buckwheat is aplant known in almost every 
 part of the world. It has been supposed to 
 have been first known in Europe after the 
 time of the Crusades. The French, in fact, 
 call it ble Sarrazin. In China, Japan, and 
 Russia, it forms a very considerable portion 
 of the food of the inhabitants ; it is likewise 
 generally eaten in Switzerland and the 
 southern parts of France ; and in Flanders 
 it is a considerable branch of husbandry. 
 Gerard speaks of it as cultivated in England 
 about the year 1597, particularly in the coun- 
 ties of Lancashire and Cheshire. It appears, 
 however, to have made small progress in 
 this kingdom, and has received less attention 
 than it deserved. It thrives well in almost 
 any dry soil, even those of the poorest kinds : 
 and in most of the arable districts it is 
 sown on the inferior sorts of land ; as, when 
 cultivated on the richer kinds of soil, it is 
 found to run too much to straw. It is well 
 adapted to light sandy lands. The quantity 
 of seed sown varies from five to eight pecks 
 per acre. Buckwheat is an annual. It has 
 a strong, cylindrical, reddish, branching- 
 stem, about two feet in height, with alter- 
 nate ivy- shaped leaves ; the flowers which 
 are white, tinged with red, are in bunches 
 at the end of the branches, and are suc- 
 ceeded by black angular seeds. Its flowers 
 are very attractive to bees. It begins 
 flowering in July, and is generally fit to 
 mow about the beginning of October. If 
 put together, says Mr. Main, a little green 
 or damp, it does not much signify ; for al- 
 though ever so mouldy, the grain is never 
 damaged, and the more mouldy it is the 
 earlier it can be thrashed. It is the easiest 
 of all barn-work for the thrasher. (Qua?~t. 
 Journ. Agr. vol. vii. p. 180.) 
 
 The proper time for sowing buckwheat is 
 in May, when there is no longer any danger 
 to be apprehended from the frosts ; for so 
 tender is this vegetable at its first appear- 
 ance, as to be unable at an earlier period to 
 withstand the vernal cold. The slightest 
 frost in their infant state would infallibly 
 cut off the young shoots ; and as, from this 
 circumstance, it must be sown at a season 
 when dry weather may be expected, the 
 crop, on that account, not unfrequently 
 fails. The produce, which varies with the 
 seasons (and this is rather an uncertain crop), 
 ranges from two to four quarters per acre. 
 It is commonly grown in England in pre- 
 serves, as food for pheasants and partridges. 
 It is an excellent food for poultry ; pigs 
 thrive upon and are fond of it (it is com- 
 monly given to them mixed with potatoes) ; 
 and when bruised it is good food for horses, 
 two bushels being equal, for this purpose, it 
 s 
 
BUD. 
 
 BUDDING. 
 
 is said, to three of oats (a bushel weighs about 
 forty-six pounds). Cows, when fed with it, 
 yield a large increase of milk. Sheep, when 
 fed upon the plant when in blossom, stagger 
 and tumble about as if drunk. It is some- 
 times made into hay, which is nutritive, but 
 tedious to make, and should be consumed 
 before the winter. It is often grown on 
 poor exhausted soils, and ploughed in when 
 in bloom ; in this way it increases very ma- 
 terially the fertility of the soil, and is a mode 
 often practised in Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, 
 and in Scotland. Mr. Ballingal has given 
 an account of his experiments with it upon 
 a clay loam recently limed ; from the result 
 of which he warns his brother farmers that 
 it is " needless to attempt to grow it upon 
 damp soils, or to expect full crops upon 
 lands exhausted by over cropping." {Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol.ii. p. 125.) 
 
 In reaping buckwheat, many farmers 
 prefer pulling it, as less likely to shed the 
 seed. The morning, or late in the evening, 
 should be chosen for this purpose, when 
 the dew is upon the plant. M. Yauquelin 
 found 100 parts of its straw to contain 29*5 
 of carbonate of potash, 3*8 of sulphate of 
 potash, 17*5 carbonate of lime, 13*5 car- 
 bonate of magnesia, 16'2 of silica, 10*5 earth 
 of alum, and 9 of water. 
 
 Vast quantities of this grain, says Mr. 
 Main, are annually imported into this country 
 from Holland and other northern countries, 
 for the use of the gin- distilleries ; who also 
 consume considerable quantities of British 
 growth, which not being kiln-dried, as most 
 of the Dutch grain is found to be, is more 
 valued. The average quantity of buck- 
 wheat imported into this country is about 
 10,000 quarters. It pays the same duty as 
 barley. (M^CullocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 Buckwheat bread is very light and di- 
 gestive for delicate stomachs. 
 
 BUD. (Fr. bouton.) The germ or first 
 fruit of a plant, which is the organised ru- 
 diment of a branch or flower. Buds proceed 
 from the extremities of the young shoots, 
 and also along the branches, sometimes 
 single, sometimes two and two, either op- 
 posite or alternate, and sometimes collected 
 in greater numbers. In general, we may 
 distinguish three kinds of buds ; the leaf-bud, 
 the flower-bud, and mixed buds, which con- 
 tain both in one covering. The first species 
 (foliferous buds) contains the rudiments of 
 several leaves, which are variously folded 
 over each other, and surrounded by scales. 
 The second species, or flower-bud (flori- 
 ferous buds), contains the rudiments of one 
 or several flowers, folded and covered in a 
 similar manner. The third sort, which is 
 the most common of any, produces both 
 flowers and leaves. A leaf- bud is con- 
 258 
 
 structed thus : — in its centre it consists of 
 a minute conical portion of soft succulent 
 cellular tissue (the plumule or rudiment of 
 the new twig), and over this are arranged 
 rudimentary leaves, in the form of scales. 
 These scales are closely applied to each 
 other ; those on the outside are the largest 
 and thickest, and those in the interior are 
 smaller and more delicate. In cold countries, 
 the external scales are often covered with 
 hair, or a resinous varnish, or some other 
 contrivance, which enables them to prevent 
 the access of frost to the young and tender 
 centre which they protect, for they are 
 strictly hybernacula ; but in warm countries, 
 where such a provision is not required, they 
 are green and smooth, and much less nu- 
 merous. The cellular centre of a bud is 
 the seat of its vitality ; the scales that cover 
 it are the parts towards the development of 
 which its vital energies are first directed. 
 (Penny Cyclopcedia, vol. v. p. 524.) 
 
 BUD. A term made use of in some dis- 
 tricts for a weaned calf of the first year ; 
 probably from the horns then beginning to 
 bud or shoot forth. 
 
 BUDDING, or grafting by germs, says 
 Mr. Loudon (Encyc. of Gard. p. 2050.), con- 
 sists, in ligneous plants, in taking an eye or 
 bud attached to a portion of the bark of 
 different sizes and forms, and generally 
 called a shield, and transporting it to a 
 place in another, or a different ligneous ve- 
 getable. In herbaceous vegetables, the same 
 operation may be performed, but with less 
 success. It may also be performed with 
 buds of two or three years' standing, and on 
 trees of considerable size, but not generally 
 so. The object in view in budding is al- 
 most always that of grafting, and depends 
 on the same principle, all the difference 
 between a bud and a scion being, that a 
 bud is a shoot or scion in embryo ; in other 
 respects, budding is conducted on the same 
 principles as grafting. The bud is to be 
 pared off, with a sharp knife, along with 
 half an inch of bark adhering at the upper 
 end, an inch and a half at the lower. By 
 holding the bud firmly between the finger 
 and thumb of the left hand, the small slip of 
 wood is to be removed by a jerk of the 
 knife, and nothing left but the bud and the 
 adhering bark. An incision is then to be 
 made in the bark of the stalk to be budded, 
 and after separating the bark from the 
 wood with an ivory blade, the prepared bud 
 is to be inserted, and gently pushed down- 
 wards, below the transverse incision. The 
 operation is finished by carrying a ligature 
 round the stem so as to fix the bud firmly 
 to the new wood on which it is placed. In 
 every case, the bud and the stock must be 
 botanically related. An apple may be 
 
BUFFALO. 
 
 BUGLE HORN. 
 
 budded on a pear or thorn, but not upon a 
 plum or a peach. Common budding is per- 
 formed from the beginning of July to the 
 middle of August. Mr. Knight, to whom 
 the cultivator is indebted for so many ser- 
 vices, has several papers on this subject. 
 {Trans. Hort. Soc.vol. i. p. 194. ; iii. p. 135.) 
 
 BUFFALO. (From the Italian; Lat. 
 bubalis.) A term originally applied to a 
 species of antelope ; but afterwards trans- 
 ferred, in the age of Martial, to different 
 species of the ox. In modern zoology, the 
 buffaloes, or the " bubaline group " of the 
 genus Bos, include those species which have 
 the bony core of the horn excavated with 
 large cells or sinuses, communicating with 
 the cavity of the nose ; the horns are flat- 
 tened, and bend laterally with a backward 
 direction, and are consequently less appli- 
 cable for goring than in the bisons or taurine 
 group of oxen. The buffaloes are of large 
 size, but low in proportion to their bulk ; 
 they have no hunch on the back, and only 
 a small dewlap on the breast ; the hide is 
 generally black, the tail long and slender. 
 The buffaloes occupy the warm and tropical 
 regions of the earth ; they avoid hills, and 
 prefer the coarse vegetation of the forest 
 and swampy regions to those of open plains ; 
 they love to wallow and lie for hours sunk 
 deep in water ; they swim well, and cross 
 the broadest rivers without hesitation. 
 Their gait is heavy, and they run almost 
 always with the nose horizontal, being prin- 
 cipally guided by the sense of smelling. 
 They herd together in small flocks, or live 
 in pairs, but are never strictly gregarious 
 in a wild state. The females bear calves 
 two years following, but remain sterile the 
 third ; they propagate at four and a half 
 years old, and discontinue after twelve. 
 " The common buffalo (says Professor Low) 
 has come to us, beyond a question, from 
 Eastern Asia. He seems to have been in- 
 troduced into Italy about the sixth century, 
 and is now an important animal in the rural 
 economy of that country. He is used by 
 the Italians as food, and as the beast of 
 labour, and may be said to form the riches 
 of the inhabitants in many parts of the 
 country. He is cultivated, too, in Greece 
 and Hungary. The milk of the female is 
 good, but the flesh is held in less esteem 
 than that of the common ox. The pace of 
 the animal is sluggish ; but from the low 
 manner in which he carries his head, throw- 
 ing the weight of his great body forward 
 when pulling, he is well suited for heavy 
 draught. But this is not a property suffi- 
 ciently important to cause the introduction 
 of the buffalo into the agriculture of 
 northern Europe, and he is not likely, 
 therefore, to be carried beyond the coun- 
 259 
 
 tries where he is now reared." Buffalo 
 hunting on elephants is one of the field 
 sports of the East; and this'animal is also 
 hunted on foot with avidity by the Caffres 
 at the Cape of Good Hope, as well to get 
 rid of a dangerous foe, as to furnish them- 
 selves with food from his flesh, and leather 
 from his hide. (Brande's Diet of Science ; 
 Blaine's Encyc. of Rural Sports ; Elements 
 of Practical Agriculture.} 
 
 BUFFONIA, SLENDER. (Buffonia 
 tenuifolia.) An annual plant, with a slender 
 fibrous root, named after Buffon, found on 
 the sea-coast; very rare. The stem is 
 smooth, round, about a span high ; leaves 
 awl-shaped, three-ribbed ; flowers small, 
 white, solitary, erect, on terminal or axil- 
 lary roughish stalks. (Smith's Eng. Flora, 
 vol. i. p. 226.) 
 
 BUGLE, COMMON. (Ajuga reptans.) 
 This very pretty wild plant grows in woods, 
 copses, moist pastures, and shady places, 
 flowering in April, May, and June. It 
 is a perennial ; has blue flowers, upright 
 leafy stalks, and glossy leaves, of a deep 
 purplish-green colour, oblong, broad, blunt 
 at the point, and slightly indented round 
 the edges, some growing immediately from 
 the root. The flower-stalks rise eight or 
 ten inches high, of a pale green — often 
 purplish — and have two leaves at each 
 joint, which joints are far apart from each 
 other. The joint leaves are as large as 
 those growing from the root. The scent- 
 less flowers are blue and white, sometimes 
 entirely white, growing round the upper 
 part of its stalk, forming a kind of loose 
 spike. The cups remain, when the flower has 
 fallen off, to hold its seeds. This plant is 
 often denominated sicklewort, and herb car- 
 penter. The roots (says Smith) are slightly 
 astringent ; but the herb has little taste or 
 smell, and still less of any healing or vul- 
 nerary property. The white variety abounds 
 in the Isle of Wight ; and a flesh-coloured 
 one has sometimes been observed. In dry 
 mountainous situations the plant acquires a 
 considerable degree of hairiness. The French 
 who are great herbalists, affirm, that " with 
 bugle and sanicle, no one needs a surgeon." 
 
 Besides the common bugle, Smith, in his 
 English Flora (vol. iii. p. 65 — 67.), enume- 
 rates three other species, the alpine bugle, 
 pyramidal bugle, and ground pine or yel- 
 low bugle (Ajuga Chamcepitys). The Ajuga 
 orientalis, a hardy perennial, from the 
 neighbourhood of the Levant, loves an 
 open situation and dry soil. Its blue flowers 
 blow in June and July. Propagate by 
 parting the roots in spring or autumn. 
 
 BUGLE HORN. (From bucida, a heifer.) 
 A wind instrument, much more commonly 
 employed in the sports of the field formerly 
 s 2 
 
BUGLOSS. 
 
 than at present. It has been, however, in 
 our days, much improved for musical pur- 
 poses by the introduction of keys. 
 
 BUGLOSS. (Lycopsis arvensis.) The 
 stalks of this plant are from one to two feet 
 high, rough, round, solid, erect, and marked 
 with black spots. The root is small, tapering, 
 and whitish ; whole herb very bristly and 
 prickly ; leaves light green ; the flowers 
 bright blue ; seeds hard and grey. 
 
 Bugloss is a hardy annual, blowing in 
 June. It thrives in a dry soil, and is found 
 very common in fields, waste grounds, and 
 on dry banks. Propagate by parting its 
 roots in autumn. It is indigenous. The nar- 
 row-leaved bugloss blows in May ; treated 
 as above. The root is long and brown. 
 Bugloss is sometimes known by the name 
 Ox-tongue. Ancient writers say, that bu- 
 gloss is good in decoction, as a drink for 
 nurses. They assert, also, that it is healing 
 in coughs and colds ; but modern authors 
 agree in affirming that it has no extraordi- 
 nary virtues, though it is often used like 
 borage in cool tankards. 
 
 BUGLOSS, VIPER'S. (Echium vulgare.) 
 This plant is met with most frequently in 
 fields and waste grounds, especially on a 
 sandy or gravelly soil, as well as on old 
 walls and rubbish. It is a biennial, flowering 
 in June and July. The whole herb is very 
 rough, with prickly bristles, arising from 
 callous points, intermixed with smaller hairs. 
 Stems one or more, one to two feet h 
 erect or spreading ; leaves alternate, lanceo- 
 late, single-ribbed, dull green, tapering at the 
 base. Clusters of numerous crowded large 
 beautiful flowers, pink in the bud, then blue 
 or purple, occasionally white. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flora, vol. i. p. 268.) 
 
 BUILDING. (Dut. bilden ; Sax. bylban.) 
 In rural economy, any kind of erection 
 raised upon a farm. It is a business that 
 mostly belongs to the proprietor of the lands 
 to perform, though, in some cases, it may 
 be necessary to be done by the tenant. In 
 undertaking it, the different circumstances 
 of the particular cases should be carefully 
 considered, in order that the greatest ad- 
 vantage and economy may be preserved 
 that the situation admits of, and the several 
 buildings have the greatest relative con- 
 venience. All buildings, where bricks and 
 mortar are employed, should be done as 
 early in the spring as possible, and never 
 in the winter season, where it can be avoided, 
 in order that they may have time to dry 
 before the winter sets in. (See Farm- 
 
 BUILDING8.) 
 
 BULB. (Lat. bulbus; Gr. fioUog.) A 
 bud usually formed under ground, having 
 very fleshy scales, and capable of separating 
 from its parent plant. Occasionally it is 
 260 
 
 BULLEN. 
 
 produced upon the stem, as in some lilies. 
 It contains the rudiments of the future 
 plant, and partakes of the character of the 
 bud (which see). In bulbous plants, as the 
 tulip, onion, or lily, what we generally call 
 the root is in fact a bulb or lfybernaculum, 
 or winter case, which incloses and secures 
 the embryo or future shoot. At the lower 
 part of this bulb may be observed a fleshy 
 disk, knob, or tubercle, whence proceed a 
 number of fibres or threads. This knob, 
 with the fibres attached to and hanging 
 from it, is, properly speaking, the true root ; 
 the upper part being only the cradle or 
 nursery of the future stem, which, being 
 replaced a certain number of times, the 
 bulb perishes ; but not till it has produced 
 at its sides a number of smaller bulbs or 
 cloves for perpetuating the species. In 
 bulbous plants, where the stalk and former 
 leaves of the plant are sunk below, into the 
 bulb, the radicles or small fibres that hang 
 from the bulb are to be considered as the 
 root ; that is, the part which furnishes nou- 
 rishment to the plant : the several rinds and 
 shells whereof the bulb chiefly consists suc- 
 cessively perish, and shrink up into so many 
 dry skins, betwixt which, and in their centre, 
 are formed other leaves and shells, and thus 
 the bulb is perpetuated. There are several 
 kinds of bulbs; namely, 1. the tunicated 
 bulb (Bulbus tunicatus), formed of thin 
 membranous layers, as, for example, the 
 onion ; 2. the scaly bulb (B. squammosus), 
 formed of fleshy abortive leaves, not in 
 layers, as in the lily. The cloves, which are 
 produced between the scales of bulbs, are 
 often, as it were, starved, when the bulb 
 throws up a vigorous flowering stem ; 
 thence, in order to propagate bulbs, the 
 flowering stem should be destroyed as soon 
 as it appears. 
 
 BULBOCODIUM. (Bulbocodium ver- 
 num.) A bulbous-rooted plant, native of 
 the Pyrenees, blowing a light purple flower 
 in March. It loves shade, and thrives in 
 peat mould. Take up the roots in July, to 
 replant in October. 
 
 BULLACE TREE, WILD. (Prunus 
 insititia.} A small tree, chiefly growing in 
 hedges and plantations, with irregularly 
 spreading round branches, for the most part 
 tipped with a sharp straight thorn. There are 
 several varieties of the black kind, differ- 
 ing in size and flavour, some good even in a 
 fresh state, and of more or less excellence when 
 dressed. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 356.) 
 
 BULL, BULL-CALF. See Cattle. 
 
 BULL-BAITING. See Baiting. 
 
 BULL-DOG. See Dog. 
 
 BULLEN. A provincial name applied 
 to the hempstalk when the bark is stripped 
 from it. 
 
BULLEYN, WILLIAM. 
 
 BUR. 
 
 BULLEYN, WILLIAM, was born in 
 the Isle of Ely, early in the reign of Henry 
 VIII. ; Watts, in his Bibliotheca Britan- 
 nica, says in 1500. He studied first at 
 Cambridge, and subsequently at Oxford. 
 He travelled in Germany, Scotland, and his 
 native country, studying their natural pro- 
 ductions with a zeal and success, that marks 
 him very prominently as a man of science 
 in that age, so benighted as it was in every 
 thing that appertains to natural history. 
 He was appointed, in June 1550, to the 
 rectory of Blaxhall in Suffolk. It is pro- 
 bable that he united the practice of a phy- 
 sician with that of a divine, a union of pro- 
 fessions which was not thought incompatible 
 even as late as the commencement of the 
 present century. It is certain he resigned 
 his church preferment in 1554, and soon 
 after settled in practice as a physician at 
 Durham, and became a proprietor, with Sir 
 Thomas Hilton, in some salt works. On 
 the death of Sir T. Hilton, Dr. Bulleyn re- 
 moved to London. His death occurred 
 Jan. 7. 1576. (Biographia Britannica.) 
 
 His works were published collectively, and are en- 
 titled, " A Bulwarke of Defence against all Sicknes, Sore- 
 nes, and Wounds, that doe daily assaulte Mankind ; 
 which Bulwarke is kept with Hillarius the Gardener, 
 Health the Physician, with their Chirurgion, to help the 
 wounded Soldiers, &c. with his Boke of Simples. Lon- 
 don. 1562. fol." Another edition bears date, 1579, fol. 
 
 BULLFINCH. (Pyrrhula.) This is too 
 common a bird not to be exceedingly well 
 known, and is found in most parts of Eng- 
 land, but particularly those which are 
 wooded and cultivated, preferring gardens, 
 orchards, hedgerows, plantations, and small 
 woods, to bleak and exposed tracts of 
 common, waste, or moor. It is found to be 
 particularly destructive in gardens through- 
 out the spring of the year, devouring the 
 flower-buds of the various sorts of goose- 
 berries, cherries, plums, apples, and med- 
 lars in succession, to such an extent as 
 to destroy, if unmolested, all prospect of 
 any crop of fruit for the season. In winter 
 it feeds on hips, the fruit of the dog-rose, 
 berries, and seeds. It is a late breeder, 
 seldom beginning to build until the early 
 part of May, and produces but one brood 
 in the season. Nest formed of small twigs, 
 lined with fibrous roots, usually placed four 
 or five feet above the ground, on a branch 
 of a fir tree or in a thick bush. Eggs, four 
 or five, pale blue, speckled and streaked 
 with purplish grey and dark purple. These 
 are hatched after fifteen days' incubation. 
 The call-note of the bullfinch is soft and 
 plaintive, and this bird is principally prized 
 for its power of imitation and its memory. 
 Bullfinches are liable to great changes of 
 colour in their plumage. In an adult male 
 the beak is shining black ; irides dark brown ; 
 261 
 
 top of head jet black ; nape of neck, back, 
 and lesser wing-coverts delicate bluish grey ; 
 greater wing-coverts black, ends white,form- 
 ing a conspicuous bar across the wing; 
 rump above white ; the chin black ; ear- 
 coverts, side of neck, throat, breast, belly, 
 bill, red ; under surface of wings slate grey ; 
 legs, toes, and claws, purple brown. The 
 female has the grey colour of the back 
 more mixed with brown ; and the under 
 surface of the body, where the male is red, 
 is in her of a brownish purple red ; head, 
 wings, and tail, not quite so pure a black. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. pp. 1 — 7.) 
 
 BULLHEAD, or MILLER'S THUMB. 
 (Cottus Gobio.) An English fish common 
 in most rivers. Head smooth, yellowish, 
 variegated with black underneath, whitish, 
 with a spine on each side ; food, young fish 
 and insects. The bullhead hides under large 
 stones. Isaac Walton says, " In very hot days 
 he will lie long still on a stone or gravel, and 
 sun himself ; at which time he will suffer an 
 angler to put a hook baited with a very 
 small worm very near into his mouth, and 
 he never refuses to bite, or indeed be caught 
 by the worst of anglers." This fish, when 
 properly cooked, is very good eating. 
 ( Walton ; Blaine s Rural Sports.) 
 
 BULLOCK. See Cattle. 
 
 BULLOCK SHEDS. See Farm-build- 
 ings. 
 
 BULL -BUSH. (Scirpus lacustris.) A 
 perennial found commonly in clear ditches, 
 ponds, and the borders of lakes and rivers ; 
 flowers in July and August. (Smith's Flora, 
 vol. i. p. 56.) From this plant the bot- 
 toms of chairs, mats, &c. are made. The 
 common bullrushes of the English marshes, 
 which bear masses of brown flowers, are the 
 Typha latifolia and angustifolia. 
 
 BULLS. A provincial term applied to 
 the stems of hedge -thorns. 
 
 BULL'S-FOOT. A name sometimes 
 given to colt's-foot. 
 
 BULL WEED. (Centaurea nigra.) A 
 perennial weed, common in corn-fields, pas- 
 tures, and road sides ; it rises to about two 
 feet high ; the stalks are round, streaked, and 
 hoary ; the bottom leaves oblong and undi- 
 vided, but those which grow on the stalk 
 are cut and divided. The flowers resemble 
 those of the bluebottle in shape, but are 
 red. The seed is small, oblong, reddish, and 
 hairy in the upper part. It is frequently 
 known by the names of black knapweed, 
 black matfellon, cockheads, &c. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 465. ; Sinclair's Weeds 
 of Agr. p. 65.) 
 
 BUNS. A provincial term for hollow 
 stems; also for the stalks of hemp from which 
 the bark has been taken off. 
 
 BUR. The rough head of the burdock, &c. 
 1 s 3 
 
BURDEN BAND. 
 
 BURNET, COMMON. 
 
 BURDEN BAND. Provincially a 
 hempen hay-band. 
 
 BURDOCK. (Arctium.) There are two 
 species, the A. Lappa, common burdock or 
 clot-bur, and the A. Bardana, woolly headed 
 burdock. This very cumbrous weed is re- 
 moved the first year of its growth by stub- 
 bing, like other things comprehended by 
 farmers under the name of docks, and paid for 
 accordingly to the weeder. It is also very com- 
 monly found in waste ground, by way sides, 
 and among rubbish. (SmitJis Eng. Flora, 
 vol. iii. p. 379.) It grows a yard high, with 
 large leaves of a triangular shape, and of a 
 whitish green colour. The stalks are round, 
 solid, and tough. The florets are small and 
 red, and they grow among the prickles of 
 those heads called burs, which stick to the 
 clothes of passers by. The root is long and 
 thick, brown outside, and whitish within. 
 The plant is a biennial, and flowers in July 
 and August. The root in decoction is a 
 diuretic and sudorific; but it is of little 
 value, except as a vehicle for more impor- 
 tant medicines in some affections of the skin. 
 This is a great remedy among village doc- 
 tresses, who sometimes apply the bruised 
 leaves to the soles of the feet in hysterics. 
 Either the root or seeds decocted, or infused, 
 are equally useful with the leaves. The root 
 of the lesser burdock, or xanthium (Bardana 
 minor), has a bitter and acrid flavour, and is 
 useful in scrofulous disorders. A decoction 
 of the root should be persevered in for a 
 considerable length of time. 
 
 BURGLARY. The breaking into a 
 dwelling-house in the night with a felonious 
 intent. The 7 W. 4. & 1 Yict. c. 86. s. 2. 
 enact, that whosoever shall burglariously 
 break and enter into any dwelling-house, 
 and shall assault with intent to murder any 
 person being therein, or shall stab, cut, 
 wound, beat, or strike any such person, shall 
 be guilty of felony, and being convicted 
 thereof shall suffer death. S. 3. enacts, that 
 whosoever shall be convicted of the crime of 
 burglary shall be liable, at the discretion of 
 the court, to be transported beyond the seas 
 for the term of the natural life of such of- 
 fender, or for any term not less than ten 
 years, or to be imprisoned for any term not 
 exceeding three years. S. 4. enacts, that, 
 so far as the same is essential to the offence 
 of burglary, the night shall be considered to 
 commence at nine of the clock in the evening 
 of each day, and to conclude at six of the 
 clock in the morning of the next succeeding 
 day. (Archbold's Crim. Law.) 
 
 BURGOT. A provincial word applied to 
 yeast. It is sometimes pronounced bur- 
 good. 
 
 BUR-MARIGOLD. (Bidens.) This is 
 an herbaceous, mostly annual, genus of 
 262 
 
 plants, flowering in August and September. 
 It is met with very frequently in watery 
 places, and about the sides of ditches and 
 ponds. There are two species with one or 
 two varieties in each. In the three-lobed 
 bur-marigold (B. tripartita), the root is 
 tapering with many fibres ; stem two or 
 three feet high, erect, solid, smooth, leafy, 
 with opposite axillary branches. Leaves dark 
 green, strongly serrated, in three deep seg- 
 ments, sometimes five. Flower, terminal, 
 solitary, of a brownish yellow, somewhat 
 drooping, devoid of beauty and of fragrance. 
 Seeds with two or three prickly angles, and 
 as many erect bristles ; likewise prickly with 
 reflexed hooks, by which they stick like 
 burs to any rough surface, and are said some- 
 times to injure fish by getting into their 
 gills. The herb of this species gives a yellow 
 colour to woollen or linen. The nodding bur- 
 marigold (B. cernua) has a root with many 
 stout fibres, herb more erect and taller, with 
 less extended branches than the foregoing 
 species. Leaves undivided, pointed, and less 
 deeply serrated. Flowers drooping, though 
 their stalks are quite straight to the very 
 summit; larger and handsomer than the 
 last. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 398 — 
 400.) 
 
 BURN-BAKING, or BURN-BEAT- 
 ING. See Paring and Burning, 
 
 BURNET. (Pimpinella). This genus of 
 plants grows in barren places, under hedges, 
 and in dry sandy grounds ; flowering from 
 June till September, when the seed ripens. 
 The leaves which rise from the root are 
 pinnate, or composed of a great number of 
 small leaflets growing on each side of a 
 middle rib, with an odd one at the end. 
 They are broad, short, somewhat round, 
 and serrated on their edges. The stalks, 
 which are a foot high, are round, green, or 
 purplish. The flowers are small, and of a 
 pale red colour, having a number of threads 
 in the middle. The root is very astringent, 
 and dries well. Given in powder, or de- 
 cocted, it is useful in stopping diarrhoea. 
 The leaves of burnet are eaten in salads. 
 
 BURNET, COMMON. (Pimpinella 
 Saxifraga.) There are three species of bur- 
 net ; namely, burnet saxifrage, dwarf burnet, 
 and the greater burnet. The common burnet 
 plant was, a quarter of a century since, 
 much cultivated as a green crop, from its 
 being able to thrive on very poor, thin, and 
 sandy soils, but it has been gradually super- 
 seded by better grasses. Its growth is 
 rather slow. Cattle prefer it to clover and 
 rye grass, but sheep do not. (Ann. of Agr. 
 vol. i. p. 394.) It is sown in spring time, 
 the same as other grass seeds, and withstands 
 severe weather.. It should be fed off when 
 young (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 170.) ; and then, says 
 
BURNET, SALAD. 
 
 BUR-WEED. 
 
 Arthur Young, " it is one of the best grasses 
 for sheep" (ibid. p. 369.), who are at that 
 stage of its growth exceedingly fond of it. 
 About 71bs. of seed suffice for an acre (Ibid. 
 vol. xvi. p. 355.) ; and the produce is six or 
 seven bushels per acre, on moderate land. 
 (Ibid. vol. xx. p. 237.) 
 
 BURNET, SALAD, SMALL or UP- 
 LAND. (Poterium Sanguisorba, from the 
 Greek irorripiov, a cup, used in cool tank- 
 ards.) The stem, which is angular, smooth, 
 and leafy, rises 1 to 2 feet high, furnished 
 with glaucous-green, smooth, pinnated 
 leaves, with sharply cut stipules, in pairs 
 at the base of the footstalk. The flowers 
 are fertile and barren ; the latter with 
 crimson stamens resembling elegant silk 
 tassels. (Smith.) It delights in a dry, 
 poor soil, abounding in calcareous matter ; 
 any light compartment that has an open 
 exposure, therefore, may be allotted to it, 
 the only beneficial addition that can be 
 applied being bricklayers' rubbish or frag- 
 ments of chalk. A small bed will be suf- 
 ficient for the supply of a family. It may 
 be propagated either by seed, or by slips and 
 partings, or offsets of the roots. The seed 
 may be sown towards the close of February, 
 if open weather, and thence until the close 
 of May ; but the best time is in autumn, as 
 soon as it is ripe ; for if kept until the spring, 
 it will often fail entirely, or lie in the ground 
 until the same season of the following year, 
 without vegetating. It may be inserted in 
 drills, six inches apart, or broadcast ; in 
 either mode, thin, and not buried more than 
 half an inch. The plants must be kept 
 thoroughly clear of weeds throughout their 
 growth. When two or three inches high, 
 they may be thinned to six inches apart, 
 and those removed placed in rows at the 
 same distance, in a poor, shady border, 
 water being given occasionally until they 
 have taken root, after which they will require 
 no further attention until the autumn, when 
 they must be removed to their final station, 
 in rows a foot apart. When of established 
 growth, the only attention requisite is to 
 cut down their stems occasionally in summer, 
 to promote the production of young shoots, 
 and in autumn to have the decayed stems 
 and shoots cleared away. If propagated by 
 partings, &c. of the roots, the best time for 
 practising it is in September and October. 
 As it grows freely from seed, this is not 
 usually practised. They are planted at 
 once where they are to remain, and only re- 
 quire occasional watering until established. 
 The other parts of their cultivation are as 
 for those raised from seed. For the pro- 
 duction of seed, some of the plants must be 
 left ungathered from, and allowed to shoot 
 up early in the summer ; they flower in 
 263 
 
 July, and ripen abundance of seed in the 
 autumn. The leaves taste and smell like 
 cucumbers, thence the plant is used to 
 flavour salads. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden.) 
 
 BURNING. See Arson. 
 
 BURNING OF HEATH. See Heath. 
 
 BURNING OF LIME. See Lime. 
 
 BURNS, in live stock, are best treated 
 by a lotion composed of lime-water and 
 linseed oil, equal parts, applying it fre- 
 quently : this allays the inflammation very 
 rapidly. 
 
 BURNT CLAY. See Ashes. 
 
 BURNT EARS. See Smut. 
 
 BUR-PARSLEY. (Caucalis.) Of this 
 plant there are two kinds, both annual, 
 the smaller and the greater, which are met 
 with occasionally in corn-fields on a chalky 
 soil. In the small bur-parsley (C. daucoides) 
 the root is small and tapering, and the herb 
 nearly smooth and bushy. The fruit is 
 large, oblong, and very hairy. The great 
 bur-parsley (C. latifolia) is one of the most 
 striking and handsome of its tribe, and has 
 rough herbage, somewhat glaucous. The 
 stem is taller and less spreading than in 
 the foregoing, about three feet high, beset 
 with minute ascending prickles. — Petals 
 bright pink, inversely heart-shaped, the 
 outermost of the marginal prolific flowers 
 thrice as large as the rest. Fruit beset 
 with double rows of straight, rough, purplish 
 bristles. (Smith's English Flora, vol. ii. 
 p. 40.) 
 
 BUR-REED. (Sparganium.) Smith 
 (Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 73.) enumerates 
 three species: — 1. the branched bur-reed 
 (S. ramosum) ; 2. the unbranched upright 
 bur-reed (S. simplex) ; 3. the floating bur- 
 reed (S. nutans). They are all creeping- 
 rooted, aquatic, juicy, smooth, upright, or 
 floating herbs, and found in pools and 
 ditches, and the margins of ponds and rivers : 
 common : the last named principally in 
 muddy fens or slow rivers. The bur-reed 
 is a perennial, flowering in July and August ; 
 the stems of some of the species attain to the 
 height of three or four feet. The herbage 
 of the branched bur-reed serves for package 
 along with similar coarse grassy plants, and 
 is softer and more pliant than most of them, 
 not cutting the hand by any sharp edges, 
 like carices or ferns. The unripe burs are 
 very astringent. A strong decoction of the 
 burs makes a wash for old ulcers. 
 
 BURROW. (Teut. bergen, to cover.) A 
 provincial word, signifying a heap or hillock, 
 hence stone-burrows, peat-burrows, &c. 
 
 BUR-TREE. A provincial name some- 
 times applied to the elder-tree. It is also 
 written Bor-tree. 
 
 BUR-WEED. (Xanthium strumarium.) 
 s 4 
 
BUSH. 
 
 BUSH-VETCH. 
 
 The broad-leaved bur-weed is an annual 
 plant, flowering in August and September, 
 found in rich moist ground, or about dung- 
 hills in the south of England; but rare. It 
 is herbaceous or somewhat shrubby, rather 
 downy, of a coarse habit, root fibrous ; stem 
 solitary, erect, branched, leafy, two feet high, 
 solid; leaves on long stalks, heart-shaped, 
 two or three inches wide ; clusters of four 
 or five fertile green flowers, and one or two 
 barren ones, making no show. Old tradition 
 reports that the xanthium is good for scro- 
 fulous disorders, as the specific name seems 
 to indicate ; but it is justly out of use. The 
 generic appellation alludes to a quality of 
 dyeing yellow, which Dioscorides mentions. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 136.) 
 
 BUSH. (Tent, busch; Dan. busk.) A thick 
 shrub, or a collection of shrubs or plants, 
 growing close together, so as to form a sort 
 of clump. It is also a provincial word, sig- 
 nifying the box of the nave of a wheel. 
 
 BUSH-DRAINING. A term applied to 
 a kind of draining, which is done by putting 
 in, or filling the drains with bushes. 
 
 BUSHEL. (Old Fr. buschel ; low Lat. 
 bussellus.) A measure of capacity for dry 
 goods, as grain, fruit, pulse, and many other 
 articles, containing 4 pecks, 8 gallons, or 
 32 quarts, and is the eighth of a quarter. 
 The name seems to be derived from an old 
 English word, buss, signifying a box or 
 vessel. 
 
 The bushel, by a statute made in the 
 twelfth year of Henry the Seventh, is to 
 contain 2150*42 cubic inches, or 8 gallons 
 of wheat ; the gallon of wheat to weigh 
 8 lbs. troy-weight; the pound, 12 oz. troy- 
 weight ; the ounce, 20 sterlings ; and the 
 sterling, 32 grains. By 5 Geo. 4. c. 74. 
 the imperial gallon is declared the standard 
 measure of capacity, and is directed to 
 be made such as to contain 10 lbs. avoir- 
 dupois of distilled water, weighed in air at 
 the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, the barometer standing at 
 30 inches, or to contain 277 cubic inches, 
 and 274 thousandth parts of a cubic inch ; 
 consequently, the imperial bushel contains 
 80 lbs. of distilled water, or 2218-192 cubic 
 inches. By the same act (§ 7.), the bushel is 
 declared the standard measure of capacity 
 for coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, or fruit, 
 and all other goods or things commonly sold 
 by heaped measure, and is prescribed to con- 
 tain 2815 cubic inches, to be made round 
 with a plain and even bottom, and being 
 1 8 inches in the interior diameter by 8 in 
 depth, and 19£ inches from outside to out- 
 si de ; t he goods to be heaped up in the form 
 of a cone, to a height above the rim of the 
 measure of at least three fourths of its depth. 
 
 Besides the standard or legal bushel, we 
 264 
 
 have several local bushels, of different di- 
 mensions in different places. At Abingdon 
 and Andover, a bushel contains 9 gallons : 
 at Appleby and Penrith, a bushel of peas, 
 rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons; of bar- 
 ley, big malt, mixt malt, and oats, 20 gallons. 
 A bushel contains, at Carlisle, 24 gallons : 
 at Chester, a bushel of wheat, rye, &c. con- 
 tains 32 gallons, and of oats 40 ; at 
 Dorchester, a bushel of malt and oats 
 contains 10 gallons: at Falmouth, the bushel 
 of stricken coals is 1 6 gallons ; of other 
 things 20, and usually 21 gallons: at King- 
 ston-upon-Thames, the bushel contains 8 \ ; 
 at Newbury, 9 ; at Wycomb and Reading, 
 8|-; at Stamford, 16 gallons. The contents 
 of the bushel seems to have been gradually 
 increasing ; the Winchester bushel, used in 
 this country from the time of Henry VII. 
 to 1826, contained 2150*42 cubic inches. 
 The imperial bushel is therefore to the 
 Winchester bushel as 2218*192 to 2150*42, 
 or as 1 to '969447. Hence to convert Win- 
 chester bushels into imperial, multiply by 
 •969447. To convert prices per Winchester 
 bushel into prices per imperial bushel, mul- 
 tiply by 1*0315157. 
 
 The heaped bushel was abolished by 4 & 5 
 Will. 4. c. 49., an act which took effect 
 from the first of January, 1835. (Brande's 
 Diet. Science ; Penny Cyclopaedia; M^Cul- 
 locKs Com. Die.) 
 
 BUSH-HARROW. An implement con- 
 stituted of any sort of bushy branches, inter- 
 woven in a kind of frame, consisting of three 
 or more cross-bars, fixed into two end-pieces 
 in such a manner as to be very rough and 
 brushy underneath. To the extremities of 
 the frame before are generally attached two 
 wheels, about twelve inches in diameter, upon 
 which it moves ; sometimes, however, wheels 
 are not employed, but the whole rough sur- 
 face is applied to, and dragged on, the 
 ground. See Harrow. 
 
 BUSH-HARROWING. The operation 
 of harrowing with an instrument of the kind 
 just described. It is chiefly necessary on 
 grass-lands, or such as have been long in 
 pasture, for the purpose of breaking down 
 and reducing the lumps and clods of the 
 earth or manures that may have been ap- 
 plied, and thereby rendering them more 
 capable of being washed into the ground, 
 or for removing the worm-casts and mossy 
 matter that may have formed on the surface. 
 
 BUSH- VETCH. (Vicia sepium.) A 
 plant of the vetch kind, which may probably 
 be cultivated to advantage by the farmer, 
 where lucerne and other plants of a similar 
 nature cannot be grown. Its root is peren- 
 nial, fibrous, and branching; the stalks 
 many, some of them shooting immediately 
 upwards, others creeping just under the 
 
BUSK. 
 
 surface of the ground, and emerging, some 
 near to, and others at a considerable dis- 
 tance from, the parent-stock. The small 
 oval leaves are connected together by a 
 mid-rib, with a tendril at the extremity ; 
 the flowers are in shape like those of the 
 common vetch, of a reddish-purple colour ; 
 the first that blossom usually come in pairs, 
 afterwards to the number of four at a joint ; 
 the pods are much shorter than those of the 
 common vetch, larger in proportion to their 
 length, and flatter, and are of a black colour 
 when ripe ; the seeds are smaller than those 
 of the cultivated species, some speckled, 
 others of a clay colour. It yields, from a 
 brown sandy loom, 17,696 lbs. per acre of 
 grass, and of nutritive matter 976 lbs. It 
 flowers in the middle of May, and maintains 
 its place when once in possession of the soil,- 
 but appears unfit for clayey soils. The seeds 
 are sown in April or the beginning of May. 
 (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 210.) Being a per- 
 ennial plant, Mr. Swayne deems it to be a 
 proper kind to intermix with grass-seeds 
 for laying down lands intended for pasture ; 
 and that it is as justly entitled to this epithet 
 as any herbaceous plant whatever, having 
 observed a patch of it growing in one par- 
 ticular spot of his orchard for fourteen or 
 fifteen years past. It is not only a peren- 
 nial, but an evergreen ; it shoots the earliest 
 in the spring of any plant eaten by cattle 
 with which he is acquainted ; vegetates late 
 in autumn, and continues green through 
 the winter, though the weather be very 
 severe ; add to this, that cattle are remark- 
 ably fond of it. The chief reason which has 
 hitherto prevented its cultivation, has been 
 the very great difficulty of procuring good 
 seed in any quantity. The pods, he finds, 
 do not ripen altogether ; but as soon almost 
 as they are ripe, they burst with great elas- 
 ticity, and scatter the seeds around ; and 
 after the seeds have been procured, scarce 
 one third part of them will vegetate, owing, 
 as he supposes, to an internal defect, occa- 
 sioned by certain insects making them the 
 nests and. food for their young. It seems, 
 also, that a crop of this kind of vetch may 
 be cut three or four times, and in some cases 
 even so early as the beginning of March — 
 a circumstance of much importance to 
 farmers who have a large stock of cattle. 
 (Trans. Bath and West of England Society, 
 vol. iii.) 
 
 BUSK. (Dan. ousK, a bush.) A term 
 provincially applied to a bush. 
 
 BUSS. (Irish, buss, the mouth.) A term 
 provincially applied to a grass-calf. 
 
 BUSTARD, THE GREAT. (Otis 
 tarda.) This is a bird of such interest as 
 well as magnitude, that every individual 
 capture becomes a subject for ornithological 
 265 
 
 BUSTARD, THE LITTLE. 
 
 record. Dr. Turner, who wrote in 1544, 
 includes it among his English birds. In 
 the printed catalogue of the contents of 
 the Tradescant Museum, preserved at South 
 Lambeth in 1656, is "the bustard, as big as 
 a turkey, usually taken by greyhounds on 
 Newmarket Heath;" and Merrett, in 1667, 
 includes the bustard as taken on Newmarket 
 Heath and about Salisbury. Although now 
 seldom met with in England, the bustard is 
 too great an honour to the country to be 
 passed over without notice. We need hardly 
 say, that it is the largest of our land birds, 
 being as much as four feet long, and from 
 twenty-five to thirty pounds in weight. The 
 bustard was, within thirty or forty years, to 
 be met with on many of the large plains of 
 England. The female lays two or three 
 eggs in a depression on the bare ground ; 
 olive-brown in colour, sparingly and in- 
 distinctly blotched with greenish broccoli- 
 brown ; length two inches eleven lines, by 
 two inches two lines in breadth. The birds 
 feed on green corn, grasses, trefoil, and 
 other vegetables ; are said to kill and eat 
 small mammalia ; and from their partiality 
 to marshy ground, it is probable they also 
 devour small reptiles. Like the ostrich, 
 the bustard swallows small stones, bits of 
 metal, &c. ; and BufFon relates, that in the 
 stomach of one which was opened, no less 
 than ninety doubloons were found. Adult 
 male has a strong beak clay-brown ; the 
 under mandible palest, head and upper 
 part of neck greyish white ; from chin, 
 passing backwards and downwards on each 
 side, there is a tuft or plume, about seven 
 inches long, directed across, and partly con- 
 cealing a vertically elongated strip of bare 
 skin, of a bluish grey colour ; lower part of 
 neck behind, the back, and tail feathers, of 
 an ochrous yellow, or pale chestnut, barred 
 transversely with black ; tail feathers tipped 
 with white ; neck, breast, and under sur- 
 face of the body, thighs, &c. white ; legs, 
 toes, and claws, brown. The whole length 
 of the male bird is 45 inches. ( YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 362.) The gular pouch of 
 the great bustard is so large as to be ca- 
 pable of containing two quarts of water. 
 It probably serves the same purpose to 
 this bird on its dreary plains, as the water- 
 bag to the camel in the desert ; but there is 
 a doubt on the subject. The bustard rarely 
 takes to the wing, thence it is coursed by 
 dogs. The female is only one third the 
 size of the male ; and differs from it chiefly 
 in the want of the moustaches, and the 
 gular pouch. 
 
 BUSTARD, THE LITTLE. (OtisTe- 
 t?'ax.) The lesser bustard is a very diminu- 
 tive type of the large species, weighing only 
 twenty-five ounces, and being but sixteen 
 
BUTCHER'S BROOM. 
 
 BUTTER. 
 
 inches and a little more in length, and thirty- 
 five in breadth, with outstretched wings. 
 The little bustard can only be considered an 
 accidental, and, generally, a winter visiter 
 to this country ; the male has never been 
 killed here in the plumage assumed during 
 the breeding season; nor has the nest or 
 the eggs been found. The nest is on the 
 ground, among herbage which is sufficiently 
 high to hide the bird ; eggs', from three to 
 five, two inches by one inch six lines, of 
 uniform light-brown, but sometimes slightly 
 clouded with patches of darker brown. 
 Bewick {Brit. Birds, p. 360.) says, the fe- 
 male lays in June, and the eggs are of a glossy 
 green. Food ; herbs, grain, and insects. 
 The flesh has the appearance and flavour of 
 a young hen pheasant. Adult male, when in 
 the plumage peculiar to the breeding season, 
 has beak brown ; irides golden yellow ; top 
 of head pale chestnut, mottled with black ; 
 cheeks, front and sides of neck, bluish 
 grey, bounded interiorly by rings of black 
 and white ; shoulders, back, &c. pale chest- 
 nut-brown ; breast white ; legs, toes, &c. 
 clay-brown. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 371-5.; Blaine's Bur. Sports, 886.; Or- 
 nitholog. Die. p. 63.) 
 
 BUTCHER'S BROOM. (Ruscus acu- 
 leatus.) This is a small shrubby perennial 
 plant, with little prickly leaves and bushy 
 tops, growing on heaths and in rough barren 
 ground a foot and a half high, flowering in 
 March and April. The sprouts must be 
 gathered in spring, and its berries in August. 
 Its stalk is roundish, stunted, and tough; 
 naked about the root, and divided into 
 branches towards the top, which is covered 
 with short, broad, oval, and pointed leaves 
 of a bluish green colour. The small purple 
 flowers grow upon the upper disk of the 
 leaves, which are merely dilated extensions 
 of the stalk ; and each flower is succeeded 
 by a red round berry, the size of a pea. 
 The root, which is thick and white, is me- 
 dicinal, but the young shoots are very bitter, 
 and both are diuretic. 
 
 BUTT. A provincial term applied to 
 such ridges or portions of arable land, as 
 run out short at the sides or other parts of 
 fields ; also to a vessel holding 126 gallons 
 of wine, 108 of beer ; and to a measure 
 of from 15 to 22 cwts. of currants. To 
 butt, from Dutch botten, to strike. Butt- 
 Land is the place where, in days of archery, 
 the butts for practice were placed. It is 
 also applied provincially to a close-bodied 
 cart: hence, a dung-butt or wheel cart, 
 gurry-butt or sledge cart, ox-butt, horse- 
 butt, &c. 
 
 BUTTER. (Ger. butter ; Dut. boter.) 
 A well known article of domestic consump- 
 tion, commonly procured by churning the 
 266 
 
 milk of the cow. It was not an article em- 
 ployed by the early Greeks and Romans. 
 " The ancient Romans," says Mr. Aiton 
 {Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. v. p. 357.), " knew 
 nothing of making butter until they were 
 taught by the Germans how to make it, and 
 it was not used by them as food but merely 
 as oil." Herodotus says, that the Scythians 
 formed butter by agitating mare's milk, and 
 the poet Anaxandrides says, that the Thra- 
 cians ate butter, at which the Grecians were 
 surprised. When Julius Caesar invaded 
 England, he found that the inhabitants had 
 abundance of milk, from which they made 
 butter, but could not make cheese till they 
 were taught that art by their invaders. 
 The Arabs, it seems (Burcfihardfs Travels 
 in Nubia, p. 441.), are very large consumers 
 of fresh butter, and they are in the habit of 
 drinking every morning a cup-full of melted 
 butter, or ghee as it is called in the East. 
 In India ghee is made from the milk of the 
 buffalo, and a very considerable traffic is 
 carried on with it. It is usually conveyed in 
 leather bottles or duppers, holding from ten 
 to forty gallons ; some are made of hide. 
 The colour of butter is yellow ; it possesses the 
 property of an oil, and mixes readily with 
 other oily bodies ; it melts and becomes 
 transparent at 96° Fahrenheit, and if it is 
 kept in this state for some time, it assumes 
 exactly the appearance of oil, loses its 
 peculiar flavour, and some curds and whey 
 separate from it. Milk, in fact, is composed 
 of cream, curd, and whey. The cream and 
 the milk are merely united mechanically, 
 and when, therefore, the new milk is allowed 
 to rest, the cream being the lighter of the 
 two rises gradually to the top ; the curd se- 
 parates from the milk, too, with the as- 
 sistance of a very slight degree of acidity. 
 Butter may be made by the agitation of 
 either cream, or new milk : fresh cream is 
 not commonly used, because it requires four 
 times the churning that stale cream does. 
 (Fourcroy, Ann. de Chem. torn. vii. p. 169.) 
 The contact of the atmospheric air is not 
 absolutely essential to the production of 
 butter from cream, although the oxygen of 
 the air is usually absorbed in churning ; ac- 
 cording to Dr. Young there is an increase 
 in the temperature during the operation of 
 four degrees. Butter-milk is merely milk 
 deprived of its cream, in which it rapidly 
 becomes sour, and the curdy or cheesy part 
 is separated from the whey, or serum. Cream 
 of the specific gravity 1*0244 was found by 
 Berzelius to contain, 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Butter - - 4-5 
 
 Cheese - - 3 5 
 
 Whey - - - 92 0 
 
 Curd, which is easily separated from 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 creamed milk by rennet, has many of the 
 properties of coagulated albumen: it is 
 composed, according to the analysis of MM. 
 Gay Lussac and Thenard, of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - - 59-781 
 
 Oxygen - - - 11*409 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 7 -42 9 
 
 Azote - - - 21-381 
 
 100- 
 
 Curd, adds Dr. Thomson (System of 
 Chem. vol. iv. p. 499.), as is well known, is 
 used in making cheese, and the cheese is the 
 better the more it contains of cream, or of 
 that oily matter which constitutes cream. 
 It is well known to cheese-makers, that the 
 goodness of it depends in a great measure 
 on the manner of separating the whey from 
 the curd. If the milk be much heated, the 
 coagulum broken in pieces, and the whey 
 forcibly separated, as is the practice in many 
 parts of Scotland, the cheese is scarcely 
 good for any thing; but the whey is delicious, 
 especially the last squeezed out whey ; and 
 butter may be obtained from it in consider- 
 able quantities. But if the whey is not too 
 much heated (100° is sufficient), if the co- 
 agulum be allowed to remain unbroken, and 
 the whey be separated by very slow and 
 gentle pressure, the cheese is excellent, but 
 the whey is almost transparent and nearly 
 colourless. (Journal de Phys.) 
 When milk is deprived of its cream it is 
 composed, according to M. Berzelius, of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - 928-75 
 Curd with a little cream - 28" 
 
 Sugar of milk - - -35' 
 
 Muriate of potash (chloride of 
 
 potassium) - - - 1*70 
 
 Phosphate of potash - - -25 
 
 Lactic acid, & acetate of potash 6- 
 Earthy phosphates - - '30 
 
 ( Thomson, vol. iv. p. 501.) 1000- 
 
 From some valuable experiments on the 
 temperature at which butter may be best 
 procured from cream by Dr. John Barclay 
 and Mr. Allen, it appeared, " that cream 
 should not be kept at a high temperature 
 in the process of churning : in the expe- 
 riment when the temperature was lowest, 
 the quantity of butter obtained was in the 
 greatest proportion to the quantity of cream 
 used, and as the temperature was raised the 
 proportional quantity of butter diminished ; 
 while in the last experiment, when the mean 
 temperature of the cream had been raised 
 to 70°, not only was the quantity of butter 
 diminished, but in quality it was found to 
 be very inferior, both with regard to taste 
 267 
 
 and appearance. That the lowest possible 
 temperature should be sought in churning, 
 appears likewise from another result of these 
 experiments, the specific gravity of the 
 churned milk having been found to diminish 
 as the temperature of the cream was in- 
 creased ; thus showing, that, at the lower 
 temperature, the butter, which is composed 
 of the lighter parts of the cream, is more 
 completely collected than at the higher 
 temperature, in which the churned milk is 
 of greater specific gravity." The conclusion 
 to which they came therefore was, that the 
 most proper temperature at which to com- 
 mence the operation of churning butter is 
 from 50° to 55°, and that at no time of the 
 operation ought it to exceed 65° ; while on 
 the contrary, if at any time the cream should 
 be under 50° in temperature, the labour 
 will be much increased without any propor- 
 tional advantage being obtained, and a tem- 
 perature of a higher degree than 65° will 
 be injurious as well to the quality as the 
 quantity of the butter. (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 194.) One of these experi- 
 ments it may be well to abridge. 15 gallons 
 of cream at the temperature of 50° were 
 churned ; each gallon (equal to holding 8 lbs. 
 4 oz. of water) weighed 8 lbs. 4 oz. ; by 
 churning for two hours, the temperature of 
 the cream rose to 56°, at the end of the 
 churning it was 60°. The butter obtained 
 weighed 29i lbs. avoirdupoise, or nearly 
 2 lbs. for each gallon of cream ; the butter 
 was firm, rich, and pleasant. A gallon of 
 the churned milk weighed 8 lbs. 9 oz. 
 
 Mr. J. Ballantyne found that the greatest 
 quantity of butter from a given quantity 
 of cream is obtained at 60°, and the best 
 quality at 55° in the churn just before 
 the butter came ; when the heat exceeded 
 65° ; no washing could detach the milk 
 from the butter without the aid of salt; 
 but when a quantity of salt was wrought 
 well into it, and the mass allowed to stand 
 for twenty -four hours, and then well washed, 
 the milk was separated. (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol.i. p. 198.) 
 
 The method of making the best butter 
 all over the dairy district of Scotland is thus 
 described by Mr. Aiton (Quart. Joum. Agr. 
 vol. v. p. 351.) : — The milk when drawn from 
 the cow is placed from six to twelve hours 
 in coolers, the same as when set aside to 
 cast up its cream ; but this is merely to let 
 the milk cool ; and whenever it is divested 
 of its natural heat the whole meal of milk is 
 emptied from the coolers into a stand vat 
 or tub sufficient to contain the whole. If 
 the vat is large, and a second meal of milk 
 has become cold before the former meal of 
 milk has begun to acidify, the second may 
 be turned into the first. * It is then placed 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 in a vat covered over and allowed to remain 
 undisturbed, till the milk has not only 
 acidified, but until it has been formed into 
 a coagulum (or lapper in dairy language). 
 It is now ready to be churned, and provided 
 the lapper is not broken (which makes it 
 ferment) it may remain, without injury, un- 
 churned for some days. 
 
 Milk prepared in this way is churned in 
 upright or plunge churns, of a size to suit 
 the magnitude of the dairy. Where only a 
 few cows are kept, the churns will hold about 
 100 quarts, from 200 to 240 quarts, and 
 some still more. These large churns are on 
 some large farms moved by machinery of 
 various constructions, but in most dairy 
 farms, churns of 200 quarts are wrought by 
 hand labour only. After the clotted milk 
 is put into the churn, as much hot water is 
 poured amongst the milk as to raise the 
 temperature from 50° or 55° (the tempe- 
 rature of the milk-house) to 70° or 75°, one 
 person agitating while another throws in 
 the water. The temperature must be raised 
 to or above 70° before the butter can be 
 separated from the milk ; and this cannot be 
 accomplished in any way so well as by 
 pouring in boiling water after it has begun 
 to be churned. If the milk is too cold, when 
 churning it swells, has a pale white colour, 
 throws upon the surface many air bubbles, 
 and emits a rattling noise ; the time of 
 churning is from 2£ to 2f hours ; the milk 
 being of ordinary quality ; 24 pints imperial 
 yield 24 ounces of butter. 
 
 In the making of butter care and clean- 
 liness are requisite. The cows should be 
 milked in the cool of the morning and 
 evening ; they should be driven very gently, 
 and if brought to the milking place some 
 little time previously, it will be all the bet- 
 ter. In some countries they milk them in 
 their pastures, a practice commonly followed 
 in mountainous districts, and where they 
 are distant from the dairy. The teats of 
 the cow should be washed often with water, 
 and the dairy floors (which are best of brick) 
 and all the dairy utensils cannot be too fre- 
 quently washed, not only because dirt is 
 exceedingly noxious to the production of 
 good butter, but from the coolness which 
 it produces in the dairy. 
 
 When the milk is brought into the dairy 
 it is strained through a sieve to remove any 
 mechanically diffused matters ; and then 
 placed in shallow pans and coolers, or leaden 
 troughs. Some are made of iron tinned, 
 others of brass. There is, however, an ob- 
 jection to leaden troughs, for at the point 
 of contact between the air and the cream, 
 the latter aids the oxidizement of the lead ; 
 and carbonic acid being attracted, a car- 
 bonate of lead (white lead) is formed, and 
 268 
 
 communicates a poisonous property to the 
 cream. Painter's colic has been thus some- 
 times communicated to dairy-maids. Zinc, 
 or # iron tinned, is preferable to lead for 
 dairy vessels. The same objection applies 
 to brass as to lead. Metal ones are regarded 
 as the best, from their rapidity of cooling in 
 summer, and from their being more easily 
 warmed in the winter; they are besides (and 
 the same remark applies to the milk pails, 
 &c.) more readily and completely cleaned 
 than those of wood or earthenware. The 
 dairy should be well ventilated by wire 
 gauze windows, and protected by either 
 trees or buildings from the heat of the sun. 
 In twelve hours the finest portion of the 
 cream has risen to the surface, which, if then 
 separated from the milk and churned, pro- 
 duces a very delicate butter. It is com- 
 monly left, however, for twenty-four hours ; 
 and then skimmed off, and deposited in 
 an earthen vessel. In the dairies of the 
 usual size, the cream collected is churned 
 every two days, and the formation of the 
 butter is found to be materially accelerated 
 by the cream acquiring a slight acidity ; in- 
 deed, it has been sometimes contended, that 
 without the presence of an acid, butter can- 
 not be made. Lactic acid indeed is always 
 present in butter-milk — an acid quality is 
 even, in some cases, imparted to it by the 
 dairy women, who add a small quantity of 
 vinegar or lemon juice ; this, however, does 
 not improve the flavour of the butter, and 
 it injures it considerably for salting. To 
 effect the separation of the butter from the 
 cream, a considerable degree of agitation is 
 necessary, varying with the electrical state of 
 the atmosphere, and other circumstances. Of 
 the influence of electricity no one will doubt 
 who has witnessed the effect of a thunder- 
 storm on a dairy of milk. The agitation 
 or churning is produced by various-sized 
 churns, the most common shaped of which 
 is the upright wooden churn with an up- 
 right plunger ; others are made of barrels, 
 turning on an axle by means of a common 
 winch ; some are made like cradles, and rock 
 much in the same manner : these are worked 
 chiefly by hand. But it is sometimes done by 
 horse power, and very commonly now in 
 Cheshire by small portable high-pressure 
 steam-engines: these last might easily be 
 made to cut chaff, bruise corn for stock, crush 
 bones, and a variety of other useful purposes. 
 
 In the course of a period varying from 
 one hour to several hours, according to cir- 
 cumstances, the butter begins to make its ap- 
 pearance in small lumps or kernels, which 
 are gradually increased in number as the 
 churning proceeds ; these are collected and 
 placed in a shallow wooden vessel, or washing 
 tub, and when all the butter is "come" 
 
BUTTER. 
 
 BUTTERFLY. 
 
 or extracted, little else remains but the but- 
 ter-milk. The butter placed in the washing 
 tub is worked by the hand into a mass, 
 the butter-milk squeezed out, and the 
 butter washed in water, an operation 
 which, when it is intended for keeping, can- 
 not be too carefully performed ; and if the 
 person who works it has not a very cool 
 hand, it should be kept as cool as possible 
 by frequent ablutions in cold water. A 
 large portion of the butter made at a dis- 
 tance from large towns is salted and put into 
 casks or firkins, which weigh about 56 lbs. ; 
 about 3 or 4 lbs. of salt are required for 
 this purpose, which should be of the finest 
 and purest description, totally free from the 
 bitter deliquescing salts which commonly 
 abound in that made by artificial heat from 
 sea water. The casks also should be made of 
 clean wood, and before the butter is placed 
 in them they should be well washed with 
 hot brine. " If," says a writer in the Penny 
 Cyclopaedia, " there is not a sufficient quan- 
 tity to fill the cask at once, the surface 
 is made smooth, some salt is put over it, 
 and a cloth is pressed close upon it to ex- 
 clude the air. When the remainder is added 
 at the next churning, the cloth is taken off, 
 and the salt which had been put on the 
 surface is carefully removed with a spoon. 
 The surface is then made rough with a small 
 wooden spade, and left so, and the newly 
 salted butter is added, and incorporated 
 completely. This prevents a streak which 
 would otherwise appear at the place where 
 the two portions joined. When the cask is 
 full some salt is put over it, and the head is 
 put on. If the butter is well freed from 
 all the butter milk, and the salt mixed 
 with it quite dry, it will not shrink in the 
 cask, and it will keep its flavour for a long 
 time." Dr. Anderson recommended for pre- 
 serving butter a composition of salt 2 parts, 
 saltpetre 1 part, sugar 1 part ; 1 oz. of this 
 mixture to 16 oz. of butter. It seems that 
 butter thus treated will keep sweet for a 
 lengthened period ; but that for the first 
 fortnight it does not taste well. 
 
 In Devonshire the method of making 
 butter is peculiar to the county. The milk 
 is placed in tin or earthen pans, and twelve 
 hours after milking, these pans (each 
 holding about eleven or twelve quarts) are 
 placed on an iron plate, over a small fur- 
 nace. The milk is not boiled, but heated 
 until a thick scum arises to the surface ; if 
 when a small portion of this is removed 
 bubbles appear, the milk is removed, and 
 suffered to cool. The thick part is then 
 taken off the surface, and this is the clouted 
 cream of Devonshire, which is known all over 
 England. By a gentle agitation this clouted 
 cream is speedilv converted into butter. 
 269 
 
 In Holland they churn the cream and 
 milk together, after it has been kept suffi- 
 ciently long for a slight acidity to appear. 
 They churn, it seems, sometimes with a 
 horse, sometimes by a dog, or turnspit, 
 working on a wheel ; a plan which I think 
 might be well adopted, in many cases, in 
 this country, to the saving of the labour of 
 many a poor dairy -maid. In the large 
 dairies, however, about Dixmunde and 
 Furnes, the cream only is churned three 
 times a week. {Flemish Hush. p. 61.) 
 
 On an average, four gallons of milk pro- 
 duces a pound of butter, and a good cow 
 should produce six pounds of butter per 
 week in summer, and three pounds in win- 
 ter. Of English butter, that of Cambridge 
 and Epping is the most celebrated. But 
 the consumption in England is much greater 
 than the farmers can supply : very large 
 quantities are in consequence annually im- 
 ported into this country ; thus, in 1825, 
 the import from Ireland amounted to 
 422,883 cwts., and from foreign countries 
 159,332 cwts. ; this last in 1835 was 134,346 
 cwts., of which 106,776 cwts. came from 
 Holland. (M'-CullocKs Com. Diet; Trans. 
 High. Soc. ; Quart. Journ. Agr.) 
 
 BUTTER-BUR. {Tussilago Petasites.) 
 This singular plant grows in moist situ- 
 ations, and its leaves continue till winter sets 
 in. The flowers appear in April, before the 
 leaves, growing upon round, thick, spongy 
 stalks of a whitish colour, having a few fibres 
 or scales instead of leaves growing upon 
 them. A spike of reddish flowers garnish 
 the top of each stalk, the whole not rising 
 beyond eight inches in height. When they 
 are dead and gone the leaves rise, and are 
 recognised by their large size as well as by 
 their being dark green on the upper side, 
 whitish underneath, and standing singly 
 upon their hollowed foot- stalks of a white, 
 purple, or green hue. They are often three 
 feet broad. The root is white, long, and 
 creeps under the surface of the ground. It 
 is a slight diuretic. 
 
 BUTTER and EGGS. See Toad-Flax. 
 
 BUTTER-CUP, butter-flower, or up- 
 right meadow crow's-foot (Ranunculus bul- 
 bosus, Smith). A common perennial weed, 
 abounding in meadows and pastures, and 
 blooming in May. The whole plant is ex- 
 tremely acrid, so as often to be employed 
 by country people to raise a blister. Bees 
 are, however, very fond of it ; it is eaten by 
 sheep and goats ; but horses, cows, and swine 
 refuse it ; drying destroys its acrimony. The 
 roots are perennial, and bulbous ; the stem 
 rises a foot high, and bears its yellow flowers 
 on the ends of its branches. 
 
 BUTTERFLY. The common English 
 name, says Brande {Diet, of Science), of an 
 
BUTTER-JAGS. 
 
 BUYING AND SELLING. 
 
 extensive group of insects, as they appear 
 in their last and fully developed state, when 
 they constitute the most beautiful and ele- 
 gant examples of their class. These insects 
 belong to the order Lepidoptera, and to the 
 section Diurna of Latreille, or the genus 
 Papilio of Linnaeus. The eggs of the but- 
 terfly are deposited on such plants as afford 
 the nutriment most appropriate to the ca- 
 terpillars, that are to be excluded from 
 them ; thus, the common white butterfly 
 (Pieris brassicce) and other species ovi- 
 posit upon cabbages, and hence have been 
 termed Brassicarice ; the gaudy peacock but- 
 terfly lays her eggs upon the nettle. The 
 eggs are coated with a glutinous secretion 
 as they are excluded from the parent, and 
 thus they are provided with the means of 
 adhesion to the leaves, or stems of the plants 
 selected* 
 
 BUTTER- JAGS. Provincially the 
 flowers of the wild trefoil. 
 
 BUTTERWORT. (Pinguicula vulga- 
 ris.) A perennial weed growing in moist 
 soils, as bogs and wet heaths. The viscid 
 exudation of the leaves, which are thick 
 and glutinous, says Smith (Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 29.), is reputed to be good for the sore 
 teats of cows, whence the Yorkshire name 
 of this plant, sanicle. The country people 
 make it into a syrup as a purgative, and boil 
 it with their garden herbs in broth as a 
 remedy in colds. An ointment made from 
 butterwort is also used for chapped hands, 
 and to rub upon animals when bitten by an 
 adder or slow-worm. 
 
 BUTT-LOAD. A provincial word ap- 
 plied to a load of six seams. 
 
 BUTT OF A TREE. That part of the 
 tree to which the root is attached. It is 
 also sometimes applied to the lower part of 
 the stem. 
 
 BUYING AND SELLING. Sale or 
 exchange, says Blackstone (Com. vol. ii. 
 p. 446.), is a transmutation of property from 
 one man to another, in consideration of some 
 price or recompense in value. If it be a 
 commutation of goods for goods, it is more 
 properly an exchange ; but if it be a trans- 
 ferring of goods for money it is called a sale, 
 which is a method of exchange introduced 
 for the convenience of mankind ; for if goods 
 were only to be exchanged for goods by 
 way of barter, it would be difficult to adjust 
 their respective values, and the carriage 
 would be intolerably cumbersome : all civil- 
 ized nations, therefore, adopted very early 
 the use of money, for we find Abraham 
 giving " four hundred shekels of silver," for 
 the field of Machpelah (Gen. xxiu. 16.) ; but 
 the practice of exchange is still common 
 to savage nations. The law with regard to 
 exchanges is the same with regard to sales. 
 
 Moral writers, says Sugden (Vendors and 
 Purchasers, p. 1 .) insist, that a seller is bound 
 in foro conscientia, to acquaint a purchaser 
 of the defects of the subject of the contract. 
 Arguments of some force have, however, 
 been advanced in favour of the contrary 
 doctrine, and our law does not entirely co- 
 incide with this strict principle of morality. 
 If a person enter into a contract with full 
 knowledge of all the defects in the estate, 
 no question can arise. So, if at the time of 
 the contract the vendor was not aware of 
 any defect in the estate, it seems that the 
 purchaser must take it with all its faults, 
 and cannot claim any compensation for them. 
 But if the vendor knows that there is a la- 
 tent defect in his estate, which the purchaser 
 could not by any attention whatever possibly 
 discover, he is bound to disclose it, although 
 the estate be sold expressly subject to all 
 its faults. But a purchaser is not bound to 
 disclose to the vendor any latent advantage 
 in the estate, as for instance if he had dis- 
 covered a mine on it. (2 Bro. C. C. 420.) A 
 purchaser cannot obtain any relief against 
 a vendor for a false affirmation of value, it 
 being deemed the purchaser's own folly to 
 credit a nude assertion of that nature. (Yelv. 
 20.) Besides, value consists in judgment 
 and estimation, in which men differ. (1 Lev. 
 102.) But a remedy will lie against a vendor 
 for falsely affirming that a greater rent is 
 paid for the estate than is actually received, 
 for that is a circumstance within his own 
 knowledge ; and the same remedy lies against 
 a person who is not interested in the property, 
 if made fraudulently, that is, with an in- 
 tention to deceive ; whether it be to favour 
 the owner, or from an expectation of ad- 
 vantage to the party himself, or from ill-will 
 towards the other, or from mere wanton- 
 ness, appears to be immaterial. (Sugden, 
 p. 5. ; 3 T. R. 51. ; 1 East, 318. ; 2 East, 92. ; 
 10 Vesey, jun. p. 470.) See Warranty. 
 
 If a man buys goods at a certain price, 
 he may not carry them away till he has 
 paid for them, for it is no sale without 
 payment, unless the contrary be expressly 
 agreed ; and therefore, if the vendor says 
 the price of a beast is 41., and the ven- 
 dee says he will give 41., the bargain is 
 struck, and they neither of them are at 
 liberty to be off, provided immediate pos- 
 session be tendered by the other side. But 
 if neither the money be paid nor the goods 
 delivered, nor tender made, nor any subse- 
 quent agreement be entered into, it is no 
 contract, and the owner may dispose of the 
 goods as he pleases. (Hob. 41.) But if any 
 part of the price is paid down, if it be but 
 a penny, or any portion of the goods deli- 
 vered by way of earnest, the property of the 
 goods is absolutely bound by it, and the 
 
BUYING AND SELLING. 
 
 CABBAGE. 
 
 vendee may recover the goods by action, as 
 well as the vendor may the price of them. 
 But it will not do in buying a horse to pay 
 down a shilling and take it back again. (7 
 Taunt. 597.) And such regard, continues 
 Blackstone (vol. ii. p. 447.), does the law pay 
 to earnest as an evidence of a contract, that 
 by the 29 Car. 2. c. 3., no contract for the 
 sale of goods, to the value of 10/. or more 
 shall be valid unless the buyer actually re- 
 ceives part of the goods sold, by way of ear- 
 nest on his part, or unless he gives part of 
 the price to the vendor by way of earnest 
 to bind the bargain, or in part of payment, 
 or unless some note in writing be made and 
 signed by the party or his agent, who is to 
 be charged with the contract ; and with re- 
 gard to goods under the value of 10/., no 
 contract or agreement for the sale of them 
 shall be valid, unless the goods are to be 
 delivered within the year, or unless the con- 
 tract be made in writing, and signed by the 
 party or his agent who is be charged there- 
 with ; and the note must state the price of 
 the goods (8 D. $f R. 345.) : anciently, 
 shaking hands was held necessary to bind 
 the bargain. A sale thus made was called 
 handsale, till in process of time the same 
 word was made to signify the price or ear- 
 nest which was given immediately after or 
 instead of the shaking of hands. As soon 
 as the bargain is struck, the property of the 
 goods is transferred to the vendee, and that 
 of the price to the vendor. But the pur- 
 chaser cannot take the goods until he tenders 
 the price agreed upon. (Hob. 41.) But if he 
 tenders the money to the vendor and he re- 
 fuses it, the vendee may seize the goods, or 
 have an action against the vendor for de- 
 taining them. And by a regular sale without 
 delivery, the property is so absolutely vested 
 in the vendee, that if A. sells a horse to B. 
 for 10/., and B. pays him earnest, or signs a 
 note in writing of the bargain, and afterwards, 
 before the delivery of the horse or money 
 paid, the horse dies in the seller's custody, 
 still he is entitled to the money, because by 
 the contract the property was in the pur- 
 chaser. (Noy, c. 42.) 
 
 With regard to stolen horses, a purchaser 
 gains no property in a horse which has been 
 stolen, unless it be bought in a fair or mar- 
 ket overt, according to the directions of the 
 2 P. & M. c. 7. and 31 Eliz. c. 12. ; by 
 which it is enacted, that the horse shall be 
 openly exposed in the time of such fair or 
 market for one whole hour together, between 
 ten in the morning and sunset, in the public 
 place used for such sales, and not in any 
 private yard or stable, and afterwards 
 brought by both the vendor and the vendee 
 to the book-keeper of such fair or market; 
 that toll be paid if any be due, and if not, 
 271 
 
 one penny to the book-keeper, who shall 
 enter down the price, colour, and marks of 
 the horse, with the names, additions, and 
 abode of the vendor and vendee, the abode 
 of the former being properly attested. But 
 in case any one of these points be not ob- 
 served, such sale is utterly void, and the 
 owner shall not lose his property, but at 
 any distance of time may seize or bring an 
 action for his horse wherever he happens to 
 find him. (Blackstone, vol. ii. p. 451.) 
 
 BUZZARD. (Falco Buteo.) The buz- 
 zard is one of the most common of the larger 
 kind of hawks which inhabit the wooded 
 districts of this country, preying upon small 
 quadrupeds, birds, and even reptiles. There 
 are several kinds of buzzards, the prin- 
 cipal of which are the common buzzard 
 (called provincially the puttock), the rough- 
 legged buzzard, and the honey buzzard. 
 The length of the common buzzard is 21 
 inches, breadth 50, weight 32 oz. Bill 
 bluish ; cere, irides, and feet, yellow. Plu- 
 mage above, deep brown ; below, greyish 
 brown. Breeds in trees ; eggs two or three, 
 size of those of a hen, white, with rusty spots 
 at large end. The rough-legged buzzard 
 in colour resembles the common buzzard, 
 nor does it greatly differ in size, but is rea- 
 dily distingiiished from it by its feathered 
 leggings, wnich reach nearly to the toes. 
 Eggs four, clouded with red ; feeds on glires 
 and frogs. The honey buzzard derives its 
 vernacular name from feeding on the larva? 
 of bees and wasps. Its length is 23 inches, 
 breadth 52 ; weight 31 ounces. Bill, cere, 
 gape, and claws, black ; irides and feet, 
 yellow. Eggs grey, with obscure spots. See 
 Harriers and Hawks. (Blaine's Encyc. of 
 Rural Sports, p. 686. ; YarrelTs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. i. pp. 76—85.) 
 
 BYRE. A term made use of in some 
 places to signify a cow-house. It is com- 
 monly employed in the northern parts of 
 the island, and in Scotland ; and they are 
 differently denominated, according to the 
 uses to which they are applied : thus, there 
 are feeding-byres, turnip-byres, &c. 
 
 BYSLINS. A provincial word signifying 
 the first milk of a new-calved cow. 
 
 C. 
 
 CABALLARIA. An ancient tenure of 
 land, by which it was necessary to furnish a 
 horseman with suitable equipage, for the use 
 of the lord in time of war, and on other oc- 
 casions. 
 
 CABBAGE. (Fr. cabus ; probably from 
 cab, old Fr. for head, top, or extremity. Ital. 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 cabuccio ; Dutch, hdbays. " But the form of 
 the cabbage, resembling a head, shows caput 
 to be the original." — Todd's Johnson. Lat. 
 brassica ; from 7rpamxiii a garden herb ; or 
 perhaps from brachia, from its numerous 
 sprouts.) A biennial genus of plants, of 
 which there are a large number of species 
 and innumerable varieties. Many are ex- 
 tensively cultivated in the vicinity of Lon- 
 don; and several kinds are also grown by 
 the farmer for the purpose of feeding his 
 cattle and sheep. Our field and garden 
 cabbages, with their varieties, have originated 
 from the Brassica oleracea, or culinary cab- 
 bage, an indigenous sort of colewort growing 
 principally on cliffs near the sea-coast. It 
 is found abundantly at Dover. {Smith's 
 English Flora, vol. iii. p. 220.) The cab- 
 bage, says Mr. Amos {Comm. to Board 
 of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 178.), is a most 
 invaluable plant, very productive, acces- 
 sible at all times, and is an infallible 
 supply for sheep-feeding during the spring 
 months, especially for ewes in lamb. Beasts 
 and sheep are all exceedingly fond of cab- 
 bages. It may be of some importance to 
 the farmer to be informed that among all 
 the plants of the natural order to which the 
 cabbage belongs, not one perhaps is possessed 
 of any really deleterious property. Among 
 nearly one thousand species (as Dr. Lindley 
 observes), scattered over the face of the 
 world, all are harmless, and many highly 
 useful. The innumerable varieties arise 
 from difference of soil and cultivation ; 
 and as all the cabbage tribe form hybrids, 
 new varieties are continually produced. 
 This is effected by the bees, when dif- 
 ferent sorts are in flower. Hence, only one 
 variety should be in flower at the same time 
 in any garden or field, when we wish to keep 
 the sort unadulterated, particularly if some 
 sorts have expanded leaves, and others close 
 heads. It is thus only that the excellent 
 small miniature cabbage, which grows on 
 the stem of the Brussels sprout, can be kept 
 in perfection. The different sorts of cabbage 
 most prized for the garden are chiefly di- 
 vided into the close-hearting and the spread- 
 ing. Of the first, the York and the savoys 
 are the most common ; of the latter, the 
 coleworts and Scotch kale. {Penny Cyclo. 
 vol. vi. p. 92.) Of the genus Brassica, or 
 cabbage, the species chiefly interesting to 
 the farmer, and the objects of cultivation, 
 are, 1. Common turnip {B. Rapa) ; 2. Wild 
 navew {B. campestris) ; 3. Ilape or cole {B. 
 Napus) ; 4. Early cole {B.pracox) ; 5. Cab- 
 bage, {B. oleracea). These species may be 
 cultivated nearly in the same manner, but 
 they may produce small fusiform roots when 
 they are cultivated for their leaves, or for 
 their seeds, which yield oils ; or they may 
 272 
 
 produce large esculent roots when they are 
 cultivated chiefly for their roots. {Lows 
 Elem. of Prac. Agric. p. 290.) The different 
 kinds of cabbage in cultivation may, adds 
 Professor Low (p. 307.), be arranged in dif- 
 ferent classes, according to their general 
 aspect and. more popular characters: — 1. 
 Those which bear their leaves or stalks 
 without their being formed into a head. 
 Some of these have crisped leaves, and are 
 a class of hardy potherbs every where fa- 
 miliar in the culture of the garden ; others 
 have smoothish leaves, with long branched 
 stems. These comprehend the largest and 
 most productive of all the cabbages, — the 
 Jersey cole, the thousand-headed cabbage, 
 and others. 2. Those whose leaves are 
 formed into a large head. These comprehend 
 the larger cabbages cultivated in the fields. 
 The savoys of our gardens are allied to this 
 class. 3. Those whose roots become napi- 
 form, as the Jtohl-rabe. 4. Those in which 
 the stem divides, and forms a corymbose head, 
 as in the cauliflower and broccoli. 
 
 The cabbages of the first class, with 
 crisped leaves, frequently termed greens, are 
 very hardy. They are cultivated pretty 
 extensively in some parts of the north of 
 Europe ; but in others they are chiefly re- 
 garded as potherbs, and confined to the 
 garden. The branched kinds with smoothish 
 leaves are the most productive ; but at the 
 same time they demand a good soil and fa- 
 vourable climate. Their leaves are stripped 
 off as they are required for use ; and as these 
 are constantly supplied by fresh leaves, the 
 plants yield a succession of forage throughout 
 a great part of the season, and they remain 
 growing for several years. 
 
 There are different varieties of these 
 larger cabbages, which are more or less va- 
 lued in the places where they are cultivated. 
 The thousand-headed cabbage, chou a mille 
 tetes, is remarked as possessing a greater 
 number of shoots ; the cow cabbage, Cesa- 
 rean cole or tree cabbage, as growing more 
 to one stem, and producing cream-coloured 
 flowers; the Jersey cole, as being similar in 
 its growth, and* producing yellow flowers. 
 In the Netherlands, and the Channel Islands, 
 where the cultivation of these plants is well 
 understood, they are sown in beds in autumn, 
 and planted out in succession from No- 
 vember till February. About the month 
 of April the farmers begin with the first 
 sown, to strip off their under leaves for use. 
 They give them to their cows, hogs, geese, 
 and other stock, cutting them in small pieces, 
 and mixing them with bran and other fa- 
 rinaceous substances. During the summer 
 they continue this process of stripping off 
 the leaves, the plant in the meantime rising 
 to the height of several feet. {Gard Mag. 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 vol. v.) This plant requires a good soil and 
 plentiful manure, and is regarded as a great 
 exhauster of the soil. It perhaps yields a 
 larger proportion of nutriment within the 
 same period than any other forage plant. 
 It may be presumed that it is not well fitted 
 for general cultivation, and in this country 
 will only succeed in favourable situations, 
 as the south of England and Ireland, and 
 the beautiful little islands where it is now 
 cultivated. 
 
 The next class (continues Professor Low) 
 consists of those in which the root becomes 
 napiform. The principal variety is the kohl- 
 rabe or purple turnip cabbage {Brassica 
 oleracea var. caulo-rapa). This plant is 
 cultivated in Germany and the north of 
 Europe. It is valued as a resource for cat- 
 tle in winter. While it produces a root like 
 a turnip, it at the same time sends forth 
 stems bearing leaves like a cabbage. It is 
 not only hardy, but keeps better in store 
 than any plant of the cabbage kind. It may 
 be cultivated in the same manner as the 
 Swedish and yellow turnips ; but the ex- 
 periments that have been made with it in 
 this country lead to the inference that it is 
 not equal to those turnips for the purpose 
 of feeding. The cabbages of the last-men- 
 tioned class, as the cauliflower and the broc- 
 coli, are entirely limited to the garden. 
 The kinds of the cabbage which are best 
 suited for field crops and the support of cat- 
 tle are the York, or large Scotch, the ox- 
 head, the drum-head, the red-veined, and 
 the American, which commonly produce 
 heads of 10 to 20 lbs., and not unfrequently 
 arrive to upwards of 30 lbs. weight. The 
 above and "other names, however, are fre- 
 quently applied where there is no real dis- 
 tinction. The most productive of these are 
 the drum-headed and American ; but the 
 red-veined and Scotch stand the winter best. 
 They are all known by their large leaves, 
 which as the plant advances collapse and 
 form a dense head. The large field cab- 
 bages are those which are generally consi- 
 dered as the best suited to farm culture, 
 and are therefore those' most commonly 
 planted ; but the species known as the sugar- 
 loaf cabbage, and so called from its pointed 
 form, though rarely exceeding from 5 to 
 7 lbs., may yet be in many cases found more 
 advantageous, for it can be grown on land of 
 more ordinary quality than the other kinds ; 
 it is hardier in constitution, more solid and 
 nutritive, and the inferiority of its weight 
 may be in a great degree made up by the 
 smallness of its size allowing of the plants 
 being set closer together {Brit. Husb. vol. 
 ii. p. 255.) Of the different kinds, therefore, 
 it appears that the large field cabbage, what- 
 ever name it may receive, is that which is 
 273 
 
 best suited for common field culture. This 
 plant impoverishes the soil very much. In 
 collecting the produce for consumption, the 
 plants (says the late Mr. Sinclair) should be 
 drawn up by the roots, and not merely cut 
 over, as is often practised to the detriment 
 of the soil. The different varieties above 
 enumerated afford about equal quantities of 
 nutritive matter. The nutritive matter of 
 the cabbage is wholly soluble in water ; that 
 of the potato only partially so, for a great 
 proportion of the potato consists of starch. 
 According to Mr. Sinclair's experiments — 
 
 430 
 430 
 
 438 
 440 
 
 400 
 
 2^2 
 
 280 
 312 
 
 1120 
 320 
 
 70C0 grs. or 1 lb. of the drum-head cab- 
 bage (B. oleracea capitata) contains 
 
 Early York cabbage (B. oler., var.) 
 
 Woburn perennial kale (B. oler. 
 
 fimbriata perennis) - - 
 
 Green curled kale (B. oler. viridis) 
 
 Purple borecole, or kale (/?. oler. 
 
 laciniata) - 
 
 bulb of turnip-rooted cabbage (B. 
 
 Bapa, var.) - - 
 
 Leaves or tops of ditto 
 
 And upon an analysis of the respective 
 average nutritive qualities of each species 
 of root, cabbages were generally found su- 
 perior to common turnips, in the proportion 
 of 107£ to 80, and inferior to Swedes in 
 that of 107^ to 110. Carrots are more nu- 
 tritive than cabbages, in the proportion of 
 187 to 107±. {Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 407-8.) 
 It is, however, the opinion of an experi- 
 enced farmer (Mr. Brown of Markle), that 
 the culture of cabbage, taking into consi- 
 deration the greater consumption of ma- 
 nure, and the superior nature of the requisite 
 soil, does not afford advantages to be com- 
 pared with the scourge it occasions to the 
 land. {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 258.) 
 
 It is no uncommon thing to raise single 
 cabbages that weigh 40 lbs. ; calculating 
 the roots upon an acre to average each 
 20 lbs., and one to be planted on every 
 square yard, the produce would yield 43 
 tons : although it frequently averages 30 
 tons, few crops, except under very favour- 
 able circumstances, would reach to that 
 extent. Cabbages are greatly esteemed by 
 those farmers who have land capable of 
 growing them, from their forming a sub- 
 stitute for turnips during frosty weather, 
 and also affording an admirable change of 
 food for cattle, by whom they are much re- 
 lished ; and they are also found to be very 
 nutritious for stall feeding, or for the dairy , 
 when used with the addition of sound hay. 
 Hogs prefer them to turnips, and they are 
 excellent for rearing calves and toothless 
 crones. An acre of good cabbages is there- 
 fore considered by many as worth two of tur- 
 nips, and is certainly equal to one and a half. 
 
 Woburn perennial kale is a valuable va- 
 riety of the open-growing cabbage, winch 
 
 T 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 has been recently introduced, and appears 
 far superior in amount of produce to either 
 the green, purple, or borecole, and requires 
 less manure. It has also this advantage, 
 that it continues highly productive for many 
 years, without further trouble or expense. 
 Propagated by planting, in beginning of 
 April, cuttings taken from the stems and 
 branches of old plants. The seed is apt to 
 produce spurious plants. For the table it 
 is not inferior to the best kinds of greens, 
 or kale ; and for the farm and cottage 
 garden its highly productive powers, and 
 cheapness of culture, promise to render 
 this plant highly valuable. Its perennial 
 habit places it out of the reach of the yearly 
 accidents of weather, bad seed, and depre- 
 dations of insects, to which all other va- 
 rieties sown annually are subject. {Trans. 
 Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. v. art. 40.) 
 
 The turnip-rooted, or bulb-stalked cab- 
 bage (B. oleracea, var.), is distinguished by 
 its irregularly- shaped root, and the swelling 
 of the stalk in the upper part, which forms 
 a kind of round fleshy head at the end of 
 the stem, on which the leaves are produced. 
 It is a native of Germany, and was first 
 introduced from thence by Sir Thomas 
 Tyrwhitt, under the name of Kohl-rabe. 
 (Decandolle, in Trans. Hort. Soc. vol. v. 
 art. 1.) The produce is nearly the same as 
 that of Swedish turnips, and the soil that suits 
 the one is equally good for the other. Two 
 pounds of the seed will produce a sufficiency 
 of plants for one acre : 64 drs. of the bulb 
 of kohl-rabe afford 105 grs. of nutritive 
 matter. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 411.) 
 
 The turnip-rooted cabbage is a hybrid 
 production between the cabbage and tur- 
 nip, which both belong to the same genus ; 
 and the various kinds which have become 
 disseminated throughout Europe are so 
 confused in nomenclature, that it has be- 
 come difficult to state their properties with 
 any great degree of precision, or to draw 
 any certain inferences to guide us in their 
 use. (Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 259.) 
 
 These species of brassica are but little 
 cultivated, and at most a very small quan- 
 tity of each is in request. The bulbs, for 
 which they are cultivated, must have their 
 thick outer skin removed, and in other 
 respects treated as turnips in preparing 
 them for use. Of the turnip cabbage, 
 which is so named on account of the round 
 fleshy protuberance that is formed at the 
 upper end of the stem, there are four varie- 
 ties : — 1. White turnip cabbage ; 2. Purple 
 turnip cabbage ; 3. Fringed turnip cabbage ; 
 4. Dwarf early turnip cabbage. 
 
 Of the turnip-rooted cabbage, which is 
 distinguished from the above by its root 
 having the protube ranee near the origin of 
 274 
 
 the stem, there are two varieties, the white 
 and the red. (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. v. p. 18 — 24.) They are propagated 
 by seed, which may be sown broadcast or in 
 drills at monthly intervals in small quanti- 
 ties, from the commencement of April until 
 the end of June. The best mode is to sow 
 thin, in drills two feet' and a half apart, and 
 allow the plants to remain where sown, the 
 plants being thinned to a similar distance 
 apart ; or, if sown broadcast, to allow them 
 to remain in the seed-bed until of sufficient 
 size to be removed into rows at similar dis- 
 tances for production, rather than, as is the 
 practice of some gardeners, to transplant 
 them, when an inch or two in height, into a 
 shady border in rows three inches apart each 
 way, to be thence removed as above stated. 
 
 Water must be given every night after a 
 removal until the plants are again esta- 
 blished ; and afterwards in dry weather oc- 
 casionally, as may appear necessary. 
 
 Earth may be drawn up to the stem of 
 the turnip cabbage as to other species of 
 brassica ; but the bulb of the turnip-rooted 
 must not be covered with the mould. 
 
 For directions to obtain seed, &c, see 
 Broccoli, Turnip, &c. (G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 The red cabbage differs from the common 
 cabbage in nothing but its colour, which is a 
 purplish or brownish red. The varieties are 
 three in number ; the large, the dwarf, and 
 the Aberdeen red. It is chiefly used for 
 pickling, and the dwarf red is considered the 
 best sort. Cultivated precisely similar to 
 the white cabbage. The cabbage is not 
 nearly so extensively cultivated in this 
 country as it ought to be. It is not only a 
 valuable food for live stock, rarely misses 
 plant, and is come-at-able in all weathers ; 
 but it is exceedingly useful to fill up the 
 spaces on the ridges where the Swedes and 
 common turnips have missed plant. 1000 
 parts of cabbage contain 73 parts of nutri- 
 tive matters. (Brit. Husb. vol. ii. ; Baxters 
 Agr. Lib. ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. ; 
 Low's El. Agr. ; Com. Board of Agr., 
 vol. iv. ; Quart. J. Agr., vol. vii. p. 76.) 
 
 The cauliflower is considered the easiest 
 to be digested of all the various species of 
 cabbage. It is not destitute of utility 
 in a medicinal way ; a decoction of red 
 cabbage being supposed capable of relieving 
 acrimonious humours in some disorders of 
 the breast, and also in hoarseness. ( Williclis 
 Dom. Encyc.) A cabbage leaf placed on 
 any fleshy part acts in keeping open a 
 blister ; but it should be frequently changed, 
 as it speedily becomes corrupt. The seed 
 bruised and boiled is good in broth. 
 
 Garden Cabbages. — For the seed-bed the 
 soil should be moist, mouldy, and not rich ; 
 but for final production it should be a fresh 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 moderately rich clayey loam, though very 
 far removed from heavy, as they delight in 
 one that is free and mouldy. Such crops as 
 have to withstand the winter may have a 
 lighter compartment allotted to them ; the 
 savoy, in particular, requires this, though it 
 may be as rich as for the other crops with- 
 out any detriment : an extreme of richness 
 is, however, for all the crops to be avoided. 
 The ground is advantageously dug two 
 spades deep, and should be well pulverized 
 by the operation. Stable manure is usually 
 employed in preparing the ground for this 
 genus*; but Mr. Wood, of Queensferry, 
 JST. B., who has for the greater part of his 
 life paid particular attention to the cultiva- 
 tion of broccoli, recommends the following 
 compositions in preference for that vege- 
 table, and we are justified in concluding 
 that they would be equally beneficial to all 
 the other species. The manure collected 
 from the public roads used alone causes the 
 plants to grow strong, but with small heads, 
 A mixture of road-rakings, sea-weed, and 
 horse-dung is better. A manuring of the 
 compartment on which they were intended 
 to be planted with sea-weed in autumn, 
 digging it up rough, repeating the applica- 
 tion in spring, and pointing the ground 
 before planting, produced the finest heads he 
 had ever seen ; but the compost of all others 
 most suitable to them is one composed of 
 the cleanings of old ditches, tree leaves, and 
 dung. (Mem. Caled.Hort.Soc. vol.ii. p. 265.) 
 The situation must in every instance be free 
 and open, though for the summer crops 
 it is advantageous to have them shaded 
 from the meridian sun. They must never, 
 however, be under the drip of trees, or in 
 confined situations ; for in such they, and 
 especially savoys, are most subject to be in- 
 fested with caterpillars, and to grow weak 
 and spindling. In planting cabbage, it 
 should be observed whether the roots of the 
 plants are knotted or clubbed, as such should 
 be rejected, or the excrescence entirely re- 
 moved. 
 
 The numerous varieties of the cabbage, 
 adds Mr. G. W. Johnson, may be divided 
 into three classes, as most appropriate for 
 sowing at an equal number of periods of the 
 year. It may be here remarked, that, for 
 family use, but few should be planted of the 
 early varieties, as they soon cabbage, harden, 
 and burst ; on the contrary, the large York, 
 and others that are mentioned in the middle 
 class, though not far behind the others in 
 quick cabbaging, never become hard, and 
 continue long in a state fit for the table. 
 
 For First Crops. — Early dwarf ; York ; 
 early dwarf sugar-loaf ; early Battersea ; 
 early imperial ; East Ham. 
 
 Midsummer Crops. — Large early York. 
 275 
 
 Large sugar-loaf. Early Battersea; early 
 imperial: these mentioned again as being 
 valuable for successional crops also. Ten- 
 ton : this is valuable in late summer, when 
 other varieties are strongly tasted. An- 
 twerp. Russian : to have this in perfection, 
 the seed must be had from abroad, as it soon 
 degenerates in this country. Early London 
 hollow. Musk is excellent at any period, 
 but is apt to perish in frosty weather. 
 
 For Autumn, Sfc. — Large hollow sugar- 
 loaf ; large oblong hollow ; long-sided hol- 
 low, and any of the preceding ; red Dutch 
 for pickling. 
 
 The cabbage is propagated by seed, the 
 sowing of which commences with the year. 
 Towards the end of January, on a warm 
 border, or under a frame, a small portion 
 of the early and red cabbages may be sown, 
 to come first in succession after those which 
 were sown in the August of the preceding 
 year. A sowing may be repeated after in- 
 tervals of a month during February, and 
 until the close of July of the second or 
 larger class, and from May to July of the 
 third class of varieties. In August a full 
 and last crop must be sown of the first class, 
 as well as of the second, both to plant out 
 in October, November, and December, as 
 to remain in the seed-beds for final removal 
 in the February and two succeeding months 
 of the next year : this sowing is best per- 
 formed during the first or second week of 
 the month ; if sown earlier, they are apt to 
 run in the spring ; and if later, will not at- 
 tain sufficient strength to survive the winter. 
 By these various sowings, which, of course, 
 must be small ones for a private family, a 
 constant supply is afforded throughout the 
 year. The seed is inserted broadcast rather 
 thin, and raked in evenly about a quarter 
 of an inch deep. The bed is advantageously 
 shaded with mats, and occasionally watered 
 until the plants are well above ground ; and 
 the waterings may afterwards be beneficially 
 repeated two or three times a week until 
 they are ready for removal, if dry hot 
 weather continues. The seedlings arising 
 from these various sowings, when of about 
 a month's growth, or when they have got 
 four or five leaves an inch or so in breadth, 
 are, by those who are advocates for trans- 
 planting, pricked out in rows four or five 
 inches asunder each way ; they must be 
 shaded and watered until completely esta- 
 blished : those of the August sowing that are 
 pricked out are to remain until the next 
 spring, and those which are left in the seed- 
 bed are employed for planting in October 
 and two following months. 
 
 When of six or eight weeks' growth, they 
 are of sufficient size for planting, which they 
 are to be in rows from one and a half to two 
 T 2 
 
CABBAGE. 
 
 and a half feet asunder each way ; the 
 smaller early kinds being planted the closest. 
 The red cabbage, the principal plantation 
 of which should be made in March for 
 pickling in September, is benefited by 
 having the distances enlarged to three feet. 
 They must be well watered at the time of 
 removal, and frequently afterwards, until 
 fully established, in proportion as dry 
 weather occurs. They must be frequently 
 hoed to keep under the weeds, as perhaps 
 no plant is more injured by them than the 
 cabbage ; and as soon as their growth per- 
 mits it, the earth should be drawn round the 
 stems of the plants. To promote the cab- 
 baging of the plants, when requisite, it is 
 useful to draw the leaves together with a 
 shred of bast-mat, which forwards it about 
 a fortnight. If any plants advance to seed 
 whilst very young, the deficiencies should be 
 immediately filled up. The stems of the 
 summer and autumn crops, if left after 
 the main head has been cut, will produce 
 numerous sprouts during those seasons, and 
 continue to do so throughout the winter. 
 For the production of seed in October, 
 which is the preferable season, and from 
 thence until the close of February, some of 
 the finest and best cabbage plants must be 
 selected ; or in default of these, though not 
 by any means to be recommended, such of 
 their stalks as have the strongest sprouts. 
 They must have the large outer leaves re- 
 moved, and then be inserted up to their 
 heads, in rows three feet asunder each way. 
 Each variety must be planted as far from 
 any other as possible, as indeed from every 
 other species of brassica ; and this precaution 
 applies equally to those which will be sub- 
 sequently dwelt upon. The red cabbage 
 especially must be kept distinct. Some 
 plants of the early varieties should be 
 planted in sheltered situations, as in severe 
 winters they are apt to run prematurely. 
 
 Frame Seedlings. — The first sowing of the 
 year in a hotbed must be carefully attended 
 to. The heat must never exceed ,55°, nor 
 sink more than two or three degrees beneath 
 50°, which is the most favourable mini- 
 mum ; otherwise the plants will be weak 
 and tender, or checked and stunted. Air 
 should be admitted freely in the day, and 
 the glasses covered, as necessity requires, at 
 night with matting ; the other offices of cul- 
 tivation are the same as for plants raised in 
 the open ground. 
 
 Coleworts. — One of the Latin names for 
 Cabbage is caulis, and from this is derived 
 cale or cole and colewort. Coleworts now 
 merely signify cabbages cut young, or pre- 
 viously to their hearts becoming firm, the 
 genuine colewort or Dorsetshire cale being 
 nearly extinct. The varieties of cabbage 
 276 
 
 principally employed for the raising cole- 
 worts are the large York and sugar-loaf, as 
 they afford the sweetest ; but the early York 
 and East Ham are also employed, as also oc- 
 casionally the Battersea, imperial, Antwerp, 
 and early London hollow. When large 
 coleworts are in request, the great spreading 
 varieties should never be employed. 
 
 Sowings may be performed during the 
 middle of June and July, to be repeated 
 at the end of the latter month, for trans- 
 planting in August, September, and Oc- 
 tober, for a continual supply in September 
 until the close of March. A fourth must 
 be made the first week in August, for suc- 
 ceeding the others in spring; but, if of 
 sufficient extent, these various plantations 
 may be made from the seed-beds of the 
 cabbage crops made at these several periods, 
 as directed under that head; as the chief 
 object in growing coleworts is to have a 
 supply of greens sooner than can be obtained 
 from the plantations of cabbages if left to 
 form hearts. 
 
 The observations upon transplanting, and 
 the directions for cultivating cabbages, apply 
 without any modification to coleworts ; but 
 the distance at which the plants may be set 
 is much less : if the rows are a foot apart, 
 and the plants seven or eight inches distant 
 from each other, an abundant space is al- 
 lowed. As mentioned for cabbages, the 
 heading is greatly forwarded by their leaves 
 being drawn together so as to enclose the 
 centre. They may be cut when the leaves 
 are five or six inches in breadth. The most 
 preferable mode of taking them is to pull 
 up or cut every other one : these openings 
 are beneficial to the remaining plants ; and 
 some, especially of the August-raised plants, 
 may be left, if required, for cabbaging. 
 
 Colewort, or Dorsetshire kale, is now 
 nearly superseded by the new cabbages of 
 modern times. The wild coleworts grow in 
 ditches and moist places. 
 
 Savoy. (Brassica oleracea sabauda.) — 
 The savoy, which is one of the best and 
 chief of our vegetable supplies during 
 the winter, derives its name either from 
 being an introduction from that part of 
 Europe with which it bears a similar 
 name, or, otherwise, is a corruption from 
 the French savourer. All its varieties may 
 be denominated hardy, being generally ren- 
 dered more sweet and tender by frost, 
 though not all equally capable of withstand- 
 ing the rigour of winter. There are three 
 varieties of savoy, — the yellow, the dwarf, 
 and the green ; and of each of these there 
 are likewise two sub-varieties, the round 
 and the oval-headed, the first of which is the 
 most permanent. Each variety has been 
 described by Mr. Morgan, gardener to H. 
 
CACALIA, SOW THISTLE-LEAVED. 
 
 CALAMINT. 
 
 Browne, Esq., of North Minims. Like the 
 other members of this tribe, it is propagated 
 by seeds ; the first sowing to take place at 
 the close of February, the plants of which 
 are ready for pricking out in April, if that 
 practice is adopted, and for final planting at 
 the end of May for use in early autumn ; 
 this to be repeated about the middle of 
 March, the plants to be pricked out in May 
 for planting in June, to supply the table in 
 autumn and early winter ; lastly, the main 
 crops must be sown in April and early May, 
 to prick out and plant after similar intervals 
 for production in winter and spring. The 
 seed is sown broadcast thinly, and raked in 
 as mentioned for other species of Brassica. 
 The plants are fit for pricking out when 
 they have four or five leaves about an inch 
 in breadth ; they must be set three or four 
 inches asunder each way, being both here 
 and in the seed-bed kept well cleared of 
 weeds. When finally removed, the plants 
 of the first crops should be set out two feet 
 apart each way from one another ; but the 
 winter standing crops are better at two feet 
 by eighteen inches. Both before and after 
 every removal they should be watered 
 abundantly, if the weather is at all dry ; 
 and this application to be continued until 
 the plants are well established. The only 
 after- culture required is the keeping them 
 clear of weeds by frequent broad-hoeing 
 and the earth drawn up two or three times 
 about their stems. For the production of 
 seed, such plants must be selected of the 
 several varieties as are most true to their 
 particular characteristics, and as are not the 
 first to run. These, in open weather, from 
 early in November to the close of February, 
 the earlier, however, the better, maybe taken 
 up with as little injury as possible to the 
 roots, and the large under leaves being re- 
 moved, planted entirely up to the head in 
 rows two feet and a half each way, each va- 
 riety as far from the other as possible. They 
 flower in May or June, and ripen their seed 
 in July and August. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 CACALIA, SOW THISTLE-LEAVED. 
 (Cacalia sonchifolia.) An annual, native of 
 the East Indies. It grows a foot high, 
 blooming an orange red- coloured flower in 
 July. Propagate from seed sown in March, 
 in a hotbed under glass ; pot each plant, 
 and keep them out during summer. Water 
 sparingly. 
 
 CACTUS. (Cactus speciosus.) This beau- 
 tiful succulent perennial plant is a native of 
 S. America. It loves a mixture of light soil 
 and brick rubbish to bloom its flowers well, 
 which are very large, and of a magnificent 
 rose colour. The cactus requires a dry soil, 
 therefore it should only be slightly watered 
 277 
 
 while in flower. It blooms in June. It will 
 thrive very well in a warm room with a south- 
 ern aspect, otherwise it requires a frame. 
 Bruising the end of each fleshy leaf forces 
 it into flower. Propagate from cuttings. 
 When each cutting has been laid by a day 
 or two till the cut end has dried, stick it 
 in a pot of mould to strike. The strikes 
 flower the third year. 
 
 CAD DOW. A name given to the jack- 
 daw in some of the northern counties. 
 
 CADE. A provincial term for a cag, cask,, 
 or barrel. A cade of herrings is a cask con- 
 taining five hundred. 
 
 CADE -LAMB. A young lamb brought 
 up in the house wholly by the hand. 
 
 CADIS, or PHRYGANEiE, are flies 
 commonly employed by the angler ; the chief 
 of which is the P. grandis, or stone-fly of the 
 angler, which he employs both for trout and 
 grayling. They come from an aquatic larva 
 called a cad-case. (Blaine's Diet. p. 1007.) 
 
 CADMA. A term applied to the smallest 
 of the pigs which a sow has at one farrowing, 
 and which is commonly much less than any 
 of the rest. 
 
 CAG, or KEG. A vessel of the barrel 
 kind, containing four or five gallons. 
 
 CAHYS. A dry-measure of corn, em- 
 ployed in some parts of Spain, which is 
 nearly equal to our bushel. 
 
 CAIRN. (Welsh cam.) A heap of stones. 
 CAKE. See Oat Cake and Rape Cake. 
 CALAMINT, COMMON. (Thymus 
 Calamintha, Smith.) This is a wild plant, 
 growing in our hedges and dry places, flower- 
 ing from June till autumn*. It is eight or ten 
 inches high ; has roundish dark green leaves, 
 and whitish flowers standing in whorls or 
 little clusters surrounding the stalks, which 
 are square and very much branched. Ca- 
 lamint should be gathered and dried just as 
 it is coming into flower. This herb is grown 
 in almost every garden ; it is strong- 
 scented, and of an agreeable odour. Coles 
 says it preserves meat from taint. 
 
 Pennyroyal Calamint (Mentha Pulegium, 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 87.) is a medicinal herb, 
 and should be planted in every herbalist's 
 garden. It grows a foot high, with firm 
 stalks, small leaves of a light green colour, 
 and hairy, and small white purplish flowers. 
 The pennyroyal calamint is more erect than 
 its elder sister, and has a stronger but less 
 pleasant smell. It must be dried with care, 
 and given in infusion. It is a popular re- 
 medy for hysterics, and in deficiency of the 
 periodical change in females ; but the plant 
 and its infusion is rarely ordered by pro- 
 fessional men. A water arising from the 
 distillation of the plant, to procure its vola- 
 tile oil, is used as a vehicle for more im- 
 portant drugs; and the oil dropped on 
 t 3 
 
CAL ANDRE. 
 
 CALVES' SNOUT. 
 
 sugar and rubbed up with water as an oleo- 
 saccharum, is sometimes employed as a car- 
 minative and an antispasmodic, in doses of 
 two to five drops. There is, also, an offi- 
 cinal spirit of pennyroyal, which is used for 
 the same purposes as the oil. 
 
 CAL ANDRE. A name given by French 
 writers to an insect of the Scarabceus or 
 beetle tribe, which frequently does great 
 injury in granaries. It has two antennae or 
 horns, formed of a great number of round 
 joints, and covered with a soft and short 
 down ; from the anterior part of the head 
 there is thrust out a trunk, which is so 
 formed at the end that the creature easily 
 makes way with it through the coat or skin 
 that covers the grain, and gets at the meal 
 or farina on which it feeds ; the inside of 
 the grain is also the place where the female 
 deposits her eggs. 
 
 CALANDRINIA, LARGE-FLOWER- 
 ED. (Calandrinia grandiflora.) A beau- 
 tiful succulent plant, native of Chili, delight- 
 ing in a warm sheltered situation in summer, 
 but must be taken under cover in winter. 
 A large pot is the best thing for it, as it is 
 portable. Its large bright purple flowers 
 keep blooming many weeks in succession, 
 from the summit of its curious branches. 
 It must be watered very cautiously, as it 
 loves a dry soil. Propagate by cuttings, or 
 from seed. 
 
 CALCAREOUS SOILS (from the 
 Latin calx), are soils which contain carbo- 
 nate of lime (chalk or limestone) in such a 
 proportion as to give it a determinate cha- 
 racter. Calcareous sand is merely chalk or 
 limestone divided into pieces of the size of 
 sand. This variety abounds on the sea- 
 shore in some parts of the east of England, 
 and is employed in Devonshire and Corn- 
 wall to a very large extent as a manure, 
 especially about Padstow Harbour, from 
 which bay many thousand tons are annually 
 carted by the Cornish farmers, which they 
 take free of toll, under a grant from Richard 
 Duke of Cornwall, and another of the 45th 
 of Henry III., a. d. 1261. (Johnson on Fer- 
 tilisers, p. 17.) See Chalk; Earths, their 
 Uses to Vegetation ; and Soils. 
 
 CALCEOLARIA, CRENATE- 
 LEAVED. (Calceolaria crenatiflora.) An 
 herbaceous plant, native of Chili, with rich 
 dark green foliage. It should be brought up 
 in pots in a shady situation, and kept under 
 cover in winter. Propagated by seed, and by 
 dividing the crown of the root. Calceolaria 
 diffusa is half hardy, doing well in open 
 borders, and flowering from July to Oc- 
 tober. It must be potted, and kept covered 
 in winter. Calceolaria Herbertiana is a 
 branching plant in constant flower, but re- 
 quires protection in winter. It produces two 
 278 
 
 crops of blossoms. Increased by cuttings. 
 There are many varieties of calceolarias. 
 
 CALCOENSIS, HENRY. A prior of 
 the Benedictine Order. His love of science 
 and literature induced him to travel into 
 France, Germany, and Italy, solely to enjoy 
 an intercourse with the learned. He wrote 
 j a Synopsis Herbaria, and translated Pal- 
 ladius, De Re Rustica, into the Gaelic, about 
 a. d. 1493. 
 
 CALENDAR. (Lat. calendarium.) See 
 the respective months. 
 
 CALF, DISEASES OF. (Sax. ceal F , 
 calr ; Dutch kalf.) See Cattle. The most 
 common diseases of calves are — 
 
 1 . Navel 111. — The best treatment for this 
 dangerous disease is, 1st, to administer two 
 or three doses (each about a wine-glassful) 
 of castor oil (linseed oil does just as well, and 
 is much cheaper) ; and, 2dly, cordials, which 
 may be made of 2 drachms of caraway- 
 seeds, 2 do. of coriander-seeds, 2 do. pow- 
 dered gentian ; bruise the seeds, and simmer 
 them in beer or gruel for a quarter of an 
 hour ; give these once or twice a day. 
 
 2. Constipation of the Bowels. — For this 
 doses of castor oil (or linseed oil), of 2 or 
 3 oz., are the best remedy. 
 
 3. Diarrhoea, or Scouring. — The farmer 
 may rely on the following mixture. Let 
 him keep it always by him ; it will do for 
 all sucking animals : — 
 
 Prepared chalk - - 4 ounces 
 
 Canella bark, powdered - 1 — 
 
 Laudanum - - - 1 — 
 
 Water - - - 1 pint. 
 
 Give two or three table spoonfuls, ac- 
 cording to the size of the animal, two or 
 three times a day. 
 
 4. Hoose, or Catarrh. — Good nursing, 
 bleeding, and then a dose of Epsom salts, 
 with half an ounce of ginger in it. (Youatt 
 on Cattle, 557.) 
 
 CALKERS. A name given to the pro- 
 minent or elevated part of the extremities 
 of the shoes of horses, which are forged thin, 
 and turned downwards for the purpose of 
 preventing their slipping. It is sometimes 
 written calkins or cawkins. 
 
 CALLUNA VULGARIS. The common 
 heath or ling. It abounds in peaty soils. 
 (See Peat Soils.) Its uses are considerable 
 in some districts for litter, and, when young, 
 sheep eat it. It is also shelter for grouse, 
 and food for bees. See Ling. 
 
 CALVES' SNOUT. Snapdragon. (An- 
 tirrhinum Cymbalaria, Smith's Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 131.) This plant grows in our gardens, 
 and also upon the garden wall, delighting 
 in high and airy situations. It is two feet 
 high. The stalks are round and thick, but 
 tolerably upright. The leaves are narrow, 
 
CALVING OF COWS. 
 
 CAMOMILE. 
 
 and of a bluish 
 green colour. The flowers are red, large, 
 and standing in loose spikes on the top of 
 the stalks. The root is white, and ob- 
 
 CALVING OF COWS. The treatment 
 before calving is to keep the cow mode- 
 rately well, neither too fat nor too lean ; re- 
 member that she commonly has the double 
 duty of giving milk and nourishing the 
 foetus ; dry her some weeks before calving ; 
 let her bowels be kept moderately open; 
 put her in a warm sheltered place, or house 
 her ; rather reduce her food ; do not dis- 
 turb her when in labour, but be ready to 
 assist her in case of need ; let her have warm 
 gruel ; avoid cold drinks. A pint of sound 
 good ale in a little gruel is an excellent 
 cordial drink. 
 
 CAM. A provincial term for a mound 
 of made earth. 
 
 CAMELLIA JAPONIC A. A beautiful 
 evergreen greenhouse shrub; but if carefully 
 attended to it will blow in the open air. It 
 bears single, double, and semi-double flowers, 
 in February and March ; and they are red, 
 white, blush-coloured, and various other tints. 
 Plant it under a south wall, in good rich 
 garden mould mixed with sand ; and shelter 
 it during winter with mats, or keep it in a 
 large pot. It cannot endure the broiling 
 mid-day sun. Propagate by cuttings, layers, 
 and grafts ; and water the plants plentifully 
 when in flower. 
 
 CAMLET. (Fr. camelot; Ital. ciambe- 
 lotto ; Span, camlote ; from the Gr. Kafi^Xiortj.) 
 A stuff or cloth made of wool, silk, and some- 
 times of hair combined, especially that of 
 goats and camels. The real oriental camlet 
 is made from that of the Angola goat. No 
 camlets are made in Europe of goat's hair 
 alone. France, Holland, Flanders, and Eng- 
 land are the chief places where this manu- 
 facture is carried on. The best are made 
 in England, and those of Brussels stand next 
 in repute. It has been occasionally written 
 camelot and camblet. 
 
 CAMMOCK. (Sax.) The name of a 
 weed infesting arable, especially chalky soils, 
 generally known by the name of rest-harrow. 
 See Rest-Harrow. 
 
 CAMOMILE, CHAMOMILE, COM- 
 MON or SWEET. (Anthemisnobilis. From 
 ai>0fw, on account of its abundance of 
 flowers, or luxuriance of growth. Fr. ca- 
 momille ; Lat. chamomilla.) A hardy per- 
 ennial, growing on open gravelly pastures 
 or commons, flowering from June to Sep- 
 tember, and well known for its iise in me- 
 dicine. Cattle do not appear to touch any 
 part of this plant. Most of what is brought 
 to the London market is cultivated about 
 Mitcham, in Surrey. Every part of the plant 
 279 
 
 is intensely bitter, and gratefully aromatic, 
 especially the flowers, whose stomachic and 
 tonic powers are justly celebrated. {Eng. 
 Flora, vol. iii. p. 456.) In gardens there 
 are two varieties, — the common single and 
 the double-flowering. They require a poor 
 dry soil, otherwise they grow very luxuriant, 
 and become not only less capable of with- 
 standing severe winters, but also less power- 
 ful in their medicinal qualities. They will 
 grow in any situation almost, but the more 
 open the better. They are generally propa- 
 gated by parting the roots, and by offsets, 
 which may be planted from the close of Fe- 
 bruary until the end of May ; the earlier, 
 however, it is performed the better : this is 
 the most favourable season, but it may be 
 practised in the autumn. They are also 
 raised from seed, the proper time of sowing 
 which is in any of the early spring months ; 
 but as the former mode is so easily practised 
 and with much less trouble, it is generally 
 pursued ; though it is advisable after a lapse 
 of several years to raise fresh plants, the old 
 ones often declining in production after such 
 lapse of time. Being shrubby, with ex- 
 tending lateral branches, they should not be 
 planted nearer to each other than eighteen 
 inches, as that also gives an opportunity to 
 employ the hoe. Water must be given mo- 
 derately at the time of planting, if dry 
 weather, otherwise it is not at all required. 
 If raised from seed, they require no further 
 cultivation than to be kept free of weeds in 
 the seed-bed ; and when three or four 
 inches high, to be thinned to about six 
 inches apart ; after which, they may remain 
 thus until the following spring, then be 
 thinned and remain, or be removed to the 
 above-mentioned distance apart. A very 
 small bed will supply the largest family. In 
 July the flowers are generally in perfection 
 for gathering ; the period for performing it, 
 however, must be governed by the aspect of 
 the flowers themselves, as the best time is 
 when they are just opened. Particular care 
 must be taken to dry them thoroughly before 
 they are stored ; otherwise they will not keep. 
 If seed is required, the only attention neces- 
 sary is to leave some of the first opening 
 flowers ungathered ; the seed will ripen 
 early in September, when the plant may be 
 cut, and the seed dried, and rubbed out. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 Camomile flowers, fresh or dried, are tonic. 
 They contain volatile oil, bitter extractive, 
 tannic acid, and piperina, a resinoid which 
 was discovered in them by Dr. A. T. Thom- 
 son, and which, in conjunction with the 
 volatile oil, explains their power of curing 
 agues. The leaves and flowers dried are 
 also anodyne applied to the bowels out- 
 wardly in fomentations. Camomile tea if 
 t 4 
 
CAMOMILE, WILD. 
 
 CANARY-GRASS. 
 
 strong promotes vomiting. The flowers of 
 camomile distilled yield a fine blue oil, like 
 that from yarrow, which becomes yellow by 
 time. It is used for cramps, &c. The double 
 flowers have not the same virtue which the 
 single ones possess. The infusion is a useful 
 stomachic in weakened states of the stomach, 
 and as a general tonic. The strong warm in- 
 fusion is a useful emetic in low states of the 
 habit, and to promote the action of other 
 emetics. Combined with any astringent, 
 camomile is an antiperiodic and cures ague. 
 
 Smith (Engl. Flor. vol. iii. p. 457.) enu- 
 merates four other species. The sea ca- 
 momile (A. maritima) ; annual, met with on 
 the sea-coast, but rare ; flowers smell like 
 tansy, the leaves like mugwort. Corn ca- 
 momile (A. arvensis) ; annual or biennial, in 
 cultivated fields, as well as waste ground, 
 chiefly on a gravelly soil. The herbage has 
 little or no smell, but the flowers are plea- 
 santly scented. The stinking mayweed, or 
 camomile (A Cotula) ; an annual, found in 
 the same situations as the last. Every part 
 of the plant is fetid and acrid, blistering the 
 skin when much handled, which Dr. Hooker 
 justly attributes to the minute resinous dots 
 sprinkled over its surface. And the ox-eye 
 camomile (A. tinctoria), found sometimes 
 in stony mountainous places, growing on a 
 bushy stem eighteen inches high. The 
 flowers afford a fine yellow dye, for which, 
 Linnaeus says, they are much used in Sweden. 
 There are several handsome exotic species 
 nearly akin to this. 
 
 CAMOMILE, WILD, or FEVERFEW. 
 (Matricaria Chamomilla.) Found in culti- 
 vated and waste ground, on dunghills, and 
 by road sides ; very common about Lon- 
 don. Root annual, rather large and woody ; 
 flowering from May till August ; stem a foot 
 high ; flowers numerous, about the size of 
 the common sweet camomile, and with 
 some portion of the same scent, of which 
 the herbage, though faintly, partakes. The 
 greatest part of the oil of chamomile found 
 in the shops is procured from this plant. 
 
 CAMP. Provincially, a hoard of pota- 
 toes, turnips, &c. 
 
 CAMPANULA, THE PYRAMID. 
 (Campanula pyramidalis.) A perennial of 
 great beauty ; native of Savoy ; it does not 
 like manure, but thrives well in simple mould. 
 It blows its pyramid of sky-blue flowers in 
 July and August, and is propagated by 
 seed, and by parting the root ; it suits any 
 situation. The seed should be sown in 
 spring, and covered with a hand-glass: 
 transplant the seedlings into a nursery bed, 
 to remain till the following spring ; then 
 plant out. They rise four or five feet in 
 height, and are very ornamental. There 
 are many varieties of campanula, such as 
 280 
 
 the purple dwarf, great-flowered, &c. Cam- 
 panula Medium (Canterbury bell) is a hand- 
 some biennial, native of Germany, thriving 
 well in any soil. It blows its pendulous 
 bell-looking flowers abundantly in June and 
 July; they are white, and also blue, in 
 colour. Cut off the flowers as they decay, 
 and others will arise ; weaker, of course, but 
 continuing later in flower. See Canterbury 
 Bells. 
 
 CAMPION. See Catch-fey. 
 
 CAMPION, CORN. See Cockee. 
 
 CAMPION, ROSE. (Agrostemma coro- 
 naria.) A plant originally from Italy, 
 growing one or two feet high, which blooms a 
 bright red flower from June to September : 
 it is hardy, but loves a warm dry soil. 
 Propagate by seed sown as soon as it ripens, 
 and planted out the following spring; it has 
 varieties which blow white and double 
 flowers. 
 
 CANADA ONION. See Onion. 
 
 CANARY-GRASS, CAT'S TAIL. See 
 Cat's Taie. 
 
 CANARY-GRASS, manured. (Phalaris 
 canariensis.) Is cultivated in a few parts of 
 the south of England, and chiefly in the Isle 
 of Thanet. The plant (says Prof. Low) is 
 easily raised, but it is of little economical 
 importance; it is a native of the Canary 
 islands, but is found frequently wild in cul- 
 tivated and waste ground, and has probably 
 become naturalised. From Mr. Sinclair's 
 experiments, it appears, that at the time of 
 flowering, the produce of this grass per acre, 
 from a rich clayey loam, on a tenacious sub- 
 soil, was 54,450 lbs ; which yielded in dry 
 produce 17,696 lbs. 4oz., nutritive matter 
 1,876 lbs. 2 oz. The herbage is but little 
 nutritive, and the plant cannot be recom- 
 mended for cultivation, but for the seeds 
 only, which are principally in demand in the 
 neighbourhood of large towns, as food for 
 small singing birds, particularly canaries, 
 whence it derives its name. The produce 
 is generally from 3 to 5 quarters an acre, and 
 the actual price is from 40s. to 42s. per qr. 
 The straw or haulm is a most excellent fodder 
 for horses. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 399. ; 
 Lows El. Prac. Ag. p. 266. ; Brit. Husb. vol. 
 ii. p. 329.) 
 
 The reed canary-grass (Ph. arundinacea, 
 Smith's Engl. Flora> vol. i. p. 74.) is 
 very common in ditches, pools, and the 
 margins of rivers. At the time of flower- 
 ing, the produce from a black sandy loam 
 incumbent on clay was, — 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 Green produce per acre - 27,225 0 
 Dry produce — - 12,251 4 
 
 Nutritive matter — - 1,701 9 
 
 On a strong tenacious clay, the produce 
 was, — 
 
CANCER, IN CATTLE. 
 
 CANKER. 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 
 Green produce per acre - 34,031 0 
 Dry produce — - 17,015 8 
 
 Nutritive matter — - 2,126 15 
 
 From this, it appears to be much more 
 productive on a tenacious clay soil than on 
 a rich sandy loam ; the superior nutritive 
 powers which this grass possesses recom- 
 mend it therefore to the notice of occupiers 
 of such soils. The foliage cannot be con- 
 sidered coarse, when compared with other 
 grasses which afford a produce equal in 
 quantity. Dry straw is a much coarser food 
 than the hay made from this grass, and the 
 objection may be met by reducing this hay 
 to chaff. The striped reed canary-grass has 
 not yet been found in a wild state ; it is cul- 
 tivated in gardens for the beauty of its 
 striped leaves: — the common wild variety 
 wants this distinguishing feature, it grows 
 o a greater height than the striped-leaved 
 ariety, does not appear to be eaten by 
 cattle, but birds are fond of the seeds. It 
 comes into flower about the first and second 
 weeks of July, and ripens about the middle 
 of August. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 359.) 
 
 CANCER, IN CATTLE. (Lat. ; Sax. 
 cancepe.) A virulent swelling or sore. 
 Cancer of the eye, or a perfect change of its 
 mechanism into a fleshy half- decomposed 
 substance, that ulcerates and wastes away, 
 or from which fungous growths spring that 
 can never be checked, is a disease of occa- 
 sional occurrence in cattle. The remedy 
 should be extirpation of the eye, if it were 
 deemed worth while to attempt it. {Lib. of 
 Use/. Know., Cattle, p. 293.) 
 CANDITUFT. See Candytuft. 
 CANDLE. (Lat. candela ; Sax. canbel ; 
 Ital. candelle ; Fr. chandette ; Welsh, canwyll.) 
 A taper or cylinder of tallow, wax, or sper- 
 maceti, the wick of which is commonly of 
 several threads of cotton spun and twisted 
 together. Candles were subject for a 
 lengthened period to an excise duty of 3±d. 
 per lb., but this was repealed in 1831. 
 Good tallow candles ought to be made with 
 equal parts of sheep and ox tallow ; care 
 being taken to avoid any mixture of hog's 
 lard, which occasions a thick, black smoke, 
 attended with a disagreeable smell, and also 
 causes the candle to run. 
 
 The farmer, if far from any town, may 
 make his own candles. The cotton for 
 making the wicks is sold, ready prepared, 
 in balls. When it is intended to be used 
 for candles, a certain number of pieces of it 
 of equal length are to be cut, and stripped 
 through the hand to remove any knots or 
 inequalities. They are next to be affixed 
 by one end to a rod about 3 feet long, leaving 
 about % 2 inches between each wick. The 
 whole is then to be dipped into a vessel, 
 281 
 
 large enough, and filled with fluid tallow ; 
 and this is to be repeated three times for 
 the first layer or coat. They are then to be 
 suspended in a rack over the vessel to drain 
 and solidify ; after which they are to be 
 dipped twice, and again hung up to drain ; 
 and so on, successively, until they acquire 
 the desired degree of thickness. 
 
 Candles ought never to be used until 
 several weeks have elapsed after they are 
 made ; otherwise they are apt to gutter and 
 run. (M'Cullocfis Com. Die. ; WillicKs 
 Dom. JSncyc.) 
 
 CANDLE-BERRY MYRTLE. (My- 
 rica Gale.) A hardy shrub, native of 
 Britain, which grows to four feet high, and 
 bears a small red blossom in May and June. 
 It loves heath mould, and is propagated by 
 seed, or by dividing the roots. The Ameri- 
 can candle-berry myrtle (Myrica ceriferd) 
 blows in May, and is a native of North 
 America. Propagated by suckers or seed. 
 It grows four or five feet in height. 
 
 CANDOCK. See White Water Lily. 
 
 CANDYTUFT, BITTER. (Iberis 
 amara.) In chalky fields, but rare. Stem her- 
 baceous, or in some degree shrubby ; whole 
 plant smooth, of a nauseous bitter flavour. 
 It displays oblong clusters of handsome 
 brilliant white flowers, which have procured 
 for it a place among hardy annuals in some 
 gardens. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 1 8 1 .) 
 
 CANDYTUFT, PURPLE. (Iberis um- 
 bellata.) An annual, native of the south of 
 Europe, growing a foot high, blowing hand- 
 some purple flowers in June and July. Pro- 
 pagated from seed. It thrives in any soil. 
 
 CANE. A provincial term used to sig- 
 nify a hollow place, where water stands. 
 It also implies a wood of alder, or other 
 aquatic trees, in a moist boggy situation. 
 
 CANINE MADNESS. See Hydropho- 
 bia. 
 
 CANKER, or ULCER. (Lat. canker; 
 Sax. cancepe, or cancpe.) In the vegetable 
 creation, a disease to which our apple, pear, 
 elm, and other trees are subject. 
 
 " This disease," says Mr. G. W. Johnson, 
 " is accompanied by different symptoms, ac- 
 cording to the species of the tree which it 
 infects. In some of those whose true sap 
 contains a considerable quantity of free acid, 
 as in the genus Pyrus, it is rarely accompa- 
 nied by any discharge. To this dry form of 
 the disease, it would be well to confine the 
 term canker, and to give it the scientific 
 name of Gangrana sicca. In other trees, 
 whose sap is characterized by abounding in 
 astringent or mucilaginous constituents, it is 
 usually attended by a sanious discharge. In 
 such instances, it might be strictly desig- 
 nated ulcer, or Gangrana saniosa. This 
 disease has a considerable resemblance to 
 
CANKER. 
 
 the tendency to ossification, which appears 
 in aged animals, arising from their marked 
 appetency to secrete the calcareous saline 
 compounds that chiefly constitute their 
 skeletons. The consequence is an enlarge- 
 ment of the joints, and ossification of the 
 circulating vessels, and other parts ; phe- 
 nomena very analogous to those attending 
 the cankering of trees. As in animals, 
 this tendency is general throughout their 
 system ; but, as is observed by Mr. Knight, 
 'like the mortifications in the limbs of elderly 
 people,' it may be determined, as to its point 
 of attack, by the irritability of that part of 
 the system. This disease commences with 
 an enlargement of the vessels of the bark of 
 a branch, or of the stem. This swelling in- 
 variably attends the disease when it attacks 
 the apple tree. In the pear, the enlarge- 
 ment is less, yet is always present. In the 
 elm and oak sometimes no swelling occurs, 
 and in the peach I do not remember to have 
 seen any ; I have never observed the dis- 
 ease in the cherry tree, nor any of the pine 
 tribe. The swelling is soon communi- 
 cated to the wood ; which, if laid open to 
 view, on its first appearance, by the removal 
 of the bark, exhibits no marks of disease 
 beyond the mere unnatural enlargement. 
 In the course of a few years, less in number 
 in proportion to the advanced age of the 
 tree, and the unfavourable circumstances 
 under which it is vegetating, the swelling is 
 greatly increased in size, and the alburnum 
 has become extensively dead : the super- 
 incumbent bark cracks, rises in discoloured 
 scales, and decays even more rapidly than 
 the wood beneath. If the caries is upon a 
 moderately sized branch, the decay soon 
 completely encircles it, extending through 
 the whole alburnum and bark. The circu- 
 lation of the sap being thus entirely pre- 
 vented, all the parts above the disease of 
 necessity perish. In the apple and pear, 
 the disease is accompanied by scarcely any 
 discharge ; but in the elm this is very 
 abundant. The only chemists who have 
 examined these morbid products are Sir 
 H. Davy and Vauquelin ; the former's ob- 
 servations being confined to the fact, that 
 lie often found carbonate of lime on the 
 edges of the canker in apple trees. (Elem. 
 of Agr. Chemistry, 2d edit. p. 264.) 
 
 Vauquelin has examined the sanies dis- 
 charged from the canker of an elm with 
 much more precision. He found this liquor 
 nearly as transparent as water, sometimes 
 slightly coloured, at other times a blackish- 
 brown, but always tasting acrid and saline. 
 From it a soft matter, insoluble in water, is 
 deposited upon the sides of the ulcer. The 
 bark over which the transparent sanies 
 flows attains the appearance of chalk, be- 
 282 
 
 coming white, friable, crystalline, alkaline, 
 and effervescent with acids. A magnifier 
 exhibits the crystals in the forms of rhom- 
 boids and four-sided prisms : when the 
 liquid is dark-coloured, the bark appears 
 blackish, and seems as if coated with a 
 varnish. It sometimes is discharged in such 
 quantities as to hang from the bark like 
 stalactites. The matter of which these are 
 composed is alkaline, soluble in water, and 
 with acids effervesces. The analysis of this 
 dark slimy matter shows it to be com- 
 pounded of carbonate of potassa and ulmin, a 
 product peculiar to the elm. The white 
 matter deposited round the canker was 
 composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Vegetable matter - - - 60*5 
 Carbonate of potassa - 34-2 
 Carbonate of lime 5 
 Carbonate of magnesia - - 0*3 
 
 100-0 
 
 Vauquelin calculated, from the quantity 
 of this white matter that was found about 
 the canker of an elm, that 500 lbs. weight 
 of its wood must have been destroyed. 
 (Annates de Chimie, torn. xxi. p. 30.) There 
 is no doubt that such a discharge is deeply 
 injurious to the tree ; but the above learned 
 chemist appears to have largely erred ; for 
 he calculated from a knowledge of the 
 amount of the saline constituents in the 
 healthy sap, whereas in its diseased state 
 these are much, and unnaturally increased. 
 I once was of opinion that this disease 
 does not arise from a general diseased 
 state of the tree ; but that it is brought on 
 by some bruise or injury, exasperated by 
 an unhealthy sap, in consequence of an 
 unfavourable soil, situation, and culture ; 
 but more extensive and more accurate 
 examinations convince me, that the disease 
 is in the system of the tree ; that its juices 
 are vitiated ; and that disease will continue 
 to break out, independent of any external 
 injury, so long as those juices continue 
 peccant and unaltered. This conclusion 
 will be justified, I think, by the preceding 
 facts, as well as by those distributed through 
 the following observations. The disease is 
 not strictly confined to any particular period 
 of the tree's age. I have repeatedly no- 
 ticed it in some of our lately introduced 
 varieties, that have not been grafted more 
 than five or six years ; and a writer in the 
 Gardener's Magazine (vol. v. p. 3.) states 
 that the trees in his orchard, though only 
 of four years' growth, are sadly troubled 
 with the canker. Although young trees 
 are liable to this disease, yet their old age 
 is the period of existence most obnoxious 
 to its attacks. It must be remembered, that 
 
CANKER. 
 
 that is not consequently a young tree which 
 is lately grafted. If the tree from which 
 the scion was taken is an old variety, it is 
 only a multiplication of an aged individual. 
 The scion may for a few years exhibit signs 
 of increased vigour, owing to the extra 
 stimulus of the more abundant supply of 
 healthy sap supplied by the stock : but the 
 vessels of the scion will, after the lapse of 
 that period, gradually become as decrepid 
 as the parent tree. The unanimous ex- 
 perience of naturalists agrees in testifying 
 that every organised creature has its limit 
 of existence. In plants it varies from the 
 scanty period of a few months to the long 
 expanse of as many centuries : but of all, 
 the days are numbered; and though the 
 gardener" s, like the physician's skill, may 
 retard the onward pace of death, he will 
 not be permanently delayed. In the last 
 periods of life they show every symptom 
 that accompanies organization in its old 
 age — not only a cessation of growth, but a 
 decay of former developments, a languid 
 circulation, and diseased organs. 
 
 The canker, as already observed, attends 
 especially the old age of some fruit trees, 
 and of these, the apple is most remarkably 
 a sufferer. " I do not mean," says Mr. 
 Knight, M to assert that there ever was a 
 time when an apple tree did not canker on 
 unfavourable soils, or that highly cultivated 
 varieties were not more generally subject 
 to the disease than others, where the soil 
 did not suit them; but I assert, from my 
 own experience and observation within the 
 last twenty years, that this disease becomes 
 progressively more fatal to each variety as 
 the age of that variety beyond a certain 
 period increases : that all the varieties of 
 the apple which I have found in the cata- 
 logues of the middle of the seventeenth 
 century, are unproductive of fruit, and in a 
 state of debility and decay." (Som,e Doubts 
 relative to the Efficacy of Mr. Forsyth's 
 Plaster, by T. A. Knight, Esq. 1802.) 
 
 Among the individuals particularly liable 
 to be infected, are those which have been 
 marked by an excessively vigorous growth 
 in their early years. I have in my garden 
 a maiden standard peach, which is now 
 about sixteen years old. The size and 
 abundance of its annual shoots, until within 
 the last quarter of its existence, were un- 
 naturally large. It is now grievously affected 
 by canker. Trees injudiciously pruned, or 
 growing upon an ungenial soil, are more 
 frequently attacked than those advancing 
 under contrary circumstances. The oldest 
 trees are always the first attacked of those 
 similarly cultivated. The golden pippin, 
 the oldest existing variety of the apple, is 
 more frequently and seriously attacked than 
 283 
 
 any other. The soil has a very considerable 
 influence in inducing the disease. If the 
 subsoil is a ferruginous gravel, or if it is 
 not well drained, — if the soil is aluminous, 
 and effective means are not adopted to free 
 it of superabundant moisture, — the canker, 
 under any one of these circumstances, is 
 almost certain to make its appearance among 
 the trees they sustain. If an old worn-out 
 orchard is replanted with fruit-trees, the 
 canker is almost certain to appear among 
 them, however young and vigorous they 
 were when first planted. How inducive of 
 this disease is a wet retentive subsoil, if the 
 roots penetrate it, appears from the state- 
 ment of Mr. Watts, gardener to R. G. Russell, 
 Esq. of Chequer's Court, in Buckingham- 
 shire. A border beneath a south wall had 
 a soil three feet and a half in depth, ap- 
 parently of the most fertile staple ; twice 
 re-made under the direction of the late 
 Mr. Lee, of the Vineyard, Hammersmith. 
 In this, the trees, peaches and nectarines, 
 flourish for the next three or four years 
 after they are planted, but then are rapidly 
 destroyed by the canker and gum. The 
 subsoil is a stiff sour clay, nearly approach- 
 ing to a brick earth ; and the disease occurs 
 as soon as it is reached by the roots of the 
 trees. (Gardener s Magazine, vol. vi. p. 617.) 
 Mr. Forsyth concluded that the soil is not 
 always the source of the disease, because it 
 universally and invariably appears, at first, 
 in the branches, and proceeds thence towards 
 the roots of the tree : but this is certainly a 
 conclusion not warranted by the premises, 
 because the acridity of the sap, whatever 
 may be its source, would be likely to injure 
 and corrode, in the first instance, those parts 
 where the vessels are the most weak and 
 tender ; now these, past dispute, are in the 
 branches. Moreover, we generally see the 
 youngest branches the earliest sufferers. 
 Pruning has a powerful influence in pre- 
 venting the occurrence of canker ; I re- 
 member a standard russet apple tree, of not 
 more than twenty years' growth, with a 
 redundancy of ill-arranged branches, that 
 was excessively attacked by this disease. I 
 had two of its three main branches removed, 
 and the laterals of that remaining thinned 
 carefully ; all the infected parts, at the same 
 time, being removed. The result was a 
 total cure. The branches were annually 
 regulated, and for six years the disease 
 never reappeared. At the end of that time 
 the tree had to be removed, as the ground 
 it stood upon was required for another 
 purpose. John Williams, Esq., of Pitmaston, 
 from long experience, concludes, that the 
 golden pippin, and other apples,, may be 
 preserved from this disease by pruning 
 away, every year, that part of each, shoot 
 
CANKER. 
 
 which is not perfectly ripened. By pur- 
 suing this method for "six years, he brought 
 a dwarf golden pippin tree to be as vigorous 
 and free from canker as any new variety. 
 {Trans. London Hort. Soc. vol. vi. art. 64.) 
 
 All these facts unite in assuring us 
 that the canker arises from the tree's 
 weakness ; from a deficiency in its vital 
 energy, and consequent inability to imbibe 
 and elaborate the nourishment necessary 
 to sustain its frame in vigour, and much 
 less to supply the healthy development of 
 new parts. It matters not whether its 
 energy is broken down by an unnatural 
 rapidity of growth, by a disproportioned 
 excess of branches over the mass of roots, 
 by old age, or by the disorganization of roots 
 in an ungenial soil ; they render the tree 
 incapable of extracting sufficient nourish- 
 ment from the soil, consequently incapable 
 of developing sufficient foliage, and there- 
 fore unable to digest and elaborate even 
 the. scanty sap that is supplied to them. 
 
 The reason of the sap becoming unna- 
 turally saline appears to be that in proportion 
 as the vigour of any vegetable declines, it 
 loses the power of selecting by its roots the 
 nourishment congenial to its nature. M. 
 Saussure found in his experiments that the 
 roots of plants growing in saline solutions 
 absorbed the most of those salts that were 
 injurious to them, evidently because the 
 declining plant lost the sensitiveness and 
 energy necessary to select and to reject ; 
 thus, when plants of Polygonum Persicaria 
 and of Bidens cannabina were grown in a 
 solution containing sulphate of soda (Glauber 
 salt), acetate ofjime, and chloride of sodium 
 (common salt), they altogether rejected 
 the acetate of lime ; but when grown in a 
 solution of sulphate of copper and acetate of 
 lime, they imbibed the latter abundantly. 
 Now, sulphate of copper M. Saussure found 
 to be the most deleterious to the plants of 
 all the salts, in a solution of which he 
 plunged their roots. Supposing the portion 
 originally in solution to be 100, the pro- 
 portions of each absorbed were as follows : — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 " Chloride of sodium - 
 
 - 10 
 
 Sulphate of soda 
 
 6 
 
 _ Acetate of lime 
 
 0 
 
 ' Sulphate of copper - 
 
 - 34 
 
 Acetate of lime 
 
 - 31 
 
 M. Saussure also found that if the extre- 
 
 mities of the roots were removed, the plants 
 absorbed all solutions indiscriminately. 
 (Saussure' s Itecherches Chimiques sur la 
 Vegetation, 260.) An ungenial soil would 
 have a debilitating influence upon the roots 
 in a proportionate, though less violent de- 
 gree than the sulphate of copper ; and these, 
 consequently, would absorb soluble bodies 
 284 
 
 more freely, and without that discrimination 
 so absolutely necessary for a healthy veget- 
 ation; so the other most essential organs 
 of nutrition, the leaves of the weakened 
 plant, would promote and accelerate the 
 disease. These, reduced in number and 
 size, do not properly elaborate the sap ; and 
 I have always found that, under such cir- 
 cumstances, these stunted organs exhale the 
 aqueous particles of the sap very abun- 
 dantly, whilst their power of absorption is 
 greatly reduced. The sap, thus deficient in 
 quantity and increased in acridity, seems 
 to corrode and effect the vascular system of 
 the tree in the manner already described. 
 These facts afford us most important guides 
 in attaining the desired objects — the pre- 
 vention and cure of the disease. If super- 
 luxuriance threatens its introduction, the 
 best remedy is for the cultivator to remove 
 one of the main roots of the tree, and for 
 him to be particularly careful not to add 
 any fertile addition to the soil within their 
 range. On the contrary, it will be well, if 
 the exuberant growth shows its necessity, 
 for the soil to be reduced in fertility by the 
 admixture of one less fertile, or even of 
 drift sand. If there is an excess of branches, 
 the saw and the pruning knife must be 
 gradually applied. It must be only trees 
 of weak vital powers, such as the golden 
 pippin, that will bear the general cutting of 
 the annual shoots, as pursued by Mr .Williams. 
 A new vigorous variety would exhibit itself 
 in the following year in the production of 
 new wood. 
 
 Having completely headed down, if the 
 canker is generally prevalent, or duly 
 thinned the branches, entirely removed 
 every small one that is in the least de- 
 gree diseased, and cut away the decayed 
 parts of the larger, so as not to leave a 
 single speck of the decayed wood, I cover 
 over the surface of each wound with a 
 mixture, whilst in a melted state, of equal 
 parts of tar and rosin, applying with a brush 
 immediately after the amputations have been 
 performed, taking care to select a fine dry 
 day. I prefer this to any composition with 
 a basis of cow-dung and clay ; because the 
 latter is always more or less absorbent of 
 moisture, and is liable to injury by rain and 
 frost, causing alternations of moisture and 
 dryness to the wounds, that promote decay 
 rather than their healing, by the formation 
 of new wood and bark. The resinous 
 plaster seldom or never .requires renewal. 
 Mr. Forsyth, the arch-advocate of alkaline 
 plasters, finding they promoted decay if 
 applied to the wounds of autumn-pruned 
 trees, recommends this important act of 
 cultivation to be postponed to the spring. 
 Such a procrastination, however, is always 
 
CANKER. 
 
 CANTERBURY-BELLS. 
 
 liable to defer the pruning till bleeding is 
 the consequence. If a resinous plaster is 
 employed, it excludes the wet, and obviates 
 the objection to autumnal pruning. Mr. 
 Forsyth's treatment of the trunks and 
 branches of the trees, namely, scraping 
 from them all the scaly dry exuviae of the 
 bark, is to be adopted in every instance : he 
 recommends them to be then brushed over 
 with a thin liquid compound of fresh cow- 
 dung, soapsuds, and urine. But I very 
 much prefer a brine of common salt : each 
 acts as a gentle stimulus, which is their 
 chief source of benefit, and the latter is 
 more efficacious in destroying insects, and 
 does not, like the other, obstruct the per- 
 spiratory vessels of the tree. The brine is 
 advantageously rubbed in with a scrubbing 
 or large painter's brush. Some persons re- 
 commend a liquid wash, containing, as pro- 
 minent ingredients, quicklime and wood 
 ashes ; which, as the disease arises from an 
 over alkalescent state of the sap, cannot but 
 prove injurious, and aggravate the disease. 
 Mr. Forsyth's composition, used as a plaster 
 for the wounds made when cankered matter 
 had been extracted, was — 
 
 1 bushel of fresh cow-dung, 
 \ bushel of lime rubbish, 
 £ bushel of wood ashes, 
 f'g bushel of finely- sifted sand. 
 Mr. Knight well observed of this quackery 
 (for which Forsyth was rewarded with a 
 grant of money), that " it afforded a much 
 better proof that he was paid for a discovery 
 than that he made one." (G. W. Johnson; 
 Quar. Journ. of Agr. vol. viii. p. 470. ; J. 
 Pearson, ibid. k vol. ii. p. 379.; A.Drummond, 
 On the Canker in the Larch, ibid. p. 221.) 
 
 Canker in dogs. A diseased state of the 
 skin of the ears, which is cured by the 
 following caustic ointment, well rubbed 
 into the cracks : — White vitriol and alum, 
 one drachm each, reduced to a fine powder, 
 and mixed with 4 oz. of hog's lard. This 
 should be succeeded by a healing ointment, 
 formed of palm oil 3 lbs., resin 1 lb., melted 
 together, and 1 lb. of finely-powdered cala- 
 mine added. The canker ointment may be 
 repeated ; but if it has no effect, a stronger 
 ointment, formed of 1 scruple nitrate of 
 silver and 1 oz. lard, may be applied. 
 (Claters Farriery, p. 352.) 
 
 Canker in horses is a separation of the 
 horn from the sensible part of the foot, and 
 the sprouting of fungous matter instead of 
 it, and occupying a portion of, or even the 
 whole of the sole and frog. {The Horse, 
 p. 308., Lib. of Useful Knowledge.) The 
 whole secret of the treatment of canker con- 
 sists in the use of superficial caustics or sti- 
 mulants, — pressure as firmly and as equably 
 as it can be made, and the careful avoidance 
 285 
 
 of all greasy applications, and all moisture, 
 either applied immediately to the foot, or 
 suffered to penetrate to it through the 
 dressing. (Claters Farriery, p. 324.) 
 
 CANKERED. A word sometimes used 
 to signify mildewed or blighted. 
 
 CANKERS. A local name in some parts 
 of the country for caterpillars. 
 
 CANSH. A provincial word sometimes 
 applied to a small pile of faggots. 
 
 CANTER. (Said to be an abbreviation 
 of Canterbury gallop, and derived from the 
 pilgrims riding to Canterbury on easy am- 
 bling horses. — Todd's Johnson.) A well- 
 known pace of the horse, which is not, 
 generally, a natural pace. When the horse 
 is excited to move his station from one 
 place to another, he performs it with a 
 velocity proportionate to the exciting cause. 
 Thus, he changes from the walk to the trot, 
 and from the trot to the gallop, according 
 to his inclination. In each of these changes 
 he acquires an addition of speed; but, as 
 the trot is equal in speed to the canter, he 
 seldom adopts the canter, but changes to 
 the gallop, when he wishes to accelerate his 
 motion. The horse is taught to perform 
 the canter by shortening the gallop. The 
 canter is to the gallop very much what the 
 walk is to the trot, though probably a more 
 artificial pace. The exertion is much less, 
 the spring less distant, and the feet come to 
 the ground in more regular succession : it 
 is a pace of ease, quite inconsistent with 
 any exertion of draught. (Lib. Use. Know., 
 The Horse, p. 413.) Some persons, and 
 among them Nimrod, do not consider this 
 pace injurious to horses. " A canter," he 
 observes, " is much more easy, as well as 
 safer to the rider, than a trot ; the horse 
 having his haunches more under him in the 
 canter than when he trots, is thereby more 
 likely to recover himself in case of making 
 a mistake, which the best is sometimes sub- 
 ject to. Fast trotting also distresses a horse 
 'more than cantering, because, in the one, he 
 is going at the top of his speed, and in the 
 other much below it." (Blaine's Ency. of 
 Rural Sports, p. 297.) 
 
 CANTERBURY-BELLS. Throatwort. 
 (Trachelium majus.) This very beautiful 
 flower is cultivated in our gardens, and looks 
 magnificent, with its large drooping bells, in 
 broad borders or shrubberies. (See Campa- 
 nula.) The wild plant grows by the road 
 side and in pastures. It is known by its thick, 
 upright, hairy stalks ; its dusky green leaves, 
 standing upon long footstalks, broad at their 
 base, narrow at their point, indented sharply 
 at their edges, and its large blue flowers 
 growing in clusters often or twelve together, 
 at the top of each branch. The soil changes 
 the colour of the flowers. In rich ground, 
 
CAPERCALLIE. 
 
 CAPITAL. 
 
 they are deep and beautiful blue ; in poor 
 soils, they will become reddish, white, or 
 very pale blue. An infusion of the leaves, 
 sharpened with a few drops of spirit of 
 vitriol, and sweetened with honey, makes 
 an admirable gargle for sore throats; but 
 it is in the acid, not the herb, which is bene- 
 ficial. The plant is by many people known 
 by the name of Throatwort. 
 
 CAPERCALLIE. (Tetrao Urogallus, 
 Linn.) The wood-grouse. This bird is also 
 known as the cock-of-the-wood and giant- 
 grouse, from his great size and gallant 
 bearing. Its name is also variously written 
 capercaly, capercalzie, &c. This bird was 
 formerly the noblest of the British feathered 
 game, and tolerably abundant in the pri- 
 meval forests of Scotland and of Ireland. Its 
 great size and beauty, however, have led to 
 its gradual extermination. Some attempts 
 have been recently made by Sir T. F. Bux- 
 ton and other gentlemen to re-introduce 
 this species of grouse by importing birds 
 from Sweden, and it is to be hoped they 
 will succeed in again naturalising and pro- 
 pagating the species ; but the bird is ex- 
 tremely shy, and shuns the abode of men. 
 Sir T. F. Buxton has presented the Mar- 
 quis of Breadalbane with as many as 
 thirteen cock capercallies and twenty-nine 
 hens. Bewick states the capercallie to 
 be as large as a turkey; viz. about 2 feet 
 9 inches in length, weight from 12 to 
 15 lbs. Bill very strong, convex, of a horn 
 colour. Over each eye, a naked skin of a 
 bright red colour ; eyes hazel ; general 
 plumage black mixed with grey ; legs very 
 stout, covered with brown feathers. Female 
 considerably less than the male, and differs 
 greatly in colour; throat red; breast pale 
 orange ; belly barred with orange and black ; 
 back and wings mottled with reddish brown ; 
 tail deep rust colour. Eggs 8 to 16. 
 
 The cock has a peculiar crow, which he 
 utters chiefly in the morning ; and which is 
 so loud, as to be heard at the distance of 
 many miles. (Blaine's Enc. JRur. Sports, 
 pp. 810—816.) 
 
 CAPES. A provincial word applied to 
 the ears of corn broken off, either wholly or 
 in part, in thrashing ; as well as to the grain 
 to which the chaff adheres. 
 
 CAPITAL. (Lat. capitalis.) The ca- 
 pital required by a farmer, to a great ex- 
 tent, varies with the soil and country in 
 which he is placed ; all* practical observa- 
 tions in this place, therefore, can only be of 
 ;i general nature. The first and best direc- 
 tion, however, to a farmer must be, "do not 
 take more land than your capital will en- 
 able you to farm well. ' For this purpose, 
 the observations of the author of the British 
 Husbandry, vol. i. p. 41., may very well be 
 286 
 
 introduced in this place. " Most farmers 
 are anxious for large occupations, and many 
 are thus betrayed into the error of renting 
 a greater quantity of ground than they haye 
 the means of managing to advantage ; some, 
 in the delusive hope of acquiring those 
 means by future savings ; others, from the 
 vanity of holding more land than their 
 neighbours : hence arises deficiency of stock, 
 imperfect tillage, and scanty crops ; with all 
 the consequent train of rent in arrear, wages 
 ill-paid, and debts unsatisfied — distress, duns, 
 and final ruin. Whereas, he who is pru- 
 dently content to commence with only such 
 a number of acres as he has the power of 
 cultivating with proper effect, is certain of 
 obtaining the full return from the soil ; 
 while, not being burthened with more land " 
 than he can profitably employ, his engage- 
 ments are within his means, and thus, while 
 enjoying present ease of mind, he lays the 
 surest foundation for his future prosperity." 
 And, as it is well observed (Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. iii. p. 452.), " Or if, to save ap- 
 pearances, he borrows money to complete 
 his necessary arrangements, his condition is 
 not improved ; because the interest he will 
 have to pay for the borrowed money will 
 operate as an additional yearly rent, and 
 thus take from him all the advantages which 
 he was led to expect he would enjoy under 
 a moderate one." Under the head Ap- 
 praisement will be found the amount of 
 the valuation of the crops, and other things 
 commonly paid by the incoming to the 
 outgoing tenant on a farm of 309 acres, 
 amounting to 1702Z. This, however, varies 
 considerably according to the Custom of 
 Counties, which see. To this must be 
 added the expenses incurred of stocking the 
 farm for the first year. Wages, seed, keep 
 of family, rent, taxes, rates, &c. On a farm 
 of 500 acres, Professor Low (Prac. Agr. p. 
 674.) estimates the capital required for the 
 first year to be (in Scotland) — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1. Implements - - 470 4 4 
 
 2. Live stock - - - 1423 15 0 
 
 3. Seeds - - - 273 • 0 0 
 
 4. Manure - 516 10 0 
 
 5. Labour, &c. - - 528 17 6 
 
 6. Maintenance of horses - 243 7 11 
 
 7. Burdens - - - 31 15 9 
 
 F urn i tare of house 
 Family expenses, l£ years 
 
 From this he deducts for pro- 
 duce sold in this time 
 
 Required net capital - 
 or 51. 13s. %\d. per acre. In this calculation, 
 he supposes that no rent is paid till the 
 crop is reaped. The estimate for the capital 
 
 3488 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 200 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 150 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 3838 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 995 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 12842 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
CAPO. 
 
 required for a Scotch farm of 500 acres (al- 
 lowing nothing for payments to outgoing 
 tenant) is, according to a statement in the 
 Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 475., as 
 follows : — 
 
 £ s.d. 
 
 Value of implements for farm work - - 228 2 2 
 _ do. live stock - - 43 19 4 
 
 — do. barn work 17 14 4 
 
 — Thrashing-machine - - - 170 0 0 
 
 — Horses 450 0 0 
 
 — Cattle 511 0 0 
 
 — Sheep 420 0 0 
 
 _ Other live stock - ... 7 0 0 
 _ Grass seeds - - - - 87 10 0 
 
 _ Tares 680 
 
 _ Peas 4 0 0 
 
 _ Turnips 12 15 0 
 
 _ Potatoes 2 16 0 
 
 _ Corn 215 6 3 
 
 _ Labour 865 6 10 
 
 3041 17 11 
 
 Rent 500 acres, at 40s. ... 1000 0 0 
 4041 17 11 
 
 From which, however, deduct the value of 
 the following articles, derived from the 
 farm before the period of paying the se- 
 cond half year's rent, viz. 
 Profit on 20 fat cattle, 5Z. each - -£"100 
 Wintering 20 kyloes for 24 weeks, at 
 
 2s. 6rf. per week - - 30 
 Sold 30 dinmots and gewmers at 25s. 
 
 each, and 20 draft ewes at 30s. each 13C 
 Profit on turniping 120 hogs 24 weeks, 
 
 at 3d. per head per week 36 
 Sold 14 pigs - - - 14 
 
 Produce of 4 cows over what required 
 
 by family - - - 10 
 
 Wool sold - - - 152 
 
 472 0 0 
 
 3569 17 11 
 
 At p. 658. of Low's Prac. Agr. will be 
 found a catalogue of the various implements 
 of a farm of 500 acres, from a thrashing 
 machine worth 100Z. to a grease-pot valued at 
 Is. 6c?., amounting altogether to 474Z. 4s. 4d. 
 And this includes hardly a single article that 
 the young farmer can well do without. As 
 a general rule on the chalks of Hampshire, 
 they deem 51. per acre to be a sufficient ca- 
 pital ; but on some of the rich highly culti- 
 vated soils of Surrey, Kent, and Essex, 101. 
 per arable acre is not too much. Grazing 
 farms require less in proportion than arable 
 lands. 
 
 CAPO. A term used in Cheshire, and 
 some other counties, to signify a working- 
 horse. . 
 
 CAPON". (Sax. capun ; Fr. chapon ; from 
 Lat. capo.) A cock which has been cas- 
 trated as soon as left by the hen, or as soon 
 as he began to crow. Capons are useful to 
 lead chickens, ducklings, young turkeys, 
 pheasants, or partridges, as they do it better 
 than hens. 
 
 CAPONTAIL GRASS. See Fescue. 
 
 CAPILLARY VESSELS OF VEGE- 
 TABLES. The fine hair-like vessels that 
 assist in the absorption and circulation of 
 the juices of plants. 
 
 CAPS. A term applied to the head 
 sheaves of corn-shocks. 
 
 CAPSICUM. (Supposed either from «t- 
 287 
 
 CAPSICUM. 
 
 7rrw, 7nordeo, to bite ; or from capsa, a chest.) 
 Capsicum annuum. Of this there are five 
 varieties. 1 . Long-podded. 2. Heart-shaped. 
 3. Short-podded. 4. Angular-podded. 5. 
 Round short-podded. Of the Capsicum cera- 
 siforme there are three varieties. 1 . Cherry- 
 shaped. 2. Bell-shaped, or Ox-heart. 3. 
 Yellow -podded. The soil best suited for 
 them is a rich, moist, mouldy loam, rather 
 inclining to lightness than tenacity. They 
 must have the shelter of a reed fence or 
 wall, but fully open on the southward to 
 the sun, consequently they are generally 
 placed within the enclosure erected for the 
 hot-bed department. They are propagated 
 by seed, which must be sown towards the 
 end of March, or beginning of April, in a 
 hot-bed of moderate size, with the shelter of 
 a frame ; but in default of a stove, hot-bed, 
 or frame, they may be raised under hand- 
 glasses on a warm border; the sowing, 
 however, being deferred until settled warm 
 weather in May. The seed must be covered 
 a quarter of an inch deep with mould. 
 When the plants have attained six leaves, 
 in about a month after sowing, they must 
 be thinned to four inches apart, and those re- 
 moved should be planted also in a moderate 
 hot-bed at a similar distance, being shaded 
 from the meridian sun, and moderately 
 watered until they have taken root. During 
 the whole of their continuance beneath a 
 frame, air must be admitted as freely as is 
 possibly allowable, to prevent their being- 
 drawn and weakened ; and as May advances, 
 they must be accustomed gradually to an un- 
 covered situation, by lengthened absence of 
 the glasses during the day, and by degrees 
 leaving them open of an evening ; this pre- 
 pares them for their final removal, at the 
 close of that month, or early in J une. Those 
 raised in a border beneath hand-glasses 
 must also be thinned as directed above, and 
 those removed planted in a similar situation, 
 or, in default of hand-glasses, beneath a 
 paper frame or matting. The same may be 
 adopted for the plants from the hot-beds, if 
 all other conveniences are wanting. When 
 planted out finally, they are to be set two 
 feet asunder, screened from the sun, and 
 watered every other evening until they have 
 taken root. The watering may be con- 
 tinued occasionally in dry weather, through- 
 out their growth, which greatly improves 
 their vigour, and the fineness of the fruit. 
 They flower during July or the beginning 
 of August, and the pods are ready to be 
 gathered for pickling at the close of this 
 last month, or early in September. For the 
 production of seed, a plant bearing some of 
 the forwardest and finest fruit, of each va- 
 riety, and grown as far apart as may be, 
 must be preserved, that it may be ripe 
 
CAR. 
 
 CARBON. 
 
 "before the frosts commence, the first of 
 which usually kills the plants. When com- 
 pletely ripe, the pods are cut and hung up 
 in the sun, or in a warm room, until com- 
 pletely dry, in which state they are kept 
 until the seed is wanted for sowing. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 The capsicum loses some of its aromatic 
 odour by drying, its taste, both recent and 
 dry, is hot and acrid, depending on a fixed 
 acrid oil, not volatile and distinct from that 
 oil which gives the odour to the fresh pod. 
 Capsicum is used as a condiment in cookery ; 
 it is more excitant than pepper; but its 
 effects are less permanent. A dessert spoon- 
 ful of dried capsicum powdered, and infused 
 in eight ounces of boiling water, strained 
 and acidulated with fifty drops of muriatic 
 acid, forms an excellent gargle in malignant 
 or putrid sore throats. 
 
 CAR. A provincial word applied to any 
 low marshy ground or fen, used in contra- 
 distinction to ing, which implies being pas- 
 tured. 
 
 CARAWAY, or CARRAWAY. (Fr. 
 and It. carvi ; Lat. carum carui.) A natu- 
 ralized biennial plant, with a taper root 
 like a parsnip, but much smaller; stem 
 about two feet high, growing wild in 
 meadows and pastures. This plant is ex- 
 tensively cultivated in several parts of 
 Essex and some other counties, for the 
 sake of its seeds, which are in daily use as a 
 grateful and wholesome aromatic, and are 
 largely consumed in confectionary and me- 
 dicinal preparations ; but its root was for- 
 merly much esteemed when boiled, and it is 
 not easy to account for its falling into disuse. 
 The seeds, which are greyish brown, and 
 ribbed, are too well known to need description. 
 They should be chosen large, new, of a good 
 colour, not dusty, and of a strong agreeable 
 smell. Caraway is sometimes sowed with 
 coriander and teasel, and harvested the 
 second year. The produce of this seed has 
 often been very great ; even as much as 
 20 cwt. per acre, which always finds a 
 market in London. On account of their 
 aromatic smell, and warm pungent taste, 
 the seeds of caraway may be classed among 
 the first stomachics and carminatives of our 
 climate. To persons afflicted with flatu- 
 lency, and liable to colic, if administered in 
 proper quantities, they generally afford con- 
 siderable relief. Their virtue depends on a 
 volatile oil, which is procured in a separate 
 state, by distillation with water. The water 
 retains some of the oil, and is used as a 
 vehicle for other medicines. 
 
 Caraway delights in a deep, rich, moist 
 loam. The ground for this, as well as other 
 deep-rooting plants, is advantageously dug 
 two spades deep. An open situation is most 
 288 
 
 suitable to it; but in extensive orchards, 
 where the trees are far apart, it may be 
 grown with success. It is propagated by 
 seed, which may be sown in March or April, 
 either broadcast and raked in, or in drills" 
 six inches apart ; in either case being per- 
 formed thin, and buried about half an inch 
 deep. When well distinguishable, the plants 
 must be thinned to six inches apart, and 
 carefully hoed. The hoeing must be several 
 times repeated in the early stages of their 
 growth, to extirpate the weeds, which at a 
 later period cannot be conveniently got at. 
 The plants flower in June, and ripen their 
 seed at the close of summer. (G. W. John- 
 son's Kitch. Gard. ; English Flora, vol. ii. 
 p. 86. ; M'CullocKs Com. Diet. ; WillicKs 
 Dom. Encyc. ; Brande's Diet. Science.) 
 
 CARBERRY. A provincial name, in 
 some places, for the gooseberry. 
 
 CARBON. (Fr. carbone; Lat. carlo.) 
 A hitherto undecompounded combustible 
 body, which enters into the composition, 
 in some form or other, of all vegetable sub- 
 stances. It is readily obtained in the form 
 of charcoal by heating wood (and any kind 
 of wood will answer the purpose) red hot, 
 covered with sand, in a crucible. The cover- 
 ing with sand is added to prevent the wood 
 undergoing combustion by coming in con- 
 tact with the atmosphere. In this state, 
 when reduced to powder, charcoal consti- 
 tutes an excellent manure for most soils, 
 either when applied by itself, or mixed with 
 decomposing animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances. In such cases it absorbs a con- 
 siderable volume of the gases which such 
 substances constantly emit. Thus, reckon- 
 ing the bulk of the charcoal to be 1, it 
 absorbs of 
 
 Volumes. 
 
 Ammoniacal gas - - 90 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen - - 55 
 
 Carbonic acid gas - - 35 
 
 When burnt, charcoal unites with the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere, and forms, in the state of 
 carbonic acid gas, a very important portion 
 of the gases required by all plants for their 
 healthy vegetation. (See Gases, their Use 
 to Vegetation.) Carbon constitutes about 
 42-47 per cent, in sugar, 41*906 per cent, in 
 gum, 43*55 per cent, in wheat starch, 52*58 
 per cent, in the wood of the oak, and 51*45 
 in that of the beech ; 46*83 in pure acetic 
 acid or vinegar, 36*167 in tartaric acid, and 
 41*369 in the citric. In the state of c ar- 
 bonic acid gas, and in various organic 
 matters, it is found in all cultivated soils, 
 in all waters, and in the atmosphere ; and 
 in each situation, as will be more particu- 
 larly described under the head Cases, it 
 is absorbed by and becomes the food of 
 plants. 
 
CARBONATES. 
 
 CARDOON. 
 
 CARBONATES. A peculiar class of 
 salts formed by the combination of carbonic 
 acid gas with various earths, alkalies, and 
 metallic oxides. The composition of those 
 'most commonly met with by the farmer is 
 as follows : — 
 
 Acid. Base. 
 
 Carbonate of lime, chalk, lime- 
 stone, &c. - - 66-2 33-8 
 Carbonate of magnesia - - 68*75 31*25 
 Bicarbonate of potash - - 46-19 53-81 
 Carbonate of soda - - 40-14 59-86 
 Carbonate of ammonia - - 56*41 43 59 
 
 CARBONIC ACID GAS. A peculiar 
 gas, the same as that emitted by fermenting 
 beer, or other liquors ; it is inhaled by, and 
 its carbon is the food of, plants. It is com- 
 posed of carbon 72'73, oxygen 27*27. See 
 Gases, their Use to Vegetation. 
 
 It is important to know, that carbonic 
 acid gas is poisonous, if it be attempted to 
 be breathed. If, for example, a person 
 descends into a tun where fermented liquor 
 occupies the bottom, and an atmosphere of 
 carbonic acid gas floating over it ; as soon 
 as his mouth is immersed in it, he is suf- 
 focated in the same manner as if his mouth 
 and nostrils were closed. He dies from the 
 defect of atmospheric air in the lungs, and 
 the circulation of black blood through the 
 brain. This is the manner also in which 
 death occurs when persons descend into old 
 wells and cellars that have been long closed. 
 When the gas is diluted with air, as for in- 
 stance, when a person dies by burning char- 
 coal in a chafing-dish in a bed-room, he is 
 not suffocated ; but he dies from the sedative 
 influence of the diluted carbonic acid, which 
 is breathed, on the nervous system. When 
 such accidents happen, persons should not 
 venture to bring out the bodies, until a 
 quantity of pure lime mixed with water to 
 the thickness of milk, has been thrown into 
 the tun, well, or cellar ; or in the event of 
 death from burning charcoal, until a current 
 of air has been sent through the apartment. 
 The bodies should be laid on their backs, 
 with the heads moderately elevated; cold 
 water dashed on the chest, and frictions 
 employed over the whole body ; and the 
 aid of a medical practitioner quickly pro- 
 cured. 
 
 CARCASE, usually written CARCASS. 
 (Fr. carquasse : Ital. carcasso ; Span, carcai- 
 sum ; low Lat. carcaissum.) A term given 
 to the body of the horse and of some other 
 animals. 
 
 CARDINAL, SCARLET. (Lohelia 
 cardinalis.) An herbaceous hardy plant, 
 a native of Virginia. It blows its scarlet 
 flowers in July, and again in October. It 
 loves bog earth and shade, and the root 
 should be parted every spring. Ripen the 
 289 
 
 flower intended for seed under a glass* hung 
 over it, for it rarely ripens in this climate 
 without assistance. 
 
 CARDOON, or CHARDON. (Span. 
 cardo, an artichoke ; Lat. Cynara Cardun- 
 culus.) A kind of wild artichoke, which is 
 principally confined to garden culture, as it 
 has not yet been employed as an article of 
 food for any sort of live stock. 
 
 The stalks of the inner leaves, when ren- 
 dered tender by blanching, are used in stews, 
 soups, and salads. A light rich soil is most 
 suitable to this vegetable, dug deep and well 
 pulverized. The situation must be open, 
 and free from trees, for, like the artichoke, 
 it is impatient of confinement. It is propa- 
 gated by seed, which may be sown at the 
 close of March ; but, for the main crop, not 
 until the early part of April ; those plants 
 raised from earlier sowings being apt to run 
 at the close of autumn : for a late crop, a 
 sowing may be performed in June. The 
 best practice is to sow in patches of three 
 or four rows, four feet apart each way, to be 
 thinned finally to one in each place, the 
 weakest being removed. The seedlings are 
 nearly a month in appearing. If, however, 
 they are raised in a seed-bed, they will be 
 ready for transplanting in about eight or 
 ten weeks from the time of sowing, and 
 must be set at similar distances as are spe- 
 cified above. The plants of the first sowing 
 are generally three weeks before they mfike 
 their appearance ; those from the later ones, 
 about two. If, after a lapse of these times, 
 they do not appear, it should be ascertained 
 if the seed is decayed, and in that case the 
 sowing may be renewed. The seed must be 
 sown rather thin, and covered with about half 
 an inch depth of mould. When about a month 
 old, the seedlings, if too crowded, must be 
 thinned to four inches apart ; and those re- 
 moved may be pricked out at a similar dis- 
 tance, if there is any deficiency of plants. 
 When of the age sufficient for their removal, 
 they must be taken up carefully, and the 
 long straggling leaves removed. The bed 
 for their reception must be dug well and 
 laid out in trenches as for celery, or a hollow 
 sunk for each plant ; but as they are liable 
 to suffer from excessive wet, the best mode 
 is to plant on the surface, and form the ne- 
 cessary earthing in the form of a tumulus. 
 Water must be applied abundantly at the 
 time of planting as well as subsequently, 
 until they are established ; and also in Au- 
 gust, if dry weather occurs, regularly every 
 other night, as this is found to prevent their 
 running to seed. The only other necessary 
 point to be attended to is, that they may be 
 kept free from weeds during every stage of 
 their growth. When advanced to about 
 eighteen inches in height, which, according 
 
CAREX. 
 
 CARPET- WAY. 
 
 to the time of sowing, will be in August, 
 and thence to October, the leaves must be 
 closed together by encircling them with a 
 hay-band, and earth placed round each 
 plant, a dry day being selected for perform- 
 ing it. As they continue to grow, fresh 
 bands and earth must be constantly applied, 
 until they are blanched to the height of two 
 feet, or about two thirds of their stems. 
 They will be fit for use in eight or ten weeks 
 after the earthing first commences. Care 
 must be had in earthing them up, to prevent 
 the earth falling in between the leaves, which 
 is liable to induce decay. The surface of 
 the soil should likewise be beaten smooth, 
 to throw off the rain. In severe weather 
 their tops should be covered with litter, it 
 being removed as invariably in mild weather : 
 by this treatment, they may be preserved 
 in a serviceable state throughout the winter. 
 For the production of seed, which in this 
 country seldom comes to maturity except in 
 dry seasons, a few plants should be set in 
 a sheltered situation, of the April sowing ; 
 of course not earthed up, but allowed 
 the shelter of mats or litter in frosty wea- 
 ther. In the spring, the ground may be 
 dug round them to destroy weeds, as well 
 as to encourage the growth of the roots. 
 The flowers make their appearance about 
 the beginning of July, and the seed is ripe 
 in September. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden.) 
 
 CAREX. See Sedge. 
 
 CARLICK. A provincial term applied 
 in some places to charlock. 
 
 CARLINE THISTLE. See Thistle. 
 
 CARNATION, or CLOVE PINK. (Lat. 
 carnes ; Dianthus Caryophyllus.) A beautiful 
 and odoriferous perennial, blowing in July 
 and August, and cultivated in beds or in 
 pots. The wild D. Caryophyllus is the origin 
 of our fine garden carnations. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 287.) There are three 
 distinct varieties ; the flake, the bizarre, and 
 the picotee. The flake has two colours 
 only, with large stripes ; the bizarre is va- 
 riegated with irregular stripes and spots, 
 of not less than three colours; and the picotee 
 has a white ground, spotted with every va- 
 riety of scarlet, red, purple, and pink. They 
 love a light, rich earth mixed with sea sand, 
 and never bloom very handsomely without 
 a proportion of the latter. Carnations are 
 propagated by layers, pipings, and from seed, 
 which produce new sorts. There is an im- 
 mense collection of fine prize carnations, well 
 known to the public, too lengthy to insert 
 here ; but they are easily procured at a rea- 
 sonable price. If you raise flowers from 
 seed, sow it in pots of light earth in April ; 
 cover the seed very lightly with mould fil- 
 tered through the fingers ; shade the seedlings 
 290 
 
 from the sun, and prick them out when each 
 seedling has six leaves. Pot or plant for 
 blowing in autumn. They will not blow 
 well if moved in the spring. Carnations 
 must be sheltered from excessive rains and 
 hard frosts, and they should be placed in 
 warm sunny borders. 
 
 CARNATION GRASS. In agriculture, 
 a term applied to some grasses, as the hair 
 grass (Aira), probably from their having 
 this kind of colour in their flowers. Any 
 coarse species of carex is so named in the 
 north of England and Scotland. 
 
 CARP. (Fr. carpe.) The common carp 
 (Cyprinus Carpio, L.) appears to be a native 
 of the lakes, ponds, and some of the large 
 rivers of the southern part of Europe. There 
 are more than thirty known species, of which 
 at least a dozen are objects of the angler's 
 pursuit. The length of the fish is twelve to fif- 
 teen or sixteen inches ; but in warmer climates 
 it often arrives at the length of three or four 
 feet, and to the weight of thirty or even forty 
 pounds. Colour yellowish olive ; head large ; 
 scales large, rounded, and very distinct. Food, 
 worms and water insects. The carp is an 
 extremely prolific fish, and attains to a very 
 great age. Angling for carp is from Fe- 
 bruary to end of September ; in stagnant 
 waters, such as meres, ponds, canal basins, 
 &c, they seldom take a bait well until April. 
 Quaint old Isaac Walton denominates the 
 carp, " the queen of rivers ; a stately, a good, 
 and a very subtil fish." The baits for carp 
 are worms, larvae, grain, and pastes. In the 
 early summer months, the worm may be va- 
 ried with caddies, caterpillars, beetles, grass- 
 hoppers, wasp-grubs, and turnip-worms. 
 To these, in the order of season, succeed 
 gentles. Fruit and vegetables have been 
 sometimes employed, but not successfully ; a 
 sweet paste is, however, strongly recom- 
 mended. (Blaine's Encyc. of Rural Sports, 
 pp. 1064-7. ; Walton's and Cotton's Angler, 
 p. 142.) 
 
 CARPET. (Dutch, karpet; Ital. carpet- 
 ta.) A covering for floors, &c, manufac- 
 tured of wool, or other materials, worked 
 with the needle or by the loom. Carpets are 
 generally composed of linen and worsted, 
 but the Kidderminster or Scotch carpets are 
 entirely fabricated of wool. Persian and 
 Turkish carpets are the most esteemed. 
 In England carpets are principally manu- 
 factured at Kidderminster, Wilton, Ciren- 
 cester, Worcester, Axminster, &c; and in 
 Scotland at Kilmarnock. Those made at 
 Axminster are believed to be very little, 
 if any thing, inferior to those of Persia 
 and Turkey. (M i Culloch?s Com. Diet ; 
 WillicJis Dom. Encyc. ; Brande's Diet, of 
 Science?) 
 
 CARPET- WAY. A green strip, border, 
 
CARRAWAY. 
 
 CARROT, GARDEN. 
 
 or pathway of turf, left unploughed in an 
 arable field. 
 
 CARRAWAY. See Caraway. 
 
 CARRIAGE. (Fr. cariage.) A general 
 name applied to carts, waggons, and other 
 vehicles, employed in conveying passengers, 
 goods, merchandize, &c. from one place to 
 another, and which are usually constructed 
 with two or four wheels. Wheel carriages 
 first came into use about 1381 ; they were 
 called ivhirlicotes, and were little better than 
 litters or cots (cotes) placed upon wheels. 
 
 Carriage, in irrigation, is a conduit 
 made of timber or brick : if the latter, an 
 arch is turned over the stream that runs 
 under it, and the sides bricked up ; if the 
 former, which it commonly is, it is con- 
 structed with a bottom and two sides, as 
 wide and as high as the main it lies in. It 
 must be made very strong, close, and well- 
 jointed. Its use is to convey the water in 
 one main over another which runs at right 
 angles with it ; its depth and breadth are of 
 the same dimensions with the main it belongs 
 to ; its length is in proportion to the breadth 
 of the main it crosses. It is the most ex- 
 pensive conveyance belonging to the irrigat- 
 ing of land. 
 
 CARRIAGE DRAIN. See Drains. 
 
 CARROT. (Fr. carote.) A well-known 
 annual or biennial root, common alike to 
 the field and the garden. The wild carrot, 
 from whence all those now commonly cul- 
 tivated came, is a native of England, found 
 chiefly on chalky hills. The kinds now pre- 
 ferred for field culture are the long red, the 
 Altringham, and the orange. It is a crop 
 which, for the heavier description of soils, 
 is becoming more and more cultivated in 
 this country ; for its produce is not only 
 large, but it can be grown on lands not 
 suited to turnip culture ; for although the 
 soils best adapted to it are deep sandy loams, 
 yet it can be grown successfully on sands 
 and peats. The carrot delights, however, 
 in a deep soil, and thus land intended for it 
 can hardly be ploughed too deep. It is 
 usual to trench plough or subsoil for it ; 
 and in Holland they are even at the pains 
 to deepen with the spade the furrows made 
 by the plough. It may be sown, like the 
 turnip, on ridges, by the drill or otherwise, 
 or broadcast. The seed should be of the 
 previous season's growth ; if mixed a fort- 
 night before sowing with two bushels of 
 sand or mould, kept wetted and turned over 
 once or twice, they will grow all the better 
 (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 70 — 299.) ; 
 and it keeps the seed from clinging together. 
 (Jour, of Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng. p. 40.) The 
 quantity proper to be sown per acre (April 
 is the best period) is two pounds by the 
 drill, and about five when sown broadcast. 
 291 
 
 The plants should be hoed out like turnips, 
 and dug up in October for storing ; but 
 they may be left in the ground if preferred, 
 and dug up as they are wanted. They may 
 be stored either in a building covered with 
 straw or haulm, or in pits piled in heaps 
 four feet deep. (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 287.) 
 The common produce is from 280 to 450 
 bushels per acre — 9000 lbs. ( Com. Board of 
 Agr. vol. vi. p. 141.) It is admirable food 
 for all kinds of stock. (Low. Agr. p. 326.) 
 Either the tops mown off green, which is 
 said not to injure the roots (Com. Board of 
 Agr. vol. v. p. 211.), or the roots, for horses, 
 half a bushel a day, sliced in chaff, is admi- 
 rable food. (Youatt on the Horse, p. 358. 
 392. 213. ; Brit. Huso. vol. i. p. 125.) 1000 
 parts of the carrot contain 98 of nutritive 
 matter. (Davy's Lect.) It should be well 
 manured with either farm-yard dung (20 
 cubic yards per acre) ; or pigeons' dung is ex- 
 cellent (Quar.Jour.ofAg. vol. v. p. 144.) ; or 
 a mixture of salt, 6a bushels, and soot 6a, 
 trenched in (Sinclair; Johnson on Salt, 31. 
 146. ; Rev. E. Cartwright, Com. Board of 
 Agr. vol. iv. p. 376.) ; or sea-weed trenched 
 'in fresh as collected from the shore (Quar. 
 Jour, of Agr. vol. vii. p. 268.) ; or turf trenched 
 in deep (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 191.) ; 
 or street sweepings, mixed with one third of 
 pigs' dung and 20 hogsheads of liquid ma- 
 nure. (Flem. Hush. 40.) The white or Bel- 
 gian carrot has been recently tried as a 
 field crop with considerable success ; Sir C. 
 Burrell having grown of this variety in 1 840, 
 " on a very indifferent -field," 1000 bushels 
 per acre (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iv. p. 464.) ; 
 Lord Ducie, 26 tons 3 cwt. ; and from 20 
 to 32 • tons by Mr. Harris ; and in Jersey 
 38 tons per acre. It is described in the 
 Report of the Yoxford Farmers' Club as 
 well adapted for strong or mixed soil lands, 
 as keeping well, and as excellent food for 
 horses. (Journ. of Royal Agr. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 42.) 
 
 CARROT, THE GARDEN. (Daucus 
 Carota ; as some imagine from Saiv, though 
 its taste is far from being pungent. Per- 
 haps from Sacrvc, on account of the thickness 
 of its root.) There are a considerable number 
 of varieties of the carrot, which are divided 
 by horticulturists into two families : those 
 with a regular fusiform root, which are 
 named long carrots; and those having one 
 that is nearly cylindrical, abruptly termi- 
 nating, but continuing with a long slender 
 tap-root, which are denominated horn carrots. 
 The first are employed for the main crops ; 
 the second, on account of their superior de- 
 licate flavour, are advantageously grown 
 for early use. They are likewise commonly 
 recommended for shallow soils. Horn car- 
 rots, — early red horn, common early horn, 
 u 2 
 
CARROT, GARDEN. 
 
 long horn : this last is the best for the sum- 
 mer crop. Long carrots, — white, yellow, 
 long yellow, long red, Chertsey or Surrey, 
 superb green-topped or Altringham : the two 
 last are the best for main crops. Carrots 
 should have a warm, light, sandy, fertile soil, 
 dug full two spades deep, as they require to 
 be deeper than any other culinary vegetable. 
 With the bottom spit it is a good practice 
 to turn in a little well-decayed manure ; 
 but no general application of it to the sur- 
 face should be allowed in the year they 
 are sown. A spot should be allotted them 
 which has been made rich for the growth of 
 crops in the previous year, or else purposely 
 prepared by manuring and trenching in the 
 preceding autumn. The fresh application 
 of manure is liable to cause their growing 
 forked, and to expend themselves in fibres, 
 as well as to be worm-eaten. If, however, 
 the want of manure must be obviated at 
 the time of sowing, it should be used in a 
 highly putrescent state, and but in small 
 quantities, finely divided and well mixed 
 with the soil. If the soil is at all binding, 
 it should be well pulverized by digging very 
 small spits at a time, &c. Mr. Smith of 
 Keith Hall, N. B., recommends pigeons' 
 dung as the best manure for this crop : it 
 not only prevents the maggot, but causes 
 them to grow finer. He applies it in the 
 same proportion as is usually done of stable 
 manure. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 129.) Carrots are propagated by seed. The 
 first sowing for the production of plants to 
 draw whilst young should take place in a 
 moderate hotbed during January, and in a 
 warm border at the conclusion of February 
 or early in March. At the close of the last 
 month, or more preferably in the early part 
 of April, the main crop must be inserted ; 
 though, to avoid the maggot, it is even re- 
 commended not to do so until its close. In 
 May and July the sowing may be repeated 
 for production in autumn; and lastly, in 
 August, to stand through the winter, and 
 produce in early spring. For sowing, a 
 calm day should be taken advantage of ; 
 and, previous to commencing, the seeds 
 should be separated by rubbing them be- 
 tween the hands, with the admixture of a 
 little sand ; otherwise, by reason of their 
 adhering by the hairs that surround their 
 edges, they are clotted together, and cannot 
 be sown regular. The surface of the bed 
 should likewise be laid smooth ; otherwise, 
 in raking it, the seed will be drawn together 
 in similar heaps. To avoid this, before raking, 
 it may be gently trod in. The seed should 
 be sown thin, and the beds not more than 
 four feet wide, for the convenience of after- 
 cultivation. The larger weeds must be 
 continually removed by hand ; and when 
 292 
 
 the plants are seven or eight weeks old, or 
 when they have got four leaves two or three 
 inches long, they should be thinned ; those 
 intended for drawing young to four or five 
 inches apart, and those to attain their full 
 growth to eight or ten ; at the same time, 
 the ground must be small-hoed, which ope- 
 ration should be regularly performed every 
 three or four weeks, until the growth of the 
 plants becomes an effectual hindrance to the 
 growth of the weeds. The crop to stand 
 through the winter should, in frosty weather, 
 be sheltered with a covering of litter, as, if 
 frost occurs with much severity, it often de- 
 stroys them. The hotbed for the first sowing 
 of the year must be moderate, and earthed 
 about sixteen inches deep ; two or three • 
 linings of hot dung, as the heat decreases, 
 will be sufficient to bring them to a state 
 fit for use. These are the first in production, 
 but are closely followed by those that have 
 withstood the winter. The temperature 
 must never exceed 70°, or fall lower than 
 65° : if it rises higher, it is a certain cause 
 of weakness ; if lower, it checks the advance 
 of the root. They need not be thinned to 
 more than three inches apart. 
 
 At the close of October, or early in No- 
 vember, as soon as the leaves change colour, 
 the main crop may be dug up, and laid in 
 alternate layers, with sand, in a dry out- 
 house ; previous to doing which, the tops, 
 and any adhering earth, must be removed. 
 A dry day should always be chosen for taking 
 them up. 
 
 For the production of seed, it is by much 
 the best practice to leave some where raised. 
 If, however, this is impracticable, some of 
 the finest and most perfect roots should be 
 selected, and their tops not cut so close as 
 those for storing ; these likewise must be 
 placed in sand until February or March, 
 though some gardeners recommend October 
 or November, then to be planted out two 
 feet asunder in a stiff loamy soil. Those 
 left where grown, or those planted at the 
 close of autumn, must, during frosts, have 
 the protection of litter ; it being invariably 
 removed, however, during mild weather. 
 As the seed ripens in August, which is known 
 by its turning brown, about the end of Au- 
 gust each umbel should be cut ; for if it is 
 waited for until the whole plant decays, 
 much of the seed is often lost during stormy 
 weather. It must be thoroughly dried by 
 exposure to the sun and air, before it is 
 rubbed out for storing. For sowing, the 
 seed should always be of the previous 
 year's growth ; if it is more than two years 
 old, it will not vegetate at all. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) The boiled 
 carrot forms a good poultice in foul and 
 cancerous ulcers. 
 
CARROT, WILD. 
 
 CART. 
 
 CARROT, WILD. (Daucus Carota.) This 
 common plant is abundant in pastures, and 
 about our hedges, in a gravelly soil. It is a 
 biennial plant, flowering in June and July. 
 Its root is small, slender, aromatic, and sweet- 
 ish. It grows two feet high, branched, erect, 
 leafy ; the stalks are firm and striated ; the 
 leaves are divided into fine and numerous 
 partitions, of a pale green colour, being also 
 hairy. The flowers are in large umbels, 
 with large, pinnatifid involucres, and undi- 
 vided involucels, small and white, except the 
 central flower, which is red ; and they are 
 succeeded by rough seeds. This is one of 
 those plants in which we are able to perceive 
 design. The seeds require to be protected, 
 to produce which all the flower- stalks be- 
 come incurvated, making the umbel hollow, 
 or giving it the aspect of a cup or nest. The 
 seed is medicinally used ; it is a powerful 
 diuretic. An infusion of the seeds in white 
 wine is very restorative in hysterical dis- 
 orders. 
 
 CARRUCAGE. (From caruca, an old 
 name for the plough.) In husbandry, de- 
 notes the ploughing of ground, either ordi- 
 nary, as for grain, hemp, flax ; or extra- 
 ordinary, as for woad, dyer's weed, rape- 
 seed, &c. 
 
 CARRUSATE. A term that anciently 
 denoted the quantity of arable land capable 
 of being tilled in one year with one plough. 
 
 CARRYING. A term used in horse- 
 manship. A horse is said to carry low, when, 
 having naturally an ill-shaped neck, he 
 lowers his head too much. This fault may 
 be remedied by a proper bridle. A horse 
 is said to carry well, when his neck is 
 raised or arched, and he holds his head 
 high and firm, without constraint. Carry- 
 ing in the wind, is applied to horses which 
 frequently toss their noses as high as their 
 ears, and do not carry their heads hand- 
 somely. 
 
 CARSE. A provincial term applied to 
 such lands as lie in the hollows near large 
 rivers or estuaries of the sea, and have a 
 deep rich soil. The carse of Gowrie, in 
 Scotland, yields the heaviest crops of grain 
 north of the Tweed. Such lands are either 
 of the deep clayey loamy kind, or alluvial 
 soils in a state of aration. 
 
 CART. A vehicle constructed with two 
 or more wheels, and drawn by one or more 
 horses. Half a century since, Lord Robert 
 Seymour advocated the cause of the single- 
 horse cart : he observed, that the advantages 
 of single-horse carts are universally admitted, 
 wherever they have been attentively com- 
 pared with carriages of any other description. 
 By his own observation he was led to think 
 that a horse, when he acts singly, will do 
 half as much more work as when he acts in 
 293 
 
 conjunction with another ; that is to say, 
 that two horses will, separately, do as much 
 work as three conjunctively : this arises, he 
 believes, in the first place, from the single 
 horse being so near the load he draws ; and, 
 in the next place, from the point or line of 
 draught being so much below his breast — 
 it being usual to make the wheels of single- 
 horse carts very low. A horse harnessed 
 singly has nothing but his load to contend 
 with ; whereas, when he draws in con- 
 junction with another, he is generally em- 
 barrassed by some difference of rate, the 
 horse behind or before him being quicker 
 or slower than himself ; he is likewise fre- 
 quently inconvenienced by the greater or 
 lesser height of his neighbour : these consi- 
 derations gave, he conceived, a decided ad- 
 vantage to the sort of cart he recommended. 
 If any other is wanted, that of the very 
 great ease with which a low cart is filled 
 may be added ; as a man may load it with 
 the help of a long-handled shovel or fork, 
 by means of his hands only : whereas, in 
 order to fill a higher cart, not only the man's 
 back, but his arms and whole person must 
 be exerted. To the use of single horses in 
 draught he has heard no objection, unless it 
 be the supposed necessity of additional dri- 
 vers created by it : the fact, however, is, that 
 it has no such effect ; for horses once in the 
 habit of going singly, will follow each other 
 as uniformly and as steadily as they do when 
 harnessed together ; and accordingly we 
 see, says he, on the most frequented roads 
 in Ireland, men conducting three, four, or 
 five single-horse carts each, without any in- 
 convenience to the passengers : such, like- 
 wise, is the case in this country, in which 
 lime and coal are generally carried. (Young's 
 Ann. of Agr. vol. xxvii. p. 337.) And he 
 might likewise have added, the single-horse 
 carts in some of the northern counties, where 
 one man manages two or three, and some- 
 times more. 
 
 The subject of carts has recently engaged 
 the attention of the Royal Agricultural So- 
 ciety of England. Mr. Baker of Glouces- 
 tershire says, in their Journ. vol. i. p. 429., 
 " My land is on a stiff clay ; my carts are 
 on six-inch wheels, and made to hold half 
 the quantity that my neighbours carry in 
 theirs. My land is hilly ; my carts generally 
 go with one horse ; but up hill, when loaded, 
 another is put on before, which comes down 
 the hill with the next returning cart. Thus, 
 on a level ground, with two carts and two, 
 or perhaps with three horses, I take out the 
 same quantity of dung that my neighbours 
 carry in their carts with never less than three 
 horses, and sometimes with four." And in 
 the Journ. of the Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng. 
 vol. ii. p. 73., is a very good article by Mr. 
 1 u 3 
 
CARTER. 
 
 CASTING. 
 
 Hannam of Burcott, illustrated by en- 
 gravings of the one-horse cart, and of a new- 
 one of his own construction. " The counties 
 of Cumberland and Westmoreland," he ob- 
 serves, " have universally and immemori- 
 ally used the one-horse cart. They have no 
 other carriage for any kind of agricultural 
 produce, and never is the addition of ano- 
 ther horse on any occasion seen." The 
 practice, apparently originating in economy, 
 has long since spread into Dumfriesshire ; 
 and, according to Mr. Wilkie of Udding- 
 ston, it is all but universal at the present 
 moment throughout the west of Scotland. 
 " My dung-carts," he adds, " are taken 
 from the improved Cumberland cart, which 
 measures 60 inches long X 47| inches wide 
 X 17 inches deep = 1 cubic yard = 21 
 bushels ; and it tilts with a spring key-stick, 
 which adjusts itself as the horse moves for- 
 ward ; the wheels are about 4 feet 6 inches 
 high, and are set so far apart as to conveni- 
 ently span two 27-inch ridges ; it weighs 
 8 cwt." There are a variety of carts peculiar 
 to different counties, most of which are de- 
 scribed, and drawings given, in Brit. Husb. 
 vol. i. p. 1 59. ; from the heavy one-horse cart 
 of the vicinity of London, to the light simple 
 Irish or Yarmouth car, as well as the im- 
 proved car first introduced into Leicester- 
 shire by Bakewell. 
 
 CARTER. An inferior sort of farm ser- 
 vant, who has the care of driving and fod- 
 dering the team. He should always be chosen 
 as steady, regular, sober, and trustworthy 
 as possible, and be perfectly gentle and hu- 
 mane in his disposition. It is of great im- 
 portance to the farmer to have a carter 
 with these qualifications ; for otherwise his 
 horses may be ill-treated, neglected, over- 
 worked, or overfed, and much fodder wasted. 
 (Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 170.) Leonard Mas- 
 cal, nearly two centuries since, told the 
 carter of his day to " have patience in 
 moderate useing of his horses; and at all 
 other times he ought to bear a love alwayes 
 to his cattel, that his cattel may love him, 
 not fearing- him too much ; let him never 
 use to beat them with the stock of his 
 whip, but whip them with the lasb, and use 
 them to the sound thereof, and yet not often 
 for dulling of them," 
 
 CART HORSE. See Horse. 
 
 CART LADDER. A kind of rack, 
 placed occasionally at the head and tail of a 
 cart, to make it hold a larger quantity of 
 hay, straw, &c. 
 
 CART LODGE. A small outhouse for 
 sheltering carts from the weather. Farmers 
 should be very careful to place their carts, 
 &c. under proper shelter, when out of use, 
 as they will last much longer by this means 
 than if left exposed in the yard to the effects 
 294 
 
 of the weather ; for, as they are thus some- 
 times wet, and sometimes dry, they soon 
 rot, and become unfit for use. The dust 
 and dirt should also be constantly washed 
 off before they are laid up. There are 
 some excellent observations on the necessity 
 of care in the preservation of agricultural 
 implements by Mr. Crosskill of Beverley. 
 (Journ. of Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 150.) 
 He advises that the implements should all be 
 placed under the care of one workman on 
 the farm, who should be encouraged to feel 
 a pride in showing his master's implements 
 in fine order. 
 
 CART-SICK, or SINK. A term used 
 in some of the northern counties to signify 
 the rut, furrow, or channel made by the 
 wheels of the cart. 
 
 CARTWRIGHT, THE REV. ED- 
 MUND. An able and enthusiastic experi- 
 mental farmer and mechanical genius. 
 Born in Nottinghamshire in 1743, and died 
 at an advanced age in 1824. There are 
 various papers of his in the Communications 
 to the Board of Agriculture, and also upon 
 the mildew. (Johnson on Salt, p. 52.) He 
 was one of the early members of the Board 
 of Agriculture. 
 
 CARUE. A term signifying sour. Thus, 
 to carue, implies to grow sour, and is gene- 
 rally applied to cream. 
 
 CART'S CATTLE GAUGE. An in- 
 strument made in the form and on the 
 principle of a slider rule, for ascertaining 
 the weight of live cattle, which is indicated 
 in stones of 8 lbs. and 14 lbs. (See Brit. 
 Husb. vol. ii. foot note at p. 393.) 
 
 CASINGS. A provincial term, signifying 
 dried cow's dung, which is used in several 
 parts of the country for fuel. 
 
 CASK. A vessel of capacity, for holding 
 different sorts of liquids, or other matters. 
 See Barrel. 
 
 CAST. A term applied to a swarm or 
 flight of bees (see Bees) ; and to poultry 
 when they lose their feathers or moult. 
 It is also used to denote the changing of 
 the hair and hoofs of horses. Horses cast 
 or shed their hair at least once a year. 
 Every spring they cast the winter coat, and 
 gain a summer one ; and sometimes in the 
 end of autumn they put on their winter 
 hair, in case they have been ill-fed, curried, 
 or clothed, or kept in a cold stable. Oc- 
 casionally they cast their hoofs : when this 
 happens, let them be turned out into a pas- 
 ture. 
 
 CASTANEA VESCA. The sweet chest- 
 nut. See Chestnut. 
 
 CASTING. The operation of throwing 
 a horse down, which should be performed 
 with great care on straw. Take a long rope, 
 double it, and cast a knot a yard from the 
 
CASTING A COLT. 
 
 CAT'S-EAR. 
 
 bow ; put the bow about his neck, and the 
 double rope betwixt his fore legs, about his 
 hinder pasterns, and under his fetlocks : 
 when you have done this, slip the ends of 
 the rope underneath the bow of his neck, 
 and draw them quick, and they will over- 
 throw him ; then make the ends fast, and 
 hold down his head. 
 
 CASTING A COLT. A term which 
 implies a mare's proving abortive. 
 
 CASTRATION. In farriery, a term 
 signifying, in regard to animals, the operation 
 of gelding in males, and spaying in females. 
 The operation may be performed at any age, 
 but, in general, the earlier the better. 
 For cattle, between two and eight months ; 
 for sheep, before they are twenty-one days 
 old; in horses, between four and twelve 
 months. 
 
 CAT. (Felis Catus.) Of this animal 
 there are twenty-one species. The do- 
 mestic cat is merely the tamed wild cat. 
 The cat usually breeds before she is a year 
 old ; period of gestation fifty-five days ; at- 
 tains the age of twelve years. They delight 
 in the herbs valerian and catmint, but dislike 
 rue. (WillicJis Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 CATALPA. (Bignonia Catalpa.) A shrub 
 growing thirty or forty feet high; its beau- 
 tiful pendulous flowers "bloom in August. It 
 has a peculiarly large bright green leaf ; 
 loves heat, and does not blow in wet sum- 
 mers. It is tolerably hardy ; easily raised 
 from layers or seed. 
 
 CATARACT. In farriery, a disease in 
 the eyes of horses, in which the crystalline 
 humour is rendered opaque, and the vision 
 impeded or destroyed. « The only certain 
 method of cure in these complaints is to 
 remove the lens by means of extracting or 
 couching. By the first mentioned operation, 
 an incision is made into the eye, and the 
 opaque lens taken out : by the second it is 
 depressed by the point of a couching needle 
 thrust into the eye ; and being carried to the 
 lower part of the chamber of the eye or vi- 
 treous humour, it is left there to be absorbed. 
 The first operation is the more effective, but 
 the more hazardous of the two, owing to the 
 inflammation which succeeds. The second 
 is tedious and sometimes fails ; but it is free 
 from the risk of inflammation. 
 
 CATCH-FLY, PINK. (Silene Arme- 
 ria.) A hardy annual, native of the south 
 of France, blowing pink or white flowers 
 continually through the summer months. It 
 loves a light warm soil. Sow the seed where 
 it is to grow. There are several other sorts 
 of catch-fly. 
 
 CATCH-FLY, or CAMPION. (Silene 
 anglica, Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 201.) A wild 
 plant flourishing in hedges and dry pastures, 
 flowering from June till autumn. It rises 
 295 
 
 a foot and a half high, with round hairy 
 stalks, and leaves of an oval form, growing 
 two at every joint. The colour of the leaf 
 is a dusky green ; the flowers are large, red 
 or white, growing in small clusters on the 
 top of the branches : each cluster has its 
 separate foot-stalk. The flowers of the cam- 
 pion are given by ignorant country people 
 in weakness of every kind ; but they are 
 useless 
 
 CATCH WEED, CLEAVERS, or 
 GOOSE-GRASS. (Galium Aparine, Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 210.) An indigenous weed, 
 growing in hedges, and by road sides. See 
 Hariff. 
 
 CATCH- WORK. A term employed in 
 irrigation for the works for throwing the 
 water over such lands as lie on the declivi- 
 ties of hills. 
 
 CATCH-WORK MEADOW. That 
 sort of meadow which is formed by turning 
 the water of a spring or small rivulet along 
 the side of a hill or declivity, so as to water 
 the lands between the cut, or main carriage, 
 and the original water-course, which in this 
 case becomes the main drain. See Irri- 
 gation. 
 
 CATERPILLAR. The name given to 
 the larva state of butterflies and moths. 
 
 CATKIN. A name given to such amen- 
 taceous flowers as consist of a great number 
 of chaffy scales and flowers, dispersed along 
 a slender thread-like axis or rachis, hang- 
 ing downward, in the form of a rope or cat's 
 tail. It is the male flower of the trees 
 which produce them, as the birch, beech, 
 pine, fir, poplar, walnut, hazel, &c. They 
 drop as soon as the pollen is shed. 
 
 CATMINT, or NEP. (Nepeta Cataria, 
 Smith, vol. iii. p. 70.) This is a common plant, 
 growing in borders of fields, and in moist 
 places, flowering in June and July. It 
 grows a yard high, with broad whitish 
 leaves, and white flowers, not unlike mint. 
 The plant has a strong and rather unsa- 
 voury smell. It is easily recognized by its 
 hoary, square, and erect stalks; its leaves 
 slightly indented on the edges, of a whitish 
 green on their outside, and almost perfect 
 white underneath ; and its flowers growing 
 in spiked clusters around the stalk at 
 certain distances. Cats are exceedingly 
 fond of rolling upon this plant, and they 
 chew it eagerly. This has obtained for it 
 the familiar name of catmint. 
 
 CAT'S-EAH. Of this there are two 
 species. 1. The spotted cat's-ear (Hypo- 
 choeris maculata), a perennial plant growing 
 in open, elevated, chalky pastures ; and 2. 
 The long-rooted cat's-ear, or rough-branched 
 dandelion (H. radicata), found common in 
 all waste grounds and pastures. (Smith, 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 374—376.) 
 
 u 4 
 
CATS-FOOT. 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 CAT'S-FOOT. A term sometimes pro- 
 vincially applied to ground-ivy. 
 
 CAT'S-MILK. A common name for 
 the plant wartwort, which see. 
 
 CAT'S-TAIL, or TIMOTHY GRASS. 
 (Phleum pratense.) This grass flourishes 
 best in moist deep loams. Perennial, native 
 of Britain. At the time of flowering, in 
 the end of June, Sinclair found the pro- 
 duce per acre was, from a clayey loam, 
 40,837 lbs. ; of nutritive matter 1595 lbs. 
 This is a great American grass, and is called 
 Timothy from Mr. Timothy Hanson, who 
 first introduced its seeds from New York 
 to Carolina. Seeds ripe in July. It pro- 
 duces an abundance of early feed, but its 
 product of aftermath is poor. 
 
 The smaller Meadoiv Cats-tail. (Phleum 
 minus.) Indigenous to England, on tena- 
 cious soils. Its produce per acre when 
 flowering on a clayey loam, 14,973 lbs. ; of 
 nutritive matter, 511 lbs. 
 
 The Bulbous -jointed Cafs-tail Grass. 
 (Phleum nodosum.) Perennial ; native of 
 Britain, but rare; found on a clayey soil 
 at Woburn. Flowers in beginning of July. 
 Seeds ripe at the end of the same month. 
 The produce per acre, when in flower, from 
 a clayey loam, 12,251 lbs.; of nutritive 
 matter, 478 lbs. 
 
 Purple-stalked Cafs-tail Grass. (Phleum 
 Boehmeri.) Indigenous and perennial; grows 
 best on a sandy loam. Flowers in July. 
 Produce per acre from a silicious sand, when 
 in flower, 6806 lbs. ; of nutritive matter, 
 239 lbs. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 195— 199. 
 317.; Smith's Bot. vol. i. p. 75 — 78.; Ibid. 
 vol. iv. p. 71 — 73.) 
 
 CATTLE. Under this head I propose 
 to include the ox tribe, Bovidai, of the 
 class Mammalia, having teats or mamma; 
 these are of the order Ruminantia, or ru- 
 minating, or cud-chewing animals. Of 
 this tribe there are eight species : — 1. Bos 
 TJrus or Auroch, the ancient bison ; 2. B. 
 Bison, the bison, or American buffalo ; 3. 
 B. moschatus, or musk ox ; 4. B. frontalis, 
 or gayal ; 5. B. grunniens, or grunting ox ; 
 
 6. B. coffer, or buffalo of Southern Africa ; 
 
 7 . B. Bubulus, or common buffalo ; 8. B. 
 Taurus, or common domestic ox. That the 
 ox has been domesticated, and in the service 
 of man from a very remote period, is quite 
 certain. We learn from Gen. (iv. 20.) that 
 cattle were kept by the early descendants 
 of Adam. Preserved by Noah from the 
 flood waters, the original breed of our 
 
 resent oxen must have been in the neigh- 
 ourhood of Mount Ararat ; and from thence, 
 dispersing over the face of the globe, al- 
 tering l>y climate, by food, and by cultiva- 
 tion, originated the various breeds of 
 modern ages. That the value of the ox 
 296 
 
 tribe has been in all ages and climates 
 highly appreciated, we have abundant evi- 
 dence. The natives of Egypt, India, and 
 of Hindostan seem alike to have placed the 
 cow amongst their deities ; and, judging by 
 her usefulness to all classes, no animal could 
 perhaps have been selected whose value to 
 mankind is greater. Of the old race of 
 British cattle, some remains of which are 
 yet to be found in Chillingham Park, in 
 Northumberland, in a state of tolerable pu- 
 rity, and in one or two other places in 
 Great Britain, improved by judicious or 
 accidental crossings, came most of our mo- 
 dern breeds. George Culley, in his valuable 
 work on cattle, describes these aboriginals 
 as being of a creamy white, with black 
 muzzles, white horns with black tips bend- 
 ing upwards. The cows weighing from 
 twenty-five to thirty-five stone. They hide 
 for a week or ten days their calves, in 
 some sequestered place ; and these, when 
 they are disturbed, put their heads to the 
 ground, and lie close like a hare. Their 
 wildness prevents the introduction of them 
 into any situation not surrounded by stone 
 walls ; and the mode in which they were 
 wont to be killed by the keepers was by a 
 rifle ball. See also two excellent papers by 
 Dr. Knox on the "wild ox of Scotland 
 (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 367.) ; and 
 on the ox tribe, in connection with the white 
 cattle of the Hamilton and Chillingham 
 breeds, by the Rev. W. Patrick (Ibid. 
 p. 514.). 
 
 In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are 
 employed for their labour, for their milk, 
 and for food. In southern Africa they are 
 as much the associates of the Caffres as the 
 horse is of the Arab. They share his toils, 
 and assist him in tending his herds ; they 
 are even trained to battle, in which they 
 become fierce and courageous. In central 
 Africa the proudest ebony beauties are to 
 be seen on their backs. They have drawn 
 the plough in all ages ; in Spain they still 
 trample out the corn; in India raise the 
 water from the deepest wells to irrigate the 
 thirsty soils of Bengal. When Caesar in- 
 vaded England they constituted the chief 
 riches of its inhabitants (Ccesar, lib. v. c. 10.) ; 
 and they yet form no inconsiderable item 
 in the estimate of this country's abounding 
 riches. According to the estimate of Mr. 
 Youatt, to whom in this and other articles 
 on live stock I am so much indebted (On 
 Cattle, p. 9.), it would seem that 1,600,000 
 head of cattle are consigned to the butcher 
 every year in the United Kingdom, and the 
 value of the entire national stock of all 
 kinds of cattle, sheep, and pigs, he is of 
 opinion, amounts to nearly 120,000,000/. 
 sterling. An excellent paper on the origin 
 
 i: 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 and natural history of the domestic ox and 
 * its allied species, by Professor Wilson 
 \ y (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 177.), may 
 be consulted with advantage by those who 
 wish for more information on this head. 
 
 The breeds of cattle in England are re- 
 markable for their numerous varieties, 
 caused by the almost endless crossings of 
 one breed with another, often producing 
 varieties of the most mongrel description, 
 and which are rather difficult to describe. 
 I will in this place touch upon the prin- 
 cipal varieties ; and in these we should, in 
 looking for the chief points of excellence, 
 regard, as Mr. Youatt well observes, " wide 
 and deep girth about the heart and luno-s, 
 and not only about these, but above the 
 whole of the ribs must we have both depth 
 and roundness, the hooped as well as the 
 deep barrel is essential. The beast should 
 also be ribbed home ; there should be little 
 space between the ribs and the hips. This 
 is indispensable in the fattening ox, but a 
 largeness and drooping of the belly is ex- 
 cusable in the cow. It leaves room for the 
 udder, and if* it is also accompanied by 
 swelling milk veins it generally indicates 
 her value in the dairy. This roundness 
 and depth of the barrel, however, is most 
 advantageous in proportion as it is found 
 behind the point of the elbow, more 
 than between the shoulders and leo-s ; 
 or low down between the legs, than -up- 
 wards towards the withers, for it di- 
 minishes the heaviness before, and the com- 
 parative bulk of the coarser parts of the 
 animal, which is always a very great con- 
 sideration. 
 
 " The loins should be wide, for these are 
 the prime parts ; they should seem to extend 
 far along the back ; and although the belly 
 should not hang down, the flanks should be 
 round and deep ; the hips large, without 
 being ragged, round rather than wide, and 
 present when handled, plenty of muscle 
 and fat. The thighs full and long, and 
 when viewed from behind close together. 
 The legs short, for there is almost an inse- 
 parable connection between length of le<* 
 and lightness of carcass, and shortness of 
 leg and propensity to fatten. The bones 
 of the legs and of the frame generally 
 should be small, but not too small ; small 
 enough for the well-known accompaniment, 
 a propensity to fatten ; small enough to 
 please the consumer, but not so smalf as to 
 indicate delicacy of constitution and lia- 
 bility to disease. Finally, the hide, the 
 most important thing of all, should be thin, 
 but not so thin as to indicate that the animal 
 can endure no hardships, movable, mellow, 
 but not too loose, and particularly well co- 
 vered with fine and soft hair." 
 297 
 
 . On the points by which live stock are 
 judged, some very excellent papers have 
 appeared in the £Jdin. Quart. Journ. ofA ff r 
 by Mr. James Dickson, cattle-dealer of 
 i ST? He Vei ^ trm > ^serves (vol. v. 
 p. 159.) that, "were an ox of fine symmetry 
 and high condition placed before a person 
 not a judge of live stock, his opinion of its 
 excellences would be derived from a very 
 limited view, and consequently from only a 
 few of its qualities. He might observe and 
 admire the beautiful outline of its figure, for 
 that would strike the most casual observer. 
 He might be pleased with the tint of its 
 colours, the plumpness of its body, and the 
 smoothness and glossiness of its skin. He 
 might be even delighted with the gentle and 
 complacent expression of its countenance • — 
 all these properties he might judge of by the 
 eye alone. On touching the animal with the 
 hand, he could feel the softness of its body 
 occasioned by the fatness of the flesh But 
 no man not a judge could rightly criticise 
 the properties of an ox farther. He could 
 not possibly discover without tuition those 
 properties which had chiefly conduced to 
 produce the high condition in which he saw 
 the ox. He would hardly believe that a 
 judge can ascertain merely by the eye, from 
 its general aspect, whether the ox were in 
 good or bad health ; from the colour of its 
 skin whether it were of a pure or cross 
 breed ; from the expression of its coun- 
 tenance, whether it were a quiet feeder: 
 and from the nature of its flesh, whether it 
 had arrived at maturity. The discoveries 
 made by the hand of a judge mi^ht even 
 stagger his belief. He could scarcely con- 
 ceive that the hand can feel a hidden pro- 
 perty. The touch, which of all tests is the 
 most surely indicative of fine quality of 
 flesh and of disposition to fatten, can find 
 whether that flesh is of the most valuable 
 fcmd ; and it can foretel the probable abun- 
 dance of fat m the interior of the carcass, 
 in snort, a judge alone can discriminate 
 between the relative values of the different 
 points, or appreciate the aggregate value of 
 all the points of an ox. These « points ' are 
 the parts of an ox by which it is judged " 
 Ihe first point to be ascertained in exam- 
 ining an ox is the purity of its breed, what- 
 ever that breed may be, for that will give 
 the degree of the disposition to fatten of the 
 individuals of that breed. The purity of the 
 breed may be ascertained from several 
 marks : the colour or colours of the skin of a 
 pure breed of cattle, whatever those colours 
 are are always definite. The colour of the 
 bald skin <m the nose and round the eyes 
 in a pure breed, is always definite, and with- 
 ou spots. This last is an essential point. 
 ^ hen horns exist, they should be smooth 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 small, tapering, and sharp-pointed, long or 
 short according to the breed, and of a white 
 colour throughout in some breeds, and tip- 
 ped with black in others. The shape of the 
 horn is a less essential point than the colour. 
 Applying these remarks on the different 
 breeds in Scotland, as illustrations of the 
 points which we have been considering, we 
 nave the definite colours of white and red 
 in the short-horns. The colour is either en- 
 tirely white or entirely red, or the one or 
 the other predominates in their mixture. 
 The skin on the nose and around the eyes 
 is uniformly of a rich cream colour. The 
 Ayrshire breed, in its purity, is also distin- 
 guished by the red and white colour of the 
 skin, but always mixed, and the mixture 
 consists of spots of greater or smaller size 
 not blended together. The colour of the 
 skin on the nose and around the eye is not 
 definite, but generally black or cream co- 
 loured. In other points, those two celebrated 
 breeds differ from one another more than 
 in the characters which I have just described. 
 In the West Highland, Angus, and Galloway 
 breeds, the colour of the skin of the nose 
 and around the eyes is indicative of the pure 
 blood of black-coloured cattle ; but a cream- 
 coloured nose may frequently be observed 
 amongst the other colours of skin. The 
 characters above given will certainly apply 
 to the purity of the blood in the short-horn 
 and Ayrshire breeds, if not to the West High- 
 landers. 
 
 " The second point to be ascertained in an 
 ox is the form of its carcass. It is found 
 that the nearer the section of the carcass of 
 a fat ox, taken longitudinally vertical, trans- 
 versely vertical, and horizontally, approaches 
 to the figure of a parallelogram, the greater 
 quantity of flesh will it carry within the 
 same measurement. That the carcass may 
 fill up the parallelogram as well as its round- 
 ed form is capable of filling up a right-angled 
 figure, it should possess the following con- 
 figuration : — The back should be straight 
 from the top of the shoulder to the tail. 
 The tail should fall perpendicularly from the 
 line of the back. The buttocks and twist 
 should be well filled out. The brisket should 
 project to a line dropped from the middle of 
 the neck. The belly should be straight lon- 
 gitudinally, and round laterally, and filled 
 at the flanks. The ribs should be round, 
 and should project horizontally, and at right 
 angles to the back. <The hooks should be 
 wide and flat ; and the rump, from the tail 
 to the hooks, should also be filled and well 
 filled. The quarter from the itch-bone to 
 the hook should be long. The loin bones 
 should belong, broad, and flat, and well filled ; 
 but the space betwixt the hooks and the 
 short ribs should be rather short and well 
 298 
 
 arched over, with a thickness of beef between 
 the hooks. A long hollow from the hooks 
 to the short ribs indicates a weak constitu- 
 tion and an indifferent thriver. From the 
 loin to the shoulder-blade should be nearly 
 of one breadth, and from thence it should 
 taper a little to the front of the shoulder. 
 The neck- vein should be well filled forward 
 to complete the line from the neck to the 
 brisket. The covering on the shoulder-blade 
 should be as full out as the buttocks. The 
 middle ribs should be well filled, to complete 
 the line from the shoulders to the buttocks 
 along the projection of the outside of the 
 ribs, these constitute all the points which 
 are essential to a fat ox. 
 
 " The first of the points in judging of a 
 lean ox, is the nature of the bone. A round 
 thick bone indicates both a slow feeder and 
 an inferior description of flesh. A flat bone, 
 when seen on a side view, and narrow when 
 viewed either from behind or before the 
 animal, indicates the opposite properties of 
 a round bone. The whole bones in the 
 carcass should bear a small proportion in 
 bulk and weight to the flesh, the bones being 
 only required as a support to the flesh. The 
 texture of the bone should be small-grained 
 and hard. The bones of the head should be 
 fine and clean, and only covered with skin 
 and muscle, and not with lumps of fat and 
 flesh, which always give a heavy-headed 
 dull appearance to an ox. The fore- arm 
 and hock should also be clean and full of 
 muscle to endure travelling. Large joints 
 indicate bad feeders. The neck of an ox 
 should be contrary to that of the sheep, small 
 from the back of the head to the middle of 
 the neck. A full, clear, and prominent eye 
 is another point to be considered, because it 
 is a nice indication of good breeding. It is 
 always attendant on fine bone : the expres- 
 sion of the eye is an excellent index of many 
 properties in the ox. A dull heavy eye 
 clearly indicates a slow feeder. A rolling 
 eye, shewing much white, is expressive of a 
 restless capricious disposition, which is in- 
 compatible with quiet feeding. A calm 
 complacent" expression of eye and face is 
 strongly indicative of a sweet and patient 
 disposition, and of course kindly feeling. 
 The eye is frequently a faithful index of the 
 state of the health. A cheerful clear eye 
 accompanies good health : a constantly dull 
 one proves the probable existence of some 
 internal lingering disease ; the dullness of 
 eye, however, arising from internal disease, 
 is quite different in character from a natural 
 or constitutional phlegmatic dullness. 
 
 " The state of the skin is the next point to 
 be ascertained ; the skin affords what is 
 technically and emphatically called the touch 
 — a criterion second to none in judging of 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 the feeding properties of an ox. The touch 
 may be good or bad, fine or harsh, or, as it 
 is often termed, hard or mellow. A thick 
 firm skin, which is generally covered with a 
 thick-set, hard, short hair, always touches 
 hard, and indicates a bad feeder. A thin, 
 meagre, papery skin, covered with thin silky 
 hair, being the opposite of the one just de- 
 scribed, does not,however,afford a good touch. 
 Such skin is indicative of weakness of con- 
 stitution, though of good feeding properties. 
 A perfect touch will be found with a thick 
 loose skin, floating as it were on a layer of 
 soft fat, yielding to the least pressure, and 
 springing back to the finger like a piece of 
 soft, thick, chamois leather, and covered 
 with thick, glossy, soft hair. It is not unlike 
 a bed of fine soft moss, and hence, such a 
 skin is not unfrequently styled ' mossy.' A 
 knowledge of touch can only be acquired 
 by long practice ; but after having acquired 
 it, it is of itself a sufficient means of judging 
 of the feeding quality of an ox, because, 
 when present, the properties of symmetrical 
 form, fine bone, sweet disposition, and purity 
 of blood are the general accompaniments. 
 These are the essential points in judging 
 lean cattle, but there are other and important 
 considerations in forming a thorough judg- 
 ment of the ox. The head should be small 
 and set on the neck as if easily carried by 
 the animal : this shows the animal to ad- 
 vantage in the market. The face long from 
 the eyes to the point of the nose. The 
 skull broad across the eyes, contracted a 
 little above them, but tapering considerably 
 below them to the nose. The muzzle fine 
 and small ; the nostrils capacious ; the ears 
 large, a little erect, and transparent ; the 
 neck short and light. A droop of the neck 
 from the top of the shoulder to the head in- 
 dicates a weakness of constitution, arising 
 frequently from breeding too near akin. The 
 legs below the knees should be rather short 
 than long, and clean made ; stand where they 
 apparently bear the weight of the body most 
 
 299 
 
 easily, and wide asunder. The tail rather 
 thick than otherwise, as that indicates a 
 strong spine, and a good weigher. It should 
 be provided with a large tuft of long hair. 
 The position of the flesh is important : that 
 part called the spare rib in Edinburgh, and 
 the fore and middle ribs in London, the 
 loins and the rump, or hook-bone, are of the 
 finest quality, and are generally used for 
 roasts and steaks ; consequently, the ox which 
 carries the largest quantity of beef on these 
 points is the most valuable. Flesh of fine 
 quality is actually of a finer texture than 
 coarse flesh. The other desirable objects in a 
 fat ox are a full twist, lining the division 
 between the hams called ' the closing,' with 
 a thick layer of fat, a thick flank, and a full 
 neck bend ; these generally indicate internal 
 tallow. The last points generally covered 
 with fat are the point of the shoulder -joint 
 and the top of the shoulder : if these parts 
 are, therefore, felt to be well covered, the 
 other and better parts of the animal may be 
 considered ripe. It is proper, in judging of 
 the weight of a fat ox, to view his gait while 
 walking towards you, which will, if the ox 
 has been well fed, be accompanied with a 
 heavy rolling tread, on the ground. In this 
 way a judge can at once come very near to 
 its weight." {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. v. 
 p. 167.) At the end of this, paper will be 
 found an account of the mode of ascertaining 
 the weight of stock by admeasurement. 
 
 When we survey the frame of a short 
 horn ox, adds Mr. Dickson {Ibid. vol. vi. 
 p. 267.), we have a straight level back, 
 from behind the horns to the top of the 
 tail, full buttocks, and a projecting brisket ; 
 we have, in short, the rectangular figure, 
 as represented in a side view by fig. 1 . We 
 have also the level loin across the hook bones, 
 and the level top of the shoulder across the 
 ox, and perpendicular lines down the hind 
 and fore-legs on both sides, these constituting 
 the square form when the ox is viewed be- 
 fore and behind, as represented in figures 2. 
 
 and 3. ; and we have straight pa- 
 rallel lines from the sides of the 
 shoulders, along the outmost points 
 of the ribs, to the sides of the hind 
 quarters ; and we have these lines 
 connected at their ends by others 
 of shorter and equal length, across 
 the end of the rump and the top of 
 the shoulder, thus constituting the 
 rectangular form of the ox when 
 viewed from above down upon 
 the back, as represented by fig. 4. ; 
 the form of the short ox and 
 heifer, in perfect accordance with 
 the diagrams of the rule. Farther, 
 I should be inclined to assert, 
 though I have not directed my 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 attention sufficiently to the fact, 
 to be able to prove the assertion 
 from examples, that the carcass of 
 a full fed, symmetrical, short-horn 
 ox, included within the rectangle, is 
 in length double its depth, and in 
 depth equal to its breadth; hence, 
 figs. 2. and 3. are squares, and 
 figs. 1. and 4. each two similar 
 squares, placed in juxtaposition. 
 The form of the short-horn breed 
 is perfect according to this rule. 
 
 The cow goes with calf about 
 forty weeks; and is often capable 
 of breeding, when only a year old, 
 but she should not be allowed to 
 do so until she is above two years 
 old. When the calves are in- 
 tended for veal, January, Febru- 
 ary, and March are the best 
 months for calving. On the ques- 
 tion of breeding live stock in ge- 
 neral, and upon the difficult ques- 
 tion of the comparative influence 
 of the male and female parents in 
 impressing their offspring, a theme 
 propounded by the Highland So- 
 ciety, there are some excellent papers by 
 Mr. Boswell, Mr. Christian, and Mr. Mill 
 (High. Soc. Trans, vol. i. p. 17.), by the 
 Rev. Henry Berry (Brit. Farm. Mag. 
 vol. i.), and by Mr. Knight (Trans. Roy. Soc. 
 1809), in which they all seem to uphold the 
 superior influence of the male ; and on the 
 selection of the male animal in breeding, 
 there is a paper by Lord Spencer (Journ. 
 Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 22.) ; another on the 
 gestation of cows (Ibid. 165.) ; and on the 
 means of calculating the number of calves 
 which will probably be produced by a herd of 
 cows, by the same noble lord (Ibid. vol. ii. 
 p. 112.); and on the detection of preg- 
 nancy in the horse and cow by Professor 
 Youatt (Ibid. p. 170.) ; on a method of obtain- 
 ing a greater number of one sex at the 
 option of the owner, in the breeding of live 
 stock (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. i.p. 63.) ; on 
 the rearing of calves, in which the writer re- 
 commends that skimmed milk should have a 
 piece of red-hot iron plunged into it, not only 
 to warm it, but to give an astringent quality 
 (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 382.); on the 
 mode of fattening them in Strathaven there 
 is an account by Mr. Aiton in the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. p. 249., and of the mode of 
 fattening them near London by Mr. Main 
 (Ibid. vol. v. p. 608.) "Every cow is made to 
 Buckle her own calf three times a day for 
 the first three or four days, and afterwards 
 twice a day, and, in need, her bag is emptied 
 by another calf. If a calf goes on thriving 
 and well, it will be what is esteemed in 
 England prime veal in about ten weeks 
 300 
 
 1! 
 
 \( 
 
 \ n'J U 
 If i> 
 
 i 
 
 I 
 
 1 / i 
 
 
 
 
 
 and weigh from 17 to 20 stones of 8 lbs. 
 each!" 
 
 The North Devon. — Of this breed, the 
 bull should have yellow horns, placed neither 
 too low nor too high, nor be too thick, but 
 growing gradually less towards the points ; 
 the eye clear, prominent, and bright ; the 
 forehead small, flat, and indented; the muz- 
 zle fine ; the cheek small ; the nose of a clear 
 yellow, the nostril high and open ; the neck 
 thick, and the hair about the head curled. 
 The head of the ox is smaller, otherwise he 
 does not differ materially from the shape of 
 the bull ; his action is free, and he is quicker 
 in his movements than any of our oxen ; 
 but his legs are apparently placed too much 
 under his chest for speed, yet he possesses 
 this property in an eminent degree ; his legs 
 are straight; the fore-arm is large and strong; 
 the bones of the leg, especially below the 
 knee, very small ; the tail is set on high on 
 a level with the back, rarely much elevated, 
 never depressed, is long and taper, with a 
 bunch of hair at the end ; the skin is very 
 elastic, mellow, and rather thin ; some 
 have smooth hair, which should be fine and 
 glossy, some curly, and these are rather the 
 most hardy and fatten the best ; red is the 
 most favourite colour ; many, however, are 
 brown, and others are approaching to chest- 
 nut. Those of a yellow colour are reported 
 to be subject to the steat (diarrhoea). 
 
 The Devon cow is much smaller than the 
 bull ; she has a full, round, clear eye, the 
 countenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or 
 yellow, the jaws free from thickness, and 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 the throat from dewlap. On all soils, except 
 the very heavy, the Devon ox is very su- 
 perior at the plough, for its quickness of 
 action, docility, good temper, stoutness, and 
 honesty. It is always worked in yokes. Four 
 Devon oxen are considered equal in their 
 work to three horses : they are commonly 
 worked from two years old until they are 
 four, five, or six, and then in ten or twelve 
 months, on grass and hay, they are fit for 
 market; neither corn, cake, or turnips are 
 needed for them during the first winter. 
 They fatten faster, and with less food, than 
 most others ; their flesh is excellent. Some 
 comparative experiments between the Devon 
 and other cattle were made by the Duke of 
 Bedford, of which the following table gives 
 the result : they were fed from November 
 16. 1797 until December 10. 1798 : — 
 
 
 
 First 
 Weight. 
 
 Gained. 
 
 C 
 
 Oil 
 Cake. 
 
 onsumed 
 Turnips. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1. 
 
 Hereford 
 
 17 0 1 
 
 24 3 
 
 
 2700 
 
 487 
 
 2. 
 
 
 18 1 0 
 
 41 5 
 
 423 
 
 2712 
 
 432 
 
 3. 
 
 Devon 
 
 14 1 7 
 
 45 4 
 
 438 
 
 2668 
 
 295 
 
 4. 
 
 
 14 2 4 
 
 64 6 
 
 442 
 
 2056 
 
 442 
 
 5. 
 
 Sussex 
 
 16 2 0 
 
 45 4 
 
 432 
 
 2655 
 
 392 
 
 6. 
 
 Leicester 
 
 15 2 14 
 
 40 2 
 
 434 
 
 2652 
 
 400 
 
 There is much difference of opinion with 
 regard to the fitness of Devon cows for the 
 dairy, it being pretty generally asserted, that 
 their acknowledged grazing qualities render 
 them unfit for the dairy, that their milk is 
 rich, but deficient in quantity ; but there are 
 many very superior judges who prefer them 
 even for the dairy. Of the calves, those 
 which are dropped about Michaelmas time 
 are preferred to those which are calved in 
 January or February. They allow the calf 
 to suck three times a day for a week ; then 
 new warm milk is given it for three weeks 
 longer ; then it has warm scalded milk mixed 
 with a small portion of finely divided linseed 
 cake, and its meals are gradually lessened, 
 and at four months old it is entirely weaned. 
 (Youatt On Cattle, p. 7—25.) 
 
 The Hereford. — The oxen of Hereford- 
 shire are much larger than the Devon, and 
 of a darker red, some are dark yellow, and 
 a few brindled ; they generally have white 
 faces, bellies, and throats. They have 
 thicker hides than those of Devonshire, and 
 they are more hardy, and shorter in the 
 carcass and leg ; are higher, heavier, and 
 broader in the chine ; have more fat, and 
 are rounder and wider across the hips ; the 
 thigh is more muscular, the shoulders larger. 
 (Ibid. p. 31.) Marshall long since described 
 them pretty correctly as follows : — " The 
 countenance pleasant, cheerful, open ; the 
 forehead broad ; eye full and lively ; horns 
 bright, taper, and spreading ; head small ; 
 chap lean ; neck long and tapering ; chest 
 
 deep; bosom broad, and projecting forward,' 
 shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way protuberant 
 in bone, but full and mellow in flesh ; chest 
 full ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and 
 level with the spine ; quarters long and wide 
 at the neck ; rump even with the general 
 level of the back, not drooping, nor standing 
 high and sharp above the quarters ; tail 
 slender, and neatly haired ; barrel round 
 and roomy, the carcass throughout deep 
 and well spread ; ribs broad, standing close 
 and flat on the outer surface, forming a 
 smooth even barrel, the hindmost large and 
 of full length ; round bone small, snug, not 
 prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly ta- 
 pering ; legs upright and short ; bone below 
 the knee and hough, small ; feet of middle 
 size ; cod and twist round and full ; flank 
 large; flesh every where mellow, soft, yield- 
 ing pleasantly to the touch, especially on 
 the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide 
 mellow, supple, of a middle thickness, and 
 loose ; coat neatly haired, bright, and silky ; 
 colour of a middle red with a bald face, cha- 
 racteristic of the true Herefordshire breed." 
 
 " They fatten," says Mr. Youatt, " to a 
 much greater weight than the Devons, and 
 run from 50 to 70 score; a tolerable cow 
 will average from 35 to 50 score ; a cow be- 
 longing to the Duke of Bedford weighed 
 more than 70 ; an ox of Mr. Westcar's ex- 
 ceeded 110 score. The Hereford ox fattens 
 speedily at an early age. They are not now 
 much used for husbandry, although their 
 form adapts them for the heavier work, and 
 they have all the honesty and docility of the 
 Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his 
 activity. 
 
 " The Hereford cows are worse milkers 
 than those of Devon, but then they will 
 grow fat where a Devon would starve. The 
 beef is sometimes objected to from the large- 
 ness of the bone, and the coarseness of 
 some of the inferior pieces, but the best 
 sorts are generally excellent. Mr. Youatt 
 gives an account of an experiment in feeding, 
 made in the winter of 1828-9, between 
 the Herefords and the improved short- 
 horns, which, although by no means de- 
 cisive of the merits of either breed, yet is 
 worthy of notice by the grazier. 
 
 " Three Herefords and three short-horns 
 were put together into a straw yard, Dec. 
 20. 1827, and each had, in the open yard, 
 a bushel of turnips per day, besides straw, 
 until May 2. 1828; they then were weighed, 
 and sent to grass : — 
 
 No. cwts. qrs. lbs. No. cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 1. Hereford 8 3 0 1 1. Short-horn 9 2 0 
 
 2. — 730 2. — 820 
 
 3. — 700|3. — 900 
 
 When taken from grass, November 3., they 
 weighed — 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 No. cwts. qrs. lbs. No. cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 1. Hereford 11 3 0 I 1. Short-horn 12 3 14 
 
 2. — 10 2 0 2. — 12 2 0 
 
 3. — 10 3 0 I 3. — 12 3 0 
 
 From this time till the 25th March, 1829, 
 they consumed — 
 
 Swedish Turnips. Hay. 
 lbs lbs. 
 
 The Herefords - - 46,655 5,065 
 The short-horns - - 59,430 6,779 
 
 They then weighed — 
 
 No. cwts. qrs. lbs. No. cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 1. Hereford 13 0 14 I 1. Short-horn 14 2 0 
 
 2. — 12 0 0 2. — 14 1 14 
 
 3. — 12 0 0 | 3. — 14 2 14 
 
 making a difference in favour of the short- 
 horns of 3 cwts. 3 qrs. 14 lbs. ; but then they 
 consumed more turnips by 12,775 lbs., and 
 more hay by 1,714 lbs. When they were 
 sold at Smithfield on the 30th of March, the 
 short-horns realised 97/., and the Herefords 
 96Z." (On Cattle, p. 34.) 
 
 The Sussex. — One of the best descrip- 
 tions, says Mr. Youatt, that we have of the 
 Sussex ox is given by that excellent agri- 
 culturist, Mr. Ellman. He speaks of the 
 Sussex ox as having a small and well-turned 
 head ; and so it has, compared with many 
 other breeds, and even with the Hereford, 
 but evidently coarser than that of the 
 Devon, the horns pushing forwards a little, 
 and then turning upwards, thin, tapering, 
 and long, not so as to confound the breed 
 with the long-horns, and yet in some cases a 
 little approaching to them. The eye is full, 
 large, and mild in the ox, but with some de- 
 gree of unquietness in the cow. The throat 
 clean ; and the neck, compared with either 
 the long or short-horns, long and thin, yet 
 evidently coarser than that of the Devon. 
 The shoulder is the principal defect. There 
 is more wideness and roundness on the 
 withers ; it is a straighter line from the 
 summit of the withers towards the back ; 
 there is no projecting point of the shoulder 
 when the animal is looked at from behind, 
 but the whole of the fore- quarter is thickly 
 covered with flesh, giving too much weight 
 to the coarser and less profitable parts ; but 
 then the fore-legs are wider apart, straighter, 
 and more perpendicular than in the Devon, 
 and are placed more under the body than 
 seeming to be attached to the sides. The 
 fore-arm is large and muscular ; the legs, 
 though coarser than those of the Devon, 
 are small and fine downwards, particularly 
 below the fetlock. The barrel is round and 
 deep. In the back ; no rising spinal processes 
 are to be seen, but rather a central depres- 
 sion ; and the line of the back, if broken, is 
 only done so by a lump of fat rising between 
 the hips : the belly and flank are capacious; 
 there is room before for the heart and lungs, 
 and there is room behind in the capacious 
 belly for the full exercise of its functions: 
 302 
 
 yet the beast is well ribbed home ; the space 
 between the last rib and the hip-bone is 
 often very small, and there is no hanging 
 heaviness of the belly or flank. The loins 
 of the Sussex ox are wide ; the hip-bone 
 does not rise high, nor is it ragged ex- 
 ternally ; but it is large and spread out, 
 and the space between the hips is well 
 filled up. The tail, fine and thin, is set on 
 lower than in the Devon, yet the rump is 
 nearly as straight. The hind-quarters are 
 cleanly made, and if the thighs appear to be 
 straight without, there is plenty of fulness 
 within. The Sussex ox has all the activity 
 of the Devon, and the strength of the 
 Hereford, the propensity to fatten, and the 
 beautiful fine-grained flesh of both. It pos- 
 sesses as many of the good qualities of both 
 as can be combined in one frame. By crossing 
 them with the Herefords, a heavier animal, 
 but not fattening so profitably, or working so 
 kindly, is produced. When the Sussex has 
 been crossed with the Devon, a lighter breed 
 has resulted, but not gaining in activity, 
 while it is materially deteriorated in its 
 grazing properties. The colour of the 
 Sussex ox is a deep chestnut red, or blood 
 bay. The black, or black and white, gene- 
 rally indicate some strain in the breed, as a 
 cross from the Welch. The hide of the 
 true Sussex ox is soft and mellow, the 
 coat short and sleek. The Sussex ox does 
 much of the farming labour of the Weald 
 of Sussex. From ten to twelve of these are 
 usually kept on a farm of 150 to 200 acres. 
 These are fed with grass and straw till they 
 begin to work, and then they have cut hay 
 mixed with straw. There are, however, two 
 breeds : the coarser Sussex is always slow ; 
 the lighter, or true Sussex, is as light and 
 fast as most cart-horses ; of their speed, 
 proof was given by a Sussex ox which ran 
 four miles against time, over the Lewes 
 race-course, in sixteen minutes. Many 
 farmers, if they have ten oxen at work, seil 
 five or six every year, and break in an 
 equal number to succeed them ; the beasts 
 will thus be broken in at three years old, 
 and fatted at five or six. They are com- 
 monly taken from work when spring seed- 
 time is over, and turned into the meadows, 
 and thus prepared for winter stall-feeding. 
 These are gradually accustomed to being 
 constantly tied up. Some farmers, Mr. 
 Ellman amongst the rest, are of opinion that 
 there is a saving of one fourth the food by 
 stall-feeding, but many other farmers main- 
 tain that the cattle fatten faster when only 
 confined to the yard. They average, at 
 Smithfield, about 120 stones ; but they oc- 
 casionally attain to much greater weights ; 
 one of Mr. Ellman' s weighed 214 stones. 
 The Sussex cow is not a favourite with 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 the generality of farmers. She does not 
 answer for the dairy, for her milk, although 
 of very good quality, is far inferior in 
 quantity to either the Holderness or the 
 Suffolk cow. They are, moreover, what their 
 countenance indicates, of an unquiet temper, 
 and are commonly restless and dissatisfied, 
 especially if not bred on the farm on which 
 they are kept. They are, therefore, chiefly 
 kept as breeders ; are generally in fair con- 
 dition, even while milking ; and no cows, ex- 
 cept the Devon or Hereford, will thrive so 
 fast after being dried; they fatten even 
 faster than the ox. Nearly all the calves 
 are reared, adds Mr. Youatt — the males for 
 work, and the females for breeding or early 
 fattening. By the best breeders, the bull 
 is changed every two years. (On Cattle, 
 p. 40.) 
 
 The Welch. — The cattle of "Wales are 
 principally of the middle-horns, and stunted 
 in their growth from the poverty of their 
 pastures. Of these there are several vari- 
 eties. The Pembrokeshire are chiefly black, 
 with white horns ; are shorter legged than 
 most other Welch cattle ; are larger than 
 those of Montgomery, and have round and 
 deep carcasses ; have a lively look and good 
 eyes ; though short and rough, not thick ; 
 have not large bones, and possess, perhaps, 
 as much as possible, the opposite qualities of 
 being very fair milkers, with a propensity to 
 fatten. The meat is equal to the Scotch. 
 They will thrive, says Mr. Youatt, where 
 others starve, and they rapidly outstrip most 
 others when they have plenty of good pas- 
 ture. The Pembroke cow has been called 
 the poor man's cow. The Pembroke ox 
 is a speedy and an honest worker, and, when 
 taken from hard work, fattens speedily. 
 Many are brought to London, and rarely 
 disappoint the butcher. 
 
 The Glamorganshire breed were patron- 
 ised by George III., and were held in great 
 estimation. They were, however, allowed 
 to degenerate during the period of the late 
 war, and have not since, in spite of the exer- 
 tions of Mr. David of Radyr, been entirely 
 restored. The counties of Carmarthen, 
 Cardigan, Brecon, and especially Radnor, 
 also produce many excellent black cattle, 
 which have been materially improved of late 
 by the introduction of other breeds, especi- 
 ally by crossing with the Herefords. Of 
 North Wales, the cattle are rather more 
 approaching to the long-horns than those 
 of the south. In the counties of Anglesea, 
 Carnarvon, and Merioneth, the chief atten- 
 tion of the farmer is directed to the rearing 
 of stock. In Denbigh, Flint, and Mont- 
 gomery, the dairy is chiefly regarded. The 
 cattle of Anglesea, says Mr. Youatt, are 
 small and black, with moderate bone, deep 
 303 
 
 chest, rather heavy shoulders, enormous 
 dewlap, round barrel, high and spreading 
 haunches, flat face, horns long, almost in- 
 variably turning upwards ; the hair coarse ; 
 the hide mellow ; hardy, easy to rear, and 
 well disposed to fatten when transplanted 
 to better pastures than those of their native 
 island. Attempts have been made, with 
 little success, to improve the breed by 
 crossing them with others ; but it is diffi- 
 cult to find any other sufficiently hardy to 
 withstand the climate and the privations of 
 Mona. Many yearlings are brought from 
 the island, and very few are kept in the 
 island after they are three years old. They 
 were formerly not castrated till they were a 
 year old ; this gave them a peculiar bull- 
 like appearance. This operation, however, 
 is now practised earlier. There is still with 
 them, however, adds Mr. Youatt, a striking 
 contrast with the mild intelligence of the 
 Devon and the qubt submission of the 
 Hereford. The Anglesea cows are not kept 
 for the dairy to a greater extent than for 
 home consumption. The cheese is negli- 
 gently made, and, in consequence, poor and 
 worthless. The cattle of the other Welch 
 counties, bred amongst the rocks of Carnar- 
 von, and the hills of Merioneth, Montgom- 
 ery, and Denbigh, have little distinguishing 
 features from other Welch cattle. They 
 are small, hardy, and rapidly fatten, when 
 transferred to richer pastures. The beef 
 they produce is excellent. (Ibid. p. 58.) 
 
 The Scotch. — Of this valuable and im- 
 proving race of cattle there are several 
 varieties, all of which are thus classed by 
 Mr. Youatt, and are to be considered as 
 belonging to the middle-horns. Of these 
 the chief varieties are, 
 
 1 . The West Highlanders, which, whether 
 we regard those found in the Hebrides or 
 in the county of Argyle, seem to retain most 
 of the aboriginal character. They have re- 
 mained unchanged, or improved only by 
 selection, for many generations, or, indeed, 
 from the earliest accounts that we possess 
 of Scottish cattle. 
 
 2. The North Highlanders are a smaller, 
 coarser, and in every way inferior race, and 
 owe the greater part of what is valuable 
 about them to crosses from the western 
 breed. 
 
 3. The north-eastern cattle were derived 
 from, and bear a strong resemblance to the 
 West Highlander, but are of considerably 
 larger size. 
 
 4. The Fife breed are almost as valuable 
 for the dairy as for the grazier, and yield to 
 few in activity and docility. 
 
 5. The Ayrshire breed are second to none 
 as milkers; many of the varied mingled 
 breeds of the Lowlands are valuable. 
 
CATTLE, 
 
 6. The Galloways, which, scarcely a cen- 
 tury ago, were middle -horned, and with 
 difficulty distinguished from the West High- 
 landers, are now a polled breed, increased 
 in size, with more striking resemblance to 
 their kindred the Devons ; with all their 
 aptitude to fatten, and with a hardness of 
 constitution which those of Devon never 
 possessed. 
 
 The West Highlanders, or kyloes, as they 
 are called (supposed to be from a corruption 
 of a Gaelic word pronounced kael, signify- 
 ing Highlands), are bred in great abundance 
 in, and exported from, the Hebrides. The 
 true bull of this breed is described by Mr. 
 M'Neil of Islay as black; the head not 
 large, the ears thin, the muzzle fine, and 
 rather turned up ; broad in the face ; eyes 
 prominent; countenance calm and placid; 
 the horns should taper to a point, neither 
 drooping too much nor rising too high, of a 
 waxy colour, widely set at the root; the 
 neck fine, particularly where it joins the 
 head, and rising with a gentle curve from 
 the shoulder ; the breast wide, and project- 
 ing well before the legs ; the shoulders 
 broad at the top, and the chine so full as to 
 leave but little hollow behind them; the 
 girth behind the shoulder deep; the back 
 straight, wide, and flat ; the ribs broad, the 
 space between them and the ribs small ; the 
 belly not sinking low in the middle, yet, in 
 the whole, not forming the round and 
 barrel-like carcass which some have de- 
 scribed; the thigh tapering to the hock- 
 joint ; the bones larger in proportion to the 
 size than in the breeds of the southern dis- 
 tricts ; the tail set on a level with the back ; 
 the legs short and straight ; the whole car- 
 cass covered with a long thick coat of hair, 
 and plenty of hair also, about the face and 
 horns, and that hair not curly. They are 
 hardy, easily fed; the proportion of their 
 offal is not greater than in the most ap- 
 proved larger breeds ; they lay their fat 
 and flesh equally on the best parts, and 
 when fat, the beef is fine in the grain, and 
 so well mixed or marbled that it commands 
 a superior price in every market. About 
 30,000 of these are annually sent from the 
 Hebrides to the main land. (On Cattle, 
 p. 67.) 
 
 In the Hebrides, the dairy is only at- 
 tended to so far as to serve the family with 
 milk, butter, and cheese. The milk of the 
 W estern Highland cow is small in quantity 
 but excellent in quality ; she does not yield, 
 however, more than one third of that of the 
 Ayrshire. The oxen of the Hebrides are 
 never worked. (Ibid. p. 71.) 
 
 The Argyleshire breed are larger than 
 those of the Hebrides, and are bred accord- 
 ing to what the soil and the food will best 
 304 
 
 support. The Highlander, however, (says 
 the gentleman whom I have in this article 
 quoted so often,) " must be reared for the 
 grazier alone; every attention to increase 
 his weight, in order to make him capable of 
 agricultural labour, every effort to qualify 
 him for the dairy, will not only lessen his 
 hardiness of constitution and propensity to 
 fatten, but will fail in rendering him valu- 
 able for the purpose at which the farmer 
 aims. The character of the Highlander 
 must still be, that he will pay better for his 
 quantity of food than any other breed, and 
 will fatten where any other breed will 
 scarcely live." (Ibid. p. 79.) 
 
 Of the North Highland cattle, those of the 
 Shetland Islands are the smallest ; dwarfish, 
 ill-shaped, and covered with hair; they 
 sometimes are not more than 35 or 40 lbs. 
 to the quarter. When they are taken to 
 the north of Scotland, they thrive and fatten 
 on very poor food with great rapidity ; but 
 when brought further to the south, the 
 change is too great for them ; they languish 
 and sicken. The Shetland calf suffers pri- 
 vations from her birth ; it is, in fact, killed 
 often as soon as it is born. It is never 
 allowed to suck its mother, but, if reared, 
 is fed at first with milk, and afterwards with 
 bland, a wretched kind of butter-milk ; and 
 when it grows up it has nothing to subsist 
 upon but moss, heath, and sea-weed. The 
 cows are housed at night, and, in the ab- 
 sence of straw, are littered with heath and 
 the dust of peat. Their milk, which is ex- 
 ceedingly rich, is very small in quantity. 
 
 In the northerly counties of Scotland, 
 there is nothing very peculiar in the breed 
 of their cattle. The introduction of sheep, 
 and of better modes of cultivating the soil, 
 have gone far to diminish the stocks of 
 poor, Hi-fed, and worse managed breeding 
 herds of this once desolate extremity of 
 the island. These improvements, however, 
 were long opposed by the husbandmen and 
 the tenders of cattle as bold innovations, 
 which were, at all events, to be opposed. 
 Mobs, therefore, collected; the sheep were 
 driven away ; fences destroyed ; the new 
 farmers intimidated : the laws alone sup- 
 ported these national improvements to a 
 successful issue. 
 
 The county of Aberdeen breeds more 
 cattle than any other in Scotland. Its 
 stock has been estimated at 112,000, and 
 its annual sale of both fat and lean cattle 
 is equal to more than 20,000. These vary 
 in character with the soil and elevation: 
 amongst the hills, they are chiefly of the 
 Highland breed ; in the plains, a better de- 
 scription has been produced, by breeding 
 from these by bulls from Fifeshire. The 
 horns of these, says Mr. Youatt, do not 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 taper so finely, nor stand so much upwards, 
 as in the West Highlanders ; and they are 
 also whiter ; the hair is shorter and thinner ; 
 the ribs cannot be said to be flat, but the 
 chest is deeper in proportion to the circum- 
 ference, and the buttocks and thighs are 
 likewise thinner. The colour is usually 
 black, but sometimes brindled; they are 
 heavier in carcass ; they give a larger quan- 
 tity of milk, but they do not attain maturity 
 so early as the West Highlanders, nor is 
 their flesh quite so beautifully marbled; 
 yet, at a proper age, they fatten as readily 
 as the others, not only on good pasture, but 
 on that which is somewhat inferior. They 
 are rarely used for husbandry work, or, at 
 most, for only one year. They are sent to 
 grass at four years old for six months, after 
 which they will weigh from 5 to 6 cwt. 
 " The breed," adds Mr. Youatt, " has pro- 
 gressively improved, and this by judicious 
 selections from the native stock : it has in- 
 creased in size, and become nearly double 
 its weight, without losing its propensity to 
 fatten, and without growing above its keep." 
 There is also in this great agricultural 
 county an excellent breed of poll cattle; 
 they are not so handsome, yet larger than 
 the horned cattle ; the quality of their meat 
 is also said not to be so good. The calves 
 are reared in Aberdeenshire much in the 
 ordinary way. They are commonly fed with 
 milk warm from the cow, and they are even 
 sometimes reared partly on oil cakes. 
 
 In Fifeshire the breed of cattle are of a 
 very superior description. " They are ge- 
 nerally," says Dr. Thompson, " of a black 
 colour ; the horns small and white, gene- 
 rally pretty erect, or, at least, turned up at 
 the points, and bending rather forward; the 
 bone small in proportion to the carcass ; the 
 limbs clean but short, and the skin soft; 
 wide between the extreme points of the 
 hock-bones ; the ribs narrow and wide set, 
 having a greater curvature than in other 
 kinds, which gives the body a thick round 
 form ; they fatten quickly, and fill up well 
 at all the choice points; are hardy, fleet, 
 and travel well ; are docile, and excellent 
 for work." Whatever may be the explan- 
 ation of the fact, it is certain that, at the 
 present day, the Fifeshire breed of cattle is 
 peculiarly her own. That they were cen- 
 turies since improved by a cross with the 
 then small cattle of England, is pretty 
 certain ; but whether English cattle formed 
 part of the dowry of Margaret, the daughter 
 of Henry VII. of England, when she married 
 James TV. of Scotland, or whether English 
 cattle were sent as a present to Scotland by 
 J ames II. of England, is almost mere matter 
 of conjecture ; but, be that as it may, " the 
 Fifeshire farmers," says Mr. Youatt, in his 
 305 
 
 valuable work on cattle, " are convinced 
 that their cattle cannot be further improved 
 as a whole by any foreign cross, and they 
 confine themselves to a judicious selection 
 from their own." The pure Durhams have 
 been established in some parts of Fife, but 
 not always without difficulty. 
 
 Ayrshire has a peculiarly fine breed of 
 dairy cattle, which is thus described by 
 Mr. Aiton, in his excellent treatise (p. 26.) 
 on the dairy breed of cows : — " The most 
 approved shapes in the dairy breed are, 
 small head, rather long, and narrow at the 
 muzzle ; eye small, but smart and lively ; 
 the horns small, clear, crooked, and their 
 roots at considerable distance from each 
 other ; neck long and slender, tapering to- 
 wards the head, with no loose skin below ; 
 shoulders thin; fore-quarters light; hind- 
 quarters large; back straight, broad behind; 
 the joints rather loose and open ; carcass 
 deep, and pelvis capacious and wide over 
 the hips, with round fleshy buttocks ; tail 
 long and small ; legs small and short, with 
 firm joints ; udder capacious, broad, and 
 square, stretching forward, and neither 
 fleshy, low hung, nor loose ; the milk veins are 
 large and prominent ; teats short, all point- 
 ing outwards, and at cpnsiderable distance 
 from each other , skin thin and loose ; hair 
 soft and woolly ; the head, bones, horns, 
 and all parts of least value, small ; and the 
 general figure compact and well propor- 
 tioned." (Youatt, On Cattle, p. 127.) 
 
 " The qualities of a cow," adds Mr. Aiton 
 in another place, " are of great importance. 
 Tameness and docility of temper greatly 
 enhance the value of a milch cow. Some 
 degree of hardiness, a sound constitution, 
 health, and a moderate degree of spirits, 
 are qualities to be wished for in a dairy- 
 cow, and what those of Ayrshire generally 
 possess. The most valuable qualities which 
 a dairy cow can possess are that she yields 
 much milk, and that of an oily, butyraceous 
 and caseous nature ; and that after she has 
 yielded very large quantities of milk for 
 several years, she shall be as valuable for 
 beef as any other breed of cows known ; her 
 fat shall be much more mixed through the 
 whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than 
 any other." And again, " the best Scotch 
 dairy cows yield 1000 gallons of milk in one 
 year ; and in general, from 3 J to 4 gallons 
 of their milk will yield li lbs. of butter, and 
 about 27^ gallons will produce 1 J stone im- 
 perial of full milk cheese." 
 
 Lanarkshire is noted for its calves, whose 
 veal is highly esteemed in the markets of 
 Glasgow and Edinburgh. These, according 
 to Mr. Aiton (Survey of Ayrshire, p. 441.), 
 are fed on milk from a dish, not suckled. 
 This is often given to them sparingly at 
 x 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 first, to improve their appetite and relish 
 for their food ; but it is gradually increased 
 till the calf has a full supply. Other far- 
 mers allow them as much as they please 
 from the first. For the first week or two 
 a calf consumes about half a good cow's 
 milk ; at a month old, the whole of a cow's 
 milk ; and at two months old, the greater 
 part of that of two cows. Those which are 
 reared for stock have commonly the first 
 drawn milk ; those which are fattening, the 
 last drawn from two or three cows. When 
 the calves are costive, they have a little 
 bacon or mutton broth given them ; if they 
 purge, a little rennet in their milk cures the 
 complaint. They are used to have, also, a 
 lump of chalk in their cribs. 
 
 The Galloway polled cattle are a peculiarly 
 fine and valuable breed. They are described 
 by Mr. Youatt, on the authority of the 
 author of the Survey of Galloway , as straight 
 and broad in the back, and nearly level from 
 the head to the tail — round in the ribs, and 
 also between the shoulders and the ribs, and 
 the ribs and the loins — broad in the loins 
 without any large projecting hook-bones — 
 long in the quarters and ribs, and deep in 
 the chest, but not broad in the twist. There 
 is much less space between the hook or hip- 
 bones and the ribs than in most other breeds. 
 They are short in the leg, and moderately 
 fine in the shank-bone. The happy medium 
 seems to be preserved in the leg, securing 
 hardihood and a disposition to fatten. With 
 the same cleanness and shortness of shank, 
 there is no breed so large and muscular 
 above the knee, while there is more room 
 for the deep broad and capacious chest. — 
 They are clean, not fine and slender, but 
 well proportioned in the neck and chaps ; 
 a thin and delicate neck would not cor- 
 respond with the broad shoulders, deep 
 chest, and close compact form of the breed. 
 The neck of the Galloway bull is thick even 
 to a fault. The Galloway has a loose mellow 
 skin of medium thickness, with long soft 
 silky hair. The skin, which is thinner than 
 the Leicester, is not so fine as the improved 
 Durham ; it handles soft and kindly. Their 
 colour is commonly black, but there are 
 several varieties ; the dark coloured are 
 preferred from their being considered to 
 indicate hardness of constitution. 30,000 
 of these are estimated to be sent yearly out 
 of Galloway to the south. (Youatt, On Cattle, 
 p. 158.) The Galloway breeders prefer al- 
 lowing the calves to suck the cow ; they 
 consider they thrive materially better than 
 those fed from the pail, and that fewer die 
 of stomach complaints. Another valuable 
 I >n m m I of polled cows is bred in Angus, which 
 much resemble in appearance those of Gal- 
 loway ; they are, however, rather larger and 
 306 
 
 longer in the leg, flatter sided, and with 
 thinner shoulders. 
 
 In Norfolk and Suflblk a polled breed of 
 cows prevails, which are almost all descended 
 from the Galloway cattle, " whose general 
 form," says Mr. Youatt (p. 172.), "they re- 
 tain with some of, but not all, their excel- 
 lences ; they have been enlarged, but not im- 
 proved, by abetter climate and soil. They are 
 commonly of a red or black colour, with a 
 peculiar golden circle around the eye. They 
 are taller than the Galloways, but thinner in 
 the chine, flatter in the ribs, and longer in the 
 legs ; rather better milkers; of greater weight 
 when fattened ; though not fattening so kindly, 
 and the meat is not quite equal in quality." 
 
 The Suflblk dun cow, which is also of 
 Galloway descent, is celebrated as a milker, 
 and, there is little doubt, is not inferior to 
 any other breed in the quantity of milk 
 which she yields ; this is from six to eight 
 gallons per day. The butter produced, how- 
 ever, is not in proportion to the milk. It is 
 calculated that a Suflblk cow produces an- 
 nually about li cwt. of butter. 
 
 Irish cuttle. — Of the Irish cattle there 
 are two breeds, the middle and the long- 
 horns. The middle-horns are the original 
 breed, and tenant the forests and most 
 mountainous districts. "They are," says 
 Mr. Youatt, " small, light, active, and wild ; 
 the head commonly small ; the horns short 
 but fine, rather upright, and frequently, 
 after projecting forward, turning backward ; 
 somewhat deficient in hind-quarters ; high- 
 boned, and wide over the hips, yet the 
 bone not commonly heavy ; the hair coarse 
 and long, black or brindled, with white 
 faces. Some are finer in the bone and in 
 the neck, with a good eye and sharp muzzle, 
 and great activity — are hardy, live upon 
 very scanty fare, and fatten with great ra- 
 pidity when removed to a better soil : they 
 are good milkers. The Kerry cows are ex- 
 cellent in this respect. These last, however, 
 are wild and remarkable leapers. They 
 live, however, upon very little food, and have 
 often been denominated the poor man's cow." 
 
 The other breed is of a larger size. It 
 has much of the blood of the old Lancashire 
 or Craven breed, or true long-horn. Their 
 horns first turn outwards, then curve, and 
 turn inwards. Of each of these kinds, an 
 immense number of both lean and fat stock 
 are annually exported to England : in 1825 
 it amounted to 63,524. 
 
 The long-horns. — The long-horns of 
 England came originally from Craven in 
 Yorkshire, and derived their name from a 
 length of horn, which often extended to an 
 unbecoming degree. Bakewell, Culley, and 
 other great breeders improved upon, and 
 have long since destroyed, the chief truces 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 of the old, long bodied, coarse, large boned 
 breed. It is needless, therefore, to follow 
 this breed through the various counties in 
 which it once predominated, for it has long 
 been rapidly disappearing, and has almost 
 everywhere given place to better kinds. 
 
 The short-koms. — Of this noble breed of 
 cattle, which seems to be annually increas- 
 ing in favour with the dairyman and the 
 grazier, we are mainly indebted to the de- 
 scription of the late Rev. Henry Berry. 
 Durham and Yorkshire have for ages been 
 celebrated for a breed of these possessing 
 extraordinary value as milkers, "in which 
 quality," says Mr. Youatt, " taken as a 
 breed, they have never been equalled. The 
 cattle so distinguished were always, as now, 
 very different from the improved race. 
 They were generally of large size, thin 
 skinned, sleek haired, bad handlers, rather 
 delicate in constitution, coarse in the offal, 
 and strikingly defective in the substance of 
 girth in the fore -quarters* As milkers they 
 were most excellent, but when put to fatten, 
 as the foregoing description will indicate, 
 were found slow feeders, producing an in- 
 ferior quality of meat, not marbled or 
 mixed as to fat and lean ; the latter some- 
 times of a very dark hue. Such, too, are the 
 unimproved short-horns of the present day." 
 
 About the year 1750, in the valley of the 
 Tees, commenced that spirit of improve- 
 ment in the breeders of the old short-horns, 
 which has ended in the improved modern 
 breed. These efforts, began by Sir William 
 Quintin, and carried on by Mr. Milbank of 
 Barmingham, were nearly completed by 
 Mr. Charles Colling. The success of this 
 gentleman was, from the first, considerable. 
 He produced, by judicious selections and 
 crossings, the celebrated bull Hubback, from 
 whom are descended the best short-horns of 
 our day. Of this breed was the celebrated 
 Durham ox, which was long shown in a 
 travelling van at country fairs, and which, 
 when slaughtered in April 1807, at eleven 
 years of age, weighed 187 stone ; and the 
 Spottiswoode ox, probably the largest ever 
 exhibited. In June, 1802, he measured — 
 height of shoulder, 6 feet 10 inches ; girth 
 behind the shoulder, 10 feet 2 inches ; breadth 
 across the hooks, 3 feet 1 inch ; computed 
 weight, 320 stones of 14 lbs. {Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. vi. p. 271 .) 
 
 Besides Mr. Colling, his brother Mr. 
 Robert Colling, Mr. Charge, and Mr. Mason 
 were hardly second to him in skill and 
 success as breeders of the short-horns. 
 
 "With the pure improved short-horns, 
 crossed with a red polled Galloway cow, 
 was produced a variety of this breed, which 
 was long named " the alloy," but for which 
 at Mr. C. Collings's sale, October 11. 1810, 
 307 
 
 some most extraordinary prices were ob- 
 tained : thus a cow called 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 Lady, 14 years old, sold for - 206 
 
 Countess, her daughter, 9 years - 400 
 
 Laura, ditto 4 years - 210 
 
 Major, her son, 3 years - 200 
 
 George, ditto, a calf - - 130 
 
 In short, at this sale, forty-eight lots produced 
 71 15/. 17*., Comet, a six year old bull, selling 
 for 1000 guineas. (See Colmng, Robert 
 
 AND ChARJLES.) 
 
 The colours of the improved short-horns 
 are red or white, or a mixture of both; 
 " no pure improved short-horns" adds Mr.. 
 Youatt, " are found of any other colour but 
 those above named." That the matured 
 short-horns are an admirable grazier's breed 
 of cattle is undoubted : they are not, how- 
 ever, to be disregarded as milkers ; but they 
 are inferior, from their fattening qualities, 
 to many others as workers. 
 
 " In its points" says Mr. James Dickson 
 (Quart. Jburn. of Agr. vol. vi. p. 269.), for 
 quantity and well laid on beef, the short- 
 horn ox is quite full in every valuable part ; 
 such as along the back, including the fore- 
 ribs, the surloin and rump, in the runners, 
 flanks, buttocks, and twist, and in the neck 
 and brisket as inferior parts. In regard to 
 quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even 
 preponderating proportion to the lean, the 
 fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and 
 even marbled with fat, and abundantly 
 juicy. The fine, thin, clear bone of the legs 
 and head, with the soft mellow touch of the 
 skin, and the benign aspect of the eye, indi^ 
 cate in a remarkable degree the disposition 
 to fatten ; while the uniform colours of the 
 skin, red or white, or both, commixed in 
 various degrees, bare cream-coloured skin 
 on the nose and around the eyes, and fine, 
 tapering, white, or light coloured horns mark 
 distinctly the purity of the blood; these 
 points apply equally to the bull, the cow, 
 and the heifer. The external appearance 
 of the short-horn breed," adds Mr. Dickson, 
 "is irresistibly attractive. The exquisitely 
 symmetrical form of the body in every posi- 
 tion, bedecked with a skin of the richest hues 
 of red, and the richest white approaching to. 
 cream, or both colours, so arranged or com- 
 mixed as to form a beautiful fleck or deli- 
 cate roan, and possessed of the mellowest 
 touch ; supported on clean small limbs, 
 showing, like those of the race-horse and 
 the greyhound, the union of strength with 
 fineness ; and ornamented with a small, 
 lengthy, tapering head, neatly set on a broad, 
 firm, deep neck, and furnished with a small 
 muzzle, wide nostrils, prominent ' mildly 
 beaming' eyes, thin large biney ears set 
 near the crown of the head and protected 
 
CATTLE. 
 
 in front with semicircularly bent, white, or 
 brownish coloured, short (hence the name), 
 smooth pointed horns ; all these parts com- 
 bine to form a symmetrical harmony, which 
 has never been surpassed in beauty and 
 sweetness by any other species of the domes- 
 ticated ox.' 
 
 An excellent paper by Mr. Dickson on 
 crossing the short-horns with other cattle, 
 may be consulted with advantage by the 
 breeder in the Edin. Quart Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. vii. p. 495., and on crossing in general, 
 Ibid. p. 247. 
 
 The Yorkshire cow. — "With Mr. Youatt's 
 account of the Yorkshire cow (and this ar- 
 ticle is, in fact, hardly any thing else but an 
 abridgment of his excellent work " On Cattle " 
 in the Library of Useful Knowledge) we shall 
 conclude. The Yorkshire cow is that gene- 
 rally found in the great dairies in ihe vi- 
 cinity of London, and in these the character 
 of the Holderness and the Durham unite. "A 
 milch cow good for the pail as long as she is 
 wanted, and then quickly got into market- 
 able condition, should have a long and ra- 
 ther small head : a large-headed cow will 
 seldom fatten or yield much milk. The eye 
 should be bright, yet with a peculiar placid- 
 ness and quietness of expression ; the chaps 
 thin, and the horns small. The neck may be 
 thin towards the head; but it must soon begin 
 to thicken, and especially when it approaches 
 the shoulder. The dewlap should be small ; 
 the breast, if not so wide as in some that have 
 an unusual disposition to fatten, yet should be 
 very far from being narrow, and it should pro- 
 ject before the legs ; the chine to a certain de- 
 gree fleshy, and even inclining to fulness ; the 
 girth behind the shoulder should be deeper 
 than is usually found in the short-horn ; the 
 ribs should be spread out wide, so as to give 
 as globular a form as possible to the carcass, 
 and each should project farther than the 
 preceding one, to the very loins. She should 
 be well formed across the hips, and on the 
 rump, and with greater length there than 
 the milker generally possesses, or if a little 
 too short not heavy. If she stands a little 
 long on the legs, it must not be too long. 
 
 The thighs somewhat «thin, with a slight 
 tendency to crookedness or being sickle- 
 hammed behind ; the tail thick at the upper 
 part, but tapering below ; and she should 
 have a mellow hide, and but little coarse hair. 
 Common consent has given to her large milk 
 veins. A large milk vein certainly indicates 
 a strongly developed vascular system, one 
 favourable to secretion generally, and to 
 that of the milk amongst the rest. The 
 udder should rather incline to be large in 
 proportion to the size of the animal, but not 
 too large ; its skin thin and free from lumps 
 in every part of it ; the teats of a moderate 
 size. The quantity of milk given by some 
 of these cows is very great ; it is by no means 
 uncommon for them in the beginning of the 
 summer to yield thirty quarts a day. There are 
 rare instances of the cow yielding thirty-six 
 quarts ; the average is about twenty-two to 
 twenty-four quarts. The milk, however, is 
 not so rich in its produce of butter as that of 
 the long-horns, the Scotch, or the Devons." 
 (For the Alderney cow, see Alderney.) 
 
 Live and dead weight of cattle. — Salesmen 
 commonly calculate that the dead weight is 
 one half of what the animal weighs when 
 alive ; but the butcher knows that the pro- 
 duce is greater : it often approaches to three 
 fifths ; and by an extensive stock bailiff of the 
 late Mr. Curwen, it was found that the dead 
 weight amounted to fifty-five per cent, of 
 the live. But the amount differs strangely, 
 as may be seen by the following statement 
 of Mr. Ferguson of Woodhill. (Brit. Husb. 
 vol. ii. p. 392.) 
 
 An Aberdeenshire ox 
 A short-horned ox 
 A short-horned heifer - 
 A short- horned steer - 
 
 Live 
 Weight. 
 
 Dead 
 Weight. 
 
 Tallow. 
 
 st. lbs. 
 132 11 
 132 0 
 120 4 
 120 5 
 
 st. lbs. 
 84 6 
 90 1 
 77 9 
 67 7 
 
 st. lbs. 
 16 5 
 
 14 0 
 
 15 8 
 14 12 
 
 In ascertaining the weight by admeasure- 
 ment, the girth is taken by passing a cord 
 just behind the shoulder-blade and under 
 the fore-legs : this gives the circumference, 
 and the length is taken along the back from 
 the foremost corner of the blade bone of the 
 
 308 
 
[der, in 
 
 ; of the i 
 
 Table fo) 
 
 h. Length 
 
 in. ft. f'n 
 
 3 3 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 6 3 0 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 4 3 
 
 9 3 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 4 3 
 4 6 
 4 9 
 
 0 3 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 4 3 
 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 3 3 3 
 
 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 4 3 
 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 6 3 6 
 
 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 4 3 
 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 5 3 
 
 9 3 9 
 
 4 0 
 
 4 3 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 5 3 
 5 6 
 
 0 4 3 
 
 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 5 3 
 5 6 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 0 
 3 4 6 
 
 4 9 
 
 5 0 
 5 3 
 5 6 
 
 5 9 
 
 6 0 
 6 3 
 
 (M'D 
 he quan 
 
 thfield is 
 WCulloc 
 
 Year. 
 
 1732 
 
 1742 
 
 1752 
 
 1762 
 
 1772 
 
 1782 
 
 1792 
 
 30 
 
 CATTLE. 
 
 straight line to the hindmost 
 ap" (See engraving, p. 308.) 
 
 Admeasurement of Cattle. 
 
 ight. 
 
 Girth. 
 
 Length. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 f r 
 G 
 
 in. 
 
 ft. 
 
 ?'«. 
 
 st. lbs. 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 45 3 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 9 
 
 47 10 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 50 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 52 11 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 55 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 57 11 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 60 4 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 63 0 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 48 11 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 51 7 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 54 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 56 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 59 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 62 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 65 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 67 11 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 55 6 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 58 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 61 3 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 64 2 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 67 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 69 13 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 72 12 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 75 11 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 59 6 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 62 8 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 65 9 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 68 11 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 71 13 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 75 1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 78 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 81 4 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 66 13 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 70 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 73 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 77 0 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 80 5 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 83 9 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 87 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 9 
 
 90 5 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 71 7 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 75 1 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 78 9 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 82 3 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 85 11 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 3 
 
 89 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 92 13 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 9 
 
 96 7 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 100 0 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 80 0 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 g 
 
 83 11 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 87 8 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 91 6 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 95 3 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 99 0 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 9 
 
 102 12 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 106 9 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 89 1 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 93 2 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 0 
 
 97 3 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 
 101 3 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 105 4 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 109 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 113 6 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 117 6 
 
 ■2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 merits Farmer's Assistant.) 
 y of cattle annually sold in 
 ery great : it was (according 
 Diet, of Commerce) in — 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep." 
 
 76,210 
 
 514,700 
 
 79,601 
 
 503,260 
 
 73,708 
 
 642,100 
 
 102,831 
 
 772,160 
 
 89,503 
 
 609,540 
 
 101,176 
 
 728,970 
 
 107,348 
 
 760,859 
 
 Year. 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Sheep. 
 
 1802 
 
 126,389 
 
 743,470 
 
 1812 
 
 133,854 
 
 953,630 
 
 1822 
 
 142,043 
 
 1,340,160 
 
 1832 
 
 166,224 
 
 1,364,160 
 
 Fatted calves : 
 1822 
 1832 
 
 24,255 
 19,522 
 
 Cattle and beef imported from Ireland : — 
 
 Beef. 
 
 Year. Cattle. Barrels. 
 
 1802 - 42,501 59,448 
 1812 - 79,122 114,504 
 1822 - 34,659 43,139 
 1825 - 63,519 63,557 
 The quantity of cattle in various Euro- 
 pean countries has been estimated to be as 
 follows : — 
 
 
 Cattle. 
 
 Great Britain - 
 
 5,100,000 
 
 Russia 
 
 - 19,000,000 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1,607,000 
 
 Austria 
 
 9,912,500 
 
 France 
 
 6,681,900 
 
 Spain 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 Portugal 
 
 650,000 
 
 Italy 
 
 - 3,500,000 
 
 There are many able papers on subjects 
 relating to cattle dispersed in the best agri- 
 cultural periodicals, which the breeder may 
 wish to refer to, such as " On Stall-feeding 
 Cows in Summer," by Mr. Collett of Chris- 
 tiana in Norway (Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. vi. p. 60.) ; " On Soiling," by Mr. Cur- 
 wen (Ibid. p. 49.) ; " On their Treatment 
 in Winter" (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 228.) ; " On Fattening Cattle on different 
 Kinds of Food," by Mr. Brodie (Ibid, vol.viii. 
 p. 327.) ; " On Feeding Cattle on Sugar" 
 by Mr. Ellis (Com. Board of Agr. vol. vii. 
 p. 327.) ; and " On Potatoes," by Sir C. 
 Burrell (Ibid. p. 323.) ; " On House and 
 Yard-feeding Milch Cows for the Supply 
 of Milk," by Mr. Harley (Quart. Journ. Agr. 
 vol. i. p. 170.) ; see also "The Harleian 
 Dairy System " by the same gentleman, and 
 " On a celebrated Yard-fed Cow," the pro- 
 perty of Mr. Cramp of Lewes (Com. Board 
 of Agr. vol. vii. p. 53.). It will, perhaps, 
 surprise an English farmer to learn to what 
 coarse unnatural kind of food use will ac- 
 custom animals. The cows of Shetland live 
 upon the coarsest moss and sea-weed ; those 
 of still more northerly regions on even ani- 
 mal food. In Lapland and Iceland, accord- 
 ing to Mr. De Broke, the cattle are uni- 
 formly fed on fish. " The English farmer's 
 surprise," says Mr. Broke, " will not be 
 lessened when he learns that the animals not 
 only devour this kind of food with the 
 greatest eagerness, but thrive and do well 
 upon it ; it seems that fish heads and bones 
 are boiled together with some hay into a 
 x 3 
 
CATTLE, DISEASES OF. 
 
 CATTLE SHEDS. 
 
 kind of soup, and poured into the mangers 
 of the poor beasts." {Quart. Joum. of Agr. 
 vol. x. p. 299.) There is a paper " On Live 
 Stock and Crossing," by Mr. Ferguson (Ibid. 
 vol. i. p. 33.) ; " On the Comparative Ad- 
 vantages of Feeding Stock with Mangel 
 Wurzel, Turnips, and Potatoes," by Mr. 
 Howden (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iii. p. 268.) ; 
 and " On Raw and Prepared Food," by 
 Messrs. Walker, Howden, Boswell, and 
 Walker (Ibid. vol. iv. p. 253.) ; and again by 
 Mr. Walker (Ibid. vol. v. p. 52.) ; and " On 
 different Descriptions of Food," by Mr. 
 Stephenson (Ibid. vol. vi. p. 61.) On the 
 disease called the " Muir-ill," by Mr. M'Far- 
 lane (Ibid. vol. iv. p. 388.) ; on the dis- 
 ease called " The Tail-slip," by Mr. Dick 
 (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. iii. 
 p. 308.) ; "On Calculi" (Ibid. p. 642.) ; " On 
 Diseases of the Udder" (Ibid. p. 871.); 
 " On the Navel-ill," by Mr. Sitwell (Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 401.) ; " On Ac- 
 climating Cattle," by Dr. Smith of Kentucky 
 (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 93.) ; " On determining 
 the Weight of Cattle by Admeasurement 
 (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. v. p. 612.) ; and 
 Mr. Ferguson " On the Value of Live Stock 
 with relation to the Weight of Offal (Ibid. 
 vol. ii. p. 207.) ; " On their External Con- 
 formation," by Mr. Sparrow ( Veterinarian for 
 1839; Farmer's Mag., vo l. iii^ p. 95. n. 5.) ; 
 and if I omit to dwell aTlength upon the 
 substance of these, it is owing only to the 
 fact, that my limits forbid my doing more 
 than referring the farmer to the source from 
 whence I have, in other places, extracted 
 the chief facts. (Baron Malthus ; M k Cul- 
 loclis Diet. Com. ; Youatt on Cattle ; Quart. 
 Joum. of Agr. ; Farmer's Mag. Trans, 
 of Highland Soc. ; Low's Illustrations of the 
 Breeds of Domestic Animals.} 
 
 CATTLE, REMEDIES FOR DIS- 
 EASES OF. 
 
 Abortion. See Abortion. 
 Blackwater is the concluding and com- 
 monly fatal stage of red water. See Red- 
 water. 
 
 Calving. See Calving. 
 Cleansing drink. — 1 oz. of bayberry pow- 
 dered, 1 oz. of brimstone powdered, 1 oz. of 
 cummin-seed powdered, 1 oz. of diapente. 
 Boil these together for 10 minutes ; give 
 when cold in a little gruel. 
 
 Colic. — The best remedy is 1 pint of lin- 
 seed oil mixed with \ oz. of laudanum. 
 
 A cordial is easily made by 1 oz. of carra- 
 way seeds, 1 oz. of aniseeds, £ oz. of ginger 
 powdered, 2 oz. of fenugreek seeds. Boil 
 these in a pint and a half of beer for 10 mi- 
 nutes, and administer when cold. 
 
 Diarrhoea. — Give £ oz. of powdered cate- 
 chu, and 10 grs. of powdered opium, in a 
 little gruel. See Diarrhoea. 
 310 
 
 Dysentery. — The same as for diarrhoea. 
 
 Fever.— Bleed ; and then give 1 oz. of pow- 
 dered nitre and 2 oz. of powdered brimstone 
 in a little gruel. If the bowels are consti- 
 pated, give £ lb. of Epsom salts in 3 pints of 
 water daily, in need. 
 
 Hoose. See Calves, Diseases or — only 
 double the doses. 
 
 Hoove or Hoven. — Use the elastic tube ; 
 as a prevention, let them be well supplied 
 with common salt, and restrained from rapid 
 feeding when first feeding upon rank grass 
 or clover. See Hoove. 
 
 Mange. — £ lb. of black brimstone, £ pint 
 of turpentine, 1 pint of train oil. Mix them 
 together, and rub the mixture well in over 
 the affected parts. 
 
 Milk fever, or Garget. — 2 oz. of brim- 
 stone, 1 oz. of diapente, 1 oz. of cummin-seed 
 powdered, 1 oz. of powdered nitre. Give this 
 daily in a little gruel, and well rub the udder 
 with a little goose-grease. See Garget. 
 
 Murrain. — a lb. of salts, 2 oz. of bruised 
 coriander-seed, 1 oz. of gentian powder. 
 Give these in a little water. See Murrain. 
 
 Poisons swallowed by oxen are commonly 
 the yew, the water dropwort, and the 
 common and the water hemlock. 1£ pint 
 of linseed oil is the best remedy. 
 
 Purge, in poisoning — either 1 lb. of salts 
 in a quart of water or gruel, or a pint to a 
 pint and a half of linseed oil. 
 
 Redwater. — Bleed, says Youatt, first, and 
 then give a dose of 1 lb. of Epsom salts, and 
 a lb. doses repeated every 8 hours until the 
 bowels are acted upon. In Hampshire they 
 give 4 oz. bole armeniac and 2 oz. of spirits 
 of turpentine in a pint of gruel. 
 
 Sprains. — Embrocation : 8 oz. of sweet oil, 
 4 oz. spirits of hartshorn, £ oz. oil of thyme. 
 
 Sting of the adder, or slowworm. — Apply 
 immediately to the part strong spirits of 
 hartshorn ; for sting of bees apply chalk or 
 whitening mixed with vinegar. See Bites, 
 and Bees. 
 
 Worms. — Bots : give | lb. of Epsom salts 
 with 2 oz. of coriander-seed bruised in a 
 quart of water. See Bots. 
 
 Yellows. — 2 oz. of diapente, 2 oz. of cum- 
 min-seed powdered, 2 oz. of fenugreek 
 powdered. Boil these for 10 minutes in a 
 quart of water, and give daily in a little 
 gruel. See Yellows. 
 
 CATTLE SHEDS. The cow-house 
 should be a capacious, well lighted, and 
 well ventilated building, in which the cows 
 or oxen can be kept dry, clean, and mode- 
 rately warm ; a temperature of about 60° 
 is perhaps the best. It is a mistaken idea, 
 that cattle suffer materially by dry cold. 
 It is the wet and the damp walls, yard, and 
 driving rains, and fogs of winter, that are 
 so injurious to them. In this respect the 
 
CATTLE STEALING. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. 
 
 Dutch farmers are very particular. They 
 have their cows regularly groomed, and the 
 walks behind them sprinkled with sand. A 
 clean and dry bed, a portion of a trough to 
 give them water, and another portion for 
 their oil cake, or mangel, or turnips, and a 
 rack for their dry food, will all be necessary 
 comforts. These, with regular feeding, a 
 lump of rock salt in the manger, and occa- 
 sional variations if possible in the food, are 
 the chief points to be attended to in the 
 stall management of cattle. (Brit. Hush. 
 vol. i p. 202. ; vol. ii. p. 399. ; Harleian Dairy 
 System, p. 14.) 
 
 CATTLE STEALING. See Horse 
 Stealing. 
 
 CAT- WHIN. A provincial term ap- 
 lied to the burnet rose. 
 
 CAUDAL. (Lat. cauda.) Relating to 
 the tail of an animal. 
 
 CAUDEX. A term which signifies the 
 stem or trunk of a tree. 
 
 CAUF. A chest with holes in the top to 
 keep fish alive in the water. 
 
 CAUKER, or CALKERS. A term em- 
 ployed in farriery to signify bending or turn- 
 ing up of the heels of the shoes of horses, 
 and intended to prevent the animal slipping. 
 This method, though once general, is now 
 commonly limited to the outside heel of the 
 shoes of the hind feet. 
 
 CAULIFEROUS. (From caulis, a stalk, 
 and fero, to bear.) A term applied to 
 such plants as are furnished with a stalk 
 which bear shoots, as the cauliflower, cab- 
 bage, &c. 
 
 CAULIFLOWER. (From Lat. caulis; 
 Brassica oleracea botrytis.) A species of bras- 
 sica, of which there are two varieties ; — the 
 early, which is smallest and most fit for 
 growth under lights, for the winter-standing 
 crop ; and the large, for the open ground 
 plantations. Cauliflower is propagated by 
 seed ; the first sowing to take place at the 
 close of January or early in February, in a 
 slight hot-bed, or warm border, in either situ- 
 ation to have the protection of a frame. The 
 plants are fit to be pricked out in March in 
 similar situations, and for final removal into 
 the open ground during April and May ; and 
 some to be placed under hand-glasses for 
 more immediately succeeding the winter- 
 standing crop. At the beginning of March 
 and April another sowing is to be performed 
 in a sheltered border, the seedlings of which 
 may be pricked out in May, and planted 
 finally in June for production at the end 
 of summer. Again, another sowing may 
 be done in the last week of May; for 
 pricking out, in June; and for final 
 planting, the end of July; to produce 
 during October and November, and in 
 favourable seasons until Christmas. The 
 311 
 
 seed of these sowings must be inserted 
 broadcast, and covered half an inch thick 
 with fine mould. The seedlings are of 
 sufficient size for pricking out when they 
 have four or five leaves, about an inch in 
 breadth ; they must be set three or four 
 inches apart each way. Water must be 
 given moderately, both in the seed-bed 
 and at the time of removal, if the weather 
 is at all dry. When finally set out, they 
 must be planted in rows two inches and a 
 half apart each way. The mould must be 
 frequently loosened by the hoe, and drawn 
 up about their stems. In dry weather 
 during summer, a cup-like hollow should 
 be formed round each plant and filled 
 twice a week with water ; but as soon as the 
 flower makes its appearance, it must be 
 applied every other day. As the head ap- 
 pears exposed, it is advantageous to break 
 some of the leaves, and turn them over it as 
 a shelter from the sun : this preserves them 
 from becoming of a yellow hue, as well as re- 
 tards their advancing to seed. 
 
 Winter-standing crop. — The seed for this 
 crop must be sown in the third week of 
 August, in a warm border or an old hot- 
 bed, with the protection of a frame or hand- 
 glass. That the cauliflower, though the 
 most tender of the brassica tribe, is not so 
 impatient of cold as some gardeners are led 
 to imagine, is demonstrated by the fact, that 
 the imperfect covering of mats will almost 
 always preserve the plants uninjured through 
 the winter ; and the practice of Mr. Bull, 
 of Rossie Priory, North Britain, proves 
 that it is scarcely more so than the broccoli. 
 He sows in the last week of August, trans- 
 plants in the middle or end of November, 
 and often does not even afford the plants 
 the protection of a south wall, and no de- 
 scription of covering. Plants thus raised 
 are healthier, and produce finer heads than 
 those which have additional shelter, though 
 they are not so forward, neither are they 
 subject to be black-shanked. (Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol.iii. p. 192.) 
 
 The seed-bed, if not one that has grown 
 cucumbers, &c. must be well manured with 
 dung from a cucumber bed, or, as is sometimes 
 recommended, a basis five or six inches thick 
 of dung in a perfectly decayed state must be 
 formed, firmly trodden down, and covered 
 with a similar thickness of light rich mould : 
 in this the seed is to be sown and buried a 
 quarter of an inch deep, and, during the 
 meridian of hot days, shaded with matting. 
 Moderate waterings must be given, as may 
 seem necessary. The plants appear in 
 about a week, and the shading and watering 
 must in like manner be afforded. 
 
 The plants are fit for pricking out at the 
 close of September, when their leaves are 
 x 4 
 
CAUMERIL. 
 
 CELANDINE, COMMON. 
 
 rather more than an inch wide. They should 
 be placed in a similar soil and situation to 
 that from which they were removed. To- 
 wards the end of October, or first week in 
 November, they must be removed, and 
 planted in patches of from three to six to- 
 gether, these clusters being in rows three 
 feet apart each way are to be sheltered with 
 hand-glasses until the spring. At the end 
 of February, if an open season, or not until 
 March if otherwise, part of the plants may 
 be removed from under the hand-glasses, 
 two strong ones being left under each glass, 
 and set out in the open ground ; the soil 
 and sheltered situation being as nearly 
 similar to that from which they are taken 
 as possible. Some, also, may be planted out 
 from the frames ; but from either situation 
 these removals must be concluded by the 
 middle of April. Care must be taken to 
 remove the plants with as much earth as 
 possible retained to their roots, and they are 
 to be planted at a similar distance as was re- 
 commended for the other open-ground crops. 
 
 Those continued under the glasses must 
 have air admitted as freely as possible, and 
 other precautions adopted that were recom- 
 mended during their winter growth. Earth 
 should be drawn carefully about their stems, 
 without any being allowed to fall into their 
 hearts. When they fill the glasses, these 
 last are easily raised by a circular mound, 
 four or five inches high, thrown up round 
 them. In mild weather, hot sunny days, 
 and during genial showers, the glasses may 
 be taken completely off, but replaced at 
 night. The plants being thus hardened by 
 degrees, and when all danger of frost is past, 
 about the end of April or early in May, the 
 glasses may be entirely removed. The leaves 
 are to be broken down over the heads, as be- 
 fore directed. For the production of seed, 
 some plants of the winter standing crop which 
 have fine and firm heads must be selected, 
 as these will produce the best seed, though 
 not in such quantity as those of a looser 
 texture. For the neeessary treatment, see 
 Broccoli. The seed ripens in September, 
 and the branches should be gathered as 
 soon as this occurs, and not allowed to re- 
 main until the whole is fit for collecting. 
 The seed remains, if carefully preserved, in 
 a good state for use until it is three or four 
 years old. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Gard.) 
 
 CAUMERIL. ' A provincial term applied 
 for the gambul used in killing sheep, hogs, 
 &c. which has a crooked form. 
 
 CAUSTIC. In farriery, a substance 
 which, by its powerful operation, destroys 
 the texture of the part to which it is applied. 
 Corrosive sublimate is the best caustic ; but 
 that requires skilful hands, for it is a dan- 
 gerous remedy except in the hands of the 
 312 
 
 I veterinarian. Mix one drachm of powdered 
 verdigris with one ounce of basilic oint- 
 ment ; apply this upon a piece of tow : or a 
 drachm of blue stone (sulphate of copper), 
 dissolved in one ounce of water may be 
 used; or lunar caustic in a quill may be 
 rubbed on to the diseased part. 
 
 CAUTERY, or CAUTING-IRON. (Old 
 Fr. cautere.) In farriery, a name given to a 
 searing iron, which is made white hot, and 
 used to destroy fungous flesh, &c. 
 
 CAVE. A provincial word, signifying to 
 rake off or from ; as short straws and ears 
 of grain from the corn in chaff on the barn- 
 floor. Cavings are the rakings thus ob- 
 tained ; and caving chaff, the coarse chaffy 
 materials collected. 
 
 CAVESSON, or CAVEZON. (Fr.) In 
 horsemanship, a term applied to an appa- 
 ratus resembling the musrol, which is used 
 in the breaking of horses. From its form- 
 ation, it binds and pinches the nose, and 
 regulates the action of the animal to which 
 it is applied. 
 
 CAVING RAKE. A sort of barn-floor 
 rake, having a short head and long teeth. 
 
 CAZZONS. A provincial word used to 
 signify the dried dung of cattle for fuel. 
 
 CEDAR OF LEBANON. (Abies cedrus.) 
 The Latins called this tree cedrus, from the 
 Greek KsSpog ; the Arabians called it serhin ; 
 the Italians and Spaniards cedro ; the French 
 cedre ; the Saxons ceben. 
 
 This sovereign of the forest appears to 
 have been indigenous to Mount Lebanon ; 
 but at what period it was first introduced 
 into England is not known. This noble 
 tree is now so well naturalised in this 
 country, that the seeds not only ripen, 
 but propagate themselves without care or 
 trouble. One of the cedars at Chiswick 
 measures 13 feet 4 inches in circumference, 
 and is 80 feet high ; but the largest now re- 
 maining on Lebanon is 9 feet in diameter, 
 or 27 in circumference: Cedar wood is re- 
 ported to be very durable ; the ancients 
 believed it to be imperishable. But ac- 
 cording to Mr. Drummond Hay's observa- 
 tions at Tangier, the indestructible cedar 
 wood is the timber of the Sandarac tree 
 (Thuja articulata). The timber of common 
 cedar is far from being valuable. (Phillips's 
 Syl Flor. vol. i. p. 162.) See Fir. 
 
 CELANDINE, COMMON. (Chelido- 
 nium majus.) Celandine is a wild plant with 
 large leaves and bright yellow flowers, 
 growing in shady places, waste and untilled 
 lands, and thickets, &c. especially on a 
 chalky soil, and flowering from April through 
 the summer. It grows two feet high, and 
 the stalks are round and green. The leaves 
 are large, long, and deeply divided at the 
 edges, and of a yellowish green, standing 
 
CELANDINE, LESSER. 
 
 CELERY. 
 
 two at each joint. The flowers are small; 
 several together upon long foot-stalks. 
 Every part is brittle, and if you crush 
 the stalk or leaves an orange-coloured 
 acrid juice is expressed, which is medicinal. 
 With this juice, as Dioscorides reports, 
 swallows were absurdly supposed to restore 
 the sight of their young if blinded ; whence 
 the name, formed from the Greek appellation 
 of a swallow. This author favours another 
 more probable meaning, which is, that the 
 plant appears and disappears with those 
 birds. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 4.) 
 
 CELANDINE, LESSER. See Crow- 
 foot Pllewort. 
 
 CELERIAC. (Apium rapaceum.) It 
 is propagated by seed, which may be sown 
 in March, April, and May, to afford suc- 
 cessional plantations in June, July, and 
 August. The seed must be sown broadcast, 
 and kept regularly watered every evening 
 in dry weather, otherwise it will not ger- 
 minate. 
 
 CELERY. (Apium graveolens. This 
 is the wild original of cultivated celery. 
 The name probably proceeded from apex, 
 a tuft or crest, which its umbels form.) 
 This class of plants flourish best in a moist 
 soil, friable, and rather inclining to light- 
 ness; it must be rich, and that rather from 
 prior application than the immediate ad- 
 dition of manure ; celery and celeriac, 
 however, appear benefited even by its 
 abundant application at the time of sowing 
 and planting. The parsleys, likewise, pre- 
 fer their soil to incline rather to dryness. 
 For all it must be deep, and all equally re- 
 fuse to thrive on a strong clayey soil. The 
 situation they thrive the most in, is one that 
 is as open, and as free from the influence of 
 trees as possible. The common parsley is 
 the one that bears best a confined or shady 
 compartment. 
 
 There are six varieties of celery in gene- 
 ral cultivation : — The gigantic, the dwarf- 
 curled, the common upright, red-stalked 
 upright, giant hollow upright, and the 
 solid- stalked (red and white). The red is 
 reared chiefly for soups, the white being 
 much more delicate in flavour. It is pro- 
 pagated by seed. The first sowing should^be 
 performed either in a hotbed or on a warm, 
 light border, towards the end of February ; 
 some gardeners even insert it as early as 
 the middle of January. The border is by 
 many gardeners considered the best situ- 
 ation, in as much as the plants are more 
 hardy, and with proper care come forward 
 with scarcely any difference as to time. This 
 is to be repeated in March ; but the prin- 
 cipal sowings must take place in April and 
 May ; and the last one in J une. As the pro- 
 duce of the early sowings will not continue 
 313 
 
 long in a state fit for use, from their leaf- 
 stalks becoming piped or hollow, they must 
 be proportion ably small ; they must all be 
 inserted broadcast, and the seed scattered 
 thinly. The seed-beds of the early sowings 
 should be light and dry, with the full enjoy- 
 ment of the sun throughout the day, but for 
 the three last, in a moist situation ; and it is 
 advantageous for them to have a free expo- 
 sure to the morning sun only, yet free from 
 the drip of trees ; so advantageous is it to 
 have the plants of these sowings as luxuriant 
 as possible in their first stage of growth, that ' 
 to afford them as regular and unstinted a 
 supply of nourishment as possible, the mould 
 of the seed bed is often formed artificially. 
 Mr. Walker, gardener to J. Walker, Esq. 
 of Longford, North Britain, recommends it 
 to be formed of black loamy soil and old 
 hotbed dung in equal parts. (Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Sqc. vol. ii. p. 295.) The plants from 
 these several sowings will in general be 
 ready for pricking out in four or six weeks 
 from the time of insertion, and for final 
 planting, after a further continued growth 
 of two months. A more determinate datum 
 for judging the appropriate time for per- 
 forming these operations is the size of the 
 plants, they being fit for the first removal 
 when three or four inches in height, and for 
 the second when seven or eight. From the 
 above enumerated sowings, monthly plant- 
 ings may be successionally made from 
 the commencement of June until Septem- 
 ber closes ; but for the supply of a family, 
 a sowing at the close of February for pro- 
 duction during the same year, and another 
 about the middle of May, to yield a pro- 
 duce in the winter and the following spring, 
 will in general be amply sufficient. 
 
 They are usually planted out finally in 
 trenches, from twelve to eighteen inches 
 wide, and at least four feet apart. To cut 
 the trench straight, and with firm sides, the 
 spade should be thrust down all along the 
 line which marks the boundary on each side, 
 previous to digging out the earth : the top 
 spit of mould throughout the length must 
 be turned alternately on either side, for this 
 is required in the after cultivation for 
 earthing up the plants. Some well putrefied 
 dung, two or three inches thick, must be 
 then spread along the bottom and dug in, 
 care being taken that its surface is not 
 more than four inches below the regular 
 surface of the soil. Mr. Walker here re- 
 commends the same unsparing application 
 of manure; he forms the soil in his trenches 
 of three parts dung, and one part fresh strong 
 soil. (Mem. Caled. Hort Soc. vol. ii. p. 296.) 
 By this abundant application of manure, 
 his celery undoubtedly obtains a fine growth, 
 being often 4£ feet long, and averaging 6 lbs. 
 
CELERY. 
 
 CENTAURY, COMMON". 
 
 weight; but at the same time it is to be 
 remarked, that many soils will grow it 
 equally fine, without such immoderate ap- 
 plication. 
 
 Celery, as before mentioned, delights in a 
 soil abounding in fertilising matter ; the 
 mode adopted to effect this, as practised by 
 Mr. Judd, gardener to C. Campbell Esq. of 
 Edmonton, is one which, with equal advan- 
 tage, may be adopted for any crop requiring 
 a very rich soil ; he prepares his ground in 
 the winter preceding the time of planting, 
 or as long before as convenient, by manuring 
 and trenching it two spades deep ; per- 
 forming this last operation twice, that the 
 dung may be better incorporated with the 
 soil, and then leaves it as rough as possible, 
 until the time arrives for forming the 
 trenches, at the bottom of which he also 
 turns in some manure. (Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Lond. vol. iii. p. 46.) As celery is very 
 apt to decay in winter on account of exces- 
 sive moisture, it would undoubtedly be a 
 good practice, after preparing the ground as 
 just detailed, to plant in rows five or six 
 feet apart on the surface, taking the mould 
 required for earthing them up from this al- 
 lotted space. 
 
 Before planting, the long straggling leaves 
 are to be cut away, and any side offsets re- 
 moved ; but if the plants are older or larger 
 in growth than before mentioned, the tops 
 of the leaves may be generally removed, 
 which serves to check their running to seed, 
 which they are otherwise apt to do. After 
 this preparation they may be planted, a 
 single row in each trench, about eight inches 
 apart. Mr Judd says, that he finds the 
 plants are much injured in their future 
 growth, if, during any of their removals, 
 their roots become at all dry ; therefore, 
 when taking them either from the seed bed, 
 or for final planting, he lays them, as he draws 
 them from the ground, in a garden pan con- 
 taining a little water. (Ibid. p. 45.) Planting 
 is best performed in the evening, and water 
 should be given plenteously at the time, as 
 well as every other day subsequently until 
 they are well established. Earthing them 
 up must commence when they are about a 
 foot high, and may be continued until the 
 
 Elants are fit for use, or are one foot and a 
 alf high and upwards. In performing it 
 one person must hold the bases of the plants 
 together, whilst a second regularly follows, 
 and throws in the soil, otherwise the mould 
 separating the leaves breaks them and in- 
 duces decay, and ofttimes destroys them by 
 injuring the heart. (Ibid. p. 47.) 
 
 The earthing is best performed gradually, 
 a few inches being added once a week, and 
 a dry duy always selected to perform it in. 
 In very severe weather the winter standing 
 314 
 
 crops should be covered with straw or other 
 litter, care being taken always to remove it 
 in mild days. On the arrival of frost, a 
 quantity may be taken up, and buried in 
 sand under shelter. As celery will not 
 continue in perfection except in winter, 
 more than three or four weeks after bleach- 
 ing, it is advisable for family use only to 
 make small plantations of the early crops 
 at a time. To raise seed some plants must 
 be left where grown ; or in February or 
 March, some may be carefully taken up, 
 and after the outside leaves are cut off, and 
 all laterals removed, planted in a moist soil, 
 a foot apart. Those which are most solid 
 and of a middling size are to be selected. 
 When they branch for seed they must be 
 each attached to a stake, to preserve them 
 from being broken by the violence of winds. 
 The flower appears m June, and when the 
 seed is swelling in July, if dry weather oc- 
 curs, they should be watered every other 
 night. In August the seed will be ripe, and 
 when perfectly dry may be rubbed out and 
 stored. (G. W. Johnsoris Kitch. Gard. ; 
 Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 575. ; WillicKs Bom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 CELERY, WILD, or SMALLAGE 
 PARSLEY. (Apium graveolens.) This 
 is a biennial, found in ditches and marshy 
 ground, especially towards the sea; root, tap- 
 shaped, herb smooth and shining. Flowers 
 numerous, small, greenish white. The seeds 
 and whole plant in its native ditches are acrid 
 and dangerous, with a peculiar strong taste 
 and smell, but by culture it becomes the 
 mild and grateful garden celery, for which 
 and its name we are indebted to the Italians, 
 and which has now supplanted our native 
 Alexanders (Smyrnium olusatrum). (Smith's 
 Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 75.) 
 
 CELL. (Lat. cella.) In botany, the hollow 
 part of a capsule in which the seeds are 
 lodged; and, also, the part of the anthers 
 which contains the pollen. 
 
 CELLS. The small divisions in honey- 
 combs, which have been observed to be al- 
 ways regular hexagons. They also denote 
 the hollow places between the partitions in 
 the pods, husks, and other seed-vessels of 
 plants. 
 
 CENTAURY. One of the names of the 
 corn Blue-bottle (C. cyanus), which see. 
 
 CENTAURY, COMMON. (Erythraa 
 centaurium.) From erythros red, alluding to 
 the pink colour of the flowers. The species of 
 this genus are pretty, but not easy of culti- 
 vation, the herbaceous species require an 
 open loamy soil, and may be increased by 
 divisions. The annuals and biennials require 
 sowing in the open border in autumn, or 
 they will not come up. (Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet.) There are three native species of 
 
CENTAURY. 
 
 CHAFF-ENGINES. 
 
 centaury, viz. the broad leaved tufted (E. 
 latifolia), the dwarf tufted (E. littoralis), 
 and the common centaury, to the last of 
 which the following observations more es- 
 pecially apply. The two first-named varieties 
 are found mostly in sandy ground near the 
 sea-shore. {Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 320.) 
 This pretty wild plant (E. centaurium) grows 
 in sunny dry places, and in gravelly pas- 
 tures ; its roots are to be taken up in autumn, 
 when out of flower. It is about eight or ten 
 inches high. The leaves are radicle, or grow 
 in a cluster from the root, and are about an 
 inch long ; the stalks divide towards the top 
 into several branches, and the flowers, which 
 are a bright pink, are long and slender, and 
 stand in a cluster. The leaves growing upon 
 the stalk are oblong, broad, and acute at the 
 point. Common centaury has all the medi- 
 cinal properties which distinguish the family 
 (the Gentianacece), to which it belongs. Its 
 bitter is agreeable : and it might be advan- 
 tageously used as a stomachic, instead of 
 gentian root. The dose of the plant in 
 powder is from a scruple to a drachm. 
 
 CENTAURY, or SWEET SULTAN. 
 (Centaurea moschata.) A hardy odoriferous 
 annual, native of the Levant. It blows a 
 purple flower in July and August, and grows 
 two feet high. There are several varieties, 
 the Russian, golden, wing leaved, &c. 
 
 CENTIPEDE. (Lat. centum, a hundred, 
 and pes, foot.) The name of the myria- 
 podous insects belonging to the genus 
 Scolopendra of Linnaeus. They are wingless ; 
 and the largest species possess, when full 
 grown, more than fifty, and less than two 
 hundred pairs of feet ; they are sometimes 
 commonly called forty-legs. {Brandos Diet, 
 of Science.) 
 
 CERES. The Roman Pagan goddess of 
 corn and harvests ; the Isis of the Egyptians. 
 The festivals to her honour were denomi- 
 nated, at Rome, the Cerealia or Cerealion, 
 hence the term Cerealian grasses ; and Sicily, 
 long celebrated for its corn, was supposed 
 to be her favourite retreat. 
 
 CERRIS. The ancient name for the 
 Twitter 0£tlc 
 
 CERT-MONEY. A fine paid yearly by 
 the residents of several manors to the lords 
 thereof, and sometimes to the hundred, for 
 the certain keeping of the leet. 
 
 CEYLONIAN PLANT,or EARWORT. 
 (Mentha sylvestris.) Names applied in some 
 places to the horsemint, an aromatic and 
 heating herb, which is said to be useful in 
 cases of deafness. See Horsemint. 
 
 CHACK. A term used in horsemanship 
 when a horse beats upon the hand, and does 
 not hold his head steady, but tosses up his 
 nose, and shakes it all of a sudden, to avoid 
 the subjection of the bridle. In order to 
 315 
 
 fix and secure his head, it is only necessary 
 to put under his nose-band a small flat 
 ligature of iron, bent archwise, which serves 
 as a martingale. 
 
 CHAFF. (Sax. cea F ; Dutch, haf.) The 
 husks of corn which are separated by thrash- 
 ing and winnowing. It likewise implies hay, 
 straw, &c. cut small, for the purpose of being 
 given to horses and other cattle. 
 
 CHAFF-ENGINES. That chaff has 
 been employed as provender for live stock 
 from a very early period, we have abundant 
 evidence. Cato (lib. 54.) recommends it tor 
 oxen ; and two centuries since, Hartlib re- 
 commended its use, mixed with cut oats and 
 peas. The mode of preparing the chaff, 
 however, from hay and straw by the knife, 
 was a later improvement, and the first ma- 
 chines were rude and incomplete. 
 
 We are not aware (says Mr. J. A. Ran- 
 some of Ipswich, to whom I am indebted for 
 this and other valuable articles on the im- 
 plements of agriculture) of any attempt to 
 improve upon the plan of pressing the hay 
 in a trough, and by hand bringing it bv 
 small portions to the front edge, where it 
 was severed by a long knife attached to the 
 end of a lever, till in 1794-5 the Rev. J. 
 Cooke of Holborn, London, and W. Naylor 
 of Langstock, respectively obtained patents 
 for machines for expediting the process. 
 
 In the year 1797 we find Robert Salmon, 
 of Woburn, whose inventive talent and 
 practical experience added many and va- 
 rious original ideas and improvements to the 
 then limited knowledge of agricultural me- 
 chanics, constructed a chaff- engine, which, 
 although cumbrous in its appearance, was 
 effective in its operation, and furnished the 
 original idea, which was subsequently im- 
 proved upon ; first, by Rowntree, and after- 
 wards by Thos. Passmore of Doncaster; the 
 latter of whom, in 1804, patented the ma- 
 chine known as the Doncaster engine, upon 
 the plan of which, for many years, most of 
 the engines in the midland and eastern 
 counties were made ; and even at the present 
 time, few of the machines in general use 
 are found more effective. A reward of 
 thirty guineas was conferred on Salmon by 
 the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, 
 &c. for this improved machine. 
 
 The plan of Salmon's machine as exhibited 
 in the accompanying illustration may be 
 described as the fellies of two wheels con- 
 nected together, and knives fixed upon them, 
 the edges of which are placed at an angle 
 of 45° from the plane of the wheel's 
 motion. Springs are fixed on the wheels 
 thus connected, by means of which the 
 knives are pressed forward against the box ; 
 on the other side of the knives, wedges are 
 fixed to counteract the pressure of the 
 
CHAFF -ENGINES. 
 
CHAFF-ENGINES. 
 
 springs, should it be too great. To a cir- 
 cular block of wood, having four holes and 
 fixed on the wheel, one end of the feeding 
 arm is screwed, and is fixed to the cross bar by 
 a pin, moveable at pleasure to five different 
 holes, by which arrangement twenty different 
 changes of length of chaff may be obtained. 
 Two spiked rollers in the box are turned 
 from the outside by ratchet wheels, so that 
 the straw is at rest during the time the knife 
 is cutting upon it. A weight is suspended 
 by a lever under the box, which will assist 
 in forcing the straw forward, and counter- 
 balance the ratchet wheel of the upper 
 roller. Equal pressure is given to the straw 
 by a chain passing from near the fulcrum of 
 the lever to a roller with two small bars of 
 iron, which are attached also to the pro- 
 jecting axle of the upper feeding roller. 
 
 Passmore's machine, it will be perceived, 
 was very similar, but its mechanical com- 
 binations are advantageously simplified. 
 
 In 1800 and 1801, W. Lester of Pad- 
 dington patented, a straw-cutter, which, 
 with some alterations, is much used at the 
 present day, and is known as the " Lester 
 engine." It is a very simple machine, having 
 but one knife, placed on a fly-wheel ; the 
 fly-wheel turns on a cranked spindle, which 
 communicates motion to a ratchet wheel 
 
 fixed at the end of one of the feeding rollers 
 by means of a small hook or catch, which is 
 capable of being so adjusted as to lift one 
 two, three, or four teeth at each revolution, 
 and by this is regulated the length of the 
 straw projected in front of the face plate, 
 and which is severed by the knife. On the 
 roller was fixed a revolving cloth or endless 
 web, which passed over another roller at 
 the hinder end of the box ; a heavy block 
 was used to compress the straw. In the 
 more modern engines the rolling cloth is 
 entirely dispensed with, as the purpose for 
 which it was intended is effected by the in- 
 troduction of an upper feeding roller, to 
 which motion is communicated by a pair of 
 cog-wheels, one of which is attached to the 
 lower feeding roller before described ; the 
 heavy block is substituted by a pressing piece, 
 which receives its motion from the cranked 
 spindle, alternately presses down the straw 
 previous to the cut, and rises afterwards to 
 allow the straw free passage. A cut of 
 the improved machine is here given; it is 
 made of different sizes, and the larger are 
 frequently used with horse-power. 
 
 This is the best modern chaff-engine ; it 
 will adjust and vary the work to the follow- 
 ing lengths of cut : — 5 inch, % inch, and f 
 inch. 
 
 LESTER'S IMPROVED CHAFF-ENGINE. 
 
 317 
 
CHAFF-ENGINES. 
 
 heppenstall's common chaff-engine. 
 
 Bushels of fodder 
 per hour. 
 
 At \ inch it will cut from 18 to 20 
 I — 40 to 50 
 
 | 50 to 60 
 
 Another chaff-cutter is made on the same 
 principal, but a size smaller, which 
 
 at \ inch will cut from 10 to 12 
 | _ 30 to 40 
 
 | — 40 to 50 
 
 A still smaller engine can also be had, 
 cutting ^ inch lengths only, suited to gen- 
 tlemen's stables and small establishments, 
 made entirely of metal, and adapted for hot 
 climates. This will cut from 15 to 20 
 bushels of fodder per hour. 
 
 Passing by several, which in the course 
 of the next fifteen years were introduced, 
 but which, however ingenious, were too 
 complicated and cumbrous for general use, 
 in 1818 we find a simple invention was pa- 
 tented by Thomas Heppenstall, of Doncaster. 
 It consisted in the application of a worm to 
 turn two wheels, which in their revolution 
 meet each other. These wheels are attached 
 to two feeding rollers, which convey the 
 straw forwards to the knives. Two of these 
 knives are placed on a fly-wheel, which is 
 fixed upon the same spindle as the worm. 
 This is the simplest form of chaff-engine, 
 and with a slight alteration, substituting 
 wheels with the cogs on the face instead of 
 on the outer edge, is the common form for 
 the small engines now in use. 
 
 Two patents have also, within the last year 
 or two, been taken out for considerable 
 318 
 
 | improvements on this machine, one by 
 i Lord Ducie in connection with Messrs. 
 j Clyburn and Budding, two engineers re- 
 | siding at Uley. 
 
 j The only remaining machine we have to 
 I bring before the notice of our readers, is 
 one for which a patent was obtained a few 
 months ago by Mr. Charles May, engineer 
 of Ipswich, a partner in the house of Ran- 
 some. We saw this among the machines 
 exhibited at the Royal Agricultural So- 
 ciety's meeting at Cambridge, where it ap- 
 peared to perform its work admirably. It 
 is intended to be used by horse-power, and 
 is so contrived that cog-wheels of different 
 diameters, may be placed on the spindle to 
 which motion is first communicated ; these 
 working in different moveable wheels upon 
 another spindle, will regulate the speed of the 
 feeding rollers, so as to vary the length of 
 the chaff to be cut, from three-eighths of an 
 inch to three inches. Its capabilities are 
 estimated to cut 8 cwt. of straw per hour 
 in half inch lengths. 
 
 A chaff-cutter is indispensable on a large 
 farm establishment. This implement, as 
 has been shown, is either constructed with 
 a good deal of expensive machinery, or of 
 very simple mechanism ; it may be made up 
 at the cost of only 1/. or 1/. 5s. 
 
 The following is a list of the patents 
 which have been taken out for chaff-cutting 
 machines, or improvements thereon, during 
 the last half century : — 
 
 January 8. 1794. Rev. J.Cooke, Holborn, 
 machine for cutting chaff. 
 
CHAFFINCH. 
 
 CHALK. 
 
 June 2. 1795. William Naylor of Langs- 
 worth, machine for cutting chaff. 
 
 February 4. 1800. William Lester, Cot- 
 tonend, Northamptonshire, machine for 
 cutting hay into chaff. 
 
 February 17. 1801. William Lester, im- 
 provements on former patent, &c. 
 
 February 7. 1804. Thomas Passmore, 
 Doncaster, machine for chopping straw. 
 
 February 4. 1808. W. F. Snowden, Ox- 
 ford Street, engine for cutting chaff. 
 
 July 29. 1815. James Gardner, Banbury, 
 straw and hay-cutter. 
 
 March 7. 1818. Thomas Heppenstall, 
 Doncaster, improved chaff-cutting engine. 
 
 December 1. 1819. S. Shorthouse, Dud- 
 ley, machine for cutting straw. 
 
 July 6. 1840. Charles May, Ipswich, 
 preparing vegetable substances for food for 
 cattle. 
 
 July 24. 1840. J.S.Worth, Manchester, 
 machine for cutting vegetable substances as 
 food for cattle. 
 
 J. Bennett of Turnlea, machine for cutting 
 vegetable substances as food for cattle. 
 
 Oct. 15. 1840. Lord Ducie, Woodchester, 
 improvements in machinery for cutting chaff. 
 
 CHAFFINCH. (Fringilla ccelebs.) A 
 common lively English bird. In France, 
 this little songster is a favourite cage bird. In 
 autumn they are gregarious in hedge-rows 
 and corn-fields. In winter they haunt the 
 garden, the shrubbery, and the farm yard. 
 They hatch in May ; their food, insects, grain, 
 and seeds. Colour, head and neck, bluish 
 grey ; back, chestnut ; wings almost black ; 
 length, six inches. (YarrelTs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. i. p. 462.) 
 
 CHAFF-FLOWER. (Alternanthera.) 
 The name refers to the stamens being alter- 
 nately fertile and barren. The biennial 
 species of this interesting genus (none of 
 which are indigenous) should be sown on a 
 gentle heating hotbed, in peaty soil. The 
 stove and greenhouse plants succeed well in 
 any light rich soil, and propagate freely by 
 cuttings. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 CHAFF- WEED (Centunculus mini- 
 mus), or BASTARD PIMPERNEL. An 
 annual very diminutive weed growing on 
 sandy watery heaths, flowering in July. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 216.) 
 
 CHAIN PLOUGH. A plough with a 
 chain (for the purpose of giving security 
 to the beam of the swing plough). (Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. v. p. 392.) 
 
 CHALK. (Sax. cealc; Welch, calck; 
 Celtic, cal or kal.) The carbonate of lime, 
 or lime united with carbonic acid. (See 
 Lime.) Carbonate of lime exists abun- 
 dantly in various parts of the earth's sur- 
 face, in the state of chalk, limestone, and 
 marble ; and in smaller masses, as the arra- 
 319 
 
 gonite, &c. ; of which, between one and two 
 hundred varieties (all carbonate of lime), 
 are known to mineralogists : for the pur- 
 poses of agriculture, they may be all classed 
 under one head. Common chalk has a dull 
 white colour, is soft, adhesive when applied to 
 the tongue, stains the fingers, and thence is in 
 common use for marking. In agriculture 
 chalk is perhaps the most extensively em- 
 ployed of the limestone species ; it varies 
 slightly in composition, containing usually 
 some silica (flint), alumina (clay), and some 
 red oxide of iron, and the remainder carbo- 
 nate of lime, 100 parts of which contain : — 
 
 _ ' ' . * Parts. 
 
 Carbonic acid - - - 45 
 
 Lime - - - - 55 
 
 100 parts of common limestone are com- 
 posed, according to MM. Thenard and 
 Biot, of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 95*05 
 
 Water - - - 1*63 
 
 Silica - - - 1-12 
 
 Alumina - - 1* 
 
 Oxide of iron - - '75 
 
 100 
 
 These carbonates, when burnt, form lime, 
 for the heat drives off the carbonic acid. 
 By exposure to the air the lime absorbs 
 carbonic acid gas, and again becomes con- 
 verted into carbonate of lime. A know- 
 ledge of these facts is of considerable value 
 to the farmer even on the score of carriage, 
 independent of the greater value of lime as 
 a manure ; for, in some cases, the object of the 
 needless weight of water and carbonic acid 
 in chalk is very material, as will be readily 
 seen by the following analysis of the chalk of 
 Kent, which is the variety largely employed in 
 the county of Essex, although it has to be 
 brought by sea nearly seventy miles, and then 
 often carted several miles. I found by care- 
 ful experiment, 100 parts of chalk, from 
 Kent, in the state in which it was carted on 
 the land in December, contained, besides 
 some oxide of iron and silica, — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - - -24- 
 
 Carbonic acid - - 34*2 
 
 Lime ... 41 -8 
 
 100 
 
 So that, when the farmer carts 41 tons of 
 fresh lime, he conveys as much real manure 
 to his soil as if he carried 100 tons of chalk. 
 This must be assuredly a question of the 
 highest importance to those farmers who 
 have to carry the earth a considerable dis- 
 tance, especially if they can procure lime at 
 a reasonable rate ; which, in the large quan- 
 tities required for agricultural purposes, 
 must in most situations be the case. 
 
CHALK. 
 
 Carbonate of lime is found in almost all 
 vegetables ; it is an essential food of plants. 
 The cultivator will see, by the results of 
 the experiments which I shall give under the 
 head Lime, that the quantity of carbonate 
 of lime contained in the cultivated grasses 
 is very considerable, and still more so in 
 trees ; and that, as might be expected, the 
 proportion increases with the quantity of 
 this substance found in the soil. To the 
 planter, this fact offers an unanswerable 
 reason in favour of the addition of chalk, 
 marl, or limestone, to all poor soils intended 
 for plantations, in the manner long success- 
 fully practised on the black heathy sands of 
 Norfolk by Mr. Withers of Holt, and which 
 he has shown to be equally advantageous to 
 trees, whether planted for ornamental or 
 profitable purposes. 
 
 There is no fact more necessary to be un- 
 derstood by the agriculturist, than that no 
 land can be productive which does not con- 
 tain a fair proportion of carbonate of lime. 
 It is, perhaps, even in excess much less pre- 
 judicial to any cultivated soil, than either 
 silica or alumina. But, on the other hand, 
 no soil can be productive if it contains more 
 than nineteen parts in twenty of chalk. The 
 earth of the fine sandy hop gardens near 
 Tonbridge in Kent contain about five per 
 cent, of chalk. The good turnip soils near 
 Holkham in Norfolk are seven eighths sand, 
 and the remaining eighth is composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime or chalk 
 
 - 63 
 
 Silica (flint) 
 
 - 15 
 
 Alumina (clay) 
 
 - 11 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 3 
 
 Vegetable and saline matter 
 
 5 
 
 Water 
 
 3 
 
 
 100 
 
 The soil at Sheffield Place in Sussex, 
 which is so admirably adapted for the growth 
 of the. oak, contains three per cent, of chalk. 
 The fine wheat soils of West Drayton in 
 Middlesex contain more than ten per cent. 
 That of Bagshot Heath contains less than 
 one per cent. The richest soils on the banks 
 of the Parret in Somersetshire contain more 
 than seventy per cent. Those of the valley 
 of Evesham, about six per cent. A specimen 
 of a good soil from Tiviotdale, examined by 
 Davy, was composed of five sixths sand, 
 and the remainder of the following sub- 
 stances (Lectures, 202.) : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Clay - - - - 41 
 
 Silica (flint) - - -42 
 
 Chalk - - - - 4 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 5 
 
 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter 8 
 A soil yielding excellent pasture, from 
 320 
 
 the banks of the Wiltshire Avon near 
 Salisbury, yielded the same chemist one 
 eleventh of its weight of siliceous sand. 
 The remainder was composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Chalk - - - - 63 
 
 Silica (flint) - - - 14 
 
 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter 14 
 Alumina (clay) - - 7 
 
 Oxide of iron - - -2 
 
 Many soils also contain a small propor- 
 tion of carbonate of magnesia ; but it very 
 rarely amounts to a sufficient quantity to 
 be worth estimating in the mode of analysis 
 I shall presently give. 
 
 It is difficult to say in what form the car- 
 bonate of lime enters the system of plants, 
 as it is an insoluble compound : unless we 
 can suppose that it attracts an excess of car- 
 bonic acid from the air, becoming a bi-car- 
 bonate, in which state it is soluble in water. 
 But whatever may be the cause of its being 
 taken up by plants, its influence on soils is 
 undoubted. 
 
 The mode of applying chalk as a manure. 
 In the county of Essex, where chalking is 
 practised to a very large extent, the chalk 
 is brought in sailing barges from the 
 Kentish shore of the Thames, at an ex- 
 pense of about two shillings per ton, and 
 afterwards carted for some miles into the 
 country. It is applied in quantities which 
 vary from ten to thirty tons per acre, ac- 
 cording to the description of the soil ; the 
 poor light soils requiring a larger addition 
 of chalk than the richer lands. It is usually 
 applied without any preparation ; the larger 
 lumps of chalk are not even broken, and 
 the chalk being once ploughed in, the action 
 of the frost, the plough, and the harrow, in 
 time sufficiently pulverises it. It is often 
 mixed in smaller proportions with common 
 farm-yard manure, ditch scrapings, pond 
 mud, &c. and suffered to remain some time 
 before it is carried into the field. An 
 equally excellent plan is followed by some 
 of the best Essex farmers, who spread 
 quantities of chalk over head lands, banks, 
 &c. which require lowering, and then fallow 
 these portions of land, ploughing them 
 often, and letting the chalked earth remain 
 as long as possible incorporating before 
 they carry and spread the mixed chalk and 
 earth on to the field ; by this means the 
 effects of a few loads of chalk are diffused 
 over a field. It is a plan admirably adapted 
 for those situations where chalk is very ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 The good effects of chalk are more per- 
 manent than immediate ; for, although a 
 good dressing with chalk will remain in the 
 soil for from ten to twenty years, yet, on 
 some soils, one or even two years will elapse 
 
CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 CHASE. 
 
 before the farmer perceives a decided im- 
 provement. There is hardly any manure 
 that answers better for grass than chalk, 
 especially on light sandy soils. If, however, 
 the soil already contains an abundance of 
 chalk, its addition to that land cannot con- 
 stitute a manure. The cultivator can easily 
 form a rough estimate of the quantity of 
 chalk in a soil, by taking a quantity of it 
 from three inches beneath the surface, well 
 drying it in an oven, and adding to, say 
 400 grains, 800 grains of muriatic acid ; the 
 mixture, which weighs 1200 grains, will, if 
 it contain chalk, effervesce ; and the car- 
 bonic acid of the chalk being expelled, will, 
 of course, lessen the weight of the mixture. 
 When the effervescence has entirely ceased, 
 weigh the mass ; every 4£ grains deficient 
 the experimenter may consider to indicate 
 the presence of 10 grains of chalk in the 
 soil. The agriculturist will then be able to 
 judge, by comparing the quantity of chalk 
 existing in the examined soils with that 
 in other lands, the analyses of which I have 
 given, whether his land requires the ad- 
 dition of chalk. (My work On Fertilizers, 
 p. 256. ; Brit. Farm. Mag. vol.iii. p. 129.) 
 
 CHAMBERS, SIR WILLIAM, of 
 Scottish parentage, was born in Sweden in 
 1726, died in 1796. The following are his 
 published works : — 
 
 1. Designs for Chinese Buildings. London. 1757. 
 Large folio. 2. A Treatise on Civil Architecture. 
 London. Folio. 3. Plans of the Gardens at Kew. 
 London. 1763 and 1765. Folio. 4. Dissertations on 
 Oriental Gardening. London. 1744. 4to. (G. W. John- 
 son, Hist. Eng. Gardening.) 
 
 CHAMOMILE. See Camomile. 
 
 CHANGE OF CROPS. See Rotation. 
 
 CHANGE OF SEED. See Seed. 
 
 CHAR. A species of lake trout found 
 in Windermere ; in length never exceeding 
 fifteen or sixteen inches, spotted like a trout, 
 with very few bones. {Walton, p. 173.) It 
 is also found in Loch Tay, in Scotland. 
 
 CHARBON. The little black spot or 
 mark remaining after the large spot in the 
 cavity of the corner tooth of a horse is gone. 
 
 CHARCOAL. (From chark, to burn, 
 and formerly written charke coal.) The 
 remaining portion of wood after it has been 
 heated to redness for some time, which 
 dissipates all the hydrogen and oxygen of 
 which, with carbon, it is composed. (See 
 Carbon.) Charcoal burning is a regular 
 trade, followed in some of the woody dis- 
 tricts by persons who do hardly any thing 
 else. 
 
 Charcoal is prepared in two different ways. 
 In one, billets of wood are formed into a 
 heap, which is covered with turf, and a few 
 small openings only left for the admission 
 of the air requisite to maintain it in a state 
 of low combustion after it is lighted. When 
 321 
 
 the whole heap is on fire, the holes arc 
 stopped ; and, after the mass has cooled, the 
 residue is charcoal. In the other mode the 
 wood is distilled in iron cylinders, in which 
 case the products are pyroligneous acid, and 
 empyreumatic oil ; and what remains in the 
 retort is charcoal. The quantity of the dis- 
 tilled products, as well as of the charcoal, 
 depends on the kind of wood employed. 
 100 parts of dried oak yields, of, 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid - - 43" 
 Carbonate of potassa - - 4*5 
 Empyreumatic oil - 9*06 
 Charcoal - - - 26*2 
 
 The charcoal thus procured is lighter than 
 common charcoal. Charcoal should be black 
 sonorous, brittle, and retain the texture of 
 the wood. It has a powerful attraction for 
 water, gases, and odorous and colouring prin- 
 ciples. It is a powerful antiseptic, and well 
 adapted for preserving animal substances 
 from putrefaction. In fine powder it is the 
 best of all tooth powders. 
 
 Ivory, or bone black, is animal charcoal, 
 prepared in the same manner as the second 
 kind of vegetable charcoal. It has a remark- 
 able property of abstracting colour from 
 many vegetable solutions, on which account 
 it is much used by sugar refiners. 
 
 CHARLOCK. (Sax.cenlice.) A trouble- 
 some weed, which abounds in most arable 
 soils, and is very difficult to expel. It is 
 frequently called chadlock, catlock, corlock, 
 corn-kale, and white-rape. There are four 
 different species of plants, says Sinclair, 
 confounded under tlje name of charlock, 
 viz. Sinapis arvensis,, or common wild mus- 
 tard ; yellow blossom, in May ; annual. 
 S. nigra, black or Durham mustard; 
 blossom, pale yellow, in June ; annual. 
 Iiaphanus raphanistrum, wild radish ; straw- 
 yellow blossom, in June and July ; an- 
 nual. Brassica napus, wild navew (this 
 last is the least common) ; yellow blossom, 
 in May ; biennial. ( Weeds of Agriculture, 
 p. 45. ; Smith's Flora, vol. iii. p. 321-6.) 
 
 CHARRING OF POSTS. The re- 
 ducing that part of the surface of posts 
 which is to be put into the ground to the 
 state of charcoal. This method is highly 
 useful where the parts are to be placed in 
 wet situations, or to stand between wet and 
 dry. This was a practice common to the 
 ancients. 
 
 CHASE. (Fr. chasser.) An extent of 
 forest-ground, used as a range or station for 
 different sorts of wild beasts ; but which 
 differs from a forest, as capable of being in 
 possession of a subject, which the latter 
 cannot ; in not being so extensive, or en- 
 dowed with so many liberties, as courts of 
 attachment, swainmote, justice-seat of ey re, &c. 
 
 Y 
 
CHASE. 
 
 CHEESE. 
 
 A chase differs from a park, in that it is 
 not inclosed ; and also, that a man may 
 have a chase in another man's ground as 
 well as in his own. (2 Blackstones Com- 
 ment, p. 38.) 
 
 CHASE. The hunting of game has pro- 
 bably continued from the earliest periods. 
 In England that of the fox, the hare, the 
 deer, and the otter only remains. 
 
 CHATS. A term employed in some dis- 
 tricts to signify the keys of the ash, syca- 
 more, and very small refuse potatoes, &c. 
 
 CHAVLE. A provincial word, used to 
 signify chewing imperfectly. 
 
 CHEDDER-CHEESE. A kind of cheese, 
 so named from its being made at Chedder, 
 a village near the Mendip-hills in Somerset- 
 shire, famous for its pastures. 
 
 CHEESE. (Lat. casern ; Sax. cere.) A 
 well-known kind of food, prepared from 
 milk by coagulation, and separated from the 
 serum, or whey, by means of pressure, after 
 which it is dried for use. See Butter. 
 Cheese has been made from a very ancient 
 period ; it is mentioned by Job, and also by 
 Homer. According to Strabo, our British 
 ancestors did not understand how to make 
 cheese,-^ a deficiency with which their de- 
 scendants cannot now well be charged. 
 
 Good cheese, says Dr. Thomson, melts 
 at a moderate heat ; but bad cheese, when 
 heated, dries, curls, and exhibits all the 
 phenomena of burning horn. From this it 
 is evident that good cheese contains a quan- 
 tity of the peculiar oil of cream ; hence its 
 flavour and smell. Proust found in cheese 
 a peculiar acid, which he called the caseic. 
 (System of Chem. vol. iv. p. 499.) 
 
 The best season for making cheese is 
 during those months when the cows can be 
 fed on the pastures ; that is, from the be- 
 ginning of May till towards the end of Sep- 
 tember, or, in favourable seasons, the middle 
 of October. On many of the larger dairy- 
 farms, in several districts, cheese is fre- 
 quently made throughout the year ; but that 
 made during the winter months is consider- 
 ably inferior in quality, and much longer in 
 becoming fit for sale, or for use, than that 
 which is made within the periods which 
 have been just mentioned. In Gloucester- 
 shire, the season of making thin cheese is 
 from April to November ; but the principal 
 one for making thick is during the months 
 of May, June, and the beginning of July. 
 It' made late in the summer, the cheese does 
 not acquire a sufficient degree of firmness 
 to be marketable in the ensuing spring. 
 
 The milking in Cheshire, during the sum- 
 mer season, is at six o'clock, both morning 
 and evening; and, in winter, al daylight in 
 the morning, and immediately before dark 
 in the evening. But in other districts, as 
 322 
 
 Wilts, Suffolk, &c. the people are frequently 
 employed in milking by four o'clock in the 
 morning in summer ; and the business in a 
 dairy of forty or fifty cows is nearly com- 
 pleted before the usual period at which it 
 commences in Cheshire. 
 
 The colouring of cheese has been so long 
 common in the cheese districts, that it is pro- 
 bable that cheese of the best quality would 
 be in a great measure unsaleable if it did 
 not possess the requisite colour. The de- 
 gree of colour is regulated chiefly by the 
 name under which it is intended the cheese 
 should be sold, as Gloucester, Cheshire, &c. 
 The object of the introduction of this prac- 
 tice was no doubt to convey an idea of rich- 
 ness which the cheese did not really possess. 
 This is the more evident, as it is universally 
 allowed that the poorest cheese always re- 
 quires the greatest quantity of dye to bring 
 it to the proper degree of colour. The ma- 
 terial which is employed for this purpose is 
 Spanish annotta. (See Annotta.) The 
 weight of a guinea and a half of it is con- 
 sidered in Cheshire sufficient for a cheese 
 of 60 lbs. ; and in Gloucestershire an ounce 
 is the common allowance to 1 cwt. 
 
 In regard to the rennet, it may be ob- 
 served, that milk may be coagulated, or 
 curdled, by the application of any sort of 
 acid ; but the substance which is most com- 
 monly used is the maws or stomachs of young 
 calves, prepared for the purpose. These 
 are most generally denominated rennets ; 
 but they are also often provincially called 
 veils, and in Scotland yearnings. See 
 Rennet. 
 
 In Cheshire, after the rennet is added to 
 the milk, and as soon as the curd is firm 
 enough to discharge its whey, the dairy-wo- 
 man plunges her hands to the bottom of the 
 vessel, and, with a wooden dish, stirs the 
 curd and whey ; then lets go the dish, and by 
 her hands agitates the whole, carefully break- 
 ing every part of the curd ; and, at intervals, 
 stirring it hard to the bottom with the dish, 
 so that no curd remains unbroken larger than 
 a hazel-nut. This is done to prevent what is 
 called slip-curd, or lumps of curd, which, by 
 retaining the whey, do not press uniformly 
 with the other curd, but in a few days, if it 
 happens to be situated towards the rind of the 
 cheese, turns livid and jelly-like, and soon be- 
 comes faulty and rotten. In a few minutes 
 the curd subsides. The dairy-woman then 
 takes her dish, and lades off the whey into a 
 milk-lead to stand for cream, to be churned 
 for whey-butter. This is a practice peculiar 
 to the cheese counties. In Norfolk the whey, 
 even from new milk, passes from the cheese- 
 vessels immediately to the hog-tub. Having 
 laded off all the whey she can, she spread! 
 a straining cloth, and strains the whey 
 
CHEESE. 
 
 through it, returning the curd retained in 
 the cloth into the cheese-tub. When she 
 has got all the whey she can by pressing 
 the curd with her hand and the lading-dish, 
 she takes a knife and cuts it into square 
 pieces of about two or three inches. This 
 lets out more of the whey, and makes the 
 curd more handy to be taken up in order to 
 be broken into the vats. 
 
 Having made choice of a vat or vats pro- 
 portioned to the quantity of curd, so that 
 the cheese when fully pressed shall exactly 
 fill the vat, she spreads a cheese-cloth 
 loosely over the mouth of the vat, into which 
 she re-breaks the curd, carefully squeezing 
 every part of it in her hands ; and having 
 filled the vat heaped up, and rounded 
 above its top, she folds over it the cloth and 
 places it in the press, on the construction 
 and power of which much depends. 
 
 When the vat is properly placed in the 
 press, the ordinary degree of pressure is ap- 
 plied, which is more or less, according to the 
 sizes of the cheeses usually made. At all large 
 dairies, there are two or three presses, all va- 
 rying in respect to weight or pressure. There 
 are various kinds of cheese-presses ; one 
 made entirely of iron by the Shotts Foundry 
 Company is described in the Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. iv. p. 52. As soon as the vat is 
 placed in the press, and the weight applied, 
 skewers are thrust in through the holes 
 in the side of the vat ; this is done re- 
 peatedly during the first day when the vat is 
 in the press. From the time the vat is first 
 placed in the press till it is again taken out 
 does not, in ordinary cases, exceed two or 
 three hours. When taken out, the cheese 
 is put into a vessel with hot whey, with a 
 view of hardening its coat or skin, where it 
 stands for an hour or two ; it is then re- 
 moved, wiped dry, and after having remained 
 some time to cool, is covered with a clean 
 cloth ; and the vat being wiped dry, and the 
 cheese replaced, it is again put into the 
 press. In the evening, supposing the cheese 
 to have been made in the morning, which is 
 the usual time, it is again taken out of the 
 vat ; and another dry cloth being applied, it 
 is turned and replaced ; what was formerly 
 the upper becoming now the under side. 
 In this manner it is taken out, wrapped in 
 clean cloths, and turned in the vat twice 
 a day for two days, when it is finally re- 
 moved. 
 
 The salting is the next operation. The 
 cheese, on being for the last time taken out 
 of the vat, is carried to the salting-house, 
 and placed in the vat in a tub filled to a 
 considerable depth with brine, in which it 
 stands for several days, being regularly 
 turned once at least every day. The vat. is 
 then removed from the brine -tub ; and the 
 323 
 
 cheese being taken out, is placed on the 
 salting -bench, where it stands for eight or 
 ten days, salt being carefully rubbed over 
 the whole every day during that period. 
 When the cheese is of a large size, it is com- 
 monly surrounded with a wooden hoop or 
 fillet of cloth to prevent renting. After it 
 is supposed to be sufficiently salted, it is 
 washed in warm water or whey, and when 
 well dried with a cloth, is placed on what is 
 called the drying-bench, where it remains a 
 like period before it is removed to the 
 keeping-house or cheese-chamber. 
 
 The last part of the business is the 
 management in the cheese-room. In Glou- 
 cestershire the young cheeses are turned 
 every day, or every two or three days, ac- 
 cording to the state of the weather, or the 
 fancy or judgment of the dairy-woman. If 
 the air be cold and dry, the windows and door 
 are kept shut as much as may be ; if close and 
 moist, as much fresh air as possible is ad- 
 mitted. Having remained about ten days 
 in the dairy (more or less, according to the 
 space of time between the washings), the 
 cheeses are cleaned ; that is, washed and 
 scraped. 
 
 The produce of a dairy of cows, where 
 the milk is converted into cheese, is very 
 variously stated by different writers. In 
 some districts 2i cwts. from each cow, 
 whether a good or a bad milker, if at all in 
 milk, is considered a good return. In 
 others, the average runs as high as 3 cwt. ; 
 and in the county of Wilts in particular, 
 from 3^ to 4 cwts. is the usual quan- 
 tity. From accurate calculations made 
 by Mr. Marshall, and these several times re- 
 peated, he found that in Gloucestershire 
 about 15 gallons of milk were requisite for 
 making little more than 1 1 lbs. of two-meal 
 cheese, and that one gallon of new milk 
 produced a pound of curd. It is the general 
 opinion of dairy farmers that the produce 
 from two and a half to three and a half acres 
 is necessary to maintain a cow all the year 
 round. Taking, therefore, the medium of 
 the three averages of cheese above men- 
 tioned (amounting to 355 lbs. from each 
 cow), the quantity of cheese by the acre is 
 118 lbs. Every calculation of this kind 
 must, however, be extremely vague and 
 uncertain. 
 
 In the making of Parmesan cheese, we 
 are informed by Mr. Price, in the Papers of 
 the Bath and W. of Engl. Society (vol. vii.), 
 that the method is " to put, at ten o'clock 
 in the morning, five brents and a half of 
 milk, each brent about forty-eight quarts, 
 into a large copper, which turns on a crane 
 over a slow wood fire, made about two feet 
 below the surface of the ground ; the milk 
 is stirred from time to time, and about 
 T 2 
 
CHEESE. 
 
 CHEESE-MITES. 
 
 eleven o'clock, when just lukewarm, or 
 considerably under a blood-heat, a ball of 
 rennet, as big as a large walnut, is squeezed 
 through a cloth into the milk, which is kept 
 stirred. By the help of the crane the 
 copper is turned from over the fire, and 
 left till a few minutes past twelve ; at 
 which time the rennet has sufficiently ope- 
 rated. It is now stirred up, and left for 
 a short time. Part of the whey is then 
 taken out, and the copper again turned over 
 a fire sufficiently brisk to give a strongish 
 heat, but below that of boiling. A quar- 
 ter of an ounce of saffron is now put into the 
 milk to give it a little colour ; and it is well 
 stirred from time to time. The dairy- 
 man frequently feels the curd. When the 
 small, and, as it were, granulated parts, feel 
 rather firm, which is in about an hour and 
 a half, the copper is taken from the fire, 
 and the curd left to fall to the bottom. Part 
 of the whey is taken out, and the curd 
 brought up in a coarse cloth, hanging to- 
 gether in a tough state. It is then put into 
 a hoop, and about a half hundred weight 
 laid upon it for about an hour ; after which 
 the cloth is taken off, and the cheese placed 
 on a shelf in the same hoop. At the end of 
 two, or from that to three days, it is sprinkled 
 all over with salt ; the same is repeated 
 every second day for about forty or forty- 
 five days, after which no further attention 
 is required. While salting, they generally 
 place two cheeses one upon another; in 
 which state they are said to take the salt 
 better than singly. The country between 
 Cremona and Lodi, says Mr. Evans, com- 
 prises the richest part of the Milanese. The 
 irrigation, too, is brought to the highest 
 degree of perfection ; the grass is cut four 
 times a year as fodder for the cows, from 
 whose milk is made the well-known Par- 
 mesan cheese. The cows, which are kept 
 in the stall nearly all the year round, are 
 fed during summer on two of these crops of 
 grass or clover, which are cut green; and 
 in the winter on the other two, which are 
 hayed. The milk of at least fifty cows is re- 
 quired for the manufacture of one Parmesan 
 cheese. Hence, as one farm rarely affords 
 pasture for such a number, it is usual for 
 the farmers or metayers of a district to 
 club together. (Quart. Journ. ofAgr. vol. v. 
 p. 622.) 
 
 Cream cheese is made in various places ; 
 but that which is generally known by the 
 name of Stilton is made in Leicestershire, 
 in Ihe following manner, according to the 
 Agricultural Report of that countv: — The 
 night's cream is put into the morning's new 
 milk willi the rennet; but when the curd 
 is come it is not broken, as is done with 
 other cheeses, but is taken out with a soil- 
 324 
 
 dish altogether, and placed in a sieve to 
 drain gradually; and, as it drains, it is 
 pressed, till it becomes firm and dry; 
 being then placed in a wooden hoop, and 
 afterwards kept dry on boards, it is turned 
 frequently, with cloth binders round it,, 
 which are tightened as occasion requires. 
 Cream cheese of good quality is likewise 
 made, in some districts, by adding the cream 
 of one meal's milk to the milk which is 
 immediately taken from the cow. This, 
 after being made and pressed gently two or 
 three times, and carefully turned for a day 
 or two, is fit for use. 
 
 There are papers, by Mr. P. Miller, " On 
 making Cheese resembling that of Gloucester 
 and Wiltshire" (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iii. 
 p. 228.) ; and " In Imitation of Double 
 Gloucester," by Mr. Bell (Ibid. vol. i. 
 p. 155.) ; and " On communicating the Fla- 
 vour of old to new Cheese by Inoculation," 
 by Mr. Robinson (Ibid. p. 232.) (The cheese 
 knife is merely employed to transfer pieces 
 of the ripe cheese to that whose ripeness is 
 intended to be hastened.) " On making 
 Cheese from Potatoes in Thuringia." (Farm. 
 Mag. vol. viii. p. 142.) 
 
 CHEESE CLOTHS are large towels to 
 put inside the chessel or vat, while the cheese 
 is staining. They are of home manufacture, 
 and should be of strong and open texture : 
 every time they are used for this purpose, 
 they should be wrung out of boiling water, 
 and dried in the sun, or before the fire. 
 
 CHEESE COLOURING. SeeANNorrA. 
 
 CHEESE-FLY and MAGGOT. (Pro- 
 phila casei.) The small white larvae found 
 in old and putrescent cheese, produce a 
 small two-winged fly, about two lines in 
 length, which has a greenish-black, smooth, 
 and shining body. It is fully described in 
 the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. xii. p. 125. 
 
 CHEESE-KNIFE. A large sort of 
 knife, or spatula, made use of in dairies for 
 the purpose of cutting or breaking down 
 the curd whilst in the cheese-tub. 
 
 CHEESE-LEP. The bag in which 
 dairy-women keep the rennet for making 
 
 cllGGSG* 
 
 CHEESE-MITES. This is the Acarus 
 siro, an almost microscopic apterous insect, 
 furnished with eight legs, on the four first of 
 which, between two claws, is a vesicle with 
 a long neck, to which the insect can give 
 every kind of inflexion. " When it sets its 
 foot down, it enlarges and inflates ; and when 
 it lifts it up, it contracts it, so that the 
 vesicle almost entirely disappears." (De 
 Geer, quoted by Kirby, vol. xxxiv. p. 321.) 
 It is not possible to say how tliis insect gets 
 into cheeses. The brown powder, so valued 
 by epicures, in which the mites live, is their 
 excrement. 
 
CHEESE-PRESS. 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 CHEESE-PRESS. A press employed 
 in cheese dairies, to force the whey from the 
 curd when in the cheese vat. 
 
 Cheese presses are of different forms. 
 The most simple and primitive press is merely 
 a long beam, one end of which is placed in 
 a hole of the wall, and frequently it is fixed 
 to a bolt, or in the trunk of a tree. The 
 sinker forms the fulcrum, a weight consist- 
 ing of two or three undressed stones being 
 placed on the other end of the lever. A 
 second kind is formed by a large square 
 stone, suspended by a screw between the 
 side posts of a timber frame. The chessel 
 is placed underneath it, and the stone is 
 lowered upon the sinker by turning the 
 screw to the left hand. The cheese vat 
 is removed at pleasure by turning the 
 screw to the right hand, which elevates the 
 stone. To preserve the screw, a small block 
 of timber is placed underneath the stone 
 during the period that cheese-making is 
 suspended. 
 
 Another kind of press consists of a timber 
 frame formed of two perpendicular side posts 
 and a cross top with a parallel beam, which 
 is suspended from the top by two screws. 
 The cheese vat is placed upon the beam, 
 which is lifted up when the screws are turned 
 to the right hand ; and the sinker of the 
 chessel or vat being pressed against the cross 
 top, squeezes or stanes the cheese. When 
 the chessel requires to be removed, the 
 screws are turned to the left hand. 
 
 But more complicated presses, and there- 
 fore in many instances more convenient, can 
 be adopted. The most complete, effective, 
 and approved press consists of a frame of 
 cast iron with a perpendicular piston, flat 
 below to cover the sinker of the chessel. 
 The piston is raised or depressed by a small 
 pinion attached to a ratchet wheel and mal- 
 leable iron lever, three feet in length. The 
 lever is grooved in several places on the 
 upper side to hold the ring of the weight for 
 increasing or diminishing the power, in pro- 
 portion to its distance from the ratchet wheel. 
 The weight of this press is about two stone, 
 cost 11. 4s., pressure 20 tons. (Martin 
 Doyle's Pract. Hush. ; Prof. Low's Elem. 
 of Agr.) 
 
 CHEESE RENNET, or YELLOW 
 BED-STRAW (Galium verum), is a peren- 
 nial plant, common in waste places and the 
 borders of fields, flowering in July and 
 August. The stem, which is woody and 
 much branched, rises eighteen inches, and 
 sends off, in the same plane, narrow, deep 
 green, deflexed leaves, rough with minute 
 points, each tipped with a hair. The flowers 
 are golden yellow, in dense tufted panicles, 
 and smell strongly of honey in the evening 
 and before rain. The flowers of this weed 
 325 
 
 were formerly used in Cheshire for curdling 
 milk. (Paxtoris Pot. Diet.; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 208.) 
 
 CHELIDONIUM. From cheledon, a 
 swallow ; it being said to flower at the arrival 
 .and wither at the departure of the swallows. 
 See Celandine. 
 
 CHELONE. (Chelone barhata. From 
 chelone, a tortoise ; to the back of which 
 the helmet of the flowers is fancifully com- 
 pared.) This plant is a native of North Ame- 
 rica, and a hardy perennial ; blowing beau- 
 tiful red flowers in July and August. It 
 loves shade and moisture, and grows three 
 feet high. The white chelone is hardy, and 
 likes any soil. The downy chelone blows a 
 flower which is yellow inside, and light pur- 
 ple outside. It is propagated by seed, and by 
 separating the roots in autumn. It belongs 
 to a hardy herbaceous genus, that ought to 
 have a place in every collection : the species 
 succeed well in a mixture of peat and loam. 
 (Paxtoris Pot. Diet.) 
 
 CHEMISTRY. < The importance of this 
 science to the agriculturist no intelligent 
 modern farmer will doubt. Its triumphs 
 in the cause of the cultivator have been far 
 too many for him to hesitate in acknow- 
 ledging the obligation. I have, in this work, 
 under the heads Earths, Analysis of 
 Soils, Gases, Water, Salts, Organic 
 Chemistry, &c. endeavoured, to the best 
 of my power, to illustrate some of the many 
 chemical facts on which the successful prac- 
 tice of agriculture depends; and to these I 
 must refer the farmer. Most of the sub- 
 stances belonging to our globe, says Davy 
 (Chem. Philosophy, p. 1.), are constantly 
 undergoing alterations in sensible qualities, 
 and one variety of matter becomes, as it 
 were, transmuted into another. Such 
 changes, whether natural or artificial, 
 whether slowly or rapidly performed, are 
 called chemical ; thus, the gradual and 
 almost imperceptible decay of the leaves 
 and branches of a fallen tree exposed to 
 the atmosphere, and the rapid combustion 
 of wood in our fires, are both chemical 
 operations. The object of chemical phi- 
 losophy is to ascertain the causes of all 
 phenomena of this kind, and to discover 
 the laws by which they are governed. The 
 ends of this branch of knowledge are the 
 applications of natural substances to new 
 uses, for increasing the comforts and en- 
 joyments of man; and the demonstration of 
 the order, harmony, and intelligent design 
 of the system of the earth. The foundations 
 of chemical philosophy are observation, ex- 
 periment, and analogy. By observation, 
 facts are distinctly and minutely impressed 
 on the mind. By analogy, similar facts are 
 collected. By experiment, new facts are 
 y 3 
 
CHEMISTRY. 
 
 CHERRY-TREE. 
 
 discovered; and, in the progression of 
 knowledge, observation, guided by analogy, 
 leads to experiment ; and analogy, confirmed 
 by experiment, becomes scientific truth. 
 To give an instance, — whoever will consider 
 with attention the slender green vegetable 
 filaments {Conferva rivularis) which in the 
 summer exist in almost all streams, lakes, 
 or pools, under the different circumstances 
 of shade and sunshine, will discover globules 
 of air upon the filaments exposed under 
 water to the sun, but no air on the filaments 
 that are shaded. He will find that the 
 effect is owing to the presence of light. 
 This is an observation ; but it gives no in- 
 formation respecting the nature of the air. 
 Let a wine-glass filled with water be inverted 
 over the conferva thus acted upon by the 
 light. The air-bubbles, as they rise, will 
 collect in the upper part of the glass; and, 
 when the glass is filled with air, it may be 
 closed with the hand, placed in its usual 
 position, and an inflamed taper introduced 
 into it : the taper will burn with more 
 brilliancy than in the atmosphere. This is 
 an experiment If the phenomena are rea- 
 soned upon, and the question is put, whether 
 all vegetables of this kind, in fresh or in 
 salt water, do not produce such air under 
 like circumstances, the inquirer is guided 
 by analogy ; and, when this is determined 
 to be the case by new trials, a general sci- 
 entific truth is established, — that all con- 
 fervse in the sunshine produce a species of 
 air (oxygen gas) which supports flame in a 
 superior degree : a fact which has been 
 shown to be the case by various minute in- 
 vestigations. 
 
 By such researches the chemist ascertains 
 the composition and uses of the various other 
 gases, and also of the earths, metals, and salts, 
 of which the materials of the earth we inhabit 
 are composed; delightful inquiries, which 
 will well repay the cultivator in more ways 
 than one for the labour he may bestow iipon 
 them. They will speedily teach him that 
 nothing in this world of ours is ever lost or 
 destroyed; that the decaying materials of 
 his most noisome manures speedily again 
 make their appearance in new forms, and 
 in salubrious and fragrant plants ; that the 
 expired breath of himself and his live stock 
 is the inhaled food of all vegetation ; and that 
 vegetables purify the very air which animals 
 have vitiated. And again, the correct rotation 
 of crops, the use of permanent or earthy ad- 
 ditions to the soil (which see), the fattening 
 of live stock, the origin of diseases, are a few 
 only of the facts connected with the culti- 
 vation of the soil which the chemist's opera- 
 tions illustrate. " The nature of soils " (as it 
 is remarked by Mr. G.W. Johnson), "of ma- 
 il urea, of the food and functions of plants, 
 
 would all be unknown but from the analyses 
 which chemists have made." We know that 
 every plant has a particular temperature in 
 which it thrives best, a particular modification 
 of food, a particular degree of moisture, a 
 particular intensity of light ; and those par- 
 ticularities vary at different periods of their 
 growth. It is certain that plants are subject, 
 like all other organised bodies, to various 
 influences. Acids are injurious to some, al- 
 kalies to others ; the excess of some of their 
 constituents, and the deficiency of others, 
 insure disease to the plants to which such 
 irregularities occur. Disease is accompanied 
 by decay more or less extensive and rapid ; 
 and if these cannot be checked by salutary 
 applications and treatment, death ultimately 
 ensues. Now, if it was possible for any 
 science or sciences to teach the cultivator of 
 plants how to provide for them all the fa- 
 vourable contingencies, all the appropriate 
 necessaries above alluded to, and to protect 
 them from all those which are noxious to 
 them, the art of cultivation would be far ad- 
 vanced to perfection. Such sciences are 
 botany and. chemistry. It is not asserted 
 that they can, at present, do all that is de- 
 sired of them, — all of which they are ca- 
 pable ; but they can do much. As evidence 
 of what can be effected by a combination of 
 chemical and practical knowledge in the cul- 
 tivation of the soil, we may quote the ex- 
 ample of Lavoisier. He cultivated 240 
 acres in La Vendee, actuated by the bene- 
 ficent desire of demonstrating to his country- 
 men the importance of sustaining the art of 
 cultivation on scientific principles. In nine 
 years his produce was doubled, and his crops 
 afforded one third more than those of ordi- 
 nary cultivators. It is unnecessary to dwell 
 upon the importance of such improvements. 
 Science can never supersede the use of the 
 dunghill, the plough, the spade, and the hoe ; 
 but it can be one of their best guides, — it 
 can be a pilot even to the most experienced. 
 {Baxters Lib. of Ag. ; Gard. Mag. vols. iii. 
 and iv. ; Davy's Chem. Phil. ; Leibig's Or- 
 ganic Chemistry.) 
 
 CHERRY, THE BIRD. {Prunus padus.) 
 See Bird Cherry. 
 
 CHERRY TREE. {Prunus Cerasus.) It 
 derives its name from Cerasus, a city of 
 Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
 Lucullus, about half a century before the 
 Christian era. It soon after spread into 
 most parts of Europe, and is supposed to 
 have been carried to Britain about a century 
 after it came to Rome. The cherry is pretty 
 generally cultivated throughout the king- 
 dom, as an agreeable summer fruit. The 
 varieties are very numerous. The Horti- 
 cultural Society's Catalogue embraces 246 ; 
 but the following list is recommended by 
 
CHERRY, LAUREL. 
 
 CHERVIL, GARDEN. 
 
 Mawe, as containing the best varieties for 
 general cultivation, the whole being arranged 
 in the order in which they ripen : — June : 
 Early May, May Duke, Knight's Early 
 Black, and Late Duke. July : Archduke, 
 Black Tartarian, White Tartarian, Black 
 Eagle, Kentish, Bigarreau, Holman's Duke, 
 Elton, Herefordshire Heart, Bleeding Heart, 
 Carnation, and Waterloo. August : Harri- 
 son's Heart, Black Heart, Waterloo, Cou- 
 ronne, Lukeward, Black Geen, Small 
 Black, Small Red Wild, White Swiss, Lun- 
 die Geen, Transparent Geen, Cluster, Yel- 
 low Spanish. September : Florence, Amber 
 Heart, Flemish Heart, Red Heart, White 
 Heart. October : Morello or Milan. For 
 small gardens, either as wall trees, espaliers, or 
 standards, the following varieties are recom- 
 mended : — The May Duke, Morello, Arch- 
 duke, Black Heart, White Heart, Bigarreau, 
 Harrison's Heart, and Kentish Cherries. 
 Miller considers the common Red or Kentish, 
 the Duke, and the Lukeward as the best 
 trees for an orchard ; they are plentiful 
 bearers. This tree prefers a light dry sandy 
 loam, with a free exposure. The wood of the 
 cherry tree is close, takes a fine polish, and 
 is not liable to split. It is used in the manu- 
 facture of chairs, musical instruments, &c. 
 and stained to imitate mahogany. The prin- 
 cipal supplies of cherries for the London 
 market are brought from the cherry orchards 
 in Kent and Herts. The wild cherry 
 tree is found frequently in our woods and 
 hedges, and has round branches with a 
 polished ash-coloured bark. The leaves, in 
 all the varieties are simply folded flat while 
 young, by which cherries differ from the 
 Bullace tribe. (Phil. Hist. Fruits, p. 76.; 
 Williclis Domestic Encyclopaedia; M i Cul- 
 loclis Commercial Dictionary ; Baxter's Li- 
 brary of Agriculture ; Smith's Eng. Flora, 
 vol. ii. p. 354.) 
 
 CHERRY-LAUREL. (Cerasus lauro- 
 cerasus.) This shrub is an exotic, although 
 it is now naturalised to this climate, and 
 was brought to Europe from Trebisonde 
 in 1576. It is an evergreen, with smooth 
 bark, and short-stalked, oblong, lanceolate, 
 remotely serrated, coriaceous, shining leaves, 
 Avith two or four glands at their base. The 
 flower is white, with round spreading petals, 
 and the fruit a small, black drupe or cherry. 
 The leaves of the cherry laurel have long 
 been employed both in medicine and in 
 confectionery, on account of the agreeable 
 odour and flavour of the bitter almond 
 which they possess. They lose their odour 
 after they are dried, but retain their flavour. 
 The odour depends on the elements of a 
 volatile oil, which is developed by the ad- 
 dition of water, and, thence, readily ob- 
 tained by distillation. It contains Prussic 
 327 
 
 acid in considerable quantity. In conse- 
 quence of these components, the leaves of 
 t he cherry-laurel, when chewed, or employed 
 too freely in flavouring dishes, are poisonous; 
 and the distilled water, laurel water, is as 
 poisonous as Prussic acid. It causes an 
 uneasy sensation at the stomach, insensi- 
 bility, and death in a few minutes. Not- 
 withstanding these deleterious properties, 
 the distilled water of the cherry-laurel is a 
 valuable sedative medicine ; but it should 
 not be entrusted to the hands of the igno- 
 rant. When it has proved hurtful in pud- 
 dings, or any form of cookery, its effects 
 should be combated by cordials, and sal- 
 volatile, and dashing cold water on the face 
 cincl tlic cliGst* 
 
 CHERRY,' WINTER. (Physalis Alke- 
 kengi.) This is a pretty shrub ; sometimes 
 cultivated. It grows two feet high; its 
 stalk is thick and strong, with large sharp- 
 pointed leaves. The flowers are white, with 
 yellow anthers. The fruit is a red berry, 
 contained in a round green husk, about the 
 size of a large cherry. The berry is some- 
 times medicinally used : it is slightly diuretic. 
 See Axkekengi. 
 
 CHERVIL, GARDEN. (Chcerophyllum 
 sativum.) This herb grows in gardens, and 
 sometimes wild in waste ground ; perhaps 
 the outcast of gardens. The flowers are 
 white, and bitter-tasted; the seeds are 
 smooth, furrowed, and large ; altogether the 
 plant resembles parsley, only the leaves 
 are paler and more divided. The roots are 
 given in decoction. Chervil is slightly 
 diuretic : / the cutters of simples distil a 
 water from its leaves, which they consider 
 excellent in colics. Dioscorides says it is 
 healing to the lungs, and softens phthi- 
 sicky coughs. He speaks of it also as 
 forcing in its effects, and recommends it 
 in salads, or boiled in broths and potages, to 
 which it is better adapted than to medicine. 
 It is much used in France for salads ; 
 and is mentioned as a potherb by Gerarde. 
 The parsley-leaved chervil (Scandix ceri- 
 folium) and fern-leaved chervil (S. odorata), 
 are still cultivated by the Dutch for soups, 
 salads, &c. ; but in this country they are not 
 often found in the kitchen garden. The 
 soil for these plants must be mouldy, and 
 containing a portion of calcareous matter : 
 it need not be very poor, yet far from rich. 
 The situation cannot be too open, but a 
 shelter from the meridian sun is of great 
 importance. Seed may be said to be the 
 only means of propagation, and the only 
 sowing of this that can be depended upon 
 must be performed in early autumn, imme- 
 diately after it is ripe ; for if kept until the 
 following spring, it will seldom germinate ; 
 J or if this first grade of vegetation takes 
 
CHERVIL, THE NEEDLE. 
 
 CHEWING THE CUD. 
 
 place, the seedlings are generally weak, and 
 die away during the hot weather. 
 
 The seed may be sown in drills * eight 
 inches apart, or broadcast ; in either mode 
 being only just covered. The plants are to 
 be thinned to eight inches asunder, and to 
 remain where they are raised. The only 
 after- cultivation required by them is the 
 keeping them clear of weeds. For the pro- 
 duction of seed, some of the autumn-raised 
 plants of the annual species must be left 
 ungathered. They flower in April, and ripen 
 their seed about June. Of the perennial 
 species, some must in a like manner be left 
 untouched : they will flower about June, 
 and ripen their seed in July or August. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 The wild chervil, or smooth cow parsley 
 (Ch. sylvestre), is the only indigenous species, 
 besides Ch. sativum. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in April and May, and thriving in 
 hedges, orchards, and pastures. The root 
 is spindle-shaped, a little milky; it has a 
 striated stem, downy in the lower part. The 
 snow-white flowers, some of the earliest of 
 their tribe, plentifully adorn the hedges 
 and margins of fields in spring and an- 
 nounce the approach of summer. The 
 whole herb having the flavour of carrots, is 
 eaten by domestic cattle, particularly asses, 
 cows, and rabbits. Its presence indicates a 
 fertile soil, but it ought to be eradicated 
 from all pastures early in the spring. The 
 umbels of this plant afford an indifferent 
 yellow dye, the leaves and stems a beautiful 
 green. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 48. ; 
 WillicKs Dom. Ency. ; Sinclair's Weeds.) 
 
 CHERVIL, THE NEEDLE. See 
 Shepherd's Needle. 
 
 CHESSEL. The mould or vat in which 
 the cheese is formed. It is made of thick 
 staves, generally of white or American oak, 
 bound with two strong iron hoops to with- 
 stand the necessary pressure. The chessel 
 is perforated with many small holes in the 
 bottom and sides to let the whey drain out 
 of the curd. 
 
 CHEST. The breast; or that part of an 
 animal's body which contains the heart and 
 the lungs. 
 
 CHEST-FOUNDER. In farriery, a 
 disease incident to horses, which proceeds 
 from inflammation about the chest and ribs. 
 
 CHESTNUT, or CHESNUT. (Fagus- 
 castanea.) The species cultivated in Eng- 
 land are the common or sweet chestnut, of 
 which there are two kinds, the Spanish 
 (Cos. vesca) and the American (Cas. Ame- 
 ricana) ; — and the horse chestnut, which 
 belongs to a distinct genus. The true 
 chestnut tree flourishes on poor gravelly 
 or sandy soils, and will thrive in any but 
 moist or marshy situations. It has been 
 328 
 
 much questioned whether the chestnut 
 is indigenous or exotic. It was at one 
 time very common in England, and a 
 great many chestnuts have been planted 
 within the last thirty years. It is long- 
 lived, grows to an immense size, and is 
 very ornamental. The wood is hard and 
 compact : when young, it is tough and 
 flexible ; but when old it is brittle and often 
 shaky. When divested of its sap wood, 
 this timber will stand in situations exposed 
 to wet and dry longer than oak ; and for gate 
 posts it ranks in durability next after the 
 acacia, the yew, and probably it lasts longer 
 than the larch. The nuts form an article 
 for our dessert. In some parts of the Conti- 
 nent they are frequently used as a substitute 
 for bread, and form a large proportion of 
 the food of the inhabitants. During the 
 three years ending with 1831, the entries of 
 foreign chestnuts for home consumption 
 averaged 20,948 bushels a year, and they 
 pay a duty of 2s. per bushel. (Tredgold 's 
 Princip. of Carpentry; M'-CullocKs Com. 
 Diet. ; WillicKs Dom. Ency. ; Phillips' Hist, 
 of Fruits, p. 84.) 
 
 CHESTNUT, HORSE. (JEsculushippo- 
 castanum.) This ornamental tree, now so 
 common throughout Europe, is a native of 
 Asia. The first plant is said to have been 
 brought into Europe by the celebrated bo- 
 tanist Clusius in a portmanteau. It is too 
 well known to require description. The 
 wood is soft and of little value. The fruit 
 contains much nutritive matter, but it is 
 combined with a nauseous bitter extractive, 
 which renders it unfit for the food of man ; 
 but horses, kine, goats, and sheep are fond 
 of it. The bark of the tree contains an 
 astringent, bitter principle, which operates 
 as a tonic. It has cured agues, and some 
 authors affirm that it might be a substitute 
 for the Peruvian bark ; but trials and ex- 
 perience have not justified their opinion. 
 Given in a decoction, made with an ounce 
 of the bark to a pint of water, it may be 
 advantageously taken, to strengthen the 
 habit weakened by previous disease. 
 
 CHETWERT. A measure of corn in 
 Russia, equal to 5±§- Winchester bushels ; 
 so that 100 chetwerts = 74£ Winchester 
 quarters. 
 
 CHEVIOT SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 CHEWING-BALL. In farriery, the 
 name of a* medicine in the form of balls 
 adapted to restore lost appetite in horses. 
 
 CHEWING THE CUD. The operation 
 of leisurely re-chewing or masticating the 
 food in ruminating animals, as the cow, 
 sheep, &c. : by this means the food is more 
 effectually broken down, and mixed with 
 the saliva. If a ruminant animal ceases to 
 chew the cud, immediate illness may be ex- 
 
CHICCORY. 
 
 CHICK WEED. 
 
 pected, as the digestive organs cannot act 
 without this natural process. See an excel- 
 lent article " On Rumination, or Chewing the 
 Cud," in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. p. 344. 
 
 CHICCORY, or SUCCORY. (Cichorium 
 intybus.) An English perennial weed, the 
 wild endive, common on the borders of corn- 
 fields and poor gravelly soils; extensively 
 cultivated in Belgium, Holland, and Ger- 
 many. The cultivated variety was much 
 brought into notice by the late Arthur 
 Young, as a forage plant. He brought the 
 seed from France in 1788, and grew it ex- 
 tensively on his own farm ; and reports (An- 
 nals of Agr. xxxix.), " The quantity of seed 
 required to sow one acre is 13 lbs. The root 
 runs deep into the ground, and is white, 
 fleshy, and yields a milky juice. On the 
 Continent, the dried root is roasted and 
 used instead of coffee, and it is now allowed 
 by the excise to be mixed with coffee. 
 The root contains a strong bitter, which 
 may be extracted by infusion; it is also 
 used in the brewing of beer to save hops." 
 Mr. Gorrie (Quart. Journ. of Agr. N. S. 
 vol. iv. p. 206.) says, " No plant cultivated 
 in this country will bring the cow-feeder 
 nearly an equal return with the chiccory." 
 It should be added, however, that the 
 leaves give a bad taste to the milk of the 
 cows which eat them. (Brit.Husb. vol. iii. art. 
 " Flem. Husb." p. 42.) And Von Thaer, in 
 his Principles of Agriculture (2d ed. vol. iv. 
 p. 322.), asserts that it is extremely difficult 
 to eradicate from the land, and has been 
 found to materially impoverish the soil. 
 
 The fresh root of chiccory, when sliced 
 and pressed, yields a juice which is slightly 
 tonic ; and has been used in chronic affec- 
 tions of the stomach, connected with tor- 
 pid liver. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. 
 p. 412. ; M'CullocKs Com. Diet. ; Willicfis 
 Dom. Encyc. ; Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 303.) 
 
 CHICK, or CHICKEN. See Poultry. 
 
 CHICK PEA. (Cicer arietinum.) A 
 plant _too delicate for field culture in Eng- 
 land ; but in the south of France it is 
 grown for the same purpose as vetches in 
 England. It is the gram of India. (Pax- 
 ton's Pot. Diet. ; Low's Agr. p. 286.) 
 
 CHICKWEED. A low, creeping weed, 
 of which there are several varieties. The 
 common chickweed, or stitch-wort (Stellaria 
 media), has an annual, small, tapering root ; 
 flowering from March to December. Small 
 birds and poultry eat the seeds, and whole 
 herb ; whence its name. Swine are ex- 
 tremely fond of it ; and it is eaten by cows 
 and horses ; but is not relished by sheep, 
 and is refused by goats. The herb may be 
 boiled for the table like spinach : it is re- 
 ported to be nutritive. The field chick- 
 weed (Cerastium arvense) is a perennial, 
 329 
 
 from four inches to a foot in length, found 
 in fields and on banks and hillocks, on 
 a gravelly or chalky soil. In this order 
 there are seven other species of mouse-ear 
 chickweed, viz. two kinds of broad-leaved 
 (C. vulgatum and C. latifolium) ; the nar- 
 row-leaved (C. viscosum) ; the little mouse- 
 ear (C. semi-decandum) ; the four- cleft (C. 
 tetrandum) ; the alpine (C. alpinum) ; and 
 the water (C. aquaticum). These call for 
 no observation. The berry-bearing sort, 
 which grows with smooth erect stalks, and 
 the stamens longer than the petals, is the 
 wild lychnis, or white behen, and is a very 
 rambling weed, natural to most parts of 
 England, frequently called spattling-poppy. 
 Its roots are perennial, and strike so deep 
 into the earth that they are not easily de- 
 stroyed by the plough ; for which ' reason, 
 bunches of this plant are too common 
 among corn, in land which has not been 
 perfectly well tilled. Summer-fallowing, 
 and carefully harrowing out the roots, 
 which should then be burnt, is the best and 
 most effectual remedy. 
 
 The common chickweed grows in almost 
 every situation, in damp or even boggy woods, 
 and on the driest gravel walks in gardens. 
 In its wild state, this plant frequently exceeds 
 half a yard in height ; and varies so much from 
 the garden chickweed, that if a person were 
 acquainted only with the latter, he would 
 with difficulty recognise it in the woods. 
 Its small white flowers, and pale green leaves 
 spreading in all directions, sufficiently 
 point it out to our notice. It may be con- 
 sidered as a natural barometer ; for if the 
 flowers are closed, it is a certain sign of 
 rain, while, during dry weather, they are 
 regularly open from nine o'clock in the 
 morning till noon. The plant boiled in 
 vinegar and salt is said to cleanse break- 
 ings-out or eruptions of the hands and legs. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor.y ol.ii. p. 301.; Sinclair's 
 Weeds, p. 52. ; Willich's Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 CHICKWEED, EUROPEAN WIN- 
 TER-GREEN. (Trientalis Europcea.) A 
 species of chickweed growing on turfy- 
 heaths and woody declivities, in mountainous 
 countries. Found in several parts of the 
 north of England, but most plentiful in 
 Scotland. Perennial ; root slightly tuberous; 
 herbage smooth ; stem solitary, erect, round- 
 ish, three or four inches high, almost naked, 
 except at the top, where it is covered with 
 a tuft of leaves, and very elegant white 
 flowers; seeds dotted, black, with snow- 
 white reticulated tunics, like fine lace. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 208.) 
 
 CHICKWEED, GERMANDER. See 
 Speedwell. 
 
 CHICKWEED, PLANTAIN- 
 LEAVED. See Sandwort. 
 
CHICKWEED, SEA. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME. 
 
 CHICKWEED, SEA. See Sandwort. 
 
 CHICKWEED, SPEEDWELL. See 
 Wall Speedwell. 
 
 CHICKWEED, UMBELLIFEROUS 
 JAGGED. (Holosteum umbellatum.) Found 
 on old roofs and walls ; rare. Root annual ; 
 small fibrous stems, weak and partly de- 
 cumbent, branched from the bottom only, 
 four or five inches high, round, leafy. Leaves 
 hardly an inch long, spreading, single-ribbed, 
 glaucous, and rather succulent, entire and 
 even at the edges. Flower stalks about five, 
 terminal, umbellate. Petals white with a 
 tinge of red, various and unequally jagged 
 at each side. Seed reddish. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 188.) 
 
 CHICKWEED, UPRIGHT. See Speed- 
 well, Blunt-fingered. 
 
 CHICKWEED, WATER. See Blinks, 
 Water. 
 
 CHICLING- YETCH, or EVERLAST- 
 ING PEA. See Vetch. 
 
 CHIFF CHAFF. (Sylvia hippolais.) 
 A hardy small bird, which takes its name 
 from its oft-repeated double note, resembling 
 the two syllables " chifF, chaff. " Frequents 
 shady woods, hedgerows, and bushes. Food 
 insects ; nest oval or rounded, with a hole in 
 the side, by which the bird enters ; outside 
 formed of dry grass, dead leaves, and moss ; 
 lined with a profusion of feathers ; it is 
 generally placed on or near the ground in a 
 hedge-bank ; eggs usually six, white with a 
 few specks of dark purplish red; beak 
 shorter and narrower at base than the wil- 
 low warbler; legs very dark brown; and the 
 plumage partakes more of brown and less of 
 green than that bird. (YarrelVs Brit Birds, 
 p. 307.) 
 
 CHINA- ASTER. See Aster. 
 
 CHINE. In horsemanship, the back- 
 bone, or ridge of the back. In pork, that 
 part of the back which contains the back- 
 bone. 
 
 CHINESE DUCK. See Poultry. 
 
 CHISLEY LAND. Soil between sandy 
 and clayey, containing a large admixture of 
 small pebbles or gravel. 
 
 CHISSUM. A term used provincially for 
 to put forth roots, or to vegetate. 
 
 CHIT. A word used in the same sense 
 for to bud, or sprout out. 
 
 CHIVES, or CIVES. (Allium schano- 
 prasum.) This plant is a perennial, flowering 
 in May and June. It is easily propagated 
 by offsets of the roots. The time for making 
 plantations is January or February : how- 
 ever, March is the month to be preferred to 
 either ; but if previously neglected, it may be 
 perf ormed as late as June. It is also planted 
 jn the autumn. They are to be inserted by 
 tlx- dibble, eight or ten inches apart, and 
 eight or ten offsets in each hole. The only 
 
 cultivation required is to keep them free 
 from weeds. By autumn they multiply into 
 large-sized bunches ; and if required may 
 be taken up as soon as the leaves decay, and 
 be stored, after the necessary precautions, 
 as a substitute for the onion : the leaves, 
 which are fit for use as long as they remain 
 green, must, when required, be cut down 
 close to the ground, when they will speedily 
 be succeeded by others. (G. W. Johnsons 
 Kitch. Garden!) 
 
 CHIZZLE. Provincially, the bran or 
 husky parts of ground wheat. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME. This sub- 
 stance is a compound of lime in its slacked 
 state, or as a hydrate and chlorine. The 
 combination is loose, and the chlorine is 
 exposed to the air, affording the colour of 
 that gas. It dissolves only partially in 
 water ; and the solution, when exposed to 
 the air, evolves chlorine, whilst the freed 
 lime attracts carbonic acid, and forms an 
 insoluble carbonate of lime, which collects 
 in the bottom of the vessel. The use of 
 the chloride of lime, or bleaching powder, 
 has been recently proposed again as a ma- 
 nure ; and I am much inclined to believe that 
 on hot sandy soils, if used in proper pro- 
 portions, it would be productive of very 
 good results ; for it not only, when applied 
 with the seed, stimulates its germination, 
 but also by gradually giving out a portion 
 of its chlorine, and being converted into 
 carbonate of lime, it produces much good. 
 It is only in this way that chloride of lime 
 can be useful to vegetation, unless, as an 
 experiment of Mr. Fincham's suggests, its 
 odour may be found to keep off the attacks 
 of the fly ; for chloride of lime is certainly 
 not a food, nor constituent part of vegetation. 
 
 It is important not to confound chloride 
 of lime with chloride of calcium, which is 
 a compound of chlorine and the metallic 
 basis of lime. The latter salt is a perfect 
 chemical compound ; but the former is an 
 imperfect combination of chlorine and lime ; 
 and, as the lime has a greater affinity for 
 carbonic acid than for chlorine, it attracts 
 the former and evolves the latter when it is 
 exposed to the air. 
 
 Davy investigated the fertilising, or rather 
 stimulating properties of chlorine, but he 
 made no experiment on its compounds : 
 what he did he did well : yet in this instance 
 he stopped short at the very threshold of the 
 investigation. But he shall tell his own 
 story : — " There are several chemical men- 
 strua," says this great chemist, " which ren- 
 der the process of germination more rapid, 
 when the seeds have been steeped in them. 
 As in these cases the seed leaves are quickly 
 produced, and more speedily perform their 
 functions, I proposed it as a subject of e.\- 
 
CHLORIDE OF LIME. 
 
 CHUB. 
 
 periinent, to examine whether such menstrua 
 might not be useful in raising the turnip 
 more speedily to that state in which it would 
 be secure from the fly; but the result proved 
 that the practice was inadmissible ; for seeds 
 so treated, though they germinated much 
 quicker, did not produce healthy plants, and 
 often died soon after sprouting. I steeped 
 radish seeds, in September, 1 807, for twelve 
 hours in a solution of chlorine, and similar 
 seeds in very diluted nitric acid, and in very 
 diluted sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol), in 
 weak solution of ox-sulphate of iron (green 
 vitriol), and some in common water. The 
 seeds in solutions of chlorine and ox-sulphate 
 of iron threw out the germ in two days, 
 those in nitric acid in three days, in sulphuric 
 acid in five, and those in water in five. But 
 in every case of premature germination, 
 though the plume was very vigorous for a 
 short time, yet it became at the end of a 
 fortnight weak and sickly, and at that period 
 less vigorous in its growth than the sprouts 
 which had been naturally developed, so that 
 there can be scarcely any useful application 
 of these experiments. Too rapid growth 
 and premature decay seem invariably con- 
 nected in organised structures, and it is only 
 by following the slow operations of natural 
 causes that we are capable of making im- 
 provements. (Agric. Chem. p. 217.) 
 
 Chloride of lime is prepared in large 
 quantities for the service of the bleachers 
 in most of the manufacturing districts. 
 It is composed, according to the analysis of 
 Dr. Marcet, of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Chlorine - - 63-23 
 
 Lime - - 36 '77 
 
 100 
 
 Dr. Ingenhouz, in a paper published by 
 the Board of Agriculture in 1816, remarks, 
 in alluding to some experiments he had 
 tried at Hertford in company with the Baron 
 Dimsdale with various salts, — " Be it suf- 
 ficient to say here, that of all the neutral 
 salts we tried, the glauber salt did seem to 
 be one of the best in promoting vegetation ; 
 and the steeping the seeds in water, im- 
 pregnated with oxygenated marine salt 
 (which is now employed in bleaching linen 
 in an expeditious way), had a particularly 
 beneficial effect in producing vigorous and 
 early plants. We were somewhat astonished 
 that those seeds, viz. of wheat, rye, barley, 
 and oats, which had been steeped in the 
 above mentioned oxygenated muriatic liquid, 
 even during forty-eight hours, did thrive 
 admirably well; whereas, the same seeds 
 steeped during so long a time, in some of 
 the other medicated liquids, were much 
 hurt, or had lost their vegetative power. 
 331 
 
 The same oxygenated liquid poured upon 
 the ground had also a beneficial effect." 
 These experiments of Ingenhouz were made, 
 it appears, in 1795. See Salts, their uses to 
 vegetation. (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. ii. p. 
 258. ; " On Fertilisers," p. 366.) 
 
 CHOCCY. A vulgar term used provin- 
 cially to signify chalky, or resembling chalk. 
 
 CHOLIC, or COLIC. See Horses, Cat- 
 tle, Sheep, Diseases or. 
 
 CHOPPER, HAY. See Chaff-engines. 
 A new and very efficient straw-cutter under 
 the title of the " Canadian Straw and Hay- 
 chopper," is figured and described in the 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 336. One per- 
 son driving the machine can, it is said, cut 
 with ease 5 cwt. of hay or straw in an 
 hour. 
 
 CHOUGH, or RED LEGGED CROW. 
 (Fregilus graculus.) The plumage of this 
 British bird is uniformly black, glossed with 
 blue ; beak, legs, and toes, vermilion red ; 
 claws, black. In the family of the crows the 
 males are larger than the females ; in this 
 species the male measures almost seventeen 
 inches in length, female'about fourteen inches. 
 Food, insects and berries, occasionally grain. 
 Nest of sticks, lined with wool and hair, in 
 the cavities of high cliffs, old castles, or church 
 towers, near the sea. Eggs, four or five, 
 yellowish white, spotted with ash-grey and 
 light brown ; one inch eight lines by one 
 inch one line in breadth. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 56.) 
 
 CHRISTOPHER, HERB-. See Bane- 
 
 BERRIES. 
 
 CHRONIC COUGH. In horses, this 
 is a frequent consequence of chest dis- 
 eases. In a few instances this seems to 
 be connected with worms ; and if the coat 
 is unthrifty, the flanks tucked up, and 
 there is mucus around the anus, it will 
 be proper to put the connexion between 
 the worms and the cough to the test ; other- 
 wise a sedative medicine may suffice to 
 allay the irritation. (Claters Far. p. 123.) 
 
 CHRYSANTHEMUM, INDIAN. 
 {Chrysanthemum indicum.) A native of 
 China and India and a perennial, growing 
 three feet high, blowing its purple, yellow, 
 and white flowers in November and De- 
 cember. It loves a rich soil, and must be 
 removed every two years. Propagate by 
 dividing the roots, and by cuttings. The 
 garden Chrysanthemum coronarium is an 
 annual, blowing yellow or white flowers in 
 July, August, and September, Sow the 
 seed where it is to grow. 
 
 CHUB, or CHEVEN. (Leuciscits ce- 
 phalus.) A powerful fish belonging to the 
 Cyprinidce, common in our English rivers, 
 and which takes its name from the size of 
 its head. The scales are large ; the colour- 
 
CHURCHWARDEN'S. 
 
 of the upper parts dusky green ; of the sides 
 and belly silvery white. In summer, chub 
 will rise to almost any kind of fly and beetle ; 
 in autumn, it will take gentles and paste ; 
 in winter, bullock's brains, pith, greaves, &c. 
 Fly-fishing for chub may be pursued from 
 May till August ; the humble bee, palmer, 
 black caterpillar-fly, and large blow -fly are 
 good killing baits in the summer months. 
 Chub sometimes reach to the size of 8 or 9 lbs. 
 weight on the Continent ; but with us 3 lbs. 
 is considered a fine fish. Spawns in April. 
 (Blaine s Ency. of Rur. Sports, p. 1054.) 
 
 CHURCHWARDENS. (From Sax. 
 peanbian.) These, says the learned Dean 
 Prideaux, are officers of the parish in eccle- 
 siastical affairs, as the constables are in civil ; 
 and the main branches of their duty are to 
 present what is presentable by the ecclesi- 
 astical laws of this realm, and repair the 
 church. About the year 700, the Saxons, 
 in large districts, founded churches for them- 
 selves and their tenants ; and those were the 
 original of parish churches. (Seld. de Dec. 
 259. c. 9. s. 4.) Within these districts other 
 churches were afterwards erected, which in 
 process of time obtained tithes, burials, and 
 baptism, and thereby became parish churches. 
 (Ibid. 262. c. 9. s. 4.) And, therefore, every 
 church having burial, baptism, and tithes, is 
 now esteemed a parish church. (Ibid. 265. c. 
 9. s. 4.) A church built within the precinct 
 of a parish church, to which burial and sa- 
 craments belong, is a chapel of ease. (2 Rol. 
 340.) Churchwardens are lay persons, 
 though ecclesiastical officers. (Hardr. 379. ; 
 2 Rol. 71. ; 1 Salk. 166. ; 5 Mod. 326. ; I Lord 
 Raym. 138.) Their duties were originally 
 confined to the care of the ecclesiastical pro- 
 perty of the church. (1 Haggard, 173. per 
 Lord Stowell.) 
 
 They are obliged twice every year, i. e. at 
 the visitations of the bishop, archdeacon, 
 or other ordinary, to make their present- 
 ments of all things that are amiss in their 
 parishes ; and may, if they think fit, do it 
 oftener. And they are bound not only to 
 observe who are absent from the church, 
 but also to see that all do in time of divine 
 service behave themselves orderly, soberly, 
 and reverently (Can. 18. 111.) ; that none 
 make any noise in the church to disturb 
 the duty which is performing (Ibid.), or sit 
 there with their hats on, or in any other inde- 
 centor irreverent manner. (1 Eliz. 0.2, s. 14.; 
 Can. 18.) 
 
 The churchwardens are to take care that 
 no stranger be admitted to preach in their 
 church, of whom they are not well satisfied 
 (hat lie is in orders, and licensed to preach 
 ]<v ! he bishop of the diocese. (Can. 28.) And 
 if any sucli disorder should be there com- 
 mitted against their will, or if the church 
 332 
 
 be not in all other respects regularly served 
 according to the good rule and orders of the 
 Church of England, such irregularities they 
 are to present ; so that, whensoever a min- 
 ister offends in any of them, he may, by the 
 censures of the church, be corrected and 
 amended, or else, if incorrigible, be removed, 
 and another put in his place. (Can. 62. 75. 
 122. &c.) 
 
 The churchwardens were anciently the 
 sole overseers of the poor, and it lay 
 wholly on them, under the direction of the 
 minister, to take care of all such as were in 
 want in their parish, and provide for their 
 relief. But when the poor laws began (43 
 Eliz.) the overseers, which are in that act 
 appointed, have virtually superseded the 
 church-wardens in this. However, the 
 church-wardens are still by the common 
 law overseers of the poor in every parish. 
 
 As to the repairs of the church and church-" 
 yard, although they both are of the freehold 
 of the minister, whether he be rector or vicar 
 (lliy.4. c. 12.; 21 #.7. c. 21. ; 2 Cro. 367.; 
 Hobart , 69.), yet since the parishioners have 
 the use of the body of the church to hear 
 divine service, and of the churchyard for 
 the burial of their dead, they are bound to 
 repair both. (Can. 85. ; 2 Co. Inst. 489. 
 653.) But the repair of the chancel still 
 lies upon the parson, whether appropriator, 
 impropriator, or instituted rector. (2 Inst. 
 489. ; 2 Rol. Rep. p. 211. ; Degge, p. i. c. 12.) 
 Except in the city of London, where, by 
 immemorial custom, the parishioners repair 
 the chancel as well as the body of the church ; 
 which custom is also in the city of Norwich, 
 and most other cities and large towns in 
 England. The churchwardens are there- 
 fore bound, in behalf of the parish, to take 
 care that the body of the church and the 
 churchyard, the gates, stiles, and doors 
 leading into the churchyard ; as also the 
 ways leading to it be kept in good order 
 and repair. 
 
 As the soil and feed of the churchyard is 
 the minister's, so also are the trees growing 
 therein ; but he is not to cut them down, 
 unless for the necessary repair of the chan- 
 cel, or else that he shall think fit to allow 
 them to the parishioners for the repair of 
 the body of the church ; but where they are 
 used to be topped, the toppings belong to 
 the minister. (Edw. 1. stat. xxxv.) 
 
 The churchwardens are to be chosen every 
 year in vestry, public notice affixed to the 
 church doors being previously given accord- 
 ing to the 1 Vict. c. 45., altering 58 Geo. 3. 
 c. 69. s. 1 . (unless where there is an imme- 
 morial custom for another day). And at 
 the time appointed, the minister and pa- 
 rishioners being met together, the church- 
 wardens shall be chosen by the joint consent 
 
CHURCHWARDENS. 
 
 of both ; but if they cannot agree, the canon 
 directs that the minister shall name one, 
 and the parishioners the other. (Can.89. 
 1603.) But where there hath been an imme- 
 morial custom for the parishioners to choose 
 both of the churchwardens, there the cus- 
 tom shall take place of the canon, and they 
 shall continue to choose both still. (2 Cro. 
 532.; ^ Ibid. 551,552.; Noy. 31. 139.; 2 Rol. 
 234.; Degge, p. i. c. 12.; Gibs. Codex, 242.) 
 The parson or vicar, who has a right to 
 preside and fix time and place for taking 
 polls and for their adjournment, cannot 
 adjourn the vestry, but the majority of the 
 parishioners may. (Fort. 168.; Sir. 1045. ; 
 Rex v. St. Mary, Lambeth, L.J. 1840.) Of 
 common right the parishioners shall choose 
 one, and the parson the other. (Str. 1246 .; 
 Cro. Jac. 532.) A curate stands in the place 
 of the parson. (Str. 1246.; 2 Vent. 41.) 
 
 Several persons are excused from bearing 
 the office of a churchwarden, as all peers 
 of the realm ; all clergymen in holy orders ; 
 all parliament men, and all in the king's 
 service in ordinary ; all lawyers, attorneys, 
 and clerks of Chancery, King's Bench, Com- 
 mon Pleas, and Exchequer (2 Rol. Abr. 
 272.) ; physicians and chirurgeons in the 
 city of London and suburbs (by the stats. 
 5 H. 8. c. 6., 32 H. 8. c. 40.) ; apothecaries 
 (6 W. 3. c. 4., 1 Ann. c. 11., 10 Ann. c. 14.) ; 
 all preachers and teachers of dissenting con- 
 gregations (1 W. & M. c. 18.) ; freemen of 
 the corporation of surgeons in London (18 
 G. 2. c. 15.); Roman Catholic ministers (31 
 G.3. c. 32. s. 8.) ; Serjeants, corporals, drum- 
 mers of the militia, and private men (26 G. 3. 
 c. 107. s. 130.) ; all these persons being ex- 
 empt from the office of churchwarden, are 
 not to be chosen unless they consent. Cer- 
 tain persons, as aliens, denizens, naturalised 
 subjects, persons convicted of felony, fraud, 
 and perjury, papists, and Jews, are absolutely 
 disqualified. Excepting these, all are eligible, 
 and must serve the said office when legally 
 chosen. But he must be an inhabitant of 
 the parish, for no out-setter, who occupieth 
 lands in the parish but dwells not or inhabits 
 there, is capable of being chosen church- 
 warden. 
 
 At the next visitation, after the choice 
 of churchwardens by the bishop or other 
 ordinary, the new churchwardens must 
 appear, and, according to the 5 & 6 W. 4. 
 c. 62. s. 9., make a declaration that he will 
 faithfully and diligently fulfil the duties of 
 his office. And as the churchwarden has 
 the care of the church and its repairs, so he 
 has of the payment for the same ; and he 
 must remember that there is a doubt if he 
 can enforce a rate for expenses already in- 
 curred, even for necessary repairs and within 
 the year. 
 
 333 
 
 According to the ecclesiastical law, the 
 laying of the church-rate ought to be ac- 
 cording to the lands and the stock which the 
 parishioners have within the parish ; so say 
 John of Athon and Lindwood, the best of 
 our English canonists. But this is not to 
 be understood, as if any one were to be 
 layed for both land and stock. They who 
 make the rate may lay him according to 
 either of the two, and even for the best of 
 them, but not for both. But the general 
 usage now is, to make a rate according to 
 the value of the lands. However, this rate 
 is only a personal, not a real charge ; for 
 it is not laid upon the lands, but only upon 
 the persons in respect of the lands which 
 they occupy within the parish ; and for this 
 reason, the farmer or occupier, not the 
 landlord, is to pay the same (5 Co. p. 67.). 
 A mandamus will not lie to compel the 
 churchwardens to make a rate (Rex v. 
 Wilson, 5 D. & R. 602.), because it is a sub- 
 ject of ecclesiastical jurisdiction (Rex v. 
 Thetford, 5 T. R. 364.) . But if the church- 
 wardens, for necessary repairs, summon the 
 parishioners to make a rate, and they having 
 refused or neglected to meet, or having met 
 refuse to grant a rate, then there is little 
 doubt (though the last question is now, 
 1841, in dispute) that the churchwardens 
 may make and enforce the payment of a rate 
 by their own authority. (Gaudern v. Selby ; 
 Veley v. JBurder; Johnson's Report of the 
 Braintree Church-rate case.) 
 
 Churchwardens have the care of all the 
 seats in the church, and likewise to repair 
 them, and see that good order be preserved 
 in them, and no disturbance or contention 
 be made therein, but that every man re- 
 gularly take that seat and that place in it 
 which he hath a right to whether it be by 
 prescription, or that he hath been placed 
 there by the order of the bishop or by them- 
 selves. 
 
 A right to a pew in a church can only 
 exist by faculty or by prescription. (Mor- 
 gan v. Curtis, 3 M. & R. 389.) A pew in the 
 body of the church may be prescribed for as 
 appurtenant to a house out of the parish 
 (Lousely v. Hayward, 1 Y. & J. 583.) ; 
 but a non-parishioner, whether extra-pa- 
 rochial, or residing in another parish, can 
 have no right to a pew in the body of 
 a parish church, except by prescription. 
 (Byerley v. Windus, 7D.& R. 564.) As to 
 all other seats in the body of the church, 
 which are repaired at the charges of the 
 parish, they are in the disposal of the 
 churchwardens, with the advice of the 
 minister, but still in subordination to the 
 bishop who hath the primary right of dis- 
 posing and ordering of this matter in every 
 church of his diocese. But although the 
 
CHURN. 
 
 CIDER. 
 
 freehold of the church and churchyard be 
 in the minister, yet as he can hinder no pa- 
 rishioner from having a place in the body of 
 the church for the hearing of divine service, 
 so neither can he hinder any such from 
 having a place in the churchyard for the 
 burial of his deadL For as the one is a com- 
 mon hearing-place for the living, so the other 
 is a common burying-place for the dead. But 
 as to the burials in the church, no one can 
 be buried there without the leave of him 
 that hath the freehold, that is, not in the 
 body of the church without the leave of the 
 minister, whether vicar or instituted rector, 
 and not in the chancel without the leave of 
 the parson, whether appropriator, impro- 
 priator, or instituted rector. At the Easter 
 visitation, the churchwardens must take 
 care to make their presentments before the 
 new churchwardens are sworn. (Can. 118.) 
 And on their being discharged, they should 
 within a month after, make their account ; in 
 order whereto they must give notice in 
 writing, affixed to the church door the Sun- 
 day before, for a parish-meeting ; at which 
 meeting the churchwardens having pro- 
 dued the rates which they have made, must 
 give an account how they have expended 
 the sums levied by them. (Prideaux's Office 
 of Churchwardens ; Degge's Parsoris Coun- 
 cillor; Watsoris Complete Incumbent.} 
 
 CHURN. (Sax. cepnan ; Goth, kernaj 
 Dutch, kernen. Our old authors wrote it 
 cherne, and kern is yet a local word, and 
 generally used north of the Tweed.) A 
 vessel in which cream is coagulated by long 
 and violent agitation. There are many dif- 
 ferent kinds of churns, but those most gene- 
 rally used are the upright or Dutch plunge 
 churn and the barrel-churn. In large dairies, 
 churns are frequently turned by means of 
 a horse : this is particularly the case in 
 Flanders, where churns are used which will 
 make forty or fifty pounds of butter at a 
 time. In the large dairies of Cheshire they 
 are now often driven by small high pressure 
 steam-engines. On such farms as have 
 thrashing-mills, churns might be very con- 
 veniently attached to and wrought by them. 
 An improved butter-churn by Mr. C. Harley 
 of Fenchurch-street, and another by Mr. W. 
 Bowler, to which the Society for the Im- 
 provement of the Arts, &c. awarded a prize 
 of thirty guineas, are described in WillicKs 
 Domestic Encyc. The following patents for 
 improvements on churns have been taken 
 out : — Aug. 8. 1777, J. Rastuck, -a barrel- 
 churn. July 28. 1792, — March, horizontal 
 churn. Nov. 10. 1796, W. Kaley, a butter- 
 churn. May 9. 1807, James Watts, Orms- 
 kirk, a butter-churn. 
 
 CIBOULE, or WELSH ONION. See 
 Onion. 
 
 334 
 
 CICADA. See Grasshopper. 
 
 CICHES. (Cicer.) This is a small field 
 plant, sown for its fruit, which is of the 
 pea-kind. The flowers and leaves resemble 
 the pea, but the leaves and stalks are hairy. 
 The pods are downy, short, and thick, not 
 containing above one or two seeds each. 
 
 CICELY, SWEET. (Lat. Myrrhis ado- 
 rata ; from myron, perfume ; or myrrh scent 
 of plant.) A perennial, found in mountain 
 pastures, flowering in May. Formerly cicely 
 was used in a variety of ways, but it has dis- 
 appeared from our tables a long time since. 
 Any common soil suits it, and it is readily 
 increased by seeds, or dividing at the root. 
 (Paxtori's Bot. Diet.} The young seeds 
 have the flavour of anise, and are grate- 
 fully stomachic. Smith enumerates three 
 other species of these perennial herbs, which 
 are noted for their aromatic, pungent, or 
 sweet flavour. {English Flora, vol. ii. 
 p. 50.) 
 
 CIDER, or CYDER. (Fr. cidre ; Ger. 
 zider ; Ital. cidro ; Russ. sidor ; Span, sidra.) 
 A sharp and vinous beverage made by fer- 
 menting the juice of apples. It is a cooling, 
 pleasant, and wholesome liquor during the 
 heat of summer, if it has been prepared 
 without foreign ingredients and properly 
 fermented. Cider was formerly subject to 
 heavy duties ; but the latest imposed duty 
 of 10«. per barrel was repealed in 1830. 
 Somerset, Hereford, and Devonshire are the 
 principal cider counties of England. Cider of 
 good quality is also made in Ireland in the 
 counties of Waterford and Cork. The reader 
 will find very explicit instructions for the 
 manufacture of cider in the Penny Cyclop. 
 vol. vii. p. 161. ; in the Lib. of Useful Know. ; 
 Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 364. ; Low's Pract. 
 Agr. p. 379. ; Crocker, On the Art of making 
 and managing Cyder; in the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. viii. p. 332., by Mr. Towers ; and 
 in Baxter's Agr. Lib. p. 125. ; by Andrew 
 Crosse, Esq. of Somerset. My space will 
 only allow me to give the following instruc- 
 tions for making it by a Devonshire lady. 
 
 Gather the fruit when ripe ; let it remain 
 in a heap until the apples begin to get damp ; 
 then grind them in a mill (similar to a malt 
 mill) ; take the pulp and put it into a large 
 press, like a cheese-press, only on a much 
 larger scale ; place a layer of reed in the 
 bottom of the vat, and a layer of pulp, 
 alternately, until the vat is full. The vat is 
 square, and the ends of the reed must be 
 allowed to turn over every layer of pulp, so 
 as to keep it from being pressed out at the 
 sides : the layers of pulp must be five or 
 six inches thick. When you have finished 
 making your cheese, press it as hard as you 
 can, and let it remain three or four hours ; 
 then cut down the corners of it, and lay 
 
CINERARIA. 
 
 CLARY. 
 
 them on the top, with reed, as before ; then 
 press it again, and allow it to remain for 
 another three or four hours. Repeat this 
 process as long as necessary, or until tliQ 
 cheese is quite dry. It takes seven bags of 
 apples for one hogshead of cider, and the vat 
 ought to be large enough to make from three 
 to four hogsheads at a time. The best sort of 
 apple to make mild cider is the hard bitter- 
 sweet. Any sort of sour apple will do to 
 make the harsh cider. The liquor must 
 be strained through a fine sieve into a large 
 vessel, and allowed to ferment for three or 
 four days, taking off" the scum as it rises ; 
 then rack it, and put it into casks stopped 
 down quite close. Before the cider is put 
 into the cask, a match made of new linen 
 and attached to a wire is lighted and put in- 
 to the cask, and the bung is put in to keep 
 the wire from falling into it. After a few 
 minutes the match is removed, and the cider 
 poured into the cask, while yet full of the 
 smoke. 
 
 A person would require three or four 
 years' experience before he would be quali- 
 fied to superintend the making of sweet or 
 made cider. Much depends on the year, or 
 rather on the ripening of the apples ; it 
 should be the second, not the first falling ; 
 and the " green bitter-sweet " and the 
 " pocket apple " are the best for making it. 
 After pounding, isinglass and brimstone are 
 used to sweeten and fine it, and many other 
 ingredients. (A. M. K.) 
 
 The sweet cider, above described, is dis- 
 tinct from the other two kinds of cider (the 
 harsh and mild). Cider, according to Brande, 
 contains about 9*87 parts per cent, of alcohol. 
 It is a wholesome beverage for those who 
 use much bodily exercise. ( Williclis Dom. 
 Encyc. ; M l Culloc7is Com. Diet) 
 
 CINERARIA. See Feeawobt. 
 
 CINQUE-FOIL, COMMON CREEP- 
 ING, or FIVE FINGERED GRASS. 
 (Potentilla reptans.) This creeping plant 
 is common about way-sides and in meadows 
 and pastures. It is a perennial, flowering in 
 June. Its stalks are round, smooth, and 
 red, lying upon the ground, and taking 
 root at the joints. The leaves stand five in 
 number on each foot-stalk, long and narrow 
 in form, and indented at the edges. The 
 flowers are large, of a bright yellow colour, 
 standing upon long foot-stalks. The root is 
 long and large, covered with a brown rind. 
 Smith {Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 423.) describes 
 this and ten other species of cinque-foil, all 
 belonging to the same genus. The root is 
 the medicinal part, and once was an officinal 
 plant ; but is now discarded : dig it up in 
 April, take off the outer bark or rind, and 
 dry it. The powdered bark of the root is 
 astringent. 
 
 335 
 
 CINQUE-FOIL, PURPLE MARSH. 
 (Comarium palustre.) A perennial, found 
 in spongy muddy bogs and ditches. Root, 
 creeping extensively, with many long fibres. 
 Stems, round, reddish, a foot or more in 
 height. Flowers, several, without scent, but 
 handsome, an inch broad, all over of a dark 
 purplish blood colour, as well as the fruit. 
 They appear in June. (Smith's Eng. Flora, 
 vol. ii. p. 433.) 
 
 CIRL BUNTING. (Emberiza cirlus.) 
 In habit resembles the yellow bunting ; 
 builds in furze or some low bush ; nest, of 
 dry stalks with a little moss, and lined with 
 long hair and fibrous roots. Eggs, four or 
 five, dull white, tinged with blue, streaked 
 and speckled with dark liver-brown ; length, 
 ten lines by eight lines in breadth. Food, 
 insects and berries. Whole length, six inches 
 and a half. General colour of plumage, rich 
 chestnut-brown, shaded with black. (Yar- 
 r ell's Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 448.) 
 
 CISTERN. (Lat. cisterna, from Greek, 
 fc/orjj.) A reservoir of, or receptacle for, 
 water for public or domestic use ; when made 
 of brick or stone, it is commonly called a tank. 
 
 CISTUS. A beautiful genus of plants, 
 varying in height from one to four feet. 
 They are considered hardy, but there are 
 some of them that require protection in win- 
 ter, either in a green-house or a cold frame, 
 although most of the species will pass the 
 winter in the open air if the weather be not 
 severe ; it is the best plan to keep some of 
 all the sorts in pots, that they may be more 
 easily protected from severe weather, in 
 spring they may be turned out in the bor- 
 ders, where they will flower freely. They 
 do well in common soil, and are increased by 
 layers or ripened cuttings, placed under a 
 glass; or by seeds. (Paxton'sBot.Dict.) Smith 
 describes seven species of native cistus. 
 (Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 22.) The rock-rose 
 (Cistus laurifolia) grows six feet high, a na- 
 tive of Spain ; blows a large white flower 
 in June and July. The gum cistus (Cistus 
 ladaniferus) blows beautiful white flowers 
 with violet spots in the centre, in June and 
 July ; loves a sheltered situation and good 
 soil ; propagated by cuttings, and by seed 
 sown in pots. 
 
 CITRIC ACIDS. See Acids, vegetable. 
 
 CLARY, or SAGE (Salvia). Smith 
 (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 34.) describes two 
 kinds, the meadow clary (S. pratensis), and 
 wild English clary (S. verbenaca). The first 
 is very uncommon, but sometimes met with 
 in dry meadows and about hedges ; grows 
 three feet high, erect ; not very aromatic ; 
 leaves, dark green ; flowers, large and hand- 
 some, of a fine purplish blue. The second 
 species is more common on gravelly or 
 chalky soils, a foot or eighteen inches high ; 
 
CLASPERS. 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 leaves, greyish green ; flowers, small, violet- 
 blue. Seeds black, smooth ; blows from June 
 to October. This plant is of great virtue, and 
 is kept in gardens on account of its excellent 
 flavour as a wine. The whole herb is me- 
 dicinal, and is equally good, freshly gathered 
 or dried. It is cordial and astringent in its 
 quality. 
 
 CLASPERS. The threads or tendrils 
 of creeping plants. 
 
 CLAYING OF LAND. See Mixture 
 or Soils. 
 
 CLAY-KILN. A stove for burning clay. 
 There are two modes commonly employed, 
 one by kilns partly constructed of masonry, 
 and the other of sods ; in both of which the 
 earth is piled upon them, instead of being 
 placed under cover, as in a lime-kiln in 
 Suffolk, where it is called clod-burning. 
 {Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 369. 375.) See Ashes. 
 
 CLEANING. A term applied to the 
 secundines of the cow, ewe, &c. 
 
 CLEARING. A term applied, in thrash- 
 ing corn, to a heap large enough to be win- 
 nowed. Clearing of land is the means of 
 removing such obstacles and impediments 
 as prevent or retard its cultivation. 
 
 CLE AS. A provincial word, applied 
 to the claws of cattle, sheep, &c. 
 
 CLEAVERS, or GOOSE-GRASS. See 
 Hariff. 
 
 CLEDGY. A term applied to such sorts 
 of land as are stiff, stubborn, hard, and te- 
 nacious, or mixed with clay. 
 
 CLEFTS. In farriery, a disease in the 
 heels of horses. (See Cracks in Heels.) 
 
 CLEMATIS, VIRGIN'S BOWER. 
 (Clematis viticella.') A hardy climber, suited 
 to trellis-work, and propagated by layers. 
 It blows a bluish purple flower in J uly and 
 August. Multiply by parting its roots, and 
 from seed. It flourishes in any soil. 
 
 Clematis vitalba. Common Traveller's 
 Joy : is an indigenous shrub, found in 
 hedges, chiefly on calcareous soils. It is 
 a climber, using the footstalks of the leaves 
 as supports. The leaves consist of five 
 leaflets, stalked and heart- shaped; the flowers 
 are white, and have the odour of the almond 
 or peach blossom. 
 
 CLETCIL The country name for a 
 young brood of chickens, &c. 
 
 CLEVELAND BAYS. See Cart 
 Horses. 
 
 CLEWY. A provincial word applied 
 to the draft-iron of a plough. 
 
 CLICKING. An unpleasant noise known 
 also by the term " overreach," which arises 
 from the toe of the hind-foot of a horse 
 knocking against the shoe of the fore-foot. 
 If the animal is young, the action of the 
 horse may be materially improved; other- 
 wise, nothing can be done. 
 .336 
 
 CLIDERS. A weed. See Hariff. 
 
 CLIMATURE. A word sometimes em- 
 ployed in much the same way as climate. 
 It is a term made use of by some agricul- 
 tural writers. 
 
 CLIP. A provincial word used to sig- 
 nify shearing sheep. It also means the 
 produce of wool. See Sheep-shearing. 
 
 CLOCKS. A country term applied to 
 beetles of all sorts. 
 
 CLOCK-SEAVES. A provincial name 
 for the black-headed bog rush. 
 
 CLOD-CRUSHER. See Roller. 
 
 CLODDY. A provincial word applied 
 to cattle, when thick, short, or full of flesh. 
 
 CLOG. A provincial term, sometimes, 
 applied to a log of wood. 
 
 CLOG SHOES. The country name for 
 wooden shoes. 
 
 CLOSE TEAP. A name sometimes 
 provincially given to a ram or male sheep, 
 which has both the testicles within the 
 barrel. 
 
 CLOTBUR. See Common Burdock. 
 
 CLOTE. A provincial name for the 
 weed colt's-foot. 
 
 CLOTHIER'S TEASEL. See Teasel. 
 
 CLOTHING. In horsemanship, the 
 practice of covering the animals with cloths, 
 with the view of keeping them healthy, and 
 giving a fine coat. 
 
 CLOTTED or CLOUTED CREAM. 
 See Butter. 
 
 CLOUDBERRY (Rubus chamcemorus). 
 The mountain bramble, found on turfy Al- 
 pine bogs ; stem, without prickles, single 
 flowered. It flowers in June. Fruit, 
 large, tawny, agreeably acid, and mucilagi- 
 nous, with the flavour of tamarinds. See 
 Bramble. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 
 412.) 
 
 CLOUGH. A valley between two steep 
 hills. It also sometimes signifies a cliff. 
 
 CLOUT. An iron plate put on the axle- 
 tree of a cart or other carriage. 
 
 CLOVER. One of the most valuable 
 species of the artificial grasses, of which 
 there are several varieties, all too well known 
 to need a particular description. 1. White 
 clover, white trefoil, or Dutch clover 
 (Trifolium repens), growing on almost all 
 soils and situations. 2. Perennial red clover 
 (T. pratense perenne) ; is found wild near 
 Wainfleet, and in other rich natural English 
 pastures. 3. Marl clover, cow grass (T. 
 medium) ; when in flower it yielded Sinclair 
 per acre, from a rich black loam, 20,418 lbs. ; 
 of nutritive matter, 717 lbs. 4. Long rooted 
 clover (T. macrohizum) ; a rich clayey 
 loam yielded of this grass when flowering 
 74,868 lbs.; of nutritive matter, 2,924 lbs. 5. 
 Crimson clover (T. incarnatum). 6. Egyp- 
 tian clover (T. alexandrinum) ; see Quart. 
 
CLUB GRASS. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING, 
 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 729. These 
 grasses contain the phosphate and sulphate 
 of lime ; hence peat, wood ashes, and gyp- 
 sum (see these heads), are found to be 
 excellent dressings for this crop, and have 
 in many cases succeeded in renovating 
 clover-sick lands. (Sinclair's Hort Gram. ; 
 Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, vol. xi. 
 p. 249. " On turning the second Crop of 
 Clover;" Com. to Board of Agriculture, 
 vol. iv. p. 1 97. ; Davy.) 
 
 CLUB GRASS. (Corynephorus.) An 
 uninteresting species of grass, requiring 
 only to be sown in common soil. The last 
 articulation of the jointed beard is club- 
 shaped, whence its name. 
 
 CLUB MOSS. (Lycopodium, from \vkoq 
 a wolf, and -rrovq a foot, because of the resem- 
 blance of the roots.) This moss grows abun- 
 dantly on mountainous heaths or stony moors ; 
 some of the species, which are numerous 
 reach to a foot high, in watery, heathy, 
 mountainous situations. The seeds are often 
 highly inflammable, like powdered sulphur. 
 The hardy species of club moss require to 
 be cultivated in peat soil, in a moist situ- 
 ation : some of them succeed in pots of water. 
 They are readily increased by suckers. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 330. ; 
 Taxtons Bot. Diet. p. 193.) 
 
 CLUB RUSH. See Scirpus. 
 
 CLUMP. (Ger. Mump.) A number of 
 shrubs or trees growing together. 
 
 CLUNG. (Sax. clunsu.) A provincial 
 word signifying closed up or stopped. Ash 
 timber is sometimes so much clung, that it 
 cannot be split into hoops. 
 
 CLUSTER. (Sax. clujrep; Dutch, 
 klister.) A bunch, or a number of things of 
 the same kind growing or joined together. 
 Thus clusters is provincially used to imply 
 the bunches or clumps in turnip-crops, 
 &c. In Botany, a cluster is termed ra- 
 ceme. 
 
 CLUSTER-GRAPE. The small black 
 or currant grape. See Vine. 
 
 CLUSTER- SOWING. That method of 
 sowing grain, in which a number of corns 
 are placed together. 
 
 CLYDESDALE HORSES. See Horses. 
 
 CLYSTER. See Glyster. 
 
 COAGULATION. (Lat. coagulatio.) A 
 term signifying that chemical change which 
 takes place when a fluid, or some part of it, 
 is rendered more or less solid. 
 
 COAGULUM. A term applied to the 
 curdled concretion formed by the mixture 
 of two liquors. It sometimes also means 
 rennet. 
 
 COB. A kind of wicker basket, made 
 so as to be carried on the arm. Hence a 
 seed-cob, or seed-lip, is a basket for sowing 
 from. Cob was formerly the name for a 
 337 
 
 spider, hence we have cobweb. Cob is 
 also applied provincially to a round sort 
 of stone, to a mud wall, and sometimes to 
 a particular kind of horse. 
 
 COBBLE. A provincial term for a round 
 sort of stone found in the fields. It also sig- 
 nifies a small kind of fishing-boat. 
 
 COBBLE-TREES. A sort of double 
 swingle-trees, whippins, or splinter-bars. 
 
 COBEA, CLIMBING. (Cobceascandens.) 
 A shrub from Mexico, about as hardy as 
 the passion flower, blowing large handsome 
 flowers of a pale yellow, which afterwards 
 become purple or violet- coloured in August 
 and September. A great climber, running 
 forty yards in length. Protect it from frost, 
 but it is easily renewed by cuttings and by 
 seed every year. It loves good garden 
 soil. 
 
 COB-LOAF. A crusty uneven loaf. 
 COBS. A provincial term for sea- 
 gulls. 
 
 COCCIFEROUS PLANTS. (From 
 kokkoc, and fero to bear.) Such plants or 
 trees as afford nutrition to, and a habitation 
 for, the insect called a coccus. 
 
 COCK. (Sax. coec ; Fr. coq.) The male 
 of the hen kind, or of many sorts of birds. 
 Cock is also sometimes applied to a particular 
 kind of draft-iron for a plough. 
 
 COCKCHAFER. (Melolontha vulgaris.) 
 One of the common names for a species of 
 tree beetle, whose food consists almost en- 
 tirely of leaves. They come rather late in 
 the vernal season, about May 20., but occa- 
 sionally appear at uncertain intervals in 
 amazing swarms. White says, they abound 
 only once in three years. They are also 
 known by the provincial names of May- 
 bug, dor, and dummador. Cockchafers 
 are sometimes used as baits in angling. 
 The larva or grub of the common cock- 
 chafer is one of the great ravagers of our 
 meadows and grass lands. It remains in 
 the grub state for four years. " It under- 
 mines," says Kirby, " the richest meadows, 
 and so loosens the turf, that it will roll up 
 as if cut with a turfing spade. These grubs 
 did so much injury seventy years ago to a 
 poor farmer near Norwich, that the court 
 of that city, out of compassion, allowed him 
 251., and the man and his servant gathered 
 eighty bushels of the beetles. The damage 
 done by them in 1785 was so great in France, 
 $iat the government offered a reward for the 
 best mode of eradicating them." The rooks 
 are great friends to the farmer in distroying 
 this grub, to procure which they follow the 
 plough. (Kirby and Spence's Introd. to 
 Entomology, vol. i. p. 180.) 
 
 COCKEY. A provincial word applied to 
 the grate over a sewer. 
 
 COCK-FIGHTING. A very old and 
 z 
 
COCKLE, CORN, 
 
 COLIN, THE VIRGINIAN. 
 
 barbarous common pastime and amusement, 
 which is happily growing into disuse in 
 civilised England, and becoming superseded 
 by more manly and noble sports. 
 
 COCKLE, CORN, or CORN CAMPION. 
 (Sax. coccel; Lat. Agrostemma githago.) A 
 well known troublesome annual weed, of 
 rather an ornamental appearance, growing 
 in our corn-fields in summer, bearing pur- 
 plish red flowers. It stands two feet and a 
 half high, the stalk firm, hairy, slender, and 
 round, with one large flower upon each 
 top. The leaves stand two at a joint, 
 long, narrow, and of a bright green colour. 
 The flowers stand in a cup composed of 
 linear hairy sepals, which are longer than 
 the corolla. The seeds, which are nu- 
 merous, are black and rough, and nearly as 
 big as small wheat kernels ; they are filled 
 with white flour, and very heavy. The 
 miller's objection to these seeds is, that 
 their black husks break so fine as to pass 
 the boulters, and render the flour specky ; 
 also because the seed is bulky, and if there 
 be much in the sample, it detracts con- 
 siderably from the produce in flour. 
 Being easily distinguished, this weed should 
 be eradicated from the field by the hand 
 before flowering. (Smith's Eng. Flora, 
 vol. ii. p. 325.; Sinclair s Weeds, p. 9. ; Ele- 
 ments of Agriculture, 441.; Willich's Dom. 
 Enct/c.) 
 
 COCKLETS. A term sometimes applied 
 to small heaps of hay, &c. 
 
 COCKEREL. The name in some places 
 for a young cock. 
 
 COCK'S-FOOT GRASS (Dactylis glo- 
 merata.) A species of grass, which, from 
 the experiments of Sinclair, appears to be- 
 come by cultivation superior to rye grass 
 and some others as a pasture grass, if kept 
 closely cropped by cattle or the scythe ; and 
 also when made into hay. Oxen, horses, and 
 sheep eat it readily. It flowers from June till 
 August, and perfects its seed in July. The 
 produce of herbage per acre, at the time of 
 flowering, is 27,905 lbs., which affords of 
 hay 11,859 lbs., and the proportion of nu- 
 tritive matter is 1089 lbs. The produce is 
 something less when the seed is ripe, and it 
 loses about one half its weight in drying. 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 136. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 134.) 
 
 COCK'S-HEAD. See Saintfoin. 
 
 COCK-SPUR. A common name for tht 
 Virginian hawthorn ; a species of medlar. 
 
 Sec 1 1 \ YY THORN. 
 
 COCOON. The fibrous web round a 
 chrysalis. 
 
 COD. A term used sometimes for 
 pod. 
 
 CODLIN. A yvcII known kind of baking 
 apple. See Malus. 
 338 
 
 CODLINGS AND CREAM. One of 
 the local names of the great hairy willow- 
 herb. (Epilobium hirsutum.) See Willow- 
 herb. 
 
 COFFIN-BONE. In farriery, that bone 
 which lies encircled within a horse's hoof as 
 in a coffin. 
 
 COLCHICUM. (Colchicum autumnale.~) 
 Common meadow saffron. A bulb throwing 
 up a reddish purple flower without leaves 
 in September and October : grows three or 
 four inches high : found in moist rich mea- 
 dows, but not common. It may be propa- 
 gated from offsets in July. Every part of 
 the plant contains an alkaline principle 
 named Colchicia, which is a most violent 
 purgative as well as narcotic. This active 
 matter is extracted by wine, spirits of 
 wine, and vinegar. A tincture of the bulb 
 or of the seeds [of colchicum, in the dose 
 of twenty to thirty drops twice a day, 
 has been found very useful in gout and 
 rheumatism. It has been too commonly 
 taken without medical advice, and much 
 mischief has resulted. In an overdose col- 
 chicum is a virulent poison. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flora, vol. ii. p. 202.) 
 
 COLD. (Sax. colb; Dan. kaald.) See 
 Catarrh, and Diseases or Cattle, Horses, 
 &c. 
 
 COLDER. A term used provincially to 
 signify fodder from thrashed grain. See 
 Stover. 
 
 COLE, or COLESEED. (Celt, caal; 
 Welsh, cawl; Lat. Brassica napus.) A variety 
 of the cabbage genus, much cultivated in the 
 east of England ; it is sown from the middle 
 of July to the end of August, either for 
 autumn sheep -feed, or for seed (which is 
 very rich in oil) for the following summer. 
 The ashes of the burnt straw of coleseed are 
 excellent dressing for clover. (Brit. Hush. 
 vol. ii. p. 312.) 
 
 COLE TIT. (Parus ater.) Inhabits 
 woods, plantations, and shrubberies, particu- 
 larly those containing the various firs, the 
 birch, or oak. Food, small insects and seeds 
 of evergreens. Nest, built of moss and 
 wool lined with hair, in the hole of a wall 
 or a tree, occasionally on the ground. Eggs, 
 six or eight ; white, spotted with pale red ; 
 seven lines in length by five and a half 
 in breadth ; whole length of bird, four 
 inches and a quarter. General colour of 
 plumage, black tinged with bluish grey ; 
 breast, dull white. (Yarrell's Brit. B'wds, 
 vol. i. p. 337.) 
 
 COLEWORT. See Cabbage. 
 
 COLIN, THE VIRGINIAN. (Ortyx 
 virgi?iiana.) This bird has been introduced 
 into this country from the United States, 
 and is a species of partridge. It lives on the 
 borders of woods, among brushwood, or on 
 
COLLAR 
 
 COLT'S-FOOT, COMMON. 
 
 the thick grassy plains. Food, grain, seed, 
 insects, and berries. Eggs, numerous, as 
 many as twelve ; white ; one inch two lines 
 and a half in length by one inch in breadth 
 at the larger end, thence tapering to a 
 point. Colour, mottled, reddish and greyish 
 brown ; breast and belly, buffy white, with 
 transverse bars of black ; legs and claws, 
 reddish brown ; whole length of bird rather 
 more than nine inches. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 348.) 
 
 COLLAR. (Span, collar; Lat. collare.) 
 That part of the harness of a horse or other 
 animal that goes round his neck and rests 
 on the shoulders. For horses they are 
 mostly made of canvas, &c. stuffed with 
 hair, tow, or straw, and covered with 
 
 COLLEY, or COLLY. A kind of dog 
 much prized by the Scottish drovers. See 
 Dog, Shepherd's. 
 
 COLLEY SHEEP. A name for sheep 
 that have black faces and legs. The wool 
 of these sheep is generally very harsh, 
 having hairs mixed with it. 
 
 COLLING, ROBERT and CHARLES. 
 Two celebrated farmers of the county of 
 Durham, who, by their skill, enterprise, 
 and public spirit, not only secured for 
 themselves the plaudits of after generations 
 of farmers, but did honour to their country 
 by the improvement which they effected 
 in the Durham breed of short-horns, perhaps 
 the most celebrated of all our modern breeds 
 of cattle. It is not in my power to give any 
 details with regard to their private history ; 
 their public efforts is all in which my readers 
 will feel interested. The following account 
 of the sale of their stock, and the enormous 
 amount which it produced, will afford a 
 much better view of their success as breeders 
 than any eulogium of mine. 
 
 Charles Colling, of Ketton, near Darling- 
 ton, made a very ample fortune. The prices 
 he obtained for his stock could hardly indeed 
 have failed to have produced such a result : 
 thus at his sale of improved short-horns, 
 Oct. 11. 1810, the following were some of 
 the prices obtained : — 
 
 Cows. 
 Cherry 
 Peeress 
 Countess 
 Celina 
 Lady 
 Lily 
 
 Bulls. 
 Comet 
 Major 
 Petrarch 
 Alfred 
 Duke 
 339 
 
 Age. 
 11 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 5 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 - 83 
 
 - 170 
 
 - 400 
 
 - 200 
 
 - 206 
 
 - 410 
 
 - 1000 
 
 - 200 
 
 - 365 
 
 - 110 
 
 - 105 
 
 Bull calves under one year old. 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 Young Favourite 
 
 _ 
 
 - 140 
 
 Geerse 
 
 
 - 130 
 
 Sir Dimple 
 
 - 
 
 90 
 
 Cecil - 
 
 
 - 170 
 
 Heifers. 
 
 Age. 
 
 
 Phoebe 
 
 3 
 
 - 105 
 
 Young Duchess 
 
 2 
 
 - 183 
 
 
 2 
 
 - 206 
 
 
 A 
 
 LOZ 
 
 Charlotte 
 
 1 
 
 
 Heifer calves under on 
 
 e year old. 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 Lucilla 
 
 
 - 106 
 
 Calista 
 
 
 - 50 
 
 White Rose - 
 
 
 - 75 
 
 Altogether it appears that — 
 
 17 cows sold for - 
 11 bulls - 
 
 7 bull calves 
 
 7 heifers 
 
 5 heifer calves - 
 47 lots - 
 
 £ s. 
 
 - 2802 9 
 
 - 2361 9 
 
 - 687 15 
 
 - 942 18 
 
 - 321 6 
 
 - 7115 17 
 
 Robert Colling's stock was sold at Barmp- 
 ton, near Darlington, September 29. 1818, 
 when it produced for — 
 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 34 cows - 
 
 4141 
 
 17 heifers - 
 
 1287 
 
 6 bulls - 
 
 1343 
 
 4 bull calves 
 
 713 
 
 61 head of cattle 
 
 7484 
 
 
 Guineas. 
 
 One 2 year old cow sold for 
 
 331 
 
 One 4 — — 
 
 300 
 
 One 5 — — 
 
 370 
 
 One 1 — bull calf 
 
 270 
 
 One 4 — bull — 
 
 621 
 
 (Youatt on Cattle, p. 231—233.) 
 
 Charles Colling, after his retirement from 
 business, resided at Croft, in the North 
 Riding of Yorkshire, where he died January 
 16. 1836, aged 85. Robert Colling died in 
 his 70th year, at Barmpton, near Darlington, 
 March 7. 1820. 
 
 COLLINSIABICOLOR. Two-coloured 
 Coilinsia. A new and handsome annual, 
 which blooms in May and June, if sown in 
 the autumn ; and in August and September, 
 if sown in May. 
 
 COLT. (Sax. cole.) A term applied to 
 young horses. See Horses. 
 
 COLT-EVIL. In farriery, a distemper 
 to which young horses are subject, consist- 
 ing of a swelling in the sheath. 
 
 COLTS-FOOT, COMMON. (Tussilago 
 farfara.) This is a herb of pecuUar growth, 
 found very common on a chalky or marly 
 z 2 
 
COLT'S-FOOT, GARDEN. 
 
 CONSTABLE. 
 
 soil, in moist situations. It is mostly found 
 in fields that are over-cropped or exhausted, 
 and often severely exercises the patience 
 of the farmer. It may be eradicated by 
 ploughing up the soil, carrying the plant 
 away when rooted out, and laying the fields 
 down to grass. The flowers rise in spring on 
 stalks six or eight inches high, round, large, 
 and yellow, like the dandelion ; their stalks 
 being thick, fleshy, scaly, and red coloured. 
 Each stalk supports one flower. When the 
 flowers have decayed, then the leaves appear 
 on erect furrowed footstalks, broad and cor- 
 date, lobed and toothed, resembling the form 
 of a horse's foot, whence the name. They 
 are green above, and white and downy un- 
 derneath. The leaves are used medicinally, 
 and they dry well. A decoction of the leaves 
 and roots, or a syrup of the juice, is useful 
 in coughs, whence the generic name. The 
 ancients inhaled the smoke for the relief of 
 coughs. 
 
 COLTS-FOOT, THE GARDEN. 
 {Cacalia suaveolens.) This is a hardy peren- 
 nial, bearing white flowers in August. It 
 prefers a strong soil and open situation. 
 Propagate by parting the roots. It is a native 
 of North America. There are five sorts of 
 hardy Cacalia. 
 
 COLUMBINE. {Aquilegia vulgaris.) 
 A perennial growing two or three feet high, 
 blowing a blue, red, or variegated flower 
 in June and July. It is found wild in 
 meadows, pastures, and thickets. It is the 
 double varieties which find a place in our 
 gardens. {Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 32.) 
 Give it shade and a stiff soil. Propagate 
 by separating the roots in autumn. The 
 seeds are contained in a hairy capsule. 
 
 COMFREY, COMMON. {Symphytum 
 officinale.) This wild plant grows by the 
 sides of ditches and in moist places to a 
 height of three feet. The leaves are a deep 
 green colour, pointed, long, and rough to 
 the touch.. The stalk is green, thick, and 
 upright, and winged at the bases of the 
 leaves. The flowers are sometimes white, 
 and often reddish, in colour. The root is 
 thick, black externally, and white within. 
 It is full of a slimy juice when crushed or 
 broken. The root is the part used medicinally. 
 It contains much mucilage, and may be used 
 as a demulcent, but it is of little value. 
 For those who think otherwise, conserve 
 of comfrey is the best way of preserving 
 it through the year. The tuberous- 
 rooted comfrey {S. tuberosum) is a herb 
 of much humbler stature than the last- 
 named root; knobbed and branched; ex- 
 ternally whitish; flowers fewer, drooping, 
 yellowish-white, tinged with green. {Smith's 
 Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 263.) The prickly 
 comfrey {S. asperrimum) is a hardy per- 
 340 
 
 ennial of gigantic growth, introduced from 
 Caucasus as an ornamental plant, in 1811, 
 by Messrs. Loddiges, of Hackney. (See 
 Curtis s Bot. Mag. No. 929.) The attention 
 of the agriculturist has recently been di- 
 rected to the cultivation of comfrey as green 
 food for cattle, by Mr. Grant, of Lewisham, 
 who speaks highly of its merits. {Baxter s 
 Agr. Lib.) 
 
 COMINS. A provincial word signifying 
 commonage. 
 
 COMMON, or RIGHT OF COMMON, 
 says Blackstone (vol. ii. p. 32.), is a profit 
 which a man hath in the land of another, as 
 to feed his beasts, to catch fish, to dig turf, 
 to cut wood ; and hence common is chiefly 
 of four sorts : 1. Common of pasture, or 
 the right of feeding beasts ; 2. Common 
 of fishery ; 3. Common of turbary, or of 
 digging turf ; 4. Common of estovers, a right 
 of cutting wood. The right of common is 
 generally one that rests almost entirely upon 
 the custom. 
 
 COMPOSITION FOR TREES. See 
 Canker. 
 
 COMPOST. (Fr. ; Lat. compositum.) 
 That sort of manure which is formed by the 
 union or mixture of one or more different 
 ingredients with dung, or other similar 
 matter. An excellent essay, by Mr. James 
 Dixon, on making compost heaps from liquids 
 and other substances, written on the evi- 
 dence of many years' experience, was award- 
 ed a premium of 10/. in July 1839, by the 
 Royal Agr. Soc. of England, and is published 
 in their Quart. Journ. vol. i. p. 1 35. See also 
 Farm-yard Manure. 
 
 CONDITION. (Fr. and Lat.) In horse- 
 manship, a term supposed to imply a horse's 
 being in a state of strength and power, so 
 much above the purpose he is destined to, 
 that he displays it in his figure and appear- 
 ance : this, according to Taplin, signifies 
 " fine in coat, firm in flesh, high in spirits, 
 and fresh upon his legs." 
 
 CONIFEROUS PLANTS AND TREES. 
 Such plants and trees as bear cones ; as the 
 fir, pine, cedar, &c. 
 
 CONSERVATORY. (Lat.) A glazed 
 structure in which exotic trees and shrubs 
 are grown in a bed or floor of soil. It is 
 distinguished from an orangery by its having 
 a glazed roof, while that of the latter is 
 opaque, and from a green house by the 
 plants being set in the fine soil instead 
 of in pots placed on shelves. The largest 
 conservatory in the world at the present 
 time (close of 1841), is that erected in 
 Chatsworth, in Derbyshire, for palms and 
 other tropical plants, which covers above an 
 acre of ground, and is sixty feet high. 
 {Brande's Diet, of Science and Art.) 
 
 CONSTABLE. This is a £>axon word, 
 
CONSTABLE. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS, MINOR. 
 
 derived from conig, king, and staple, or the 
 stay or hold of the king. According to Coke, 
 constables were created by the 13 Ed. 1 . st .2. 
 c. 6., and being created by act of parliament, 
 they have no more authority than what they 
 derive from some act of parliament (4 Inst. 
 267.) In former days, both high and petty 
 constables were appointed by the sheriff" in 
 his town, and were sworn there, as well as 
 in the court leet. By the common right a 
 constable is to be chosen by the jury in the 
 leet, and if he is present and refuses to be 
 sworn, the steward may fine him ; if he is 
 absent he may be sworn before a justice of 
 the peace, and if he refuses to be so sworn 
 the jury must present him at the next court, 
 and then he shall be fined. (1 Salkeld, 175.) 
 By the 1 & 2 W. 4. c. 41. two or more jus- 
 tices, upon information on oath that dis- 
 turbances exist or are apprehended, may 
 appoint a sufficient number of special con- 
 stables. The office of constable may be 
 performed by deputy (Rex v. Clarke, 
 1 T. R. 679.), and it can only be imposed 
 upon a person actually resident within the 
 parish (Rex v. Adlard,! D. & R. 340.), and 
 not upon a foreigner, even if he is natural- 
 ized (Rex. ■v.Ferdinand, 5 Burroughs, 2787.). 
 If the person chosen finds a deputy, who 
 after he is sworn in absconds, the principal 
 is nevertheless discharged. (Underhill v. 
 Wilts, 3 Espinasse, 56.) 
 
 Power and Duty. A constable, if an affray 
 occurs in his presence, may take the parties 
 into custody, and keep them either until the 
 disturbance is over, or he may take them 
 directly before a magistrate (Churchill v. 
 Matthews, 2 Selw. N. P. 911.) ; but he has 
 no power to take a person into custody for 
 a mere assault, unless committed in his 
 presence, or to prevent a breach of the 
 peace (Coupy v. Henley, 2 Espinasse, 540.), 
 in which case, if a by-stander interrupt him, 
 he is justified in taking such person into 
 custody. (Levy v. Edwards, 1 C. & P. 40.) 
 He may remove a person from church who 
 is disturbing the congregation. ( Williams v. 
 Glenister, 4 D. & R. 217.) He cannot exe- 
 cute a warrant out of his particular district. 
 (Blotcher v. Kemp, 1 H. Black. 15.) If a 
 warrant, however, be directed to him merely 
 by his name, he can then execute it any 
 where within the jurisdiction of the magis- 
 trate ; but if it be directed to him by his 
 name of office, he can only execute it in the 
 parish, &c. of which he is constable. (Rex v. 
 Weir, 2 D. & R. 444.) Neither can he execute 
 a warrant to search for property hid by a 
 bankrupt. (Sly v. Stevenson, 2 C. & P. 464.) 
 If a person who is erroneously charged with 
 a felony go quietly with a constable when 
 asked, it is still an assault. (Pocock v. Moore, 
 R. & M. 321.) A constable is in duty bound 
 341 
 
 to present a highway within his district for 
 want of repair. (Rex v. Taunton, 3 M. & S. 
 465.) 
 
 By the 24 G. 2. c. 44. s. 6. no action shall 
 be brought against any constable, or against 
 any person assisting him, under or by war- 
 rant from a magistrate, until after a demand 
 shall be previously made of a sight and pe- 
 rusal of such warrant, and neglected for the 
 space of six days after such demand. And 
 then, if after the sight of such warrant the 
 complainant proceeds without including the 
 magistrate as a defendant, then " the jury 
 shall give their verdict for the defendant, 
 notwithstanding any defect of jurisdiction 
 in such justice." 
 
 CONSTIPATION. See Diseases or 
 Cattle, Sheep, &c. 
 
 CONSUMPTION. See Sheep, Diseases 
 
 OF. 
 
 CONTRACTION OF THE HOOF. In 
 
 farriery, is a distorted state of the horny 
 substance of the hoof in cattle, producing 
 all the mischiefs of unnatural and irregular 
 pressure on the soft parts contained in it, and 
 consequently a degree of lameness which 
 can only be cured by removing the cause. 
 Contraction of the hoof rarely happens, 
 however, except to those animals whose 
 hoofs, for the convenience of labour, are 
 shod. 
 
 CONVERSION OF LAND. Every 
 one who intends to lay down land to a per- 
 manent state of meadow or pasture, should 
 make himself well acquainted with the best 
 natural grasses, and the peculiar soils to 
 which they are indigenous, as well as with 
 the state of the land in regard to shelter, 
 drought, or humidity, as affecting their 
 growth and durability ; and having become 
 master of these particulars, he should then 
 select the seeds accordingly, either by pur- 
 chase from some seedsman whose character 
 may be presumed to guard the buyer from 
 fraud, or from his own growth. The Quart. 
 Journ.of Agr. N. S. Nos. 18. and 19., and 
 the Trans, of High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 198., and 
 above all Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Woh., may 
 be consulted with advantage for the result 
 of experiments on different soils with va- 
 rious combinations of grasses. (Brit. Hush. 
 vol. i. p. 503. et seq.) 
 
 CONVOLVULUS MAJOR (Ipomeea 
 purpurea), is a beautiful creeper, climb- 
 ing eight or nine feet high, and blowing 
 from July to September. Its purple and 
 white flowers are very handsome, opening 
 only in the shade during hot weather. Ex- 
 cellent for alcoves. The scarlet convolvulus 
 is tender, and requires care. Raise it in 
 pots. See Bind-weed. 
 
 CONVOLVULUS MINOR, (Convol- 
 vulus t?°icolor.) A trailing annual, native of 
 z 3 
 
COOMB. 
 
 CORDGRASS. 
 
 Sicily, which blows its shaded blue and white 
 flowers in June, July, and August. It 
 loves a fresh and rather moist soil. Sow 
 the seed in light earth. 
 
 COOMB, or COMB. (Fr. comble ; Lat. 
 cumulus, a heap.) A measure of corn usually 
 consisting of four Winchester bushels ; but 
 in some of the fen districts it consists of 
 four bushels, each containing eight gallons 
 and a quart. 
 
 COOP, or COUP. (Icel. huppa; Dut. 
 kuype.) A provincial name for a tumbrel 
 or cart, enclosed with boards to carry dung, 
 sand, grains, &c. It is also a pen or en- 
 closure where lambs, &c. are shut up to 
 be fed or fattened ; and a kind of cage in 
 which poultry are enclosed for the same pur- 
 pose. 
 
 COPPICE, or COPSE. (Supposed from 
 the Fr. couper ; or Nor. copper, to cut off.) 
 Low woods cut at stated times for poles, 
 fuel, &c. A place overrun with brushwood. 
 Its wood is called coppice- wood. 
 
 COPPY. A provincial word used for 
 coppice. Hence, to coppy, signifies to cut 
 for underwood. 
 
 COPYHOLDS, originated in days of 
 feudalism, by grants from the lords of ma- 
 nors, and others, to their vassals or tenants, 
 at first to hold at will, and afterwards by 
 succession. Copyhold property must be 
 situate within the manor, and have been 
 immemorially demised by copy of. court roll. 
 {Stalman, 3.) By the 2 W. 4. c. 45. s. 19. 
 copyholders holding above the annual value 
 of \0l. vote for counties. By the 3 & 4 W. 4. 
 c. 104. and 1 & 2 Vict. c. 110. copyholds are 
 made assets for payment of debts, whether 
 special or on simple contract. Copyholds 
 are : 1 . Of ancient demesne. 2. Customary 
 freeholds. 3. Of inheritance. 4. For life 
 or lives. By the 4 & 5 W. & M. c. 24. copy- 
 holders of 10/. per annum were first ad- 
 mitted to serve on juries in the king's courts. 
 Although copyhold tenure, says Mr. Cass- 
 wall (to whose excellent work on Copyholds 
 I am indebted for this article), cannot be 
 created at the present day, the lord of the 
 manor may, by custom, be warranted in 
 granting out parcels of the waste to hold by 
 copy of court roll. With regard to the 
 agricultural condition of the manor, adds 
 Mr. Casswall, if by lack of draining, &c. the 
 land is not so productive as it ought to be, 
 the steward should, in assessing his fine, act 
 as if such improvements had been already 
 made, as there is no reason why a lord 
 should be damnified by his tenant's negli- 
 gence. A copyholder for life cannot claim 
 custom to fell timber, but a copyholder of 
 inheritance can; windfalls belong to the 
 lord. The steward must license, and the 
 bailiff murk, before the tenant cuts timber. 
 342 
 
 Heriots vary the custom. The constable 
 of the manor must reside on it. A fine for 
 an offence in the court leet is imposed by 
 the steward ; an amercement is a punishment 
 imposed by the jurors for offences out of 
 court, but within the manor. Every lord 
 may have a court baron, but not a court 
 leet. Fines are divided into fines certain, 
 and fines arbitrary. By the 4 & 5 Vict, 
 c. 35. entitled an act for the commutation of 
 certain manorial rights in respect of lands 
 of copyhold and customary tenure, &c. lords 
 and tenants are empowered to commute 
 rents, fines, and heriots, and to enfranchise 
 and render copyhold land freehold. (Cass- 
 wall on Copyholds, 3d edit.) 
 
 CORAL-ROOT, SPURLESS. (Coral- 
 lorrhiza innata.) An herb found in marshy 
 umbrageous woods in Scotland, but rare. 
 Root perennial, fleshy, of numerous branches, 
 spreading about two inches, pale brownish, or 
 yellowish. When beginning to dry, it exhales 
 the sweet and powerful scent of vanilla, 
 which is not entirely lost after it has been 
 kept for twenty years. Leaves none ; stalks 
 solitary, a span high ; cluster of from five to 
 ten drooping, pale yellowish flowers. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 49.) 
 
 CORAL WORT, or LEADWORT. 
 (Dentaria bulbifera.) This perennial herb 
 grows in our gardens when planted ; but it 
 loves moist umbrageous places in its wild 
 state. The root is whitish, toothed, and 
 branched, resembling coral. It grows two 
 feet high ; the stalk is tender, leafy, and 
 weak ; the leaves are a bright green colour, 
 and have in their axilla, dark purple scaly 
 bulbs by which the plant is propagated. 
 The flowers, which are large and hand- 
 some, but inodorous, stand in thick ob- 
 long clusters on the top of the stalk, of a 
 purple or red colour ; seldom fertile. The 
 dried root is the part used, and its quality 
 is hotter than even the pellitory of Spain. 
 A piece of the dried root held in the 
 mouth fills it instantly with water, and is a 
 cure for toothach, which has obtained for it 
 in many places the name of tooth-wort. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 186.) 
 
 CORDGRASS. (Spartina stricta. From 
 spartine, a rope made of broom.) A genus 
 of perennial maritime grasses found in 
 muddy salt marshes on the sea coast, of 
 which this is the only native variety. They 
 are very easy of culture, and increased by 
 divisions and seeds. Roots, creeping, with 
 strong fibres ; whole plant, hard, tough, and 
 rigid ; stems, ten to twenty inches high, se- 
 veral together ; leaves, numerous, striated, of 
 a dull green colour, and smooth. (Eng. 
 Flora, vol. i. p. 135. ; Paxtorts Bot. Diet.) 
 
 Spartina juncea. — According to the ex- 
 periments of Sinclair, this grass is very late 
 
CORDIAL BALL. 
 
 CORNELIAN CHERRY. 
 
 in the production of foliage, and inferior in 
 nutritive qualities to most other kinds of 
 grass. It, however, yields well as a single 
 crop, the produce from a rich silicious sandy 
 soil, at the time of flowering, being 33,350 lbs., 
 which afforded of nutritive matter 1433 lbs. 
 It has been tried for the purpose of forming 
 into flax ; and Sinclair tells us, the results 
 were favourable, inasmuch as the clear fibre 
 was equal in strength and softness to that 
 of flax, but it was deficient in length. The 
 only advantage that appears would result 
 from this plant affording flax is, that it 
 could be produced on a soil unfit for the 
 growth of flax or the production of corn. 
 It flowers the second week in August, and 
 the seed is ripe by the middle of September. 
 (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 373.) 
 
 CORDIAL BALL. See Ball. 
 
 CORDIAL DRINK, for a horse or a 
 cow : ^ oz. of carraway seeds, bruised ; i oz. 
 of aniseeds, bruised ; a oz. of coriander 
 seeds, bruised ; 2 drachms of ginger, pow- 
 dered. Boil these for 10 minutes in li pint 
 of beer ; give it milk-warm. 
 
 CORD-WOOD. Small pieces of wood 
 broken up for fuel. It also signifies top- 
 wood, roots, &c. cut and set up in cords ; so 
 denominated from its being formerly mea- 
 sured with a cord. A statute cord of wood 
 should be eight feet long, four feet high, 
 and four feet broad. 
 
 COREOPSIS, EAR-LEAVED. {Core- 
 opsis auriculata.) A hardy perennial, a 
 native of N. America. It grows three or 
 four feet high, and its yellow flowers bloom 
 in August. The Coreopsis delphinifolia is 
 also a native of N. America, growing about 
 eighteen inches high, with yellow flowers. 
 Blooms from July to October. Divide the 
 roots, and plant it in open situations. 
 
 CORIANDER. (Coriandrum sativum. 
 From Koptc, a bug ; the fresh leaves, when 
 bruised, emitting an odour very similar to that 
 of this vermin.) Coriander thrives best in a 
 moderately rich but sandy loam : excessive 
 moisture is equally inimical to it as the 
 want of a regular supply. It must have an 
 open and rather sheltered situation. • It is 
 propagated by seed, which, if it is required 
 early, must be sown during February, in a 
 warm border or moderate hotbed, in either 
 situation with the protection of a frame. 
 This may be repeated at the close of March. 
 Afterwards small crops may be succession- 
 ally inserted every month in an open bed or 
 border until September, in which month, 
 and October, if required for winter's supply, 
 final crops must be sown under a frame, as 
 in February. The summer sowings should 
 always be of small extent, as the plants at 
 that season are very apt to run. 
 
 The sowings are generally performed in 
 343 
 
 drills eight inches apart, and half an inch 
 deep ; the plants to remain where sown. 
 The only cultivation required is to thin 
 them to four inches' distance, and to have 
 them kept clear of weeds throughout their 
 growth. For the production of seed, some 
 plants of the early spring sowings must be 
 left ungathered from at about eight inches 
 apart each way ; they will perfect their seed 
 in early autumn, being in flower during 
 June. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 CORIARIA, MYRTLE LEAVED 
 SUMACH. (Coriaria myrtifolia.) A hardy 
 shrub, native of the south of" Europe, blow- 
 ing its whitish flowers in April. Propagated 
 by suckers and by seed. It loves a mo- 
 derately good soil. 
 
 CORN BINDWEED. See Bindweed. 
 
 CORN CALE. A provincial name for 
 cli airlock 
 
 CORN-CROWFOOT. (Ranunculus ar- 
 vensis.) A weed very common among corn. 
 Root fibrous. It has an upright stalk ; the 
 leaves are of a pale shining green, and cut 
 into long, narrow, acute segments. The 
 lemon-coloured flowers are much smaller 
 and paler than those of the crowfoot which 
 is found in pasture-grounds, and the seed- 
 vessels are very remarkable, being covered 
 all over with prickles. It is very acrid and 
 dangerous to cattle, though they are said to 
 eat it greedily. M. Brugnon, who has given a 
 particular account of its qualities, relates, that 
 three ounces of the juice killed a dog in four 
 minutes. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 53.) 
 See Crowfoot. 
 
 CORN-CUTTING MACHINES. Ma- 
 chines for cutting corn by horse power, of 
 which none have hitherto been produced 
 whose merits have insured their adoption by 
 the farmer. I am indebted to the Messrs. 
 Ransome, of Ipswich, for the following list 
 of patents which have been taken out for 
 improvements in machines for cutting stand- 
 ing corn, &c. 
 
 May 4. 1795. W. Naylor, machine for 
 cutting wheat. 
 
 July 4. 1799. Joseph Boyce, Maryle- 
 bone, machine for cutting wheat. 
 
 May 20. 1800. Robert Mears, Frome, 
 Somerset, machine for cutting standing corn. 
 
 June 15. and August 23. 1805. T. J. 
 Plucknett, Deptford, machines for mowing. 
 
 November 13. 1811. D. Cumming, White- 
 field, machine for reaping corn. 
 
 September 21. 1814. James Dobbs, Bir- 
 mingham, machine for cutting and gathering 
 grain. 
 
 November 2. 1840. J.Duncan, West- 
 minster, machinery for cutting and reaping 
 growing plants. 
 
 CORNELIAN CHERRY. (Cornus 
 mascida.) A species of dog-wood, which is 
 z 4 
 
CORNEL TREE. 
 
 CORN LAWS. 
 
 so slow in growth that it requires fifteen 
 years to attain ten feet in height. The wood 
 is very hard, and, in the south of France, is 
 used for props in the vineyards, and hoops 
 for casks. The flowers appear before the 
 leaves, sometimes as early as February. 
 They grow on umbels, of from fifteen to 
 thirty flowers, small and yellow. The fruit 
 is a drupe that ripens in August : it is about 
 the size and form of a small olive, and hangs 
 transparent, like so many cornelian drops, 
 from the branches. Dr. James says the 
 fruit is cooling and astringent, strengthening 
 to the stomach, and good in fevers, especially 
 if attended with a diarrhoea. The bark is 
 tonic, and may be used to invigorate the 
 habit weakened by disease. (Phillips's Syl. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 185.) 
 
 CORNEL TREE. See Dogwood. 
 
 CORNET. In farriery, a name some- 
 times given to the instrument used in vene- 
 section, called a fleam. 
 
 CORN FLAG. (Gladiolus communis.) 
 A perennial growing two feet high, which 
 blows a purplish flower in July. It is a 
 native of France, and likes a warm situation 
 and light rich soil. Cover the root in 
 winter. Propagate by offsets. 
 
 CORN FLOWER. See Bluebottle. 
 
 CORN GOOSE. A name for the moss 
 rush (Juncus squarrosus). See Rush. 
 
 CORN LAWS. The regulation of the 
 supply, and consequently, the value of 
 corn, has been an object of* legislation from 
 a very remote period ; a public interference 
 varying, however, in degree, from that of 
 protective taxation, to that which was in- 
 tended to be prohibitory. Of the first 
 kind are the modern English corn laws ; of 
 the last are the present local- regulations of 
 Paris, by which bread is sold always at the 
 same price, both in bountiful seasons or in 
 those of scarcity. It would occupy too 
 much space to follow these, generally neces- 
 sary, interferences with the sale of corn, 
 which have occurred from the days of the 
 Athenians (who depended upon Thrace for 
 their daily bread), or from the popular 
 broils about bread, which were long a 
 source of disorder to Rome, even in its 
 splendour. In England, there are traces of 
 a corn law nearly six centuries since. By 
 the statute Judicium Pillorie, 51 Hen. 3. 
 (1266), it is directed that the municipal 
 authorities of certain towns should enquire 
 of the price of corn. By the 34 Ed. 3. c. 20. 
 (1360), the exportation of corn was pro- 
 hibited ; but, in 1436, by the 15 II. 6. c. 2., 
 it was allowed. In 1436, however, by the 
 3 E«d, 4. c. 2., the necessity (which was de- 
 clared in tin; preamble) arose of preventing 
 " the labourers and occupiers of land from 
 being grievously endamaged by bringing 
 
 corn out of other lands when corn of the 
 growing of this realm is at a low price." It 
 then declares that wheat shall not be im- 
 ported, unless wheat be sold at the place of 
 import for 6s. Sd. per quarter. In 1532, by 
 the 25 H. 8. c. 2., it was enacted that the 
 exportation of corn should cease, and the 
 price be regulated by the lords of the 
 council, the preamble of the bill very sen- 
 sibly remarking, that " dearth, scarcity, 
 good and cheap and plenty of, &c. victuals 
 necessary for man's sustenance happeneth, 
 riseth, and chanceth of so many and divers 
 occasions, that it is very hard and difficult 
 to put any certain prices to any such things." 
 In 1534 (1 P. & M. c. 5.), corn was again 
 allowed to be exported when the price of 
 wheat did not exceed 6*. Sd. per quarter. 
 This standard was increased to 10s. by the 
 5 Eliz. c. 5. (1562) ; and, in 1571 (13 Eliz. 
 c. 13.), the exportation was directed to be 
 regulated from average prices by the lords 
 of the council. 
 
 This average price was, in 1592, by the 
 35 Eliz. c. 7., raised to 205. per qr., and a 
 customs duty on export of 2s. per qr. im- 
 posed. This average was raised in 1603 
 (1 Jac. c. 25.) to 26s. 8d. ; and, in 1623 
 (21 Jac. c. 28.), to 32s. In 1660 (12 C. 2. 
 c. 4.), a scale of export duties was created, 
 of 5s. 6d. under 44s. ; 6s. 8d. when above 
 44s. When under 40s. it might be exported 
 free. These standard prices were increased 
 by the 15 C. 2. c. 7. in 1663 to 48s. ; in 1689 
 (1 W. & M. c. 12.), a bounty was allowed on 
 the export of corn 5s. ; viz. on wheat, when 
 at or under 48s. This was altered by 
 various subsequent acts until 1807, when 
 the bounty upon the exportation finally 
 ceased, as will be seen from the following 
 table : — 
 
 Sums paid in Bounty upon the Exportation 
 of Corn from Great Britain, from 1697. 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 1697 .. 
 
 14,712 
 
 1724 . 
 
 77,935 
 
 1751 . 
 
 . 154,905 
 
 1698 .. 
 
 11,653 
 408 
 
 1725 . 
 
 107,524 
 
 1752 . 
 
 . 186,218 
 
 1699 .. 
 
 1726 . 
 
 83,308 
 
 1753 . 
 
 . 219,503 
 
 1700 .. 
 
 
 1727 . 
 
 48,756 
 
 1754 . 
 
 . 141,131 
 
 1701 .. 
 
 
 1728 . 
 
 28,296 
 
 1755 . 
 
 . 164,520 
 
 1702 .. 
 
 42,624 
 
 1729 . 
 
 18,945 
 
 1756 . 
 
 . 109,58* 
 
 1703 .. 
 
 61,232 
 
 1730 . 
 
 40,590 
 
 1757 . 
 
 . 22,658 
 
 1704 .. 
 
 44,403 
 
 1731 . 
 
 58,492 
 
 1758 . 
 
 . 3,752 
 
 1705 .. 
 
 48,104 
 
 1732 . 
 
 60,760 
 
 1759 . 
 
 . 53,818 
 
 1706 .. 
 
 74,277 
 
 1733 . 
 
 114,654 
 
 1760 . 
 
 . 118,249 
 
 1707 .. 
 
 38,997 
 
 1734 . 
 
 171,000 
 
 1761 . 
 
 . 153,615 
 
 1708 .. 
 
 37,652 
 
 1735 . 
 
 100,038 
 
 1762 . 
 
 . 128,985 
 
 1709 .. 
 
 94,120 
 
 1736 . 
 
 50,562 
 
 1763 . 
 
 . 152,713 
 
 1710 .. 
 
 16,293 
 
 1737 . 
 
 102,511 
 
 1764 . 
 
 . 149,608 
 
 1711 .. 
 
 44,468 
 
 1738 . 
 
 177,737 
 
 1765 . 
 
 . 33,935 
 
 1712 .. 
 
 65,872 
 
 1739 . 
 
 145,702 
 
 1766 . 
 
 . 114,206 
 
 1713 .. 
 
 84,803 
 
 1740 . 
 
 39,366 
 
 1767 . 
 
 . 8,116 
 238 
 
 1714 .. 
 
 77,157 
 
 1741 . 
 
 18,580 
 
 1768 . 
 
 1715 .. 
 
 60,669 
 
 1742 . 
 
 90,640 
 
 1769 . 
 
 10 
 
 1716 .. 
 
 56,027 
 
 1743 . 
 
 131,459 
 
 1770 . 
 
 . 14,770 
 
 1717 .. 
 
 48,272 
 
 1744 . 
 
 116,896 
 
 1771 . 
 
 . 6,170 
 
 1718 .. 
 
 60,495 
 
 1745 . 
 
 131.879 
 
 1772 . 
 
 5 
 
 1719 .. 
 
 83,398 
 
 1746 . 
 
 104,562 
 
 1773 . 
 
 13 
 
 1720 .. 
 
 68,032 
 
 1747 . 
 
 127,011 
 
 1774 . 
 
 . 3.078 
 
 1721 .. 
 
 64,375 
 
 1748 . 
 
 189,501 
 
 177. r . . 
 
 7,888 
 
 1722 .. 
 
 91,304 
 
 1749 , 
 
 . 222,184 
 
 1776 . 
 
 . 51,555 
 
 1723 .. 
 
 86,558 
 
 1750 . 
 
 262,583 
 
 1777 . 
 
 . 45,029 
 
CORN LAWS. 
 
 Year. £ Year. £ Year. £ 
 179!) .. 4,632 1801, 1802 — 1804 .. 15,372 
 
 1800 .. 372 1803 .. 767 1807 .. 78 
 1808 to 1814 > m| 
 when they ceased j 
 
 (Thornton on the Corn Laws, p. 42.) 
 
 The amount of the imports and exports of all descriptions of corn, from 1697 to 
 1814, was — 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 Year. 
 
 £ 
 
 1778 .. 
 
 43,530 
 
 1785 .. 
 
 47,546 
 
 1792 .. 
 
 76,802 
 7,415 
 
 1779 .. 
 
 54,906 
 
 1786 .. 
 
 55,998 
 
 1793 .. 
 
 1780 .. 
 
 77,441 
 
 1787 .. 
 
 50,916 
 
 1794 .. 
 
 5,796 
 
 1781 .. 
 
 35,178 
 
 1788 .. 
 
 45,537 
 
 1795 .. 
 
 24 
 
 1782 .. 
 
 43,616 
 
 1789 .. 
 
 82,253 
 
 1796 .. 
 
 50 
 
 1783 .. 
 
 9,869 
 
 1790 .. 
 
 13,434 
 
 1797 .. 
 
 62 
 
 1784 . 
 
 24,030 
 
 1791 .. 
 
 7,656 
 
 1798 
 
 495 
 
 1697 to 1764 both inclusive, 68 years 
 1765 to 1773 — 9 — 
 1774 to 1791 — 18 — 
 1792 to 1804 — 13 — 
 1805 to 1814 — 10—1 
 Omitting the free interchange with Ireland J 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Excess of 
 Imports. 
 
 Excess of 
 Exports. 
 
 qrs. 
 1,723,818 
 3,151,020 
 11,945,822 
 18,577,612 
 
 7,697,863 
 
 qrs. 
 34,926,825 
 1,468,092 
 5,419,625 
 1,832,515 
 
 1,430,938 
 
 qrs. 
 
 1,682,928 
 6,526,197 
 16,745,097 
 
 6,266,925 
 
 33,203,007 
 
 Various acts (many of them temporary) 
 were now passed ; as, in 1668 (11 & 12 W. 3. 
 c.3.), 1699 (11 W.3. c.l.), 1700 (11 & 12 
 W. 3. c. 20.), 1707 (5 Anne, c. 29.), 1709 
 (8 Anne, c. 8.), 1741 (14 G. 2. c. 3.), 1757 
 (30 G. 2. c. 1.), 1758, 1759, 1765 (5 G. 3. 
 c. 32.), 1766—1774 (13 G. 3. c. 43.). By 
 this act, when wheat sold at 48s. per qr., 
 then it might be imported on payment of a 
 duty of 6c?.; 1780, 1783,_ 1787 (27 G. 3. 
 c. 13.) ; by this act the import duty on 
 wheat, when under 48s., was to be 24s. 3c?. 
 1789—1791 (31 G. 3. c. 30.). By this act, 
 a sliding scale was adopted, by which, when 
 wheat was above 54s., it was to pay an im- 
 port duty of 6d. This was increased to 
 6s. 3t?. in 1796 (37 G. 3. c. 15.) ; to 6s. 6d. 
 in 1797 (37 G. 3. c. 110.) ; to 6s. 8c?. in 1803 
 (43 G. 3. c. 68—70.) ; and 7s. 6d. in 1804 
 (44 G. 3. c. 53.). Other acts also passed to 
 regulate the corn trade in 1795 (35 G. 3. 
 c.4.), 1796 (36 G. 3. c.2L). By this act, 
 bounties (20s. per qr.) were first allowed 
 upon the importation of foreign corn, which 
 were continued for about fourteen years. 
 The following is a table of the amounts paid 
 in bounty on the importation of corn into 
 Great Britain in this period : — 
 £ £ 
 
 1796 .. 573,418 1800 .. 44,836 
 
 1797 .. 28,565 1801 .. 1,420,355 
 
 1798 .. 454 1802 .. 715,323 
 
 1799 .. 16 1803 .. 43,977 
 
 There were other corn acts in 1797-98 
 -99, 1800, 1801-2-4-6-14 (54 G. 3. c. 26. 
 bounty repealed), 1815-17-21-22-24-25-26 
 (5 G. 4. c. 74. ; imperial measure act), 1827, 
 1828 (9 G. 4. c. 60.), 1842 (5 Vict. c. 14.). 
 This is the existing (1842) corn law act, by 
 which corn inspectors are appointed in 287 
 towns, to transmit returns to the Board of 
 Trade, who compute the average weekly 
 price of each description of grain, and the 
 aggregate average price for the previous 
 six weeks, and transmit a certified copy to 
 345 
 
 (Abstract of Pari. Paper, No. 100. Sess. 1826.) 
 
 the collectors of customs at the different 
 out-ports. The aggregate average regulates 
 the duty on importation according to the 
 following scale : — 
 
 1804 
 1805 
 1807 
 1810 
 
 £ 
 
 4,791 
 21,799 
 129 
 138 
 
 If imported from any Foreign Country. 
 
 Wheat Whenever the average price of wheat, made 
 
 up and published in the manner required by law, shall 
 be for every quarter £ 
 
 Under 51s., the duty shall be for every quarter 1 
 51s. and under 52s. - 
 
 52s. 
 55s. 
 56s. 
 57*. 
 58s. 
 59s. 
 60s. 
 61s. 
 62s. 
 63s. 
 64s. 
 65s. 
 66s. 
 69s. 
 70s. 
 71s. 
 72s. 
 
 55s. 
 56s. 
 57s. 
 58s. 
 59s. 
 60s. 
 61s. 
 62s. 
 63s. 
 64s. 
 65s. 
 66s. 
 69s. 
 70s. 
 71s. 
 72s. 
 73s. 
 
 £ 
 
 0 
 
 0 19 
 0 18 
 0 17 
 0 16 
 0 15 
 0 14 
 0 13 
 0 12 
 0 11 
 
 73s. and upwards 
 
 Barley — Whenever the average price of barley, made 
 up and published in the manner required by law, shall 
 
 be for every quarter £ s. d. 
 
 Under 26s., the duty shall be for every quarter 0 11 0 
 
 26s. and under 27s. - - - - 0 10 0 
 
 27s. . 30s. - - - - 0 9 0 
 
 30s. .. 31s. - - - -080 
 
 31s. .. 32s. - - - -070 
 
 32s. .. 33s. - - - -060 
 
 33s. .. 34s. - - - -050 
 
 34s. .. 35s. - - - -040 
 
 35j. .. 36s. - - . -030 
 
 36s. .. 37s. - - - -020 
 
 37s. and upwards - - - - 0 1 0 
 
 Oats — Whenever the average price of oats, made up and 
 published in the manner required by law, shall be lor 
 every quarter £ s . d. 
 
 Under 19s., the duty shall be for every quarter 0 8 
 19s. and under 20s. - - - - o 7 
 20s. .. 23s. - - - -06 
 
 23s. .. 24s, - - . - 0 5 
 24s. .. 25s. - - . - 0 4 
 25s. .. 26s. - - . -03 
 26s. .. 27s. - - - - 0 2 
 27s. and upwards - - , - 0 1 
 
 Eye, Peas, and Beans. — Whenever the average price of 
 rye, or of peas, or of beans, made up and published in 
 the manner required by law, shall be lor every quarter 
 *z 5 
 
CORN 
 
 LAWS. 
 
 £ s. 
 
 der 30s., the duty shall be for every quarter 
 
 0 11 
 
 6 
 
 30s. and under 33s. - 
 
 _ 
 
 
 0 10 
 
 6 
 
 33s. 
 
 34s. - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 0 9 
 
 6 
 
 34s. 
 
 35s. - 
 
 
 
 0 8 
 
 6 
 
 35s. 
 
 36s. - 
 
 
 
 
 
 36s. 
 
 37s. - 
 
 
 
 0 6 
 
 6 
 
 37s. 
 
 38s. - 
 
 
 
 0 5 
 
 6 
 
 38a 
 
 39s. - 
 
 
 
 0 4 
 
 6 
 
 39s. 
 
 40s. - 
 
 
 
 0 3 
 
 6 
 
 40s. 
 
 41s. - 
 
 
 
 0 2 
 
 6 
 
 41s. 
 
 42s. - 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 6 
 
 42s. and upwards 
 
 
 
 0 1 
 
 0 
 
 Wheat Meal and Flour — For" every barrel, being 196 lb., 
 a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on 38£ gal- 
 lons of wheat. 
 
 Oatmeal. — For every quantity of 181i lb., a duty equal 
 in amount to the duty payable on a quarter of oats. 
 
 Maize or Indian Corn, Buckwheat, Bear or Bigg, — For 
 every quarter, a duty equal in amount to the duty 
 payable on a quarter of barley. 
 
 See Wheat. 
 
 An Account shoiving the total Quantities of 
 Wheat and Wheat Flour imported from 
 Foreign Countries and from British Co- 
 lonies. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 1 0 per quarter - 
 
 0 6 
 0 10 
 0 13 
 0 16 
 
 0 18 
 
 1 0 
 1 1 
 
 ■<] 11 
 1 12 
 1 13 
 1 11 
 1 15 
 1 16 
 1 17 
 1 18 
 
 1 19 
 
 2 0 
 2 2 
 2 3 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 ■> 
 
 4 8 
 
 5 8 
 
 6 8 
 
 7 8 
 
 Admitted at an ad valorem 
 duty, being damaged 
 
 Admitted duty free, being 
 damaged - - 
 
 Admitted duty free, for seed 
 
 Total - - - 
 
 Quantities entered for Home 
 Consumption in the United 
 Kingdom from the passing 
 of the Act 9 Geo. 4. c. 60. 
 (15th July, 1828>, to the 5th 
 January, 1841. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 qrs. 
 3,907,981 
 2,788,277 
 1,994,102 
 783,280 
 548,348 
 298,677 
 76,200 
 377,667 
 107,005 
 13,664 
 138,775 
 37,329 
 27,153 
 4,724 
 1.882 
 134^75 
 61 ,649 
 13,955 
 1,496 
 432 
 908 
 385 
 154 
 326 
 314 
 154 
 151 
 3 
 7 
 4 
 16 
 62 
 10 
 7 
 3 
 2 
 8 
 
 2,629 
 
 11,322,085 
 
 Wheat Flour. 
 
 129,858 
 893,407 
 
 British Colonial. 
 When thi? rate ) .. 
 
 of duty onfg ^ >Cr( l r 
 wheat was J 
 
 Total - . 
 
 346 
 
 cwts. 
 1,276,731 
 835,406 
 518,897 
 238,592 
 466,432 
 213,707 
 44,788 
 96,538 
 5,861 
 5,940 
 56,530 
 2,070 
 1,555 
 654 
 690 
 1,377 
 101 
 756 
 87 
 63 
 511 
 164 
 24 
 42 
 24 
 72 
 51 
 
 3 
 7 
 13 
 33 
 155 
 17 
 
 36 
 56 
 
 350 
 3,768,335 
 
 426,809 
 
 596,990 
 
 An Account of the Average Price of Wheat 
 in Great Britain in the year 1840, together 
 with the total number of Quarters of 
 Foreign and Colonial Wheat and Wheat 
 Flour imported in the same year, distin- 
 guishing Foreign from Colonial, and the 
 Quantities entered for Home Consump- 
 tion: also the Average Prices of Wheat 
 at Dantzic, Odessa, and Rotterdam, for 
 the same year, as far as they can be ascer- 
 tained. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Average price of wheat at Rotterdam - - 49 11 
 at Odessa - - - 24 9 
 at Dantsic - - - 39 6 
 Total number of quarters of wheat and wheat 
 flour imported and entered for home con- 
 sumption ... - qrs. 2,401,366 
 Total number of quarters of colonial wheat 
 
 and wheat flour imported - 148,720 
 Total number of quarters of foreign wheat 
 
 and wheat flour imported ... 2,284,482 
 Total number of quarters of wheat and wheat 
 flour imported .... 2,433,202 
 
 s. d. 
 
 Average price of wheat in Great Britain - 66 4 
 
 An Account of the Quantities of Wheat and 
 Wheat Flour, in Quarters, entered for 
 Home Consumption in Great Britain in 
 each Year, from 1760 to 1840; and stating 
 the Annual Average of each consecutive 
 Period of Ten Years. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1761 
 1762 
 1763 
 1764 
 1765 
 1766 
 1767 
 1768 
 1769 
 1770 
 
 1771 
 1772 
 1773 
 1774 
 1775 
 1776 
 1777 
 1778 
 1779 
 1780 
 
 1781 
 1782 
 1783 
 1784 
 1785 
 1786 
 1787 
 I7H8 
 1789 
 1790 
 
 1791 
 1792 
 1793 
 
 Quantities of Foreign and 
 
 Colonial Wheat and 
 Wheat Flour entered for 
 Home Consumption in 
 Great Britain. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 116,793 
 64,836 
 
 565,026 
 
 201,405 
 80,699 
 29,430 
 48,642 
 
 102,148 
 41,141 
 
 1 .42,805 
 
 421,038 
 43 1,(579 
 
 Annual 
 Average of 
 
 each 
 Consecutive 
 
 Period of 
 Ten Years, 
 
 111,372 
 
CORN LAWS. 
 
 CORN-MINT. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1794 
 1795 
 1796 
 1797 
 1798 
 1799 
 1800 
 
 1801 
 1802 
 1803 
 1804 
 1805 
 1806 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 Quantities of Foreign and 
 
 Colonial Wheat and 
 
 Wheat Flour entered for 
 
 Home Consumption in 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 Annual 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Average of 
 each 
 
 in 
 
 each Year. 
 
 Consecutive 
 
 Period of 
 Ten Years. 
 
 qrs. 
 
 qrs. 
 
 220,249 
 
 29? ,4 16 
 
 
 878,165 
 
 
 403,037 
 
 
 356,694 
 
 
 438,152 
 
 
 1,256,989 
 
 
 470,342 
 
 1,417,360 
 
 407,438 
 
 
 257,310 
 
 
 359,139 
 
 
 780,535 
 
 
 197,475 
 
 
 356,031 
 
 
 23,602 
 
 
 385,804 
 1,374,897 
 
 
 
 555,959 
 
 116,385 
 
 112,952 
 
 
 319,466 
 
 
 623,086 
 
 
 116,382 
 
 
 225,263 
 
 
 1,024,443 
 
 
 1,596,511 
 
 
 122,000 
 
 
 34,275 
 
 
 429,076 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 
 12,137 
 
 
 15,778 
 
 
 525,231 
 
 
 315,892 
 
 
 572,705 
 
 
 841,828 
 
 
 1 ,363,487 
 
 
 
 
 
 534,762 
 
 1,487,807 
 
 375,788 
 
 
 83,691 
 
 
 64,552 
 
 
 27,525 
 
 
 30,096 
 
 
 242,594 
 
 
 1,821,151 
 
 
 2,652,553 
 
 
 2,295,419 
 
 
 908,118 
 
 
 Average Prices or Wheat from 1670. 
 The Mean of two half-yearly Prices {Win- 
 chester measure), from the Register kept 
 in the Books of Eton College. 
 
 Year. 
 
 f. 
 
 d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1670 . 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 1687 . 
 
 31 
 
 8 
 
 1704 . 
 
 41 2 
 
 1671 . 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 1688 . 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 1705 . 
 
 26 8 
 
 1672 . 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 1689 . 
 
 26 
 
 8 
 
 1706 . 
 
 23 1 
 
 1673 . 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 1690 . 
 
 30 
 
 9 
 
 1707 . 
 
 25 2 
 
 1674 . 
 
 61 
 
 0 
 
 1691 . 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 1708 . 
 
 36 8 
 
 1675 . 
 
 52 
 
 1 
 
 1692 . 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 1709 . 
 
 69 7 
 
 1676 . 
 
 33 
 
 9 
 
 1693 . 
 
 60 
 
 1 
 
 1710 . 
 
 69 4 
 
 1677 . 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 1694 . 
 
 56 
 
 10 
 
 1711 . 
 
 48 0 
 
 1678 . 
 
 52 
 
 5 
 
 1695 . 
 
 47 
 
 1 
 
 1712 . 
 
 41 2 
 
 1679 . 
 
 48 
 
 0 
 
 1696 . 
 
 56 
 
 0 
 
 1713 . 
 
 45 4 
 
 1680 . 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 1697 . 
 
 . 63 
 
 4 
 
 1714 . 
 
 44 8 
 
 1681 . 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 1698 . 
 
 00 
 
 8 
 
 1715 . 
 
 38 2 
 
 1682 . 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 1699 . 
 
 50 
 
 0 
 
 1716 . 
 
 42 8 
 
 1683 . 
 
 35 
 
 6 
 
 1700 . 
 
 . 35 
 
 6 
 
 1717 
 
 40 5 
 
 1684 . 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 1701 . 
 
 . 31 
 
 8 
 
 1718 . 
 
 34 8 
 
 1685 . 
 
 41 
 
 5 
 
 1702 . 
 
 20 
 
 0 
 
 1719 . 
 
 30 11 
 
 1686 . 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 1703 . 
 
 . 32 
 
 0 
 
 1720 . 
 
 32 10 
 
 
 
 347 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 1721 . 
 
 1722 . 
 
 1723 . 
 
 1724 . 
 
 1725 . 
 
 1726 . 
 
 1727 . 
 
 1728 . 
 
 1729 . 
 
 1730 . 
 
 1731 . 
 
 1732 . 
 
 s. d. 
 
 33 4 
 
 32 0 
 
 30 9 
 
 32 10 
 
 43 1 
 
 40 10 
 
 37 4 
 
 48 3 
 
 42 2 
 
 32 5 
 
 29 4 
 
 23 8 
 
 1733 . 25 2 
 
 1734 ..33 5 
 
 1735 . 38 2 
 
 1736 .. 35 10 
 
 1737 .. 33 5 
 
 {Parliamentary 
 1826.) 
 
 Year. 
 
 1738 .. 
 
 1739 .. 
 
 1740 .. 
 
 1741 .. 
 
 1742 .. 
 
 1743 .. 
 
 1744 .. 
 
 1745 .. 
 
 1746 .. 
 
 1747 .. 
 
 1748 .. 
 
 1749 .. 
 
 1750 . 
 
 1751 .. 
 
 1752 .. 
 
 1753 .. 
 
 1754 .. 
 
 Paper, 
 
 31 6 
 
 33 2 
 48 10 
 41 9 
 28 5 
 22 0 
 22 0 
 24 3 
 
 34 8 
 30 11 
 
 32 10 
 32 10 
 28 10 
 34 2 
 40 8 
 39 8 
 30 9 
 
 No. 
 
 Year. 
 
 17. r .r» 
 
 1756 
 
 1757 , 
 
 1758 , 
 1759 
 
 1760 , 
 
 1761 , 
 
 1762 . 
 
 1763 , 
 
 1764 . 
 
 1765 , 
 
 1766 , 
 
 1767 , 
 
 1768 , 
 
 1769 , 
 
 1770 , 
 
 s. d. 
 29 11 
 40 1 
 
 53 4 
 
 44 5 
 
 35 
 
 32 
 
 26 
 
 34 
 
 36 
 
 41 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 57 
 
 53 
 
 40 
 
 100. — Session 
 
 The average Prices as published by the Re- 
 ceiver of Corn Returns. 
 
 Winchester 
 Measure. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 Year. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1771 . 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 1795 . 
 
 . 72 
 
 11 
 
 1772 . 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 1796 . 
 
 . 76 
 
 3 
 
 1773 . 
 
 51 
 
 0 
 
 1797 . 
 
 . 52 
 
 2 
 
 1774 . 
 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 1798 . 
 
 . 50 
 
 4 
 
 1775 . 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 1799 . 
 
 . 66 
 
 11 
 
 1776 . 
 
 38 
 
 2 
 
 1800 
 
 110 
 
 5 
 
 1777 . 
 
 45 
 
 6 
 
 1801 . 
 
 115 
 
 11 
 
 1778 . 
 
 42 
 
 0 
 
 1802 . 
 
 . 67 
 
 9 
 
 1779 . 
 
 33 
 
 8 
 
 1803 . 
 
 . 57 
 
 1 
 
 1780 . 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 1804 . 
 
 . 60 
 
 5 
 
 1781 . 
 
 44 
 
 8 
 
 1805 . 
 
 . 87 
 
 1 
 
 1782 . 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 1806 . 
 
 . 76 
 
 9 
 
 1783 . 
 
 52 
 
 8 
 
 1807 . 
 
 . 73 
 
 1 
 
 1784 . 
 
 48 
 
 10 
 
 1808 . 
 
 . 78 
 
 11 
 
 1785 . 
 
 41 
 
 10 
 
 1809 . 
 
 . 94 
 
 5 
 
 1786 . 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 1810 
 
 .103 
 
 3 
 
 1787 . 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 1811 . 
 
 . 92 
 
 5 
 
 1788 . 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 1812 . 
 
 .122 
 
 8 
 
 1789 . 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 1813 . 
 
 .106 
 
 6 
 
 1790 . 
 
 53 
 
 2 
 
 1814 . 
 
 . 72 
 
 1 
 
 1791 . 
 
 47 
 
 2 
 
 1815 . 
 
 . 63 
 
 8 
 
 1792 . 
 
 41 
 
 9 
 
 1816 . 
 
 . 76 
 
 2 
 
 1793 . 
 
 47 
 
 10 
 
 1817 . 
 
 . 94 
 
 0 
 
 1794 . 
 
 50 
 
 8 
 
 1818 . 
 
 . S3 
 
 8 
 
 Year. 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 
 s. d. 
 
 72 3 
 
 65 10 
 54 5 
 43 3 
 51 9 
 62 0 
 
 66 6 
 56 11 
 
 Imperial 
 Measure. 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 
 56 9 
 
 60 5 
 
 66 3 
 
 64 3 
 
 66 4 
 
 58 8 
 
 52 11 
 
 46 2 
 
 1835 .. 39 4 
 
 1836 .. 48 6 
 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 55 10 
 64 7 
 70 8 
 66 4 
 
 {Thornton on the Corn Laws ; Pari. Papers; 
 Statutes at large.) 
 
 CORN MARYGOLD. {Chrysanthemum 
 segetum.) In Scotland, this is called yellow 
 gowans, quills, gools ; in Kent, yellow bottle ; 
 in Norfolk, budland; midland counties, 
 golds, goulds, or gowls ; north of England, 
 gowlans, goldens, gules. Linnseus says there 
 is a law in Denmark which obliges the 
 farmers to extirpate this weed. He re- 
 commends the land to be manured in 
 autumn, summer- fallowed, and harrowed in 
 about five days after sowing. Martyn says 
 it can only be eradicated by hand before 
 the seeds ripen. It is abundant in corn and 
 turnip fields, with its blue-green leaves, and ' 
 broad, brilliant, yellow flowers. . The stalks 
 are round, sth% and branched, growing two 
 feet high. The leaves stand irregularly, 
 and they are deeply indented at the sides, 
 besides being long and very broad, smallest 
 at their base, and growing broader as they 
 advance to the end. The root is tapering 
 and fibrous. {Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 450.) 
 
 CORN-MILL. See Mill. 
 
 CORN-MINT. {Mentha arvensis.) This 
 
CORN-MOTH. 
 
 CORN SALAD. 
 
 weed chiefly prevails where the land is I 
 moist. Its perennial roots creep exten- 
 sively, and are said to be difficult to extir- 
 pate. The herb is hoary, and has the un- 
 pleasant odour of decayed cheese; which, 
 in conjunction with its peculiarly short bell- 
 shaped calyx, covered with horizontal hairs, 
 readily distinguishes it from the other mints. 
 It is not a very common or general tillage 
 weed, except on marshy or fenny land which 
 h%p been over- cropped. The roots bind the 
 soil much in which they grow, obstructing 
 the pulverisation. It is said to be overcome 
 and got rid of by correcting the effect of 
 such soils as encourage its growth, by 
 draining, paring and burning, and adopting 
 the horse-hoe husbandry. (Sinclair's Weeds, 
 p. 41.) 
 
 CORN MOTH. (Tinea granella.) Among 
 the insects most injurious in their attacks 
 on grain when laid up in magazines, is the 
 larva of this small moth (the mottled wool- 
 len moth of Haworth), the caterpillar of 
 which is also called the white corn worm. 
 The perfect moth measures, from the head 
 to the tips of the wings, six or seven lines. 
 The insect appears as a moth in May, J une, 
 and July. It frequents granaries and other 
 buildings where grain is stored, sits at rest 
 in the day time, and only flies about at night. 
 It is in the summer months, from May 
 to August, and sometimes in September, 
 that the larvae devour the different sorts of 
 grain ; and they attack rye, oats, and barley, 
 with the same zest as wheat. From Sep- 
 tember to May the larva is sought for in 
 vain in the corn-heaps ; it has retired into 
 the cracks and fissures of the floor and 
 walls, and moreover has concealed itself in 
 its cocoon. It does not reappear till April 
 or May, and then in a very different form ; 
 namely, as a moth, which flutters about the 
 heaps of store-corn, and deposits upon them 
 the invisible germ of future destruction. 
 After a few days have elapsed, small whitish 
 worm maggots, or more properly speaking 
 larvae, proceed from the eggs, and imme- 
 diately penetrate into the grain, carefully 
 closing up the opening with their white 
 roundish excrement, which they glue to- 
 gether by a fine web. 
 
 From these considerations, the means 
 which the agriculturist must employ to se- 
 cure his grain from so dangerous an enemy, 
 are clearly deducible. First of all, the lofts, 
 before the corn is placed in them, must be 
 carefully examined, and the cocoons, if any 
 are discovered, got rid of. Sprinkling the 
 floor with a mixture of strong white wine 
 tinegar and salt, before laying up the corn, 
 is strongly 1<> be recommended. Sweeping 
 the floor and Avails thoroughly should not be 
 neglected ; and the dust .should be removed 
 348 
 
 I immediately, in order that the larvae may 
 not find their way back into the corn-heaps. 
 Common salt will also purify the infested 
 grain. One of the surest remedies appears 
 to be a free ventilation, by means of an ar- 
 tificial degree of cold, as the larvae can only 
 live in a temperature of 10° to 12° of 
 Reaumur. Bats and spiders are the prin- 
 cipal natural enemies of the corn moth, and 
 the grey and yellow wagtails and other 
 small birds also feed on them. (Treatise on 
 Insects, Sfc. by J. and M. Loudon.) 
 
 CORN POPPY. (Papaver rheeas.) In- 
 differently called red-poppy, corn-rose, cop- 
 rose, head-work, red-weed, red-mailkes, &c. 
 A troublesome weed in corn fields. Annual, 
 flowering from June to July. Beautiful 
 varieties of this species, with semi-double 
 flowers, variegated with rose-colour and 
 white, are easily cultivated for ornament, 
 but liable to degenerate in luxuriance. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 1 1. ; Sinclair's 
 Weeds, p. 46.) 
 CORN RENT. See Rent. 
 CORN-ROSE and COP-ROSE. Pro- 
 vincial names for the corn-poppv. 
 
 CORN-SALAD, or LAMB'S LET- 
 TUCE. (Fedia olitoria, Smith ; Valeriana 
 locusta, Lin.) A well-known annual weed 
 in corn-fields and light cultivated ground, 
 which probably took its common English 
 name from the circumstance of the plants 
 appearing in flower about the time that 
 lambs are dropped. There is a second 
 species (F. dentata), oval fruited corn 
 salad. The common variety is cultivated for 
 winter and spring salads, and for this pur- 
 pose has been long known. The first dish 
 formerly brought to table was a red her- 
 ring set in a corn salad. The plant will 
 flourish in any soil that is not particularly 
 heavy. It is propagated by seed, sown 
 in February and the two following months, 
 and once a month during the summer ; but 
 it is not so palatable during this season. 
 Lastly, during August and early in Sep- 
 tember, the plants from which will be fit for 
 use in early spring, or during the winter if 
 mild. The seed may be sown in drills six 
 inches apart, or broadcast, and raked in. 
 Keep them free from weeds by frequent 
 hoeings, previously thinned to four inches 
 asunder. They should always be eaten 
 quite young. In summer, the whole plant 
 may be cut, as it soon advances to seed 
 at this season ; but in spring and winter 
 the outer leaves only should be gathered. 
 For the production of seed some of the 
 spring-raised plants must be left uneathered. 
 They flower in June, and perfect their seed 
 during the two following months. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitch. Gard.; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 44. ; Sinclair's Weeds, p. « / 54.) 
 
CORN-STONE. 
 
 COTTAGES. 
 
 CORN-STONE. A provincial name for 
 a species of red limestone. 
 
 CORN-STUBBLE. The short straw 
 ■which is left standing in the field after reap- 
 ing or cutting a grain crop. 
 
 CORN-STUBBLE RAKE. A sort of 
 large horse-rake, which is advantageously 
 made use of in some districts. 
 
 CORN WEEVIL. (Calandra granaria, 
 Clairville ; Curculio granaria, Linn.) This 
 is another extremely injurious insect to corn. 
 The perfect beetle is of small size, linear 
 shape, with a narrow rostrum, and the 
 elytra or wing cases marked by impressed 
 lines of dots. The female, like the corn 
 moth, deposits her eggs iipon corn in gra- 
 naries, and the young larva immediately 
 burrows into the grain, of which it eats the 
 interior. It is sometimes exceedingly 
 abundant and destructive in old granaries. 
 The best preservative against its ravages 
 are, perfect ventilation and a constant 
 shifting of the grain. (Loudon's Insects 
 injurious to Agriculture.} 
 
 CORNS, IN HORSES' FEET. This 
 disease is produced by some hard substance 
 pressing on the sole at the quarters, as from 
 shoes left on till the heels become buried in 
 the hoof ; the fibrous substance which lies 
 between the sensible foot and the absolute 
 horny hoof becomes inflamed by the pres- 
 sure, and the inflammation produces a 
 hardness of the spot, similar, if I may so 
 express it, to a knot in a piece of soft timber. 
 Palliate the evil as well as you can, by 
 keeping the hoof constantly pared away 
 between the corn and the ground, but do 
 not wound in your vain endeavours to cut 
 it out ; avoid the hot-irons, &c. ; let a bit of 
 sponge be softly put in, merely to keep out 
 gravel and keep the spot moist ; and when 
 the season arrives, turn the horse out without 
 any shoes, into a soft marshy place, where 
 his feet must be in a constant moist state 
 for three months at least : by that time the 
 hoof will be altogether renewed, the diseased 
 part will have grown out, and if there is no 
 new injury, there will be no new corns. 
 (E. Maunsell. See also, Lib. Use. Know. 
 The Horse, p. 305.) 
 
 CORONER. (Lat. coronator.) An office 
 established in Saxon times. The most im- 
 portant, if not the sole function which he 
 now exercises, is that of holding inquests on 
 the" bodies of such persons as either die or 
 are supposed to die a violent death (4 Ed. 1 . 
 s. 2.) ; for which purpose he is empowered 
 to summon jurymen out of the neighbour- 
 hood, and witnesses. The coroner was 
 originally, in some sort, the colleague and 
 assistant of the sheriff ; and this officer is 
 still, as the sheriff was formerly, elected by 
 the freeholders of the county. There are 
 349 
 
 frequently several coroners in the same 
 county, who exercise their functions over 
 different districts. (Jervis on Coroners.} 
 
 CORONET-BONE. The second of the 
 consolidated phalanges of the horse's foot. 
 
 CORONILLA, VARIEGATED. (Co- 
 ronilla varia.) A hardy perennial, blowing 
 purple and white flowers from June to Au- 
 gust. Loves a dry soil and open situa- 
 tion. Propagate by parting its roots. Na- 
 tive of the south of Europe. 
 
 CORYMBIFEROUS PLANTS or 
 SHRUBS. Such as bear flowers in corymbs. 
 See Botany. 
 
 COSH. A provincial word sometimes 
 used for pod. It also signifies the husks or 
 chaff of wheat and oats. 
 
 COSSART, or COSSET. (It. cassiccio, 
 from casa, the house.) A lamb left by the 
 death of its dam before it is capable of pro- 
 viding for itself ; or a lamb taken from an 
 ewe that brings more than one. The term 
 is also applied to a colt, calf, &c. and some- 
 times written cot-lamb. 
 
 COSTIVENESS. In farriery, a com- 
 plaint to which horses are often subject, 
 occasioned sometimes by violent or hard 
 exercise, especially in hot weather ; and at 
 other times by standing long at hard meat, 
 without grass or other cleansing diet, and 
 with very little exercise. 
 
 COTS. A provincial name in some parts 
 of the country for lambs that are brought 
 up by hand. See Cade Lamb. 
 
 COTTAGE ALLOTMENTS. See Al- 
 lotment. 
 
 COTTAGER. (From Sax. cot ; Goth. 
 hot; and Welsh, cwt, a little house.) A 
 farming or other kind of labourer who in- 
 habits a cottage. 
 
 COTTAGES. These for labourers are 
 commonly constructed merely with a re- 
 gard to economy ; the comfort and health 
 of their future tenants being too often dis- 
 regarded. Such cottages should never 
 consist of less than two bed rooms, and a 
 kitchen, and outhouse. They will be found 
 to be considerably more healthy with 
 wooden floors, raised above the level of the 
 surrounding ground. They should be well 
 furnished with windows, and the ceilings of 
 the rooms of a fair height, eight or nine 
 feet will not be too much to allow ; they 
 should have as good gardens as possible. 
 The plans for their formation, and the ma- 
 terials of which they are composed, must 
 vary with the locality. Mr. Gillespie has 
 given one for a cottage with a roof without 
 wood, which he asserts could be built in 
 Scotland for 301. (Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. iv. p. 469.) There is also an essay by 
 Mr. Smith, on cottages for the labouring 
 classes, which 'may be consulted with ad- 
 
COTTER. 
 
 COUGH. 
 
 vantage {Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 205.), 
 and on cottage windows {Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. p. 116.), and also on cottage pre- 
 miums, and on the cottages built on the 
 estate of Lord Roseberry. {Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. vi. p. 527.) 
 
 By the erection of small, comfortable 
 cottages on the poor waste lands of our 
 island, and the allotment to each of a few 
 acres of land, a field is opened for the rapid 
 recovery by the spade of barren lands, and 
 the profitable employment of the landowner's 
 capital, too little understood. By merely 
 deepening and mixing the soil, the cottager 
 can bring into cultivation lands, which seem 
 to defy all the powers of even the subsoil 
 plough. This is a noble, a national theme, 
 on which too much can hardly be written. I 
 implore the owners of the waste to consider, 
 to calculate, and to make the experiment. 
 Let them read the report by Provost 
 Baillie, " Of the System of Improvement 
 followed on the Muirs of Drumforskie, now 
 called Charleston, in the County of Kin- 
 cardine, by the settlement of Crofters on 
 improving Leases, with Allotments of a few 
 Acres of. waste Land to each." {Trans, of 
 High. Soc. vol. v. p. 97.) The result is, that 
 " at the expiry of the leases, the whole will 
 produce on 357 acres, an actual, permanent, 
 and sure revenue of 7501. per annum." {Ibid. 
 116.) And let me also refer the landowner 
 to a paper, " On the Settlement of Crofters," 
 by Mr. Thompson, and on the same noble 
 effort by Colonel Fraser {Ibid. p. 379. 
 and 387.) ; and to the Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 (vol. v. p. 531.), on the cotters who cultivate 
 even the mountains of Switzerland, and the 
 most naturally barren steppes of China. And 
 if they set about the good work in earnest, 
 then let them read the excellent essay of 
 Mr. Blacker, " On the Improvement to be 
 made in the Cultivation of small Farms." 
 But this is not an attempt to be made with- 
 out consideration. With care it works ad- 
 mirably, diffusing comfort and gladness ; but 
 without some attention to the means and 
 instruction of the small farmers, instead of 
 producing a race of bold and happy culti- 
 vators, adding out of the mere waste to the 
 riches of their country, it would only be 
 the means of colonising the land with 
 paupers. 
 
 COTTER and COTTERAL. Pro- 
 vincial words used to signify a sort of iron 
 key to a bolt. 
 
 COTTON, CHARLES, though well 
 known as the editor of Walton s Angler, 
 and as a poet, is only one of the Scriptorcs 
 win< >rcs of horticulture. He was born at 
 Beresford, in Hertfordshire, the seat of his 
 father, on the 28th of April, 1630. He 
 commenced publishing in 1663, and twelve 
 
 years afterwards appeared the only work of 
 his requiring notice here, viz. The Planter s 
 Manual, being Instructions for Raising, 
 Planting, and Cultivating all sorts of Fruit 
 Trees, 12mo. 1675. He died September, 
 1687. {Walton's Complete Angler, edited 
 by Sir J. Hawkins, edit. 5.) 
 
 COTTON-GRASS. {Eriophorum. Itai. 
 cotone ; Fr. coton.) A perennial native genus 
 of grasses, comprising seven species, which 
 have no particular merit to warrant their re- 
 commendation for the purposes of the agri- 
 culturist ; their productive and nutritive 
 powers being very inferior. Sinclair gives 
 us the result of his experiments on two 
 sorts, the common long-leaved cotton-grass 
 {E. angustifolium), and the hare's-tail, or 
 sheathed cotton-grass {E. vaginatum.) The 
 produce of the first per acre, at the time of 
 flowering, from a bog soil, was 8167 lbs. ; the 
 proportion of nutriment afforded, 319 lbs. 
 The produce of the second, on a similar soil, 
 was 6806 lbs. ; nutritive matter, 212 lbs. 
 The chief property that would give value 
 to this grass, if its productive powers were 
 greater, is its early growth, E. vaginatum 
 being one of the earliest of the British 
 grasses ; flowering in April. Sheep and 
 cattle crop the foliage in the spring, till the 
 finer natural grasses afford them a bite. 
 {Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 356. ; Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 65.) 
 
 COTTON THISTLE. See Thistle. 
 
 COTYLEDON. The seed leaf. See 
 Botany. 
 
 COUCH, or CREEPING WHEAT 
 GRASS. {Triticumrepens.) Named from 
 the French coucher, to lie down. Sometimes 
 called dog-grass and knot-grass. Until of 
 late years, where botanical science has af- 
 forded us better information, it was gene- 
 rally supposed that all couch or twitch was 
 the roots of one species of grass. But many 
 persons observed that some of these roots, 
 on wet soils, were black and much smaller, 
 and they had locally obtained the name of 
 black twitch. This, on soils where it prevails, 
 is much worse than the other, because it is 
 wiry and small, and not so easily discharged 
 from the soil ; it is also more brittle, and by 
 harrowing breaks short. This is the Agrostis 
 repens. There are two other grasses which 
 have strong creeping roots, and are indiffer- 
 ently called couch : these are the creeping- 
 rooted soft grass {Holcus mollis), and the 
 smooth-stalked meadow grass {Poa pra- 
 tensis). There is but one way of destroy- 
 ing couch, and that is by ploughing up the 
 soil and pulverising it. {Sinclair's Weeds, 
 p. 27.) 
 
 COUGH. (Goth, kueff, a catarrh ; kof, 
 suffocation; Dutch, kuch.) In farriery, a 
 convulsive motion of the lungs, being an 
 
COUGH IN SHEEP. 
 
 COW-HERD. 
 
 effort of nature to throw up some offending 
 matter from the air tubes. This is best 
 treated, in mild cases, by cold bran mashes 
 with linseed. But coughs arise from so 
 many different causes, that it is impossible to 
 prescribe any general remedy. 
 
 COUGH IN SHEEP. See Diseases 
 of Sheep. 
 
 COULTER OF A PLOUGH. See 
 Plough. 
 
 COUNTER. In horsemanship, the breast 
 of a horse, or that part of his fore-hand 
 which lies between the shoulders and under 
 the neck. 
 
 COUNTY RATES, are levied under the 
 12 G. 2. c. 29. By this act justices in 
 quarter sessions are to make one general 
 rate or assessment, " to be assessed upon 
 every town, parish, or place," which is " to 
 be paid by the parish officers out of the 
 poor's rates to the high constable of the 
 hundred or division." The high constable 
 is to hand over the money to the county 
 treasurer, who is an officer appointed by 
 the 12 G. 2. c. 29. s. 6., and may be removed 
 by the quarter sessions at pleasure. An 
 appeal against a county rate is given to the 
 parish officers by the 55 G. 3. c. 51. s. 14. 
 These rates, by the 4 & 5 W. 4. c. 48. must 
 be made in open court. They are chiefly 
 applicable to the payment of the coroner's 
 charges, county bridges, shire halls, lunatic 
 asylums, criminal prosecutions, and other 
 public purposes. 
 
 COUPLES. A term applied to ewes and 
 lambs. Couple is also a chain or tie that 
 holds dogs together. 
 
 COUPLINGS, or CUPLINGS. Thongs 
 of untanned leather, or other material, 
 which are used to connect the handle or 
 handstaff and swiple of a flail. See Feail. 
 
 COURSE. (Fr. course; Lat. cursus.) 
 See Race Course. 
 
 COURSER, THE CREAM COLOUR- 
 ED. (Cursorius Isdbellinus, Selby.) A 
 kind of plover very rarely met with in this 
 country. The general colour of the plumage 
 is pale wood brown, tinged with reddish 
 buff on the upper surface ; and neck, breast, 
 and under surface of body, buffy white. 
 Claws, brown. Whole length of the bird ten 
 inches and a quarter. Little is known of its 
 habits, nidification, or eggs. (YarreWs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 376.) 
 
 COVENTRY, FRANCIS, was a native 
 of Cambridgeshire. He took his degree of 
 M. A. at Mag. Coll. Cam. in 1752, and en- 
 tered into orders, but died prematurely in 
 1759, immediately after being presented to 
 the donative of Edgeware. He deserves 
 notice here from being the author of an 
 admirable essay in The WorM, No. xv. April 
 12. 1753, entitled " Strictures on the absurd 
 351 
 
 Novelties introduced in Gardening, and a 
 humorous Description of Squire Mushroom's 
 Villa." 
 
 COVER, or COVERT. (Fr. couvrir.) 
 A term applied to a place sheltered, not 
 open or exposed. In sportsman's phrase, 
 the cover is the chosen resort of the fox for 
 kennelling ; and such as lie high and dry are 
 seldom without one or more, particularly if 
 the underwood be thick and plenty. Arti- 
 ficial covers are often formed of broom and 
 gorse, intermixed. (Blaine's Rural Sports, 
 p. 452.) 
 
 COVEY. (Fr. couvee, from the Lat. 
 cubo.) Provincially applied to a cover of 
 furze, &c. for game. It is also applied to an 
 old bird with her young ones, but is gene- 
 rally used to designate a number of part- 
 ridges or other game. 
 
 COW. (Sax. cu; Dutch koe ; Vers, goto.) 
 See Cattee. 
 
 COW-BANE, WATER, or WATER 
 HEMLOCK. (Cicuta virosa.) A perennial, 
 fetid, poisonous aquatic herb, found in 
 ditches, and about the margins of rivers, not 
 very common. Root tuberous, hollow. 
 Stems two or three feet high, hollow, leafy, 
 branched, furrowed. Leaves bright green, 
 tapering at each end, from one to two inches 
 long. Umbels large, bearing purplish flowers ; 
 fruit .roundish, smooth. This is a fatal plant 
 to cattle, if they happen to meet with" it 
 before it rises out of the water, in which 
 state only they will eat the young leaves. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 62.) 
 
 COW-BERRY. One of the names of 
 the red whortle-berry (Vaccinium Vitis 
 Idced), which see. 
 
 COW-CLAGS. A provincial name for 
 the clotted lumps of dirt that hang to the 
 buttocks of cattle and other animals. 
 
 COW-DUNG. See Farm-yard Dung. 
 
 COW-DUNG FLY. (Musca.) This is 
 a standard and almost universal fly-bait for 
 all the fly-taking fish. Few winged insects, 
 if we except the May flies, are so acceptable 
 to them, and the cow -dung fly may be used 
 freely the whole of the spring, summer, and 
 autumn months. (Blaine's Rural Sports, 
 p. 1150.; Walton, p. 322.) 
 
 COWELL, JOHN, was a nurseryman 
 at Hoxton, of whom frequent mention is 
 made in the works of Bradley and other 
 writers of the same period. He appears to 
 have died about 1730, for Switzer speaks 
 of him as " late of Hoxton." Cowell was 
 author of the following works : — 
 
 I. Account of the Aloe in Blossom, Torch Thistle, and 
 Glastonbury Thorn. London. 1729. 8vo. 2. The Cu- 
 rious and Profitable Gardener, containing the newest 
 Method for improving Land by Grain or Seed. 8vo. 
 1730. 
 
 COW-HERD. A person whose office it is 
 
COW-HOUSE. 
 
 COW-TIE. 
 
 to attend upon the herds of cows in places 
 where they run in common fields. 
 
 COW-HOUSE. See Cattle Shed. 
 
 COW-KEEPING. The business > of 
 keeping cows for the advantage of the milk, 
 by disposing of it in large towns. The 
 principal cow-keepers of the metropolis have 
 their establishments in the suburbs, where 
 they are connected with pasture fields, in 
 which their animals are turned out a portion 
 of every day throughout the year, when 
 practicable. The cows are fed in the house 
 with grains, mangel wurzel, hay, tares, &c. 
 and as the animals get air and exercise, the 
 milk may be considered wholesome. But 
 there are other cow-keepers in the metro- 
 polis, who confine their cows in back houses, 
 and even dark cellars, and while they feed 
 them with rich food, give them no exercise ; 
 hence, the milk of such cows cannot be 
 considered wholesome. (Harleian Dairy 
 System ; Brit. Husb.) See Cattle. 
 
 COWL. (Perhaps from cool or cooler, 
 or the Ger. kugel, a round bowl.) A term 
 employed in some districts to signify a tub ; 
 especially that which is used in making 
 cheese. This word is also applied provin- 
 cially to raking or scraping any thing to- 
 gether. 
 
 COWL-PRESS. A local name for a lever. 
 
 COWL-RAKE. A provincial word ap- 
 plied to an implement for raking dirt or 
 mud. It is sometimes pronounced cow-rake. 
 
 COW-LEASE. Pasture or meadow- 
 ground kept for the purpose of feeding cows. 
 
 COW-MIG. A word provincially used 
 to imply the drainage of a cow -stall or 
 dunghill. 
 
 COW-PAR. A provincial word often 
 applied to a cow-yard, straw-yard, or fold- 
 yard. 
 
 COW PARSNIP, or HOG WEED. 
 (Heracleum Sphondylium.) A biennial pas- 
 ture weed which is found in hedges, the 
 borders of fields, and rather moist meadows, 
 very common. Root tap-shaped, whitish, 
 aromatic, sweetish, and rather mucilaginous. 
 Stem four to six feet high, erect, branched, 
 leafy, furrowed, and hollow. The leaves pro- 
 ceed from a large membrane or sheath. The 
 flowers, which grow in large umbels, are 
 either white or reddish ; the fruit is abundant, 
 and light brown. The whole plant is whole- 
 some and nourishing food for cattle, and is 
 gathered in Sussex for fattening hogs, hence 
 its name of hog-weed. It is also frequently 
 known by the name of wild parsnip, mea- 
 dow parsnip, and madrep. (Sinclair s Weeds, 
 p. 65. ; Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 102.) 
 
 COW-POX. In farriery, is a disease 
 affecting the teats of cows. This disease 
 appears in the form of small bluish vesicles 
 Burrounded by inflammation, elevated at the 
 352 
 
 edge and depressed in the centre, and con- 
 taining a limpid fluid. By the use of the 
 virus of this disease, has originated the 
 present excellent system of vaccination. 
 Experience has demonstrated that, although 
 cow-pox in the human subject is a pre- 
 ventive of small-pox, yet its influence con- 
 tinues only for a limited number of years. 
 Opinions differ respecting the period, but 
 under all circumstances, it is advisable to 
 re-vaccinate children and young people once 
 in seven or ten years. The operation is 
 trifling, and should the habit again suffer 
 the disease, it is not hazardous, and it pre- 
 vents the extension of a malady at once af- 
 flicting, disgusting, and hazardous. 
 
 COWSLIP, AMERICAN. (Dodecatheon 
 Meadia.) A hardy perennial from S. Ame- 
 rica, loving shade and moisture. It blows in 
 April and May. Propagated by seed and 
 offsets. Sow the seed in pots in autumn. 
 Plant out the following autumn. 
 
 COWSLIP, THE COMMON, or 
 PAIGLE. (Primula veris.) A native pe- 
 rennial weed, growing in meadows and pas- 
 tures, chiefly on a clay or chalky soil. It 
 produces sweet-scented yellow flowers, 
 which appear in April, and are used for 
 making cowslip wine or balsamic tea. Its 
 roots have a fine odour, similar to that of 
 anise, and give additional strength to ale 
 or beer, when immersed in the cask. The 
 leaves and flowers are excellent food for 
 silk worms, and are eaten eagerly by cattle. 
 The leaves are also used as a pot-herb, and 
 in salads. 
 
 The flowers, leaves, and roots are all medi- 
 cinal portions of the cowslip, and are made 
 into tea, wine, and conserve. It is anodyne 
 in its quality, and the ancient writers upon 
 herbs speak highly of its effects ; but their 
 opinions have lost their value by time. 
 (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 271. ; WillicKs Dom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 COWSLIP OF JERUSALEM, or 
 LUNGWORT PULMONARIA. (Pul- 
 monaria officinalis.) This plant is perennial 
 and flowers in May. It grows eight or ten 
 inches high, with long, broad, hairy leaves, of 
 a deep green, spotted on the upper side with 
 white spots. The stalks are slender and 
 hairy, with small leaves upon them. The 
 flowers are reddish in the bud but blue 
 when blown, small, growing in clusters at 
 the top of its stalk. The root is fibrous. 
 The leaves have been used medicinally, 
 from the idea that they resemble the lungs, 
 and therefore must be useful in disease of 
 those organs. They are inert, and conse- 
 quently useless. 
 
 COW-TIE. A provincial term applied 
 to a short thick hair rope, with a wooden 
 nut at one end and an eye in the other, 
 
CRAB TREE. 
 
 CREPIS. 
 
 being used for tying the hind legs of the 
 cows while milking. 
 
 CRAB TREE, or WILD APPLE 
 TREE. (Pyrus Malm.) There are se- 
 veral varieties among the wild crabs, some 
 of which are of excellent flavour when 
 baked with plenty of sugar, even surpass- 
 ing cultivated apples. (Eng. Flora, vol. 
 ii. p. 362.) Crab apples and sloes are the 
 only fruits naturally belonging to our north- 
 ern soil, and both are medicinal. The ex- 
 pressed juice of any of them, called ver- 
 juice, kept by good housewives in the coun- 
 try, being excellent as an astringent gargle 
 in sore throats and in thrush and ulceration 
 of the mouth and gums. It is sometimes 
 mixed with beer-yeast, and applied out- 
 wardly, in inflammations, bad legs, burns, 
 sprains, and scalds ; but cold water and rest 
 are better. 
 
 CRACKS IN HEELS OF HORSES. 
 In farriery, little clefts which are said to 
 be sometimes constitutional, but more fre- 
 quently owing to the want of cleanliness and 
 proper attention. 
 
 CRADLE. A kind of bow which is 
 sometimes fixed to a scythe, the better to 
 gather the corn, when low, into swarths. 
 
 CRAG. A term applied to large rocks 
 of calcareous or other stones in the north. 
 
 CRAKE. A name in some of the northern 
 counties for the common crow. 
 
 CRAKE BERRY. One of the names 
 of the black crowberry, or black-berried 
 heath. 
 
 CRAKE, CORN. A name given in the 
 north to the land-rail. See Land-raie. 
 
 CRAKE-NEEDLE. The plant termed 
 shepherd's needle. 
 
 CRAMBLES. A provincial word used 
 to signify the large boughs of trees, from 
 which the faggot-wood has been cut. 
 
 CRANBERRY. (Vaccinium Oxycoccus.) 
 See Whortleberry. 
 
 CRANE, THE. (Grus cinerea.) Is 
 not so common an English bird as it was 
 formerly. Its food is grain, aquatic plants, 
 worms, reptiles, and molusca. Its nest is 
 usually made amongst reeds or osierbeds, 
 sometimes on old buildings ; it lays but two 
 eggs, of a pale greenish olive colour, spotted 
 with darker green and brown. The co- 
 lour of the beak of the crane is greenish 
 yellow ; neck, darkish blue ; wings, back, tail, 
 and under-surface, ash grey ; whole length 
 of the bird, four feet. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 437.) 
 
 CRANE FLY, THE FIELD. (Tipula 
 rivosa.) A fly which is particularly worthy 
 of a place in the angler's list : it is an inch and 
 a half in length, with transparent wings, 
 having dusky markings. The garden crane 
 fly, the yellow striped crane fly, and the 
 353 
 
 spider fly, all varieties of the Harry-long- 
 legs, as this fly is called by the vulgar, are 
 good dipping baits for chub and trout in 
 August and September. (Blaine s Rural 
 Sports, p. 1009.) 
 
 CRANE'S BILL. (Geranium.) A genus 
 of plants comprising a large number of 
 species, of which, according to Smith (Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 221.), only thirteen are indi- 
 genous. The blue meadow crane's bill (G. 
 pratense) is found in rich, rather moist 
 pastures, and thickets, especially in the hilly 
 parts of England. It is a perennial, flowering 
 in June and July ; flowers, of a fine blue, 
 often irregularly striped or blotched with 
 white, sometimes entirely white. The spe- 
 cies of crane's bill called Herb Robert (G. 
 Robertianum), possesses most medicinal vir- 
 tues, and is found under hedges and in un- 
 cultivated places, flowering all through the 
 summer. The stalks, and indeed the whole 
 plant, is often quite red, as are the flowers, 
 and the fruit is long and slender, resembling 
 a crane's bill, after which it is named. The 
 leaves are large, divided into many parts, 
 and stand in pairs at every joint of their 
 long-footed stalks. It is a very powerful 
 astringent, and may be given in any form, 
 decocted fresh, or powdered when dry. 
 
 CRAP. A local name in some places for 
 darnel, and in others for buckwheat. 
 
 CRAPULA. See Hoven. 
 
 CRATCH. A term in some parts of the 
 country for a rack. 
 
 CRAZEY. A word applied to the weed 
 called creeping- crowfoot. 
 
 CREAM. See Butter. 
 
 CREAM GAUGE, or GLASS. A gra- 
 duated glass tube to ascertain the produce of 
 cream. In a tube containing ten inches' depth 
 of milk, every tenth of an inch will of course 
 indicate one per cent, of cream. It may be 
 used for many purposes, such as to ascertain 
 the state of the animal's health, regular and 
 quiet feeding, &c. (Quart. Journ.Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 245.) 
 
 CREAM-SLICE. A sort of wooden 
 knife, twelve or fourteen inches in length. 
 
 CREEL. A provincial word for a sort 
 of bier used in salving or smearing sheep, 
 and for slaughtering them. 
 
 CREEPER, COMMON. (Certhia fa- 
 miliarise) This is amongst the smallest of 
 the British birds. It makes its nest in hollow 
 trees, and lays in April seven to nine eggs, 
 which are white, with red spots. Colour of 
 the bird dark brown. Whole length five 
 inches. ( YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 159.) 
 
 CREPIS, or PURPLE HAWK'S 
 BEARD. (Crepis rubra.) A hardy annual, 
 native of the South of France, blowing a 
 purple flower in June and July. Sow the 
 seed in a hot bed, and plant out. 
 
 A A 
 
CRESS. 
 
 CRESS, WATER. 
 
 CRESS. See American Cress. 
 
 CRESS, BITTER WINTER. (Barbarea 
 vulgaris.) See Winter Cress. 
 
 CRESS, INDIAN, or MAJOR NAS- 
 TURTIUM. (Tropceolum majus, diminu- 
 tive of tropceum, a trophy ; and T. minus.) 
 The major nasturtium being the most pro- 
 ductive, as well of flowers and leaves as of 
 fruit, is the one that is usually cultivated in 
 the kitchen garden ; the fruit being used in 
 pickling, and the flowers and leaves in salads 
 and for garnishing. They will flourish in 
 almost any soil, but the one in which they 
 are most productive, is a light fresh loam. 
 Tn a strong rich soil, the plants are luxu- 
 riant, but they afford fewer berries, and those 
 of inferior flavour. They like an open situ- 
 ation. Sow from the beginning of March 
 to the middle of May ; the earlier, however, 
 the better. The seed may be inserted in a 
 drill, two inches deep, along its bottom, in 
 a single row, with a space of two or three 
 inches between every two, or they may be 
 dibbled in at a similar distance and depth. 
 The minor is likewise often sown in patches. 
 The major should be inserted beneath a 
 vacant paling, wall, or hedge, to which its 
 stems may be trained, or in an open com- 
 partment with sticks inserted on each side. 
 The runners at first require a little attention 
 to enable them to climb, but they soon are 
 capable of doing so unassisted. The minor 
 either may trail along the ground, or be sup- 
 ported with short sticks. If water is not 
 afforded during dry weather, they will not 
 shoot so vigorously or be so productive. 
 They flower from June until the close of 
 October. The fruit for pickling must be 
 gathered when of full size, and whilst green 
 and fleshy, during August. For the pro- 
 duction of seed, some plants should be left 
 ungathered, as the first produced are not 
 only the finest in general, but are often 
 the only ones that ripen. They should be 
 gathered as they ripen, which they do 
 from the close of August to the beginning 
 of October. They must on no account be 
 stored until perfectly dry and hard. The 
 finest and soundest seed of the previous 
 year's production should alone be sown ; if 
 it is older, the plants are seldom vigorous. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 CRESS ROCKET. (Vella annua, from 
 velan, the Celtic name of the cress.) A 
 species of cress which is found, but very 
 rarely, in sandy fields. The root is small and 
 tapering ; the stem erect, bushy, leafy, about 
 a span high. Flowers rather small, pale yel- 
 low, with purplish veins. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 1 56.) When cultivated, this shrub is com- 
 monly grown as a green-house plant, but it 
 is sufficiently hardy to endure the winter 
 if planted in a dry warm south border. It 
 
 is increased by young cuttings in sand 
 under a glass. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 CRESS, WALL, or ROCK CRESS. 
 (Arabis.) A genus of plants of very dif- 
 ferent habit from the last, of which the 
 species are numerous, and chiefly natives 
 of the northern hemisphere. There are six 
 species described by Smith (Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 209.), but the wall cress (Arabis 
 Thaliana) is preferred. All the species have 
 a pungent flavour. The plants are adapted 
 for ornamenting rock work, and are propa- 
 gated from seeds or cuttings. The wild 
 sorts are found frequent on old walls, stony 
 banks or rocks, dry sandy ground, and cot- 
 tage roofs. 
 
 CRESS, WATER. (Nasturtium.) There 
 are several native species of water cress, 
 which may be included in the following 
 summary. Creeping yellow cress, annual 
 yellow cress, amphibious yellow cress, or 
 great water radish, and common water cress. 
 They are branching herbs, almost invariably 
 smooth, throwing out numerous radicles, and 
 either altogether .aquatic or at least growing 
 in wet ground. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 191— 
 5.) Water cress (N. officinale) was seldom 
 admitted as an object of cultivation, and then 
 never to any extent, until Mr. Bradberry, of 
 West Hyde, Herts, undertook its cultivation 
 for the London market. Mr. Bradberry con- 
 siders that there are three varieties, — the 
 green-leaved, which is easiest cultivated ; 
 small brown-leaved, which is hardiest ; and 
 the large brown-leaved, which is the best, 
 having most leaf in proportion to the stalk, 
 and is the only one that can well be culti- 
 vated in deep waters. (Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Lond. vol. iv. p. 538.) The plants thrive 
 best in a moderately swift stream, about an 
 inch and a half deep, over a gravelly or 
 chalky bottom, and the nearer its source 
 the better : when there is choice, such si- 
 tuations, therefore, should be exclusively 
 planted. If mud is the natural bottom, it 
 should be removed, and gravel substituted. 
 The plants are to be set in rows, which is 
 most conducive to their health and good 
 flavour, inasmuch as that they are regularly 
 exposed to the current of water, of which, 
 if there is not a constant stream, they never 
 thrive. In shallow water, as above-men- 
 tioned, the rows may be made only eighteen 
 inches apart, but in deeper currents from 
 five to seven feet are sometimes necessary. 
 The beds must be cleared and re-planted 
 twice a year, for in the mud and weeds 
 which quickly collect, the plants not only 
 will not grow freely, but it is difficult to 
 separate them in gathering ; it is likewise 
 rendered imperative by the heads becoming 
 small from frequent cutting. The times 
 for planting and renewal are in succession*! 
 
CRIB. 
 
 CROSS-WORT. 
 
 insertions during May and June, the plants 
 from which will come into production in 
 August; and again from September to 
 November, those in the last month being 
 ready in the spring. In renewing the 
 plantations, the bed of the stream, com- 
 mencing towards its head, being cleared of 
 mud and rubbish, from the mass of plants 
 taken out the youngest and best rooted 
 must be selected. These are returned into 
 the stream, and retained in their proper 
 order, by a stone placed on each. After 
 the plants have been cut about three times, 
 they begin to stock, and then the oftener 
 they are cut the better. In summer they 
 must be cut very close. The situation 
 being favourable, they will yield a supply 
 once in a week. In winter the water should 
 be kept four or five inches deep ; this is 
 easily effected, by leaving the plants with 
 larger heads, which impedes the current. 
 The shoots ought always to be cut off ; 
 breaking greatly injures the plants. (Trans. 
 Hort. Lond. Soc. vol. iv. p. 537-42.) 
 
 CRIB. Sometimes applied to a rack for 
 hay or straw for cattle, and sometimes to a 
 manger for corn or chaff ; also to a small 
 enclosure in a cow-house or shed for calves 
 or sheep. 
 
 CRIB-BITING. A vice to which some 
 horses are subject; consisting in their 
 catching hold of the manger, and it is said 
 sucking in the air. It generally proceeds 
 from a deranged state of the stomach, but 
 is sometimes brought on by uneasiness oc- 
 casioned by diseases of the teeth, or by 
 roughness in the person who currycombs 
 them. (Brande.) There are several straps 
 or muzzles in use to prevent crib-biting, 
 one of the best being that invented by Mr. 
 Stewart. (Blaine's Encyc. p. 318, 319.) 
 
 CRIBBLE. A coarse sieve, or screen 
 for sifting sand, gravel, or corn ; the term 
 is also applied to a sort of coarse meal, 
 which is but one degree better than bran. 
 
 CRICK. In farriery, is when a horse 
 cannot turn his neck any way, and when 
 thus affected he cannot take his meat from 
 the ground without great pain. 
 
 CRICKET. The common or hearth 
 cricket (Gryllina). This insect frequents 
 kitchens and bakers' ovens, on account of 
 the warmth of those places. An easy me- 
 thod of destroying them is to place phials 
 half full of beer or any other liquid near 
 their holes, and they will crawl into them, 
 and can then be easily taken. A hedgehog 
 soon clears a kitchen. 
 
 CRINGLE. A provincial word applied 
 to a withe or rope for fastening a gate with ; 
 hence " to cringle up " signifies to fasten 
 a withe. 
 
 CROCUS. (Crocus vermis.) An indi- 
 355 
 
 genous well-known bulb. There are many 
 varieties, and all are handsome. Plant in 
 clumps ; move them once in three years, to 
 separate the offsets ; they like a good light 
 soil. Plant them two inches deep in the 
 ground. Smith (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 46. 
 and vol. iv. p. 262.) describes four species 
 of native crocuses, viz. the saffron crocus, 
 purple spring crocus, naked flowering crocus, 
 and net rooted crocus. See Saffron . 
 
 CROFT. A small field or inclosure. In 
 the northern counties, one end of it ge- 
 nerally contains the dwelling-house and 
 kitchen-garden. It sometimes also means a 
 common field. 
 
 CROFTERS. See Cottagers. 
 
 CRONES. A provincial word applied 
 to the different descriptions of old ewes. 
 
 CROOK. A provincial term applied to 
 a hook, as a yat-crook means a gate-hook. 
 
 CROOKS. In Devonshire a word ap- 
 plied to a sort of pack-horse furniture. 
 
 CROOM. A provincial term applied to 
 an implement with crooked or hooked 
 prongs. There are muck-crooms, turnip- 
 crooms, &c- It is sometimes written Crome. 
 
 CROP. The produce or quantity of 
 corn, roots, or grass, &c. grown on a piece 
 of land at one time ; hence we have corn, 
 root, and green crops. There is an able 
 paper in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. i. 
 p. 55. by Mr. Henry Stephens, on the causes 
 of destruction to crops, which may be con- 
 sulted with advantage by the farmer. For 
 course of crops, see Rotation of Crops. 
 
 CROPPING. An operation performed 
 with a pair of shears, on the ears of horses, 
 dogs, or other animals. 
 
 CROSSBILL, THE COMMON. (Loxia 
 curvirostra.) The crossbills are visiters of 
 this country, but their nests, eggs, and other 
 habits are little known There is also the 
 parrot crossbill (L. pityopsittacus), and 
 the white-winged crossbill (L. falcirostra). 
 They are all, however, only occasionally 
 seen in this country ; but will be found de- 
 scribed at length by Yarrell. (Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 14. 34. 38.) 
 
 CROSS-FURROW. The grip or furrow 
 which receives the superfluous rain-water 
 from the outer furrows, and conveys it from 
 the land into a ditch or other outlet. The 
 operation of making these cross-furrows is 
 sometimes performed by the spade, and at 
 others by the plough. 
 
 CROSS-WORT BED-STRAW, or 
 MUG-AVORT. (Galium cruciatum.) This 
 is a pretty perennial wild plant, growing a 
 foot and a half high, and flowering all the 
 summer in moist and fertile soils. Its stalks 
 are square, hairy, and pale green. Its leaves 
 grow four together at each joint of the stalk, 
 like a star in form, and are short and broad 
 
 A A 2 
 
CROTCH. 
 
 CUCKOO, THE COMMON. 
 
 in their shape. Its small yellow flowers 
 stand in clusters of eight, on a slender co- 
 rymbose stalk, just where the leaves spring. 
 The plant must be drawn up whole and 
 dried when it is budding. A decoction of 
 it is astringent. See Bed-straw. 
 
 CROTCH. A country term for a hook. 
 
 CROWBERRY, BLACK, or CRAKE- 
 BERRY. (Empetrum nigrum.) A 
 dwarf-trailing heath-like shrub, with nu- 
 merous leafy smooth branches, growing on 
 mountainous heaths in the north abun- 
 dantly. Leaves crowded, dark green ; 
 flowers, reddish ; berries, half the size of a 
 currant, purplish black, with a mild flavour 
 of elder-berries ; chiefly food of mountain 
 birds and quadrupeds. It flowers in May. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 233.) 
 
 CROWD and CROWDING-BARROW. 
 Provincial terms, in some districts, for a 
 wheel-barrow and the occupation of wheel- 
 ing a barrow. 
 
 CROW, THE CARRION. . (Corvus 
 Coronet) This bird keeps in pairs all the 
 year. Lives in woods. Preys upon carrion, 
 young lambs and leverets, dead fish, young 
 poultry, game, and even pigeons. It builds 
 its nest in February, on a tree. Eggs, four 
 or five, of a pale green colour. The male 
 feeds the female while on her eggs. Some- 
 times pairs with the hooded crow. Colour, 
 black. Length, eighteen inches. 
 
 The Hooded Crow (Corvus Comix) re- 
 sembles the carrion crow in appearance ; 
 but is only a constant resident of the northern 
 parts of our island and the western isles of 
 Scotland ; it is more destructive to the 
 farmers' lambs, &c. than the carrion crow. 
 Its colour is black. Length, twenty inches. 
 (YarrelVs Brit Birds, vol. ii. p. 79 — 83.) 
 
 CROW-FOOT, or CRANE'S BILL. 
 (Ranunculus acris.) There are several sorts of 
 crow-foot, and all the varieties are poisonous. 
 The common creeping crow-foot is the me- 
 dicinal plant, and that is only used exter- 
 nally. The most poisonous of the species 
 is spearwort. The common crow-foot 
 grows a foot high, its stalks being thick and 
 branched, but rarely upright, and of a pale 
 green ; few leaves grow upon the stalks, and 
 they are divided into narrow segments. 
 The leaves, which rise from the root, are 
 large, divided into three parts, and some- 
 times spotted with white. The leaves or 
 root, when recent and bruised, blister. 
 
 CROW NEEDLES. See Shepherd's 
 Nb edue. 
 
 CROW NET. A net made of double 
 thread or fine packthread, principally used 
 for catching wildfowl in the winter season; 
 but which may also be employed on newly 
 sown corn-fields for catching pigeons, crows, 
 and other birds ; and, even in stubble-fields, 
 
 if the stubble conceals the net from the 
 birds. 
 
 CROWN, IMPERIAL. (Fritillaria im- 
 perialist) Native of Persia, with a large, 
 scaly, bulbous, or orange coloured, disagree- 
 ably smelling root. Blows pendent red 
 flowers in April and May. There are three 
 varieties, the red-flowered, the red striped- 
 flowered with striped leaves, and the yellow- 
 flowered ; that blowing a yellow flower is 
 the handsomest. Propagate by onsets every 
 third year, taking up the bulbs in July for 
 that purpose. It loves a sandy loam, and 
 is averse to manure or wet. See Fritie- 
 
 EARY. 
 
 CROWN LANDS. Lands held under 
 the crown ; such as those belonging to the 
 Board of Ordnance, the Departments of 
 Woods and Forests, &c. 
 
 CRUPPER A term applied to the 
 rump of a horse ; also to a roll of leather 
 put under a horse's tail, and drawn up by a 
 strap to the buckle behind the saddle. 
 
 CRUSHERS FOR CORN, CAKE, &c. 
 are evidently coming fast into use ; for the 
 saving of food, by giving the corn in a 
 broken state, is certainly very considerable. 
 It is a practice at least as old as the days 
 of Samuel Hartlib, who mentions it with 
 approbation in his " Legacie." The en- 
 graving opposite represents perhaps the best 
 form of the modern crushing machines. I 
 am indebted for it to the Messrs. Ransome 
 of Ipswich. It is adapted for bruising malt, 
 oats, or linseed. It is made with two cranks, 
 to admit of being worked in case of need by 
 an extra hand; and has two accurately 
 turned up rollers, which are readily set at 
 a greater or less distance from each other, 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 CUB. A provincial word applied to a 
 c o/t tic ™ cnt) 
 
 CUBIC PETRE. See Nitrate of Soda. 
 
 CUCKOO, THE COMMON. (Cuculus 
 canorus.) Appears in April; usually first 
 heard about April 20th, but sometimes a 
 week sooner ; lays its eggs in the nests of 
 other birds, such as those of the robin, 
 redstart, whitethroat, chaffinch, greenfinch, 
 blackbird, linnet, &c. in May and June, 
 which, compared with the size of the 
 bird, are very small, and of a pale reddish 
 grey colour. The day after the cuckoo 
 is hatched, he begins to shoulder out any of 
 the eggs or other birds which may be in the 
 nest with him ; he is always found in the sole 
 possession of it. The colour of the neck, 
 back, and head, bluish grey ; tail greyish 
 black; the whole length about 13 inches. 
 
 The yellow billed American Cuckoo (Cco- 
 cyzus Americanus) is but rarely seen in 
 England. He has a yellow beak ;' the head, 
 neck, and wings, yellowish brown ; tail 
 
CUCKOO-FLOWER. 
 
 CUCUMBER. 
 
 black tipped with white ; whole length of 
 the bird about twelve inches ; his form is 
 elegant. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 179—189.) 
 
 CUCKOO-FLOWER, or MEADOW 
 LADY'S SMOCK. (Cardamine pratensis.) 
 This very pretty wild plant is a gay and 
 agreeable decoration to our fields in April, 
 May, and June. It rises a foot high ; the 
 stalk is thick and firm ; and the leaves 
 growing upon it are small, and stand singly. 
 Those leaves which rise from the root are 
 winged regularly, and spread in a circular 
 manner. The flowers grow in little clusters, 
 and are large and white, frequently tinged 
 with pale red. The fresh leaves are plea- 
 sant in salads. The juice of the leaves is 
 diuretio and anti-spasmodic. Cuckoo- 
 flowers were formerly given in epilepsy, 
 and some other spasmodic diseases ; but they 
 are now rarely prescribed ; and were, when 
 in vogue, more praised than they merited. 
 They are of no value in scurvy. 
 
 CUCKOO BREAD. A name for the 
 common wood sorrel. 
 
 CUCKOO LAMBS. A term applied 
 
 in some districts to such lambs as are 
 yeaned in April or May, because they full 
 in cuckoo time. 
 
 CUCKOO PINT. See Arum. 
 
 CUCKOO SPIT. Provincially applied 
 to a kind of frothy substance frequently 
 found on plants, containing one or two 
 aphides. 
 
 CUCUMBER. (Cucumis sativus. From 
 Kitcvog or aiKvoQ. Varro says, " Cucumeres 
 dicuntur a curvore, ut curvimere dicti.") 
 The following are the chief varieties; — 
 
 I. Early short green prickly ; 2. early long 
 green prickly ; 3. most long green prickly ; 
 4. early green cluster; 5. white Dutch 
 prickly ; 6. long smooth green Turkey ; 
 7. large smooth green Roman ; 8. Flan- 
 egan's ; 9. Russian ; 10. white Turkey ; 
 
 II. Nepal; 12. fluted (from China); 13. 
 the snake. 
 
 The early short prickly is about four 
 inches long, and is often preferred for the 
 first crop as being a very plentiful bearer, 
 quick in coming into production, and the 
 hardiest of all the varieties. The early 
 long prickly is about seven inches long ; it 
 
 SUFFOLK CRUSHER. 
 
 357 
 
 A A 3 
 
CUD. 
 
 CULLEY. 
 
 is a hardy, abundantly bearing variety, but 
 not quick in coming into production. It is 
 generally grown for main crops. The 
 longest prickly is about nine or ten inches 
 in length ; it is a hardy, good bearer. There 
 is a white sub-variety. The early green 
 cluster is a very early bearer. Its fruit is 
 about six inches long. It is chiefly charac- 
 terised by its fruit growing in clusters. 
 The whole plant grows compact, and is well 
 suited for hand-glass crops. The white 
 Dutch prickly is about six inches long, it 
 has an agreeable flavour, though differing 
 from most of the others. It comes quickly 
 into bearing. 
 
 The other varieties are slow in coming 
 into production, and are chiefly remarkable 
 for their great size. The Nepal often 
 weighs twelve pounds, being occasionally 
 eight inches in diameter and seventeen in 
 length. It is a native of Calcutta. The 
 snake cucumber is very small in diameter, 
 but attains the length, it is said, of several 
 feet. 
 
 A fresh loam, rather inclining to lightness 
 than tenacity, as the top-spit of a pasture, 
 is, perhaps, as fine a soil as can be employed 
 for the cucumber. It will succeed in any 
 open soil of the garden, for the hand-glass 
 and natural ground crops. 
 
 Open ground crops. — The sowings for 
 these crops must be performed at the close 
 of May, or early in June. A rich south- 
 west border, beneath a reed or other fence, 
 is peculiarly favourable, as they then enjoy 
 a genial warmth without suffering from the 
 meridian sun. The border being dug re- 
 gularly over, and saucer-like hollows, about 
 fifteen inches in diameter and one or two 
 deep, formed five feet apart, the seed may 
 be sown six or eight in each. Seed may 
 also be sown beneath a hedge of similar 
 aspect, and either trained to it or bushy 
 branches placed perpendicular ; this is said 
 greatly to improve their growth and flavour. 
 If the weather is dry it is requisite to 
 water the patches moderately two or three 
 days after sowing. In four or five, if the 
 season is genial, the plants will make their 
 appearance, and until they have attained 
 their rough leaves, should be guarded from 
 the small birds, who will often destroy the 
 whole crop by devouring the seminal leaves. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 CUD. In cattle, the food in the first 
 stomach, which is to be chewed over again 
 and passed into the second to be digested. 
 See Chewing the Cud. 
 
 CUDWEED. (Gnaphalium.) A vast 
 genus of plants, overburdened with species, 
 among which there is great diversity of 
 habit; and the exotic ones, chiefly African, 
 undoubtedly require skilful investigation; 
 
 roots annual, or more generally perennial ; 
 herbage cottony; stem shrubby. Smith 
 describes ten native species. The common 
 cudweed (G. germanicum) is found in al- 
 most all pastures, fields, and waste ground 
 on a barren gravelly soil ; stems from six 
 to eighteen inches high ; whole herb grey 
 and cottony. {Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 418.) 
 
 This is a somewhat singular wild plant, 
 and has many varieties ; all of which were 
 formerly regarded as medicinal, particularly 
 that variety called the " herb impious ; " a 
 name derived from the circumstance of the 
 young flowers rising above the old ones, — 
 suggesting the idea of children contemning 
 and discarding their parents. Cudweed is a 
 low plant, seldom rising to a foot high. Its 
 stalks are white, slender, and upright, 
 thickly covered with leaves, which are small, 
 white, pointed at the ends, and oblong in 
 form. The flowers are yellowish, standing 
 at the tops and in the division of the stalk. 
 A decoction of the herb in small beer is a 
 remedy among the poor in many places for 
 quinsies. The herb laid among linen, &c. 
 prevents the breeding of moths. 
 
 CULLEY. The name of a distinguished 
 family of farmers, to whom the agriculture 
 of England is under very considerable ob- 
 ligations. Two brothers of the family, 
 Matthew and George Culley, were seated 
 originally on their paternal property of 
 Denton, at Gainsford near Darlington (now, 
 1841, in the possession of Mr. Matthew 
 Culley), whence they migrated in June 
 1767, to Fenton, in Glendale, county of Nor- 
 thumberland ; and " On the 4th of August 
 in that year, on my road to a fair at Kelso," 
 says Mr. George Culley, in a letter to 
 Arthur Young (Ann. of Agr. vol. xx. p. 162.), 
 "I first saw a field of drilled turnips." 
 "They carried with them into Glendale," 
 says Mr. John Grey (Journ. of Roy. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. ii. p. 152.) " superior knowledge 
 and intelligence, which they at once brought 
 to bear in their extensive undertakings with 
 unremitting application and perseverance. 
 — That they were successful in their efforts 
 is an undoubted fact. Thus on the farm 
 of Wark, near Coldstream, which they en- 
 tered in May 1786, the crop was valued to 
 them from the preceding tenant, and was 
 estimated at 15 bushels per acre for oats, 
 and 9 for wheat. But the crop on the same 
 farm after being in their occupation for 
 fifteen years, was estimated at 84 bushels 
 per acre for oats, 62 for wheat, and 72 for 
 barley. (Ibid. p. 158.) The rent of this farm 
 of 1200 acres in 1786, was 800Z. ; in 1812, it 
 was 3200Z. Matthew Culley died in 1805, in 
 the 73d year of his age, and George in 1814, 
 aged 79, both in Glendale. The Culleya 
 were the warm friends and correspondents 
 
CULM. 
 
 CURL. 
 
 of the celebrated Bakewell, of Dishley, 
 from whose flock they introduced the breed 
 of Leicester sheep, which is still a prevail- 
 ing kind in Northumberland ; and this 
 breed is still preserved in a state of purity 
 by the present owner of Denton, Mr. 
 Matthew Culley, to whom I am indebted 
 for several of the facts of this memoir. 
 The attention which they paid to the im- 
 provement of their breed of live stock was 
 unremitting, and with a success which was 
 equal to their labours. They had the 
 public spirit, too, not to conceal the im- 
 provements which they effected : they pub- 
 lished one or two valuable works, and were 
 not unfrequently contributors to the agri- 
 cultural periodicals of the day. Thus in the 
 Ann. of Agr. vol. xiv. p. 180., there is a 
 letter from Mr. George Culley, in praise of 
 the Dishley breed of sheep ; and at p. 470. 
 on the wool, sheep, and corn of Northum- 
 berland ; again on sheep in vol. xvii. p. 347. 
 and vol. xix. p. 147. ; on turnips, vol. xx. 
 p. 167. 
 
 In 1786 George Culley published a 
 useful practical little book {Observations on 
 Live Stock), which was reprinted in 1795. 
 Arthur Young describes its author {Ann. of 
 Agr. vol. xxiii. p. 519.) as "a man of the 
 most extensive practice, and the deepest 
 knowledge of his art." He also published, 
 in conjunction with Mr. Bailey, the agri- 
 cultural reports of Northumberland, Cum- 
 berland and Westmoreland, 1797 — 1805. 
 
 CULM. Among botanists, signifies straw 
 or haulm ; defined by Linnseus to be the 
 proper stem of grasses, scitamineous plants, 
 and the like, which elevates the leaves, 
 flower, and fruit. This sort of stem is tu- 
 bular or hollow, and has frequently knots 
 or joints, distributed at certain distances 
 through its whole length. 
 
 CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. Such as 
 produce culms, or have a smooth jointed 
 stalk, and their seeds enveloped in chaffy 
 husks, grass-like. 
 
 CULTIVATOR. A name given to imple- 
 ments of the horse-hoe kind, invented for stir- 
 ring the earth. See Grubber and Scarifier. 
 
 CULTOR, or COULTER. The strong 
 sharpened bar of iron that is fixed in 
 ploughs, for the purpose of cutting open 
 the earth before the share. See Plough. 
 
 CULVER. A provincial term applied 
 to a pigeon, in some places. Hence culver- 
 house implies a pigeon-house or dove-cot. 
 
 CUMIN SEED. The seed or fruit of 
 the Cuminum cyminum, which is imported 
 from Sicily and Malta. It has been occa- 
 sionally grown in this country, but as it 
 does not produce its seeds until the second 
 year, and requires a rich, and consequently 
 high-rented soil, the double rent adds 
 359 
 
 heavily to its culture. {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. 
 p. 328.) Cumin is a plant of little beauty, 
 and in a garden merely requires to be sown 
 in any open border to succeed. 
 
 CURATE. (Lat. curare, to take care 
 of.) Properly an incumbent who has the 
 cure of souls ; now generally restricted to 
 signify the spiritual assistant of a rector or 
 vicar in his cure. Curates form the lowest 
 order of the clergy; and are divided into 
 two classes, perpetual and stipendiary. 
 {Brandes Diet, of Science.) 
 
 CURD. The coagulum of milk, from 
 which cheese is made. See Cheese. 
 
 "When milk sours, free acetic acid is formed, 
 and by its action the coagulation of the ca- 
 seous part of the milk takes place ; rennet 
 causes the same effect in milk which is not 
 sour, which probably depends on the gas- 
 tric fluid in the rennet. Curd is a white, 
 insipid, inodorous substance, insoluble in 
 water, but soluble in alkalies. By alcohol 
 it is converted into a substance like sper- 
 maceti, which gives out a very fetid odour. 
 
 When dry curd procured from sour milk 
 is well washed, and then mixed with its own 
 bulk of alcohol, and the soluble matter fil- 
 tered and separated from the insoluble, and 
 thickened by gentle evaporation, it becomes 
 viscid, and forms an excellent cement for 
 glass and china. 
 
 CURING BEEF and PORK. See Salt- 
 ing. A report of the committee for the 
 premium offered for curing beef and pork, 
 appears in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. v. p. 55. 
 
 CURL. A disease in potatoes. "No 
 disease," says Mr. G. W. J ohnson, " appears 
 to me so evidently to arise from impaired 
 vital energy in the plant, as the curl, which 
 of late years has made such extensive ra- 
 vages upon our potato crops. Any one can 
 insure the occurrence of this disease, at 
 least I have found so in the county of 
 Essex, by keeping the sets in a situation 
 favourable to their vegetation, as in a warm 
 damp outhouse, and then rubbing off re- 
 peatedly the long shoots they have thrown 
 out ; sets that have been so treated, I have 
 invariably found to produce curled plants. 
 Is not the reason very apparent ? The vital 
 energy had been weakened by the repeated 
 efforts to vegetate, so that, when planted in 
 the soil, their energy was unequal to the 
 perfect development of the parts ; for the 
 curl is nothing more or less than a distorted 
 or incomplete formation of the foliage, pre- 
 ceded by an imperfect production of the 
 fibrous roots. The following experiment I 
 consider as very decisive : — it was made in 
 the year 1830, in my garden at Great 
 Tothani, in the county of Essex. The soil 
 in this case, and in all others that will be 
 stated hereafter, unless otherwise specified, 
 
 A A 4 
 
CURL. 
 
 is light, deep, moderately fertile, resting on 
 a substratum of silicious gravel, and is con- 
 stituted as follows — 
 
 Water - 
 
 - 30-5 
 
 Stones and coarse sand 
 
 - 15-5 
 
 Vegetable fibres - 
 
 5 
 
 Saline matters 
 
 - 4-5 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 2-4 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 - 17-5 
 
 Decomposing matter 
 
 - 7 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 15 
 
 Silica - - - 
 
 - 102-5 
 
 
 200 
 
 The variety employed in this experiment 
 was the early. An equal of whole, mo- 
 derately sized potatoes, that had been treated 
 in three different modes, were planted the 
 last week of March. No. 1. twenty sets 
 that had been carefully kept cold and dry 
 throughout the winter, firm, unshrivelled, 
 and with scarcely any symptoms of vege- 
 tation. No. 2. twenty sets that had been 
 kept warm and moist, and from which the 
 shoots, after attaining a length of six inches, 
 had been thrice removed. No. 3. twenty 
 sets which had been kept warm and moist 
 for about half the time that No. 2. had, 
 from which the shoots, three inches in length, 
 had been removed only twice. All the sets 
 were planted the same morning, each ex- 
 actly six inches below the surface, and each 
 with an unsprouted eye upwards. The 
 spring was genial ; of No. 1 . nineteen plants 
 came up. The twentieth seemed to have 
 been removed by an accident. Of the 
 nineteen, not one was curled. The produce 
 of a full average crop of No. 2., all came 
 up, but twelve days later than those of 
 No. 1., and three of the plants sixteen days 
 later. Fourteen of the plants were curled. 
 Of No. 3. all came up, but from ten to four- 
 teen days later than No. 1. Four plants 
 were as severely curled as those in No. 2. ; 
 eight were less so and the remainder not at 
 all. But of these the produce was below 
 an average, and a full fortnight later in 
 ripening. 
 
 Dickson, Crichton, Knight, and others 
 (Caledonian Hort. Mem.; Hort. Trans.; 
 Loudon's Gard. Mag. 8fc), have found that 
 tubers taken up before they are fully ri- 
 pened, produce plants not so liable to the 
 curl as those that have remained in the 
 ground until completely perfected: and I 
 t)clirve, under ordinary treatment, this to 
 be the Pact, for it is rational. The process 
 of ripening proceeds in the potato as in the 
 apple. After it has been gathered, and 
 until thai is perfected, it is accumulating 
 vigo in-, shows no appetency to vegetate, 
 Consequently is not exhausting its vitality, 
 
 which is a great point, considering the 
 careless mode usually adopted to store them 
 through the winter, for this energy com- 
 mences its decline from the moment it 
 begins to develope the parts of the future 
 plant. Tubers taken from the soil before 
 perfectly ripe, never are so early in showing 
 symptoms of vegetation. Crichton, Hunter, 
 and Young in some of the works before 
 referred to, have also agreed, that ex- 
 posing the sets to light and air, allowing 
 them to become dry and shrivelled, also in- 
 duces the curl in the plants arising from 
 them. This result of experience also con- 
 firms my conclusion that the disease arises 
 from deficient vital energy ; for no process 
 more than this drying one of exposure 
 to the light and air, tends to take away 
 from a tuber altogether the power of vege- 
 tating. Mr. G. Maker, a farmer, residing 
 in the same village that I do, employed in 
 1836 rather small sets, cutting a moderate 
 sized potato into at least two pieces : un- 
 favourable weather, other business, and 
 a somewhat dilatory habit, caused him to 
 leave those sets upon a barn floor drying 
 for more than a week. He planted with 
 them a two acre field, and not more than 
 three-fifths vegetated, of which three-fifths, 
 a fourth were in various degrees curled. 
 Similar results were obtained in the expe- 
 riments of Mr. Wright, a market gardener 
 of Westfield. When the sets were allowed 
 to ferment in a heap, and to sprout, &c. he 
 had a crop, one-fifth of which was curled. 
 (Gard. Mag. vol. x. p. 436.) 
 
 Every one acquainted with the cultiva- 
 tion of the potato, is aware of the great 
 difference existing in the varieties as to 
 their early and rapid vegetation : those that 
 excel in this quality, of course are the most 
 easily excitable.- A consequence of this is, 
 that they are always planted earliest in the 
 spring, before their vital power has become 
 very active ; and, of all crops, practice de- 
 monstrates these early ones are least liable 
 to the curl. But what is the consequence 
 on the contrary ; if an early variety is 
 planted for a main crop later in the spring, 
 when extraordinary pains in keeping them 
 cold and dry have not been employed to 
 check their vegetation, and consequent 
 decrease of vital energy, such crops then, 
 more than any other, are liable to the dis- 
 ease. The statements of a practical man 
 in the Gardener 1 s Magazine (vol. x. p. 433.) 
 entirely support my views of the disease. 
 He remarks that, in 1826, through the pre- 
 valence of rain, the late crop of potatoes 
 never sufficiently ripened so as to be mar- 
 ketable. They were reserved for planting 
 next season, and the consequence was, that 
 the curl affected the crops that year to a 
 
CURLEW, THE. 
 
 CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 great extent : but those who planted well- 
 ripened tubers, had crops free from the 
 disease, and as productive as usual. Now 
 we all know that the vital energy is always 
 the most powerful in a bulb or seed that is 
 perfectly ripened. The results of my view 
 of the disease, sustained by numerous ex- 
 periments, are, that it will never occur if 
 the following points are attended to : 1st, 
 that the sets are from tubers that exhibit 
 scarcely any symptoms of incipient vege- 
 tation. To effect which, they ought, 
 throughout the winter, to be preserved as 
 cool, as dry, and as much excluded from the 
 air as possible. 2dly, that the tubers should 
 be perfectly ripened ; 3dly, that they should 
 be planted immediately after they are cut ; 
 4thly, that the manure applied should be 
 spread regularly, and mixed with the soil, 
 and not along a trench in immediate con- 
 tact with the sets ; 5thly, that the crop is 
 not raised for several successive years on 
 the same area. {Quart. J own. of Agr. 
 vol. viii. p. 206.) 
 
 CURLEW, THE. (Scolopax arquata.) 
 A species of snipe. Its bill is six to seven 
 inches long. The head and neck pale brown, 
 and curved ; breast and belly white, marked 
 with oblong black spots. Nest made of 
 heath ; eggs from three to five, of an olive 
 tint, spotted with brown. It frequents 
 marshes, and utters a peculiar note or 
 whistle. {Montague s Ornith. Diet. p. 124.) 
 
 CURLING. A natural and favourite 
 game in Scotland, which is practised in 
 winter on the ice, and consists of sliding, 
 from one mark to another, great stones of 
 from forty to seventy pounds' weight, of an 
 irregular hemispherical form, with an iron 
 or wooden handle at top. The object of 
 the player is to lay his stone as near the 
 mark as possible ; to giiard that of his part- 
 ner, which had been well laid before ; or to 
 strike off that of his antagonist. (Blaine's 
 Rural Sports, p. 118.) 
 
 CURRANT. The fruit of two species 
 of Ribes, viz. R. rubrum, which furnishes 
 the common red and white currants, and 
 R. nigrum, which produces the black cur- 
 rant. There are five or six species of this 
 indigenous plant. The rock currant (R.pe- 
 trceum), the acid mountain currant (R. spi- 
 catum), and the tasteless mountain currant 
 (R. alpinum), all grow wild in woods in the 
 north of England ; and the common red and 
 black currants are also found wild in many 
 parts of the country, but their fruit is in- 
 sipid. The pale currant is a variety between 
 the red and white. 
 
 The white, black, and red currant ripen 
 their berries very early in July, in which 
 month currant jelly should be made. All 
 the currants may, by being matted, be 
 361 
 
 preserved till the middle of winter, and 
 on north walls and shaded situations 
 sometimes hang, and are good till the end 
 of November. They will thrive on al- 
 most any soil ; but their fruit is more 
 savoury when produced in a dry and open 
 ground. They are very easily propa- 
 gated by planting slips or cuttings at any 
 time from September to March. After 
 standing about two years, they will be fit to 
 be removed to those places where they are 
 intended to remain. 
 
 The currant, one of the most wholesome 
 and grateful of fruits, has medicinal pro- 
 perties. Red currants are very cooling in 
 fevers. They quench thirst, and create ap- 
 petite. When the fruit is not to be had 
 fresh, red currant jelly, mixed in water, is 
 equally refreshing. Black currants are use- 
 ful in sore throats. (Brande's Diet. ; Phil- 
 lips's Fruits ; WillicJis Bom. Encyc. ; Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 330.) 
 
 CURTIS, WILLIAM, was born at Alton 
 in Hampshire, in 1746, and is known as the 
 founder of the Botan. Mag. In 1773 he was 
 appointed Lecturer of the Chelsea Garden. 
 He died in 1779. The following are brief 
 notices of those of his writings which claim 
 our particular notice : — 
 
 1. Flora Londinensis. 1777—1798. 2 vols. Folio. Con- 
 taining six fasciculi of seventy-two plates each. 2. Bo- 
 tanical Magazine. 1787. In monthly numbers. 8vo. Still 
 continued. 3. Practical Observations on the British 
 Grasses. 1782. 8vo. Second edition. 1790. 4. A His- 
 tory of the Brown-tailed Moth. 1782. 8vo. 5. A Cata- 
 logue of British Medical, Culinary, and Agricultural 
 Plants, cultivated in the London Botanical Garden. 1784. 
 12mo. 6. Directions for the Culture of the Crambe 
 Maritima or Sea Kale, for the Use of the Table. 8vo. 
 with a Plate. 
 
 CUSHAT. A local name for the ring- 
 dove, supposed to be derived from the Saxon 
 cusceate, from cusc, chaste, in allusion to the 
 conjugal fidelity of this bird. 
 
 CUSHION, LADIES'. (Saxifraga hyp- 
 noides.) See Saxifrage, Mossy. 
 
 CUSPATED FLOWERS. Those whose 
 petals or flower-leaves end in a sharp point. 
 
 CUSTOMARY-LANDS. Such lands 
 as are granted by lords of manors to their 
 tenants. 
 
 CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. With 
 regard to the usual relation of landlord and 
 tenant these vary considerably. But in cases 
 where there is a written agreement, no en- 
 quiry can be made as to the custom of the 
 county (Liebenrood v. Vines, 1 Mer. 15.) ; 
 and when an express stipulation is made, the 
 custom of the county is excluded entirely. 
 (Roberts v. Parker, 1 C. & M. 808.) The 
 following epitome, chiefly abridged from 
 the work of Kennedy and Grainger on the 
 Tenancy of Land, must, of course, be re- 
 garded as having only a very general appli- 
 cation. 
 
 Bedford. — The tenant commonly en- 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 ters, in this county, at Michaelmas, some 
 at Lady-day. Leases 7 years. Rents paid 
 half yearly. Tenant generally restricted 
 from breaking up pastures, or selling hay 
 and straw, quitting at Michaelmas, is at 
 liberty to plough and sow wheat, if at Lady- 
 day ; then may sow spring-corn till day of 
 quitting ; but in either case has the op- 
 tion to do it himself or let his successor do it. 
 When the outgoer sows, they are valued to 
 the incomer so as to include all labour ; has 
 barn allowed him, but cannot carry away 
 straw. Incomer takes all dung found on 
 premises free of charge ; but pays for grass 
 seeds, and that of the labour, and for fallow- 
 ploughing, or spring-ploughing, which his 
 predecessor, quitting at Lady-day, had not 
 time to sow ; but with respect to any fallow, 
 either for wheat or turnips, when the out- 
 goer takes the crop, there is no demand 
 made upon the incoming tenant. 
 
 Berks. — Farms commonly lease for 7 or 
 14 years from Michaelmas, entering to 
 plough fallows at Lady-day ; from which 
 time the incomer has part of the house al- 
 lowed him, and room for one team ; the 
 outgoer retains the rest of the premises till 
 May -day or Midsummer. The rents are 
 commonly paid half-yearly, and in general 
 there is no restraint upon the tenant's cul- 
 tivation, except that he covenants to leave a 
 stated number of acres for fallow. Usually 
 he has power of selling hay and wheat-straw, 
 although in other portions of the county 
 only to exchange it for dung. Wheat-straw 
 he must leave to his successor as well as 
 the hay. Incomer has to pay for clover or 
 other grass-seeds, the seed, and labour, and 
 hay crop, at a feeding-out price. 
 
 Berwick. — The farms in this county are 
 let in a very peculiar manner, viz. on 
 lease for 19 or 21 years. Tenant enters at 
 May-day; 18 months allowed, after he 
 takes possession, before called upon for any 
 rent, and then only for half a year, leaving a 
 twelvemonth due ; and this arrearage con- 
 tinues till the end of the lease, when he is al- 
 lowed 1 2 months after the expiration of his 
 lease ; but if the landlord has any doubt of 
 his tenant's solvency, he, of course, prevents 
 the removal of the stock, crops, &c. Tenant, 
 prohibited from taking two white crops suc- 
 cessively, must lay the land down in regular 
 rotation, to have a proportion in turnips, 
 or fallow in corn, seeds, or grass every year, 
 and so must leave it at the expiration of his 
 Lease. Cannot sell either hay or straw. On 
 Leaving, harvests his last crop and threshes 
 liis corn on the premises ; leaving straw and 
 the fallows, grass and seeds, as well as the 
 dung, for the incomer. 
 
 Brecknock. — Mostly tenants at will, 
 who enter at Lady-. lay, or Candlemas, and 
 362 
 
 take full possession on May-day. Tenant 
 is little restrained in mode Of cultivation; 
 cannot carry away hay or straw ; he must 
 annually sow about one-third of the arable 
 land with wheat, and bring a certain quan- 
 tity of lime into the farm. Outgoer has 
 part of the house, and one field, with the 
 use of the yards, until May-day, for his 
 cattle. For his dung he receives nothing ; 
 for his wheat-crop he takes two-thirds of the 
 land which was fallowed, but only half if 
 sown after any other crop ; he must leave 
 as much of the land in seeds as he found on 
 it ; if he leaves more, he is paid for them, but 
 not for fallows. 
 
 Buckingham. Leases common for short 
 terms. The tenant enters at Lady-day, 
 sometimes at Michaelmas. Rents half- 
 yearly ; but most commonly quite unre- 
 stricted as to mode of cultivation ; the 
 tenant may sell hay and straw, and crop as 
 he pleases. An outgoer can sow spring- 
 corn till Lady-day ; is to be paid for seeds 
 on the ground, for carting manure, and for 
 any ploughing, of which his successor reaps 
 the sole benefit. If the incomer does not 
 take the spring-corn and wheat, sown before 
 Lady-day, the outgoer can keep crop him- 
 self, paying rent and taxes for the land it 
 stands upon till the following Michaelmas ; 
 but he gives up all the dung free of charge. 
 
 Cambridge. Tenants chiefly at will, or 
 leases for 4 or 5 years, are restricted from 
 breaking up pasture land, and removing hay 
 or straw ; but otherwise unrestricted in their 
 cultivation. Outgoer usually leaves at old 
 Lady-day, and having sown by that time all 
 spring crops, he harvests them all, as well as 
 the wheat, paying no rent from the time he 
 leaves. He must thresh and feed the straw 
 upon the premises before the Midsummer 
 after harvest. Incomer takes possession of 
 only the seed, pasture, and fallow land at 
 old Lady-day, but pays the rent of the whole 
 of the farm, for the seeds and ploughing 
 done to the fallows ; he takes the dung free. 
 
 Carmarthen. Farms were here formerly 
 let upon leases for 3 lives; but terms of 14 
 years are now more common. The entry is 
 made upon both house and land at Michael- 
 mas. The tenant is under no restriction, 
 cultivates as he pleases, and sells hay, straw, 
 and dung. 
 
 Cheshire. Farms let upon leases, but 
 many only by the year, and this is a much 
 more common practice than formerly. Te- 
 nant takes from Candlemas, but only gets 
 possession of the house at May-day. The 
 tenant is commonly restrained from having 
 more than a given proportion of land, usually 
 one-third under plough. This portion, how- 
 ever, he may till in his own way ; sometimes 
 may dispose of his hay and straw, sometimes 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 not. Outgoer ceases to work on the farm 
 at Candlemas ; but cuts the wheat crop at 
 harvest ; if the wheat was after a fallow he 
 takes two-thirds of the crop, otherwise only- 
 one half, and he houses his own portion. He 
 is commonly not paid for grass seeds, but 
 where the custom varies, he cuts the clover 
 or grass, and takes half the hay ; the incomer 
 taking the remainder, and paying the rent : 
 he has no valuation to pay of any kind. 
 The dung he does not pay for. 
 
 Cornwall. Leases generally from 1 4 to 2 1 
 years, from Lady -day, with privilege of going 
 upon land at the precedingMidsummer to pre- 
 pare land for wheat, and to plough for spring 
 corn at old Candlemas. The outgoer is al- 
 lowed to remain in part of the house, or in 
 a cottage with his stock for the purpose of 
 using his straw, till the old May-day fol- 
 lowing his giving up possession. He leaves 
 the dung, however, for the incoming tenant. 
 
 A tenant is bound not to exceed two white 
 crops without manure, using 101 bushels of 
 lime per acre for the first crop. When the 
 land is sown with grass seeds it must re- 
 main down for 3 years, and, except in water 
 meadows, he can only cut his grass once in 
 the season, unless he dresses it with manure. 
 He may sell hay, but the straw of wheat 
 only; he is obliged also to feed a certain 
 number of acres of grass, and whatever ma- 
 nure he makes must be left by the outgoing 
 tenant free of charge. 
 
 Cumberland. Tenants enter at Lady- day 
 into the farm, but not into the house till May- 
 day. Leases commonly for 3, 7, or 9 years. The 
 tenant commonly bound to plough the land 
 in such proportions that a certain part may 
 remain in grass for 3 years. Is prohibited 
 from having 2 white crops in succession, and 
 must leave as much land sown with grass 
 seeds as he found on the farm. Cannot sell 
 hay or straw, and must apply not less than 
 60 bushels of lime per acre for his wheat or 
 turnips after a fallow. The outgoer retains 
 possession of the house and premises for 
 cattle till May-day. Is paid for whatever 
 crops he leaves which he himself paid for 
 when he took the farm. Leaves all the 
 straw and manure for the incomers benefit. 
 
 Denbigh. Tenants yearly, farms small ; 
 in the uplands entry at Lady-day ; in the 
 lowlands on St. Andrew's day (30th of No- 
 vember) ; but in either case the house 
 is held till the following May-day. As to 
 cultivation no restrictions ; may sell hay and 
 straw. Outgoing tenant is paid for manure 
 on the farm. The wheat crop is divided 
 between the sower and the reaper, the last 
 paying the rent. 
 
 Derby. Tenants chiefly yearly tenants 
 from Lady-day. The land almost entirely 
 pasturage. The tenant is usually restricted 
 363 
 
 from breaking these up without permis- 
 sion, even if he lays down arable land in 
 lieu of it. He cannot sell either hay or 
 straw. The outgoing tenant is not paid for 
 either manure or straw ; he always sows the 
 wheat, but is not paid for any fallows or 
 ploughings which may have been done at 
 his expense to promote the growth of it ; he 
 receives, however, two-thirds of the wheat if 
 a fallow crop, or one-half if a brush crop, 
 and for the seed crops he is allowed for seed 
 and labour. 
 
 Devon. In the west, entry at Michael- 
 mas ; in the east at Lady-day, with pri- 
 vilege of entry on the land at Midsummer 
 to prepare for wheat. The tenant usually 
 restrained from taking more than 2 white 
 crops for a fallow, or sowing 2 wheat crops 
 successively, without a fallow or green crop 
 between them. Must use a certain quan- 
 tity of lime per acre for his barley or 
 wheat crop, and leave the same quantity 
 of land for wheat at the expiration of 
 his lease that he found on taking posses- 
 sion. He has the liberty of selling hay and 
 wheat, straw, and at the end of his lease the 
 hay also. A Lady-day holder receives from 
 his successor the value of the wheat upon 
 the ground, and the young clovers or other 
 grass seeds by valuation. A Michaelmas 
 tenant can only receive the value of the 
 seeds ; but in either case he freely leaves all 
 the dung for his successor. 
 
 Dorset. Leases for 14 or 21 years are 
 common; entry at Michaelmas, with pri- 
 vilege of entry for wheat crop at Midsum- 
 mer; but in the western side the period 
 of entry is very commonly Lady-day. The 
 cow and sheep leases are entirely separate 
 takings from the rest of the land ; the former 
 under a Lady-day entry, generally termi- 
 nating at the Candlemas preceding the ex- 
 piration of the farm lease ; and the latter at 
 the ensuing Midsummer, under a Michael- 
 mas entry ; the sheep and farm leases both 
 commonly end at the same time, and the 
 low leases at Candlemas. 
 
 Durham. The holdings are in the eastern 
 portion of this County chiefly yearly ; in the 
 western, leasehold. Entry at May-day of 
 the house and land, but the pasture lands 
 are given up at Lady-day. The tenant 
 usually covenants to farm on the four shift 
 system. The outgoer takes an off going 
 crop of all the corn ; but he is restrained 
 from sowing more than two-thirds of the 
 arable land, and is bound to leave the seeds 
 and fallow for the incomer : if the quantity 
 of corn exceeds the given number of acres, 
 the incomer takes all over the stipulated 
 quantity free from payment. 
 
 Essex. The farmer in Essex commonly 
 holds by leases of 7 or 14 years ; entry at 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 Michaelmas both of house and land. He 
 usually covenants to farm on the four shift 
 system, dressing and fallowing after every 
 third crop, and never to take two white crops 
 in succession : on pasture land, however, he is 
 commonly unrestrained. He may carry also 
 hay or straw, but for every load of either 
 he is bound to bring back a load of dung, 
 and near London two loads are required for 
 every load of straw, and one for every load 
 of hay. 
 
 The outgoing tenant sows the Michael- 
 mas crop, and is paid by valuation for one 
 year's improvement, which includes the la- 
 bour, the seed, and the manure he has laid 
 out upon the ground from the preceding 
 Michaelmas. He is allowed for the seeds, 
 for ploughing, harrowing, and rolling, which 
 a summer fallow has undergone, for the 
 manure laid on, and for the carting of it, 
 and for all the unspread dung, or other 
 manure on the farm. The outgoer has the 
 use of the barns for his crop. The incomer 
 claims the straw and chaff on condition of 
 his thrashing the corn, and carrying it to 
 market. The incomer has the Michaelmas 
 crops, the hay, turnips, and young seeds 
 valued to him, with all the seed, labour, and 
 manure bestowed upon them. 
 
 Glamorgan. Farms are here usually let 
 on short leases of 7 or 14 years. Entry 
 in the south at Lady-day and May-day ; 
 but in the north and east it is usually at 
 Candlemas and May-day. The tenants may 
 usually remove not only hay and straw, but 
 dung, and he is seldom restrained in his 
 mode of cultivation. The outgoing tenant 
 commonly sows the wheat crop, and is paid 
 for it by the valuation of three neigh- 
 bouring farmers, and likewise for the seed 
 and labour of the grass seeds. The incomer 
 has the option of ploughing for his own fal- 
 lows, and for his spring crop ; but he cannot 
 enter for this purpose without leave before 
 Lady-day. 
 
 Gloucester. The farm leases are usu- 
 ally for 7 or 14 years. Usual entry at Lady- 
 day, sometimes at Michaelmas. The out- 
 goer retaining certain barns and offices for 
 the sake of his crop, and feeding the straw. 
 
 The tenant is commonly restrained from 
 carrying away either hay or straw from the 
 premises, and he must leave the farm in the 
 same state of cropping as he found it. He 
 commonly is directed to fallow on the four- 
 shift system. 
 
 The outgoer at Lady-day sows what corn 
 he can previous to that period, and takes an 
 off-going crop of the wheat and spring corn 
 which he sows; but he pays rent for the 
 standing crop until the ensuing Michaelmas. 
 An incomer at Michaelmas has the option 
 of sowing the wheat, but he cannot go upon 
 
 the land before that time for the purpose of 
 ploughing, without permission from the out- 
 goer. On the Cotswold Hills, however, the 
 incomer has sometimes the privilege of en- 
 tering for this purpose on the 1st of Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 Hants. In this county farms have been 
 generally, till lately, held upon leases ; but, 
 of late, a practice has sprung up of holding 
 from year to year, at Michaelmas, with 
 the privilege of entering at May- day, to 
 prepare the land for turnips and Michael- 
 mas seed corn. The tenant is commonly 
 restrained from removing either hay or 
 straw from the farm, or taking two wheat 
 crops in succession, but he may have two 
 white ones. The incomer may enter at 
 May-day to sow his seeds, while the out- 
 goer is sowing his barley. The outgoer 
 cuts and feeds the hay and straw on the 
 premises, leaving the dung to the incomer 
 free from charge. 
 
 Hereford. Farms are chiefly let by the 
 year, general entry at Candlemas ; the out- 
 going tenant retaining one meadow, and 
 part of the house, barns, &c. till May-day. 
 
 The tenant usually agrees not to remove 
 either hay or straw ; nor is he allowed, as 
 an outgoer, for either dung, or fallows, or 
 labour : he cannot, during the last year, 
 sow more than one third of his arable land 
 with wheat ; but, otherwise, he may cultivate 
 the land as he pleases. If the incomer does 
 not take the wheat crop by valuation, the 
 outgoer cuts and claims the whole of it ' 
 himself, but he pays no rent after Candlemas. 
 The incomer, however, is bound to take 
 the seeds at a valuation, but the dung on 
 the farm he takes free from charge. 
 
 Hertford. Leases, 7 or 14 years from 
 Lady- day. Mode of cultivation varies some- 
 times two crops and a fallow, in others, the 
 four-course system. The tenant may sell 
 hay and wheat straw, but no other straw. 
 The outgoing tenant takes an offgoing 
 crop of both Spring and Michaelmas crops, 
 and pays for the ground they stand upon 
 till harvest. He must use, however, the last 
 year's straw upon the premises, and he 
 leaves all the dung for the incoming tenant. 
 
 Huntingdon. Chiefly yearly holdings, from 
 old Lady-day, when the incomer takes 
 possession of the house, seeds, pasture, and 
 fallow land ; the outgoer taking the barns 
 and yards until the Midsummer succeeding 
 harvest time. The tenants are commonly 
 restricted from carrying away hay or straw, 
 but not as to any particular mode of culti- 
 vation. Leaving at old Lady-day, he has 
 time to sow barley and other spring corn, 
 which, with the wheat crop, he harvests and 
 takes ; but he pays no rent after the period 
 he quits. He must thresh the corn on the 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 remises, and leave or feed all the straw ; 
 ut he is paid for the young seeds, the value 
 of seed and labour, and for his winter fal- 
 lows. 
 
 Kent. Much of the land of Kent, as in 
 other counties, is held by the year, but a 
 larger portion is rented under leases of 7 or 
 14 years ; the tenant entering at Michael- 
 mas. 
 
 The farmer is usually restrained from 
 selling hay or straw ; or if he is allowed to. 
 dispose of them it is on condition of his 
 bringing on to the farm a certain quantity 
 of dung. He is usually not much restricted 
 in his mode of cultivation. He is commonly 
 prevented from having more than two white 
 crops to a fallow. 
 
 The outgoing tenant threshes his last 
 crop, and sells the straw to the incomer ; 
 and if he is obliged to feed the hay upon 
 the premises, this is commonly valued also 
 at a feeding out price. He is paid also for 
 the labour bestowed upon the summer 
 fallows, which he has the privilege of 
 sowing up to the time of his quitting the 
 farm ; he is also paid for the seed and 
 labour both for the turnips and the grasses ; 
 for the whole of the manure, and labour of 
 carting and spreading the manure of the 
 last year, and for half of the preceding — 
 these with the hop poles make the pay- 
 ments required of an incoming tenant 
 rather heavy. 
 
 Lancaster. The farms are most com- 
 monly held by 7 years' leases, from Candle- 
 mas, and the house, &c. at May-day. 
 
 The tenant is commonly restrained from 
 having more than a certain proportion of 
 his land under the plough at one time ; — 
 but then that portion in tillage he may 
 manage as he pleases : — or, he is allowed 
 to plough what he pleases, provided he takes 
 only two white crops before he lays down 
 the ground with seeds. He may sell his 
 hay and straw, but he is compelled to lay a 
 certain quantity of manure on his soil every 
 year. The outgoing tenant giving up pos- 
 session at Candlemas is allowed to retain 
 one field for his stock until May -day. From 
 the wheat crop after a fallow, he receives 
 two-thirds, but if after beans or potatoes, 
 one half ; if after a white crop, he has no- 
 thing. He is not paid for the manure. He 
 pays for the cutting of the wheat crop. 
 
 Leicester is chiefly farmed by yearly ten- 
 ants, who enter at Lady-day, and occa- 
 sionally at Michaelmas. They are not al- 
 lowed to break up their pastures or sell 
 either hay or straw. Sometimes they en- 
 gage to lay an annual amount of lime on the 
 land. 
 
 The outgoing tenant is paid for all clear 
 fallows, for which he is allowed three 
 365 
 
 ploughings ; but if he has taken a green 
 crop he is allowed nothing. For his wheat 
 crop, if it has been sown on a clear 
 fallow, for instance ; he is allowed for seed 
 and labour, and for the ploughings, but 
 otherwise only for seed and labour. He is 
 allowed for his seed crop, labour, and seed ; 
 but nothing for a turnip fallow, either fed 
 or pulled : if he leaves at Michaelmas, how- 
 ever, he is allowed for his turnips one year's 
 rent. The incomer cannot enter to plough 
 without permission till Lady-day. 
 
 Lincoln. Farms commonly held by lease, 
 of from 7 to 14 years from Lady-day. 
 
 The tenant is usually restrained from 
 selling either hay or straw, or from taking 
 more than two white crops to a fallow ; these 
 restrictions, however, do not apply to the 
 fen land. 
 
 The outgoing tenant has commonly the 
 right of sowing spring- corn until Lady -day, 
 and of taking an offgoing crop, both of 
 wheat and other corn, all of which, however, 
 he must thresh on the premises. But a very 
 common way is for the outgoer to be paid 
 for all his crops, the value of seed and labour, 
 and also for the manure. The crops are 
 valued at harvest time, and the price is set 
 according to the average of three market 
 days, taken once a month, between harvest 
 time and the ensuing Lady-day. 
 
 Monmouth is principally farmed by yearly 
 tenants, who enter upon the meadow land 
 at Christmas, and upon the arable at Candle- 
 mas, the outgoer retaining one field and 
 part of the house till May- day. He has 
 two thirds of the wheat crop after a fallow, 
 but only half of a brush crop. 
 
 The tenant is not much restrained as to 
 his mode of cultivation ; the incomer pays 
 for the seeds and labour of the seed crops, 
 but he does not pay for the manure. 
 
 Norfolk. Farmers hold chiefly by leases 
 of 7 or 14 years, some for 21, and they 
 enter at Michaelmas. They generally co- 
 venant to farm on the four-course system, 
 are often restrained from sowing above a 
 certain number of tares of oats. This crop 
 being considered to be much more im- 
 poverishing to the land than barley, he is 
 not allowed to sell either hay or straw. 
 The outgoing tenant either threshes his 
 harvest himself or he agrees with his succes- 
 sor, who carries out the corn and keeps the 
 straw and chaff ; the incomer pays for the 
 growing crops on the ground, but not for 
 the labour ; thus if the turnip crop fails 
 he receives nothing for the labour. 
 
 The incomer sows the wheat crop, but he 
 cannot enter the farm before Michaelmas- 
 day ; to do this without leave, he has to pay 
 for the hay on the farm ; but he takes the 
 dung free. 
 
 I 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 Northampton is tenanted chiefly by yearly 
 holders who enter at Lady-day, and are 
 restrained from selling hay or straw, or 
 taking more than two white crops without 
 a fallow. The outgoing tenant gives up 
 possession of the house, land, and premises 
 together; is paid by his successor for the 
 seed, wheat, and labour, and fallow, if it was 
 a clear one, but not for bastard fallows ; 
 for the labour and seed of seed crops, and 
 for any winter ploughing ; but he does not 
 without authority plough the land intended 
 for spring-corn. The incomer, however, 
 cannot enter to plough without leave before 
 Lady -day ; he does not pay for the manure 
 found on the farm. 
 
 Northumberland. Leases for 7, 14, or 21 
 years are general from May- day. The 
 tenant is commonly bound not to cut or 
 feed seeds during the last year of his lease 
 after harvest : in some places the landlord 
 when he lets the farm sows the seeds himself, 
 and the tenant is bound, when he quits, to 
 leave the same quantity of seeds upon the 
 ground. The tenant must not sell either 
 hay or straw, or where he is allowed to 
 sell them, he must bring back a load of 
 manure for every load carried off : he can- 
 not have more than two white crops and a 
 green one after a fallow. 
 
 An outgoing tenant takes all the corn 
 crops that are upon the ground, threshing 
 them on the premises and leaving the straw 
 to the incomer, who carries the corn to 
 market for him. The incomer pays for 
 the grass seeds, the fallows, and the ma- 
 nure. 
 
 Nottingham is cultivated chiefly by yearly 
 tenants, who enter at Lady-day. They 
 are commonly not allowed to sell either 
 hay or straw, not to take more than three 
 crops to a fallow, and never two white 
 ones in succession. When the incomer 
 enters at Michaelmas the outgoer is paid 
 by valuation, either upon wheat or tur- 
 nips, for all the seed and labour he has 
 bestowed upon that crop, and for all the 
 ploughing he has done before the time he 
 quits ; for all artificial manure, such as 
 bones, &c. if for the first crop then the full 
 tillage, if the second only half a tillage, and 
 so on ; but for dung in or on the land, he is 
 allowed nothing ; but if he enters at Lady- 
 day, then he is paid for both, for seed and 
 for labour. 
 
 Oxford. — Farms are held very usually by 
 leases of 7 or 14 years from Michaelmas, 
 the outgoer retaining, however, the use of 
 the out-buildinffs till Lady-day. 
 
 The holder is generally restrained from 
 selling either hay or straw; but he is rarely 
 confined < i > any ] >eculiar mode of cultivation : 
 he farms as he deems (reasonably) best. 
 3G6 JJ 
 
 The outgoer sows the wheat crop ; but he 
 must have this done by Michaelmas : he is 
 paid for the wheat, the value of seed and 
 labour ; and in a similar manner for seeds 
 and turnips, and ploughings, harrowings 
 and carting dung during the previous sum- 
 mer and winter : but he is not paid for the 
 dung. 
 
 Rutland. — Tenants usually hold by the 
 year from Lady-day : they are not allowed 
 to sell either hay or straw, but may other- 
 wise farm as they please. 
 
 The incoming tenant pays for the wheat 
 crop, turnips and seeds, ploughings on the 
 fallows, and dung carting ; but the dung he 
 takes free : he pays also for winter plough- 
 ings. In the southern part of Rutlandshire, 
 he also pays for the dung, and is allowed to 
 plough for and sow the spring-corn, and 
 charge it to the incomer. 
 
 Salop. — Farms are generally held by 
 yearly tenants, who enter at Lady-day ; but 
 on to the meadow land, in some places, at 
 Candlemas, that he may water or manure. 
 He is restrained from selling hay or straw, 
 but not to any particular mode of cultiva- 
 tion. When he quits, he is allowed for any 
 lime he may have brought on to the land 
 within the last two years ; the whole value 
 for that of the last year ; half the value for 
 that of the preceding : he receives two 
 thirds of the value of the wheat crop ; the 
 value of the seed crops ; but nothing for 
 either fallows or dung. He cannot plough 
 for fallows or spring crops without the au- 
 thority of the incomer, who cannot enter 
 himself to plough without leave before Lady- 
 day. 
 
 Somerset. — Farmers have usually leases 
 of 8 or 12 years from Lady-day, the outgoer 
 retaining the wheat crop, threshing it on the 
 premises, and leaving the straw, chaff, and 
 dung for the incomer ; and for this pur- 
 pose he commonly holds on till the Mid- 
 summer twelvemonth after he quits posses- 
 sion. A tenant cannot sell either hay or 
 straw, or take more than two white crops, 
 and a green one without a fallow. He is 
 restrained from breaking up pastures, and 
 he very commonly consents to spend an- 
 nually a certain sum in lime or some other 
 kind of manure. The incoming tenant sows 
 the spring corn, but he cannot enter before 
 Lady-day without leave from the outgoer. 
 
 Stafford. — The farmers in this county 
 usually hold from year to year. The tenant 
 is commonly restrained from selling either 
 hay or straw, and there are very few re- 
 strictions of any kind as to the mode of cul- 
 tivation. The outgoing tenant is usually 
 paid for all the dung he leaves upon the 
 farm, and for all clear summer fallows, but 
 nothing for bastard fallows, even if the seeds 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 or turnips are fed off. For all the wheat 
 on a clean fallow, sown previously to his 
 notice to quit, he receives two thirds of the 
 crop; if a brush crop, only one half: but 
 for all he sows after notice, only the value 
 of the seed and labour. The incomer cannot 
 enter to plough before Lady-day ; he pays 
 for both the dung and straw left on the 
 farm. 
 
 Suffolk. — The farmers commonly cultivate 
 under leases of 7 or 14 years, from old Mi- 
 chaelmas-day. They are restricted from 
 taking more than three crops without a fal- 
 low, or selling either hay or straw. The 
 outgoing tenant sows the crops, and the in- 
 comer takes them at a valuation, paying 
 also for all the ploughings, harrowings, dung 
 cartings, and other work performed during 
 the previous twelvemonth ; the value of the 
 seed and labour bestowed on the turnip 
 and wheat crop, for all the seed crops, and 
 for the dung in or on the land. 
 
 Surrey. — Farmers usually hold under 
 leases of 7, 14, or 21 years from Michaelmas, 
 when he takes possession, the outgoer re- 
 taining till May-day part of the house and 
 the outbuildings. 
 
 The tenant is commonly restrained from 
 selling either hay or straw, or taking more 
 than two white crops without a fallow ; but, 
 otherwise, he is not restricted to any par- 
 ticular mode of culture ; the soil being so 
 widely different in different portions of the 
 county, and the proximity to London, of 
 necessity renders a variety of modes of cul- 
 ture advisable. 
 
 The incomer pays for all fallows of the 
 present, and half those of the preceding 
 year, for all manure in or on the land, for 
 half that used the preceding year ; for fold- 
 ings and half foldings, in the same way as 
 the dressings ; and for seeds, lays, and un- 
 derwood. The hay and straw at a feeding 
 off price, and the rent and taxes of the fal- 
 lows for the previous twelvemonth. 
 
 Sussex. — The farmers of this county are 
 very commonly yearly tenants from Mi- 
 chaelmas, the outgoer retaining a portion of 
 the house and the outbuildings until May- 
 day. They are not much restricted as to their 
 mode of cultivation ; he is allowed to sell 
 hay, provided he draws back a load of dung, 
 but cannot take more than two straw crops 
 to a fallow ; must manure his meadow land 
 once in three years. The soil of this county 
 is too different in its composition, however, 
 in different portions, for any general rule 
 to be laid down for the farmer's guidance. 
 
 The outgoer takes his crop, and if the 
 incomer threshes it and carries it out, he is 
 allowed the straw and chaff, otherwise he 
 pays for it, or the dung produced from it. 
 The incomer pays for all the wheat and 
 367 
 
 turnip fallows ; the value of the seed and 
 labour on turnips, grass seeds, or corn in 
 the ground, and manure in the ground for 
 turnips or Michaelmas crops, and half the 
 value of all manure expended on the farm 
 during the year preceding the last twelve 
 months ; but only half of that spread on 
 meadow lands after a crop has been taken. 
 The incomer pays also the rent and taxes 
 of the fallows from the time they were first 
 ploughed. 
 
 Warwick. — Lands are chiefly held by 
 yearly tenants from Lady-day. They can- 
 not take away hay or straw, cannot take 
 more than three crops to a fallow, but there 
 is no restriction as to the kind of white 
 crops. 
 
 The outgoing tenant is paid for his grass 
 seeds, seed, and labour. If his wheat has 
 been sown upon a clean fallow, he has the 
 option of taking it upon payment of rent 
 and taxes for the land it grows upon till 
 Michaelmas ; but if it is a brush crop, then 
 the incomer has the option to take it, or let 
 the outgoer take it on the above terms. 
 The outgoer is paid for his winter fallows, 
 but not for a turnip fallow, even if fed off. 
 The incomer may either plough the ground 
 himself for the spring corn, or pay the out- 
 goer for doing it ; but he cannot enter to do 
 this without leave till Lady-day ; he neither 
 pays for hay, straw, or dung. 
 
 Westmoreland. — Leases in this county 
 are commonly granted for 7, 9, 11, or 21 
 years from Lady-day. The house, and one 
 field, however, is usually retained till May- 
 day : he has the privilege, however, of going 
 upon the land at old Candlemas to plough 
 for his fallow and spring crop. 
 
 The tenant is commonly restricted from 
 having more than two white crops before 
 he sows the land with seed, and that between 
 the two white crops he is to have either a 
 green one or a fallow. He is to manure his 
 meadow ground once in three years, and 
 leave the farm in the same working plight 
 as he found it. The outgoer retains the 
 house and one field till May-day, paying- 
 rent and taxes, however, for what he thus 
 holds; with this exception, he is bound to 
 free the land by the 6th of April. In the 
 south of this county, the outgoer receives 
 for the wheat crop on the ground, two thirds 
 if fallowed for, and one half after a bastard 
 fallow. He pays for this, however, no rent 
 after the 6th of April. He may plough for 
 barley and take half the crop, but not for 
 any other spring crop. 
 
 Wilts. — The farms in this county are 
 commonly held in leases for 7, 14, or 21 
 years from Midsummer. The incomer then 
 enters upon grass seeds, fallows, and grass 
 lands, with a portion of the house and 
 
CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. 
 
 CYNOSURUS. 
 
 stable room. The remainder of the land 
 he enters upon at Michaelmas ; and finally 
 upon the house and buildings at the follow- 
 ing Midsummer. 
 
 The tenant is restrained from carrying 
 away either hay or straw from the premises ; 
 covenants to farm on either the three, four, 
 or five field system, and not to take two 
 white crops in succession. The outgoer 
 must free the whole of his land from stock 
 by Michaelmas. He may feed all the fallow 
 land up to Midsummer, and the clover 
 stubble till Michaelmas, but he must leave 
 the meadows at Midsummer. He takes the 
 abode of his corn crop, threshing it upon 
 the premises, and leaving the straw for his 
 successor by the Midsummer succeeding. 
 The incomer most commonly cuts the hay 
 crop, paying the outgoer the value of the 
 crop of meadow hay, and the value of the 
 seed, labour, carting the manure, and folding 
 on the grass lands, but he takes all the dung 
 without payment. 
 
 Worcester. — Leases are commonlygranted 
 in this county for 3, 5, or 7 years, some- 
 times for 14 and 21. The tenant cannot 
 sell either hay or straw. He is restrained 
 for the last year of his term in his mode of 
 cultivation, not to sow more than one third 
 of his arable land with wheat, otherwise he 
 may cultivate as he pleases. 
 
 The outgoer is not paid for his dung, or 
 for his fallows, or any thing else except the 
 young seeds. He cuts and claims the whole 
 wheat crop himself, except the tithe ; he 
 pays no rent for it, and is entitled to hold 
 the barn, and yard room allowed him for 
 making use of the straw upon the premises. 
 
 Yorkshire. — In this great county, the 
 customs vary with the Riding. In the W.R. 
 the entry is Old Candlemas, or New Year's 
 day. In the N. R. it is Lady-day : may go 
 on to the land at Candlemas, and into the 
 house at May-day. In the E. R. the entry 
 is at Lady-day. In all three Ridings a 
 yearly tenancy is the most common. 
 
 In the N. R. the outgoing tenant sows 
 his wheat, and has an off going crop, which 
 he may either thresh himself, or sell to his 
 successor or to a stranger; but he cannot 
 carry away straw, but has barn and yard 
 room to consume it on the premises until 
 the following May-day twelvemonth. 
 
 The outgoer, however, cannot in the last 
 year of his tenancy sow more than one third 
 of his arable land ; but that third he may 
 sow at whatever time and in whatever way 
 lie may think proper ; for all the ground that 
 he sows he pays a corn standage, that is, 
 nut, till harvest time: if he sows more limn 
 liis proportion, the incomer takes the crop, 
 and the measurement is very nicely calcu- 
 lated. The incomer enters at Candlemas to 
 368 
 
 plough for his spring crop and fallows : he 
 takes the young seeds. In the upper part 
 of the West Riding, the customs between 
 the incomer and outgoer are the same as in 
 the north ; but below Aberford the customs 
 are quite different, being, as the people say, 
 " good ones to come out with, but bad ones 
 to enter upon." For there the outgoer sows 
 the wheat crop, which the incomer is obliged 
 to pay for, together with the grass seeds, 
 and to pay for the tillage and half tillage of 
 those crops and on the turnips, and for all 
 the manure laid upon the lands, or about 
 the premises ; the incomer who enters at 
 Candlemas has two and a half year's manure, 
 and one and a half year's tillage to pay for. 
 In the East Riding, the outgoer sows the 
 wheat crop and the spring- corn, until Lady- 
 day, and takes what he sows as an offgoing 
 crop along with the wheat, paying no rent 
 after Lady-day : he must thresh them, how- 
 ever, on the premises, and leave the manure. 
 An incomer has here only to pay for seeds. 
 {Kennedy and Grainger on Tenancy of Land.') 
 
 CUT. In farriery, a hurt or clean wound 
 made with any sharp-cutting instrument. 
 The way of treating such an accident is 
 to bring the two incised surfaces together, 
 and bind them up, if possible, with a little 
 lint or tow, without any balsams or spirituous 
 applications being used. It is useful to 
 moisten the lint with cold water. 
 
 CUTTING. When a horse cuts or 
 wounds one leg with the opposite foot. The 
 best remedy is to put on the cutting foot a 
 shoe of even thickness from heel to toe, not 
 projecting in the slightest degree beyond the 
 crusp, and the crusp itself to be rasped a 
 little at the quarters. This shoe should only 
 have one nail on the inside, and that almost 
 close to the toe. {Lib. Use/id Knoiv., The 
 Horse, pp. 252. 341.) 
 
 CYCLAMEN, or SOW BREAD. (Cy- 
 clamen europmim.) A perennial plant, na- 
 tive of Austria, which blows a white flower 
 shaded with pink in April. It likes a shel- 
 tered situation, and south east aspect, planted 
 in heath mould. Sow the seed when ripe, 
 and the seedling remains three years before 
 sufficiently strong to blow. 
 
 CYDER. See Cider. 
 
 CYNOSURUS. The dog's tail grass, 
 from Kvwv, a dog, and ovpa, a tail. There are 
 three commonly known varieties of this grass. 
 
 Cynosurus cristatiis. Crested dog's fail 
 grass. This is an excellent sheep grass. 
 Sinclair found the produce per acre, from a 
 brown loam with manure, at the time of 
 flowering to be 6125lbs., containing nutritive 
 matter 4061bs. He says of it, "in all (!'> 
 most celebrated pasture's, which I have ex- 
 amined, it constituted a very considerable 
 portion of the produce. " 
 
CYPERUS GRASS, MILLET. 
 
 DAFFODIL, ONION-LEAVED. 
 
 Cynosurns erucaformis. Linear-spiked 
 dog's tail grass, nourishes best on a rich deep 
 loam ; next best on a clayey loam ; in which 
 soil Sinclair obtained of this grass, when in 
 flower, 6806 lbs. per acre, containing nutri- 
 tive matter 365 lbs. 
 
 Cynosurus echinatus. Rough dog's tail 
 grass. It is a scarce, and an inferior grass. 
 When in bloom, it yielded Sinclair per acre 
 from a sandy loam 5445 lbs., containing of 
 nutritive matter 191. (Paxioris Bot. Diet. ; 
 Sinclair's Hart. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 CYPERUS GRASS, MILLET. (Scirpus 
 sylvaticus.) The wood club-rush. See 
 Scirpus. 
 
 CYPERUS, SWEET, or ENGLISH GA- 
 LINGALE. (Cyperuslongus.) This is a wild 
 perennial plant, growing, but not common, 
 in our marshes ana moist places, two or three 
 feet high. Its stalk is green and leafless, 
 except two or three small leaves at the top 
 from which the tufts of flowers rise. The 
 root leaves are a foot long, narrow, grassy, 
 and bright green. The flowers are brown. 
 The root is long, moderately creeping, highly 
 aromatic, and astringent. There is a smaller 
 species, the brown Cyperus (C. fuscus), 
 which is an annual, and grows much smaller, 
 not reaching to above six inches high ; root 
 of many simple fibres. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 53.) 
 
 CYPHEL,MOSSY, or DWARF CHER- 
 LERIA. (Cherleria sedoides.) A peren- 
 nial plant, found on the loftiest mountains in 
 Scotland ; root densely crowded, strong, and 
 somewhat woody, bearing close moss-like 
 tufts of leafy stems ; flowers, yellowish 
 green. The generic name given by Haller 
 commemorates J. H. Cherler, the coadjutor 
 of John Bauhin in his general History of 
 Plants. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 312.) 
 
 CYPRESS TREE. (Cupressus semper- 
 virens.) A hardy shrub, native of the Le- 
 vant - r growing from fifteen to twenty feet 
 high, which throws out yellow blossoms in 
 May. Its wood is red, very hard, and sweet 
 scented. It likes a good soil. It is the 
 symbol of sorrow all over Europe, in the 
 East, and even in China. Its wood from 
 being sonorous is used for harps, violins, 
 and other musical instruments. Worms 
 never attack it. (Phillip's Shrub, vol. i. 
 p. 188. ; M'CullocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 CYTISUS, or LABURNUM. (Cytisus 
 Laburnum.) Originally from the Alps, 
 twenty and thirty feet high. Blows a pendu- 
 lous raceme of yellow papilionaceous flowers 
 in May and June. The common Cytisus ( <?. 
 sessilifolius) reaches to twelve feet high, 
 blowing yellow flowers in May and June. A 
 native of Provence. The hairy Cytisus (C. 
 hirsutus), is a shrub from the southern parts 
 of Europe, less than the above, and blowing 
 369 
 
 a yellow flower in June. The three sorts are 
 equally hardy, and grow well any where. 
 Propagate by seed. They require no prun- 
 ing. 
 
 The seeds or peas of the laburnum, when 
 occasionally eaten by children, have proved 
 poisonous. They excite nausea, vomiting, 
 great heat of the stomach, fever, a dry 
 mouth, and after a time a fatal collapse. 
 Although they excite vomiting, yet the 
 stomach should be cleared of the seeds by 
 an emetic ; and acidulated liquids afterwards 
 administered, 
 
 D. 
 
 DABBING. A term sometimes applied 
 to dibbling ; also a term in angling. See 
 Daping. 
 
 DAB-CHICK. The country name for a 
 chick newly hatched. Also a name given . 
 to the water hen. 
 
 DACE. (Cyprinus leuciscus.) A fish 
 found in most of the still, deep rivers of this 
 country, and in many standing waters 
 which have any feeding current running 
 through them, where it is very prolific. 
 It seldom exceeds ten inches long, or weighs 
 more than a pound, or a pound and a half. 
 This fish is also known under the different 
 names of dare, dart, shallow, and showier, 
 in different counties. Dace spawn from 
 beginning of March to middle of April. 
 Bait, in spring, worms of most kinds, cad- 
 dies, larvae of beetles, grub and bobs of all 
 sorts, small caterpillars, and water- snails. 
 In summer, gentles ; in autumn, greaves 
 and pastes, particularly salmon's roe, are 
 killing. Fly-fishing for dace is sometimes 
 practised. (Blaine s Rur. Sports, 1,045-7.) 
 
 DACTYLIS. A genus of grasses which 
 are of but little value for cultivation. See 
 Cock's-foot Grass. 
 
 DAFFODIL, COMMON. (Narcissus 
 Pseudo-narcissus.) This perennial plant is 
 found wild, in rather moist woods and 
 thickets, blowing its pale yellow flowers in 
 March and through April. The double 
 yellow daffodil, so extremely common in 
 gardens, evidently by its greener leaves, and 
 the uniform golden yellow of its flowers, be- 
 longs to a diflerent species. See Narcissus. 
 
 DAFFODIL, CHEQUERED, or 
 Snake's Head. See Fritiixary. 
 
 DAFFODIL, ONION-LEAVED. (As- 
 phodelus Jistulosus.) A perennial, native of 
 the south of France, blowing its white 
 flowers with a red stripe from June to Sep- 
 tember. It loves moisture and good soil. 
 Propagate by separating the roots, or by 
 seed in a hot-bed. 
 
DAG. 
 
 DAIRY. 
 
 DAG. A term provincially applied to 
 dew hanging upon the grass. 
 
 DAHLIA. (Lat.) A hardy perennial 
 tuberous plant, native of Mexico, growing 
 many feet high, if placed in rich soil. Dahlias 
 are divided by gardeners into 1. globe-flow- 
 ered, 2. anemone-flowered, and 3. camella- 
 flowered ; and this division, though not quite 
 botanically correct, is sufficient for practical 
 purposes, and has, therefore, been employed 
 by the nurserymen in making up their lists 
 of the varieties of dahlias for sale, although 
 they divide the last species into two ; 1 . that 
 including the spotted, shaded, and striped 
 dahlias ; and 2. those of a single, or self- 
 coloured dahlias. (Mr. Huet on " Cul- 
 ture of the Dahlia," Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. vi. p. 72.) Dahlias bloom large, beautiful 
 flowers of every colour, simple and varie- 
 gated, by culture, in September, till frosts 
 set in. They blow well, even in poor soil. 
 Propagate by parting the roots, by cuttings, 
 or from seed. When the stems turn black, 
 dig up the tubers and secure them from frost. 
 The best method of securing dahlias from 
 the frost, and to preserve them through the 
 winter is to dig a pit eighteen inches deep ; 
 to line it with straw, and to lay the tubers 
 upon the straw with the crown, or part from 
 which the herb springs downwards. Over 
 them layers of straw and turf should be placed 
 alternately, and earth heaped over the whole 
 to the height of a foot above the mouth of 
 the pit. Take the offsets from the mother 
 plant ; replant in April. For a list of good 
 dahlias, see Flor. Cab. Dec. 1834; Gard. 
 Mag. vol. x. p. 151. 
 
 DAIRY. The place where milk is kept, 
 and butter and cheese prepared and pre- 
 served. The proper construction and ma- 
 nagement of a dairy are questions of con- 
 siderable importance to the . farmer. It 
 should be situated, if possible, on a dry 
 porous soil. The room should be made of 
 brick or stone, with a floor of the same ma- 
 terials, for the sake of its being more readily 
 and frequently washed with cold water, not 
 only on the score of cleanliness, but that the 
 temperature of the place may in summer be 
 kept down to the most advantageous degree. 
 And to this end, the dairy is commonly 
 placed on the northern side of the house, 
 where it may be readily shaded from the 
 sun by other more elevated buildings, or by 
 trees. A temperature between 50° and 60° 
 is the best, and the less occasion there is to 
 reduce the temperature of the dairy by 
 washing the floor with cold water the better, 
 since, amongst other disadvantages, the 
 damp air thus produced is not so advanta- 
 geous as a dry atmosphere for the retention 
 of sweetness in milk and cream {Farm. 
 Rep. p. 30.) ; and, therefore, the dairy-house 
 
 is generally covered with thatch, and can 
 hardly be too well ventilated. It should be far 
 removed from stagnant ponds and offensive 
 drains ; and furnished with wire gauze win- 
 dows, by which insects are readily excluded 
 without impairing the necessary ventilation. 
 Adjoining to it should be placed a wash- 
 house, furnished with a chimney, a large 
 copper kettle to heat the water, or in cheese 
 dairies the milk. This is commonly sup- 
 ported by a crane. 
 
 The wash-house should have an outer 
 door, near to which the dairy utensils may 
 be set on benches, to be dried by the sun 
 and air. In Holland the dairy rooms are 
 kept with the greatest order, neatness, and 
 comfort, so much so, that the farmer's 
 family often take their meals in them. On 
 the economy of the dairy the following ex- 
 cellent directions, abridged from those drawn 
 up by the Agricultural Society of Aberdeen- 
 shire, may be studied by the farmer with 
 advantage. They refer chiefly to salted 
 butter : — 
 
 1. The milk-house or dairy should have 
 no internal communication with any other 
 building. It must be kept free from smoke, 
 well aired, and clean, and no potatoes, fish, 
 onions, cheese, or any thing likely to impart 
 a strong or bad smell, should be kept therein ; 
 in short, nothing but the dairy utensils, 
 which must also be kept sweet and clean. 
 2. The milk when brought in from the cows 
 should be strained through a fine hair searce 
 or drainer, and when cool put into sweet, 
 well-seasoned oaken kegs, keelers, or milk 
 pans, the latter to be preferred. A tin 
 skimmer with holes in it is the best for 
 taking off the cream, which should always 
 be churned while the cream is fresh. 3. 
 The churn, whether plunge or barrel, should 
 be made of the best well seasoned white 
 oak, and as cleanliness is of the first import- 
 ance, great attention should be paid to the 
 washing, drying, and airing of the churns 
 immediately after use, otherwise they are 
 sure to contract a sour and unwholesome 
 smell, which must injure the quality of the 
 butter. 4. The butter immediately after 
 being churned should be thrown into fresh 
 spring water, where it should remain one 
 hour at least, that it may grow firm. 5. The 
 butter should be immediately salted. 6. It 
 is a very injurious practice to keep a making 
 of butter uncured till the next churning, for 
 the purpose of mixing the two together. It 
 invariably injures the flavour of the whole, 
 and renders it of too soft a quality ever 
 afterwards to get firm. 7. The milk of 
 new calved cows should never be set for 
 butter, until at least four days after calving, 
 as a small quantity of biestmilk butter will 
 injure a whole firkin. The practice of 
 
DAISY, COMMON. 
 
 DANDELION, COMMON. 
 
 scalding cream in cold weather should also 
 be avoided, as cream thus treated will never 
 make good butter. 8. Great care should be 
 taken not to steep the firkins, or other dairy 
 vessels, in boggy or unwholesome water; 
 only the purest spring or clear running 
 water should be used. 9. Old butter should 
 never be mixed with new. 
 
 Lime-tree yields perhaps the best wood for 
 butter firkins ; and the St. Ubes' Bay or 
 marine sweet salt, free from bittern, is the 
 best salt to use for dairy purposes : this should 
 be kept in a dry clean cask, in a place where 
 smoke (which is apt to impart a bad flavour 
 to it) cannot reach it. The management 
 and construction of the dairy of necessity 
 varies with the articles for which it is chiefly 
 intended to be devoted, as Butter, Cheese, 
 Miek : see these heads. The farmer will 
 find a good article on the dairy in Professor 
 Low's Breeds of British Animals — a beau- 
 tifully illustrated work, which should be 
 patronised by all the Farmers' Clubs, as well 
 as by those agriculturists to whom its price is 
 not an object. The following authorities may 
 also be consulted with advantage : " On 
 the Meadows and Dairies of Holland" 
 {Trails. High. Soc. vol. i. p. 202.) ; "Re- 
 ports upon Dairy Management " {Ibid. 
 p. 341. ; vol. ii. p. 254.; vol. vi. p. 406.) ; 
 Mr. Aiton " On the making of Butter and 
 Cheese in the Dairy District of Scotland " 
 {Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. v. p. 350., and 
 Com. to Board of Agr. vol. iv. pp. 214 — 
 337.) ; also the article " Dairy " in vol. viii. 
 of the Penny Cyclo. in Baxter s Lib. of Agr. 
 Know., and in vol. iii. of British Hus- 
 bandry, Lib. of Use. Know.) 
 
 DAISY, COMMON, or DAY'S EYE. 
 {Bellis perennis.) These large white gawky- 
 looking flowers are so universal in our pas- 
 tures and meadows, that description is almost 
 needless. They flower all the year, prin- 
 cipally dotting the meadows early in May : 
 in March they begin to be common, and 
 after Midsummer to be less numerous. 
 The root is slender, and the plant flowers 
 from March to September. Double, as 
 well as proliferous daisies, are common in 
 gardens, and the proliferous variety is now 
 and then found wild. Domestic cattle 
 scarcely touch this plant. Notwithstanding 
 its beauty, and its celebration by poets, the 
 daisy is thought a blemish or intruder in 
 neat grass-plats, and can be overcome by 
 perpetual stubbing only. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 448.) 
 
 DAISY, MICHAELMAS. {Aster Tra- 
 descanti.) See Aster. 
 
 DAISY, MOON, or MIDSUMMER 
 DAISY. {Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum.) 
 See Ox eye, Great white. 
 
 DAITLE. A provincial phrase, signifying 
 371 
 
 any thing done by the day. Thus daitle- 
 man, is a day-labourer, and daitle-work 
 such work as is done by the day. 
 
 DALLOP. A provincial name for a tuft 
 or clump of grass, &c. 
 
 DAM. The mother of any young do- 
 mestic animal. Also a mole or bank to con- 
 fine water. See Embankment. 
 
 DAMASK ROSE. {Rosa centifolia.) 
 The rose of Damascus ; a red rose of a very 
 sweet odour. See Rose. 
 
 DAMEWORT, or DAMES' VIOLET. 
 {Hesperis matronalis.) An indigenous peren- 
 nial plant, which grows in hilly pastures and 
 hedges, especially near rivulets, but rare; and 
 flowers in May or June. The flowers are pur- 
 plish white, or brownish, exhaling a power- 
 ful scent, for the most part, in an evening. 
 Boerhaave says, " it is anti-scorbutic and 
 diaphoretic, and of great service in asthmas, 
 coughs, and convulsions." It has also been 
 recommended externally, in inflamma- 
 tions, cancers, gangrenes, and contagious 
 disorders ; but it has no reputation in the 
 present day. {Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 207.) 
 
 DAMSON. A small useful black plum, 
 brought originally from Damascus ; whence 
 the name. 
 
 DANDELION, COMMON. {Leonto- 
 don Taraxacum.) A corruption of the 
 French name dent de leon, or lion's tooth. 
 An indigenous, perennial plant, growing in 
 meadows and pastures on road sides, ditch 
 banks, and indeed every where. Root tap- 
 shaped, very milky, externally black, diffi- 
 cult of extirpation,; leaves numerous, 
 spreading, of a bright* shining green, quite 
 smooth, and they may be called lion-toothed ; 
 flowers one and a half inches wide, of a uni- 
 form yellow colour, which blow from April 
 to August, and have the remarkable pro- 
 perty of expanding early in the morning, in 
 fine weather only, and closing in the evening. 
 {Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 349.) It is a va- 
 luable medicine, is aperient, powerfully 
 diuretic and alterative in its qualities ; and 
 if persevered in, it is excellent in liver com- 
 plaints ; it must be taken in decoction, 
 or in the form of extract. Its deobstruent 
 influence in torpid conditions of the liver is 
 striking ; but its use must be persisted in 
 for a considerable length of time. It should 
 now and then be omitted for a few days, as 
 it is apt to derange the stomach. 
 
 By culture, and especially by blanching, 
 this herb, though, like the garden lettuce 
 and endive, originally full of bitter milk, 
 becomes sufficiently mild to be eaten in a 
 salad, nor is its bitterness of a disagreeable 
 kind. In France the roots and leaves are 
 eaten with bread and butter. The marsh 
 dandelion {L. palustris) is a distinct species, 
 smaller in size than the foregoing, and natu- 
 
 13 B 2 
 
DANDELION HAWKBIT. 
 
 DARNEL. 
 
 rally a bog plant, growing in low boggy 
 meadows. Dandelion is relished by goats 
 and especially by hogs, who devour it 
 eagerly ; but sheep and cows dislike it, and 
 horses totally refuse it. (Williclis JDom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 DANDELION HAWKBIT. (Apargia 
 Taraxaci.) See HawkSit. 
 
 DANDRIFF. A species of scurf which 
 is brushed out in grooming the horse, and 
 consists of scales or portions of the cuticle 
 or scarf skin, detached in its gradual 
 change or renewal. 
 
 DANE-WORT, or DWARF ELDER 
 WALL-WORT. (Sambucus Ebulus.) The 
 green leaves of this plant have a narcotic 
 smell, and are said to expel mice from 
 granaries ; nor will moles come where these 
 leaves or those of the common elder are 
 laid. Cattle will not eat the foliage. Its 
 berries impart a violet colour, and their 
 juice mixed with vinegar dyes raw linen, as 
 well as morocco leather, of* an azure blue. 
 {Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 108.; Williclis 
 Encyc.) This perennial plant is frequently 
 mistaken for the common elder. It grows 
 four or five feet high, and dies away every 
 autumn to the ground. The stalks are green 
 and round, very like the shoots of common 
 elder ; but having no woody part about the 
 plant, they rise green from the ground. The 
 leaves are longer than common elder leaves, 
 and they are serrated round their edges. 
 The flowers are small and white, succeeded 
 by black berries, which the birds rarely 
 suffer to ripen. It loves untilled ground, 
 hedgeways, &c. flowering in summer, and 
 ripening its berries in autumn. 
 
 DANGEROUS ANIMALS. See Nui- 
 sance. 
 
 DANK. A country term made use of to 
 signify damp, humid, ,moist, or wet. 
 
 DANNOCKS. A provincial name for 
 hedging-gloves. 
 
 D APING, DABBING, or DIBBING. 
 In fly-fishing is a term used when you have 
 your line flying before you up or down the 
 river as the wind serves. (Walton, p. 296.) 
 
 DAPPLE. A term sometimes used to 
 signify marked with various colours. 
 
 DARGUE. A local word signifying the 
 quantity of peat turf one man can cut, and 
 two men wheel, in a day. 
 
 DARNEL. (Bromus secalinus.) Smooth 
 rye brome-grass. (Bromus mollis.) Soft 
 brome grass. Both these grasses pass under 
 the common name of darnel. Professor 
 Martyn supposes the annual bearded rye- 
 grass (Loliurn temulentum) to be the darnel 
 of the Romans (Virg. Georg. i. 153.) Mr. 
 Holdich, of the Farmer's Journal (Essay on 
 Weeds), observes that he never found this 
 grass among corn crops. Sinclair (Hort. 
 
 Gram. p. 32.) says, I have found the Bro- 
 mus mollis and Alopecurus agrestis with the 
 Bromus secalinus to be the most prevalent 
 weeds (of the annual grass kind) in corn 
 fields „; these, therefore, may be considered 
 the darnel of the British farmer. In the 
 Essay of Mr. Pitt, he treats of darnel as a 
 plant which he had often seen in wheat 
 crops, and perfectly well knew. Dr. With- 
 ering, in his Botany, also mentions this 
 darnel (Lolium temulentum) as " common in 
 corn fields, mostly among barley and flax ; " 
 and that it is a very troublesome weed 
 among wheat, in Norfolk and Suffolk. The 
 doctor also describes another species of 
 Lolium (L. arvense), as being much like the 
 other, only it is smooth, and calls it white 
 darnel. He observes that it is common in 
 many parts and places, and " very injurious 
 to a crop of wheat," for which he quotes 
 Mr. Pitt's authority. Mr. Pitt, indeed, 
 names his darnel white darnel, but immedi- 
 ately calls it L. temulentum. Both these are 
 annuals, and flower in July and August. 
 Now it seems never to have occurred to 
 writers on this subject, that when they were 
 in any difficulty about agricultural weeds, 
 they should have recourse to the characters 
 of the seeds of the plants. It is quite im- 
 possible that any grass seed should be 
 darnel, either ancient or modern, unless the 
 seeds are heavy enough to resist the oper- 
 ation of dressing, and to remain in the 
 wheat in part, in spite of all efforts to get 
 rid of them. The ancients had wind and 
 sieves, and they no doubt exerted them- 
 selves as much as possible to rid their wheat 
 of such seeds as those of the L. temulentum, 
 while such deleterious effects are ascribed to 
 them, if baked in bread, &c. Whether 
 these plants be common in corn fields in 
 any part of*- England, or whether, if they be 
 their seeds are heavy enough to remain in 
 samples of wheat and barley, must here be 
 left undecided. I can only say, that in all 
 my experience, and as far as I have ever 
 seen or heard from practical authority, I 
 know of no darnel but the Bromus secalinus, 
 and, less generally, the Bromus mollis. (Eng. 
 Flora, vol. i. p. 151-3. ; Hort. Gram.Wob. ; 
 Sinclair's Weeds, p. 4.) 
 
 DARNEL. (Lolium.) There are three 
 species of this darnel enumerated by Smith. 
 (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 173.) The perennial 
 darnel (L. perenne), common in meadows, 
 pastures and waste ground, and well known 
 to the farmer by the name of rye-grass or 
 ray-grass. It yields an early crop of hay 
 upon high or sandy lands, and makes a fine 
 turf, which, however, is said not to be 
 lasting except upon a rich soil. Much 
 valuable information concerning its culti- 
 vation and merits is collected by Professor 
 
DARTFORD WARBLER. 
 
 DEAL. 
 
 Hooker in his continuation of the Flora 
 Londinensis. The result seems to be that 
 the grass is best suited to the light land of 
 Norfolk, where it first obtained its reputation. 
 (See Rye Grass.) 2. The bearded darnel. 
 (Z. temulentum.) The seeds of which are of 
 very evil report for causing intoxication in 
 men, beasts, and birds, and bringing on fatal 
 convulsions. Haller speaks of them as com- 
 municating these properties to beer. 3. 
 Short-awned annual darnel (Z. arvense), 
 rather smaller and smoother than the pre- 
 ceding, of which it is probably but a va- 
 riety. {Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 172-5.) 
 
 DARTFORD WARBLER. (Melizo- 
 philus provincialise) A bird whose habits 
 are very like those of the wren, frequents 
 furze commons ; food principally small in- 
 sects, which it captures on the wing ; nest 
 among furze of dry vegetable stalks, par- 
 ticularly goose-grass, and the tender dead 
 branches of furze with a little wool. Eggs 
 three or four like those of the whitethroat, 
 but rather less, weighing only 22 grs. 
 Speckled all over with olivaceous, brown, and 
 cinereous grey, on a greenish white ground. 
 General plumage greyish black and shaded 
 brown ; belly, white ; legs, toes, and claws, 
 brown ; whole length of bird rather more 
 than five inches ; the tail feathers alone are 
 nearly half the length of the bird. ( YarrelVs 
 Brit Birds, vol. i. p. 311.) 
 
 DARTARS. In farriery, a sort of scab 
 or ulceration taking place on the chin, to 
 which lambs are subject. 
 
 DARWIN, ERASMUS, was born at 
 Elston, near Newark, in Nottinghamshire, 
 on the 12th of December, 1731. He was 
 educated at Chesterfield Grammar School, 
 and St. John's College, Cambridge. He 
 died April 18. 1802. The only work which 
 it is necessary for me to mention, is 
 
 Phytologia, or. The Philosophy of Agriculture and 
 Gardening, with the Theory of Draining Morasses, and 
 with an improved Construction of the Drill Plough. 
 London. 1800. 4to. 
 
 DAUBING. A word meaning provin- 
 cially plastering with clay. 
 
 DAUBY. A word applied to land when 
 wet, signifying clammy or sticky. 
 
 D A VYING. A provincial word applied 
 to the getting of marl out of the face of the 
 cliffs on the sea-coasts, when it is drawn up 
 by a wince. 
 
 DAVY, SIR HUMPHRY, was born 
 December 17. 1779, at Penzance in Corn- 
 wall. In 1802 he commenced his lectures 
 before the Board of Agriculture, which he 
 continued for ten years. The course is 
 before the public in his '* Elements of Agri- 
 cultural Chemistry." He died at Geneva 
 on the 29th of May, 1829. 
 
 In private this illustrious individual was 
 373 
 
 esteemed for his virtues, his amiability, his 
 warmth of friendship, and his sincerity. In 
 tracing his public progress, the truth, which 
 cannot be too strongly maintained, is evi- 
 denced, that he who advances with steady 
 pace along the path of Analysis, aiming at 
 the demonstration of facts, rather than the 
 illustration of previously formed theories,, 
 must always be a permanent benefactor of 
 mankind, whatever may be his pursuit : — 
 such was Cavendish, such was Davy. With 
 an equal love of science, with patience 
 equally exhaustless, and with perseverance 
 equally unsubduable, their text and illus- 
 trations were furnished by the laboratory. 
 The few theoretical inductions they have 
 given us are the results from facts they had 
 previously discovered; as such, they are 
 among the few immutables of Science ; like 
 all truth, they will descend unimpaired amid 
 the discoveries of ages. (G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 DAY BOOK. See Book-Keeping. 
 
 DEADLY NIGHTSHADE. See Bella- 
 donna and Nightshade. 
 
 DEAD-NETTLE. (Lamium.) A genus 
 of perennial or annual European herbs, of 
 which twenty species are described. The 
 white dead-nettle (Z. album) and red dead- 
 nettle (Z. purpureum) have already been 
 noticed under the head Archangel as far as 
 their medicinal properties are concerned. 
 The herbage of the former is scarcely eaten 
 by cattle, and has a slightly fetid scent. The 
 flowers abound with honey. Low says 
 (Prac. Agr. p. 446:) it is sometimes common 
 in corn fields, and having a strong, creeping, 
 perennial root, it should be carefully extir- 
 pated. There are three other indigenous 
 species : — the spotted dead nettle (Z. ma- 
 culatum), which is a naturalised plant ; the 
 leaves are marked, either with a white 
 central line, or with scattered white spots,, 
 flowers crimson, the lip beautifully speckled : 
 the cut leaved dead-nettle (Z. incisum) ; and 
 the great henbit dead-nettle (Z. amplexi- 
 caule), which require no notice. (Fng. Flor.. 
 vol iii. p. 89—92.) 
 
 DEAD-TOPS. A disease incident to 
 young trees, which may be cured by cutting 
 off the withered parts close to the nearest 
 sound twig or shoot, and claying them over, 
 in the same manner as practised in grafting. 
 
 DEAF. A provincial word signifying 
 blasted or barren, as a deaf ear of grain, a 
 deaf-nut, &c. or such as have no grain or 
 kernel. In such cases it is probable that 
 the pollen has been scattered, and never 
 communicated the fertilising principle to 
 the seed, which resembles in this respect an 
 addle egg. 
 
 DEAL. (Sax. belan, to divide; Ger. 
 dielen ; Dutch, deelen ; Dan. daeler.) The 
 small thicknesses into which a piece of timber 
 
 B B 3 
 
DEANETTLE. 
 
 DECEMBER. 
 
 of any sort is cut up ; but the term is now 
 improperly restricted in its signification to 
 the wood of the fir tree, cut up into thick- 
 nesses in the countries whence deals are im- 
 ported. Their usual thickness is three inches, 
 and their width nine. They are purchased 
 by the hundred, which contains 120 deals, 
 be their thickness what it may, and reduced 
 by calculation to a standard thickness of 
 one and a half inches, and a length of twelve 
 feet. Whole deal is that which is one inch and 
 a quarter thick, and slit deal is half that 
 thickness. It has been improperly supposed, 
 that the duties on timber, encouraging the 
 importation of deals, have been hurtful ; but 
 this is a mistake, and the true interest of the 
 consumer is best consulted by this form : 
 the wood is better seasoned, it stows better, 
 and there is less waste in using it than if it 
 were imported in the log. See Cut Deals, 
 Penny Cyclo. vol. viii. 
 
 DEANETTLE. A provincial name for 
 the weed wild hemp. 
 
 DEATH-WATCH. (Aiiobium tessella- 
 tion; Term.es pulsatorium Lin.) The po- 
 pular name for a small insect that harbours 
 chiefly in old wood. It is produced from a 
 very minute white egg, hatched in March ; 
 in the perfect state these insects are about 
 ^ths of an inch: in length, and of a dark 
 brown, spotted colour. They make a tick- 
 ing noise, which is an expression of mutual 
 affection between the male and female, but 
 which has and is still superstitiously imagined 
 by some to be an omen of death. (See 
 Penny Cyclo. vol. viii.) 
 
 DEAZED. A provincial term signifying 
 killed, or much injured by cold, as vegetables 
 that are frost-nipped, or chicks that die in 
 the shell. 
 
 DEBRIS. (Fr. debree.) In Geology, any 
 worn materials, such as fragments of rocks, 
 ruins, or rubbish. 
 
 DECANDOLLE, M. PYRAME, a 
 distinguished botanist and friend to Agri- 
 culture, was born on the 4th Feb. 1778. 
 In 1806 he was appointed to make a tour 
 through France for the furtherance of bo- 
 tanical and agricultural knowledge. For 
 six years he published an annual report ; 
 and they at present form a portion of the 
 " Memoires " of the Royal Central Agri- 
 cultural Society of Paris. In these re- 
 ports he gives the results of his observ- 
 ations upon Geographical Botany and Agri- 
 culture ; and his vegetable Statistics of 
 France are the result of his various travels. 
 In 1808 he became a Professor of Botany, 
 and was appointed Director of the Jardin 
 de% I Mantes by the Montpelicr Faculty of 
 Medicine. In 1813 he published his 
 elementary treatise on Botany, one of the 
 most profound works ever written on this 
 374 
 
 branch of science. In 1815, and during 
 the hundred days, M. Decandolle was ap- 
 pointed Rector of the University of Mont- 
 pelier ; but on the restoration of the 
 Bourbons he was replaced by M. Duchaila 
 as Professor, and nominated to the deanery 
 of the Faculty of Sciences. Fearing, how- 
 ever, that this appointment would be re- 
 voked, he tendered his resignation in 1816, 
 and then retired to Geneva, where he re- 
 sided to the period of his death. In 1818 
 he published the two first volumes of his 
 Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Ve- 
 getabilis, and from that period he held the 
 sceptre of Botanical knowledge in Europe. 
 He died at Geneva on the 9th of Sept. 
 1841. Of his numerous publications, his 
 Organograpie, and Physiologie Vegetale ; 
 his Theorie elementaire, and his celebrated 
 Prodromus, are doubtless the works to which 
 posterity will most commonly refer. 
 
 DECEMBER. (Lat. decern, ten.) The 
 twelfth month of the year. 
 
 Farmer's Calendar. — The closing 
 month of the year is the one in which all 
 agricultural work is ever the sport of the 
 weather ; for this reason every kind of field 
 work, such as ploughing, wheat sowing, and 
 carting manure, should, if possible, be 
 finished in the previous months. There is 
 yet, however, much work to be profitably 
 carried on . for the out-door labourer ; 
 ditches may be cleansed, fences repaired, 
 plantations of fruit and timber trees finished, 
 turf may be collected, earths carted from 
 ditches, old banks, marl, or clay, or chalk 
 pits, either as beds for future dung-heaps 
 or for the temporary foundations of cattle- 
 yards, to absorb the liquid matter of the 
 cattle and afterwards be mixed with the 
 dung. Towards the end of the month, 
 also, is a good period, especially in hard 
 frosts, to commence carting night-soil or 
 other heavy distant fertilisers. Live stock 
 now will require a regular supply of food : 
 the thrasher should be steadily employed 
 in the barn ; the chaff-cutter should also 
 be kept regularly to his work. Potatoes 
 may be steamed, and advantageously mixed 
 with chaff. Flood your water-meadows, 
 and extend and improve them. The im- 
 portance of these meads is much too little 
 understood, or the theory of their action on 
 the water. Irrigation is, in truth, a mode 
 of applying the weakest of liquid manures, 
 on a very bold scale, to grass-lands. Almost 
 every farmer has a mode of accounting for 
 the highly fertilising effects of irrigation. 
 Davy added another to the list of explana- 
 tions. He thought that a winter-flooding 
 protected the grass from the injurious ef- 
 fects of frost ; he examined with a thermo- 
 meter, and with his usual address, the 
 
DECEMBER. 
 
 •water-meadows near Hungerford, in Berk- 
 shire, and ascertained that the temperature 
 of the soil was ten degrees higher than the 
 surface of the water, and that too on a 
 frosty March morning. He remarked, also, 
 a fact which most farmers will confirm, that 
 those waters which breed the best fish are 
 ever the best fitted for watering meadows. 
 (Agricultural Chem. p. 352.) 
 
 We have no doubt but that, hereafter, 
 the use of liquid manures will be very 
 much extended, and that water meadows, 
 supplied even by artificial means, will be 
 formed to a much larger extent than at 
 present. Look to the regular littering of 
 the farm-yard, be careful that no drainage 
 escapes. The sheep now require consider- 
 able attention : give them dry food and 
 salt. Wood-cutting should be proceeded 
 with. Attend to your land-drains ; see 
 that no water lodges on the land. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. — Kitchen Gar- 
 den. — Artichokes, dress. Asparagus, beds, 
 dress b., plant to force, attend that in 
 forcing. Beans, plant. Beets, red, dig up 
 and store b. Borecole earth up. Cab- 
 bages, plant, earth up. Cauliflowers, in 
 frames, &c. attend to. Carrots, dig up and 
 store b. Celery, plant, and earth up. Cole- 
 worts, plant. Cucumbers, sow e., attend to 
 those advancing. Composts, prepare and turn 
 over. Dung, prepare for hot-beds. Earth- 
 ing up, attend to. Endive, blanch. Hot- 
 beds, attend to. Kidney beans, force e. 
 Leaves fallen, remove. Lettuces, plant in 
 hot-beds, attend to those advancing. Li- 
 quorice, dig up. Mint, force. Mushroom 
 beds, make, attend those in production. 
 Parsnips, dig up and store b. Peas, sow, 
 both in the open ground and in hot-beds, 
 attend to those advancing, plants to produce 
 seed, attend to b. Radishes, sow b. Small 
 salading, sow in frames, &c. Spinach, clear 
 of weeds. Tansy, force. Tarragon, force. 
 Trench, drain, &c. vacant ground. Weed- 
 ing, attend to. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Protect the more deli- 
 cate roots from severe frost, by strewing 
 ashes, sand, or litter over them ; prune 
 shrubs, and dig between them. If the 
 weather is open, you may still plant hardy 
 sorts of flowering shrubs. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — The 
 month of December, so named by the 
 Romans from being the tenth, or last month, 
 into which they divided the year, was de- 
 nominated by the Saxons Winter Monath ; 
 but after their conversion to Christianity, 
 they piously gave it the name of holy month, 
 or Heligh Monath. 
 
 In the vegetable kingdom the researches 
 of the naturalist are most circumscribed; 
 it is the month in which the generality of 
 375 
 
 plants are in their profoundest torpor. The 
 evergreens alone retain an appearance of 
 life amongst the larger tribes, and of these 
 of the holly (Ilex Aquifolium), whose berries 
 are, as it were, hallowed by the season, and 
 the lauristina, are particularly conspicuous. 
 The liverworts and mosses are the only 
 plants that, midst the rigours of winter, 
 persist in vegetating. These Esquimaux 
 of the vegetable world, the lowest species 
 of which are scarcely organised beings, or 
 superior to crystals, are, like those in- 
 habitants of the polar regions, delighters in 
 continued cold. Far beyond, where the 
 pine, still hardier birch, and Arctic rasp- 
 berry, are unable to endure an increase of 
 cold, even on rocks from around which the 
 snow never dissolves, these Cryptogami 
 retain their vigour, and afford a relief to 
 the eye, weary of surveying the snowy 
 waste. They are the most simple of or- 
 ganised beings. After being preserved in 
 a state of dryness for years, they will, in 
 general, regain their vegetative powers by 
 being restored to moisture. Their indi- 
 vidual utility is instanced in their employ- 
 ment by the dyer, and as an article of food. 
 The lichen rocella, or orchill, from which the 
 dye called litmus is procured, is an instance 
 of the first; the Iceland moss (L. islandi- 
 cus) of the second. Hedwig, Schreber, 
 Dickson, Swartz, Bridel, Weber, Mohr, 
 and Turner, need only be mentioned as 
 travellers in this path of botany, to stamp 
 its importance. 
 
 The elder (Sambucus nigra) is always of 
 the first amongst our common plants that 
 exhibits symptoms of reviving animation. 
 
 In the animal creation almost all the 
 subjects of entomology are either wrapt in 
 their winter's trance or actually destroyed. 
 A few gnats only, on warm days, are now 
 and then seen dancing in the sun-beams. 
 All the larger animals that pass this season 
 in a state of torpidity, are also retired to 
 their places of concealment, as the badger, 
 hedgehog, lizard, and frog. It is a curious 
 fact that the one last mentioned may be 
 frozen so completely as to be chipped with 
 a chisel, like stone, yet, if gradually thawed, 
 will be reanimated and as lively as ever. 
 
 The birds of more northern climes, com- 
 pelled by a scarcity of food, leave their 
 native haunts, and arrive in this country to 
 vary the scene of animated nature. Those 
 of our native animals, likewise, that retain 
 all their functions, notwithstanding the se- 
 verity of the season, become more int eresting 
 from their increased sociality. The timidity 
 of the hare even is overcome, and she ven- 
 tures to seek shelter, and to steal a frozen 
 meal from the beds of our gardens. But 
 the redbreast is most remarkable for his 
 
 B B 4 
 
DECIDUOUS. 
 
 DEER. 
 
 boldness ; he is indeed at all times confiding, 
 and fond of the society of man. Who ever 
 saw a cottage, however sequestered, without 
 a robin that claimed • its protection, and 
 whistled from its thatch ? But now he 
 enters the window, by degrees picks up the 
 crumbs from its sill, and at length ventures 
 to cherish himself before the fire. It is his 
 confidence and inoffensive habits that have 
 rendered him sacred to the household gods, 
 from time immemorial, and hallowed him 
 even to the feelings of the urchin schoolboy. 
 
 Frost and snow are the usual accom- 
 paniments of December ; but in our fickle 
 clime they are varying in their degrees of 
 intensity, sometimes lasting uninterruptedly 
 for weeks, while in other winters the 
 farmer complains that he has not had frost 
 and snow sufficient for the fertilisation of 
 his land. Many erroneous ideas were for- 
 merly entertained of the causes of the fer- 
 tilising properties of snow ; it was supposed 
 that snow contains saltpetre, and poetry 
 failed not in its assistance to perpetuate 
 the fiction. 
 
 " Is not thy potent energy unseen, 
 Myriads of little salts ? . . . 
 While through the blue serene, 
 For sight too fine, the ethereal nitre flies." 
 
 But modern philosophy has shown .other 
 reasons for . the good effects - produced by 
 snow upon the lands of the farmer. Melted 
 snow is extremely prejudicial to the numer- 
 ous animalculae of the soil ; for snow water 
 is so totally free from vital air or oxygen 
 gas, that even .-fish perish if placed in it. 
 But this is one of the least valuable proper- 
 ties of melted snow. Its softness and freedom 
 from foreign matters make it an admirable 
 solvent; and it consequently holds in solu- 
 tion many substances of the utmost im- 
 portance in agriculture 
 
 In the year 987, the frost, which set in on 
 the 22d of December, lasted 120 days ; and 
 that of 1729, which lasted nine weeks, began 
 on the 24th. But the great frosts which 
 have visited England have generally com- 
 menced much earlier ; the greatest frost of 
 which we have any account, that of 759, set 
 in on the first of October, and lasted till the 
 26th of February. (Farmer s Almanac.) 
 
 DECIDUOUS. (Lat. decido, I fall off.) 
 In zoology, a term applied to parts which 
 have but a temporary existence, and are 
 shed during the lifetime of the animals, as 
 certain kinds of hair, horns, and teeth. In 
 botany, it is applied to such trees and plants 
 as shed their leaves in the autumn, in con- 
 tradistinction to evergreens. Thus the 
 Oftk, the elm, the beech, &c. are called de- 
 ciduous trees. 
 
 DECOMPOSITION. (Lat. decompo- 
 litus.) The reduction or dissolution of any 
 876 
 
 mixed body to the separate parts of which 
 it is composed. It is of great importance to 
 be assured, that, in every process of decom- 
 position, whether by heat, air, or putrefaction, 
 nothing is lost, nothing is ultimately de- 
 stroyed ; the components of the decomposed 
 substance form new compounds. Decompo- 
 sition is therefore not, in strict language, a 
 destructive process; but merely a change 
 of affinities, and a transformation of old into 
 new compounds. 
 
 DECORTICATION. (Lat. decortico.) 
 The act of stripping off the bark of trees 
 or husks of corn. 
 
 DECOY. (From Dutch koey, a cage.) 
 A device by which aquatic birds, chiefly 
 ducks, are enticed from a river or lake up 
 a winding canal or ditch, which gradually 
 narrows, and at last terminates under a 
 cover of net-work of several yards in 
 length. The birds are enticed by a call 
 bird, or by the smoothness of the turf on 
 the margin of the canal, which induces 
 them to leave the water and begin to dress 
 their plumage. When so engaged at some 
 distance up the canal, they are suddenly 
 surprised by the decoy-man and his dogs, 
 who have been concealed behind a fence of 
 reeds; and, having again taken to the water, 
 they are driven up by the dogs till they 
 enter within the net-work which terminates 
 the decoy, and are then readily caught. 
 (Blaine's Rural Sports.} 
 
 A curious mode of decoying ducks is 
 practised in China, and it might be' fol- 
 lowed in this country where the river is 
 sufficiently deep. A man wades into the 
 river up to his neck, and places over his 
 head an earthen pan, with a few holes in it 
 for the admission of air and for sight. As 
 he moves slowly in the water, the pan ap- 
 pears as if it were floating in the stream. In 
 a short time the ducks approach it without 
 dread ; and as soon as they are within his 
 reach he lays hold of their legs and drags 
 them under water. Two or three persons 
 acting in concert in this manner, will cap- 
 ture many ducks in a short space of time. 
 
 DECOY-DUCK. A duck trained to 
 lead others into a decoy. The French call- 
 ducks, Blaine tells us, are the best trained 
 and most successful. The Italians have a 
 cruel practice of putting out the eyes of 
 their call-birds, that, having nothing to see, 
 they may clamour the more. 
 
 DEER. (Sax. beop ; Swed. diur ; Lat. 
 cervus.) The general name of animals of 
 the stag kind, of which there are several 
 species. These may be primarily divided 
 into two groups ; of which one includes 
 those with antlers more or less flattened, 
 the others those with rounded antlers. The 
 elk is the most characteristic species of the 
 
DEER. 
 
 first group. The reindeer differs from the 
 rest of the genus in the presence of antlers 
 in both sexes, and in the great development 
 of the brow-antlers. The third species of 
 deer, referable to the flat-horned group, is the 
 English park, the fallow deer (Cervus Dama 
 Lin.). The period of gestation in the fallow 
 doe is eight months. We have in England 
 two varieties of the fallow deer, which are 
 said to be of foreign origin ; the beautiful 
 spotted kind, and the deep brown sort, now 
 common in this country. These have mul- 
 tiplied exceedingly in many parts of this 
 kingdom, which is now become famous for 
 venison of superior fatness and flavour to 
 that of any other country in the world. 
 The spotted deer of the Dama species must 
 not be confounded with the spotted deer 
 brought from India, which is a distinct spe- 
 cies, namely the Cervus (Axis) maculatus, 
 and never changes its spots, whereas the 
 spotted fallow-deer becomes a uniform brown 
 in winter. This species has been domesticated 
 in England, and propagates freely in parks. 
 It is smaller and more elegant in form than 
 the fallow-deer, and furnishes as good venison. 
 Of the species of deer of which the beam of 
 the antler gives a rounded form in section, 
 the red deer (C. elaphus) and the roe-buck 
 (Ccapreolus) are indigenous species. The 
 male red deer, in the language of " the 
 noble art of venerie" is called a " hart," 
 and the female a " hind." She goes with 
 young about a week longer than the fallow 
 doe ; and brings forth in May a single fawn, 
 rarely two. The young of both sexes are 
 at first styled " calves." In the common 
 stag, or red deer, the shedding of the horns 
 takes place about the end of February, or 
 during March. The fallow-deer sheds his 
 horns from about the middle of April to 
 the first weeks of May. The roe-buck is 
 the smallest species of European deer ; the 
 male is monogamous, and the female brings 
 forth two fawns. In our own island they 
 are most abundant, but not confined to the 
 Scottish mountains. They are still found 
 in some of the rugged woods of Westmore- 
 land and Cumberland. The roebuck in its 
 native wilds does not keep in herds in its 
 perambulations ; but it only congregates in 
 low coverts. The food of the roebuck in 
 the Highlands of Scotland is the Rubus 
 saxatilis, or roebuck-berry ; but in winter 
 they browse on the tender twigs of the birch 
 and the fir. The flesh of the roebuck is 
 tender and delicate, when the animal has 
 been hunted. The horns are used for 
 handles of knives, and other instruments. 
 Three varieties of the genus Cervus are 
 professed objects of the chase ; the stag, the 
 fallow-deer, and the roebuck; each of which 
 have long been followed with great ardour, 
 377 
 
 DENMARK. 
 
 according to the tastes of different sports- 
 men, and their means of gratifying them : 
 the roebuck is, however, becoming scarce. 
 (Elaine s Rur. Sports-; Brande's Diet. ; Penny 
 Cyclo. vol. viii. ; WillicKs Dom. Ency.) 
 
 DEER-NECK, in horsemanship, signifies 
 a thin ill -formed neck. 
 
 DEER'S HAIR. A name in the high- 
 lands of Scotland for the scaly-stalked 
 spike-rush (Eleocharis ccespitosa). 
 
 DEER STEALING. See Animals, 
 Stealing of. 
 
 DEFECATION. (Lat. de, and fax, 
 dregs.) The act of purifying or separating 
 any liquor from the lees, or dregs, and im- 
 purities. The term is particularly applied 
 to vegetable juices, which on standing throw 
 down a thickish precipitate, which is usually 
 termed faeces; hence defalcation is simply 
 freeing fluids from the fasces. In general, 
 rest only is requisite to accomplish this, but 
 sometimes the aid of heat and additions of 
 gelatine or isinglass to the fluid are necessary. 
 
 DENMARK. The Agriculture of Den- 
 mark, especially that of the Duchies of 
 Sleswic, Holstein, and Lauenberg, has been 
 described by Mr. Carr. A large portion of 
 this extensive district is alluvial soil, of a 
 very fertile description, composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silicious earth - 0-860 
 
 Clay - 0-040 
 
 Oxide of iron - 0*030 
 
 Chalk - 0-002 
 
 Gypsum - 0-009 
 
 Organic matters - 0-014 
 
 Loss - - - - 0-045 
 
 1000 
 
 The size of the farms are between 50 
 and 200 acres, a portion of which is com- 
 monly left for eight or ten years in pasture. 
 The meadows in the marshes are not uncom- 
 monly let for two guineas per acre. The 
 usual rotation of crops commonly followed 
 is, after grass, oats, fallow, winter barley, 
 rape for seed, wheat, oats, beans, oats. The 
 Danes plough deep, with four heavy horses; 
 crops usually heavy, often returning as much 
 per English acre, according to Mr. Carr, 
 as — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Rape seed - 20 sacks of 200 
 
 Wheat - - 12 to 14 220 
 
 Winter barley - 25 to 30 — 200 
 Oats - - 30 to 36 — 160 
 This, however, seems an enormous produce. 
 Their horses, sheep, and cattle are large, but 
 coarse. Jutland is the great breeding dis- 
 trict, the cows commonly yield from thirty to 
 forty quarts of milk per diem. Their imple- 
 ments of husbandry are poor. The wheel 
 ploughs, with wooden mould-boards, are 
 
DENSHIRING. 
 
 DIBBLE. 
 
 drawn by two horses. The harrows, with 
 the exception of the brake, have generally 
 wooden teeth. The rotation on arable lands, 
 is fallow dunged, rape seed, wheat or rye, bar- 
 ley, oats. In reference to seeds, red clover is 
 sown in the proportion of 8 lbs., timothy or 
 rye grass 6 lbs. per acre. Clover is made 
 into hay ; and then pastured for four years. 
 There are three distinct breeds of cattle in 
 these duchies. 1. The native cow, middle 
 sized with not very long legs, fine head and 
 horns, moderately thick neck, colour usually 
 red or brown : these give most milk in pro- 
 portion to their food. 2. The marsh cows, 
 of a larger size, larger boned, colour red, 
 requiring luxuriant pasturage, giving, when 
 in full milk, twenty-four to thirty-two quarts 
 per day, but their butter is smaller in quan- 
 tity and of inferior quality to the others. 
 3. The Jutland cow, of fine bone, rather 
 long body, colour grey or dun, more valued 
 for its fattening than its milking qualities. 
 (Journ. of Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 371.) 
 
 DENSHIRING or DEVONSHIRING. 
 A term formerly used for the operation of 
 paring and burning. 
 
 DESS OF HAY. A country term some- 
 times used to signify a cut of hay. 
 
 DESS UP. A provincial phrase, meaning 
 to pile up neatly. 
 
 DEVIL IN A BUSH. (Nigella damas- 
 cene:.} Blows a sky blue flower from June 
 to September, when it sheds its seed. It is 
 an annual which loves a warm situation : 
 sow the seed where it is to remain. 
 
 DEVIL'S-BIT SCABIOUS. (Scabiosa 
 Succisa.) This perennial weed, delighting 
 in moist pastures, woods, and hedgeways, 
 grows a foot high, with slender stalks and 
 dark purplish blue flowers, often milk white, 
 resembling the garden scabious. It is also 
 frequently seen in corn fields. The stalks 
 are round, firm, and upright, divided into 
 several branches, and having two small 
 leaves at each joint. The leaves which grow 
 from the root are four inches long, dark 
 green, harsh, and somewhat hairy. The root 
 is blackish, tapering, the end appearing bitten 
 off. It was called "Devil's-bit," from the idea 
 among the superstitious of the olden time 
 that the devil had endeavoured to seize 
 upon a plant so useful in its properties to 
 mankind, but could not effect his purpose. 
 He only bit off a piece of the root in the 
 struggle, and carried with it all the virtue 
 of the plant. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 194.) 
 
 DEVON SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE CREAM. See Butter. 
 
 DEVONSHIRE OXEN. See Cattle. 
 
 DEW. (Sax. heap; Dutch, daaw ; Germ. 
 thau, moisture.) The deposition of water 
 from the atmosphere, occasioned by cold, 
 which falls on the ground, and on the leaves 
 378 
 
 of plants, blades of grass, &c. during the 
 night. The phenomena of dew have been 
 considered by all writers on Meteorology, 
 from Aristotle downwards ; but they were 
 first successfully investigated by the late 
 Dr. Wells, who gave the true theory of the 
 meteor in an admirable essay on the subject, 
 first published in 1814. Dew forms in very 
 different quantities on different substances 
 under the same circumstances ; thus, on 
 metals, it is sparingly deposited ; on glass it 
 forms abundantly, as it does also on straw, 
 grass, cloth, paper, and other similar sub- 
 stances. Animal substances are among those 
 which acquire dew in the greatest quantity. 
 The temperature of grass covered with dew 
 is always lower than that of the surrounding 
 air. On calm and very clear nights (the 
 periods when dew falls most abundant), Dr. 
 Wells very frequently found the grass seven, 
 eight, or nine degrees, and on one occasion 
 fourteen degrees, colder than the air about 
 four feet above the ground. In this country 
 dew probably begins to appear upon grass, 
 in places shaded from the sun, during clear 
 and calm weather, soon after the heat of the 
 atmosphere has declined ; that is three or 
 four hours after midday. The notion that 
 dew is only found in the morning and evening 
 is incorrect. See Atmosphere, Absorp- 
 tion, and Hygrometer. (Brande's Diet 
 of Science ; Penny Cyclo. vol. viii. ; JEncyc. 
 Brit. art. " Dew ; " Edin. Philos. Journ. 
 Nos. 21.28.) 
 
 DEW-BERRY. The fruit of the blue 
 bramble (Rubus ccesius), so termed from the 
 resemblance of the glaucous bloom, or waxy 
 secretion upon the black shining berries, to 
 dew. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 409.) 
 
 DEWLAP. (From lapping or licking the 
 dew.) A term applied to the membranous 
 fleshy substance that hangs down from the 
 throats of neat cattle. 
 
 DEY. An old English word for milk, 
 now obsolete, but from whence we derive 
 dairy. 
 
 DIARRHOEA. See Diseases of Sheep, 
 Cattle, and Horses. 
 
 DIBBLE. (From dipfel, Dutch, a sharp 
 point.) An instrument or conical stick to 
 make holes in the ground for setting grain, 
 plants, &c. To dibble in angling is to dip or 
 dape. SeeDAPiNG. " The subject of drilling 
 by machinery," say the Messrs. Ransome of 
 Ipswich, " naturally suggests the consider- 
 ation of whether the operation of dibbling 
 may not be similarly accomplished. Many 
 ingenious contrivances have from time to 
 time been projected for this purpose, and 
 several patents have also been obtained, but 
 we are not aware of any that have been suc- 
 cessfully and advantageously used ; it is 
 therefore unnecessary to describe their pe- 
 
DIBBLING. 
 
 culiarities. We noticed one at the Royal 
 Agricultural Society's exhibition at Cam- 
 bridge, invented and manufactured by 
 Thomas Woodlake, a gentleman of Horn- 
 church in Essex; but at present we have 
 had no opportunity of ascertaining whether 
 in practice it justifies the good opinion 
 formed of it. 
 
 List of patents taken out for dibbling 
 machines : — 
 
 April 17. 1806. Pluckneit, dibbling and 
 drilling machine for grain and pulse. 
 
 1827. Coggar, dibbling machines. 
 
 Dec. 2. 1839. Clerk and Newbery im- 
 proved machine for dibbling or setting 
 wheat. 
 
 March 12. 1840. Peter Bradshaw, Kim- 
 bolton, machine for dibbling grain. 
 
 DIBBLING is a mode of sowing corn, 
 especially wheat, much practised in some 
 parts of England. It is found to answer 
 the best on the clover leys of the lighter 
 descriptions of land. It is performed by a 
 man walking backwards with an iron dibble 
 in each hand, with which he makes the 
 holes, on the furrow slice, into which the 
 seed is dropped by children, who place one 
 or two seeds into each hole. By this mode 
 there is a very considerable saving of seed, 
 the quantity employed of wheat being 
 usually from three to five pecks. The 
 wheat plant obtains a more solid soil, and 
 considerable additional employment is af- 
 forded to the labourer and his family. It 
 is, however, a rather tedious process, and is 
 not adapted to the stiffer descriptions of 
 soil, for on these the dibble forms little 
 cups, in which the rain is apt to lodge to 
 the destruction of the seed corn. A good 
 dibbler with three active attendants will 
 plant about half an acre per day. The 
 expense for labour is commonly about 7s. to 
 9s. per acre for wheat. 
 
 Dibbling was first pretty extensively in- 
 troduced into the East of England about 
 the commencement of the present century. 
 It is spoken of as a novel practice in 1805, 
 by Mr. Curtis of Lynn (Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. iv. p. 158.), and by Mr. Pung of Sud- 
 bury, and Mr. Jones of Wellington in Somer- 
 setshire (Ibid. 159.) ; they had previously 
 to this time made some rude attempts to 
 employ the dibble near Yarmouth in Nor- 
 folk, for, in 1784, Mr. Oxley describes the 
 farmers of that district dibbling 6, 7, and 
 8 pecks per acre, in 2 rows on each furrow, 
 by 3 or 4 droppers to one dibbler, at an 
 expense of half a guinea per acre (Young' 1 's 
 Annals of Agr. vol. iii. p. 220.) 
 
 In Norfolk, and the neighbouring coun- 
 ties, broad-casting is now almost unknown. 
 Mr. J. Barton, of East Leigh, Hampshire, 
 says, 1836 (Hints to Schoolmasters, p. 2.), 
 379 
 
 I brought a man from Norfolk, twelve months 
 ago, for the purpose of instructing my 
 labourers in dibbling, and he brought with 
 him the implements, which are made in the 
 following manner. The body of the dibble 
 is a core of hard steel, round which is soft 
 iron, so as always to wear itself sharp ; at 
 the upper end is a handle. 
 
 The instrument is three feet long, all 
 iron excepting the handle; it weighs six 
 pounds ; a man walks with one in each hand 
 backwards, and makes from 3000 to 3050 
 holes in a day, giving a slight twist with 
 the wrist at the moment of plunging the 
 iron into the ground, which makes a hole, 
 that does not again fill up by the crumb- 
 ling in of the earth. The ground should 
 be even, then the rows are dibbled, the 
 holes 4 inches apart, so that four of them 
 can be covered at once by the foot ; the 
 rows are about 4i inches apart ; the holes 
 are filled in by a rake, or harrow with a few 
 bushes woven into it. I pay nine shillings 
 per acre of 160 rods for the work, out of 
 which the dibbler pays the children who 
 drop the wheat; three grains should be 
 dibbled in each hole, which will take about 
 one bushel and a half per acre. The Nor- 
 folk farmers say the yield by dibbling ex- 
 ceeds that by broadcasting by four bushels 
 per acre. 
 
 Dibbling costs in Hertfordshire only 6s., 
 and in Norfolk and Suffolk from 7s. to 10s. 
 per acre, according to the distance of the 
 holes, but where they are thickest, and 3 or 
 4 grains placed in each hole, it does not use 
 more than two bushels of seed per acre. 
 
 A writer in the Mark Lane Express 
 says, drilling wheat is the most generally 
 practised in the eastern part of the county 
 of Suffolk, and dibbling wheat has been 
 upon the decline for the last twenty years ; 
 I believe, because it is more trouble to attend 
 to dibblers than to drilling ; but I was in 
 the habit of dibbling wheat when I took 
 business for myself in 1807, and I continue 
 the practice to the present day, for the 
 following reasons: — 1st. It encourages the 
 poor man and his family, by increasing his 
 wages, and gives employment to his chil- 
 dren which they would not have if wheat was 
 drilled. 2dly. It shows the children, when 
 young, that Providence has ordained them 
 to get their bread by the sweat of their 
 brow ; and I grow upon the four-course 
 shift 100 acres of wheat every vear. For 
 wheat I pay for dibbling 7s. per acre, which 
 is done by seven men that have the largest 
 families : those men earn 51. each in five 
 weeks, generally, but if the weather be fine 
 in less time. Another and 3d reason why I 
 prefer dibbling is, that the men and chil- 
 dren tread the land with their feet, which. 
 
DICK. 
 
 DIPPER, THE COMMON". 
 
 makes the land firmer and better for the 
 crop. 4thly. It is better to clean the land, 
 because you can only hoe between the rows 
 of the drilled wheat, when you can hoe all 
 round the dibbled plant. 5thly. The seed 
 goes farther into the ground from dibbling 
 than drilling, the small end piercing deeper 
 than it appears, while the drill appears 
 deeper than it really is, the coulter of the 
 drill raising mould on each side, so that 
 when harrowed the corn is not so deep as 
 when dibbled. 6thly. There is always more 
 under-corn, that is, small ears, from the 
 drill than from the dibble, and dibbling 
 takes less seed. Six pecks is about the 
 quantity of seed it takes unless it be very 
 early in the season. I am a great advocate 
 for dibbling, for the above reasons ; I have 
 tried both on the same field, and generally 
 found the dibbled wheat the most produc- 
 tive ; and it stands up better against wind 
 and rain : — 
 
 Thus dibbling saves half the 3 
 bushels usually broadcast - - 1^ 
 
 And the gain in the crop being - 4 
 
 Makes - - - - 5^ 
 
 "Worth at 80s. per quarter - - 55s. 
 And after paying per acre for 
 
 dibbling - - - -7s. 
 
 Leaves, per acre - - 48 
 
 And even at 5s. gives a gain over broadcast 
 wheat of upwards of 20s. 
 
 DICK, DIKE, or DYKE. A provincial 
 word applied to the mound or back of a 
 ditch, and dick-hole is the excavation or 
 ditch itself. In Scotland it means a stone 
 wall. See Ditch. 
 
 DICKSON, JAMES, F.L.S., was born 
 at Kirkhouse, Peebleshire, in 1738. He 
 was a good botanist, and more particularly 
 devoted his attention to the mosses. He 
 died at Croydon, Aug. 14th, 1822. 
 
 His first publication commenced in 1785, 
 being a Fasciculus of his " Plantarum Cryp- 
 togamicarum Britannia, " which was com- 
 pleted in 1801. In 1793 he began pub- 
 lishing his " Hortus Siccus Britannicus, " 
 which was finished in 1802. 
 
 DIG. A low provincial term for the 
 mattock. 
 
 DIGGING. See Spade Husbandry. 
 
 DIGITARIA SANGULNALIS. Slender 
 spiked finger-grass, or cock's-foot finger- 
 grass. See Finger-grass. 
 
 DILL. (Anethum graveolens, from dvnQov, 
 on account of its running up straight.) A 
 plant kept in our kitchen gardens. It 
 flowers and seeds in August ; the stalk is 
 round, hollow, and upright, three feet high, 
 and divided into many branches. The 
 380 
 
 flowers are yellow and small, and stand 
 in umbels on the top of its branches ; the 
 root is long. Its leaves and umbels are 
 used in pickling, and the former in soups 
 and sauces. It is a hardy plant, and if 
 grown merely for domestic use may be cul- 
 tivated in any open compartment: but if 
 for seed, a sheltered situation, and a soil 
 rather dry than damp, is to be allotted 
 for it. It is propagated by seed, which is 
 best sown immediately it is ripe, for if 
 kept out of the ground until the spring, it is 
 often incapable of germinating, or if plants 
 are produced they usually decay without 
 perfecting their seed ; if neglected until the 
 spring, it may be sown from the close of 
 February until the commencement of 
 May : the earlier, however, the better. Dill 
 may be sown in drills a foot apart, or broad- 
 cast, very thin and raked in. The plants are 
 to remain where sown, as they will not bear 
 removing. When of three or four weeks' 
 growth they must be thinned to about ten 
 inches apart ; for if not allowed room they 
 spindle, their leaves decay, no lateral 
 branches are thrown out, and their seed is 
 not good. To prevent these bad effects, 
 in every stage of growth, they require to be 
 kept clear of weeds. The leaves are fit for 
 gathering as wanted, and the umbels about 
 July and August. In September their seed 
 ripens, when the umbels must be imme- 
 diately cut and spread on a cloth to dry, 
 as the seed is very apt to scatter. A vola- 
 tile oil and a distilled water are procured 
 from the seeds. Both are used as carmi- 
 natives ; the water is a good vehicle for 
 powders prescribed for children. (G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitch. Garden.) 
 
 Diel. A name sometimes given to the 
 two-seeded tare, a species of large vetch. 
 
 DINDLES. A provincial word applied 
 to the common and corn sow-thistles, as 
 well as to the taller hawk-weed. 
 
 DINGLE. (From the Sax. ben, or bin, 
 a hollow.) A small clough or valley be- 
 tween two steep hills. 
 
 DIOTIS. (JDiotis candidissima.) A shrub 
 of little beauty, native of Siberia, growing 
 eight or nine inches high, and blooming yel- 
 low flowers in August. It is hardy, and 
 prefers a stony soil ; increased by layers and 
 cuttings. 
 
 DIPPER, THE COMMON. (Cinclus 
 aquaticus.) Considerable interest is attached 
 to the natural history of the dipper or water 
 ouzel, from the diversity of opinions that 
 exist even to the present time, in reference 
 not only to its power of diving, which is 
 believed by some to be accomplished with- 
 out any perceivable muscular effort, but 
 that it can also walk at the bottom when 
 under water with the same ease that other 
 
DISEASES OF CATTLE. 
 
 DOCK. 
 
 birds walk on dry land. The dipper fre- 
 quents sides of rivers, swimming and diving 
 with great facility, and feeding principally 
 upon the various aquatic insects with which 
 the bottoms of streams abound. It builds 
 early, and conceals its large moss nest with 
 great art in cavities of rocks, and under pro- 
 jecting stones by the sides of rivers. Eggs 
 four to six, one inch in length by nine lines 
 in breadth, pointed at the smaller end and 
 white ; general plumage, brownish and grey- 
 ish black ; chin, neck, and upper part of 
 breast, pure white; legs, toes, and claws, 
 brown. ( YarrelFs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 173.) 
 
 DISEASES OF CATTLE. See Sheep, 
 Horses, and Cattle. 
 
 DISTEMPER is frequently used in the 
 same sense as disease, but is particularly 
 applied to cattle. In racing stables it is the 
 distinguishing names for epidemic eatarrh 
 or influenza in horses. Bleeding in the 
 early stage is recommended, and it is im- 
 portant that the bowels should be evacuated, 
 and sedative medicines given. ( The Horse, 
 p. 189.) In dogs distemper is one of the 
 most fatal diseases ; a little emetic powder 
 (3 grains of tartar emetic and 1 grain of 
 opium) is recommended to be given (Claters 
 Far. p. 392.), followed by a dose once 
 a day of 4, 5, or 6 grains of Turpith's min- 
 
 DISTRESS. (From districtio; Fr. de- 
 tresse.) Signifies commonly any thing which 
 is taken for rent in arrear. So long as there 
 is any rent unpaid, so long has the landlord 
 the power of distraining for it ; and nothing 
 but the payment of the rent due, or tender of 
 the amount, will prevent the landlord exer- 
 cising such power — even waiting on the land 
 or in the house with the money ready to pay 
 will not suffice if the money is not abso- 
 lutely tendered ; but the tenant will be in 
 time if he tenders the money when the 
 landlord comes to distrain, or any time be- 
 fore the goods are impounded. " The court 
 in Firth v. Purvis (5 T.R. 433.) thought that 
 a tender after the impounding of the dis- 
 tress made was insufficient." In case of 
 tender made and refused, the landlord can 
 only recover his rent by an action of debt 
 or covenant. {Anon. lVentr. 21.) There 
 must be an actual letting or demise at a 
 a fixed rent before the landlord can distrain. 
 (Dunk v. Hunter, 5 B. & A. 322.) The 
 mere agreement for a lease, without rent has 
 been paid, will not suffice. (Ibid.) But an 
 admission of the rent due on an account 
 stated will justify a distress. (Cox v. Bent, 
 5 Bing. 185.) A tenant from year to 
 year underletting may distrain upon his 
 sub-tenant. (Curtis v. Wheeler, M. & M. 
 493.) 
 
 Removal of Stock to avoid Distress. — By 
 381 
 
 the statute 11 G. 2. c. 19. 31. s. 1. goods and 
 chattels removed from any premises to 
 avoid a distress for rent, may be followed 
 and taken as a distress at any time within 
 thirty days of their removal ; but such 
 power of seizure is declared by sect. 2. not 
 to extend to goods bona fide sold and for a 
 valuable consideration, before such seizure, 
 to persons not privy to the fraud ; see also 
 the stat. 8 Anne, c. 14. ss. 2, 3. & 5. 
 
 And by sect. 3. persons so removing or 
 assisting to remove goods, are liable to pay 
 to the landlord double the value of the 
 goods so carried off or concealed, to be re- 
 covered by an action of debt ; or in case the 
 value of such goods shall not exceed 501., 
 the landlord or his agent may recover the 
 same by an application to a magistrate, who 
 is authorised to summon, hear, decide, and 
 levy by his warrant a distress : and by 
 sect. 7. the landlord is empowered to break 
 open any gates, barns, stable, or other out- 
 houses ; and in case oath is previously made 
 of reasonable ground of suspicion before a 
 magistrate, dwelling-houses also : in every 
 such case, however, the act directs a peace 
 officer to be present. And to entitle the 
 landlord to follow and seize, the removal 
 need not be clandestine ; if they are removed, 
 for instance, in open daylight, that makes 
 no difference. (Oppenheim v. Smith, 4 D. 
 & R. 33.) 
 
 DITCH. (Sax. bic) A trench cut in 
 the ground, usually round the fences of a 
 field. Trenches of this kind are formed 
 differently in various localities, but they 
 should always be made so as to keep the 
 water in them as pure as possible. 
 
 DITTANDER. Broad-leaved pepper- 
 wort. (Lepidium latifolium.) This is a tall 
 plant with broad leaves at the base of the 
 stalk, growing smaller as they proceed up- 
 wards, upon firm, pale green, branched 
 stalks, a yard in height. The lower leaves 
 are indented ; the flowers are small and 
 white, growing in loose spikes; the whole 
 herb is smooth, of a dull glaucous green ; its 
 flavour disagreeably pungent and bitter. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 165.) 
 
 DIURETICS. In farriery, such remedies 
 as have the power of forcing urine, that is, of 
 stimulating the kidneys to a moderate de- 
 gree, so as to augment their secreting power. 
 Nitre, iodide of potassium, turpentine, cu- 
 bebs, and juniper, are diuretics. See Baee. 
 
 DOCK. (Rumex.) A large genus of pe- 
 rennial plants, of which ten are natives. The 
 bloody- veined dock (R. sanguineus) has 
 already been described under the head 
 Beoodwobt. The curled dock (R. crispus) 
 a very troublesome and unprofitable weed, 
 abounds in waste ground, pastures, and by 
 road sides ; root tapering, yellowish stem, 
 
DOCK. 
 
 DOG. 
 
 two or three feet high, somewhat zigzag; 
 leaves smooth of a lightish green ; clusters of 
 numerous rather crowded tufts or whorls of 
 drooping pale green flowers. The sharp 
 dock (R. acutus) is also not uncommon in 
 low meadows and watery places. Root 
 blackish and rather slender. The broad- 
 leaved dock (R. obtusifolius) is a rank and 
 very troublesome weed, common every- 
 where, which can only be conquered by 
 stubbing up the root. Mowing is to little 
 purpose ; stems a yard high ; root black ; 
 many headed ; yellowish within. The other 
 docks are the golden dock (R. maritimus), 
 the yellow marsh dock (R. palustris), and 
 the great water dock (R. Hydrolapafhum.) 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 190.) All these docks 
 are purgatives, and may be used instead of 
 rhubarb. A decoction made with an ounce 
 of the root of Rumex obtusifolius and a 
 quart of water, reduced by boiling to a 
 pint, then strained and sweetened, is a 
 valuable remedy in that species of skin dis- 
 ease called fish-skin (Ichthyosus). 
 
 Dock. A term signifying to trim the 
 buttocks, &c. of sheep. 
 
 DOCKEN. A term provincially applied 
 to the dock : it is prevalent in Scotland. 
 
 DOCKING. In farriery, the art of cut- 
 ting off the tails of horses ; and for a de- 
 scription of which see The Horse (Lib. 
 Use. Know.) p. 327. 
 
 DODDED SHEEP. Such as are without 
 horns. 
 
 DODDER. (Cuscutaeuropa>a.) The name 
 of a species of bird-weed, which is not very 
 commonly met with. This curious plant is 
 unlike all others in appearance, having no 
 leaves. The thread- shaped, red, or purple 
 stalks, twining about other plants, headed 
 with small reddish flowers, are easily to be 
 recognised ; they grow upon heaths and 
 commons, intersecting the furze and nettles, 
 and twisting themselves round every thing 
 they can meet with. The common people, 
 who speak truly, but not in courtly terms, 
 call it devil's guts and hell weed, because 
 it does great damage among their tares and 
 flax. The lesser dodder (C. epithymum) 
 is of similar habit, but smaller than the pre- 
 ceding. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 25.) 
 
 DODMAN. A name given, in some of 
 the northern counties, to the shell snail. 
 
 DODOENS, or DODONCEUS, REM- 
 BERT, a botanist, who was born near 
 Mechlin in Flanders in 1517, and died in 
 1585-6. He wrote Frugum Historia, 8vo 
 and Herbarium Belgicum, 8vo. But his chief 
 work appeared in 1583, in which he included 
 all his other botanical writings under the 
 title of Stirpium Histories Pempiades, in 
 folio. Each pemptade is divided into five 
 books. The first pemptade contains nu- 
 382 
 
 merous dissimilar plants in alphabetical 
 order ; the second, florists' flowers and the 
 umbelliferous # plants ; the third, medicinal 
 roots, purgative, climbing and poisonous 
 plants; the fourth, grain, pulses, grasses; 
 water and marsh plants; the fifth, edible 
 plants, gourds, esculent roots, oleraceous 
 and spinous plants ; and the sixth, shrubs 
 and trees. The appendix is compiled chiefly 
 from Dioscorides, Cato, and Pliny, relating 
 to the progress of Botany and Agriculture 
 among the Romans, as well as being in com- 
 mendation of gardens. 
 
 DODRED WHEAT. A term provin- 
 vincially applied to the red wheat, or such 
 as are without beards. 
 
 DOE. In the technical language of the 
 hunter, the female of the buck or fallow deer. 
 The female of the red deer is called a hind. 
 
 DOG. (Lat. Canis.) An extensive genus 
 of animals, consisting of more than thirty 
 species, of which that most generally known 
 is the domestic dog (C. familiaris). The 
 arrangement of M. Cuvier classes the dogs 
 of the present day into three groups, dogs 
 properly so called, wolves, and jackals. It 
 will be sufficient for our present purpose to 
 speak of the dogs under three heads : 1. farm 
 dogs ; 2. hunting dogs ; 3. shooting dogs. 
 The first includes the shepherd's dog, the 
 mastiff, and the bull dog. The second, the 
 terrier, the hound, the harrier, the beagle, 
 and the greyhound. The third class in- 
 cludes the pointer, the setter, and the 
 spaniel. All these will be found noticed under 
 their separate heads. That ingenious na- 
 turalist Mr. James Wilson has entered into 
 the question of the origin of our domestic 
 breed of dogs. (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. 
 vii. p. 539—681 .) Col. Hamilton Smith has 
 also taken up the natural history of dogs. 
 (Naturalists Lib. vols. xxv. xxvi. See a 
 notice in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 511.) All zoologists agree that there is 
 no trace of the dog to be found in its pri- 
 mitive state of nature, although wild dogs 
 exist in India and America. The great af- 
 finity to the wolf, and the period of gestation 
 being the same, have led some to believe 
 that the wolf is the original dog. The two 
 animals will breed together; the young of 
 both are born blind, and at the expiration 
 of the same time, namely, ten or twelve days, 
 the puppies of both acquire the power of 
 vision. But one fact renders this supposition 
 at least doubtful, — none of the wild dogs, 
 living in a state of nature, have ever re- 
 turned to the true form of the wolf. The 
 minute examination of this question, bow- 
 ever, would be out of place in this publi- 
 cation. In all the varieties of the dog, the 
 following circumstances in his economy are 
 constant : he is born with his eyes closed, 
 
DOG BRAMBLE. 
 
 DOG'S MERCURY. 
 
 he opens them on the tenth or twelfth day ; 
 his teeth commence changing in the fourth 
 month; and his full growth is attained at 
 the expiration of the second year. The 
 period of gestation is sixty-three days, and 
 from six to twelve pups are produced at a 
 birth. The dog is old at fifteen years, and 
 seldom lives beyond twenty ; his vigilance 
 and bark are universally known. The dog 
 is liable to so many diseases, that to treat of 
 them here would be impossible. Among the 
 principal are the distemper, rabies, canker 
 in the ear, the mange, diseases of the eyes, 
 fits, diarrhoea, &c. all of which are treated 
 of under their several heads. 
 
 In this country the shepherd's dog (C. 
 fam. domesticus, Lin.) offers the example 
 of one of the purest races of this domesticated 
 animal, and that which, in its straight ears, 
 its hair and tail, approaches nearest to the 
 original stock. The sagacity of this variety 
 in the peculiar department in which his 
 services are rendered to man, is well known, 
 and has been illustrated by a hundred in- 
 teresting anecdotes. It is a curious fact, 
 that the brain of the shepherd's dog is larger 
 than that of any other of the race ; but how 
 far this is connected with his sagacity we shall 
 not pretend to affirm. Notwithstanding the 
 great variations in size met with in the 
 pasture or shepherd's dog, in different 
 countries of the globe (for he is probably the 
 most extensively diffused of the race), yet 
 he everywhere preserves some personal cha- 
 racteristics, which mark his adherence to the 
 original type in a greater degree than in any 
 other breed over which man has so arbitra- 
 rily exercised his dominion. One of these 
 characteristics is his quantity of covering, 
 which is invariably great, particularly about 
 the neck. The large drover's dog, which at- 
 tends the beast markets, is larger, and usually 
 of a stronger build, than the sheep dog. The 
 sagacious colly of Scotland is a dog deserv- 
 edly prized, though much smaller than either 
 the English sheep-dog, or the drover's cattle- 
 dog. The ears are never wholly pendent in 
 any of the race ; but in the British varieties, 
 and many others also, they are half erected 
 or half pricked, as it is called. The prevailing 
 colour is very generally grey, more or less 
 dark ; the tail is bushy, somewhat pendent 
 and recurved ; visage more or less pointed. 
 (Lib. Ent. Know. vol. i. p. 49. ; Brit. Hush. 
 vol. ii. p. 479. ; Brandos Diet. Science ; 
 Blaine's Rural Sports, p. 398.) 
 
 DOG BRAMBLE. (Ribes cynosbati.) 
 One of a valuable genus of plants, which con- 
 tains the gooseberry and the currant : some of 
 the species are well suited for ornamenting 
 shrubberies. They will grow in any soil, 
 propagated by cuttings, planted in autumn, 
 or early in spring. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 383 
 
 DOGBRIAR and DOG-ROSE. (Rosa 
 canina.) The wild briar bearing the hip, or 
 hep. 
 
 DOG DAYS, or CANICULAR DAYS. 
 The name given to certain days of the year, 
 during which the heat is usually the greatest. 
 They are reckoned about forty, and are set 
 down in the almanacs as beginning on the 
 3rd July, and ending on the 11th August. 
 In the time of the ancient astronomers, the 
 remarkable star Sirius, called also canicular 
 or the dog star, rose heliacally, that is, just 
 before the sun, about the beginning of July ; 
 and the sultry heat which usually prevails 
 at that season, with all its disagreeable effects, 
 among which the tendency of dogs to become 
 rabid is not one of the least disagreeable, 
 were ascribed to the malignant rage of this 
 star. Owing to the precession of the equi- 
 noxes, the heliacal rising of Sirius now takes 
 place later in the year, and in a cooler 
 season ; so that the dog days have not 
 now that relation to the particular position 
 of the dog- star, from which they obtained 
 their name. (Branded Diet, of Science and 
 Art.) 
 
 DOG FENNEL. One of the provincial 
 names of the weed corn- camomile. 
 
 DOG FLY. (Cynomia, Lin.) A genus 
 of insects common in woods and among 
 bushes, that is particularly troublesome to 
 dogs, fastening upon their head and ears. 
 They sting very severely, and always raise 
 a blister in the part they touch. ( WillicVs 
 Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 DOG POISON, FOOL'S PARSLEY. 
 (JEthusaCynapium.) An umbelliferous plant, 
 frequently found in gardens. It is easily 
 distinguished from the other umbellifera by 
 the partial umbels, consisting of three nar- 
 row, long, linear leaflets, which hang down. 
 The leaves have short sheathing footstalks, 
 are doubly pinnate, with decurrent, pinna- 
 tifid leaflets. It has been eaten for parsley, 
 and has proved fatal. The stem and leaves 
 are poisonous, and contain a peculiar alkali, 
 called Cynapia. 
 
 DOG'S-BANE. (Cynanchum monspeli- 
 acum.) A perennial, native of Montpelier, 
 which loves warmth and a good soil. Blows 
 pale pink flowers in July and August. Cover 
 the roots in frosts. Propagate by suckers. 
 
 DOG'S CABBAGE. (Thelygonum cyno- 
 crambe.) A common garden soil suits this 
 species ; propagate by seeds. 
 
 DOG'S GRASS. See Couch. 
 
 DOG STEALING. See Animals, 
 Stealing of. 
 
 DOG'S MERCURY. (Mercurialis pe- 
 rennis, Lin.) An indigenous plant, growing 
 under hedges, and in woods, in many parts 
 of Britain, root perennial, creeping stalk, 
 single without branches, rising ten or twelve 
 
DOG'S TAIL GRASS. 
 
 DOTTEREL. 
 
 inches high with rough leaves ; these have 
 their male 'flowers growing in spikes upon 
 plants different from those which produce 
 seeds. The juice of this plant is emetic, 
 while the seed is purgative and highly dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 DOG'S TAIL GRASS. See Cynosurus. 
 
 DOG'S TONGUE. (Cynoglossum.) See 
 Hound's-tongue. 
 
 DOG'S TOOTH GRASS, CREEPING. 
 (Cynodon Dactylon.) This grass was iden- 
 tified by A. R. Lambert, Esq. (Trans. Linn. 
 Soc. vol. vi.) as the celebrated hallowed 
 doob-grass of the Hindoos. In the East 
 Indies this grass grows luxuriantly, and is 
 highly valued as food for horses, &c. ; in this 
 climate, however, it scarcely begins to vege- 
 tate till the month of June, and experiments 
 made by Sinclair and others shew that its 
 produce and nutritive powers here are not 
 sufficiently great to hold out any hope that 
 its valuable properties in the East Indies 
 can be made available in the climate and 
 soil of Britain. The doob-grass flowers in 
 September, and the seed is ripe about the 
 end of October, and sometimes in November. 
 The plants, natives of the English coasts, 
 flower about a month earlier than the above. 
 It is found on the sandy shores of Cornwall 
 abundantly, and was first noticed by Mr. 
 Newton in the time of Ray. (Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. p. 290. ; Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 94.) 
 
 DOG'S TOOTH VIOLET. (Erythro- 
 nium, from erythros, red, in allusion to the 
 colour of the leaves and flowers.) These are 
 handsome, though dwarf growing plants, 
 which will thrive in common garden soil, 
 and are increased from offsets. (Paxton's 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 DOG-WHEAT. See Couch. 
 
 DOGWOOD. A name applied to two 
 different plants : in England to any of the 
 shrubby species of Cornus ; in the West 
 Indies to the Piscidia Erythrina. The for- 
 mer are of little interest, except as ornamental 
 shrubs ; the latter is a powerful narcotic, 
 the real value of which in medicine has still 
 to be determined. 
 
 There are two indigenous species of 
 cornel or dogwood ; the C. sanguinea, a 
 bush of four or five feet high, with smooth 
 branches of a dark red when full grown ; 
 fruit dark purple, very bitter, like every 
 other part of the plant ; found common in 
 hedges and thickets, especially on a chalk 
 or limestone soil : and the dwarf cornel 
 (C. suecica), growing in moist alpine pas- 
 tures, on an herbaceous stem four to six 
 inches hi^h. (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 221.) 
 The English names of this shrub, says Phil- 
 lips (Syl. Flora, vol. i. p. 183.), are scarcely 
 less numerous than the tints of its leaves. 
 It is, often called female cornel, to distinguish 
 384 
 
 it from Cornus mascula, and hound's berry 
 tree, dogberry, &c. (because, says Parkinson, 
 the fruit is not even fit for the dogs), and 
 hence the name of dogwood. 
 
 The Cornelian cherry (Cornus mascula) 
 is a native of Austria, growing from fifteen to 
 twenty feet high. See Cornelian Cherry. 
 
 The American dogwood (Cornus florida) 
 is a native of N. America, where it grows 
 fifty feet high. It blows large white and 
 pink flowers at the end of its branches in 
 May and June. 
 
 DOKE. A provincial term applied to a 
 deep furrow. 
 
 DOLE, or DOOL. A long narrow slip 
 of green in an arable field, which is left un- 
 ploughed ; or a piece of land upon a heath 
 or common, of which only one particular 
 person has a right to cut fuel. 
 
 DOLE-STONE. A local term applied 
 to a land-mark or boundary-stone. 
 
 DOLPHIN-FLY. The name of an in- 
 sect of the aphis tribe, very destructive to 
 beans. (See Beans.) It is sometimes called 
 the collier The destruction which this in- 
 sect causes is not wonderful when we re- 
 flect on the astonishing fecundity of all the 
 aphides family. The sexual intercourse of 
 one original pair serves for all the genera- 
 tions which proceed from the female in the 
 succeeding year ; and Reaumur informs us, 
 that, in five generations, one aphis may be 
 the progenitor of 5,904,900,000 descendants : 
 in one year there may be twenty generations. 
 At one season they are viviparous, at others 
 oviparous. The dolphin-fly or collier is of 
 a black colour : it begins its depredations at 
 the top of the bean, and continues multi- 
 plying downwards. The only method of 
 preserving the crop is to top the plants, and 
 to burn the tops. 
 
 DOO. A word provincially signifying a 
 pigeon or dove ; much used in Scotland. 
 
 DOOB-GRASS. See Dog's Tooth 
 Grass. 
 
 DOSOME. (Apparently from docile.) 
 An epithet applied in some places to such 
 beasts as improve very rapidly. 
 
 DOSS. (A corruption of toss.) A pro- 
 vincial word signifying to strike with the 
 horn or gore slightly, as cattle frequently 
 do each other. 
 
 DOTTEREL. (Charadrius morinellus.) 
 This species of plover is a summer visitor 
 only to this country, making its appearance 
 in the south eastern counties of England 
 towards the end of April. Food, worms, 
 slugs, insects, and their larvse. The most 
 favourite breeding haunts of these birds are 
 always near to, or on the summits of the 
 highest mountains : they make no nest, but 
 deposit their eggs, which seldom exceed 
 hree, in a small cavity on dry ground 
 
DOUBLE-FURROWED PLOUGH 
 
 DOWNS. 
 
 covered with vegetation. Eggs, yellowish 
 olive, blotched, and spotted with dark 
 brownish black, one inch seven lines and a 
 half in length, by one inch two lines and a 
 half in breadth. General plumage ash-co- 
 lour shaded with brown and white, breast 
 rich fawn-colour, belly black, legs and toes 
 greenish yellow, claws black. Whole length 
 of the bird nine and a half inches. (Yar- 
 relFs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 392.) 
 
 DOUBLE-FURROWED PLOUGH. 
 See Plough. 
 
 DOVE. A species of pigeon, of which 
 the principal varieties are the ring-dove or 
 wood pigeon, the stock-dove, the rock-dove, 
 and the turtle-dove. See Pigeon. 
 
 DOVE-COTE. A structure usually 
 erected of wood for the accommodation and 
 rearing of tame pigeons ; the only essential 
 difference between which and a common 
 poultry house is, that the entrance for the 
 birds must be raised to a considerable 
 height from the ground, because pigeons fly 
 higher in the atmosphere than most other 
 birds. 
 
 The utmost cleanliness ought to prevail 
 in pigeon houses, hence the holes should be 
 carefully examined before the breeding 
 season arrives. They should be frequently 
 well washed out, and the dung and other 
 impurities removed ; but this should be 
 done early in the day, when the birds are 
 out, so that they may not be disturbed. 
 Some old dove-cotes are circular buildings, 
 of considerable size, with ranges of square 
 holes formed in the anterior wall, in which 
 the birds make their nests. From this fea- 
 ture in old dove-cotes, the term pigeon- 
 holes in desks is derived. These dove-cotes 
 are entered by a door below ; and by means 
 of a ladder the young pigeons are easily 
 taken from the nests. Many dove-cotes of 
 this kind exist in Scotland. (Brande 's Diet, 
 of Science, 8fc. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 DOWLED. A term signifying flat or 
 dead, as in liquor that has lost its head. 
 
 DOWLER. The provincial name for a 
 dumpling. 
 
 DOWN-DINNER. A country term ap- 
 plied to the afternoon luncheon. 
 
 DOWNS. (Sax. bun ; Erse dune, a hill.) 
 In agricultural parlance, large, open, elevated, 
 unenclosed tracts of land, generally reserved 
 for grazing purposes. Mr. Taunton, in his 
 valuable observations on down grasses, 
 states, that the principal strata which afford 
 downs are, first and most extensively, the 
 chalk, including the wolds in Yorkshire; 
 secondly, in order of succession, the green 
 and brown sands (though these sometimes 
 degenerate into such acerbity that the heath 
 is abundant, and they, therefore, form an 
 exception to the general character of downs, 
 385 
 
 whose produce should principally consist of 
 the natural grasses, and which circumstance 
 distinguishes downs from heaths properly so 
 called) ; next the oolites or calcareous free- 
 stones, upon which the wolds of Gloucester- 
 shire are found ; next the mountain lime- 
 stone ; and, lastly, certain elevated portions 
 of the killas or slate. All these downs 
 unite in a few general characteristics. The 
 soil is usually thin, dry, light, and porous : 
 from its elevation, it is also mostly cold 
 and backward of growth. In consequence 
 of being continually and perfectly ventilated, 
 these pastures are particularly healthy for 
 sheep, by reason of their not being naturally 
 rich, though for the most part easy to work ; 
 they are also better adapted for the alternate 
 husbandry, including turnips, than they are 
 for meadow or pasture, or for heavy beasts. 
 There are, however, some few parts where 
 either a cap of strong soil left on the sum- 
 mits, or a greater depth of alluvial soil 
 washed together into hollows, throws out a 
 pasturage so strong that a cow can obtain a 
 tolerable bite, and such parts obtain the 
 honourable pre-eminence of being called 
 " cow-leases." The upper soil of these 
 tracts is usually in a principal degree cal- 
 careous, with a greater or less mixture of 
 silicious sand, and some portion of argil- 
 laceous matter. In some spots the argil, in 
 some the silex, in some the calcareous mat- 
 ter predominates. The natural grasses 
 which generally abound in these downs are 
 of small bulk, but they are wholesome and 
 palatable, particularly to sheep. Mr. Taun- 
 ton expresses little doubt that in a sandy 
 chalk down, with a tolerable depth of soil, 
 and with such a proportion of argil as not 
 to starve the cock's-foot, the union of 
 cock's-foot, meadow fescue, narrow-leaved 
 brome-grass, yellow oat-grass, upright 
 brome-grass, barley-like fescue, common 
 quaking grass, downy oat-grass, and meadow 
 oat-grass, would afford a permanent crop of 
 a ton of hay per acre per annum. The na- 
 tural grasses most prevalent on the downs 
 are as follows : on argillaceous soils, smooth- 
 stalked meadow-grass (Poa pratensis), pe- 
 rennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne), hard 
 fescue (Festuca duriusculd), crested dog's- 
 tail (Cynosurus c?*istatus), yellow oat-grass 
 (Avena Jlavescens), and the cock's-foot 
 (Dactylis glomerata). The last three will 
 not grow in a soil without there is some 
 proportion of argil. Where the soil is 
 of a silicious sandy nature, the most com- 
 mon will be the meadow, the purple and 
 the Welsh fescue-grasses {Festuca pratensis, 
 rubra and cambrica), the common, upright, 
 and bundled-leaved bent-grasses (Agrostis 
 vulg., stricta and fascicularis), the woolly 
 oat-grass (Avena pubescens), the early hair- 
 c c 
 
DOWNY OAT GRASS. 
 
 DRAINING. 
 
 grass (Aira praicox), the sweet-scented 
 vernal-grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), the 
 common quaking-grass (Briza media), and 
 the flat- stalked meadow grass (Poa com- 
 pressa). In soils where the calcareous 
 matter predominates, those which will be 
 found in the greatest abundance are, the 
 pinnate and upright brome grasses (JBromus 
 pinnatus and erectus), the knee-jointed 
 meadow cat's-tail (Phleum nodosum), and 
 the smaller varieties. of Phleum pratense, 
 the sheep's fescue (Festuca ovina), and the 
 meadow oat-grass (Avena pratensis). In- 
 terspersed with these natural grasses, and 
 spread over the downs, will be found some 
 species of orchis, sedge, clover, scabious, plan- 
 tain, bell-flower, lotus, &c. (Hort. Gr. Wob. 
 p. 335-6. ; Quar.J. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 148.) 
 
 DOWNY OAT GRASS. See Avena. 
 
 DOZZAND. A provincial term signi- 
 fying shrivelled, not plump and fine. 
 
 DRAFFE. A name sometimes given to 
 malt-grains. 
 
 DRAG. An implement of the harrow 
 kind used in breaking down and reducing 
 land into a fine state. Also an iron catch 
 to fix on the wheels of heavily laden carts 
 or carriages when descending steep hills or 
 declivities. 
 
 DRAGON-FLY. A common name for 
 the Neuropterous insects belonging to the 
 genus Agrion or Lobelhda. 
 
 DRAGON'S HEAD. (Dracocephalum 
 Austriacum.) A perennial from the South of 
 Europe, sending up many stems, with tufts 
 of red or blue flowers blowing in July and 
 August. It likes rich mould, and is readily 
 propagated by parting the roots, or from 
 seed. 
 
 DRAG RAKES. See Rakes. 
 
 DRAINING. The very first care of the 
 farmer, that on which the success of his 
 future crops almost entirely depends, is the 
 removal of unnecessary supplies of water — 
 whether arising from the tenacity of the 
 surface retaining too much water, or from 
 springs exuding to the surface. For it is 
 evident that as different crops require 
 very varying quantities, so the cultivator 
 must adapt the moisture of the soil to the 
 crops he purposes to produce; — the sup- 
 ply which is necessary, for instance, for 
 the profitable growth of the rice plant 
 would destroy the meadow grasses of Eng- 
 land : — and again the damp soils, of which 
 many of the richest meadows of England 
 are formed, would be much too moist for 
 the cereal crops. The nature of the climate, 
 the soil, and the subsoil, must all be taken 
 into account. The plants growing on sandy 
 soils, of course, will bear a much larger 
 proportion of water than those vegetating 
 on clay soils : — and thus the very soil which, 
 
 in the dry eastern side of England, grows 
 excellent crops of corn, would, in the 
 western counties, where twice the amount 
 of rain falls, on an average, than in the east, 
 be found materially to injure the plants. 
 (See Water, its Uses to Vegetation.) 
 Placed as the farmer is under such a variety 
 of circumstances, cultivating lands of all 
 kinds, it is useless, in this article, to attempt 
 to assist him with more than general di- 
 rections. 
 
 The water carried off the soil by artificial 
 drainage is either by boring, by open or 
 by under-ground drainage, or by both. 
 Boring was first recommended by Elking- 
 ton. It is chiefly adapted for low situations, 
 surrounded by high lands, and merely con- 
 sists in boring with an auger, or digging 
 a well in the land intended to be drained, 
 until a spring of water is pierced, whose 
 head is lower than that of the surface of 
 the field; and hence it follows that when 
 the water is suffered to drain into the hole 
 made by the auger, or the well, it of ne- 
 cessity drains from the land out of the bot- 
 tom of the well, as fast as it flows into it at 
 the top. This plan might be profitably em- 
 ployed to a much greater extent than at pre- 
 sent. When combined with surface draining 
 it saves, by shortening the water channels, 
 a considerable portion of the expense. 
 
 In open surface drains, the nature of 
 the soil, its declinations, and its chemical 
 composition, can alone guide the farmer. 
 In either case too much care can hardly 
 be bestowed upon it ; it is a question that 
 the legislature has deemed to be of even 
 national importance ; for by the 3 & 4 
 Vict. c. 55. landowners possessing only 
 limited interests in estates are empowered 
 to raise money, by way of mortgage, on such 
 property, to be employed for the purposes 
 of improving them by drainage ; and the 
 government has promoted the use of drain 
 tiles by exempting them from duty. I shall 
 confine my observations, therefore, chiefly 
 to the formation of under-drains. These 
 commonly vary in depth from 2i to 4 feet ; 
 and, in peat soils, on account of the very ma- 
 terial settling which takes place, as they are 
 brought into cultivation, from this to 6 or 7 
 feet. The first operation necessary upon 
 a field intended to be drained, is the ex- 
 amination of the strata, or veins of earth of 
 which it is composed ; and this is commonly 
 effected with the boring auger, or by digging 
 small pits, or open drains, as by this means 
 the oozings or weepings will speedily display 
 themselves, and indicate pretty correctly 
 the source whence the superabundant 
 water proceeds. This being ascertained, 
 the direction of the under-drains will be 
 the more easily decided. If the soil is of 
 
DRAINING. 
 
 such a description that the subsoil plough 
 can be used with advantage, then the top of 
 the stones, bricks, or tiles by which the 
 drain is formed and preserved, should not be 
 less than 2£ feet from the surface of the 
 soil. In the formation of these drains the 
 workman always commences on the lowest 
 extremity ; by this means, besides other ad- 
 vantages, the water, as he arrives at it, 
 drains away from him, and shows him, by 
 its escape, that he is preserving a proper 
 fall. When the drain is cut to the re- 
 quisite depth, he proceeds to fill it up with 
 the materials through which the drainage 
 waters are to flow, to within such a distance 
 only as is out of the reach of the plough ; 
 and then the earth is shovelled back again 
 over the drainage materials. The descrip- 
 tion of these materials, of necessity, varies 
 with the nature of the country and its 
 produce : in Essex, brushwood and straw 
 are chiefly employed ; in the northern parts 
 of the island, stones, broken lime, or sand- 
 stone are used. Bricks and tiles are resorted 
 to in districts where cheaper materials are 
 not to be procured ; and these are made 
 in a variety of forms ; and recently one 
 or two valuable improvements have taken 
 place in the construction of them by machi- 
 nery ; so that, by those of the Marquis of 
 Twceddale and Mr. Beart, draining tiles 
 are now made at a very reduced price. 
 Upon tile-making, in general, there is a good 
 paper by Mr. Wiggins, Joum. Roy. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 350. The tiles of the Marquis 
 of Tweeddale are described Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. vi. p. 50. and Journ. Rot/. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 148., and those of Mr. Beart, with 
 engravings of his machine, in the Journ. of 
 the Roy. Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 93. ; by 
 which it seems that in Huntingdonshire the 
 cost of the tiles made by his apparatus is 
 about 15«. per 1000 : this varies, of course, 
 with the price of coals, of which variation Mr. 
 Pusey has constructed the following table. 
 
 Price of Coals 
 per ton. 
 
 Making the Tiles 
 at the Proprietor's 
 Yard, per 1000. 
 
 Selling Price, 
 per 1000. 
 
 s. d. 
 
 s. 
 
 s. 
 
 6 0 
 
 11 
 
 18 
 
 9 6 
 
 12 
 
 19 
 
 13 0 
 
 13 
 
 20 
 
 16 6 
 
 14 
 
 21 
 
 20 0 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 23 6 
 
 16 
 
 23 
 
 27 0 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 30 6 
 
 18 
 
 25 
 
 These are commonly used with the flat 
 or sole tiles, which cost, in Huntingdon- 
 shire, from 8s. to 10s. per 1000. The clay 
 best adapted' for tiles is that which con- 
 tains a small proportion of sand or marl, or 
 387 
 
 sand may be mixed with the clay. The 
 annexed cut gives the 
 shape of the Tweeddale 
 patent drain tile. It is 
 commonly made three 
 inches deep, three and 
 a half wide, and about 
 twelve in length. 
 The use of draining tiles is evidently on 
 the increase, and every improvement which 
 is made in them naturally extends their 
 field of usefulness ; they are by far the most 
 permanent and effective of all the materials 
 used for draining land. Of 
 draining bricks there are 
 various shapes ; the an- 
 nexed figures represent a 
 few of the most common, and 
 the mode of placing them. 
 
 In figs. 1. and 1 a, 84 bricks are required 
 for every 8 yards. In fig. 2. 55 bricks are 
 required for every 8 yards. In fig. 3. 110 
 bricks are required for every 8 yards. Figs. 
 
 4. and 5. have been found very useful in 
 the drainage of peat-bogs or quicksands. 
 They are all, however, for most purposes 
 inferior to the draining tile. 
 
 c c 2 
 
DRAINING. 
 
 In the formation of drains, a shovel ta- 
 pering to a point, and scoops of a peculiar 
 shape, are commonly used. These are re- 
 presented in the figures 6, 7, 8. The old- 
 fashioned way of forming a drain is de- 
 
 picted in figures 9. and 10. ; in these the 
 bottom of the drain was filled up partially 
 with brushwood, stones, long ropes of 
 twisted straw, others of ling or heath, 
 which are much more tough and permanent. 
 The expense of digging and filling in any 
 of the above drains (exclusive of the brush- 
 wood or other materials) varies from 45. 6d. 
 to 5s. 6d. per score rods (120 yards local 
 measure). The expense per acre will be, 
 according to Mr. S. Taylor (Brit. Farm. 
 Mag. vol. ii. p. 359.), £ s. d. 
 
 If the drains are 8 yards distant 1 13 9 
 
 — — 7 — — 1 17 6 
 _ _ 6 — — 2 0 0 
 
 — — 5h — — 2 5 0 
 
 — — 5~ — — 2 8 9 
 _ 4 — — 2 17 6 
 
 In many situations, where a spring is to 
 be reached it is very 
 desirable to form a 
 well by the side of 
 the drain according to 
 the annexed outline. 
 (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 223.) A 
 very common modern mode of constructing 
 the drain is according to the 
 form in fig. 12. Loose mould 
 or gravel is placed at the top 
 to the depth of one foot. Sod, 
 straw, heath, or rushes four 
 inches ; aiid then land stones 
 one foot eight inches thick 
 surround the draining tiles. 
 
 The drain tiles, bricks, or other materials 
 are covered with any porous material that 
 the locality affords. Stones, gravel, scoria, 
 refuse of the foundries, ashes, peat, moss, 
 sods, brushwood, straw, heath, ling, rushes, 
 broken chalk, &c. (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. vi. p. 89.) There are three very va- 
 luable papers on tile draining in this volume 
 by Mr. Carmichael (p. 81.), Mr. Stirling 
 (]>. 100.), Mr. Wilson (p. 112.); and on 
 drainage, by Mr. Black (Ibid. vol. i. p. 214.) ; 
 by Air. Adam (p. 375.), who considers the 
 Ix s! sloped tile to be one similar to that of 
 the Marquis of Tweeddale's ; by Mr.Dud- 
 geon (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 71.) ; by Mr. Macleord 
 of Lockmore (/hid. p. 103.); on draining 
 clay soils by Mr. Carmichael (Ibid. vol. iii. 
 p. 34.) ; on underground draining (Quart. 
 388 
 
 Journ. Agr. vol. v. p. 232.) ; on making 
 drain tiles of peat (Ibid. vol. vii. p. 246.) 
 as a source of profitable outlay for capital, 
 (Ibid. vol. viii. p. 318. 540.) ; on draining, 
 and on the mole plough, by Mr. Aiton 
 (Ibid. vol. ix. p. 388.) ; on plug or clay 
 draining, by Mr. Evans (Ibid. vol. iv. 
 p. 501. and vol. ii. p. 68.) ; on substituting 
 tubes made of larchwood for drain tiles in 
 certain localities, by Mr. Scott (Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. xiii. p. 431. and Ibid. vol. 
 xiv. p. 99.) He estimates that these square 
 tubes, having a clear water way of two 
 inches by two and a half, made by the pro- 
 prietor, having his own wood and saw- 
 mill, to be, for workmanship, about one 
 penny per rood of eighteen feet : they are 
 pierced with auger holes in every part, and 
 made in the following shapes, being fastened 
 together with wooden pegs. 
 
 Mr. Wilson calculates the average ex- 
 pense with stones per rood to be 7s. Sd. 
 (Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. i. p. 242.) Mr. 
 Yule at per rood of 21 feet, 2 feet 9 inches 
 deep with 3 inch tiles, at Is. 0±d. ; with 4 
 inches, 4i to 5 feet deep, 1*. 3±d. ; with 6 inch 
 tiles, the same depth, Is. 5%d. (Ibid, p.397.) 
 
 The expense of tile draining has been 
 thus estimated by Mr. Carmichael (Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 98.) at per imperial 
 acre; tiles being 2s. 6d. per 100, and soles 
 Is. 6d. per 100. 
 
 On an Aluminous Clay. 
 
 1 Distance of 
 | Drains. 
 
 I Depth of 
 1 Drain. 
 
 1 Breadth at 
 bottom. 
 
 Vards in 
 Acre. 
 
 Number of 
 Tiles. 
 
 Number of 
 Soles. 
 
 Total Ex- 
 pense. 
 
 ft. 
 
 in. 
 
 in. 
 
 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 1250 
 
 6 7 If 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 1250 
 
 6 9 4' 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 2500 
 
 7 13 7£ 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 1040 
 
 5 4 8 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 1040 
 
 5 6 6i 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 806 . 
 
 2080 
 
 890 
 
 6 7 10 
 
 21 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 691 
 
 1780 
 
 890 
 
 4 9 8 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 691 
 
 1780 
 
 1780 
 
 4 11 3A 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 691 
 
 1780 
 
 
 5 8 llf 
 
 
 
 
 On a mixed Clay. 
 
 
 15 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 908 
 
 2500 
 
 
 5 14 4 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 
 5 18 10 
 
 15 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 
 6 1 8 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 968 
 
 2500 
 
 1250 
 
 7 6 10 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 
 4 15 6 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 
 4 19 1 
 
 18 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 
 5 1 6 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 2080 
 
 10 io 
 
 6 4 2 
 
 
 
 
 On Alum Clay. 
 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 800 
 
 44f 
 
 
 5 11 11 t 
 
 18 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 «f 
 
 
 5 17 7i 
 
 18 
 
 27 
 
 5 
 
 806 
 
 44$ 
 
 
 6 3 I* 
 
 Carts of stones. 
 
 t Stone drains. 
 
DRAINING. 
 
 DRILL. 
 
 Mr. Stirling estimates the expense of 
 draining per imperial acre (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. vi. p. 111.) to be, 
 
 Distance 
 between 
 the Drains. 
 
 Number of 
 
 Chains 
 per Acre. 
 
 With broken 
 Stones 
 screened. 
 
 With broken 
 Stones 
 riddled. 
 
 With Tiles 
 and 
 Soles. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 9 13 5i 
 8 9 3A 
 7 10 6 
 6 15 5± 
 
 feet. 
 14 
 16 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 47*14 
 4125 
 36-66 
 33- 
 
 £ S. d. 
 7 18 4 
 6 18 64. 
 6 3 1 
 5 10 10 
 
 £ s. d. 
 8 2 54 
 7 2 If 
 6 6 3 
 5 13 84, 
 
 On the heavy clay soils, the drainage is 
 sometimes effected by a drain or mole 
 plough, which on some soils answers very 
 well at a moderate expense. In this the 
 plough draws a long tubular orifice in the 
 clay by a heavy sharp-pointed rod instead 
 of a share, which on some adhesive soils, 
 remains open, provided the fall for the wa- 
 ter is sufficient, for years. It is, however, 
 liable to too many casualties for general in- 
 troduction. It is commonly worked, either 
 with a windlass or otherwise, by 18 or 20 
 horses draAving from strong whippletrees. 
 {Brit. Hush. vol. i. p. 455.) 
 
 An excellent and improved imitation of 
 the mole plough system is sometimes prac- 
 tised on heavy clay lands. A stout piece of 
 rope or cable four or five yards long is laid 
 at the bottom of the newly cut drain (one 
 of the narrow wedge-formed drains) ; to 
 the ends of this piece of rope is fastened a 
 cross or T-headed piece of wood, by means 
 of which it is drawn along the bottom of 
 the drain, after the clay and other materials 
 have been filled over it ; an arch or opening 
 is thus left, similar to that formed by the 
 mole plough : the expense, in this case, is 
 merely that of digging and filling up the 
 drain. (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. ii. p. 367.) 
 
 In spite, however, of open and under- 
 ground drainage, and of all that these or 
 the boring system can effect, there are yet 
 many thousands of acres in the east of 
 England, that without the aid of the pump 
 and the steam-engine would still be co- 
 vered with water. These were recom- 
 mended many years since for this, purpose 
 by Mr. Savory, of Downham. (Com. Board 
 of Agr. vol. iv. p. 52.) The gigantic powers 
 of these great engines will be readily seen 
 from the report of Mr. Glynn (Brit. Farm. 
 Mag. vol. iii. p. 289.). Deeping Fen, near 
 Spalding, containing 25,000 acres, is effect- 
 ually drained by two steam-engines of 60 
 and 80 horse power. Littleport Fen, near 
 Ely, of about 28,000 acres, is drained by 
 two engines of 30 and 80 horse power. 
 By this last engine, on July 18th, 1830, 
 in a trial of eight hours, by the com- 
 bustion of only 87 bushels of coals, 51,230 
 tons of water were raised. Before the in- 
 troduction of steam-engines, windmills were 
 employed to a considerable extent. They 
 389 
 
 were maintained, it is true, at a less ex- 
 pense, but the certain powers of the steam- 
 engine have .induced its general adoption. 
 The carriage drain is an open capacious 
 drain, used very commonly in irrigation, and 
 is usually made of wood, for the purpose of 
 carrying the flood waters across ditches, 
 hollow drains, &c. 
 
 DRAINING-PLOUGHS. Such ploughs 
 as are contrived for the purpose of cutting 
 drains, in order to carry off the water from 
 wet soils. See Ploughs. 
 
 DRANK, or DRAUK. A very common 
 name in many parts of England for darnel ; 
 but is properly only the provincial name for 
 the scaly brome-grass. 
 
 DRAPE. A local term applied to a 
 barren animal. Drape-cow is frequently 
 applied to a farrow-cow, or one whose milk 
 is just dried up. And drape-ewe to an ewe 
 from which the lamb has been some time 
 taken. 
 
 DRAUGHT. A provincial word signi- 
 fying a team of either cattle or oxen. See 
 Traction. 
 
 DRAUGHT-HORSE. A horse destined 
 for the cart, plough, or some other team. 
 See Horse. 
 
 DRENCH. In farriery, a large drink 
 or draught of any liquid remedy, given to 
 an animal, usually by means of a horn pro- 
 perly cut for the purpose. A very able 
 paper on drenching horses, by Mr. John 
 Stewart, veterinary surgeon, appears in 
 the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. x. p. 626., 
 which may be' consulted with advantage. 
 A drink is not so portable as a ball; it is. 
 more troublesome to give, and a portion of 
 it is usually wasted. (The Horse, p. 392.) 
 Mr. Stewart strenuously urges the following 
 propositions : 1 . That draughts, particularly 
 when pungent or disagreeable, are dan- 
 gerous.. 2. That by no care can the danger 
 be altogether avoided. 3. That no draught 
 should be given unless the horse be in danger 
 of dying without it. 4. That the safest way 
 of administering draughts is to give them 
 when the horse is lying. 5. That a draught 
 is seldom or never absolutely necessary but 
 in diseases which make the horse lie. 
 6. That a bottle is a better drenching 
 instrument than a horn. (See Veterinarian, 
 vols. xi. and xii. ) 
 
 DRESSING. Any sort of manure ap- 
 plied to land for the purpose of its improve- 
 ment. Top-dressing is that sort of fertiliser 
 which is spread over or applied upon the 
 surface of the land, either Avhen the crop is 
 upon the ground or not. 
 
 DRILL. A small track or longitudinal 
 opening in the form of a slight furrow, made 
 in tillage-lands for the purpose of receiving 
 any kind of seeds. 
 
 c c 3 
 
DRILL- HUSBANDRY. 
 
 DRILL -MACHINES. 
 
 DRILL-HUSBANDRY. The practice 
 of sowing or planting grain and other seeds 
 or roots with a machine, in regular rows or 
 drills, in place of scattering them by the 
 hand, by which means they are dropped at 
 more equal distances, and lodged at better 
 depths, than can be done in the latter way. 
 " Of our modern improvements," says Dr. 
 Fothergill (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. 
 p. 156.), " the introduction of drill-hus- 
 bandry has been generally allowed to be 
 the most important." Horse-hoeing is in- 
 timately connected with it, and for the most 
 part forms part of the same system. 
 
 DRILLING. The act of putting dif- 
 ferent kinds of crops into the ground in the 
 drill-method. Mr. Bramston gives the re- 
 sult of an experiment on the comparative 
 advantages of narrow and wide drilling. 
 (Joum.ofRoy. Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 294.) 
 
 DRILL-MACHINES. Implements for 
 distributing seed and manure easily, and at 
 regular distances. A rude kind of drill has 
 been used in agriculture from a very re- 
 mote period. The cultivators of China, 
 Japan, Arabia, and the Carnatic, have drilled 
 and dibbled in their seed from time imme- 
 morial. (The Chinese drill, or drill-plough, 
 is noticed Quart Journ. of Agr. vol. i. 
 p. 675.) After the Hindoos have thus 
 deposited their seed, they use a kind of sub- 
 soil plough, which passes under and loosens 
 the soil to the depth of about eight inches 
 three drills' breadth at a time. (Com. Board 
 ofAgr.vi.355.) Gabriel Platte, in 1638-1653, 
 describes a rude dibbling machine formed 
 of iron pins " made to play up and down 
 like Virginal jacks ;" and John Worlidge in 
 his Husbandry, published in 1669, not only 
 advocated the use of the seed drill, but of 
 the manure drill. Evelyn, in the same year 
 (Trans. Roy. Soc. vol. v. p. 1056.), men- 
 tions with much commendation a drill- 
 plough which had been invented in Ger- 
 many, whence it had found its way into 
 Spain, and had been noticed by the Earl of 
 Sandwich, the English ambassador, who 
 forwarded it to this country, as the inven- 
 tion of a Don Leucatilla. Jethro Tull at a 
 later period (1730-40) devoted all his 
 energies to promote the introduction of 
 this machine, more especially as it ad- 
 mitted the use of the horse-hoe. The 
 united advantages of these excited in him 
 the highest enthusiasm. But it was not 
 until the drill had been gradually improved 
 by the labour of succeeding mechanists, that 
 this invaluable machine, principally through 
 the exertions of Lord Leicester and others, 
 became generally used in England. Thence 
 it appears that the method of sowing corn 
 and other sccmIs l>y machines in England is 
 not (as is well remarked by Mr. J. A. Ran- 
 390 
 
 some, the eminent agricultural machine 
 maker of Ipswich, to whom I am indebted 
 for almost the whole of this article) a 
 modern idea, though the machines have 
 been so much improved within the last 
 century as to make them bear but little 
 resemblance to those formerly in use. 
 
 Passing by those of more ancient date, 
 we come to the inventions of Jethro Tull, 
 for the purpose of carrying out his system of 
 drill-husbandry, about 1733. His first in- 
 vention was a drill-plough to sow wheat 
 and turnip seed, in drills three rows at a 
 time. There were two boxes for the seed, 
 and these with the coulters were placed 
 one set behind the other, so that two sorts 
 of seed might be sown at the same time. 
 A harrow to cover in the seed was attached 
 behind. 
 
 Jethro Tull also invented a turnip- drill 
 somewhat similar to the other in general 
 arrangement, but of a lighter construction. 
 The feeding spout was so arranged as to 
 carry one half of the seed backwards after 
 the earth had fallen into the channel; a 
 harrow was pinned to the beam, and by this 
 arrangement one half of the seed would 
 spring up sooner than the other, and so part 
 of it escape the turnip fly. When desirable 
 to turn the machine, the harrow was to be 
 lifted and the feeding would stop. The 
 manner of delivering the seeds to the fun- 
 nels in both the above drills was by notched 
 barrels, and Tull was the first who used 
 cavities in the surfaces of solid cylinders for 
 the feeding. Nothing material in the history 
 of the drill occurred afterwards till 1782, and 
 but little progress appears to have been 
 made to that period in drill-husbandry. 
 
 About this time Sir John Anstruther, 
 near Edinburgh, presented the model of an 
 improved drill-plough of his own invention 
 to the Bath and West of England Society, 
 having had one in use for eight years pre- 
 vious without its getting out of order. It 
 was a double drill-plough of simple con- 
 struction, by which two furrows could be 
 sown at a time, the horse walking between 
 them, and by this means the injury usually 
 done by the horse's feet to the fine ground 
 was avoided. Within the next ten years, 
 twelve patents were taken out for drill-ma- 
 chines, two of which were for depositing 
 manure with the seed; but the most approved 
 appear to have been those invented by James 
 Cooke, a clergyman of Heaton Norris, in 
 Lancashire ; and the general principles of 
 these machines, from their simplicity, have 
 been adopted in the construction of some of 
 the most approved of the present day. 
 
 The annexed cut of Cooke's drill is copied 
 from the Letters and Papers of the, Bath and 
 West of England Society, vol. v. 
 
D1ULL-MACI1INES. 
 
 COOKE S DRILL. 
 
 The seed-box is of a peculiar shape, the 
 hinder part extending lower than the fore 
 part. It is divided by partitions, and so 
 supported by adjustable bearings as to pre- 
 serve a regular delivery of the seed whilst 
 the machine is passing over uneven ground. 
 The feeding cylinder is made to revolve 
 by a tooth-wheel, which is fixed on each 
 end of the main axle, and gears with other 
 toothed wheels on each end of the cylinder ; 
 the surface of the cylinder is furnished with 
 a series of cups which revolve therewith, and 
 are of various sizes, according to the dif- 
 ferent seeds. These deposit the seed re- 
 gularly in funnels, the lower ends of which 
 lead immediately behind the coulters, which 
 are connected by a beam, so as to be kept 
 in an even line, and are capable of being 
 held out of working when desired by a hook 
 and link in the centre. The seed, as it is 
 deposited, is covered in by a harrow fixed 
 behind. The carriage wheels are larger in 
 size than usual, by which means the machine 
 is more easily drawn over uneven ground; 
 and the labour of working is reduced. 
 
 About the year 1790, Henry Baldwin of 
 Mendham near Harleston in Norfolk, a farm- 
 er, aided by an ingenious workman named 
 Samuel Wells, then in his employment, im- 
 proved upon the drill known as Cooke's drill, 
 which by this time was in use in several parts 
 of Norfolk. The improvement consisted — 
 first, in making a sliding axletree, by which 
 * the carriage wheel could be extended at 
 
 f>leasure to the width of the " stetches " or 
 ands, and by which means another box with 
 cups and more coulters could be used. 
 Tims a drill containing fourteen coulters 
 391 
 
 could be enlarged to one of eighteen or 
 twenty. Second, in making self-regulating 
 levers, to which the coulters were attached ; 
 this was done by hanging each coulter on a 
 distinct lever, placed at right angles with 
 the cross bar of the framing, upon which 
 each lever was made to swing by an ordinary 
 hinge joint, and had a moveable weight at 
 its opposite end, to press the coulter into the 
 soil. By the levers being thus contrived to 
 work independently of each other, they ac- 
 commodated themselves to the irregularity 
 of the surface of the land, and the impedi- 
 ments which they might meet, without dis- 
 turbing the whole. The above were two 
 very important improvements ; and they 
 are both in use to this day. 
 
 2. Suffolk Corn and Manure Drill. — 
 Following the improvements just referred to, 
 are those by James Smyth of Peasenhall, 
 and his brother Jonathan Smyth of Swefling, 
 who have been engaged in the manufacture 
 upwards of forty years. A brief summary 
 of which is as follows : — 1 . A mode of ad- 
 justing the coulters to distances apart from 
 each other, from four and a half inches and 
 upAvards. 2. An improved manure box and 
 cups, for the delivery of manure with the 
 corn. 3. A plan to drill in manure and 
 corn, and sow small seeds at the same time. 
 4. The swing steerage, by which means the 
 man attending the drill can move the coul- 
 ters to the right or to the left hand, so as to 
 keep the straight and parallel lines for 
 sowing the seeds. 5. Various improvements 
 in gearing and driving the wheels, ban-el, &c. 
 
 The following engraving is taken from one 
 of Smyth's most perfect corn and manure 
 c c 4 
 
DRILL-MACHINES. 
 
 drills : by the description we have given of I ments by Baldwin, Wells, and Smyth, the 
 Cooke's, and of the subsequent improve- | plan will be fully understood. 
 
 SUFFOLK CORN AND MANURE DRILL. 
 
 3. The next machine which deserves notice 
 is the Bedfordshire drill. This drill was the 
 invention of Robert Salmon of Woburn, who 
 obtained for it the premium given by the 
 late Duke of Bedford, at his annual . sheep- 
 shearing about thirty years ago. 
 
 It is an ingenious and a simple machine, 
 and so contrived that the drill-man can easily 
 direct its course while he is attending to the 
 cups, and otherwise superintending its oper- 
 ation. In the arrangement for its guidance 
 
 consists its principal advantage. It was im- 
 proved by two brothers, James and Thomas 
 Bachelor, farmers and mechanists at Lid- 
 lington near Bedford ; and afterwards by 
 the present makers, Samuel Hensman of 
 Ampthill, William Hensman of Woburn, and 
 William Smith of Kempston, with some 
 others in the county of Bedford. The form 
 of the drill will be seen by the following 
 engraving. 
 
 The seed-box is suspended upon two 
 
 BEDFORDSHIRE DRILL. 
 
 centres, one at each side ; on these it swings 
 so as to keep its level position as the drill 
 moves up and down hill, or over ridges. 
 Sometimes, instead of the box being made 
 to swing upon centres, it is fixed so as to be 
 392 
 
 altered, as occasion may require, by an ad- 
 justing screw and crank placed in a con- 
 venient position for the drillman to regulate. 
 The seed corn is taken up by iron cups fixed 
 on circular plates and delivered into funnels, 
 
DRILL-MACHINES. 
 
 from whence it descends to the ground; 
 these plates are centred upon a spindle, which 
 revolves by being connected with the nave 
 of one of the carriage wheels. The coulters 
 are forced into the land by an equal pres- 
 sure upon each from the centre of the 
 carriage, on which nearly the whole weight 
 of the drill rests. The steerage is effected 
 by a pair of light shafts attached to the axle, 
 on which the carriage wheels run. These 
 shafts have a cross bar a* their ends, to 
 which small handles are attached, so that 
 the man may guide the drill to a nicety, 
 whether he be at the right or left side of it. 
 Drills on the steerage principle are made 
 with four, six, or eight coulters ; the two 
 larger sizes are in general use in Bedford- 
 shire : those with six coulters are considered 
 the best for heavy or hilly land ; those with 
 eight coulters for light and level lands- 
 
 The Bedfordshire drill, which has been 
 thus described, is for sowing corn ; but it 
 is not suited for the combined purpose of 
 sowing manure and corn at the same time, 
 as the weight of both together would be 
 too great to admit of the man lifting 
 the drill round at the end of the field. 
 The Suffolk corn and manure drill has, 
 therefore, for this purpose the advantage ; 
 and this drill is well suited for sowing 
 turnips and manure. In such cases the corn 
 box has to be exchanged for a double one, 
 
 in one part of which runs a spindle with 
 brushes, where the turnip seed is contained. 
 There are small copper slides, with different 
 numbers, from one to six holes pierced in 
 them, through which the seed is delivered 
 as required. The other part of the box 
 contains the manure, which is thrown into 
 the funnels, and these are so arranged that 
 it drops into the earth just before the seed. 
 
 4. The next drill is Hornsby's Patent Drop 
 Drill. This drill is, also, intended for drop- 
 ping seed with manure at intervals, but the 
 construction of it is very different from the 
 Suffolk. In this, the manner of regulating 
 the delivery is by having a coulter of a 
 peculiar form inside, in which a circular box 
 revolves on an axle which passes through 
 one side thereof. This box is divided into 
 compartments closed by small doors, which 
 are kept shut by a spring to each ; the com- 
 partments in the box are supplied through 
 a series of funnels, the end of the lower one 
 entering one side of the box below the centre. 
 
 On the machine being moved forwards, 
 this box revolves by means of appropriate 
 cog-wheels ; and as each spring arrives at the 
 ground, the door to which it is attached 
 opens, and the contents of that compartment 
 are deposited, to be again replaced, when it 
 arrives at the part of its rotation at the end 
 of the funnel, and so on successively. 
 
 Having described the large drill, we think 
 
 hornsby's patent drop drill. 
 
 it better to pass over the numerous varieties 
 of small ones, as these are adapted only to 
 minor purposes ; and as this essay is intended 
 to refer to the application of machinery to 
 farms of average size, we think it unneces- 
 sary to introduce them here. 
 39? 
 
 5 . GrowiseWs Patent DropDrill. — This drill 
 is for the purpose of depositing corn, grain, 
 pulse, and manure at intervals, the distances 
 of which may be regulated at pleasure. 
 
 To effect the purposes above mentioned, 
 a circular iron ring is fixed about midway 
 
DKILL-MACHINES. 
 
 grounsell's patent drop drill. 
 
 between the nave and rim of the drill car- 
 riage wheel. In this there is a number of 
 holes to carry a series of studs, which may 
 be varied according to circumstances ; and 
 as these studs come in succession, when the 
 wheel turns they open valves for the de- 
 livery of the corn and manure, which close 
 
 again immediately the stud has passed. A 
 further improvement is by the adoption of 
 projecting arms or shovels, to draw the 
 manure and corn to the funnels, instead 
 of taking the same up in cups in the way 
 adopted in other drills. 
 
 6. Lord Western's Patent Drill. 
 
 394 
 
 LORD WESTERN'S PATENT DRILL. 
 
DRILL-MACHINES. 
 
 The ingenious improvements to the drill 
 invented by this nobleman consist, 1. In 
 the application of improved metallic hinge 
 joints to the moving levers, so as to insure 
 their continuing parallel with each other, 
 and in a line with the course of the ma- 
 chine. 2. By the addition of a pair of 
 thin-edged wheels and fore axletree to the 
 machine, by which it can be guided with cer- 
 tainty in any direction. 3. A peculiar ap- 
 paratus for steering the machine, consisting 
 of a shaft passing through a socket, fixed in 
 a plummer block to the foot-board ; its outer 
 end being attached to the fore axle by an 
 universal joint, the other end having a wheel 
 with handles fixed thereon, by which the 
 machine is readily steered in its course. 
 4. The application of improved iron sockets 
 to the sides of the levers, as a means of 
 fastening the coulters, instead of weakening 
 the levers by passing through them as here- 
 tofore. 
 
 To assist the farmer in his researches, I 
 will add a rapid sketch of the chief modern 
 improvements made in the drill, which have 
 added very materially to its usefulness, with- 
 out at the same time increasing its expense. 
 
 The drills usually made by the best 
 makers, such as the Messrs. Garrett and 
 Co. of Leiston Works, near Saxmundham, 
 in Suffolk, or the Messrs. Smyths of Peasen- 
 hall and Swefling, in the same county, of 
 whose valuable and early improvements in 
 the drill we have already spoken, are of 
 several kinds ; but their description may be 
 briefly comprehended under three or four 
 heads. 
 
 1. The Common Lever Drill (see en- 
 graving of Common Suffolk Drill). This 
 invaluable machine, which is the one in the 
 most general use, is adapted for drilling 
 corn, on either level grounds or ridges, and 
 on all descriptions of soil. These are, as 
 we have stated in our previous descrip- 
 tion, furnished with independent levers, by 
 which the coulters are each readily and 
 separately made to avoid any rocks or ir- 
 regularities of the ground, and a " press 
 steelyard," to force the coulters, in case of 
 need, into hard ground, with a varying 
 degree of pressure, according to the texture 
 of the soil. 
 
 These coulters can now be set so as to 
 drill the corn at any width, from four inches 
 to a greater distance ; they, also, if re- 
 quired, readily allow of the introduction of 
 the horse-hoe ; and from being placed, by 
 another excellent improvement, in double 
 rows, they admit, when at work, of large 
 stones, &c. passing between them, of a size 
 that was not possible under the old plan 
 of placing the coulters in one line. These 
 are also, in the most complete drills, fur- 
 395 
 
 nished with a " swing steerage," by which 
 the drill-man keeps the rows at exact or 
 even distances from those which have been 
 previously drilled in the centre of the ridge, 
 or out of the furrows, &c. The " corn bar- 
 rel" of this drill is made to deliver from two 
 pecks to six or seven bushels or strikes per 
 acre of any kind of grain ; and they have 
 an additional barrel for drilling turnips and 
 mangel wurzel, &c. And again, these bar- 
 rels, by a peculiarly simple, yet excellent 
 "regulator," are kept on unequal, hilly 
 ground, on the same level ; so that the grain 
 is evenly delivered, in whatever situation 
 the drill may be placed. 
 
 A " seed engine" is also sometimes added 
 to this common corn drill, by which the 
 grass seeds and clover are sown at the 
 same time as the corn, and each kind of 
 seed, if required, separately ; by which plan 
 any quantity per acre of the seeds may 
 be much more evenly distributed, than 
 by mixing them up together. For these 
 seeds, being of different sizes and weights, 
 are in the ordinary seed engines very apt to 
 separate in the boxes ; and thus the brushes 
 too often deliver them in unequal propor- 
 tions. 
 
 The weight of these drills necessarily 
 varies with the number of coulters ; they 
 are usually from about three to ten cwts., 
 and are drawn, according to circumstances, 
 by either one, two, or three horses ; and 
 have, if required, slip axletrees, with which, 
 by merely adding to the number of the 
 coulters, &c, the drill is adapted to any 
 breadth of land. 
 
 2. The next description of drill to which 
 I shall allude, is The Manure Drill. This 
 drill is formed very readily, by merely add- 
 ing to the common corn drill, an opera- 
 tion which any husbandman can perform, 
 " a manure box." It is a simple yet ac- 
 curately-working apparatus for delivering 
 the manure, winch, in the best drills, it 
 does with great evenness, and in quantities 
 varying as " the slip " is placed, from six to 
 eight bushels per acre. In the best drills, 
 also, a very important improvement has 
 been made within the last few years, which 
 consists in the use of separate coulters for 
 manure and seed. The manure is now de- 
 posited according to the mode preferred 
 by the cultivator, not only from two to 
 three inches deeper in the ground than the 
 seed, but from ten to twelve inches in ad- 
 vance of it, so as to give the soil time to 
 cover the manure before the next coulters 
 deposit the seed ; — whereas, on the old plan 
 of depositing the seed and the fertilizer to- 
 gether down one pipe, an evil was liable to 
 arise when it was used with some of the 
 more powerful artificial manures ; the seed 
 
DRILL-MACHINES. 
 
 and the manure were too close together, 
 and the manure was not always dropped in 
 what is commonly its best position, under the 
 seed. 
 
 3. The third variety of drill which I 
 shall notice, is The Northumberland Frame 
 Manure and Turnip Ridging Drill. • This 
 excellent drill (which was first constructed 
 by the Messrs. Garrett of Saxmundham) 
 is* furnished with pressing rollers (one 
 to each coulter), which form the land into 
 ridges — and precede the coulters. These 
 deliver in separate coulters, 1st, the ma- 
 nure ; and 2dly, the seed : and the drill 
 is provided with a second roller, which 
 follows the coulters and closes the rows. 
 This machine drills two rows at a time — 
 weighs only about one cwt. — and one man 
 and a horse can easily drill from eight to 
 ten acres per day. 
 
 Besides these three most commonly used 
 drills, there are several others — such as 
 the Two Coulter Seed and Manure Lever 
 Drill ; this has a swing steerage, to which 
 we have before alluded, and a slip axletree, 
 to vary the distances of the ridges — (for 
 this valuable implement a prize was awarded 
 to Mr. Garrett at the Cambridge meeting). 
 • — To this a set of hoes is occasionally at- 
 tached, furnished with independent levers, 
 either for ridge-work or otherwise. 
 
 There are many other varieties of drills, 
 but they involve no particularly useful 
 principles, if we except the drop drills, the 
 chief object of which is to save the quantity 
 of manure. In these the seed or corn is 
 mixed, and deposited with the manure. 
 
 From this brief enumeration the farmer 
 will see that the modern drill-makers have 
 not neglected their duty, in the adoption of 
 every improvement calculated to simplify 
 and render more serviceable the common 
 and the manure drill ; and I am highly gra- 
 tified to be able to add, that there is now 
 every prospect of their skill and enterprise 
 being rewarded by the cultivators of our 
 country ; for I find, from an eminent maker, 
 that the demand for manure drills has within 
 the last two years been greater than ever 
 was remembered before. 
 
 The chief advantages of the use of the 
 drill, are the regular deposition of the seed 
 at an uniform regulated depth, from which 
 arises a considerable saving of seed (at least 
 one third) — and the facility afforded in 
 cleaning the land either by the hand or 
 horse-hoe. The importance of these results 
 is, happily for our country, rapidly becoming 
 generally understood ; and the result of 
 experiments which I have witnessed to a 
 considerable extent, upon some of the poorest 
 gravelly soils of Surrey, by Mr. Hewitt 
 Davis and others, eonvince me that, by the 
 396 
 
 use of this machine, combined with careful 
 hoeing and weeding the crops, a saving even 
 of half the usual quantity of seed now used 
 by the drill may be effected. And again, 
 I cannot too often urge upon the farmer 
 of the upland soils, far away from supplies 
 of manure, the use of the manure drill, 
 and those fertilizers expressly prepared 
 for its use ; since by these one ton of 
 manure is sufficient for three acres. And 
 let the farmer remember, that it is not only 
 the first cost of all manures which makes 
 them expensive, but the comparative labour 
 saved in their application, which must also be 
 taken into the account when the cultivator 
 is estimating their value. And further, let 
 him remember that the best and richest 
 farm compost is likely to convey to his 
 fields a multitude of seeds, the cost of 
 whose removal too rarely forms a portion 
 of such comparative estimates. 
 
 The following is a list of the patents 
 which have been taken out, during the last 
 half century, for drill ploughs and improve- 
 ments in sowing machines : — 
 
 March 13. 1784. J. Horn, machine for 
 sowing seed. 
 
 July 30. 1784. Jervas Wright, machine 
 for sowing corn. 
 
 October 20. 1785. J. Horn, machine to 
 be fixed to a plough for sowing. 
 
 December 18. 1786. Mr. Winter, for 
 drilling seed. 
 
 March 10. 1787. Rich and Hill, a drill 
 for sowing and harrowing. 
 
 July 3. 1787. J.Wright, drill plough 
 for sowing seed. 
 
 July 4. 1788. J.Cooke, a machine for 
 drilling and ploughing. 
 
 October 29. 1788. Wm. Hele, a ma- 
 chine for sowing grain. 
 
 June 20. 1789. Samuel Ridge, a drill- 
 hoe plough. 
 
 August 27. 1789. Moses Boorn, machine 
 for sowing grain. 
 
 August 19. 1790. Christ. Perkins, ma- 
 chine for sowing grain. 
 
 April 26. 1800. James Richards, Sheldon, 
 Warwickshire, machine for sowing and 
 depositing grain. 
 
 November 3. 1801. William Jackson, 
 Easingwold, drill to be attached to a plough- 
 beam. 
 
 January 21. 1813. Samuel Tyrrell, Pad- 
 ding, Hoc, Sussex, broadcast sowing ma- 
 chine. 
 
 January 21. 1816. William Madeley, 
 Yardley, drilling machines. 
 
 December 22. 1820. W. S. Tory, Lincoln, 
 drills to be fixed to ploughs. 
 
 November 2. 1835. Mr. Kean, Barikhart, 
 improvement in machinery for sowing 
 grain. 
 
DRILL-ROLLER. 
 
 DROWNING. 
 
 November 3. 1838. Lord Western, im- 
 provements in drills. 
 
 January 11. 1839. Newton, drilling and 
 sowing machines. 
 
 April 28. 1839. Milton, improved drilling 
 machines. 
 
 June 12. 1839. Grounsell, drilling corn, 
 grain, &c. 
 
 November 25. 1839. Hornby, machine 
 for drilling and sowing. 
 
 October 22*. 1840. Richard Edwards, 
 Banbury, improvement in machines for 
 preparing drills, and depositing seed or 
 manure. 
 
 DRILL -ROLLER. A roller so con- 
 trived as to form regular small incisions or 
 drills in the ground at proper depths for the 
 seed. It is merely a common cylinder roller, 
 generally of iron, about seven feet long, 
 around which are put cuttings wheels of cast 
 iron, each of which generally weighs about 
 a ton. The cutting wheels, being move- 
 able, may be fixed at any distance, by means 
 of washers. 
 
 DRINKING POND. See Pond. 
 
 DRINKS. See Drench. 
 
 DROKE. A provincial word used for 
 darnel. 
 
 DROPSY. In farriery, a disease incident 
 to horses, and sometimes called water-farcy. 
 See Horses and Sheep, Diseases or. 
 
 DROPWORT, COMMON. {Spircea 
 Jilipendula.) This wild plant seeks rocks, 
 stony places, and open elevated pastures, 
 on a chalky or gravelly soil, flowering from 
 June to July. It grows from one to two 
 feet high, and its stalk is round, firm, and 
 branched. Its dark green leaves growing 
 chiefly from the root, and standing upon 
 slender footstalks, are large and divided 
 into several firm segments. The stem-leaves 
 are small. Its flowers, which are small, 
 cream-coloured inside and reddish on the 
 outside, stand in great tufts at the top of 
 the branches. The root is woody, composed 
 of many small tubers, attached to each other 
 by filaments, which are black externally, 
 but white and farinaceous within. The root 
 of dropwort is a good astringent. {Engl. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 368.) 
 
 DROPWORT, WATER. {CEnanthe.) 
 Smith {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 68.) describes 
 five species. The common water-dropwort ; 
 the parsley water-dropwort ; sulphur-wort 
 water-dropwort ; the fine-leaved water- 
 dropwort ; and the hemlock water-dropwort. 
 They are aquatic herbs, perennials, and bi- 
 ennials ; fetid, and often poisonous ; found 
 in ditches, ponds, and other watery places. 
 The first three species are not reckoned 
 poisonous ; but the last {CEnanthe crocata), 
 is perhaps, in its fresh state, the most 
 virulent of British t)lants. Brood mares, 
 397 
 
 according to Sir Thos. Frankland, some- 
 times eat the root, and are poisoned by 
 it. The root consists of many fleshy knobs, 
 resembling parsnips externally, abounding 
 with an orange- coloured, fetid, and very 
 poisonous juice, such as exudes less plenti- 
 fully from all parts of the herb when wounded. 
 The stem is from two to five feet high, much 
 branched, somewhat forked, and hollow. 
 The leaves are of a dark shining green, and 
 doubly pinnate. The flowers are white, or 
 tinged with purple, very numerous and 
 crowded. 
 
 DROSOMETER. (From the Greek.) 
 An instrument constructed for measuring 
 the quantity of dew that collects on the 
 surface of a body exposed to the open air 
 during the night. The first instrument for 
 this purpose was proposed by Weidler. It 
 consisted of a bent balance which marked 
 in grains the preponderance which a piece 
 of glass of certain dimensions, laid hori- 
 zontally in one of the scales, had acquired 
 from the settling and adhesion of the glo- 
 bules of moisture. A simpler and more 
 convenient drosometer would be formed on 
 the principle of the rain gauge; and in 
 order to facilitate the descent of the dew 
 down the sides of the funnel into the tube, 
 a coat of deliqueate salt of tartar may be 
 spread over the shallow surface. Dr. Wells, 
 in making his celebrated experiments on 
 dew, exposed a small quantity of wool to 
 the open sky, and the difference in its weight 
 when laid down and taken up showed the 
 quantity of moisture it had imbibed in the 
 interval. {Branded Diet, of Science.*) 
 
 DROUGHT. The effect of long-con- 
 tinued dry weather, or the want of rain : 
 when applied to animals, it signifies thirst, 
 or want of drink. 
 
 DROVER. One who drives cattle to 
 market. 
 
 DROVER'S DOG. See Dog, Shep- 
 herd's. 
 
 DROWNING. The act of suffocating 
 or being suffocated by a total submersion in 
 water. The death which follows in this case 
 depends on the non- admission of air to the 
 lungs. One of the chief objects of breathing 
 is to abstract the carbonic acid from the ve- 
 nous blood, which is returned from all parts 
 of the body to the heart, and to irnbue that 
 which is again to be circulated Avith oxygen. 
 The venous blood, therefore, gives out in 
 the lungs carbonic acid, which is expelled 
 by the mouth ; and absorbs oxygen, by which 
 it is reddened and converted into arterial 
 blood. "Whatever prevents these changes 
 from taking place in the lungs destroys life : 
 and on this account drowning is the cause of 
 death. The length of time during which a 
 person may remain under water without 
 
DRUDGE. 
 
 DUCK. 
 
 being drowned is very unequal in different 
 individuals, and depends as much on the 
 temperature of the water as on the particular 
 constitution of the subject; in general, 
 however, there is little prospect of recovery, 
 after any person has continued fifteen mi- 
 nutes submersed in water. It is, however, 
 a vulgar and a dangerous error to suppose 
 that persons apparently dead, by submersion 
 in water, are irrecoverable because life does 
 not soon reappear. The best and most terse 
 advice that can be given in cases of apparent 
 suspension of life by drowning, is to remove 
 the body as quickly as possible into a warm 
 room ; this, however, should not be done on 
 the shoulders of another person, but on a 
 shutter or board, with the head and shoul- 
 ders elevated, and the face freely exposed 
 to the air. The wet garments should be 
 taken off as speedily as possible, and the 
 lungs inflated by artificial respiration with- 
 out loss of time, and warmth and friction 
 applied to the body by well drying and 
 rubbing it with warm blankets and towels. 
 Electricity, if it can be applied, will also be 
 found advantageous; but all nasal stimulants 
 should be avoided. The simplest method 
 of effecting artificial respiration is to intro- 
 duce the nozel of a pair of bellows into one 
 nostril, shutting the other and the mouth 
 whilst the air is blown in; and as soon as 
 the chest seems filled, to open both mouth 
 and nostrils, and press gently on the chest, 
 to imitate natural breathing. (Brandes Diet, 
 of Science ; WillicKs Dom. Ency.) 
 
 DRUDGE. An implement of the rake 
 or harrow kind, peculiar to West Devon- 
 shire. It is a sort of long heavy wooden- 
 toothed rake, the teeth being broad, and 
 placed with the wide or flat side foremost. 
 It is drawn by horses or oxen, and made 
 use of, in paring and burning operations, to 
 collect the broken parts or fragments of the 
 sward which have been loosened by the 
 operation of the plough and harrow. 
 
 DRUG. A term provincially applied to 
 a four-wheeled timber-carriage; and to 
 every medicinal agent. 
 
 DRYAS, WHITE, or MOUNTAIN 
 AVENS (Dry as octopetala). A perennial, 
 one of the most elegant of Alpine plants in 
 this island. Roots strong and woody, form- 
 ing extensive matted tufts of short, erect, 
 somewhat shrubby leafy stems leaves ever- 
 green, ovate, near an inch long, smooth, of a 
 deep shining green above ; snow white and 
 cottony, with a red rib beneath. Flowers 
 large, solitary, of a brilliant white. (Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 431.) This elegant genus of 
 plants succeeds best in a border of peat soil, 
 but they require to be protected in winter. 
 Increased by cuttings, seeds, or divisions. 
 (Paxtons Bot. Diet) 
 398 
 
 DRY ROT. The name of a disease 
 which attacks wood, rendering it pulveru- 
 lent by destroying the cohesion of its parts. 
 It frequently depends on fungous plants 
 which are nourished upon the sap in the 
 wood, and by taking that away destroy the 
 cohesive property of the woody particles. 
 The fungi most destructive are the Meru- 
 lius lacrymans, the Polyporus destructor, and 
 several species of Sporotrichium. The pro- 
 duction of these fungi is favoured by what- 
 ever causes the sap remaining in the wood 
 to ferment ; as, for example, defect of ven- 
 tilation. In the old cathedrals and other 
 public edifices, the dry rot never appeared, 
 because care was taken to ventilate the beams. 
 It occurs among the timbers of ships, where 
 it sometimes commits the most serious 
 damage and in damp ill- ventilated houses. 
 Mr. Batson, in the Trans, of Soc. for 
 JSncour. of Arts, recommended charring as 
 a preventive. Some excellent advice is 
 also given on this subject in a paper by 
 Mr. Hart " On the Cause of Dry Rot in the 
 Larch and other Trees" (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. iv. p. 395.). The process which has 
 been patented by Mr. Kyan, namely, steep- 
 ing the wood for a week or two in a strong 
 solution of corrosive sublimate, which co- 
 agulates the albumen of the wood, and de- 
 stroys the fungus, appears to be the best 
 preventive at present known. Sir W. Bur- 
 net has recently invented another process 
 for rendering wood, cordage, and all de- 
 scriptions of woollen, free from the effects 
 of dry rot, which has lately been tested and 
 found very efficacious by government. I 
 understand the active matter in Sir William 
 Burnet's solution is sulphate of copper. 
 (Brande's Diet, of Science ; Williclis Dom. 
 Ency.) 
 
 DUB. A provincial term applied to a 
 small pool, or hollow, containing water. 
 
 DUCK. (Dutch ducker, to dip ; Lat. anas.) 
 There are many varieties of ducks described 
 by naturalists, but only two are to be found 
 in our farm-yards ; namely, the common 
 duck and the Muscovy duck. The common 
 duck is an useful and economical bird, re- 
 quiring little care. It is perfectly inde- 
 pendent, if there is only a pond or mud 
 hole to dabble in ; for moisture is its ele- 
 ment, and it cannot thrive without it. 
 One drake is sufficient for eight or ten 
 ducks. Duck hovels should be kept very 
 clean and warm, with a row of boxes inside 
 to induce the duck to lay her eggs in them ; 
 otherwise in the laying season she drops 
 her egg in the water, or on the bare ground, 
 or seeks by-places, where the eye of the 
 vigilant housewife cannot penetrate. For 
 this reason, it is better not to let diem out 
 very early in the morning during the laying 
 
DUCK. 
 
 months, which are March, April, and May. 
 Their hovel should be well secured from 
 the entrance of foxes, polecats, weasels, &c, 
 and it should be defended from wind and 
 weather. Ducks "feed themselves" a great 
 part of the year, as they are gross eaters ; 
 loving every sort of garbage, such as offal, 
 earthworms, caterpillars, sweepings of barns, 
 residue of breweries, slugs, toads, spiders, 
 and insects. In this particular, they are 
 admirable gardeners, effecting more in one 
 night than two gardeners could perform in 
 a week towards clearing a garden of slugs, 
 snails, and caterpillars. The waters which 
 ducks frequent should contain no leeches. 
 If a pond has any leeches in it, put in a few 
 tench, who will soon devour them. The 
 herb Henbane should also be carefully 
 rooted up from the neighbourhood of ducks 
 and poultry in general, from its poisonous 
 qualities. A duck lays from fifty to sixty 
 eggs between the months of March and 
 May, which are as nourishing in their qua- 
 lity as hen's eggs. The duck is not natu- 
 rally inclined to sit, but let her always sit 
 upon her own eggs if possible. It is ob- 
 served that they do not like sitting upon 
 strange eggs, and that they even suffer pain 
 by it. Let her nest be remote and quiet 
 from alarms. While the duck is sitting, 
 her food should be placed near her, and 
 doled out sparingly. They sit closer if 
 not fed too profusely. The food should 
 be very moist. The young ducklings are 
 hatched in a month, and then the mother 
 should be put in a coop for some time, or 
 she will carry her brood immediately to the 
 water, and tire them ; besides which, many 
 perish with cold. They should be allowed 
 to get strong first. Many housewives pre- 
 fer setting duck eggs under hens and hen 
 turkeys, in order to prevent this; but if 
 the duck is secured, the end is answered. 
 Let the ducklings have dishes of water near 
 the coop to dabble in, and feed them when 
 out of the egg-shell with bread crumbled in 
 milk for a few days. Nettle -leaves boiled 
 tender and chopped very small, made into 
 a paste with barley meal, is also a warm 
 wholesome food. When the ducklings gain 
 strength, give them plenty of raw potherbs 
 well chopped, mixed with soaked bran, 
 barley, mashed potatoes, mashed acorns, 
 or fish, if near the coast. Ducklings in- 
 tended for the table should not be allowed 
 to swim about much ; it keeps them lean. 
 Early ducks are valuable. They should 
 be confined to their hovel or to a coop 
 during the process of fattening, and fed 
 there for one month upon oats and water in 
 clean troughs. It is of no use giving them 
 musty oats : they will no more fatten upon 
 musty oats than we can thrive upon musty 
 399 
 
 DUCK'S FOOT. 
 
 bread. Do not try to fatten them either 
 upon garbage. ^ It gives the flesh a bad 
 taste. Boiled rice is a nice delicate variety 
 of food. The fine white Aylesbury breed 
 are the most profitable and the handsomest 
 duck. They are also the earliest in laying 
 and setting. 
 
 DUCK, THE MUSCOVY {Anas Mos- 
 chata), a native of South America, is a 
 gaudy-looking large bird, often introduced 
 into our farm-yards, but not much ap- 
 proved; more for show than use. Their 
 flesh is not so good to eat as that of the 
 common duck, and the drake is very tyran- 
 nical in attacking the poultry, and causing 
 an uproar in the peaceful homestead, be- 
 sides spoiling a superior breed. 
 
 I will give a recipe for salting ducks, as 
 they are done in Brittany : it is economical 
 and excellent food. Two days after the well- 
 fatted ducks are killed, cut them open at 
 the inferior part, and draw away the thighs, 
 wings, and flesh of the stomach and rump. 
 Put the whole, with the neck and tip of the 
 rump in a tub of salt, with a little nitre 
 and a few bay leaves mixed in it, to give 
 the flesh a fine red colour. Cover it up in 
 the salt a fortnight ; then cut the fowl in 
 four quarters, lard it with cloves, and put 
 it into a pot or pots, with some spice. 
 
 Duck feathers are very profitable, and, 
 mixed with those of the goose, make good 
 pillows, &c. The feathers should be plucked 
 in May and September, while the duck is 
 yet warm after death. Dry the feathers in 
 bags in the oven after the bread has been 
 withdrawn, and repeat the process several 
 times. See Feathers. 
 
 DUCK, THE WILD (Anas boschas, 
 Linn.), is rather less in size than the tame 
 duck, but differs little in plumage ; it weighs 
 usually about 2i lbs., but has been known 
 to reach 3£. In-shore shooting of wild 
 ducks is considered to be legitimate sport- 
 ing about the middle of August, when the 
 flappers, or young ducks, have begun to 
 t ake wing. The fens of Lincoln, Cambridge, 
 and Martin Mere, in Lancashire, are ex- 
 cellent localities for duck as well as every 
 other wild-fowl shooting. The last Game 
 Act has a clause to prevent wild-fowl being 
 killed from the last day of March to the 
 1st of October, and this applies equally to 
 shooting and taking them in decoys. The 
 wild ducks pair in the spring, build their 
 nest among rushes near the water, and lay 
 from ten to sixteen eggs. (Blaine s Rural 
 Sports, p. 913.; WillicKs Dom. JEncy.) See 
 Widgeon, and Teae. 
 
 DUCK'S FOOT. (Podophyllum; 
 abridged from anapodophyllum, a word sig- 
 nifying a duck's foot, as the leaves bear 
 some resemblance to it.) This plant requires 
 
DUCKWEED. 
 
 DYNAMOMETER. 
 
 a moist shady situation, and to be grown in 
 peat soil ; increased by division at the root. 
 {Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 DUCKWEED. {Lemna.) A genus of 
 plants consisting of four species, all of 
 which are natives of this country, and grow 
 abundantly in ponds, ditches, and stagnant 
 waters. They are in flower from June to 
 August. Duckweed is a small green herb, 
 consisting of little roundish leaf-like disks. 
 It is not, perhaps, generally known that 
 duckweed, if allowed to spread itself over 
 ponds and stews, in which fish are pre- 
 served, will ultimately destroy them, by its 
 forming a compact mat upon the surface, 
 thereby preventing the fish, when they rise 
 to the surface of the water for air, from 
 breathing. It should on this account be 
 abstracted diligently with a rake, or some 
 such implement, and kept under before it 
 obtains an ascendency, which it will do in 
 a very short time if not seasonably with- 
 drawn. The quantities of fish that perish 
 under the influence of this weed are incal- 
 culable. Ducks feed upon the " lemna " 
 with surprising avidity, and thence it de- 
 rives its name (duck's meat or duckweed). 
 Ducks, by dabbling and grovelling in foul 
 pools, where it predominates, and its ad- 
 hering to their feathers, are in the habit of 
 introducing it into other waters, where it 
 never appeared before. {Eng. Flora, vol. i. 
 p. 31.; WillicKs Dom. Ency.) 
 
 DUN. (Sax. bun.) A colour partaking 
 of brown and black, frequent in horses. 
 
 DUNES. (Ang.-Sax. low hills.) Hills 
 of moveable sand, which are met with along 
 the sea coast in various parts of Great Bri- 
 tain, Ireland, and the Continent. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 DUN-FLY. The class of small ephe- 
 meral flies called duns in the angler's vo- 
 cabulary (says Blaine), are very important 
 to his practice. From their numbers and 
 varieties, it would be difficult in the ex- 
 treme for the most attentive naturalist or 
 angler to designate or characterize them 
 individually. Some have very little of a 
 dun hue about them, such as the orange 
 and bright yellow varieties, and they pass 
 through the gradation of all sorts of shades ; 
 thus we have the blue dun, the brown dun, 
 the red dun, the cream-coloured dun, the 
 claret dun, &c. They are in use from Fe- 
 bruary almost through the season. {Blaine's 
 liur. Sports, pp. 1151. 1160. ; Walton's An- 
 gler.) 
 
 DUNG and DUNGHILL. See Farm- 
 yard Dung and Compost. 
 
 DU NT LIN. {Tringa variabilis.) This spe- 
 cies of bird is known all round our coast by 
 some one or more of the following names, viz. 
 Dunlin, Purrc (Sir T. Browne writes it, 
 400 
 
 Churr), Stint, Ox-bird, Sea-snipe, &c. It is 
 the most common as well as the most numer- 
 ous of the sand-pipers frequenting our shores, 
 and may be seen there throughout the year, 
 except for a short time at their breeding 
 season, from April or May to August. Eggs 
 four ; greenish-white spotted with dark red 
 brown; one inch four lines and a half in 
 length, and eleven lines and a half in 
 breadth; whole length about eight inches; 
 beak one inch and a quarter. {Yarr ell's 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 658.) 
 
 DURHAM CATTLE. See Cattle. 
 
 DURZED-OUT. A term applied in 
 some counties to corn beaten out of the ears 
 in the field by the wind or other accidents. 
 
 DUST BRAND. One of the local names 
 for the smut in corn. 
 
 DUTCH ASHES. See Ashes. 
 
 DWALE, COMMON. {Atropa bella- 
 donna.) The deadly nightshade. See Bel- 
 ladonna and Nightshade. 
 
 DWARF BAY. See Mezereon. 
 
 DWARF BERRIES. See Nightshade. 
 
 DWARF OAK. A shrub, sometimes 
 employed for making live fences. It grows 
 very fast, and becomes thick by cutting 
 very rapidly. 
 
 D WINED. A term used to signify 
 shrivelled, or withered, as corn. 
 
 DYDLE. A term provincially applied 
 to a kind of mud- drag. 
 
 DYER'S GREEN- WEED, or WOOD 
 WAXEN. {Genista tinctoria.) See Green- 
 weed. 
 
 DYER'S ROCKET, or YELLOW 
 WEED. {Reseda luteola.) See Woad. 
 
 DYER'S WOAD. {Isatis tinctoria.) See 
 Woad. 
 
 DYKE. (Sax. bic ; Erse dyk.) A sort 
 of wall or mound formed of earth or turfs. 
 In Scotland it is applied to any wall round 
 a field. See Ditch. 
 
 DYNAMOMETER. (Gr. dwafug, power, 
 and fierpov, measure.) An instrument for 
 measuring power of any kind, as the strength 
 of men and animals, the force of machinery, 
 &c. Some interesting results relating to 
 the average strength of men at different 
 ages, and of different weights and sizes, have 
 been produced by M. Quetelet of Brussels, 
 from numerous experiments with Regnier's 
 dynamometer, one of the most convenient 
 that is made. The following is a draught 
 dynamometer, constructed on Regnier's 
 principle. 
 
 It consists of two flat plates of steel of 
 a curved form, increasing in thickness to- 
 wards the ends, which unite into solid cy- 
 lindrical loops ; the curved sides of the 
 plates being placed opposite to each other, 
 and the whole forming an entire elliptic 
 spring. On the application of this instru- 
 
DYNAMOMETER. 
 
 EAGLE. 
 
 ment as a link in the line of draught, 
 the oval becomes lengthened in proportion 
 to the degree of force acting on the loops 
 in opposite directions, and the curved sides 
 approach more nearly towards each other 
 accordingly. The degree of approximation 
 in the plates is shown on the scale, in di- 
 visions corresponding to half and whole 
 hundred weights, by means of a cross rod 
 secured to one plate acting on a crank 
 attached to the opposite one, thus commu- 
 nicating its effect to the lever index, which, 
 moving over the divisions of the scale, marks 
 the varying degree of force exerted each 
 moment by the draught to which the in- 
 strument is subjected. 
 
 Messrs. Cottam and Hallen, engineers and 
 agricultural implement makers, of Winsley 
 Street, Oxford Street, London, have re- 
 cently patented an improved dynamometer, 
 of which the following figure is an illustra- 
 
 tion. This dynamometer has been contrived 
 with the intention of obviating the continual 
 vibration of the indicator of the dynamo- 
 meter formerly in use, which was caused 
 (with refeience to the plough) by the ob- 
 structions met with in the soil through which 
 it was passing. These vibrations were so 
 incessant, that the indicator could scarcely 
 be discerned during the experiment. The 
 improvement consists in the attachment of 
 a small brass pump filled with oil, the piston 
 of which has one or two small apertures. 
 There being no outlet from the pump, it is 
 evident that when any shock occurs, caused 
 by a stone, root, &c. the oil having to pass 
 from one side of the piston to the other, 
 the suddenness is greatly diminished by the 
 401 
 
 resistance, producing a corresponding effect 
 upon the pointer, which, as these shocks 
 are rapid, vibrates nearer the actual draught 
 of the machine; which is the object in view, 
 and not the measurement of any impedi- 
 ment, but a mean result of the whole. Mr. 
 Pusey, in his " Experimental Inquiry on 
 Draught in Ploughing" (Journ. Roy. Eng. 
 Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 219.), speaks very fa- 
 vourably of this draught-gauge, and re- 
 marks {Ibid. p. 222.) : " Such is the good- 
 ness of Mr. Cottam's new draught gauge, 
 that we scarcely ever, I believe, differed 
 by more than a quarter of a hundred 
 weight, and often agreed to an eighth, or 
 one stone." 
 
 DYSENTERY. (Fr. dysenteric) See 
 Sheep, Diseases or. 
 
 E. 
 
 E ADDISH. A provincial term for after- 
 grass, roughings, or grass growing among 
 the stubble after the corn is cut. 
 
 EAGLE. (Fr. aigle ; Lat. aqw 7 a.) Of 
 the diurnal birds of prey the eagles are by 
 far the largest in size, and of great muscular 
 power ; and although they do not possess 
 all the characteristics which distinguish the 
 true falcons, their flight is powerful and their 
 habits are destructive. The golden eagle 
 (AquilaChrysaetos), though occasionally seen 
 in the southern counties of England, is more 
 exclusively confined to Scotland, and its 
 western and northern islands. These birds 
 possess the senses of sight and smell in an 
 uncommonly acute degree ; they are also . 
 remarkable for their longevity, instances 
 having occurred in which they have been 
 known to survive beyond a century. Eagles 
 are very destructive to lambs, kids, fawns, 
 hares, and all kinds of game, especially 
 during the breeding season, when they 
 carry vast quantities of prey to their young. 
 In the Orkney Islands a law is in force 
 which entitles the person who kills an 
 eagle to a hen out of every house in the 
 parish where such bird was killed. The 
 length of the golden eagle is nearly three 
 feet, the general colour of its plumage dark 
 brown, the legs covered with bay feathers, 
 toes yellow, claws black, the weight about 
 12 lbs. The nest of the eagle is formed of 
 large sticks on inaccessible rocks : the eggs, 
 which are two or three in number, are three 
 inches long by two inches and five lines 
 broad, dirty white, mottled with pale red- 
 dish brown. 
 
 The great sea eagle (Halicetus albicilla), 
 also known as the Erne or white-tailed sea 
 
 D D 
 
EAGLE OWL. 
 
 EARTHS. 
 
 eagle, and cinereous eagle, is inferior in size 
 to the golden eagle ; but it is much more com- 
 mon, and may frequently be seen on the 
 high rocks and cliffs that overhang the sea, 
 ready to seize either fowl or fish, as its 
 appetite impels it. It has also a great par- 
 tiality for fawns and venison, on which 
 account it has been occasionally killed in 
 deer parks and forests. It forms its nest on 
 rocks or in lofty trees ; lays two eggs, nearly 
 the same size and colour as those last de- 
 scribed. Plumage dusky brown, with an 
 ashen tinge ; tail wholly white ; cere and feet 
 yellowish white. 
 
 The fishing eagle, or hawk (Pandion 
 Halicetus), is by many naturalists denied a 
 place among the eagles, and classed among 
 the bald buzzards. See Osprey. (YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 7 — 19. ; Blaine's Rural 
 Sports, p. 653.) 
 
 EAGLE OWL. See Owl. 
 
 EAR. (Sax. eape, Lat. auris.) The organ 
 of hearing in animals. In a horse, the ears 
 should be small, narrow, straight, and the 
 substance of them thin and delicate. They 
 should be placed on the very top of the 
 head; and their points, when stiled or 
 pricked up, should be nearer together than 
 their roots. When a horse carries his ears 
 pointed forwards, he is said to have a bold 
 or brisk ear. In travelling, it is considered 
 an advantage when the horse keeps them 
 firm. The exterior ears of the horse are 
 merely organs for collecting sound; con- 
 sequently, he has a complete power over the 
 muscles attached to them, and can turn 
 them in every direction. It is probable 
 that the organ of hearing is the safeguard 
 of the horse in his natural state. He is ill 
 adapted for combat ; his swiftness of foot 
 and his acuteness of hearing are there- 
 fore requisites to him of the utmost im- 
 portance. 
 
 EARING. A term used provincially, 
 probably for aring, which signifies ploughing, 
 tilling, or cultivating land. 
 
 EAR MARK. A mark on the ear by 
 which shepherds know their sheep. Cattle, 
 dogs, and other animals are sometimes 
 marked in the same way, by notching, 
 clipping, or slitting the ear. 
 
 EARNEST. (Sax. eopnerc ; Fr. arrhes ; 
 Dan. ernitz penge.) In commercial law, the 
 sum advanced by the buyer of goods in 
 order to bind the seller to the terms of the 
 agreement. As to what amounts to sufficient 
 earnest, Blackstone lays it down, that " if 
 any part of the price is paid down, if it is 
 but a penny, or any portion of the goods is 
 delivered by way of earnest, it is binding." 
 To constitute earnest, the thing must be 
 given as a token of ratification of the con- 
 tract, and it should be expressly stated so 
 402 
 
 by the giver. (Chittys Com. Law, vol. iii. 
 p. 289. ; M'Cullocfis Com. Diet.) 
 
 EARS of Corn. (Sax. aehhep.) The spike 
 of corn, that part which contains the seeds; 
 but the term is very generally applied to 
 the heads of different grain crops. 
 
 EARTH. (Sax. eapb.) This word was 
 anciently employed to signify one of the 
 four elements of which all matter was sup- 
 posed to be formed ; namely, air, fire, water, 
 and earth. In the present period, the word 
 in common language has two meanings ; it 
 implies either the globe we tenant, or the 
 soil on which plants vegetate. In this work 
 it has reference to the latter. The soil, as 
 well as the rocks, &c. of which our planet 
 is formed, is composed of a variety of sub- 
 stances, such as lime, silica, alumina, mag- 
 nesia, &c. to which chemists long since 
 gave the name of earths ; and although by 
 the researches of Sir H. Davy and others, 
 these earths have been shown to be, in 
 reality, metallic oxides — that is, metals 
 united with oxygen — yet the term earth is 
 so well and so extensively known, that I 
 should, even if this was intended to be a 
 chemical dictionary, retain it. The fol- 
 lowing is the composition of the four earths 
 most commonly met with by the farmer 
 in his land, or in the crops which it sup- 
 ports : — 
 
 Lime: a compound of a peculiar metal 
 called 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Calcium - - 71 '42 
 Oxygen - - 28-58 
 
 100 
 
 Alumina (clay) : a compound of, 
 
 Aluminum - - 56*895 
 Oxygen - - 43-105 
 
 100 
 
 Magnesia : a compound of the metal 
 
 Magnesium - - 40 
 Oxygen - - 60 
 
 100 
 
 Silica, which is by modern chemists 
 classed with the acids, is a compound of a 
 metal called 
 
 Silicon - - 49-888 
 
 Oxygen - - 50-112 
 
 100 
 
 In this place, however, our business is 
 with the earths only so far as their uses to 
 vegetation are coneerned. 
 
 EARTHS, their Use to Vegetation. In 
 the investigation of the use of the earths 
 to vegetation, not only as regards their 
 position as necessary portions of all eul- 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 tivated soils, but as forming the essential 
 constituents of most vegetable substances, 
 several very important circumstances will 
 present themselves to the notice of the cul- 
 tivator. The order and the regularity with 
 which these earths are found in plants is 
 most remarkable; the harmony, too, with 
 which the various chemical ingredients arc 
 arranged, the uniform manner in which 
 they are absorbed by the roots of the plant 
 and distributed in its juices, cannot escape 
 our attention, nor fail to excite our gratitude 
 for the benevolence and the* wisdom dis- 
 played in the contrivance. Thus we shall 
 find, as we proceed in our researches (to 
 give only a single instance), that the earth 
 silica (flint) abounds in the straw of the 
 wheat plant, where its presence helps to 
 impart the requisite degree of strength and 
 hardness to the stem; but scarcely a chemical 
 trace of this earth is discoverable in the 
 flour of the seeds of the same plant, for 
 there its presence in our food would be 
 worse than useless. 
 
 Let not, however, the reader, when he 
 is considering the discoveries of vegetable 
 chemistry, feel surprised that more has not 
 been accomplished by the chemical philo- 
 sopher in that important branch of science. 
 There are many reasons why the discov- 
 eries in this branch of chemistry have been 
 gradual, and only by slow degrees : he may 
 be assured that the difficulties which attend 
 the chemist when he is investigating the 
 properties of organic matter, are more than 
 usually numerous ; for the living plant, in 
 many instances, seems endowed with powers 
 that appear even to neutralise the effects 
 of chemical attraction and repulsion : thus 
 the earths and alkalies, to give one instance 
 only, are often found in juxtaposition with 
 uncombined vegetable acids. The roots of 
 most plants, also, are endowed with a re- 
 markable capacity of absorption ; not only 
 do they absorb water, the gases of the at- 
 mosphere and those formed by putrefaction, 
 but they take up earths, alkalies, and saline 
 substances ; and, besides doing this with a 
 regularity which is almost unvaried, they 
 exercise a power of absorbing certain saline 
 bodies when dissolved with others in water, 
 and of leaving the others in solution, which 
 shows them to be endowed with properties 
 of a very remarkable nature. Some cu- 
 rious experiments were long since made by 
 M. Saussure on this interesting question. 
 u When various salts were dissolved at once 
 in the same solutions," says Dr. Thomson, 
 " and plants made to vegetate in them, it 
 was found that different proportions of the 
 salts were absorbed. The following table 
 exhibits the results of these trials, supposing 
 the original weight of each salt to have 
 403 
 
 been 100. Each solution contained one 
 hundredth part of its weight of each salt — 
 
 Proportions 
 absorbed. 
 
 . f Glauber Salt - - 11-7 
 
 ' \ Common Salt - - 22*0 
 
 {Glauber Salt - - 6 0 
 
 Common Salt - - 10-0 
 
 Acetate of Lime <• 0*0 
 
 On examining the plants the salts absorbed 
 were found in them unaltered." (Che- 
 mistry, vol. iv. p. 325.) In thess experi- 
 ments the cultivator will observe that the 
 plants (which were Spotted Persicaria 
 (Polygonum Persicaria) and the Bur-mari- 
 gold (Bidens tripartita), with their roots at- 
 tached) absorbed the common salt with avi- 
 dity, but that they rejected entirely the 
 acetate of lime. The earths are, in all pro- 
 bability, always imbibed by the plant in a 
 state of solution ; we know, in fact, that 
 both lime and silica are, to a certain extent, 
 soluble in water, and alumina is also very 
 probably absorbed as a component of 
 some of the soluble salts which contain 
 this earth. 
 
 The part which the earth fulfils in the 
 support of plants early attracted the atten- 
 tion of philosophers. The earthy ashes pro-^ 
 duced by the combustion of vegetable sub- 
 stances must have very soon indicated to 
 mankind the real truth of the case, that there 
 were certain solid substances found in vege- 
 tables which they could only derive from the 
 earth they tenanted. That the soil furnished 
 its earthy matter to the plant was, therefore, 
 the natural conclusion of some of the Greek 
 philosophers ; and although their observ- 
 ations in this way were commonly very 
 loose, and always general, yet when they de- 
 cided, which they did with all gravity, that 
 earth, air, fire, and water composed every 
 thing on the earth, the vegetable world was 
 of course included in the list; they still, 
 however, thought that the chief use of the 
 earth to plants consisted in keeping them 
 upright, and furnishing them with a suffi- 
 cient supply of moisture. 
 
 When the ancient naturalists came to the 
 conclusion that the whole earth was com- 
 posed of four elements, they founded their 
 decision upon certain rude observations ; 
 but they did not stop there, they proceeded 
 to confuse themselves by various incompre- 
 hensible or delusive phrases, such as more 
 modern observers have too often imitated. 
 Fire they regarded as the active principle 
 of the universe, the source of both animal 
 and vegetable life, the cause of renovation 
 and decay. Earth they considered as the 
 principle of fixity, of hardness, and of soli- 
 dity. These rude, though sagacious observ- 
 ations, the early chemists, and then the 
 
 D D 2 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 alchemists, strongly confirmed by the mode 
 in which they analysed vegetablQ.substances. 
 They had only one mode of effecting this, 
 that of subjecting them in a retort to 
 dry or destructive distillation. By this 
 mode the results are almost always the 
 same ; first the water of the plant comes 
 over ; then a volume of carburetted hydro- 
 gen and carbonic acid gases is driven off ; 
 and finally a quantity of earthy matters, 
 mixed with various salts and potash, remains 
 at the bottom of the retort. We need 
 hardly feel surprised, therefore, that after 
 such an analysis, the chemists of old readily 
 agreed with the naturalists that earth, air, 
 and water alone formed the vegetable 
 world. 
 
 Evelyn, in 1674, wrote a work upon earth, 
 in which he lauded its powers with much 
 enthusiasm. " What shall I say," he ex- 
 claims, " Quid Divinum ? the original of all 
 fecundity ; nor can I say less, since there 
 was nor sacrifice nor discourse acceptable 
 without it." And in another place he says 
 (for Evelyn was exceedingly credulous), 
 " Whatever then it be, which the earth con- 
 tributes, or whether it contains universally 
 a seminal virtue, so specified by the air, in- 
 fluences, and the genius of the climate, as 
 to make that a cinnamon tree in Ceylon 
 which is but a bay in England, is past my 
 skill to determine ; but it is to be observed, 
 with no little wonder, what M. Bernier in 
 his history of the empire of the Mogul af- 
 firms to, as of a mountain there, which being 
 on one side of it intolerably hot produces 
 Indian plants, and on the other as intem- 
 perately cold, European and vulgar plants." 
 There is much valuable matter, however, in 
 The Terra of Evelyn, whose modesty en- 
 hanced his great merits. Thus, in conclusion, 
 he told the Fellows of the Royal Society, to 
 whom his valuable essay was addressed, 
 that it was merely " a dull discourse of 
 earth, mould, and soil." 
 
 Fitzherbert, the earliest English writer 
 upon agriculture (1532), did not pay any 
 attention to earths, beyond the usual 
 necessary routine of the farm ; he confined 
 himself entirely to practical details: not a 
 trace of any thing like scientific inquiry is 
 to be found in his Soke of Husbandrye. 
 John Worlidge, who published his System 
 of Agriculture in 1669, thought it neces- 
 sary, as he professed to " unveil the mystery 
 of agriculture," to give the cultivator an 
 explanatory chapter on the food of plants, 
 in what he called "a plain and familiar 
 met hod," and this he did in the true jargon 
 of the alchemists ; for the age of " the trans- 
 muterg" was not yet over when Worlidge 
 wrote, lie gave, therefore, the husband- 
 men of those days a dissertation upon " the 
 404- 
 
 universal spirit, or spirit of mercury, the 
 universal sulphur, and the universal salt ; " 
 but still, after all, he thought that the earth 
 was the true food of plants, and that all the 
 operations of the husbandman only tended 
 to enable the roots of the plant to take 
 up more earthy matter, and he devotes 
 a chapter of his book to the " Soyls and 
 Manures taken from the Earth." But his 
 ideas, like those of the alchemists, were 
 usually an intimate mixture of common 
 sense and absurdity, too closely united to 
 be always readily distinguishable by the 
 good sense of the cultivator. 
 
 Jethro Tull, who wrote between 1730 
 and 1740, considered earth to be the sole 
 food of plants. " Too much nitre," he tells 
 us (page 13. of his valuable Book on Hus- 
 bandry), " corrodes a plant, too much 
 water drowns it, too much air dries the 
 roots of it, too much heat burns it ; but too 
 much earth a plant never can have, unless 
 it be therein wholly buried : too much earth 
 or too fine can never possibly be given to 
 their roots, for they never receive so much 
 of it as to surfeit the plant." And, again, he 
 tells us in another place, " That which nou- 
 rishes and augments a plant is the true food 
 of it. Every plant is earth, and the growth 
 and true increase of a plant is the addition 
 of more earth." And in his chapter on the 
 " Pasture of Plants," Tull told his readers, 
 with great gravity, that " this pasturage is 
 the inner or internal superficies of the earth ; 
 or, which is the same thing, it is the super- 
 ficies of the pores, cavities, or interstices of 
 the divided parts of the earth, which are of 
 two sorts, natural and artificial. The 
 mouths or lacteals of roots take their pabu- 
 lum, being fine particles of earth, from the 
 superficies of the pores or cavities, wherein 
 their roots are included." 
 
 Tull wrote with all the enthusiasm of 
 genius, and carried his admiration of the 
 powers of earth to support vegetation much 
 too far ; he was deceived, in fact, by the 
 effects of his finely pulverising system of 
 tillage, and did not sufficiently attend to 
 the fact, that there are many other sub- 
 stances in the commonly cultivated soils of 
 the farmer besides the earths, and that so far 
 from their being always the chief consti- 
 tuents of the soil, they very often form the 
 smallest portion of even a highly productive 
 field. 
 
 That the four earths of which all culti- 
 vated soils are composed are all the neces- 
 sary food or constituents of vegetables, has, 
 long since Tull wrote, been decided by the 
 accurate investigations of the chemist. Of 
 these lime, either as a carbonate, or an 
 acetate, or a sulphate, is by far the most 
 generally present in plants ; indeed, in one 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 form or another, it is rarely absent from 
 them. The presence of silica (flint) is 
 almost equally general. Magnesia is less 
 usually present, or, at least, it exists in 
 smaller proportions ; and the same remark 
 applies to alumina (clay). 
 
 The quantity of the earths which is 
 present in various vegetables is, therefore, 
 a primary question for the cultivator's 
 guidance. This will be seen from the fol- 
 lowing tables : — 
 
 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 100 parts of the oak contain of the earths 
 
 1-030 
 
 
 beech 
 
 
 0-453 
 
 
 fir 
 
 
 0-003 
 
 
 Turkey wheat 
 
 
 7*110 
 
 
 sunflower 
 
 
 3-720 
 
 
 vine branches 
 
 
 2-850 
 
 
 box 
 
 
 2-674 
 
 
 willow 
 
 
 2-515 
 
 
 elm 
 
 
 1-960 
 
 
 aspen 
 
 
 1-146 
 
 
 fern 
 
 
 3-221 
 
 
 wormwood 
 
 
 2-444 
 
 
 fumitory 
 
 
 14-000 
 
 The proportions of the earths contained in 
 the commonly cultivated crops of the farmer 
 have been ascertained by M. Schrseder : 
 this able chemist obtained from thirty-two 
 ounces of the seeds of wheat (Triticum hy- 
 bemum), of rye (Secale cereale), barley 
 (Hordeum vulgar -e), oats (Avena sativa), and 
 of rye straw, the following results : — 
 
 (Gehlen Journ. vol. iii. p. 525.) 
 
 The earth silica or flint abounds in almost 
 every description of vegetable matter, es- 
 pecially in the grasses and Equisetum 
 (horse-tail). In the Dutch rush it is so 
 plentiful that that plant is used by the 
 turner to polish wood, bone, and even brass. 
 It forms so considerable a portion of the 
 ashes of wheat straw, that when these 
 are exposed to the action of the blow- 
 pipe, it unites with the potash found also in 
 the straw, and forms an opaque glass. Davy 
 found it most copiously in the epidermis or 
 outer bark of the plants he examined. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 100 parts of the epidermis of bonnet cane 
 
 contain of silica - 90*0 
 
 100 parts of the epidermis of bamboo 
 
 cane contain of silica • - 7 14 
 
 405 
 
 Parts. 
 
 100 parts of the epidermis of common 
 
 reed contain of silica - - 48"1 
 
 100 parts of the epidermis of stalks of 
 
 wheat contain of silica - 6*5 
 
 In the joints of the bamboo a concrete 
 substance is found, which Fourcroy and 
 Vauquelin examined, and ascertained that 
 it consists of 70 parts of silica, and 30 parts 
 of potassa. This substance, which is named 
 tabasher, can only be furnished by the 
 soil. (Gehlen, vol. ii. p. 112.) 
 
 This earth, according to M. Saussure, 
 constitutes 3 per cent, of the ashes of the 
 leaves of oak gathered in May, 14-5 per 
 cent, of those gathered in September, and 
 2 per cent, of the wood. In the ashes ob- 
 tained by burning the wood of the poplar, 
 it exists in the proportion of 33 per cent. ; 
 of the hazel, 0-25 per cent. ; of the mul- 
 berry, 0*12 per cent.; of the hornbeam, 
 0 - 12 percent. ; 0*5 per cent, in peas (Pisum 
 sativum) ; 61*5 in the straw of wheat; 0-25 
 in the seeds ; 57*0 per cent, in the chaff of 
 barley ; 35 -5 in its seeds ; and, in the oat 
 plant, 60 per cent. 
 
 Lime is, if possible, still more generally 
 present in all plants than silica. " The 
 salsola soda," says Dr. Thomson, " is the only 
 plant in which we know for certain it does 
 not exist." (Syst. of Chem. vol. iv. p. 190.) 
 It is, however, united with carbonic acid as 
 carbonate of lime ; or it exists as the base of 
 some other salt, such as in oxalate of lime, or 
 in sulphate of lime (gypsum). It was found 
 in the ashes remaining after the combustion 
 of oak wood, at the rate of 32 per cent., by 
 M. Saussure. In that of the poplar at the 
 rate of 27 per cent. He discovered also 8 
 per cent, in those from the wood of the 
 hazel ; 56 in those of the mulberry wood ; 
 26 in the hornbeam ; 14 in the ripe plant of 
 peas ; 1 per cent, in the straw of the wheat, 
 but not any in its seeds ; 12 in the chaff of 
 barley, but none in either its flour or its 
 bran ; neither did he find any in the oat 
 plant ; but then, in the ashes of the leaves 
 of the fir (Pinus abies), raised on a limestone 
 hill, he found 43*5 per cent. 
 
 Alumina, as I have elsewhere observed, 
 is found in most vegetables, but in much 
 smaller proportion than either silica or car- 
 bonate of lime, and the same remark applies 
 to magnesia. M. Schrseder found, as we 
 have before seen, in two pounds weight of 
 the seeds of wheat only ^-ths of a grain of 
 alumina, in rye l^L grains, in barley 4 T 2 ^ 
 grains, in oats 4§ grains, and in rye straw 
 3 ^nr grains. In 12 ounces of wormwood 
 there are about 5 grains of alumina. This 
 earth, however, necessarily exists in all 
 fertile soils as the food of plants ; for al- 
 though the proportions in which it is found 
 
 D D 3 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Rye 
 Straw. 
 
 Silica 
 
 132 
 
 __ 
 
 15-6 
 
 66-7 
 
 144-02 
 
 152-0 
 
 Carbonate of Lime - 
 
 12 6 
 
 134 
 
 24-8 
 
 3375 
 
 46-2 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 
 
 134 
 
 14-2 
 
 25-3 
 
 33 09 
 
 28-2 
 
 Alumina - 
 
 0-6 
 
 1-4 
 
 4-2 
 
 4-05 
 
 32 
 
 Oxide of Manganese - 
 
 50 
 
 32 
 
 6-7 
 
 6-95 
 
 6-8 
 
 Oxide of Iron - 
 
 2-5 
 
 09 
 
 3-8 
 
 4- 05 
 
 2-4 
 
 
 473 
 
 48-71 131-5 1227-8 
 
 238-8 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 are rather small, yet still there is no reason 
 to believe that its presence is not essential 
 to the healthy growth of the plant. M. 
 Saussure found the ashes of the Pinus abies, 
 growing on a granitic and on a calcareous 
 soil, to contain nearly the same quantity of 
 alumina (15 per cent, on the calcareous and 
 16 per cent, on the granitic), although these 
 soils differed widely in the proportion of 
 the alumina they contained ; for 100 parts 
 of each were composed of — 
 
 The Granitic soil. Parts. 
 
 Silica - 75-25 
 
 Alumina - 13*25 
 
 Lime - - 1*74 
 
 Iron and Manganese - 9*00 
 
 99-24 
 
 The Calcareous soil. 
 Carbonate of Lime - - 98*000 
 
 Alumina - 0*625 
 Oxide of Iron - - 0*625 
 
 Petroleum - - - 0*025 
 
 99*275 
 
 (Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. p. 317.) 
 
 Such are the earths which constitute all 
 cultivated soils, and such is the necessary 
 proportion in which they form the consti- 
 tuted elements of some of the plants which 
 they support. In the soils of the cultivator, 
 hoAvever, they exist in an endless variety of 
 proportions : thus, I found 68*5 per cent, of 
 silica in the gravelly soils of Great Totham, 
 in Essex, and 62 in those of Kintbury, in 
 Berkshire. Davy discovered about 50 per 
 cent, in the soil of the Endsleigh Pastures 
 in Devonshire, 54 in that near Sheffield 
 Place in Sussex, 15 in the turnip soils of 
 Holkham in Norfolk, 32 in the finely di- 
 vided matters of the wheat soils of West 
 Drayton, and about 97 per cent, in the soil 
 of Bagshot Heath. Mr. George Sinclair 
 found about 66 per cent, in the grass garden 
 of Woburn Abbey. 
 
 Of alumina, or pure earth of clay, the pro- 
 portions are equally varying. I ascertained 
 the presence of 4*5 per cent, of this earth in 
 a gravelly soil of Thurstable in Essex, and 
 8*5 in one at Kintbury in Berkshire. Mr. 
 G. Sinclair found 14 per cent, in the soil of 
 the grass garden at Woburn Abbey. Davy 
 detected 8*5 per cent, in that at Endsleigh, 
 6*25 in one at Croft Church in Lincolnshire, 
 7 in that in Sheffield Place, 11 in that of 
 Holkham, 29 in a field at West Drayton, 
 and about 1 per cent, in the soil of Bagshot 
 Heath. 
 
 Of carbonate of lime, the presence is just 
 as varying in amount as that of the other 
 carl lis. I found 18 per cent, in a soil at 
 406 
 
 Totham, and 19 per cent, in a soil at Kint- 
 bury ; Sinclair, 2 per cent, in the soil of the 
 Woburn Abbey grass garden. Davy dis- 
 covered 8 per cent, in that from Croft Church, 
 3 per cent, in that of Sheffield Place, 63 per 
 cent, in the finely divided matters of the soil 
 from Holkham, and about 1 per cent, only 
 in the soil from Bagshot. 
 
 The farmer, however, must not conclude, 
 that by merely mixing the pure earths, si- 
 lica, lime, and alumina together in the most 
 fertile proportion, a soil can be formed on 
 which plants will flourish, for such is a 
 very erroneous conclusion. All attempts 
 which have been made to make plants flou- 
 rish in the pure earths have failed utterly 
 when they have been watered with pure 
 water ; yet a totally different result I have 
 invariably experienced when I have em- 
 ployed an impure solution or liquid ma- 
 nure. My trials have been entirely sup- 
 ported by those of M. Giobert, who having 
 formed of the four earths, silica, alumina, 
 lime, and magnesia, a soil in the most fertile 
 proportion, in vain essayed to make the 
 plants flourish in it when watered with pure 
 water only ; but every difficulty was re- 
 moved when he moistened it with the water 
 from a dunghill, for they then grew most 
 luxuriantly : and M. Lampadius still further 
 demonstrated the necessity for, and the 
 powers of, such an addition to the soil ; for 
 he formed plots composed only of a single 
 earth — namely, pure lime, pure alumina, or 
 pure silica — and planted in each different 
 vegetables, watering them with the liquid 
 drainings from a dunghill, and he found that 
 plants on all of them flourished equally 
 well. The soluble matters of a soil ever 
 constitute, in fact, its most fertilising por- 
 tion ; and if by any artificial means the 
 richest mould is deprived of these, as by 
 repeated washings in cold or boiling water, 
 the residuum or remaining solid matter is 
 rendered nearly sterile. This fact, first ac- 
 curately demonstrated by M. Saussure, I 
 have since confirmed by a variety of ex- 
 periments. Neither must the cultivator 
 imagine that these carefully considered con- 
 clusions, the results of often-repeated la- 
 borious experiments, are erroneous, because 
 transparent water, apparently pure, when 
 viewed in water glasses, or in irrigation, 
 promotes the growth of bulbs, grass, &c. 
 since the very purest spring water, even 
 rain water, contains foreign substances ; and 
 when only chemically pure water is employed 
 to water plants, they cannot be made to 
 flourish. I have fruitlessly varied the at- 
 tempt in several ways. All the experiments 
 of Dr. Thomson were equally unsuccessful, 
 the plants vegetating only for a certain time, 
 and never perfecting their seeds. Similar 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 experiments were made by Hassenfratz, 
 Saussure, and others, with the same unfa- 
 vourable result. Duhamel found that an 
 oak, which he had raised from an acorn in 
 common water, made less and less progress 
 every year. The florist is well aware that 
 bulbous roots, such as those of hyacinths, 
 tulips, &c. which are made to grow in 
 water, unless they are planted in the earth 
 every other year, at first refuse to flower, 
 and finally they cease even to vegetate. 
 Moreover, it has been unanswerably shown 
 by many very accurate experiments, at 
 the repetition of which I have personally 
 assisted, that the quantity of nourishment 
 or solid matters absorbed by the roots of 
 plants is always in proportion to the im- 
 purity of the water with which they are 
 nourished ; thus some common garden beans 
 were made to vegetate under three dif- 
 ferent circumstances; the first were grown 
 in distilled water, the second were placed in 
 sand and watered with rain water, the third 
 were sown in garden mould. The plants 
 thus produced, when accurately analysed, 
 were found to yield the following proportion 
 of ashes — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 1. Those fed by distilled -water 3-9 
 
 2. Those fed by rain water - 7 5 
 
 3. Those grown in the soil - 12*0 
 
 The mode in which the earths are absorbed 
 by the roots of the plant is, it is almost cer- 
 tain, by means of their solution in water, for 
 both carbonate of lime and silica are, in small 
 proportions, soluble in water ; they exist to- 
 gether in many springs ; and they were both 
 found in the water of the Clyde by Dr. 
 Thomson, in that of the Thames by Dr. 
 Bostock, and in the springs of Upsala, ce- 
 lebrated for their purity, by Bergman. Alu- 
 mina, as far as we know, is not soluble in 
 water, but then it exists in very small pro- 
 portions in plants ; and the soluble salts of 
 which it is the base may serve to yield this 
 earth .to vegetables: the earth itself is so- 
 luble in ammonia. 
 
 The way in which soils are gradually 
 formed by the action of the atmosphere upon 
 the hard primitive rocks has been well ex- 
 plained by Davy, and is a natural process 
 which cannot but be interesting to the 
 farmer. I merely slightly alter his words 
 in the following account of this important 
 natural phenomenon. It is not difficult to 
 comprehend the manner in which this change 
 is effected, and rocks converted into soils, by 
 referring to the instance of soft granite or 
 porcelain granite. This substance is com- 
 posed of three ingredients, quartz, felspar, 
 and mica. The quartz is almost pure sili- 
 cious earth in a crystalline form. The 
 felspar and mica are very compound sub- 
 
 stances *, both contain silica, alumina, and 
 oxide of iron ; in the felspar there is usually 
 lime and potash ; in the mica, lime and mag- 
 nesia. 
 
 When a granitic rock of this kind has 
 been long exposed to the action of the at- 
 mosphere, the lime and the potash contained 
 in its constituent parts are acted upon by 
 water or carbonic acid ; and the iron, which 
 is almost always in its least oxidised state, 
 tends to combine with more oxygen ; the 
 consequence is, that the felspar decomposes, 
 and likewise the mica, but the first the most 
 rapidly. The felspar, which is, as it were, 
 the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay ; 
 the mica partially decomposed, mixes with 
 it as sand, and the undecomposed quartz 
 appears as gravel, or sand of different de- 
 grees of fineness. As soon as the smallest 
 layer of earth is thus formed on the surface 
 of a rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and 
 other imperfect vegetables, which are con- 
 stantly floating in the atmosphere, and 
 which have made it their resting place, begin 
 to vegetate ; their death, decomposition, and 
 decay afford a certain quantity of organic 
 matter, which mixes with the earthy mate- 
 rials of the rock. In this improved soil, more 
 perfect plants are capable of subsisting ; 
 these in their turn absorb nourishment from 
 water and from the atmosphere, and as these, 
 too, decay, afford more new materials to 
 those already provided ; and the decom- 
 position of the rock still continues. At 
 length, by such slow and almost impercept- 
 ible processes, a soil is formed in which 
 even forest trees can fix their roots, and 
 which is fitted to reward the labours of the 
 cultivator. 
 
 Where successive generations of vege- 
 tables have grown upon a soil, unless they 
 have been carried off by man or consumed 
 by animals, the vegetable matter increases 
 to such an extent that the soil appr-oaches 
 to peat in its nature. Poor and hungry 
 soils are commonly produced by the decom- 
 position of the granite and sandstone rocks : 
 such soils usually remain for ages with only 
 
 * Common felspar is composed of — Parts. 
 
 Silica - 6283 
 
 Alumina - 1702 
 
 Lime ... 300 
 
 Oxide of Iron - - 100 
 
 Potash - - - 13-00 
 
 Loss - - - 350 
 
 100 
 
 Common mica is composed of — 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 47 00 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 20-00 
 
 Oxide of Irop 
 
 - 15-50 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 
 
 - 175 
 
 Potash 
 
 - 14 50 
 
 Loss - 
 
 - 1-25 
 
 
 Too 
 
 1) D 4 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 a thin covering of vegetation. The soils 
 produced by the same gradual means on 
 the limestones, chalks, and basalts, are often 
 clothed by nature with the perennial grasses ; 
 and afford, when ploughed^ up, a rich bed 
 of vegetation for every species of cultivated 
 crop. 
 
 The quantity of moisture which a soil, or 
 the earths of which it is chiefly composed, 
 contain, influences to a very material extent 
 its fertility. This not only differs in different 
 seasons, but this power varies very consi- 
 derably indeed in soils, according to their 
 chemical composition. This was experi- 
 mentally decided by Professor Schubler, of 
 the University of Tubingen, in his " Agro- 
 nomy, or Principles of Agricultural Che- 
 mistry," for a translation of which the En- 
 glish farmer is indebted to Mr. Hudson, the 
 present excellent Secretary to the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England, — a trans- 
 lation of which I have largely availed myself 
 in this paper. (Journ. of Roy. Ag. Soc. vol. 
 i. p. 177.) M. Schubler found that a cubic 
 foot of different soils, when thoroughly sa- 
 turated with water and when completely 
 dried, weighed as follows : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 Specific 
 
 Weight of a cubic 
 foot. 
 
 gravity. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Calcareous Sand - 
 
 2-722 
 
 1136 
 
 141-3 
 
 Silicious Sand 
 
 2-653 
 
 111-3 
 
 1361 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 2-331 
 
 91-9 
 
 127-6 
 
 Sandy Clay - 
 
 2-601 
 
 97-8 
 
 129-7 
 
 Loamy Clay • 
 
 2-581 
 
 88-5 
 
 124-1 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick 
 
 
 
 
 earth 
 
 2-560 
 
 80-3 
 
 119-6 
 
 Pure grey Clay 
 
 2-553 
 
 75-2 
 
 115-8 
 
 Pipe Clay - 
 
 2-440 
 
 47-9 
 
 102-1 
 
 Fine Carbonate of 
 
 
 
 
 Lime (Chalk) - 
 
 2-468 
 
 53-7 
 
 103-5 
 
 Garden Mould 
 
 2-332 
 
 68-7 
 
 102-7 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 2-401 
 
 84-5 
 
 119-1 
 
 Fine slaty Marl 
 
 2-631 
 
 1120 
 
 140-3 
 
 The result of these trials will be useful to 
 the farmer in explaining to him the reason 
 why, on account of their requiring more or 
 less moisture, certain crops flourish best on 
 particular soils ; and even in the carriage of 
 the earths he will perceive that their weight 
 in the wet or dry state is much greater than 
 some persons suppose. 
 
 The next important inquiry instituted by 
 the same excellent chemist, was the relative 
 degree of tenacity with which different soils 
 retain the moisture when exposed under 
 similar circumstances to the' action of the at- 
 mosphere, and he found that they parted 
 with their moisture according to the fol- 
 lowing rate : — 
 408 
 
 
 Evaporation from 100 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 parts of absorbed Water 
 
 
 in Four Hours. 
 
 Silicious Sand - 
 
 Parts. 
 
 88-4 
 
 Calcareous Sand 
 
 75-9 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 71-7 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 
 52-0 
 
 Loamy Clay - 
 
 45-7 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick earth 
 
 34-9 
 
 Pure grey Clay 
 
 31-9 
 
 Fine Lime 
 
 28-0 
 
 Garden Mould - 
 
 24-3 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 32-0 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 68-0 
 
 In these experiments the soils were spread 
 out to dry very thinly over a plate of metal ; 
 but in the following comparative trials (to 
 render the results in all respects more si- 
 milar to those which the cultivator would ex- 
 perience), the soil was exposed to the at- 
 mosphere in masses of an inch in depth : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 Water evaporated in 
 Four Days. 
 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Calcareous Sand 
 
 146 
 
 Light garden Mould - 
 
 143 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 136 
 
 Very light Turf soil - 
 
 132 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 131 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 131 
 
 Fine Magnesia - 
 
 129 
 
 Black Turf Soil not so 
 
 
 light - 
 
 128 
 
 White fine Clay 
 
 123 
 
 Grey fine Clay - 
 
 123 
 
 The amount of the relative contraction of 
 different soils, when they are deprived of 
 their moisture, is another equally important 
 question to the farmer to be ascertained. 
 — " Many of them," says M. Schubler, 
 " become contracted into a narrower space 
 in drying, and in consequence of this cir- 
 cumstance cracks and fissures frequently 
 occur in land, and have an injurious effect 
 on the vegetation, as the finer roots, which 
 often ramify horizontally, and not unfre- 
 quently supply to the plants the greater 
 part of their means of nourishment, are, by 
 such contractions, either laid bare of soil or 
 torn asunder. In order to subject soils to 
 comparative experiments on this point, the 
 following plan may be adopted. We either 
 form of the earths, in their wet state, large 
 cubic pieces of equal size, being at least 
 ten-twelfths of an inch in height, breadth, 
 and length, or we let such earths be fitted 
 and dried one after another in an accurately 
 worked cubic inch ; after some time, when 
 the weight of these cubes of earth ceases to 
 change by further drying, we measure the 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 dimensions of the cube by means of a rule 
 on which the tenths of lines can be distin- 
 guished, and may thus calculate easily the 
 volume of the earth, and consequently as- 
 certain the diminution in bulk which has been 
 caused by the drying. The experiments 
 which I made with the following earths 
 exhibited on this point the subjoined differ- 
 ences : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 1C00 parts diminished 
 in volume by 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silicious Sand 
 
 no change. 
 
 Calcareous earth 
 
 no change. 
 
 Fine Lime 
 
 50 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 
 60 
 
 Loamy Clay - 
 
 89 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick earth 
 
 114 
 
 Grey pure Clay 
 
 183 
 
 Carbonate of Magnesia 
 
 154 
 
 Garden Mould - 
 
 149 ! 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 120 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 35 
 
 Such is the effect upon various soils of de- 
 priving them of their moisture. In these 
 chemical investigations the farmer will see 
 how entirely they confirm his own observa- 
 tions. The heavy clay soils, he well knows, 
 are the most contracted by exposure to the 
 heats of summer ; the sands the least affected 
 of any. 
 
 A still more important property of soils, 
 their attraction for the aqueous vapour of 
 the atmosphere, is next to be considered — 
 a property the importance of which to the 
 cultivator, Sir H. Davy long since saw in its 
 true light, and his observations cannot be too 
 often quoted, since they well illustrate and 
 enforce, amongst other things, the truth of 
 the great Tullian system of agriculture, — of 
 the advantages of finely dividing the soil, of 
 the subsoil plough, and of the horse-hoe 
 husbandry. " The power of the soil to absorb 
 water by cohesive attraction," said this great 
 chemist, " depends in a great measure on the 
 state of division of its parts' ; the more di- 
 vided they are, the greater is their absorbent 
 power. The different constituent parts ^ of 
 soils likewise appear to act, even by cohesive 
 attraction, with different degrees of energy : 
 thus vegetable substances seem to be more 
 absorbent than animal substances, animal 
 substances more so than compounds of alu- 
 mina and silica, and compounds of alumina 
 and silica more absorbent than carbonates 
 of lime and magnesia ; these differences may, 
 however, possibly depend upon the differ- 
 ences in their state of division, and upon the 
 surface exposed. The power of soils to ab- 
 sorb water from air is much connected with 
 fertility ; when this power is great, the plant 
 is supplied with moisture in dry seasons ; 
 409 
 
 and the effect of evaporation in the day is 
 counteracted by the absorption of aqueous 
 vapour from the atmosphere by the ex- 
 terior parts of the soil during the night. 
 The stiff clays, approaching to pipe-clay in 
 their nature, which take up the greatest 
 quantity of water when it is poured upon 
 them in a fluid form, are not the soils which 
 absorb most moisture from the atmosphere 
 in dry weather ; they cake, and present*only 
 a small surface to the air, and the vegetation 
 on them is generally burnt up almost as 
 readily as on sands. The soils that are most 
 efficient in supplying the plant with water 
 by atmospheric absorption are those in 
 which there is a due mixture of sand, finely 
 divided clay and carbonate of lime, with 
 some animal or vegetable matter ; and which 
 are so loose and light as to be freely per- 
 meable to the atmosphere. With respect 
 to this quality, carbonate of lime and animal 
 and vegetable matter are of great use in 
 soils ; they give absorbent power*to the soil 
 without giving it tenacity : sand, which 
 also destroys tenacity, on the contrary, 
 gives little absorbent power. I have com- 
 pared the absorbent powers of many soils 
 with respect to atmospheric moisture, and 
 I have always found it greatest in the most 
 fertile soils ; so that it affords one method 
 of judging of the productiveness of land. 
 1000 parts of a celebrated soil from Ormiston 
 in East Lothian, which contained more than 
 half its weight of finely divided matter, of 
 which eleven parts were carbonate of lime, 
 and nine parts vegetable matter, when dried 
 at 212° gained in an hour, by exposure to 
 air saturated with moisture at a temperature 
 of 62°, 18 parts; 1000 parts of a very fertile 
 soil from the banks of the river Parret, in 
 Somersetshire, under the same circum- 
 stances, gained 16 grains ; 1000 parts of a 
 soil from Mersea, in Essex, worth forty-five 
 shillings an acre, gained 13 grains ; 1000 
 grains of a fine sand from Essex, worth 
 twenty-three shillings an acre, gained 11 
 grains ; 1000 of a coarse sand, worth fifteen 
 shillings an acre, gained only 8 grains ; 1000 
 of the soil of Bagshot Heath gained only 3 
 grains." 
 
 In my own experiments upon the ab- 
 sorbent powers of various earths, I extended 
 the examination to various organic and sa- 
 line fertilizers. The result of these may be 
 seen in the following table : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 1000 parts of horse dung dried in a 
 temperature of 100 degrees, ab- 
 sorbed, by exposure for three hours 
 to air saturated with moisture and 
 of the temperature of 62 degrees - 145 
 
 1000 parts of cow dung, under the 
 same circumstances, absorbed - 130 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 1000 parts pig dung - - 120 
 
 1000 — sheep dung - - 81 
 
 1000 — pigeon's dung - - 50 
 
 1000 — of a rich alluvial soil, 
 worth two guineas per acre - 14 
 
 The following were dried at 212 degrees : — 
 
 1000 parts fresh tanner's bark 
 
 - 115 
 
 1000 
 
 
 putrefied tanner's bark 
 
 - 145 
 
 1000 
 
 
 refuse marine salt sold 
 
 is 
 
 
 
 manure 
 
 - 49| 
 
 1000 
 
 
 soot 
 
 - 36 
 
 1000 
 
 
 burnt clay- 
 
 - 29 
 
 1000 
 
 
 coal ashes 
 
 - 14 
 
 1000 
 
 
 lime 
 
 - 11 
 
 1000 
 
 
 sediment from saltpans 
 
 - 10 
 
 1000 
 
 
 crushed rock salt 
 
 - 10 
 
 1000 
 
 
 gypsum 
 
 - 9 
 
 1000 
 
 
 chalk 
 
 - 4 
 
 
 
 (My Work On Fertilizers, p. 41.) 
 
 Davy's experiments and my own are con- 
 firmed by those of M. Schubler, who varied 
 his observations at intervals of three days ; 
 his results were as follows : — 
 
 
 1000 grains 
 
 on a surface 
 
 
 of 
 
 50 square inches, 
 
 
 absorbed in 
 
 
 Kind of Earth, 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 (2 
 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 s 
 
 
 J2 
 
 o 
 
 XI 
 
 O 
 Xi 
 
 o 
 
 JS 
 
 
 <M 
 
 
 00 
 
 <M 
 
 Silicious Sand - 
 
 grs. 
 
 grs. 
 
 grs. 
 
 grs. 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 Calcareous Sand 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Sandy Clay - 
 
 21 
 
 26 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 Loamy Clay - 
 
 25 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 Stiff Clay 
 
 30 
 
 36 
 
 40 
 
 41 
 
 Gray pure Clay 
 
 37 
 
 42 
 
 48 
 
 49 
 
 Fine Lime 
 
 26 
 
 31 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 Fine Magnesia 
 
 69 
 
 76 
 
 80 
 
 82 
 
 Garden mould 
 
 35 
 
 45 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 Arable soil - 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 Slaty Marl - 
 
 24 
 
 29 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 Another property possessed by all culti- 
 vated soils, that of absorbing the gases of 
 the atmosphere and of putrefaction, is a 
 power equally worthy of the consideration 
 of the farmer. It was long since shown, in 
 some experimental reseaches of Mr. Hill, 
 that when oxygen gas is supplied to the 
 roots of plants, their growth and vigour are 
 very considerably increased. Some years 
 since, also, Alexander Von Humboldt an- 
 nounced that the earths possess the pro- 
 perty of absorbing this gas from the atmos- 
 phere (Gilbert's An. of Phil. vol. i. p. 512. ; 
 and although the fact was doubted at the 
 time, yet later researches have shown that 
 moist earth has the property assigned to it 
 by Humboldt, and the amount absorbed by 
 various earths lias since been ascertained by, 
 410 
 
 and will be seen in the following table of 
 M. Schubler: — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 Absorbed in the 
 dry state. 
 
 In the wet state ab- 
 sorbed in 30 days 
 by 1000 grains of 
 Earth from 15 cu- 
 bic inches of Atmo- 
 spheric Air, con- 
 taining *i 1 per cent, 
 of Oxygen. 
 
 Silicious Sand 
 
 0 
 
 grains. 
 0*10 
 
 Calcareous Sand 
 
 0 
 
 0'35 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 0 
 
 0*17 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 
 0 
 
 0*59 
 
 Loamy Clay 
 
 0 
 
 0-70 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick earth 
 
 0 
 
 0-86 
 
 Gray pure Clay 
 
 0 
 
 0-97 
 
 Fine Lime 
 
 0 
 
 0-69 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 0 
 
 T08 
 
 Garden Mould 
 
 0 
 
 1-10 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 0 
 
 1-03 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 0 
 
 0-70 
 
 This attractive power of the earths and 
 of the plants for the aqueous vapour and the 
 oxygen gas of the atmosphere are, as I have 
 on more than one occasion contended, two 
 of the most important facts to be kept in 
 mind by the farmer, with regard to the 
 deepening and pulverisation of his soils. 
 The power of absorbing moisture is a power 
 which all plants possess in a certain mea- 
 sure, but some in such a perfect degree as 
 to depend entirely upon it for all the mois- 
 ture they need. The aloe, the agave, and 
 many of the native plants of the East, nearly 
 support themselves in the same way; the 
 lichens and some of the mosses of this 
 country almost do the same. The quantity 
 of water consumed by plants, when in a 
 state of healthy vegetation, is in fact so 
 great that, if it was not for the gentle steady 
 supply thus imperceptibly furnished to the 
 soil by the atmosphere, vegetation would 
 speedily cease, or only be supported by in- 
 cessant rains. Thus. Dr. Hales ascertained 
 that a cabbage transmits into the atmos- 
 phere, by insensible vapour, about half its 
 height of water daily ; and that a sunflower, 
 three feet in height, transpired in the same 
 period nearly two pounds' weight. (Veg. 
 Stat. vol. i. pp. 5 — 15.) Dr. Woodward 
 found that a sprig of mint, weighing 27 
 grains, in seventy-seven days emitted 2543 
 grains of water. A sprig of spearmint 
 weighing 27 grains emitted in the same time 
 2558 grains ; a sprig of common nightshade 
 weighing 49 grains evolved 3708 grains, and 
 a Lathyrus of 98 grains emitted 2501 grains. 
 (Phil. Trans. 1699, p. 193.) " The power 
 of soils to absorb moisture," says Davy, 
 " ought to be much greater in warm or dry 
 countries than in cold or moist ones, and 
 the quantity of clay or vegetable or animal 
 matter greater. Soils, also, on declivities 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 ought to be more absorbent than in plains, 
 or°in the bottom of valleys. Their pro- 
 ductiveness, likewise, is influenced by the 
 nature of the subsoil, or the stratum on 
 which they rest. When soils are immedi- 
 ately situated upon a bed of rock or stone, 
 they are much sooner rendered dry by eva- 
 poration than where the subsoil is of clay or 
 marl ; and a prime cause of the great fer- 
 tility of land in the moist climate of Ireland 
 is the proximity of the rocky strata to the 
 soil. A clayey subsoil will sometimes be of 
 material advantage to a sandy soil; and, 
 in this case, it will retain moisture in such a 
 manner as to be capable of supplying that 
 lost by the earth above, in consequence of 
 evaporation or the consumption of plants." 
 (Davys Lectures, p. 186.) ^ . 
 
 It has been shown by the experiments of 
 M. Saussure, with some sprigs of pepper- 
 mint, that when supported by pure water 
 only, and allowed to vegetate for some 
 time in the light, they nearly doubled the 
 portion of carbon which they originally 
 contained. (Recherches sur la Veg. 51.) 
 This they could have procured only from 
 the atmosphere ; and, under these circum- 
 stances, there is now little doubt of the 
 correctness of the conclusion of M. Ber- 
 thollet, that plants, by means of their roots 
 and leaves, have the power of decomposing 
 the water as well as the carbonic acid of 
 the atmosphere, and furnishing, with these 
 elements, new combinations. How essen- 
 tial a free access of the atmosphere is to the 
 roots of plants was long since shown by 
 M. Saussure, who found that oxygen gas 
 is absorbed by the roots of plants as well 
 as by their leaves, and that it is at the 
 roots united with carbon, and transmitted 
 to the leaves to be decomposed. Even the 
 branches absorb oxygen ; in its absence 
 flowers will not even expand. (Thomson's 
 Chem. vol. iv. p. 353.) It has been proved 
 that their vegetation is greatly increased by 
 nourishing them with water impregnated 
 with oxygen gas ; hence, too, the superiority 
 of rain water. Some remarkable experi- 
 ments were made by Mr. Hill, demonstra- 
 tive of the great benefits plants derive from 
 oxygen gas being applied to their roots : 
 hyacinths, melons, Indian corn, &c. were 
 the subjects of the experiments. The first 
 were greatly improved in beauty, the second 
 in flavour, the last in size, and all in vigour. 
 This, too, is another use of increasing the 
 moisture of the soil, by deep and complete 
 ploughings, for M. Humboldt and M. 
 Schubler have clearly shown that a dry soil 
 is quite incapable of absorbing oxygen gas. 
 Thus, it must be evident to the most list- 
 less observer, that the more deeply and 
 finely a soil is pulverised, and its earths 
 411 
 
 rendered permeable, the greater will be the 
 absorption by them of both oxygen and 
 watery vapour from the surrounding atmo- 
 sphere. 
 
 It is perhaps needless to prove that the 
 roots of commonly cultivated plants will 
 penetrate, under favourable circumstances, 
 much greater depths into the soil in search 
 of moisture than they can, from the resist- 
 ance of the case-hardened subsoil, commonly 
 attain. Thus, the roots of the wheat plant, 
 in loose deep soils, have been found to de- 
 scend to a depth of two or three feet, or 
 even more : and it is evident that if plants 
 are principally sustained in dry weather by 
 the atmospheric aqueous vapour absorbed 
 by the soil, that then that supply of water 
 must be necessarily increased, by enabling 
 the atmospheric vapour and gases, as well 
 as the roots of plants, to attain to a greater 
 depth ; for the earth, &c. of the interior of 
 a well pulverised soil, be it remembered, 
 continues steadily to absorb this essential 
 food of vegetables, even when the surface of 
 the earth is drying in the sun. 
 
 By facilitating the admission of air to the 
 soil another advantage is obtained, that of 
 increasing its temperature. The earths are 
 naturally bad conductors of heat, especially 
 downwards : thus, it is a well-known fact, 
 that at the siege of Gibraltar, the red hot 
 balls employed by the garrison were readily 
 carried from the furnaces to the batteries 
 in wooden barrows, whose bottoms were 
 merely covered with earth. Davy proved 
 the superior rapidity with which a loose 
 black soil was heated, compared with a 
 chalky soil, by placing equal portions of 
 each in the sunshine ; the first was heated 
 in an hour from 65° to 88°, while the chalk 
 was only heated 69°. This trial, however, 
 must not be regarded as absolutely conclu- 
 sive, since the surface of the black soils na- 
 turally increases more rapidly in tempera- 
 ture when exposed to the direct rays of the 
 sun than those of a lighter colour. A free 
 access of the air to the soil also adds to their 
 fertility, by promoting the decomposition of 
 the excretory matters of plants and other 
 organic substances of the soil. 
 
 In the truth of these conclusions and la- 
 borious experimental reseaches of the che- 
 mist, does not the practical testimony of 
 the ablest cultivators of all ages and in all 
 countries concur ? Thus, in enforcing the 
 advantages of rendering the soil more com- 
 pletely permeable by the atmosphere, nearly 
 two thousand years since, Cato asked the 
 Italian farmers, "What is good tillage?" 
 To plough. "What is the second?" To 
 plough. The third is to manure. Cato 
 however, mistook the cause of the benefit, 
 for he says, " He who stirs his olive ground 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 oftenest and deepest will plough up the very- 
 slender roots ; if he ploughs ill, the roots 
 will become thicker, and the strength of the 
 olive will go to the root." {Lib. 61.) Virgil, 
 when giving an erroneous explanation of 
 the advantages of paring and burning, says, 
 " The heat opens more ways and hidden 
 vents for the air, through which the dews 
 penetrate to the embryo plant." (Georg. i. 
 90, 91.) 
 
 And at this very period do not the best 
 of England's agriculturists find the greatest 
 advantage from stirring the ground between 
 their rows of drilled turnips, which only 
 operates so beneficially to the plants, by 
 promoting the access of the air to their 
 roots ; and that, too, on soils where a weed 
 is hardly to be seen ? Is not one great ob- 
 ject of fallowing to produce by pulverising 
 and deepening the soil the same result? 
 Did not Jethro Tull labour long, and some- 
 times too sanguinely, in illustrating the same 
 position ? And does he not support almost 
 all the observations of the chemist, as to the 
 attraction of the earth for the gases and 
 aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, when 
 he says — "I have had the experience of a 
 multitude of instances, which confirms it so 
 far that I am in no doubt that any soil (be 
 it rich or poor) can ever be made too fine 
 by tillage. For it is without dispute, that 
 one cubical foot of this minute powder may 
 have more internal superficies than a thou- 
 sand cubical feet of the same or any other 
 earth tilled in the common manner ; and I 
 believe no two arable earths in the world 
 do exceed one another in their natural riches 
 twenty times ; that is, one cubical foot of 
 the richest is not able to produce an equal 
 quantity of vegetables, cceteris paribus, to 
 twenty cubical feet of the poorest; therefore, 
 it is not strange that the poorest, when by 
 pulverising it has obtained one hundred 
 times the internal superficies of the rich un- 
 tilled land, should exceed it in fertility ; or, 
 if a foot of the poorest was made to have 
 twenty times the superficies of such rich 
 land, the poorest might produce an equal 
 quantity of" vegetables with the rich. Be- 
 sides, there is another extraordinary advan- 
 tage when a soil has a larger internal su- 
 perficies in a very little compass, for then 
 the roots of the plants in it are better sup- 
 plied with nourishment, being nearer to 
 them — on all sides within reach — than 
 they can be where the soil is less fine, as in 
 common tillage, and the roots in the one 
 must extend much farther than in the other : 
 to reach an equal quantity of nourishment 
 they must range, perhaps, above twenty 
 times more space, to collect the same 
 quantity of food. But, in this fine soil, 
 the weak and tender roots have free pas- 
 412 
 
 sage to the utmost of their extent, and have 
 also an easy, due, and equal pressure every- 
 where, as in water." (TulVs New Hus- 
 bandry, p. 43.) The farmer, too, is aware 
 that when the inert substratum of most 
 cultivated soils is first brought to the sur- 
 face, it is entirely barren, and that yet, by 
 mere exposure to the atmosphere, it be- 
 comes readily productive. 
 
 The comparative rapidity with which 
 soils absorb heat by exposure to the rays of 
 the sun is also a question of much import- 
 ance. M. Schubler found that when the 
 temperature of the upper surface of the 
 earth was 77° in the shade, earth, &c. ex- 
 posed to the sun in vessels four inches 
 square and half an inch deep, from eleven 
 till three o'clock, attained the subjoined 
 temperature : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 Wet. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Silicious Sand, bright yel- 
 
 
 
 lowish gray 
 
 99-1 
 
 112-6 
 
 Calcareous Sand,whitish gray 
 
 99-3 
 
 112-1 
 
 Gypsum, bright white gray 
 
 97-3 
 
 110-5 
 
 Sandy Clay, yellowish 
 
 98-2 
 
 111-4 
 
 Loamy Clay, yellowish 
 
 99-1 
 
 112-1 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick earth, yel- 
 
 
 
 lowish gray 
 
 99-3 
 
 112'3 
 
 Fine bluish gray Clay 
 
 99-5 
 
 113-0 
 
 Lime, white 
 
 96-1 
 
 109-4 
 
 Magnesia, pure white 
 
 95-2 
 
 108-6 
 
 Garden mould, blackish gray 
 
 99-5 
 
 113-5 
 
 Arable soil, gray - 
 
 97-7 
 
 111-7 
 
 Slaty Marl, brownish red - 
 
 101-8 
 
 115-3 
 
 As different soils absorb heat with va- 
 rying rapidity, so they retain it with more 
 or less tenacity, as displayed in the following 
 table by Professor Schubler : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 Calcareous Sand 
 
 Silicious Sand - 
 
 Gypsum powder 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 
 Loamy Clay 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick earth 
 
 Gray pure Clay 
 
 Fine lime 
 
 Fine magnesia - 
 
 Garden mould - 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 Period required by 30 
 cubic inches of Earth to 
 cool down from 1444° 
 to 70£°, in a surround- 
 ing temperature of 
 61i°. 
 
 Hours. 
 
 Minutes. 
 
 8 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 34 
 
 2 
 
 41 
 
 2 
 
 30 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 2 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 3 
 
 27 
 26 
 
 From these experiments, the farmer will 
 perceive that the popular ideas, with re- 
 gard to the quality of soils when they are 
 denominated hot and cold, arc nearly accu- 
 
EARTHS. 
 
 EARTH, EATING OF. 
 
 rate. He will see that sandy soils absorb the 
 heat of the sun faster than any others, but 
 then their rate of cooling is equally great ; 
 — more rapid in their transitions from heat 
 to cold than any others, the crops which they 
 produce are commonly thin, and to these 
 rapid transitions we may assign one reason 
 for the poverty of the produce. The clays, 
 on the contrary, which imbibe the sun's 
 rays more slowly, retain their heat much 
 longer. 
 
 There are several other properties of the 
 earths with which it is highly desirable that 
 the cultivator should be acquainted : thus, 
 the resistance which soils offer to the plough 
 or the spade, in their wet and dry state, is 
 a question on several accounts highly inter- 
 esting to the farmer. This property of the 
 soil has also been examined by Professor 
 Schubler, and the results of his experiments 
 will be found in the following table : — 
 
 Kind of Earth. 
 
 In dry 
 state. 
 
 In wet state. 
 
 Firmness, 
 that of 
 clay be- 
 ing 100. 
 
 Adhesion to agri- 
 cultural imple- 
 ments on a sur- 
 face of one square 
 foot with 
 
 Iron. | Wood. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Silicious Sand 
 
 o-o 
 
 3-8 
 
 43 
 
 Calcareous Sand - 
 
 o-o 
 
 4-1 
 
 44 
 
 Fine Lime 
 
 5-0 
 
 14-3 
 
 15-6 
 
 Gypsum powder - 
 
 7-8 
 
 10-7 
 
 11-8 
 
 Sandy Clay 
 
 573 
 
 7-9 
 
 8-9 
 
 Loamy Clay 
 
 68-8 
 
 10'6 
 
 11-4 
 
 Stiff Clay or brick 
 
 
 
 
 earth 
 
 83-3 
 
 17-2 
 
 18-9 
 
 Gray pure Clay - 
 
 100-0 
 
 27*0 
 
 29 2 
 
 Garden mould 
 
 7-6 
 
 6-4 
 
 7-5 
 
 Arable soil 
 
 33-0 
 
 5-8 
 
 6-4 
 
 Slaty Marl 
 
 23-0 
 
 4-9 
 
 5-5 
 
 From these laborious researches of the 
 chemical philosopher the intelligent farmer 
 may derive many new and important con- 
 clusions with regard to the improved cul- 
 tivation of the earth. They may serve to 
 explain to him one great reason, why fal- 
 lowing and pulverising the soil, either by 
 machinery or by the mixture of chalk or 
 sand with the heavier clay soils, promotes so 
 decidedly, or so permanently, their fertility. 
 And, again, the advocate for all old customs 
 and obsolete modes of tillage may hence, 
 among other things, learn why it is that 
 deep ploughing, either by the common or by 
 the subsoil plough, produces such beneficial 
 results ; how the gases and aqueous vapour 
 of the air are hence rendered more ser- 
 viceable to the roots of his crops ; and how 
 it is that this free passage of these elastic 
 fluids, first caused by the action of the 
 413 
 
 plough, is preserved and facilitated by that 
 of the common or the horse-hoe. Such 
 researches, too, into the important properties 
 with which the Creator has endowed the 
 soil will be serviceable to the cultivator in 
 even an indirect manner. These inves- 
 tigations will, assuredly, suggest to him the 
 very reasonable conclusion, that there may • 
 be yet other chemical properties hidden in 
 the land, which will serve to awaken the 
 curiosity, and reward the labours of future 
 scientific cultivators for many succeeding 
 generations. {Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. v. p. 
 1.) See Mixture of Soils. Analysis 
 or Soils, Absorption, Chalk, &c. 
 
 EARTH-BOARD. That part of a 
 plough which turns over the earth. It is 
 generally termed the mould-board. See 
 Plough. 
 
 EARTH -BUILDINGS. Buildings 
 formed by rammed or compressed earth or 
 clay. This kind of building is supposed to 
 have been known at a very early period, 
 and is still much in use in the southern 
 parts of France. Not only the walls of 
 houses, but garden walls are formed in the 
 same manner, and of the same materials in 
 many parts of Normandy. In some in- 
 stances, boards are placed between the 
 layers of clay, and form a kind of frame- 
 work, which increases the strength of the 
 wall. 
 
 Clay cottages are not uncommon in some 
 parts of England ; but they are not con- 
 structed in the above-mentioned manner. 
 
 EARTH, EATING OF. Stall-fed cattle, 
 who have not the opportunity of plucking 
 up the roots of grass, evince a great par- 
 tiality for earth. It is seldom that a cow 
 will pass a newly-raised mole-hill without 
 muzzling into it, and devouring a consider- 
 able portion of it. This is particularly the 
 case when there is any degree of indigestion, 
 and it probably acts as a sort of gentle pur- 
 gative. It is stated by Mr. Youatt {On 
 Cattle) that the celebrated Kynton ox 
 always had a basket of earth standing near 
 him, of which he occasionally ate a con- 
 siderable quantity. When decomposition 
 commenced, and the acescent principle be- 
 gan to be developed, and the animal felt 
 uneasiness on that account, he had recourse 
 to the mould ; and the acid uniting itself to 
 the earth, the uneasy feeling was relieved. 
 It is also probable that a purgative neutral 
 salt was manufactured in the paunch, but 
 this would depend on the nature of the 
 earth. The absorbent or alkaline earth 
 taken up with the roots of grass by sheep 
 also neutralises the acids of the stomach. 
 {Lib. of Use. Know. "Sheep," p. 3. ; "Cattle," 
 p. 104—317.) It is usual to allow sucking 
 calves to have access to chalk. In the 
 
EARTH-NUT. 
 
 EARTH-WORMS. 
 
 stomachs of almost all young animals, man 
 not excepted, there is a tendency to form 
 superabundant acid, which if not corrected 
 impairs digestion, and interferes with the 
 assimilative function, that which converts 
 the chyle into the animal tissue or substance 
 of the body. The importance, therefore, 
 of correcting this, by the administration of 
 absorbent earths, is obvious. 
 
 It might become a matter of curious in- 
 quiry, how far this desire of earth in cattle 
 lias affinity to that of the human stomach, 
 which leads the Otomacs, a South American 
 tribe, to eat clay. It is an unctuous clay, 
 containing an oxide of iron ; and during 
 some months, when provisions are scarce, an 
 Otomac devours about three quarters of a 
 pound of clay daily, and he does not suffer 
 nor become lean upon it. The negroes on 
 the coast of Guinea, and the natives of 
 Java, and some of the other islands of the In- 
 dian Archipelago, are also earth-eaters ; and 
 in this and other European countries, preg- 
 nant women, and young girls in a state of 
 disease connected with the uterine function, 
 also evince a strong inclination to eat earth. 
 
 Among quadrupeds, earth- eating is not 
 confined to the ox tribe ; for, when pressed 
 for food, wolves in the north-east of Europe, 
 reindeer and kids in Siberia, all eat clay. It 
 is probable that the earth operates as a me- 
 chanical stimulus to the stomach, and abates 
 the sensation of hunger, which always at- 
 tends certain diseased conditions of the 
 stomach. But, whatever may be the cause, 
 this instinctive longing for earth in cows 
 and oxen should not be overlooked, and the 
 animals should be supplied with it when 
 they are stall-fed. 
 
 EARTH-NUT. (Buniam Jlexuosum.) 
 The common earth-nut, kipper, or pig-nut, 
 for it is known by all these names, is a pe- 
 rennial plant growing in sandy or gravelly 
 meadows, pastures, orchards, and woods ; 
 flowering in May or June. The root is 
 eatable, nearly globular, black, internally 
 white, aromatic, sweet, and mucilaginous, 
 with some acrimony. The stem is a foot high 
 or more, striated, with long, narrow, acute 
 leaves ; the radicle leaves are twice or thrice 
 pinnatifid. The flowers are in umbels ; they 
 are pure white. The roots are at present 
 searched for only by hogs, who devour them 
 with avidity ; but as they are little inferior 
 to chestnuts, they might form an agreeable 
 addition to our winter desserts, eaten either 
 raw, boiled, or roasted. (Willictis Dorn. 
 Encyc. ; Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 54.) 
 
 EA RTH- WORMS. (Lumbricus, Linn.) 
 Well-known molluscous animals, which are 
 Common in all parts of the country, at little 
 depths beneath the surface of the earth. 
 While, in his Nat. Hist, of Selbortic, 
 
 speaking of their effects on the soil in pro- 
 moting vegetation, says, " The most insig- 
 nificant insects and reptiles are of much 
 more consequence, and have much more in- 
 fluence in the economy of nature, than the 
 incurious are aware of ; and are mighty in 
 their effect from their minuteness, which 
 renders them less an object of attention, 
 and from their numbers and fecundity : 
 earth-worms, though in appearance a small 
 and despicable link in the chain of nature, 
 yet, if lost, would make a lamentable chasm. 
 For, to say nothing of half the birds and 
 some quadrupeds which are entirely sup- 
 ported by them, worms seem to be equal 
 promoters of vegetation, which would pro- 
 ceed but lamely without them, by boring, 
 perforating, and loosening the soil, and ren- 
 dering it pervious to rain and the fibres of 
 plants, by drawing straws and stalks of 
 leaves and twigs into it; and most of all, 
 by throwing up such infinite numbers of 
 lumps of earth, called worm-casts, which 
 being their excrement, is a fine manure for 
 grain and grass. Worms probably provide 
 new soil for hills and slopes, where the rain 
 washes the earth away, and they affect 
 slopes probably to avoid being flooded. 
 Gardeners and farmers express their detes- 
 tation of worms : the former, because they 
 render their walks unsightly, and make 
 them much work ; and the latter, because, as 
 they think, worms eat their green corn. But 
 they would find that the earth without 
 worms would soon become cold, hard- 
 bound, and void of fermentation, and con- 
 sequently sterile ; and besides, in favour of 
 worms, it should be hinted that green corn, 
 plants, and flowers are not so much injured 
 by them as by many species of Coleoptera 
 (scarabs) and Tipula (long-legs) in their 
 larva or grub, state, and by unnoticed 
 myriads of small shell-less snails, called 
 slugs, which silently and imperceptibly make 
 amazing havoc in the field and garden. 
 Worms work most in the spring, and are 
 out every mild night in the winter : they 
 are very prolific." (Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. ii. p 145.) Worms are readily destroyed 
 by the application of common salt, sown 
 broadcast at the rate of five or six bushels 
 per acre ; or on grass plats, by the applica- 
 tion of lime-water, or rather milk of lime, 
 which is readily made by stirring for ten 
 minutes a pound of hot lime in four or five 
 pailsfullof water. But, for the reasons already 
 given, they should not be destroyed. Earth- 
 worms are viviparous, their eggs are hatched 
 in the body, and the young are expelled 
 alive. They generally come out of the earth 
 during the night in June to copulate. 
 
 EARTHY MANURES. These are the 
 most universal of all fertilisers, although their 
 
EARWIG. 
 
 EGGS. 
 
 number is limited to three, viz. Chalk and 
 Lime, Clay or alumina, Sand or silex : and 
 with these may be classed the coal, or 
 other ashes produced by the combustion of 
 peat, turf, and other vegetable substances, 
 the composition of which is usually similar 
 to that of the soils on which the combustible 
 matter is produced. Ashes from chalk soils 
 usually abound in carbonate of lime and 
 gypsum, which is produced in the chalk by 
 the gradual decomposition of the iron py- 
 rites which most chalk contains ; while those 
 from clay lands as generally abound with 
 alumina and sand. Those which are 
 brought from the seashore almost always 
 contain a considerable quantity of soda, 
 and some common salt. There are no re- 
 searches more likely to amply repay the 
 cultivator than the investigation of the 
 composition of his soils. All the difference 
 between a fertile soil and the poorest cul- 
 tivated land consists in the presence of the 
 indispensable constituents of a soil in pro- 
 portions that are more or less profitable. 
 The addition of the desired substance, 
 whether organic or inorganic, constitutes the 
 fertilising ingredient. Davy long since re- 
 marked that " Fertility, seems to depend 
 upon the state of division and mixture of 
 the earthy materials and the vegetable 
 matter. In ascertaining the composition 
 of fertile soils, with a view to their im- 
 provement, any particular ingredient which 
 is the cause of their unproductiveness 
 should be particularly attended to ; if possi- 
 ble, they should be compared with fertile soils 
 in the same neighbourhood, and in similar 
 situations, as the difference of composition 
 may, in many cases, indicate the most pro- 
 per methods of improvement." {Agricultural 
 Chemistry, p. 203.) Thus, either peat, or 
 chalk, or clay is an excellent permanent ad- 
 dition to sandy soils. Chalk and sand im- 
 prove the texture and productiveness of 
 clays. To peat the earths are all more or 
 less permanent fertilisers ; lime removes the 
 excess of sulphate of iron (green vitriol) ; 
 chalk is equally efficacious in what the far- 
 mer calls acid or sour soils. This class of ma- 
 nures differs from the organic and saline, in 
 this highly important yet seldom sufficiently 
 remembered quality, that as they are more 
 frequently employed in larger quantities 
 than either of the other two, so their bene- 
 ficial influence on the soil far exceeds in du- 
 ration all others. 
 
 EARWIG. {Forficula auricularis, 
 Linn.) A well-known insect, which is 
 common in damp places, and often found 
 in numbers under stones, and beneath the 
 bark of trees. They do much damage in 
 gardens, by preying upon the fruit. The 
 English common name, and also the French 
 415 
 
 pierce-oreille, relate to a habit absurdly at- 
 tributed to these insects of penetrating the 
 ears. {Brande's Diet of Art.) 
 
 It is a curious fact that the earwig sits 
 upon her eggs like a hen ; and when the 
 young are hatched, they creep under the 
 mother, like a brood of chickens under a # 
 hen. De Geer, who has observed the habits 
 of this insect, says, the parent will sit over 
 them for hours. She usually carries them 
 about on her back, until they are able to 
 provide for themselves. One of the species 
 of Forficula, namely F. minor, has wings, 
 and flies in groups. 
 
 EATING-OFF. A term employed by 
 farmers to signify the feeding-off of dif- 
 ferent green crops ; for example, turnips by 
 sheep. 
 
 EAVES-GUTTERS. Small troughs for 
 preventing the rain-water from falling from 
 the eaves or roofs of buildings, and to enable 
 it to be collected for domestic use. 
 
 EDDER. A small straight shoot of ash, 
 hazle, oak, or any other kind of flexible 
 wood, used for binding the tops of hedges. 
 
 EDDISH. The same with eaddish, or 
 after-grass. See Eaddish, 
 
 EDGE. The extremity or border of 
 any thing. From whence we have, — edge- 
 grown, that is, grain which has come up 
 uneven, and does not ripen with the ge- 
 neral crop. Edge-hoeing, the operation of 
 hoeing the sides of the rows of any sort of 
 crops, &c. 
 
 EEL. {Anguilla vulgaris.) A fish, the 
 appearance of which is too well-known to 
 require any description. It is a native of 
 almost all the waters of Europe, frequenting 
 rivers as well as stagnant pools. Several 
 ponds are appropriated in England to the 
 rearing of eels, and considerable numbers 
 are taken in the Thames and other rivers. 
 They attain sometimes to a large size, 
 weighing fifteen or twenty pounds; but 
 are in general not more than a foot and a 
 half or two feet in length. The periodical 
 emigration of eels is a most singular but 
 well-attested fact. The eel is viviparous 
 and extremely tenacious of life. Bobbing, 
 spearing, sniggling, and angling, are each 
 occasionally resorted to, but not with much 
 relish by the more experienced angler, who 
 aims at higher game. {M^CullocKs Com. 
 Diet. ; Blaine's Bur. Sports ; WillicKs Dom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 EFT, NEWT, or EVET. (Salamandra.) 
 A small kind of lizard, that chiefly lives in 
 the water. As the newt is an amphibious 
 animal, it requires to ascend frequently to 
 the surface of the water, to take fresh air 
 into its lungs. 
 
 EGGS. (Fr.ceufs; Germ, ei ; Lat. ova.) 
 The ova of birds and oviparous animals. 
 
EGGS. 
 
 EIDER-DUCK. 
 
 The shell of the egg is lined throughout 
 with a thin but tough membrane, called 
 pellicula ovi; which, dividing at or near the 
 obtuse end, forms a small bag — the air 
 follicule. This membrane weighs about 2*35 
 grains in an egg of 1000 grains in weight. 
 It contains what is called the albumen or 
 white, and the vitellus or yellow. The 
 white consists of two distinct parts, one of 
 which is a delicate membrane forming a 
 series of cells, which inclose the other, or 
 fluid part. It has the well-known property 
 of being coagulated by heat. It consists of 
 12 parts of albumen, 2*7 of mucus, 0*3 of 
 gaits, and 85 of water, in a hundred parts. 
 The yolk consists of oil, suspended in water 
 by means of albumen, and held in a mem- 
 branous sac — the yolk-bag, each end of 
 which is twisted, to form what is called the 
 chalazce, intended to preserve the yolk in 
 such a position that the cicatricula, or rudi- 
 mental embryo, shall always be uppermost. 
 The yolk consists of 28*75 of yellow oil and 
 crystallisable fat, with traces of sulphur ; 
 17 '47 of albumen, containing phosphorus, 
 and 53-8 of water. The relative weights of 
 these parts, in an egg weighing 1000 grains, 
 are, 106 9 shell and membrane, 604*2 albu- 
 men, and 288*9 yolk. The egg loses two or 
 three per cent of its weight when boiled in 
 water. The white is more easily digested than 
 the yolk ; and both are more digestible in the 
 soft than in the hard state. The changes 
 which the hen's egg undergoes during incu- 
 bation have been described by Sir E. Home 
 (Phil. Trans. 1822, p. 339.), and illustrated 
 by a beautiful series of plates, after drawings 
 by Bauer. The same volume also contains a 
 valuable paper, by Dr. Prout, on this sub- 
 ject, but chiefly treating of the chemical 
 changes of the egg during that process. The 
 egg does not receive its outer coat, or pelli- 
 cide, until it arrives at that part of the ovi- 
 duct which is called the uterus ; and not its 
 shell until it has passed through one half of 
 the uterus. Eggs are sometimes expelled 
 without shells, and are called oon-eggs. The 
 specific gravity of new-laid eggs at first 
 rather exceeds that of water, varying from 
 1*08 to 1*09 ; but they soon become lighter, 
 and swim on water, in consequence of eva- 
 poration through the pores of the shell. The 
 mean weight of a hen's egg is about 875 
 grains. 
 
 Hen's eggs are decidedly wholesome ; 
 and, when new laid, are an agreeable and 
 nourishing food. Vast quantities of eggs 
 are brought from the country to London, 
 and other great towns. It is stated in the 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 1077, that, 
 about fifteen years ago, the number of eggs 
 exported from Berwick-upon-Tweed to Lon- 
 don amounted to 30,000/. worth a-year. 
 416 
 
 The trade in eggs is of great value and 
 importance. It appears from official state- 
 ments, that the eggs imported from France 
 amounted to 60,000,000 a-year; and pre- 
 suming them to cost, on an average, 4d. per 
 dozen, it follows that we pay the French 
 above 83,000/. a-year for eggs ; and sup- 
 posing that the freight, importer's and re- 
 tailer's profit, duty (10c?. per 120), &c. 
 raise their price to the consumer to 10c?. per 
 dozen, their total cost will be 213,000/. 
 The number of eggs imported into this 
 country from various parts of the Continent, 
 for the year ending January 5. 1839, was 
 83,745,723 ; and the gross amount of duty 
 received for the same was 29,111/. The 
 Netherlands and the Channel Islands fur* 
 nish a large quantity of the eggs consumed 
 in this country. (M'-CullocKs Com. Diet. ; 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. ; Brande's 
 Diet, of Science ; WillicKs Dom. JEncyc.) 
 
 EGG-PLANT. (Solanum melonge?ia.) 
 This is a tender or green-house annual, a 
 native of Africa. It loves a light rich soil, 
 and blows violet flowers in June and July, 
 which are succeeded by fruit, shaped and co- 
 loured like an egg. The plant is propagated 
 by seed. In French and Italian cookery it 
 is used in soups, and for the same purposes 
 as the love-apple. (Loudon's JEncyc. of 
 Gard.) 
 
 EGLANTINE. (Rosa rubiginosa ; Fr. 
 eglantin.) The old English name of the 
 sweetbriar rose. The odour, which is so 
 agreeable, is exhaled from reddish, viscid 
 glands, which cover the under-surface of 
 the leaflets. This odour enables it to be 
 readily recognised from all our other wild 
 roses, except the small-flowered sweetbriar 
 (Rosa micrantha), which some believe to be 
 only a variety of R. rubiginosa. The term 
 eglantine is improperly applied by Milton 
 to the honeysuckle. 
 
 EGRET, THE LITTLE. (Ardea gar- 
 zetta.) This small heron was formerly very 
 common in Britain, but it is not now often 
 met with. It breeds in marshes, and pro- 
 duces four or five eggs. The whole of the 
 plumage is of a pure and delicate white ; 
 legs and claws black ; toes, blackish green. 
 The whole length of the bird is twenty-four 
 inches. ( YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 458.) 
 
 EGYPTIAN VULTURE. See Vul- 
 ture. 
 
 EIDER-DUCK. (Somateria mollissima.) 
 The common eider frequents in great num- 
 bers the Orkneys, the Hebrides, and the 
 Shetland Islands. It is defended from the 
 cold of these dreary northern coasts by the. 
 development of an unusual quantity of t he 
 finest down, beneath the dense exterior 
 plumage, which is equally well adapted to 
 form an impenetrable barrier to the wet. 
 
ELBOWS. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. 
 
 The down of the eider constitutes its chief 
 value, as it combines with its peculiar soft- 
 ness, fineness, and lightness, so great a degree 
 of elasticity, that the quantity of this mate- 
 rial which might be compressed and con- 
 cealed between the two hands will serve to 
 stuff a German coverlet. As the female 
 plucks from her own body a quantity of the 
 finest down to line her nest, the Orcadians 
 avail themselves of this instinct, and take an 
 early opportunity to rob the nest of both 
 eggs and down. She then begins to lay 
 afresh, and envelopes her eggs with another 
 layer of down; and if this be removed, the 
 male is said to contribute his own down, 
 when the female can afford no more. Lastly, 
 when the brood of ducklings is hatched, the 
 nest is again visited, and the down removed. 
 Thus, a considerable quantity of the valu- 
 able material furnished by the eider-duck is 
 obtained, independently of that which is 
 plucked from the slaughtered birds. Be- 
 sides the down and eggs, the islanders turn 
 the skins and flesh of the eiders to profit, 
 while these birds cost them no expense, as 
 they feed entirely on sea-weed, and other 
 natural productions of the ocean. (Brando's 
 Diet, of Lit. and Science.} The value of 
 eider-down as an article of clothing, or for 
 keeping the body warm, depends on its small 
 conducting power. With the exception of 
 hare's fur, it is the worst known conductor 
 of heat. In order to determine its compara- 
 tive conducting power, Count Rumford made 
 an experiment to ascertain the number of 
 seconds which elapsed during the passage of 
 the mercury in the thermometer through 
 165 degrees, in the cooling of different 
 bodies. He found their non-conducting 
 powers to be the following:— lint, 1032; 
 cottonwool, 1046; sheep's wool, 1 1 1 8 ; raw 
 silk, 1284; beaver's fur, 1296; eider-down, 
 1305 ; hare's fur 1315. From this it is 
 evident that under garments made of either 
 eider-down or hare's fur, are admirably 
 adapted to defend the body from severe 
 external cold ; or, in other words, to pre- 
 vent the rapid radiation of the natural heat 
 of the living body. 
 
 ELBOWS. A term applied to the shoul- 
 der points of cattle. 
 
 ELDEN. A provincial term signifying 
 fuel for fire. 
 
 ELDER. A term provincially, but im- 
 properly, applied to the alder tree. Also a 
 local name for the udder of a cow. 
 
 ELDER. (Sambucus nigra.) It appears 
 (says Phillips) that we have taken the word 
 elder from holder, the Dutch name of this 
 tree. The common elder tree is a native of 
 England, and is found also in most parts of 
 Europe, as it will grow on any soil, and in 
 situations where few other trees would 
 417 
 
 thrive. The stem is much and oppositely 
 branched ; the branches being covered with 
 a smooth, grey bark, and having a large 
 spongy pith : the leaves consist of two pair 
 of leaflets, with an odd one. The flowers 
 are in cymes ; the berries globular, deep 
 purple. It may be observed, that our un- 
 certain summer is established by the time 
 the elder is in full flower, and entirely 
 passed when its berries are ripe. An infu- 
 sion of the leaves proves fatal to the various 
 insects which thrive on blighted or delicate 
 plants, nor do many of this tribe, in the 
 caterpillar state, feed upon them. Cattle 
 scarcely touch them, and the mole is driven 
 away by their scent ; but sheep eat the leaves 
 greedily, and it is said to be a cure for the 
 rot. The Rev. Mr. Farquharson, in an able 
 paper in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. 
 p. 336., advocates the cultivation of the 
 elder for hedges, from its rapidity of growth, 
 hardihood, and cheapness. The only objec- 
 tion appears to be, that it does not thicken 
 and close up its branches, so as to form an 
 impervious fence, like the whitethorn. M. 
 W ehrle of Vienna has found, by a series of 
 experiments, that the berries of the elder 
 tree produce a much greater quantity of 
 spirit than the best wheat. The spirit is 
 obtained by pressing the berries, the juice of 
 which is treated in the same way as the must 
 of the grape, and afterwards distilled. If 
 the results obtained by M. Wehrle are con- 
 firmed, it will be an additional motive for 
 cultivating a plant which possesses many 
 other useful qualities. (Quart. Journ. Agr. 
 vol. iii. p. 183.) An odorous water is pre- 
 pared by distilling the flowers : it is used as 
 a perfume. The inspissated juice of the 
 berries is laxative and diuretic ; and, mixed 
 with water, forms a cooling beverage in 
 fevers. The inner bark is purgative and 
 emetic. 
 
 ELDER, THE WATER. (Viburnum 
 opulus.) See Guelder Rose. 
 
 ELECTRICITY. The application of 
 this science to the cultivation of the earth 
 has hitherto not been very practically use- 
 ful. Its operations — the very nature of 
 electricity — are as yet much too little un- 
 derstood for the cultivator to derive in- 
 struction from its study. " Electrical 
 changes," said Davy (Elements of Agr. Chem. 
 p. 41.), " are constantly taking place in na- 
 ture on the surface of the earth, and in the 
 atmosphere ; but as yet the effects of this 
 power in vegetation have not been correctly 
 estimated. It has been shown, by experi- 
 ments made by means of the voltaic battery 
 (the instrument in which electricity is evolved 
 by the mutual action of zinc, copper, and 
 water), that compound bodies in general 
 are capable of being decomposed by elec- 
 
 E E 
 
ELLIS (WILLIAM). 
 
 ELM. 
 
 trical powers; and it is probable, that the 
 various electrical phenomena occurring in 
 our system must influence both the germi- 
 nation of seeds and the growth of plants. 
 I found that corn sprouted much more 
 rapidly in water positively electrified by the 
 voltaic instrument, than in water negatively 
 electrified ; and experiments made upon the 
 atmosphere shew that clouds are usually 
 negative ; and as when a cloud is in one 
 state of electricity, the surface of the earth 
 beneath is brought into the opposite state, 
 it is probable that, in common cases, the 
 surface of the earth is positive. Different 
 opinions are entertained amongst scientific 
 men respecting the nature of electricity : 
 by some, the phenomena are conceived to 
 depend upon a single subtile fluid, in excess 
 in the bodies said to be positively electrified, 
 in deficiency in the bodies said to be nega- 
 tively electrified : a second class suppose 
 the effects to be produced by two different 
 fluids, called by them vitreous and resinous ; 
 and a third set regard them as affections, 
 or motions of matter, and merely an exhi- 
 bition of attractive powers, similar to those 
 which produce chemical combination and 
 decomposition, but usually exerting their 
 action on masses." 
 
 ELLIS, WILLIAM, was a farmer of 
 Little Gaddesden, near Hemel Hempstead, 
 in Hertfordshire, and evidently a man of 
 intelligence. He travelled much, both in 
 this country and on the continent, and 
 wrote the following works : — 
 
 1. The Timber Tree improved ; or the best Practical 
 Methods of improving different Lands with proper Tim- 
 ber. London. 1738. 8vo. 2. Complete Modern Hus- 
 bandry, containing the Practice of Farming ; Chiltern 
 and Vale Farming ; Improvements on Fruit and Timber 
 Trees, &c. 1744. 8 vols. 8vo. Again in 1750 and 1752. 
 He also edited " The Farmer's Instructor, or the Hus- 
 bandman's and Gardener's useful and necessary Com- 
 panion," which was originally written by Samuel 
 Trowell, Gent. This was published in 1747. 8vo. He 
 also mentions another work he was about publishing, 
 entitled, " Ellis's Country Housewife." Mr. Trowell, 
 says Ellis, was a very ingenious gentleman, and cele- 
 brated garden artist, and he mentions his " writings on 
 Gardening," which I have never seen. He was steward of 
 the estates belonging to the benchers of the Inner Tem- 
 ple. He was dead in 1747. He published a new Treatise 
 of Husbandry and Gardening, London. 8vo. 1739, which 
 was translated into German in 1750. (G. IV. Johnson's 
 Hist, of Gardening.) 
 
 ELLMAN, JOHN, a celebrated breeder 
 and improver of South Down sheep, was 
 born at Hartfield, a small village near East 
 Grinstead in Sussex, on the 17th Oct. 1753, 
 and succeeded his father, Richard Ellman, 
 on his farm at Glynde, near Lewes in the 
 same county, in 1780. Although labouring 
 under the disadvantages of a very limited 
 education, the subject of this memoir, by his 
 practical experience as a farmer and breeder 
 tor more than half a century in the im- 
 provement of cattle, the advancement of 
 agricultural knowledge, and the reward of 
 labouring industry, made for himself a name 
 418 
 
 and a reputation which will long survive. 
 Mr. Ellman was much connected with Ar- 
 thur Young and his publication, the Annals 
 of Agriculture, and with all the leading agri- 
 culturists of the day. He was one of the 
 originators of the Smithfield Show in Dec. 
 1798, and also the founder of the East Sus- 
 sex Agricultural Society. His improved 
 breed of sheep carried off frequent pre- 
 miums at the shows of stock, and he had 
 several valuable pieces of plate given him 
 in testimony of the services he rendered to 
 his native county and the kingdom at large. 
 Mr. Ellman died on the 22d of Nov. 1832. 
 {Baxter s Lib. of Agriculture.) 
 
 ELM. (Ulmus.) A genus of forest 
 trees, common in Great Britain, of which 
 there are several varieties. The characters 
 of the genus are, flowers, bisexual ; calyx, 
 bell-shaped, four to five toothed, coloured, 
 persistent ; stamens, three to six ; stigmas, 
 two ; fruit, sub-globular, with a broad 
 membranous margin. Sir James E. Smith 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 19.) describes five 
 species of native elm : — viz. 1 . The common 
 small-leaved elm (U. campestris), which is 
 found chiefly in the southern parts of England . 
 The wood is hard and tough, particularly 
 durable in wet situations, and is greatly pre- 
 ferred in Norfolk (where it ds the most 
 common species) to any other, and sells for 
 nearly double the price, serving more espe- 
 cially for the naves of wheels. In other 
 parts of England and particularly about 
 London, the wood of the common elm is used 
 for coffins. 2. The common cork-barked elm 
 (JJ. suberosa), which is taller and more 
 spreading than the foregoing. The bark 
 when a year old is covered with very fine 
 . dense cork in deep fissures ; whence the 
 name. It is far inferior to the former in 
 value. There are various cultivated vari- 
 eties raised from seed. 3. The Dutch cork- 
 barked elm (U. major) ; a doubtful native. 
 The branches spread widely in a drooping 
 manner, and the bark is rugged, much 
 more corky than even the foregoing. Mil- 
 ler says this elm was brought from Holland 
 in King William's reign, and being recom- 
 mended for its quick growth, was a fashion- 
 able tree for hedges in gardens, but after- 
 wards 'fell into disuse. He adds, that " the 
 wood is good for nothing, so its use is almost 
 banished in this country." 4. The broad- 
 leaved Scotch elm, or wych hazel ( U. mon- 
 tana). It is sometimes called the Hertford- 
 shire elm, being very frequent and luxuriant 
 in that county. The large hop-like fruit 
 is abundant, and very conspicuous in May 
 or June; and the seeds appear to be usu- 
 ally perfected. This is one of the most 
 general species of elm throughout Europe. 
 It is a large spreading tree, of quicker 
 
ELM. 
 
 ELYMUS. 
 
 growth than the common small-leaved 
 elm, and the wood is consequently far in- 
 ferior in hardness and compactness, and 
 more liable to split. The branches are in 
 some individuals quite pendulous, like the 
 weeping willow. The bark is smooth, and 
 downy in a young state. 5. The smooth- 
 leaved, or wych elm {U. glabra). A tall 
 elegant tree, with spreading, rather droop- 
 ing, smooth, blackish branches, and smaller 
 leaves than any of the preceding, except the 
 first. 
 
 The elm (says Brande) is valued for the 
 rapidity of its growth, its hardness, and its 
 capability of thriving in poor soil unfit for 
 tillage. Tredgold {Princip. of Carp.), how- 
 ever, says, the elm is of slow growth. The 
 elms of England are scarcely less remarked for 
 their age, bulk, and beauty than the British 
 oaks. The colour of the heart-wood of elm 
 is generally darker than that of oak, and of , 
 a redder brown. The sap wood is of a yel- 
 lowish or brownish white, with pores in- 
 clined to red. It has a peculiar odour, is 
 in general porous and cross-grained — some- 
 times coarse-grained, and has no large septa. 
 It twists and warps much in drying, and 
 also shrinks considerably both in length and 
 breadth. It is difficult to work, but not 
 liable to split, and bears the driving of bolts 
 and nails better than any other timber. In 
 Scotland, chairs and other articles of house- 
 hold furniture are frequently made of elm 
 wood ; but in England, where the wood is 
 inferior, besides the purposes already spe- 
 cified, it is chiefly in demand for the manu- 
 facture of casks, mill-wheels, pumps, water 
 pipes, axle-trees, &c. It is appropriated to 
 these purposes because of its great durability 
 in water, which also occasions its extensive 
 use as piles and planking for wet foundations. 
 A second-rate charcoal is made from this 
 wood ; and rails and gates of elm, thin sawed, 
 Evelyn tells us in his Sylva, are not so apt 
 to rive as oak. Elm is said to bear trans- 
 planting better than any other large tree. 
 It is propagated by seed, layers, or suckers, 
 and by grafting and budding. Suckers, 
 however, generally disfigure those trees 
 raised from layers or suckers. As the value 
 of this timber consists more in the length 
 and bulk of the shaft than in the irregular 
 growth of its branches, it is the business of 
 the planter to train them up tall and straight, 
 and not to suffer them to branch till within 
 a few feet of the top. The leaves of the elm 
 are eagerly eaten by cattle, sheep, and hogs. 
 The inner bark of the elm is nearly as va- 
 luable a medicinal agent as the much- 
 vaunted sarsaparilla. The decoction of it 
 forms an excellent vehicle for minute doses 
 of corrosive sublimate in some obstinate 
 skin diseases ; and in combination with vine- 
 419 
 
 gar, or muriatic acid, it is a useful gargle in 
 inflamed throats. {Tredgold f s Princip. of 
 Carpentry, p. 201.203. ; Phillips's Sylv. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 205. Baxter's Agr. Lib. ; 
 WillicKs Dom. JEncy.; Brande s Diet, of 
 Science.) 
 
 ELYMUS. The lyme grass. A genus of 
 large, rigid or coarse grasses, mostly peren- 
 nial, growing frequently on the sea-coast. 
 Smith {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 177.) describes 
 three native species : — 1. Upright sea lyme 
 grass {E. arenarius). 2. Pendulous sea lyme 
 grass {E. geniculatus). 3. Wood lyme grass 
 {E. europaus). The last is found in woods, 
 thickets, and hedges on a chalky soil ; herb- 
 age of a grassy green ; stem erect, two feet 
 high, and striated. As Sinclair has treated 
 copiously of the proportional value of the 
 different native and foreign species of Ely- 
 mus, I shall follow his classification. 
 
 Elymns arenarius. (Germ. Sand-haar- 
 gras.) Upright sea lyme grass, starr, or 
 bent, named from its upright close spike. 
 Its stalk is not winged, and the leaves are 
 spinous, pointed. The calyx is lanceolate, 
 the length of the spikelets. The nutritive 
 matter afforded by this lyme grass is re- 
 markable for the large quantity of saccha- 
 rine matter which it contains, amounting to 
 more than one-third of its weight ; this grass 
 may, therefore, be considered as the sugar- 
 cane of Britain. The saccharine matter 
 must render the hay made from this grass 
 very nutritious, particularly when cut into 
 chaff, and mixed with corn or common hay. 
 Its natural soil (if soil it can be called) is 
 the sands of the sea-coast. This grass, 
 when combined with the Arundo arenaria, 
 seems admirably adapted by nature for the 
 purpose of forming a barrier to the en- 
 croachment of the sea. The culms are very 
 deficient, both on its natural soil, and when 
 cultivated. A greater proportion of saccha- 
 rine matter is afforded by the culms of this 
 grass than by the leaves. It flowers about 
 the third week in July. 
 
 Elymus genicidatus. Knee-jointed, or 
 pendulous lyme grass. The stem is winged, 
 and the spikes bent directly downwards. 
 At the time of flowering the produce 
 from a sandy loam is 20,418 lbs. per acre. 
 The foliage is tough and coarse, and the 
 quantity of nutritive matter it affords is 
 not considerable. The Elymus arenarius 
 is nearly allied to this species in its gene- 
 ral habit ; but differs specifically in the 
 spikelets being pubescent, more compact, 
 and the spike perfectly upright. The 
 leaves are broader, the culms taller and 
 stronger, and the root is more powerfully- 
 creeping. This species is greatly superior 
 to the above in produce and nutritive pro- 
 perties, but neither appear to have merits 
 
 E E 2 
 
ELYMUS. 
 
 EMBANKMENT. 
 
 sufficient to recommend it for cultivation ; 
 for even though both were early in the 
 produce of fine foliage, and grew rapidly 
 after being cut, their strong creeping roots, 
 which exhaust the soil very much, would 
 preclude their introduction on the farm. 
 This species flowers in the second week in 
 July, and the seed is perfected in about 
 three weeks. 
 
 Elymus hystrix. Rough lyme grass. At 
 the time of flowering, the produce from a 
 rich silicious sandy loam was 27,225 lbs., of 
 which half the weight is lost in drying. The 
 nutritive matter afforded by the produce of 
 an acre is only 1063 lbs. The harsh, broad, 
 thin, light-green leaves of this species, and 
 of those of the E. striatus and E. sibiricus, 
 indicate that they are naturally inhabitants 
 of woods, or wet shady places. Grasses of 
 this description are generally (indeed in 
 every instance that has come under my ob- 
 servation) deficient in nutritive matter, 
 and contain an excess of bitter extractive. 
 Cattle appear to dislike these grasses. Oxen 
 eat the Philadelphian lyme grass when it is 
 offered to them, but they refuse the striated, 
 Siberian, and rough lyme grasses. From 
 the above details there is no authority for 
 recommending the rough lyme grass to the 
 notice of the agriculturist. It flowers in 
 the second week in July, and ripens the 
 seed in about a month. 
 
 Elymus Philadelphicus. Philadelphian 
 lyme grass. At the time of flowering, the j 
 green produce per acre from a clayey loam 
 and retentive subsoil is 30,628 lbs. ; dry pro- 
 duce, 15,314 lbs. ; nutritive matter, 2033 lbs. ; 
 so that it is a very productive grass, and 
 contains a considerable quantity of nutritive 
 matter. With respect to foliage, it is rather 
 early in the spring. From the large size it 
 attains, the produce is rank and proportion- 
 ably coarse, and is unfit for pasture. It ap- 
 pears that for soiling, or hay to be used in the 
 form of chaff, this and some other of the gi- 
 gantic grasses would be profitable plants on 
 soils unfit for the production of the superior 
 pasture grasses, or of corn. A comparison of 
 the quantity of nutritive matter contained 
 in hay of the best quality with that made 
 from this grass, will show nearly their com- 
 parative value One pound of hay composed 
 of the best natural grasses contains of nutri- 
 tive matter 57 drs. ; one pound of hay of the 
 E. Philadelphicus, 34 drs. With regard to nu- 
 tritive powers, therefore, five tons of the hay 
 of this grass are scarcely equal to three tons 
 of that of the superior grasses. But the soil 
 that will produce this grass, and others of 
 the same class, at the rate of six tons per 
 acre, would not produce one fifth the quan- 
 tlty of the superior grasses; consequently, 
 the adoption of the t all fescue andPhiladel- 
 420 
 
 phian lyme grasses on soils of this descrip- 
 tion for the uses now described, might be 
 found a profitable measure. This grass 
 flowers in the first and second weeks of July, 
 and successively till the end of summer. 
 The seed ripens in about three weeks after 
 the time of flowering. 
 
 Elymus sibericus. Siberian lyme grass. 
 At the time of flowering, the produce per 
 acre from a rich sandy soil is 16,335 lbs. ; 
 dry produce, 5,717 lbs.; nutritive matter, 
 574 lbs. The produce of this grass is very 
 coarse, and the weight of the crop, there- 
 fore, though considerable, is comparatively 
 of no value. It is a native of Siberia, and 
 withstands the effects of the severest con- 
 tinued frost, but not sudden changes from 
 frost to fine weather. It requires to be sown 
 every year, and treated as an annual. It 
 comes into flower the second season, about 
 the second or third week in June, and con- 
 tinues to emit flowering culms till autumn. 
 A light rich silicious soil appears to be best 
 adapted to its growth. 
 
 Elymus striatus. Striated lyme grass. At 
 the time of flowering, the green produce per 
 acre of this grass from a clayey loam is 
 20,418 lbs. ; dry produce, 8,933 lbs.; nutri- 
 tive matter, 1276 lbs. From these details, 
 therefore, this species is inferior in nutritive 
 powers to the Philadelphian lyme grass in 
 the proportion of 17 to 16. It is also much 
 later in the production of foliage in the 
 spring, and does not come into flower till 
 after that species has nearly perfected its 
 seed. It cannot, therefore, be recommended 
 for the purposes of the agriculturist. Flowers 
 about the latter end of July, and ripens the 
 seed in August. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 365 
 —371.) 
 
 EMBANKMENT. A large mound, or 
 bank of earth, thrown up for the purpose of 
 protecting or reclaiming lands from being 
 injured or inundated by the water of the 
 sea, rivers, or lakes. Mr. P. Howard nar- 
 rates, in the Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, vol. vi. p. 148., the methods in 
 use for embankments abroad. 
 
 In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, Cambridge- 
 shire, and other places, many hundred thou- 
 sands of acres have been taken in by embank- 
 ing. In Holland the whole country has in 
 a great measure been gained in this way. 
 Near Chester, the River Dee Company have 
 also reclaimed some thousands of acres 
 from the sea, which are now divided into 
 several beautiful farms. Mr. W. A. Ma- 
 docks of Carnarvon inclosed 1080 acres from 
 the sea, by an embankment of two miles 
 in extent. {Ibid. vol. vi. p. 150.) Lord 
 Boringdon also reclaimed a large tract of 
 land from the sea by embanking, (Ibid. 
 p. 252.) Mr. D. Sheriff, of Inverness-shire, 
 
EMBROCATION. 
 
 ENCLOSURE. 
 
 likewise describes (Ibid. vol. vii. p. 59.) 
 the plan he pursued in taking in from the 
 sea 108 acres of valuable carse land. In 
 the Lib. of Useful Knowledge, "Brit. Husb." 
 vol. i. p. 447 — 449., will be found some 
 excellent observations on the embankment of 
 rivers, and the cost of an operation of the 
 kind. In the Quart. Journ. ofAgr., vol. viii. 
 p. 377., will also be found some interesting 
 details on the same subject. 
 
 There are many other pwts of the United 
 Kingdom in which capital might be ad- 
 vantageously employed for the same pur- 
 pose. It is a question of even national im- 
 portance, and, as in the proposed embankment 
 of the Wash, may be carried in some districts 
 to a much greater extent than is commonly 
 supposed. It is an improvement which must 
 be so much varied, according to the situation 
 in which the farmer is placed, that it would 
 be impossible, in this work, to go into en- 
 gineering details ; for, as Mr. Blakie remarks 
 (Trans, of High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 75.), " It 
 would be an Herculean task to attempt to 
 lay down rules, or give directions for raising 
 the requisite structures in every situation. 
 So many local impediments occur, so many 
 unlooked-for obstacles must be surmounted, 
 and there are always so many circumstances 
 to be attended to and provided for, that 
 much must ever depend on the ingenuity 
 and ability of the director." See also Rev. 
 G. Hamilton, Mr. Sidney, and Mr. Mac- 
 lcod (Ibid. p. 97 — 103.) ; Johnstone on 
 Draining and Embanking, and Stephens on 
 Irrigation. 
 
 EMBROCATION. (Gr. ev€pk X u)- In far- 
 riery, is a liquid application, usually pre- 
 pared of volatile and spirituous ingredients, 
 chiefly used by friction to relieve pains, 
 numbness, &c. 
 
 EMOLLIENTS. (Lat. emolliens.)^ In 
 farriery, such remedies as relax and diminish 
 the hardness and rigidity of the parts to 
 which they are applied. 
 
 ENCHANTER'S NIGHTSHADE. 
 (Circcea.) Of this perennial herbaceous 
 genus of plants there are two indigenous 
 species, the common enchanter's nightshade 
 (C. lutetiand), and the mountain enchanter's 
 nightshade (C. alpma). The former grows 
 in moist shady places, hedge-bottoms, church- 
 yards, orchards, &c. : the root is tenaciously 
 creeping ; the stem 18 or 20 inches high ; 
 round and branching : the leaves, of a 
 darkish dull green, waved, with short 
 teeth, one rib, and many veins ; the flowers 
 are in clusters, many, small and scentless, 
 white or reddish, with a brownish green 
 calyx ; the fruit is a bur, clothed with 
 hooked bristles. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 15.) 
 
 ENCLOSURE, or INCLOSURE. (Old 
 French, enclosure.) The enclosure of waste 
 421 
 
 land is one of the preliminary steps to agri- 
 cultural improvement, which has been evi- 
 dently carrying on in every quarter of the 
 globe in all ages; for as soon as mankind 
 began to increase in numbers, and any thing 
 like laws were established, it became espe- 
 cially necessary to distinguish one man's 
 grounds from another, to guard against the 
 inroads of wild animals, and to keep out the 
 cattle of strangers. These would be the 
 causes of the first origin of mounds, fences, 
 ditches, and other landmarks, which, in 
 the early days of the cultivation of the earth, 
 would be rude and ill-constructed. The value 
 of the land was then too trifling for any one 
 to stop to inquire by what right the holder 
 enclosed his lands : he would have perfect 
 freedom of choice ; locate himself where he 
 pleased ; choose naturally the best soils ; and 
 when these, by the increase of population, 
 were exhausted, lands of inferior quality 
 would be tilled, and only those neglected 
 which were of the poorest description : hence 
 these neglected portions being free to every 
 one, common to all, at least of the tenants 
 of the manor, they acquired the name of 
 commons, or moors. The increase, however, 
 in the value of land, which is a natural re- 
 sult of increasing population, as a certain 
 consequence led the landowner to see the 
 possibility of bringing still poorer lands pro- 
 fitably into a state of cultivation. Hence 
 came the local enclosure acts of the present 
 and last century in England, and then, to 
 assist these, and to avoid a constant repe- 
 tition of the same regulations and enact- 
 ments, was passed the General Inclosure 
 Act of the 41 Geo. 3. c. 109. And, finally, 
 by the last General Inclosure Act of the 
 6 & 7 W. 4. c. 115., a local act is no lon- 
 ger rendered necessary for the enclosure of 
 lands. 
 
 It is usual in an enclosure to allot a twen- 
 tieth part of all waste to the lord, in lieu of 
 his manorial rights, over and above his share 
 of the land in right of his demesne (Arundel 
 v. Falmouth, 2 M. & S. 440.) ; two fifteenths 
 or two sixteenths are then usually allotted 
 to the clergyman of the parish, and the re- 
 mainder is allotted to those proprietors who 
 possess rights of common. In case no es- 
 pecial clause is introduced into the act, the 
 enclosed land is freehold (Revel v. Joddrel, 
 2T. R. 415.) ; but a provision is almost al- 
 ways introduced, that the allotments shall 
 follow the nature of the title of the land, in 
 regard to which the allotment is made. And 
 this is directed to be the case in all enclo- 
 sures made under the General Inclosure Act 
 of the 6 & 7 AY. 4. c. 115. And the owner 
 of a tenement may have two separate rights 
 from which he is entitled to an allotment ; 
 viz. a right of common for his cattle levant 
 
 E E 3 
 
ENDIVE. 
 
 (or to pass over), and couchant (to remain 
 as in a common field). (Hollingshed v. 
 Walker, 7 East, 485.) 
 
 By the statute 6 & 7 W. 4. c. 115., enti- 
 tled " An act for facilitating the inclosure 
 of open and arable fields in England and 
 Wales," it is provided that two thirds in 
 number and value of the persons interested 
 or in possession of any open or common 
 arable fields, or in any open and common 
 meadow or pasture, may agree at a public 
 meeting to inclose by an agreement or 
 consent in writing ; and, to effect this, are 
 empowered to choose two commissioners 
 and an umpire ; and these are empowered 
 to make a conclusive decision, subject, 
 however, to an appeal to the quarter ses- 
 sions. 
 
 And by section 40. it is provided, that if 
 seven eighths' of the persons interested in 
 number and value shall agree, they may, by 
 following the directions of the act, enclose 
 such lands without the intervention of com- 
 missioners ; a proviso which, especially in 
 the case of small open fields, is a very valu- 
 able facility. 
 
 ENDIVE. (Cichorium endivia.) This 
 plant is too well known to require descrip- 
 tion. There are three varieties. The green- 
 curled is the only one cultivated for the 
 main crops. When the larger seedlings 
 have been transplanted, the smaller ones 
 which remain may be cleared of weeds, and 
 have a gentle watering ; by which treatment, 
 in twelve or fourteen days they will have 
 attained a sufficient size to afford a second 
 successional crop ; and by a repetition of 
 this management, in general, a third. The 
 plants are generally fit for transplanting 
 when of a month's growth in the seed bed ; 
 but a more certain criterion is, that when 
 five or six inches high, they are of the most 
 favourable size. They must be set in rows 
 twelve or fifteen inches apart each way; 
 the Batavian requires the greatest space. 
 Some gardeners recommend them to be set 
 in trenches or drills, three or four inches 
 deep ; this mode is not detrimental in sum- 
 mer and dry weather ; but in winter, when 
 every precaution is to be adopted for the 
 prevention of decay, it is always injurious. 
 \Vater must be given moderately every 
 evening, until the plants are established, 
 after which it is not at all requisite, except 
 in excessive and protracted drought. If 
 the plants are of a larger growth than is 
 specified above, it is an advantageous prac- 
 tice to cut off the tips of the leaves before 
 planting, as this checks them, and prevents, 
 in ;i great measure, their premature advance 
 to Beed. Those which are left in the seed- 
 bed, it' tin; soil is at all favourable, in ge- 
 neral attain a finer growth than those that 
 422 
 
 have been moved. In November, some 
 plants that have attained nearly their full 
 size may be removed to the south side of a 
 sloping bank of dry light earth, raised one 
 or two feet behind, to be protected by 
 frames, mats, or thick coverings of litter, 
 during severe and very wet weather ; but 
 to be carefully uncovered during mild dry 
 days. The plants, in this instance, are not 
 required to be farther apart than six or 
 eight inches. This plan may be followed 
 in open days during December and Ja- 
 nuary, by which means a constant supply 
 may be obtained. Instead of being planted 
 in the above manner on a terrace, it is 
 sometimes the practice to take the plants 
 on a dry day, and, the leaves being tied 
 together, to lay them horizontally in the 
 earth, down to the tip of the leaves ; this 
 accelerates the blanching, but otherwise is 
 far more subject to failure. About three 
 months elapse between the time of sowing 
 and the fitness of the plants for blanching. 
 This operation, if conducted properly, will 
 be completed in from ten to fourteen days 
 in summer, or in three or four weeks in 
 winter. In hot weather, the blanching is 
 completed in half the time that is required 
 if the season is cold. To blanch the plants, 
 it is the most common practice to tie the 
 leaves together ; to place tiles or pieces of 
 board upon them ; or to cover them with 
 garden pots ; whilst some recommend the 
 leaves to be tied together, and then to be 
 covered up to their tips with mould, making 
 it rise to an apex, so as to throw off ex- 
 cessive rains. All these methods succeed 
 in dry seasons, but in wet ones the plants 
 treated according to any of these plans are 
 very apt to decay. The one which succeeds 
 best in all seasons, is to fold the leaves 
 round the heart as much as possible in their 
 natural position, and being tied together 
 with a shred of bass mat, covered up en- 
 tirely with coal ashes in the form of a cone, 
 the surface being rendered firm and smooth 
 with the trowel. Sand will do ; but ashes 
 are equally unretentive of moisture, whilst 
 they are much superior in absorbing heat, 
 which is so beneficial in the hastening of 
 the process. If the simple mode of drawing 
 the leaves together is adopted to effect this 
 etiolation, they must be tied very close ; and 
 in a week after the first tying, a second 
 ligature must be passed round the middle 
 of the plant, to prevent the heart haves 
 bursting out. A dry afternoon, when the 
 plants are entirely free from moisture, 
 shonld be selected, whichever mode is 
 adopted for this concluding operation. For 
 the production of seed, the finest and sound- 
 est plants should be selected of the last 
 plantation, and which most, agree with the 
 
EPACRIS, SNOWY. 
 
 ERYNGO, 
 
 characteristics of the respective varieties. 
 For a small family, three or four plants of 
 each variety will produce sufficient. These 
 should be taken in March, and planted be- 
 neath a south fence, about a foot from it, 
 and eighteen inches apart. As the flower 
 stems advance, they should be fastened to 
 stakes ; or if they are placed beneath 
 palings, the supporting string can be nailed 
 to them. They must be kept clear of weeds. 
 In July the seed will begin to ripen ; and 
 here it must be observed, that each lateral 
 branch is to be gathered as the seed upon 
 it ripens ; for if none are gathered until the 
 whole plant is changing colour, the first 
 ripened and best seed will have scattered 
 and be lost, so wide is the difference of 
 time between the several branches of the 
 same plant ripening their seed. Each branch 
 must be laid, as it is cut, upon a cloth in 
 the sun, and when perfectly dry, the seed 
 beaten out, cleansed, and stored. Endive 
 seed will vegetate after being kept five or 
 six years. (Quintiris Comp. Gard. vol. ii. 
 p. 309. ; Trans. Hort. Soc. vol.iii. p. 138. ; 
 G. W. Johnsons Kitch. Gard.) See Cmc- 
 
 CORY. 
 
 ENGRAFTING. See Grafting. 
 
 ENTRY TO FARMS. See Customs 
 or Counties. 
 
 EPACRIS, SNOWY. (Epacris nivalis.) 
 A very ornamental evergreen, native of 
 New Holland, blowing abundance of white 
 flowers in July. It should be housed in 
 winter, and may be propagated by cut- 
 tings. 
 
 EPIDEMIC. (Gr. M, and %og; Fr. 
 epidemique.) In farriery, a term applied to 
 such fevers, or other distempers of cattle, 
 as attack great numbers at certain seasons, 
 or any time, if many suffer in the same 
 manner. The term is frequently confounded 
 with infectious, which is perfectly distinct, 
 and implies a disease communicated from 
 one individual to another. Horses are 
 liable to epidemic fevers, and to several 
 distempers of that kind, such as the epide- 
 mical catarrh, or influenza, strangles, stag- 
 gers, &c. 
 
 EPIDERMIS. (Gr.lTrf, and Sip^a, the 
 true skin.) In botany the exterior cellular 
 coating of the bark, leaf, or stem of plants 
 and trees. It is composed of cells compacted 
 together into a stratum, varying in thick- 
 ness in different species, and is often readily 
 separable by gentle violence. It is believed 
 to be intended by nature as a protection of 
 the subjacent parts from the drying effects 
 of the atmosphere. (Brande's Diet, of 
 Science?) 
 
 EPILEPSY. ^ (Gr. hri\itfiG.) A disease 
 which occurs in various animals. See 
 Sheep, Diseases of. 
 423 
 
 ERGOT. (Spermasdia clavus.) A pa- 
 rasitic fungus, which most frequently ap- 
 pears upon the ears of rye, but sometimes 
 upon other plants of the gramineous order. 
 It most commonly appears in hot, damp 
 summers. It is known to be present by the 
 change which the affected grains assume ; 
 but these seldom exceed five or six in an 
 ear. The grain or pickle lengthens to more 
 than double its natural size, becomes angled, 
 of a deep purplish brown colour, and 
 curved at its apex, where the ergot is seated. 
 The surface, when viewed through a magni- 
 fying glass, appears studded with transpa- 
 rent, shining, white, angular dots ; and when 
 sliced and viewed in water under the mi- 
 croscope, it is seen to consist of white, floc- 
 culent threads, bearing globular sporules. 
 The ergotted grains have a heavy, unpleasant 
 odour, and an acrid, nauseous taste, leaving 
 a slight sensation of heat in the palate. 
 Ergotted rye is poisonous both to man and 
 other animals. When in bad seasons, 
 it has prevailed, and has been ground into 
 flour with the rye, and baked in bread, it 
 has caused many fatal, depopulating epi- 
 demics in the north of Europe. On quad- 
 rupeds its use is followed by emaciation, 
 palsy of the hind legs, and extreme debility ; 
 mules in South America lose their hoofs 
 and hair when fed on ergotted maize ; and 
 hens who have ergotted rye mixed with 
 their food lay eggs without shells, owing to 
 its excitement of the oviduct. It is em- 
 ployed as a medicine in difficult parturition, 
 but it ought not to be administered without 
 the greatest caution and discretion. (Edin. 
 Med. and Surg. Journ. vol. liii.) 
 
 ERICA VULGARIS. The common 
 heath, ling, or heather. See Heath. 
 
 ERIOPHORUM. The genus of cotton 
 grasses, which see. 
 
 ERNE. One of the names of the white- 
 tailed eagle. See Eagee. 
 
 ERSH, EARSH, ERRISH, or ETCH. 
 (Sax. ebirc) Provincially land in the state 
 of stubble after the corn has been cut. 
 Thus we have pea, bean, and different sorts 
 of grain-ershes, &c. Hence ersh-crop is a 
 crop which has been grown after the stubble 
 was turned down. See Eddish. 
 
 ERYNGO. (Eryngium.) A genus of 
 plants consisting of eleven species, two of 
 which are perennials, natives of this coun- 
 try, viz. 1. The- sea holly, or sea eryngo 
 (E. maritimum), which grows on the sandy 
 sea-shore, strikes its long creeping roots 
 eighteen or twenty feet deep into the soil ; 
 the radical leaves are more or less sheathing, 
 stiff, spinous, three lobed ; it blows a bright 
 blue flower in July or August. Stem a foot 
 high ; root whitish, of a pungent aromatic 
 flavour, with a mixture of mucilage ; herb 
 e e 4 
 
ESCULENT. 
 
 EVELYN (JOHN). 
 
 smooth, glaucous, with an elegant blue 
 tint. The roots, reckoned stimulating and 
 restorative, are either sold candied or 
 administered in decoctions variously pre- 
 pared. 
 
 2. The field eryngo {E. campestre) grows 
 on waste ground chiefly near the sea, and is 
 not so common as the last. It is more bushy 
 and slender, and of a paler glaucous green 
 than the foregoing ; radical leaves larger ; 
 flowers white or purplish. The leaves of 
 both are somewhat sweet, and of a pungent 
 flavour. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 34.) 
 
 ESCALLION. See Scallion. 
 
 ESCALOT, or ESCHALOT. See 
 Shalot. 
 
 ESCULENT. (Lat. esculentus.) A term 
 applied to edible roots and plants, as carrots, 
 turnips, cabbages, &c. 
 
 ESH. A provincial name for the ash 
 tree. 
 
 ESPALIERS (Fr. espalier), in hor- 
 ticulture, are trees trained by lattice-work 
 or other supports on the borders of beds, or 
 as hedges to enclose plots of ground. They 
 may serve to defend in a great measure 
 many tender plants from the inclemencies 
 of wind and weather. The trees chiefly 
 planted for espaliers are apples, pears, and 
 plums. The principal objects aimed at, 
 however, in espaliers, are to expose the 
 foliage and fruit of the plants or trees more 
 perfectly to the light and sun, to prevent 
 the branches from being blown about by 
 the winds, and to economise space by con- 
 fining them within definite limits. {Lou- 
 don s Sub. Gard. p. 232.) 
 
 ESPARCET. A local name for Sain- 
 foin, which see. 
 
 ESSE. The provincial name in some 
 places for ashes. 
 
 ESTATE. (Fr. estat.) In common 
 parlance is applied to the landed property 
 held by individuals ; and a man is said to 
 be of good or of small estate, according to 
 the magnitude of his landed property. 
 Estates vary exceedingly in size and value, 
 in most parts of England. The largest es- 
 tate in the kingdom may be worth 100,000/. 
 or upwards, a year ; and there are estates 
 of most inferior degrees of magnitude, down 
 to the annual value of 40s. In some counties 
 property is more, and in others it is less sub- 
 divided. In Cheshire, the East Riding 
 of Yorkshire, and one or two other counties, 
 there are, comparatively, few small pro- 
 prietors ; but the latter predominate in 
 most parts of the west of England, in the 
 norl 1), and generally throughout the country. 
 Dr. Beeke, whose authority as to such 
 matters is deservedly high, estimated the 
 total number of proprietors in England and 
 Wales at 200,000 ; and supposing "the gross 
 
 rental of the kingdom to be 30,000,000/. a 
 year, the average annual income of each, in 
 his capacity of landlord, will be only 150/. ; 
 and seeing that a few have much more, it 
 follows that many must have a good deal 
 less. {B?*andes Diet of Lit. ; 3J' Culloclis 
 Statistics, vol. ii.) 
 
 ETCH. A synonymous term with ersh 
 and eddish, which see. Ground from which 
 a crop has been taken. 
 
 EVELYN, JOHN. This distingushed 
 individual was born at Wotton in Surrey, 
 the mansion of Richard Evelyn Esq., his 
 father, on the 31st of October, 1620. 
 He was one of the first Fellows of the 
 Council of the Royal Society on its estab- 
 lishment in 1662. He was also appointed 
 one of the Commissioners for rebuilding 
 St. Paul's cathedral ; had a place at the 
 Board of Trade ; and was one of the coun- 
 cil for the management of the planta- 
 tions. After the accession of James II. 
 he became one of the Commissioners for 
 executing the office of Lord Privy Seal, 
 and in 1695 treasurer of Greenwich Hos- 
 pital. 
 
 Evelyn died at Wotton, February 27th, 
 1705-6, and was interred in the family vault 
 there, after a life of unwearied utility, sin- 
 cerely regretted by every patriot and man 
 of science. His writings and examples were 
 of the greatest service in promoting the 
 arts of cultivation. {Diary and Correspond, 
 of J. Evelyn.) 
 
 His family delighted in the same pursuits 
 as he did himself. " There is," says D'ls- 
 raeli, " what may be termed a family genius, 
 in the home of a man of genius : he diffuses 
 an electrical atmosphere, his own pre-emi- 
 nence strikes out talents in all." Evelyn, 
 in his beautiful retreat at Saye's Court, had 
 inspired his family with that variety of tastes 
 which he himself was spreading throughout 
 the nation. His son translated Rapin's 
 Gardens, which poem the father proudly 
 preserved in his Sylva ; his lady, ever busied 
 in his study, excelled in the arts her hus- 
 band loved, and designed the frontispiece 
 to his Lucretius ; she was also the cultivator 
 of their celebrated garden, which served as 
 an example of his great work on Forest 
 Trees. It was in consequence of a recom- 
 mendation of Evelyn's in his Fumifugium, 
 that fragrant plants should be grown in 
 nurseries, &c. in the low grounds near 
 London, that the lime trees were planted in 
 St. James's Park. His horticultural works 
 are as follows : — 
 
 1. The French Gardener; instructing how to cultivate 
 all sorts of Fruit Trees and Herbs for the Garden ; to- 
 gether with directions to dry and conserve them in their 
 natural state. By Philocepos. London. 1G58, 1072, 1675, 
 and 1691. l'imo. This translation has passed through 
 many editions, to most of which are appended " The 
 English Vineyard," by John Itose. 2. l'umifugium, or 
 
EVENING PRIMROSE. 
 
 EXTRA VASATED SAP. 
 
 the Inconveniences of the Air and Smoke of London 
 dissipated. London, 1661 , 4to. 3. " Sylva," or a Discourse 
 of Forest Trees, and the Propagation of Timber in his 
 Majesty's Dominions. To which is annexed " Pomona," 
 or an Appendix concerning Fruit Trees ; in relation to 
 Cider, the making, and several ways of ordering it. 
 London, 1664, 1669, 1679; with great additions and im- 
 provements in 1705 and 1729 ; all in folio. Dr. Hunter 
 of York edited an elegant edition, with copious notes 
 and beautiful engravings, in 1776. 2 vols. 4to. A second 
 edition, to which the " Terra" is added, appeared in 
 1786. It has passed through two other editions. The 
 one of 1812, in 2 vols. 4to., received Dr. Hunter's last 
 corrections. Evelyn published his " Sylva" and " Po- 
 mona" at the request of the Royal Society. 4. Kalen- 
 darium Hortense, or the Gardener's Almanack, directing 
 what he is to do monthly throughout the year, and what 
 Fruits and Flowers are in their prime. London. 1664. 
 8vo. This work was afterwards printed in folio, with 
 his " Sylva " and " Pomona ;" and the same, including 
 his " Terra." London, 1676 and 1691, both in 8vo. It 
 was published, with the addition of his Discourse on 
 Salads, in 1706, 8vo., previous to which there had been 
 nine editions. 5. "Terra," a Philosophical Discourse of 
 Earth, relating to the culture and improvement of it for 
 vegetation and the propagation of plants, as it was pre- 
 sented to the Royal Society, April 29. 1675. London, 
 1675, folio. The same, including his " Pomona " and 
 " Acetaria." London, 1676 and 1678, 12mo., and 1706, 
 folio. 6. Pomona, &c, was published separately. Lon- 
 don, 1679, folio. 7. M. de la Quintinye's Treatise of 
 Orange Trees, with the raising of Melons, omitted in 
 the French editions, made into English by J. E. ; London, 
 1693, folio, with engravings. 8. Acetaria, or a Dis- 
 course of Sallets. London, 1699, 12mo. 9. Letter 
 concerning the Damage done to his Gardens in the 
 preceding Winter. This is in the Philosophical Trans- 
 actions, vol. iii. p. 28. 1684. He also published several 
 literary and scientific works. In 1660 appeared " The 
 Right Manner of ordering Fruit Trees, &c." Translated 
 from the French of Le Gendre. London, 8vo. This 
 translation has been ascribed to Evelyn. If there is some 
 doubt of this, there is still more respecting the real 
 author, Le Gendre being only an assumed name. The 
 most probable opinion seems to be that it was written 
 by Robert Arnaud d'Andilly, a clergyman born at Paris 
 in 1589, and who died in 1674. The original was pub- 
 lished at Paris in 1652, entitled " De la Maniere de Cul- 
 tiver les Arbres Fruitiers." Evelyn contributed largely 
 to Mr. Houghton's " Husbandry and Trade improved." 
 He also wrote the " Plan of a Royal Garden," and an 
 " Illustration of the Horticulture of the Georgics," never 
 published. (G. W. Johnson's Hist. o/Gard.) 
 
 EVENING PRIMROSE. (CEnothera 
 biennis.} This pretty flower is common in 
 gardens, and often escapes from them into 
 rich waste ground. But on the dreary 
 sands of our Lancashire coast it is truly 
 wild, being planted there by the hand of 
 Nature, though perhaps transported by na- 
 tural means from the other side of the 
 Atlantic. It expands, of an evening, its 
 numerous large and handsome, but short- 
 lived, bright yellow, white, or purple flowers, 
 which are delicately fragrant : stem tw r o or 
 three feet high, leafy, angular, hairy ; leaves 
 ovate, lanceolate, acute, grass green. Most 
 of this species are natives of America or the 
 Cape of Good Hope. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 211.) 
 
 EVERGREENS, in gardening, are pe- 
 rennial plants which continue their ver- 
 dure, leaves, &c. throughout the year, such 
 as bays, hollies, pines, firs, cedars, &c. 
 
 EVERLASTING-PEA, BROAD- 
 LEAVED. {Lathyrus latifolius.) A pe- 
 rennial plant of the vetch kind, which grows 
 naturally in some places ; is easily culti- 
 vated, and annually yields a great burden 
 of excellent provender, and might be cul- 
 425 
 
 tivated to advantage as a green food for 
 cattle, on any of the more strong sorts of 
 soil. See Vetch and Vetchling. 
 
 EVERLASTING, PEARLY. (Ema- 
 phalium margaritaceum.) One of the 
 names of the American cudweed. See 
 Cudweed. 
 
 EVERY- YEAR'S-,LAND. Such lands 
 as have been cropped with a brown and 
 white crop, or pulse and corn in alternation, 
 for a length of time, without any intervening 
 fallow. There are extensive common fields 
 in Gloucestershire and other parts of our 
 island, which have been conducted under 
 this management for perhaps centuries 
 past. 
 
 EVERS. A country name for stiles that 
 open, in which case the top rail has a bolt of 
 iron driven through it at one end, the other 
 end falling into a notch in the opposite post 
 by which arrangement an opening is readily 
 made. 
 
 EWE. (Sax. eope.) See Sheep. 
 
 EWER, or YEWER. A provincial name 
 for the udder of animals. 
 
 EXCRETION. (Lat. excretio; old Fr. 
 excretion.) In animal and vegetable economy, 
 is the discharge of excrementitious organic 
 remains. 
 
 EXECUTION. (OldFr.) See Distress. 
 
 EXOTICS. (Gr. e? W rt K 6f, foreign.) In 
 gardening, a name given to plants which 
 are not natives of Britain, but have been 
 introduced from some other country. The 
 generality of exotic plants do not thrive in 
 this country, without particular care and 
 culture. They require the warmth of their 
 own climates ; hence, hot-beds, green- 
 houses, and conservatories (see these ar- 
 ticles) are essential to their existence and 
 growth. During summer, &c. some exotics, 
 from the arctic circle, suffer from the 
 warmth of this climate, in the same manner 
 as the Esquimaux dogs. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL FARMS. See 
 Farms. 
 
 EXTERNAL INJURIES, in farriery, 
 are such as happen to cattle of different 
 denominations, as cuts, wounds, bruises, &c. 
 A writer in the Veterinarian speaks very 
 confidently of the beneficial effects of chlo- 
 ride of lime and chloride of soda, when ap- 
 plied to wounds and external diseases of the 
 animal system, as having the property of ar- 
 resting or destroying the progress of putre- 
 faction. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 149.) 
 
 EXTRAVASATED SAP. Under this 
 general name I purpose to include the con- 
 sideration of gumming, bleeding, and some 
 other diseases from which plants occasionally 
 suffer on account of their juices escaping 
 from the containing vessels. 
 
EXTRA VASATED SAP. 
 
 The extravasation proceeds from the al- 
 burnum or inner bark, and may arise from 
 one or other of the following causes : — 
 I. The acrid or alkaline state of the sap, 
 which has been considered already when 
 treating of the canker. 2. From plethora 
 or excessive abundance of the sap. 3. From 
 the unnatural contraction of the ascending 
 vessels. 4. From wounds. 5. Heat and 
 dryness. 
 
 1. With regard to the alkaline state of the 
 sap, it may be observed, that the excessive 
 alkaline quality of the sap may exist in plants 
 in which, during their healthy state, an al- 
 kaline principle is either absent in the sap, or 
 exists in small quantity ; hence this excess 
 imparts to it the power of destroying the fibre 
 of its containing vessels. This opinion is 
 based on chemical experiments. A weak al- 
 kaline solution dissolves woody fibre without 
 alteration ; and it may be thrown down again 
 by means of an acid. By this property 
 we are enabled to separate wood from most 
 of the other vegetable principles, as few of 
 them are soluble in weak alkaline leys. 
 {Thomson's Syst. of Chem., vol. iv. p. 180. 
 Ed. 6 th.) It is true that the vital principle 
 may counteract powerfully this chemical 
 action ; but it will not control the corrosive 
 effect of an active agent in excess, if re- 
 peated for any length of time. The blood 
 of the human system contains, when in a 
 healthy state, a portion of common salt, yet 
 if this saline constituent is in excess, it in- 
 duces inflammation and organic derange- 
 ment. On the same principle the alkaline 
 state of the sap, by weakening the coats of 
 the vessels, may permit its exudation. It 
 must, however, in candour be admitted that 
 no means have hitherto demonstrated that 
 the sap actually ascends in the alburnum 
 or sap-wood through tubes or membranous 
 vessels ; but this does not weaken the argu- 
 ment which is here attempted to be ad- 
 vanced. Although these exudations from 
 the sap-wood can only be fluid sap, not 
 gum or any proper juice, which comes 
 solely from the bark, yet, by weakening the 
 assimilative process, it causes diseased ac- 
 tion sufficient to produce exudation, from 
 the descending vessels being in a weakening 
 condition. 
 
 2. Plethora is that state of a plant in 
 which the sap is formed more rapidly than 
 the vessels or conducting tissue can convey 
 it ; and when this occurs, rupture must take 
 place. The force with which the sap is pro- 
 pelled during its ascent, and consequently 
 the force acting to burst the vessels during 
 any < -lieck, is very much greater than could 
 have been expected before Dr. Hales de- 
 monstrated it by experiment. This dis- 
 tinguished vegetable physiologist found, 
 
 42(i 
 
 that in the vine this force was able to raise 
 19 lbs. weight. In order to prove this 
 fact, he fixed to the stem of a vine (a) cut 
 
 off about two feet and a half from the ground, 
 a mercurial gauge, {b, y), and luted it to 
 the sides of the stem with mastic. The 
 gauge (&, y) was in the form of a syphon, 
 so contrived that the mercury might be 
 made to rise in y in proportion to the pres- 
 sure of the ascending sap above x. In one 
 instance, in two hours, it raised the mercury 
 to a height of 15 inches higher in leg y than 
 in leg x; and, ultimately, after twelve 
 days, to 32| inches. {Hales's Veget. Stat. 
 vol. i. p. 107.) The branch of an apple- 
 tree was separated from the parent trunk 
 and placed in water. When the leaves 
 were upon it, the force with which it pro- 
 pelled its sap raised the mercury a quarter 
 of an inch. The pear, quince, cherry, 
 walnut, peach, gooseberry, and sycamore, 
 had a power equal to elevating the mercury 
 varying from three to six inches. The elm, 
 the oak, the chestnut, hazel, sallow, and ash, 
 elevated it variously from one to two inches. 
 The laurustinus, the laurel, and other ever- 
 greens, scarcely raised the mercury at all. 
 {Ibid. p. 114. &c.) The experiments made 
 with a separated branch do not give the full 
 amount of the parent tree's power, because 
 the exhaustion incident to amputation ne- 
 cessarily diminishes the vigour, and every 
 minute the power in the branch becomes 
 less as it approaches so much the nearer to 
 death. Now we know that a much less pres- 
 sure than any of those above mentioned would 
 be capable of bursting the delicate mem- 
 branes of any of the exterior ascending sap- 
 vessels ; and by weakening the coats of the 
 descending vessels, they pour out their con- 
 tents, if they be excessive in quantity. It 
 is in these outer ducts that the injury may 
 first occur. When one exterior vessel is 
 ruptured, that next beneath it, having the 
 supporting pressure removed, is enabled to 
 follow lo the same course, at the same lo- 
 cality; and in proportion to the length of the 
 
EXTKAVASATED SAP. 
 
 time the descending sap continues in ex- 
 cess is the depth to which the mischief ex- 
 tends, and the quantity of sap extravasated. 
 If the extravasation proceeds from this 
 cause, there is but one mode of treatment 
 to be pursued, namely, to cut off one of the 
 main roots, to afford the tree immediate re- 
 lief ; and then to reduce the staple of the 
 soil by removing some of it, and admixing 
 less fertile earthy components, as sand or 
 chalk. This must be done gradually, for 
 the fibrous roots that are suited for the col- 
 lection of nutriment from a fertile soil are 
 not adapted for the absorption that forms a 
 less abundant pasturage. Care must be 
 taken not to apply the above remedies 
 before it is clearly ascertained that the 
 cause is not an unnatural contraction of the 
 sap-vessels, because, in such case, the treat- 
 ment might be injurious rather than salu- 
 tary. I have always found it arising from 
 an excessive production of sap, if the tree, 
 when afflicted by extravasation, produces at 
 the same time very luxuriant shoots. 
 
 3. Local contraction of the. descending 
 vessels. If the extravasation arises from 
 this cause, there is usually swelling of the 
 bark immediately above the place of dis- 
 charge. I have a cherry tree in my garden 
 in Essex, of which the stock has grown very 
 much less freely than the graft. Conse- 
 quently, just above the place of union, a 
 swelling resembling a wen extends round 
 the whole girth of the tree, from which swell- 
 ing gum is continually exuding ; evidently 
 owing to the obstruction in the descending 
 vessels at that part in the stem below it. 
 In such a case as this, the cultivator's only 
 resource is to reduce cautiously the amount 
 of branches, if the bleeding threatens to 
 be injuriously extensive ; otherwise it is of 
 but little consequence, acting, like tempo- 
 rary discharges of blood from the human 
 frame, as a relief to the system. 
 
 4. The Extravasation of proper Juice 
 from a Wound. — This is usually the most 
 abundant cause of extravasation ; it amounts 
 to bleeding, and therefore it is the most 
 exhausting ; and as the wound, whether 
 contused or cut, is liable to be a lodgment 
 for water and other foreign bodies, which 
 prevent the healing of the injured part, the 
 discharge is often protracted. This is espe- 
 cially the case if the wound is made in 
 the spring, before the leaves are developed, 
 as in performing the winter pruning of the 
 vine later than is proper. In such case, the 
 discharge is true sap, and comes from the 
 lower bp of the wound ; thence the vine is 
 always weakened, and in some instances it 
 has been destroyed. The quantity of sap 
 which may be made to flow from some trees, 
 when incisions are made at this season, is 
 
 427 
 
 astonishing, especially in tropical climates. 
 Thus, from a cocoa-nut palm, from three to 
 five pints will flow during every day, for 
 four or five successive weeks ; but this is 
 proper juice ; and in this climate, when an 
 incision is made in a tree in summer or in 
 autumn, the discharge is from the upper 
 lip of the wound, and the exuded matter is 
 proper juice. The best modes of checking 
 such exudations, arising from wounds or 
 injuries, is by placing a piece of sponge, 
 dipped in a solution of sulphate of iron, 
 upon the discharging place, covering the 
 sponge with a piece of sheet-lead, and 
 binding it on firmly. The sulphate of iron 
 acts as a styptic, promoting the contraction 
 of the mouths of the vessels. The sponge 
 encourages cicatrization ; and the lead ex- 
 cludes moisture and the formation of spongy 
 deposits. 
 
 5. Heat attended by dryness of the soil, 
 such as occurs during the drought of summer, 
 is very liable to produce an unnatural ex- 
 udation, such as furnishes the Gum Arabic 
 from the bark of a species of Acacia, 
 abounding in Morocco, and the Tragacanth, 
 from a species of Astragalus in Arabia. It 
 is somewhat analogous to that outburst of 
 blood which in such seasons is apt to occur 
 in man, and arises from the increased action 
 of the secreting and circulating systems, to 
 which it affords relief. There is this great 
 and essential difference, that in the case of 
 the plants, the extravasation is upon the 
 surface of the stem, sometimes on that of 
 the leaves, and consequently is in proportion 
 to the abundance of the proper juice ; their 
 respiration and digestion is impaired, and 
 disease set up in their system. The honey- 
 dew, an exudation on the leaves, was noticed 
 by the ancients, and is mentioned by Pliny 
 (Hist. Natur. xi. 12.), by the fanciful de- 
 signations of " the sweats of the heavens," 
 and " the saliva of the stars," though he 
 questioned whether it was not a deposition 
 from the air purging this from some con- 
 tracted impurity. More modern philoso- 
 phers have been quite as erroneous and dis- 
 cordant in their opinions relative to its 
 nature. Some, with the most unmitigable 
 asperity, declare that it is the excrement of 
 aphides ; others as exclusively maintain that 
 it is an atmospheric deposit ; and a third 
 party consider that it arises from bleeding, 
 consequent to the wounds of insects. That 
 there may be a glutinous saccharine liquid 
 found upon the leaves of plants, arising from 
 the first and third named causes, is pro- 
 bable ; but it is by no means conclusive 
 that there is not a similar liquid extrava- 
 sated upon the surface of the leaves, owing 
 to some unhealthy action of their vessels. It 
 is with this description of honey-dew that we 
 
EXTRAVASATED SAP. 
 
 are here concerned. The error into which 
 writers on this subject appear to have fallen, 
 consists in their having endeavoured to as- 
 sign the origin of every kind of honey-dew to 
 the same cause. Thus, the Rev. Gilbert White 
 (Naturalist's Calendar, p. 144.), seems to 
 have had a fanciful and comprehensive mode 
 of accounting for the origin of honey- dew. 
 Thus he informs us, on June 4. 1783, " there 
 is vast honey-dew this week." The reason 
 of this seems to be, that, in hot days, the 
 effluvia of flowers are drawn up by a brisk 
 evaporation, and then in the night fall down 
 with the dew with which they are entangled. 
 The objection urged to this theory by Curtis 
 (Trans. Linn. Soc. vi. 82.), is conclusive. 
 If it falls from the atmosphere, it would 
 cover every thing on which it falls indis- 
 criminately ; whereas, we never find it but 
 on certain living plants and trees. We 
 find it, also, on plants, in stoves and green- 
 houses covered with glass. Curtis had 
 convinced himself that the honey-dew was 
 merely the excrement of aphides ; and he 
 supported this theory with his usual ability, 
 although he justly deemed it a little extra- 
 ordinary, that any insect should secrete, as 
 excrementitious, saccharine matter. He 
 even thought it possible, if the ants, wasps, 
 and flies could be prevented from devouring 
 the honey-dew " almost as fast as it was 
 deposited," to collect it in considerable 
 quantities, and convert it into the " choicest 
 sugar and sugarcandy." The bees, how- 
 ever, he found totally disregarded the 
 honey-dew which came under his observ- 
 ation. With these conclusions of Curtis's 
 I do not agree ; and they are also opposed 
 to those of the Abbe Boission de Sauvages, 
 who, in a memoir read before the Society of 
 Sciences at Montpellier, gives an account of 
 " a shower of honey-dew," which he wit- 
 nessed under a lime-tree, in the king's 
 garden at Paris. M. Decandolle regards 
 the honey-dew as the result of temporary 
 checked transpiration, on the surface of the 
 leaves, affording an opportunity for the 
 proper juice to be transpired with the 
 sap, when the course which occasioned 
 the check is removed. " The powerful and 
 sudden operation of the sunbeams," he re- 
 marks, " after a drizzling rain, favours not 
 unfrequently the perspiration of oxidized 
 slime, and of sweet drops, which are known 
 by the name of honey-dew." (Elements 
 of the Phil, of Plants, § 321.) 
 
 The various successful applications of 
 liquids to plants, in order to prevent the 
 occurrence of the honey-dew and similar 
 discuses, would seem to indicate that a 
 morbid state of the sap is the chief cause of 
 honey-dew ; for, otherwise, it would be dif- 
 ficult to explain the reason why the use of 
 428 
 
 a solution of common salt in water, applied 
 to the soil in which a plant is growing could 
 prevent the appearance of the disease were 
 it caused by insects. Besides, if we admit 
 that the irregular action of the sap is the 
 cause of the disorder, then we can under- 
 stand that a portion of salt introduced 
 into the juices of the plant would natu- 
 rally have a tendency to correct or vary 
 any morbid action, correcting the too rapid 
 secretion of sap, and promoting its regular 
 formation. In making this assertion, I 
 am perfectly aware that whatever maintains 
 the tone of the plant checks the depreda- 
 tions of parasites ; but it docs not interfere 
 with the ravages of the aphis. By such a 
 treatment the honey-dew may be entirely 
 prevented. I have often witnessed the re- 
 sult in my own garden when experimenting 
 with totally different objects. Thus, I 
 have seen plants of various kinds that have 
 been treated with a weak solution of common 
 salt and water, totally escape the honey- 
 dew ; whilst others of the same kind, grow- 
 ing in the same plot of ground, not so 
 treated, have been materially injured by its 
 ravages. I think, however, that the solution 
 which has been sometimes employed for this 
 purpose is much too strong for watering- 
 plants. I have always preferred a weaker 
 liquid, and am of opinion that one ounce of 
 sea salt (chloride of sodium) to a gallon of 
 water is quite powerful enough for the in- 
 tended purpose. I am in doubt as to the 
 correctness of Knight's opinion respecting 
 the influence of the water alone in the com- 
 position of such a remedy, since I have no- 
 ticed that standard fruit trees, around which, 
 at a distance of six or eight feet from the 
 stem, I had deposited, at a depth of twelve 
 inches, a quantity of salt to promote the 
 general health and fruitfulness of the tree ; 
 according to the manner formerly adopted 
 to some extent in the cider counties for the 
 apple orchards ; — that those trees escaped 
 the honey-dew which infested adjacent 
 trees : and this, just as well as those which 
 had been watered with salt and water. It is 
 with much diffidence that I doubt the cor- 
 rectness of any of the opinions of such a 
 man as the late lamented president of the 
 Horticultural Society ; for to him vegetable 
 physiology is deeply indebted for many 
 highly scientific, accurate, and interesting 
 researches. He seemed, too, on all occa- 
 sions, to introduce into his experiments an 
 elegance of research and ingenious manage- 
 ment worthy of the great class of organized 
 substances to which he devoted his valuable 
 life. I may be excused for hinting that 
 something should be done towards showing 
 the gratitude of his contemporaries: some 
 nook should be found in Westminster Abbey 
 
EXTRAVASATED SAP. 
 
 EYE OF THE HORSE. 
 
 for his tablet. Hill, who was a practical 
 gardener, and published his work upon 
 fruit trees in 1755, after describing the 
 honey-dew and his ideas of its effect on fruit 
 trees, says, " If the season be wet, spread 
 common salt over the border, about eight 
 ounces to each tree, for the more salt the 
 juice contains the thicker it is, and the 
 smoother and more compact are their leaves, 
 and, thereby, the less subject are they to 
 the penetration of the honey-dew than when 
 they are composed of juice more watery." 
 Mr. Knight's experiments were made with 
 the view of preventing the blue mildew, 
 with which peas and some other crops are 
 usually annoyed, especially the early and 
 late sown ; and by keeping the rows well 
 watered, he perfectly succeeded, employing 
 sometimes water alone, and, on other occa- 
 sions, water in which a small portion of 
 common salt was dissolved. " By this pro- 
 cess I have constantly succeeded," he re- 
 marks, " in preserving the health of my 
 autumn crops of peas " (Banks on Slight, 
 p. 82.) ; and although the applications were 
 made to provide against the injuries of 
 another disease, yet still, in some degree, 
 they certainly support the conclusion drawn 
 by Hill and myself as to the preventive 
 power possessed by a weak saline solution 
 against honey-dew. It is more than probable 
 that most of the diseases of plants arise in 
 some way or other from the irregular action 
 of the sap and the proper juice, caused very 
 often by sudden transitions in the temper- 
 ature of the atmosphere. The cultivator 
 may readily convince himself of the power 
 of common salt in preventing these injuries ; 
 he need only strew it at the rate of about 
 sixteen bushels per acre, over a portion of 
 a bed of cabbages or brocoli, &c, and when 
 the frost sets in he will soon perceive how 
 much more stoutly the salted plants with- 
 stand the effects of the frost than those 
 which have not been thus assisted. This 
 result is produced, very likely, by the salt 
 often being absorbed by the roots of the 
 plant, enabling the vitality of the plant to 
 withstand more effectually the congealing 
 power of a low temperature, since the more 
 salt water fluids contain the lower is the 
 temperature required to render them solid. 
 There are, also, most probably, other ways 
 in which the salt operates on vegetation, 
 and with which we are but imperfectly 
 acquainted. One of these is, undoubtedly, 
 the greater vigour communicated by the 
 stimulant and tonic influence of the salt, 
 when taken into their systems ; for plants, 
 like animals, are capable of maintaining 
 their natural temperature or innate heat in 
 the ratio of their vigour and tone. (G. W. 
 Johnson, Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. ix. p. 496.) 
 429 
 
 EXUVIiE. (Lat.) The cast-off parts or 
 covering of animals, and also the shells and 
 other marine productions met with in the 
 bowels of the earth, having been deposited 
 there for a vast length of time. The lob- 
 ster casts his shell, the toad and snake shed 
 their skin periodically, leeches and fishes 
 seem to cast off exuvial layers of mucus 
 only ; but in most reptiles the epidermis is 
 periodically moulted, either entire or in 
 large coherent masses. The periodically 
 moulted feathers of birds, and hairs of 
 various species of mammalia, may also be 
 regarded as exuviae Substances of these 
 kinds, where they can be procured in suf- 
 ficient quantities, are highly valuable as 
 manures, and capable of extensive applica- 
 tion, especially on all the clay soils. 
 
 EYE. (Sax. eas ; Ice. eiza.) In the 
 management of fruit-trees, implies the germ, 
 small bud, or shoot inserted into a tree. 
 
 EYEABLE. A provincial expression 
 used to signify the fine appearance of col- 
 lections of sheep or cattle. 
 
 EYE -BRIGHT. (Euphrasia officinalis.) 
 An elegant indigenous plant, very common 
 in mountainous pastures and dry heaths, 
 varying in height from one to six inches. 
 It flowers from July to September; its 
 stalk is square and hard ; the leaves of a 
 bright green, flat, broad, and indented at 
 the edges. The flowers are small and white, 
 streaked and spotted with dark colours. 
 On the mountains of Scotland there is a 
 more slender variety, with smaller but more 
 richly tinted blossoms ; on the Alps a dwarf, 
 large-flowered, more purpled variety is com- 
 mon. It must be gathered about Septem- 
 ber, when it has done flowering. The 
 distilled water is spoken of by the old 
 herbalists as a fine eye-water to strengthen 
 and improve the sight. This reputation 
 gave it the name of eye-bright, but, like 
 many other ancient opinions respecting the 
 virtues of plants, the value of the reputation 
 is worn out. The eye-bright will not grow 
 in gardens ; it loves to hide itself in grass 
 or heath, and will not thrive unless it be 
 surrounded by plants that are taller than 
 itself. It is eaten by cattle and sheep, but 
 refused by hosrs. (English Flora, vol. Hi. 
 p. 122.) 
 
 EYE OF THE HORSE. The eye of the 
 horse appears to be naturally more disposed 
 to disease than that of any other animal. 
 The diseases of the eye, although few in 
 number, are frequent in their appearance, 
 obstinate, and generally baffle all the skill 
 of the veterinarian. The following are the 
 principal : common inflammation, specific 
 ophthalmia or moon blindness, cataract, and 
 gutta serena or glass eye. For the two 
 last there is no cure. — Moon blindness, as it 
 
FACTOR. 
 
 FAIRY RINGS. 
 
 is termed, is brought on in a great measure 
 by close confinement in dark, heated, and 
 poisonous stables. No specific remedies can 
 be given for these diseases. ( The Horse, 
 p. 113. Lib. Use. Know.) See Blindness and 
 Cataract. 
 
 F. 
 
 FACTOR. (Lat. factor ; Fr.facteur.) In 
 mercantile law, an agent who is entrusted 
 with the property of others, which he is com- 
 missioned to dispose of. In Scotland the 
 word factor is used synonymously with 
 steward in England, signifying one who has 
 the overlooking or management of an estate 
 or a farm for another person. 
 
 FAGGOT. (Welsh fagod ; Fr. fagot.) 
 A bundle of small cut wood tied together 
 closely for fuel or other purposes. They 
 are made up from the cuttings or thinnings 
 of coppices or hedges ; and, in many dis- 
 tricts, are sold to the bakers. 
 
 FAIR. (Old Fr. fere ; Lat. fence or 
 forum.) A public place where merchants, 
 traders, and other persons assemble from 
 remote parts on some fixed day in the year 
 to buy and sell commodities, and to partake 
 of the diversions usually to be met with on 
 such occasions. (See Market.) Fairs 
 and markets are very closely allied. A fair, 
 as the term is now generally understood, is 
 only a greater species of market recurring 
 at more distant intervals. Both are appro- 
 priated to the sale of one or more kinds of 
 goods, the hiring of servants or labourers, 
 &c. ; but fairs are in most cases attended 
 by a greater concourse of people, for whose 
 amusement various exhibitions are got up. 
 
 Fairs originated in England in monkish 
 days, when proud bishops and mitred ab- 
 bots were not unwilling to increase their 
 revenues by the tolls which they were em- 
 powered by royal charter to levy on the 
 crowds who commonly attended the festivals 
 of their patron saints. In law, whoever will 
 have a stall in a market must have a license 
 from the owner of the soil {Northampton v. 
 Ward, 1 Wils. 107.), otherwise trespass lies 
 {Norwich v. Swan, W. Black. 1116.); after 
 twenty years' use, a fair or market is not a 
 nuisance {Rex v. Smith, 4Esp. 111.). The 
 owner of the soil may recover for stallage 
 without an express agreement {Newport v. 
 Saunders, 3 B. & A. 41 1 .) Spreading rumours 
 with an intent to increase the price at fairs 
 or markets is an offence at common law 
 {Hex v.Waddington, 1 East, 143.). 
 
 Various statutes have been passed to re- 
 gulate fairs.— By the 2 & 3 P. and M. c. 7. 
 tin; owner or keeper of every fair must ap- 
 point a certain open place for the sale <>l" 
 430 
 
 horses, and must, under a penalty of 40 
 shillings, appoint some one to attend to take 
 toll, from 10 a. m. till sunset ; must keep a 
 book, and enter therein the marks, price, 
 colour, &c, seller's and buyer's name and 
 residence, or forfeit 40 shillings. — By the 
 31 Eliz. c. 12., if the parties are strangers 
 to the book-keeper, they must procure a 
 person to vouch for them ; his fee for 
 entering in the book, where there is no toll, 
 is one penny, for giving a certificate two- 
 pence. In the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. v. 
 pp. 277. 366., vol. vi. p. 427., and vol. vii. 
 p. 526., will be found a very minute de- 
 scription of all the principal fairs of Scot- 
 land. 
 
 A list of the fairs and markets of the 
 United Kingdom will be found in several 
 almanacs, particularly that entitled The 
 Farmer s Almanac, by Johnson and Shaw. 
 {M'-Culloctis Com. Diet. ; Chitty's Com. 
 Law, vol. ii. c. 9. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 FAIR MAID OF FRANCE. {Ranun- 
 culus aconitifolius.) A hardy perennial, 
 blowing a white flower in May and June ; 
 native of the Alps. It loves shade and an 
 open situation. Multiply by parting the 
 roots in spring. 
 
 FAIRCHILD, THOMAS, was one of 
 the few gardeners of his time who united a 
 love of science with the practice of his art. 
 He is mentioned throughout Bradley's 
 works, as a man of general information and 
 fond of scientific research, and in them are 
 given many of his experiments. He was 
 one of the latest English cultivators of a 
 vineyard, having had one at Hoxton as late 
 as 1722. He died in 1729, leaving funds 
 for insuring the delivery of a sermon an- 
 nually in the church of St. Leonard's, 
 Shoreditch, on Whit-Tuesday, " On the 
 wonderful works of God in, the creation ; 
 or On the certainty of the resurrection of 
 the dead, proved by the certain changes of 
 the animal and vegetable parts of the crea- 
 tion." Besides several letters published in 
 Bradley's works, and a paper " On the dif- 
 ferent and sometimes contrary motion of 
 the sap in plants," in the Philosophical 
 Transactions for 1724 (vol. xxxiii. p. 127.), 
 he published, 
 
 The City Gardener ; containing the most experienced 
 method of cultivating and ordering such Evergreens, 
 Fruit Trees, Flowering Shrubs, Flowers, Exotic Plants, 
 &c, as will be ornamental, and thrive best in the Eon- 
 don Gardens. London, 1722. A small octavo pamphlet, 
 1724. A Treatise on the manner of fallowing Ground, 
 raising of Grass Seeds, and training Eint and Hemp. 
 Anonymous. 12mo. (G. IV. Johnson's Hist, of Gard.) 
 
 FAIRY RINGS. Whoever has passed 
 over our down lands in search of the vege- 
 table treasures of creation, or in pursuit of 
 the rational enjoyments of a country life, 
 cannot fail to have noticed, says the Rev. G. 
 Smith, the circles of verdant grass, and cor- 
 
FALCON. 
 
 FALCONER (WILLIAM). 
 
 respondent circles of fungi, most abundant 
 upon turfy hills, and known under the name 
 of fairy rings. The various superstitions and 
 poetical fancies connected with these pheno- 
 mena need not be detailed. These circles 
 have been accounted for by various theories, 
 of which no one, however, is alone sufficient 
 to embrace all the facts. The recent dis- 
 covery of the habitual rejection by the roots 
 of any substance injurious to the growth of 
 vegetables, has made it evident in what 
 manner a race of plants may occupy one 
 spot, until they can no longer exist on it, 
 in consequence of the excretions their roots 
 have deposited, rendering the land altogether 
 destructive to them; while, on the other 
 hand, the change thus effected in the soil 
 may render it more nutritious and desirable 
 for some other race of plants, than before any 
 such change had taken place. This theory, 
 based upon a series of familiar facts, ex- 
 plains the necessity for a rotation of crops. 
 The fungi, it is ascertained, soon render the 
 land on which they grow unfit to support 
 themselves ; but they enrich the soil for other 
 plants, especially for the grasses, which grow 
 up in rank luxuriance in the space left bare 
 by the extinction of the fungi. The cir- 
 cumstance of the plants taking a circular 
 form, may perhaps arise from a single fun-'f 
 gus first throwing its seed all around it, and 
 as a single crop of fungi is sufficient to ex- 
 haust the soil, the grass springs up in the 
 space it has occupied, and the second year's 
 crop of fungi appears in a small ring round 
 the original centre. The rings go on ex- 
 tending in circumference year after year, 
 until something occurs in the soil or its pro- 
 ducts to check their progress, or the species 
 wears out or becomes dormant for a season. 
 A similar mode of growth takes place in 
 some of the crustaceous lichens. The rings 
 have been observed to be frequent on hill- 
 sides, and then almost always with the lower 
 part of the circle open. They sometimes 
 contain a small circle within the larger one, 
 but not always in the centre. Within such 
 oircle the herbage is very luxuriant and 
 rank, consisting of the Anthoxanthum odo- 
 ratum, and the common daisy ; without the 
 circle there is not any very apparent change 
 in the vegetation ; but on the circumference, 
 Thymus serpyllum, T. monotropa, Carex re- 
 curva, and Hieracium pilosella, have all 
 been observed. (The Wild Garland, by S. 
 Waring.) 
 
 FALCON. (Fr.faulcon; It, falconne ; 
 Lat. falco.) A formidable bird of prey, of 
 which there are several species. 
 
 1. The Gyr-falcon, or ger-falcon (F. 
 islandicus), is the largest in size, and one of 
 the most typical in form, which the British 
 Islands produce. It builds in the rocky 
 431 
 
 coasts of Norway, Iceland, and Zetland. 
 The eggs are mottled with pale reddish 
 brown, on a dull white ground, and two 
 inches and three-eighths long by one inch 
 and seven-eighths broad. Next to the eagle 
 it is the most intrepid and voracious of the 
 feathered tribe, and likewise the most valu- 
 able species for the purposes of falconry. 
 The stork, the crane, the heron, and the wild 
 goose fall easy victims to its bold attacks. 
 It is remarkable that in the falcons, as in all 
 other birds of prey, the females are much 
 larger and stronger than the males. 
 
 2. The peregrine falcon (F. peregrinus), 
 being more common, is one of the most im- 
 portant agents in the falconry of the present 
 day. It builds on high rocks on various 
 parts of the coast. The eggs are two to 
 four, about two inches long by one inch and 
 eight lines in breadth; the colour is the 
 same as that of the last species. The whole 
 length of the peregrine falcon is from fifteen 
 to eighteen inches, depending on the sex 
 and age of the bird. Back and upper sur- 
 face of body bluish slate, or ash colour; 
 breast rufous white, with dark brown trans- 
 verse bars. 
 
 3. The hobby (F. sid)buteo), a true falcon, 
 though of small size, may be considered a 
 peregrine falcon in miniature. It is a sum- 
 mer visitor to this country, appearing in 
 April and leaving generally in October for 
 warmer regions. It builds its nest on a high 
 tree ; its eggs are three to four, like those 
 of all the true falcons in shape and colour ; 
 length one inch ei°dit lines, breadth one inch 
 four lines. Specimens of the hobby mea- 
 sure from twelve to fourteen inches, depend- 
 ing on age and sex. Food, small birds, and 
 large coleopterous insects. Plumage, back 
 greyish black ; breast, belly, and thighs, 
 yellowish white ; legs and toes yellow ; claws 
 black. 
 
 4. The red-footed falcon (F. rufipes), is 
 a species of small size, much resembling the 
 last described. It goes through several in- 
 teresting changes of plumage. The whole 
 length of the bird is eleven inches. The 
 general colour of the plumage a uniform 
 dark lead colour. Legs and toes reddish 
 flesh colour ; claws yellowish white. 
 
 The merlin, kestril, gos-hawk, &c. will 
 be noticed under the head Hawks. (Yar- 
 reWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 26—48. ; Blaine s 
 Encyc. of Rural Sports.) 
 
 FALCONER, WILLIAM, M.D.,F.R.S., 
 was physician to the Bath General Hospital. 
 He was the author of the three following 
 works : — 
 
 1. An historical View of the Taste for Gardening and 
 laying out Grounds among the Nations of Antiquity. 
 1783, 8vo. This appeared, for the most part, originally 
 in the Literary and Philosophical Memoirs of the Man- 
 chester Society. 2. An Essay on the Preservation of the 
 Health of Persons employed in Agriculture ; and on the 
 
FALLOW. 
 
 FARDING-BAG. 
 
 Cure of Diseases incident to that Way of Life. London, 
 1789, 8vo. 3. Miscellaneous Tracts and Collections re- 
 lating to Natural History ; selected from the principal 
 Writers of Antiquity on that Subject. London, 1793, 4to. 
 
 FALLOW. Such land as has been re- 
 peatedly ploughed over, and exposed to the 
 influence of the atmosphere, for the purpose 
 of rendering it friable, clearing it from 
 weeds ; leaving it to rest after the tillage 
 before it is again sown. 
 
 Fallows have different names given to 
 them, and are of different kinds, according 
 to the purposes for which they are intended, 
 and the manner in which they are made. 
 Thus, a naked fallow is that in which the 
 ground is ploughed and harrowed at suit- 
 able intervals for several successive times, 
 according to the kind of crop that is ulti- 
 mately to be grown, but without being sown 
 till it has remained in fallow for some length 
 of time. A green fallow is that where the land 
 has been rendered mellow and clear from 
 weeds by means of some kind of green crop, 
 such as turnips, peas, tares, potatoes, &c. 
 In this mode of fallowing, no time is lost by 
 the land being left idle, or in an unproduc- 
 tive state. Fallows are also sometimes dis- 
 tinguished by the season of the year in which 
 the business is chiefly or wholly performed, 
 hence we have summer and winter fallows ; 
 and likewise, from their being in some cases 
 only done in a partial manner, we have bas- 
 tard fallows. Fallows are also named after 
 particular crops, as wheat, turnip, and po- 
 tato fallows. 
 
 " The chemical theory of fallowing," ob- 
 serves Sir H. Davy (Elem. of Agr. Chem. 
 p. 23.), " is very simple ; fallowing affords 
 no new source of riches to the soil, it merely 
 tends to produce an accumulation of decom- 
 posing matter, which, in the common course 
 of crops, would be employed as it is formed ; 
 and it is scarcely possible to imagine a single 
 instance of a cultivated soil, which can be 
 supposed to remain fallow for a year with 
 advantage to the farmer ; the only case 
 where this practice is beneficial seems to be 
 in the destruction of weeds, and for cleansing 
 foul soils." It has been indeed recently con- 
 tended by Liebig in his Organic Chemistry, 
 that during a fallow, a quantity of ammonia 
 is collected from the atmosphere, potash dis- 
 engaged from its combinations, and other 
 chemical effects produced, which it is hardly 
 necessary to examine at much length. He 
 says (Organic Ckem. p. 156.), "The fallow 
 time is that period of culture, during which 
 land is exposed to a progressive disintegra- 
 tion by means of the influence of the atmo- 
 sphere, for the purposeof rendering a certain 
 quantity of alkalies capable of being appro- 
 priated by plants. Now it is evident, that 
 the careful tilling of fallow land must in- 
 crease and accelerate this disintegration. 
 
 For the purpose of agriculture, it is quite 
 indifferent whether the land is covered with 
 weeds, or with a plant which does not ab- 
 stract the potash inclosed in it. Now many 
 plants of the family of the Leguminosce are 
 remarkable, on account of the small quantity 
 of alkalies or salts in general which they 
 contain; the Vicia faba, for example, con- 
 tains no free alkalies, and not one per cent, 
 of the phosphates of lime and magnesia. 
 The bean of the Phaseolus vulgaris contains 
 only traces of salts. The stem of the Me- 
 dicago sativa contains only 0*83 per cent., 
 that of the Ervam lens only 0-57 per cent, 
 of phosphate of lime, with albumen. Buck- 
 wheat dried in the sun yields only 0*681 
 per cent, of ashes, of which 0*09 parts are 
 soluble salts. These plants belong to those 
 which are termed fallow crops, and the 
 cause why they do not exercise any injurious 
 influence on corn which is cultivated imme- 
 diately after them is, that they do not ex- 
 tract the alkalies of the soil, and only a very 
 small quantity of phosphates." 
 
 FALL. A measure of land, equal to a 
 perch. 
 
 FANNER. See Winnowing Machine. 
 
 FANTOME-CORN. A name applied 
 to thin or light corn, which has but little 
 bulk or solidity. 
 
 FAR. (Sax. reon.) In horsemanship, 
 a term used to denote a horse's right side ; 
 thus the far foot, far shoulder, &c. is the 
 right foot, right shoulder, &c. 
 
 FARCY. In farriery, a disease of the 
 absorbents affecting the skin and its blood- 
 vessels, by which, when inveterate, their 
 coats inflame and are so thickened that 
 they become like so many cords. Farcy is 
 intimately connected with glanders, and 
 they will frequently run into each other. 
 The treatment varies with the form it as- 
 sumes. In the button, or bud farcy, in 
 which indolent boils appear, a mild dose of 
 physic should be first administered. The 
 buds should then be carefully examined, 
 and, if any of them have broken, the 
 budding iron, of a dull red heat, should be 
 applied to them, and the buds all opened 
 as soon as they appear to contain matter, 
 and afterwards washed with a lotion com- 
 posed of a drachm of corrosive sublimate, 
 dissolved in an ounce of rectified spirit. 
 Daily exercise and green food are also 
 essential to the animal's recovery. (Clate?'s 
 Far. p. 79. ; Blaine's Vet. Outlines, p. 467. ; 
 The Horse, p. 128-31.) 
 
 FARCY, WATER*. See Dropsy. 
 
 FARDING-BAG. The first stomach 
 of a cow, or any other ruminant animal. 
 It is a mere receptacle for receiving and 
 retaining the green food, until the animal . 
 has time to repose and chew the cud. 
 
FARINA. 
 
 FARM. 
 
 FARE OF PIGS. A provincial mode 
 of expressing the number of pigs which a 
 sow brings forth at once. See Farrow. 
 
 FARINA. (Lat. far, corn, of which it 
 is made.) Meal or flour obtained by grind- 
 ing and sifting wheat and other seeds, or 
 by pulverising and preparing edible roots, 
 &c. ; hence the term farinaceous food. 
 
 FARM. A portion of ground cultivated 
 for the purpose of profit. There are dif- 
 ferent kinds of farms. Where the princi- 
 pal part of the land is under the plough, 
 they are termed arable farms ; but where 
 the fattening of cattle or other live-stock 
 is more immediately the object, they are 
 distinguished by the title of grazing farms; 
 where the chief intention is the obtaining 
 different animal products, such as milk, 
 butter, and cheese, they are denominated 
 dairy farms ; and where the two systems 
 of arable and grass management can be 
 combined, they are called convertible 
 t'arins. As manure must be had in order to 
 render farms of any kind productive, the 
 last may probably, in general, be considered 
 as the most advantageous. Besides these, 
 in districts where hay is the principal pro- 
 duce, there are hay or grass farms, and 
 there are also what are denominated breed- 
 ing or cattle farms. 
 
 The old writers on husbandry, who lived 
 in warm countries, where the heat and 
 moisture of the air had sensible and fre- 
 quently very dangerous effects on the health 
 of the inhabitants, were very particular in 
 their directions for the choice of farms or 
 estates, and of the spots whereon houses 
 should be built, so as to avoid the inconve- 
 niences arising from the climate, or from 
 the quality or situation of the ground. The 
 Romans had generally pleasure as well as 
 profit in view, when they bought and 
 stocked a farm ; and therefore they laid it 
 down as a rule, that no degree of fertility 
 should tempt a man to purchase in an un- 
 healthy country, nor the pleasantest situa- 
 tions in a barren one. " Buy not too 
 hastily," said Cato, " but view again and 
 again the purchase you intend to make ; 
 for, if it be a good one, the oftener you see 
 it the better it will please you. Examine 
 hosv the neighbouring inhabitants fare. Let 
 the country it lies in be a good one ; the 
 ways to and from it good ; and the air tem- 
 perate. Let your land, if you can choose 
 your situation, be at the foot of a hill, 
 facing the south, in a healthy place, Avhere 
 a sufficiency of labourers, of cattle, and of 
 water may be had. Let it be near a 
 flourishing town, the sea, or a navigable 
 river ; or bordering upon a good and well- 
 * frequented road. Let the buildings upon 
 your ground be strong and substantial. 
 433 
 
 Do not rashly condemn the methods of 
 others. It is best to purchase from a good 
 husbandman, and a good improver." 
 
 Besides the healthfulness of the situation, 
 three other things should be particularly 
 attended to in the choice of a farm or 
 estate ; these are, the air, the water and the 
 soil. The air should be pure and temper- 
 ate, the water wholesome and easily come 
 at, and the soil fertile ; and the farm should 
 be at a reasonable distance from good mar- 
 kets, both for the sale of the produce and the 
 purchase of manure. See Farm Buildings. 
 
 The ancients were particularly attentive 
 to the quality of their water, and to the 
 ease of coming at it. They advised bring- 
 ing into the farm-houses the water of such 
 springs as never dried up ; or, if there was 
 no such spring within the farm, to bring 
 running water as near to it as possible ; or 
 to dig for well-water, not of a bitter or 
 brackish taste. If neither of these was to 
 be found, they directed large cisterns to be 
 provided for men, and ponds for collecting 
 and retaining rain-water for cattle. They 
 esteemed that running water to be best for 
 drinking which had its source in a hill ; 
 spring or well-water from a rising ground 
 was deemed the next best ; well-water in 
 the bottom of a valley was held to be sus- 
 picious ; and marshy or fenny water, which 
 creeps slowly on, was by them rightly re- 
 garded as the worst of all. 
 
 The nature of the soil of a farm may be 
 ascertained either by analysis (see Analy- 
 sis), by observation of the weeds which flou- 
 rish upon it (see Botany and Weeds), and 
 of the trees growing in the hedge rows (see 
 Plantations). The elm and the oak are 
 commonly tenants of good soils ; the birch, 
 the holly, and the ash indicate those which 
 are poor. And again, the productiveness of 
 a soil may be estimated from the degree of 
 its attraction for the insensible moisture of 
 the atmosphere ; by the substratum on 
 which it rests (see Geology) ; and by its 
 inclination. There are many other circum- 
 stances, also, which the farmer in search 
 of a farm should regard, most of which he 
 will find treated of in this work under the 
 heads Appraisement, Agreement, Cus- 
 toms or Counties, Capital required, Rain, 
 Lease, &c. Let him also closely examine 
 the state of the buildings, the mode in 
 which the farm has been cultivated, and 
 the course of cropping which the out-going 
 tenant has followed. This last inquiry is 
 one very material point to be carefully and 
 accurately ascertained. 
 
 The number of farms in the United 
 Kingdom is estimated to be about 2,000,000, 
 and the property annually derived from 
 agriculture at 215,817,624Z. 
 
 r f 
 
FARM ACCOUNTS. 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 There are in — 
 
 
 3. 
 
 ! S 
 
 ¥ 
 
 Uncultivated 
 Wastes 
 I cap ble of 
 1 Improve- 
 ment. 
 
 1 1 
 
 Barren and | 
 1 Unprofitable, j 
 
 1 
 
 Total. 
 
 England - 
 Wales 
 Scotland - 
 British 
 Isles 
 
 25,632,000 
 3,117,000 
 5,265,000 
 
 383,690 
 
 3,454,000 
 530,000 
 5,950,000 
 
 166,000 
 
 3,256,400 
 1,105,000 
 8,523,930 
 
 569,469 
 
 32.342,400 
 4,752,000 
 19,441,944 
 
 1,1 9,159 
 
 Total - 
 
 46,922,970 14.6!)0,00<>! 15,871,463 
 
 77,394,433 
 
 ("acres employed in 
 ( the cultivation of 
 
 In England and Wales it is calculated 
 that there are 
 
 wheat. 
 
 1,250.000 .. .. barley and rye. 
 
 3,200,^00 .. .. oats, beans, and peas. 
 
 l,20o,' 00 .. .. clover, rye, grass, &c. 
 
 1, :-00,0r-0 .. .. roots and cabbages by the 
 
 plough. 
 
 2, !00,"00 .. .. fallows. 
 47,"00 .. .. hop grounds. 
 18.000 .. .. pleasure grounds. 
 
 17,300,000 .. .. depastured by cattle. 
 
 1,200,000 .. .. hedge rows, copses, and 
 
 woods. 
 
 1,300 000 .. .. ways and water courses. 
 
 5,029,000 .. .. common and wastelands. 
 
 FARM ACCOUNTS. The necessity 
 and utility of correct and detailed particu- 
 lars of all matters concerning the farm, have 
 already been spoken of under the head 
 Book-keeping. Let any farmer make the 
 experiment, and he will find it both inter- 
 esting and useful, to know from year to 
 year the actual products of his farm. Let 
 every thing, therefore, which can be mea- 
 sured and weighed, be so tested; and let 
 that which cannot be brought to an exact 
 standard be estimated, as if he himself 
 were about to sell or to purchase it. Let 
 him likewise, as near as possible, measure 
 the ground which he plants, the quantity of 
 seed which he uses, and the manure which 
 he applies. The labour of doing this is 
 nothing compared with the satisfaction of 
 having done it, and the benefits which must 
 arise from it. Conjecture, in these cases, is 
 perfectly wild and uncertain — varying 
 often, with different individuals, almost 
 100 per cent. Exactness enables a man to 
 form conclusions which may most essentially, 
 and in innumerable ways, avail to his ad- 
 vantage. It is that alone which can give 
 any value to his experience ; it is that which 
 
 ill 
 
 " put it 
 
 give safe counsel to his friends ; and it is 
 the only ground on which he can securely 
 place confidence in himself. 
 
 FARM BUILDINGS. In the con- 
 struction of farm buildings, the first thing 
 to be regarded is the convenience of their 
 situation; and to this end must be considered 
 the )x;st shelter, feeding, and watering of 
 live stock ; the carriage of the crop, and of 
 manure, and the preservation of the pro- 
 434 
 
 win make his experience the sure basis of 
 improvement ; it will put it in his power to 
 
 duce. To combine all these advantages 
 together is rarely attainable; the object 
 with the practical farmer is to obtain as 
 many of them as possible. The improved 
 economical construction of farm buildings 
 some years since, engaged the attention of 
 the Highland Society of Scotland, and from 
 their report (Trans, vol. ii. p. 365.) I shall 
 in this article derive material assistance. 
 The reader who wishes for working plans 
 will derive every information from it. The 
 committee say, very justly, " one of the most 
 common errors in these designs is the 
 crowding the buildings together, under the 
 idea of giving them greater compactness, 
 and the not sufficiently extending the 
 shelter sheds for the feeding of cattle. This 
 is a fault so universal that it is only on the 
 larger class of breeding and feeding farms 
 in the border counties of England and 
 Scotland that experience has taught builders 
 fully to avoid it. In giving designs of the 
 outhouses of a farm, little more can be 
 done than to give general useful examples. 
 Although a certain similarity must exist in 
 the form and arrangement of the parts of 
 all such buildings, yet these must be 
 modified according to the circumstances of 
 the farm itself, the nature of the soil, the 
 situation with regard to markets, and the 
 particular kind of management to be pur- 
 sued. No one rule that can be given is of 
 general application, and the judgment of 
 the architect must be shown, in adapting 
 the size, form, and arrangement of the 
 buildings to the nature of the farm, and the 
 wants of the occupier. While every suitable 
 accommodation should be afforded to the 
 tenant, it is the province of the architect to 
 take care that the heavy cost of such 
 buildings be not unnecessarily enhanced, 
 either by erecting buildings that are useless, 
 or by giving unnecessary dimensions to 
 such as are requisite. It may be particu- 
 larly remarked that the giving unnecessary 
 breadth to the buildings adds materially to 
 the expense by increasing the dimensions of 
 the timbers, and adding to the size of the 
 roofs. At the same time care must be 
 taken that in the cow-houses and stables 
 the animals shall not be cramped from the 
 want of necessary room. In general, it 
 may be said that the most convenient ar- 
 rangement of the outhouses of a farm is in 
 the form of a rectangle, the side to the south 
 being open, and the farm-house being placed 
 at some convenient distance in front of it. 
 And again, the most approved mode of 
 keeping and feeding the larger and finer 
 kinds of cattle is in small sheds with open 
 yards attached, each capable of holding (wo 
 animals. It is recommended that the water- 
 course from the stables, cow-houses, and 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 yards should be carried off by causewayed 
 open channels to a pond or tank near to the 
 buildings. This mode of conveying away 
 and receiving the urine is conceived to be 
 better in ordinary cases than sewers below 
 ground, which, even when executed in the 
 best manner, will be subject to be choked 
 up from want of necessary attention to 
 cleaning; and such sewers become nur- 
 series for rats, notwithstanding every pre- 
 caution that can be taken. Should the situ- 
 ation of the buildings incline to the north, 
 conduits can be made through the north 
 range below the floors, at proper places, for 
 discharging the liquids. 
 
 " For watering cattle, if a stream cannot 
 be obtained, there are few situations where 
 water cannot be got by^ sinking a well ; the 
 best way is to raise it into a cistern, which 
 may be placed in any of the shelter yards, 
 and from this be conveyed by pipes to the 
 different yards, furnished with proper cis- 
 terns and ball-cocks. The passages and 
 entrances to the buildings should be wide ; 
 the gates hung on wooden posts or hewn 
 stone pillars. A house for an overseer, or 
 bailiff, especially on considerable farms, is 
 advisable ; carpenters' and smiths' shops 
 are very desirable. 
 
 " In making a calculation of the expense of 
 these buildings, the corners, ribbets, arches, 
 and skews are supposed to be of hewn 
 stone, the wood Memel, the roofs of slate, 
 the ridges and flanks covered with lead, and 
 the cost and workmanship of all the ma- 
 terials are included, except the prime cost 
 of stones." 
 
 Mason's work. The foundations to be 
 laid with flat bedded stones, laid in regular 
 courses; the whole area of the dressing 
 barn and low granary floors should be laid 
 over with small broken stones, forming the 
 thickness of 9 inches ; the sleepers to be 
 laid on the inside scarcements, and the 
 whole remaining space of 14 inches to be 
 filled up with solid brick or stone work, 
 properly packed with lime. To have a 
 coat of plaster f of an inch thick on the 
 top, the surface of the plaster being kept 
 a of an inch below the top of the sleepers, 
 and care to be taken that the sleepers are 
 resting on flat stones at short distances ; 
 the lime which is applied next to the walls 
 all round to be mixed up with a portion of 
 broken glass. This, if carefully done, will 
 keep the barn floor free from vermin, and 
 also prevent it from sinking. The straw 
 barn to be done in the same way, only the 
 rubble building above the small stones is to 
 be only 12 inches deep, and to have a com- 
 position floor laid above of 3 inches thick, 
 ■ 9 feet broad, and where the straw falls from 
 the rakes to be laid with large flags. The 
 435 
 
 door soles of the barns to be laid 6 inches, 
 and those of the cow-houses and stables 
 3 inches above the causeway on the out- 
 side. 
 
 Walls. The thickness of the barn walls 
 above the door sole to be 2 feet 3 inches ; 
 above the second floor to be 2 feet and beam 
 filled at the top ; for low buildings above 
 the door sole to be 2 feet, and likewise beam 
 filled at the top. Division walls to be 
 1 8 inches thick, and carried to the top ; 
 the walls of courts or yards to be at least 
 1 foot below the general surface. 
 
 Conduits. If water be carried away by 
 under-drains, the great common sewer or 
 discharging conduit to begin in a central 
 part of the office, to be 27 inches wide, and 
 42 inches high, to allow of a person going 
 in to cleanse it. 
 
 Causewaying. The stables, cow-houses, 
 calf-houses, piggeries, &c. to be laid with 
 limestone causeway or bricks set in sharp 
 sand. The settles for carrying off the urine 
 to have 2, or at least 1^ inch fall to 10 feet. 
 The run channels for stables to be 10 feet 
 from the wall, and the rise from the channel 
 to the rack to be 5 inches. The channels 
 for cow-houses to be 9 feet from the wall, 
 the rise from the channel to the sole tree to 
 be 4 inches. The area round the yard to 
 be causewayed, and to have proper channels 
 with two inches declivity to the 10 feet, 
 made so as to carry to the settling pits. 
 
 Carpenters' work. Roofing. The 
 couple sides for houses of 15 or 16 feet 
 wide to be 6-k inches at bottom, 5^ inches 
 at top, and 2^ inches thick, with a balk 6 by 
 2^ inches, fixed as near the middle of each 
 couple as possible, with double garron nails, 
 and properly riveted. 
 
 Joisting and flooring. The sleepers in 
 the dressing barn and the low granary floor 
 to be 6 by 2 1 inches, built in as described 
 for the mason's work. The joisting in the 
 loft for unthrashed corn and granaries to 
 be 10 inches deep by 2£ thick, with 1 foot 
 of wall-hold. Joistings and sleepers laid at 
 20 inches from centres, all covered with 
 drain timber battens ; under floors to be 
 plain jointed, and douled with iron douls. 
 The upper floor to be tongued and feathered 
 on the joints, and fixed down with good 
 flooring sprigs. The cart-sheds to have a 
 joist built into the wall at each pillar, 8 
 inches by 2^, and the wall plate nailed 
 down on the top of it. Those that have 
 metal pillars should have lintling-beams 
 9 inches by 12 broad, and the end of the 
 joist tenanted 2 inches into the lintel, to 
 have an iron strap, split on the end, and 
 put on the top with screw bolts to fix the 
 joist and the lintel together. 
 
 Doors. The doors of deals — not more 
 f r 2 
 
FARM BUILDINGS. 
 
 than 6^ inches broad, l£ thick, beaded on 
 the edges, and grooved and tongued on the 
 joints, with 3 cross bars to each, 9 inches 
 broad, 1^ thick. Those of the stable, cow- 
 house, and barn doors to be 3 feet 6 inches 
 wide, and hung in two leaves where neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Windows. The frames of the lower 
 windows of barns, stables, cow-houses, &c. 
 to be 2 inches thick, with boards below, 16 
 or 18 inches high, hung on the frames with 
 cross-tailed bands, and glazed above with 
 second crown glass. For those where glass is 
 unnecessary ,weather-boards, 6 inches broad, 
 
 1 inch thick. The lower windows of the 
 barn to be secured by iron bars 1 inch 
 square, and not more than 5 inches apart. 
 The dressing barn and granaries to have 
 skirting boards 8 inches broad, by 1 thick, 
 nailed on bond timber built in the walls. 
 
 Trevises, Racks, and Mangers. The hind 
 posts of the trevises to be 8 feet 6 inches 
 long, 6^ inches square, made in the octagon 
 form, above the level of the pavement ; to 
 be sunk 3| feet below the level of the pave- 
 ment, and to be solidly built round, 3 feet 
 in diameter, with stone and lime mortar. 
 The posts to be charred at their ends as far 
 as they are beneath the ground ; their tops 
 to stand 6^ inches above the trevise boards, 
 and to be rounded. The height of the 
 fore-posts to be 9 inches above the top of 
 the racks, 4i by 2 inches, and their foot set 
 in stones, one on each side of the boards. 
 
 Racks, to be 2 feet 10 inches broad ; the 
 sides to be 4 by 2 1 inches, and the spars to 
 be 1\ inches by 1^ inches, sunk f inch into 
 the sides at the distance of 3^ inches apart. 
 
 Mangers, to be 20 inches at the top, by 
 16 at the bottom, and 10 deep. The wood 
 to be \\ thick at the bottom, and 1^ at the 
 sides. 
 
 Plaster work. The stables for saddle 
 horses to have one coat of plaster on the 
 walls, and the ceilings to be all lathed and 
 plastered with two coats of plaster. 
 
 Slate work. The whole of the roofs to 
 be covered with slates. The slates to have 
 
 2 inches of cover over the nail at bottom, 
 and diminishing gradually to 1 \ inch at the 
 top, put on with nails of 12 lbs. to the 
 1000 boiled in linseed oil; ridges and 
 flanks covered with milled lead, 12 inches 
 broad, 6 lbs. to the square foot. 
 
 Court or yard gates. Gates to be sunk 
 
 3 feet into the ground, and charred as far 
 as they extend into the ground. The posts 
 to be 9 inches square, champered on the 
 corners, and set 3 inches clear of the pillars 
 — to stand 9 inches above the gate, and 
 built in the ground with stone and lime, 4 
 feet in diameter. 
 
 Painting. The whole of the outside doors, 
 436 
 
 windows, and gates to get three coats of oil 
 paint : the windows to get a coat before 
 being glazed. 
 
 Wood, to be of Memel timber. The barn 
 and granary floors may be laid with drain 
 batens. 
 
 General estimate. For the farm build- 
 ings of a farm of 1000 acres kept in a rota- 
 tion of crops and pasture, and employed 
 partly in breeding, and partly in feeding 
 stock, the expense is in the report of the 
 committee of the Highland Society, from 
 whence this paper is chiefly abridged, 
 according to a plan there given, to be in 
 a good and substantial manner, including 
 the prime cost and workmanship of all 
 materials, but exclusive of the expense 
 of carriage, and the prime cost of stones, 
 and also of servants' house, carpenter's 
 shop and smithy, to be about 1700/., or, 
 if the roof is covered with tiles, 1300/. 
 There is another plan and estimate amount- 
 ing, to 1600/. with slate roof, or 1200/. with 
 tiles. 
 
 For the farm buildings of a farm of 500 
 acres kept in a rotation of crops and pasture, 
 there are two plans, the estimates for which 
 are, exclusive of the cost of materials, and 
 the prime cost of stones, about 1300/. with 
 slates, and 1020/. with tiles : for the second 
 plan, about 1190/. with slates, and 940/. with 
 tiles. 
 
 For the buildings for a farm of 150 acres 
 kept in a rotation of crops, there are two 
 plans, which, with the before- mentioned 
 exceptions, are, 1st. plan, about 600/. 
 covered with slates, and 476/. with tiles : 
 and the 2nd., about 550/. covered with slates, 
 and 465/. if with tiles. 
 
 For a clay land arable farm of 500 acres, 
 not producing turnips, and kept chiefly, or 
 wholly, in tillage, 1260/. covered with slates, 
 and 1020/. with tiles. 
 
 For a dairy farm of 500 acres kept in a 
 rotation of crops and grass, one half being 
 supposed to be hay or pasture, 1300/., or 
 with tiles, 1000/. 
 
 For a farm of 200 acres situated near a 
 town employed wholly in tillage, where no 
 stock is kept but horses and family cows, 
 and where the whole produce is sold, 600/- 
 or 470/. 
 
 For a mixed stock farm in a high country, 
 employing a pair of horses, about 410/. or 
 322/. 
 
 For a cottage farm of 25 acres, 190/. with 
 slates, or 150/. with tiles, and a second plan 
 amounting to 164/. and 130/. In the first 
 volume of Brit. Husb. (Lib. Use. Know.') 
 there are some admirable plans of farm 
 buildings on various scales. (Trans. High 
 Soc. vol. ii. p. 365. ; Low's Prac. Ag.) 
 
 FARMER. (Sax. reorimeji, Fr.fermier.) 
 
FARMER. 
 
 A person whose business or employment is 
 the cultivation of land, the breeding, rearing, 
 and feeding of different sorts of live-stock, 
 and the management of the various products 
 which are afforded by them: hence those 
 engaged in this way may be' further distin- 
 guished into arable, grazing, dairy, hay, and 
 other kinds of farmers, according to the 
 modes in which their farms are cultivated 
 or employed. " The British farmer," says 
 a writer in the Lib. of Uk. Know. (Flem. 
 Husb. p. 3.) "is generally a man of superior 
 education to the Flemish peasantry ; ' and, 
 he might have added, to those of all other 
 nations. 
 
 The farmers of Great Britain may be ar- 
 ranged into the following classes: 1. The 
 great proprietors and country gentlemen. 
 
 2. Yeomen and farmers, properly so called. 
 
 3. Possessors of small farms. 4. Cottagers, 
 including different descriptions of people, 
 who cultivate small farms, and a few acres 
 adjoining to towns and villages. 
 
 A considerable portion of the cultivated 
 land in Britain is possessed by the propri- 
 etors, and such as generally reside on their 
 estates, who may therefore very properly be 
 denominated country gentlemen. Exclu- 
 sive of the domains or lands around their 
 manor-houses, these proprietors commonly 
 hold farms, which are kept under regular 
 modes of cultivation. Many of these merit 
 high commendation for their steady and 
 unwearied attention to that great source of 
 national wealth, the introduction of better 
 systems of husbandry ; while others have 
 gone farther, and not only endeavoured, 
 both by precept and example, to induce 
 the tenants to adopt such systems as they 
 from experience had found beneficial, but 
 also granted leases of such duration, and on 
 terms so liberal, as induced men possessing 
 knowledge, enterprise, and capital to apply 
 themselves to the art of husbandry. 
 
 In regard to the second class, or the 
 yeomen and farmers, properly so denomi- 
 nated, they may be considered the strength 
 of the state. The yeoman and the farmer 
 here alluded to, differ only in one particular ; 
 the lands which the former cultivates are 
 either in part or in whole his own property, 
 while the latter rents his farm from another. 
 In regard to industry, perseverance, and 
 attention to business, there is no difference. 
 Happy in their situation, removed on the 
 one hand from the vanities and superfluities 
 of high life, and, on the other, by their 
 honest industry, from the fear of poverty, 
 the improvement of their farms constituting 
 their chief study and delight, they spend 
 their days in independence, enjoying health 
 and all the rational comforts of life. 
 It is remarked, concerning the third class, 
 437 
 
 that in all the best cultivated parts of Great 
 Britain, as well as where improvements 
 have not become general, there are many 
 small farms. These, though not as yet in 
 every case managed in such a manner as to 
 produce the greatest crops which the soil is 
 capable of yielding, are, however, much 
 better cultivated than they were thirty or 
 forty years ago ; and the spirit for improve- 
 ments among tenants of this description 
 appears to be more general than at any 
 former period ; although, from the want 
 of capital, and the little attention generally 
 paid to them by their landlords, added to 
 their own attachment to ancient prejudices, 
 they are yet very far from having attained 
 that degree of usefulness, in an agricultural 
 view, to which, by adopting proper means, 
 they may be advanced. The possessors of 
 small farms are, however, very useful and 
 valuable members of the community; honest, 
 peaceable, and industrious, they breed up 
 their children in the same principles, and to 
 these is our island most indebted for a 
 never-failing supply of virtuous and useful 
 citizens. 
 
 The fourth class, or cottagers, are those 
 who either reside in the neighbourhood of 
 large farms adjoining to moors or commons, 
 or in small hamlets. They generally possess 
 a few acres of tillage-land, from the culti- 
 vation of which, together with what they 
 receive for labour performed for the farmers, 
 or from carrying on the occupations to 
 which they had been bred, they are enabled 
 to maintain their families, and to be of 
 great service in the business of cultivation. 
 For the most part industrious, and inured 
 to labour, they bring up their children not 
 only without becoming burdens on the 
 public, but in such a manner as to render 
 them extremely useful as members of 
 society. These hamlets and cottages are 
 also nurseries whence the British farmer 
 draws his constant supply of labourers. 
 
 Those who cultivate small farms adjoin- 
 ing to towns or villages may be described 
 under two characters : — The first are such 
 as reside in towns, and are engaged in com- 
 merce and manufactures ; but who, for their 
 amusement, or the convenience of their 
 families, possess small farms in the neigh- 
 bourhood. These may be denominated 
 good farmers, only in a national point of 
 view. Their farms are indeed well culti- 
 vated, the crops luxuriant, and a full pro- 
 portion, corresponding to the extent of the 
 farms, comes to market; but owing to their 
 time and attention being occupied with 
 other matters, in the success of which they 
 are more immediately interested, few of 
 them derive much benefit from their farm- 
 ing operations. The reason is obvious; 
 r f 3 
 
FARM HOUSE. 
 
 FARM-SERVANTS. 
 
 there is no business requires more unre- 
 mitting care than that of husbandry : and, 
 though people so employed may have it in 
 their power to pay attention to the great 
 leading points, as that of seed-time and 
 harvest, it is not to be supposed they can 
 spare time to superintend the execution of 
 many of those more minute operations, on 
 the proper attention to which the profits of 
 a farm, particularly one so situated, princi- 
 pally depend. The second are those who 
 reside in or immediately adjoining to towns, 
 and farm so as to enable them to keep 
 milch cows, or two or three horses to hire, 
 either for the saddle or the cart. It is only 
 necessary to say, that as, on account of 
 local situation, they commonly pay very 
 high rents for their lands, they therefore 
 find it to their interest to cultivate them in 
 the best manner, so as to insure the greatest 
 possible crops. The uses to which these 
 crops are applied, it will be readily ad- 
 mitted, tend in a material degree to the 
 convenience and accommodation of the in- 
 habitants ; and therefore this description of 
 cultivators are to the inhabitants of these 
 towns and villages what the British farmers 
 are to the nation at large, namely, the means 
 by which they are furnished with many of 
 the necessaries and comforts of life. 
 
 FARM GATE. See Gates. 
 
 FARM HOUSE. The dwelling occu- 
 pied by a farmer. The principal objects to 
 be attended to in erecting a farm-house are, 
 convenience, and a salubrious situation. 
 Besides the general salubrity of the spot 
 where dwellings are to be erected, the air, 
 water, and soil also require to be particu- 
 larly attended to : the first should be pure 
 and temperate ; the second wholesome, and 
 easily obtained. The most healthy and 
 convenient site on the farm ought to be se- 
 lected for building the house ; easy access 
 and central situation being taken into con- 
 sideration. An abundant supply of water 
 for domestic purposes, and for live stock, is 
 indispensable. The water, however, should 
 not be stagnant. Ponds in the immediate 
 vicinity of a house are not essentially in- 
 jurious, unless they become dry in sum- 
 mer, or towards autumn : for at the period 
 between the drying up and the complete 
 dryness of ponds, or stagnant pools, the de- 
 composition of animal and vegetable matter 
 which is then proceeding evolves miasmata 
 that generate disease. A dry gravelly soil, 
 through which the rain can freely percolate, 
 is to be preferred. The degree of damp- 
 ness of a locality may be always pretty con- 
 rectly estimated by observing the quantity 
 of moss and lichens upon the trees ; and the 
 weeds being those that grow in marshy si- 
 tuations. 
 
 438 
 
 FARMING. The business or manage- 
 ment of a farm, comprehending the whole 
 circumstances and conduct of it. 
 
 It is a practice that demands constant 
 care and attention, as well as much activity 
 and judgment, to conduct it in a proper and 
 advantageous manner. It requires an in- 
 timate and practical knowledge of all the 
 arts of cultivation and management, as well 
 as of the nature and value of every kind of 
 live stock ; and still further, a perfect ac- 
 quaintance with the various modes of buying 
 and selling, and the constant state of dif- 
 ferent markets and fairs. In addition to 
 all these, there are several other minutiae of 
 much consequence to the success of the 
 farmer, which will be treated of under their 
 respective heads. 
 
 Farming, once regarded as a profession 
 easy to be understood and successfully 
 followed only by the empiric, has long since 
 been viewed in a different, in a wiser 
 manner. It has been justly said that no 
 pursuit requires more talent, more perse- 
 verance, and more careful observation, than 
 the cultivation of the earth ; that so far 
 from its being an empirical business, it 
 is, in fact, one that several other sciences 
 illustrate and assist — one, whose professors 
 cannot too often examine the practice of 
 other cultivators ; and hence, since it has 
 been found that the labours of the chemist, 
 the botanist, the mechanist, and the geo- 
 logist, are all available in the service of the 
 farmer, it has followed as a natural conse- 
 quence, that the farmers of our age have 
 become a more scientific, more educated, 
 and a far more enlightened class than those 
 of any previous generations. 
 
 FARM-SERVANTS. Such domestic 
 servants and out-door labourers as are 
 requisite for performing the business of 
 the farm. These are either maintained 
 in the farmer's house, with fixed quar- 
 terly wages, or accommodated with cot- 
 tages, and the grass of a cow with other 
 allowances, and certain money payment for 
 each day's labour. The system of having 
 ploughmen and carters to dine at the 
 farmer's table was very common in olden 
 times ; .but now that separate tables and 
 separate rooms are kept, except among the 
 classes of small holders, it is more usual to 
 employ married labourers and their families, 
 who live in their own cottages, excepting 
 perhaps one or two young men to attend 
 constantly to cattle and those services 
 necessary at extra hours. Some interesting 
 statements regarding the practice of the 
 farmer, as it affects the condition of the 
 English and Scotch labourers, are given in 
 the first volume of Brit. Husb. (Martin 
 Doyle s Prac. Husb.) 
 
FARM YARD. 
 
 FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 FARM YARD. The area or court in 
 which the farm buildings are situated, and 
 which generally adjoins the farm-house. 
 It is the place where cattle are foddered, 
 dung prepared, and several other necessary 
 operations belonging to the farm performed. 
 
 FARM- YARD MANURE. Of all fer- 
 tilisers the most universal and most valuable 
 to the cultivator, and yet the most gene- 
 rally mismanaged, is farm-yard manure, 
 which has been often well described as the 
 farmer 1 s sheet anchor. From this fertiliser, 
 man must have derived some benefits, even 
 before he was compelled, by the increase of 
 
 ?opulation, to cultivate and manure his land, 
 t is the earliest mentioned of all manures ; 
 although, at first, the only notice we meet 
 with of dung and dunghills, describes them 
 as employed in Palestine for fuel ; and, to 
 this day, in the barren deserts of the East, 
 that of the camel, after being dried in the 
 sun, is the only combustible article the 
 natives possess. (Ezekiel, iv. 12. 15. ; Nie- 
 buhrs Voyage, i. 121.) This manure is 
 noticed by the earliest agricultural writers. 
 M. P. Cato tells us, in his fourth chapter, 
 to " study to have a large dunghill ; keep 
 your compost carefully ; when you carry it 
 out, scatter it and pulverise it : carry it out 
 in the autumn. Lay dung round the roots 
 of your olives in autumn." And in his 29th 
 chapter, " Divide your manure ; carry half of 
 it to the field where you sow your provender: 
 and if there are olive trees, put some dung 
 to their roots." And in c. 37., he advises 
 the use of pigeons' dung for gardens, 
 meadows, and corn land, as well as amurca, 
 which is the dregs of oil ; and recommends 
 the farmer to preserve carefully the dung 
 of all descriptions of animals. These direc- 
 tions were given 150 years B.C. ; after a lapse 
 of nearly 2000 years, the direction to the 
 farmer must still be the same ; little can be 
 added to the advice of Cato, when he said, 
 " Study to have a large dunghill." Virgil 
 is still more particular; in his description 
 of fertilisers, he mentions with common 
 manure, ashes (Georg. 1. i. v. 80.) Pumice- 
 stone and shells (1. ii. v. 346 — 350., and 350 
 — 358.) Varro (c. 38. 1. i.) mentions many 
 kinds of animal manure, and is particularly 
 minute in his enumeration of the dung of 
 birds, and includes even that of blackbirds 
 and thrushes kept in aviaries. Columella 
 (1. ii. c. 5.) advises the cultivator not to 
 carry out to the field more dung than 
 the labourers can cover with the soil the 
 same day, as the exposure to the sun does 
 it considerable injury ; and he enumerates 
 (1. ii. c. 15.) as well-known fertilisers, night- 
 soil, the excrements of birds and sheep, 
 urine (especially for apple trees and vines), 
 dregs of oil, the excrements of cattle, of 
 439 
 
 the ass, the goat, of pigs ; ashes, chopped 
 stalks of the lupine leaves, of trees, bram- 
 bles, &c, and mud from sewers or ditches. 
 
 Of the early inhabitants of Britain, Pliny 
 tells us (b. xvii. c. 6, 7, 8.) that they highly 
 valued the use of marl for particular soils, 
 but on other lands they never employed it. 
 We are told that they grew corn, and lived 
 in houses thatched with straw, which would 
 necessarily require an attention to fertilisers. 
 They had also, according to Strabo (Geo- 
 graphy, p. 306.), gardens, which could not 
 have been cultivated, neither could their 
 apple orchards have flourished, without ma- 
 nure. The Roman invasion taught the 
 original inhabitants better modes of using 
 fertilising materials ; but their Saxon suc- 
 cessors, in all probability, knew less of agri- 
 culture than the natives. War and fighting 
 was their profession ; they held the husband- 
 man in much contempt. The confusion 
 attendant upon British, Saxon, and Danish 
 inroads, still farther retarded, in England, 
 the progress of agriculture, which never 
 prospers in a poor disturbed country. The 
 very laws made in those days for its en- 
 couragement show to what a low ebb the 
 art of cultivating the land was then reduced. 
 Thus it was provided, that if any one laid 
 dung upon a field, the law allowed him, if 
 the owner of it consented, to use it for one 
 year; and if the quantity of manure con- 
 veyed was in considerable quantities, so as 
 to render it necessary to employ a cart, he 
 was then entitled to use the land for three 
 years ; and if any person, with the consent 
 of the owner of the soil, folded his cattle on 
 it for the space of a year, he was then en- 
 titled to cultivate it for four years for his 
 own benefit. (Leges Wallia, p. 298.) All 
 these laws were evidently for the purpose of 
 encouraging the better manuring of the 
 land ; but the necessity of such an induce- 
 ment betrays the poverty of the farmers of 
 those days, and the insufficiency of their 
 live stock. In the middle ages little was 
 done for agriculture. The monks, after the 
 introduction of Christianity, were the most 
 learned and skilful in the best modes of ap- 
 plying manures. They early excelled in 
 their gardens. The population of England 
 in those days, however, was too limited to 
 require the cultivation of inferior soils. 
 
 In 1570, Conrad Heresbach, a learned 
 German, published his four books of hus- 
 bandry, which were translated by Googe : 
 he there mentions the several descriptions 
 of manure employed in his days. His book 
 is a strange mixture of good sense and su- 
 perstition. He speaks of the dung of poultry 
 and pigeons with much approbation ; but 
 reprobates the use of that of geese and 
 ducks. Human faeces, he says, when mixed 
 f f 4 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 with rubbish, is good ; but, by itself, is too 
 hot. Urine he commends highly for apple 
 trees and vines. Of the dung of animals, 
 he mentions that of the ass as first in order 
 for fertilising effects; then that of sheep, 
 goats, oxen, horses ; lastly, swine, " very 
 hurtful to corne, but used in some places 
 for gardens." Green manure was used in 
 his days. " Where they have no store of 
 cattle, they use to mend their ground with 
 straw, fern, and the stalks of lupines, and 
 the branches, laid together in some ditch. 
 Hereunto you may cast ashes, the filth of 
 sinks and privies, &c." And again he says, 
 " The weeds growing about willow trees and 
 fern, &c. you may gather and lay under 
 your sheep." He speaks of the practice of 
 placing turfs and heath clods in heaps, with 
 dung ; much in the same way as Lord 
 Meadowbank has advised with peat. He j 
 also advises the placing of the same turf 
 parings in sheep-folds. " This is also to be 
 noted," says our author, "that the doung 
 that hath lyen a yeere is best for corne, for 
 it both is of sufficient strength and breedeth 
 less weedes ; but, upon meadowe and pas- 
 ture you must laye the newest, because it 
 brings most grasse, in Februarie, the moone 
 increasing, for that is the best time to cause 
 increase of grasse." When, however, the 
 manure is applied for corn lands, "looke 
 that the winde be westerly, and the moone 
 in the wane." 
 
 The manure commonly furnished by the 
 farm-yard is compounded of a mixture of 
 animal and vegetable substances, of the 
 putrefying straw of various descriptions of 
 grain, mixed with the excrements and urine 
 of cattle, horses, and swine. The mixture 
 forms no new substance, neither does the 
 putrefaction which ensues add to the bulk 
 of the dung; on the contrary, it causes a 
 considerable loss of weight. Neither is 
 the manure produced equal to the amount 
 of food the stock consume. " If," says Dr. 
 Sprengel " we weigh the dry food given 
 the cattle to eat, and also dry and weigh 
 the resulting excrements, we shall find 
 the weight of the latter considerably less 
 than that of the former. Block, who has 
 lately made a great number of experi- 
 ments on this circumstance, found that 100 
 lbs. of rye straw yielded only 43 lbs. of 
 dried excrement (liquid and solid), while 
 100 lbs. of hay gave 44 lbs. Food which 
 contains many watery parts furnished, as 
 may be naturally supposed, a still smaller 
 proportion. Thus, for instance, 100 lbs. of 
 potatoes gave only 14 lbs. ; 100 lbs. of man- 
 gol-wurzel 6 lbs., and 100 lbs. of green 
 clover, <) | lbs. of excrement." (Transl. by 
 Mr. Hudson, Jour. It.Ag. Socvo\.\\.l[).4C)0') 
 
 It will assist us very materially in our 
 440 7 
 
 examinations of various modes of preparing 
 and applying manure, if we first examine 
 its chemical composition ; and for that pur- 
 pose T will give the analysis of straw and 
 the faeces and urine of animals. 
 
 1000 parts of dry wheat straw being burnt, 
 yielded M. Saussure 48 parts of ashes ; the 
 same quantity of the dry straw of barley 
 yielded 42 parts of ashes. The portion dis- 
 sipated by the fire would be principally 
 carbon (charcoal), carburetted hydrogen 
 gas, and water : 100 parts of these ashes 
 are composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Various soluble salts, principally car- 
 bonate and sulphate of potash - 22^ 
 Phosphate of lime (earthy salt of bones) 6£ 
 Chalk (carbonate of lime) - - 1 
 Silica (flint) - - - - 61 £ 
 Metallic oxide (principally iron) - 1 
 Loss - - - - 7 1 
 
 . 100 
 
 The straw of barley contains the same 
 ingredients, only in rather different propor- 
 tions. 
 
 The fresh urine of the cow has been 
 analysed by Mr. Brande ; he found in 100 
 parts the following ingredients : — 
 
 Parts. 
 65 
 3 
 15 
 6 
 4 
 4 
 3 
 
 Water - - - 
 
 Phosphate of lime - 
 Muriate of potash, muriate of magnesia - 
 Sulphate of potash 
 
 Carbonate of potash, carbonate of ammonia 
 
 Urea - - - - 
 
 Loss - - .- - 
 
 100 
 
 The urine of cattle, after it had been 
 putrefying for a month, was analysed by 
 Dr. Sprengel, and found to contain the fol- 
 lowing ingredients •: — 
 
 Water 
 
 Urea, and resinous matter 
 Mucus 
 Benzoic acid 
 Lactic acid 
 Acetic acid 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 Parts by weight. 
 - 95*442 
 
 •04 
 
 "j Combined with f - -25 
 
 I potash, soda,J - *5 
 
 | and ammonia, 1 - *001 
 
 J forming salts |_ - *165 
 
 Ammonia partly uncombined - 'A87 
 
 Potash - - - -664 
 
 Soda - -554 
 
 Sulphuric acid - -338 
 
 Phosphoric acid - - *026 
 
 Chlorine - "272 
 
 Lime - '002 
 
 Magnesia - -022 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen - - '001 
 
 Silica .... -005 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - -001 
 
 Sediment (phosphate and carbonate of 
 
 lime, and magnesia, alumina, &c.) - *18 
 
 (Jour. Boij. A<jr. Soc. vol. vi. p. 467.) 10Q-Q00 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE 
 
 According to Block, 100 lbs. of chopped 
 rve straw, given as fodder to horses, 
 yield 42 lbs. ; 100 lbs. of hay, 45 lbs. ; 
 100 lbs. of oats, 51 lbs.; 100 lbs. of rye, 
 53 lbs. of dried excrements (fluid and solid). 
 The solid excrements of horses fed on hay, 
 oats, and straw, contain, according to the 
 analysis of M. Zierl, in 1000 parts — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - - - - - 698 
 
 Picromel and salts - - - 20 
 
 Bilious and extractive matter - 17 
 Green matter, albumen, mucus, &c. - 63 
 Vegetable fibre, and remains of food - 202 
 
 1000 
 
 These, when burnt, yielded to the same 
 chemist 60 parts by weight of ashes, which 
 were composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda 5 
 Carbonate and phosphate of lime - 9 
 Silica 46 
 
 (Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 489.) 60 
 
 1000 parts of the urine of the horse con- 
 tain, according to the analysis of MM. 
 Fourcroy and Vauquelin (Thomson's Chem. 
 
 vol. iv. p. 348.) — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - - 11 
 
 Carbonate of soda - - 9 
 
 Benzoate of soda - - 24 
 
 Muriate of potash - - 9 
 
 Urea - - - 7 
 
 Water and mucilage - - - 940 
 
 1000 
 
 The faeces of cattle fed principally on 
 turnips have been analysed by M. Einhof. 
 100 parts evaporated to dryness yielded 
 28|- parts of solid matter ; the 7l| parts 
 lost in drying would consist principally of 
 water and some ammoniacal salts. In half 
 a pound, or 3840 grains, he found 45 grains 
 of sand ; and by diffusing it through water 
 he obtained about 600 grains of a yellow 
 fibrous matter, resembling that of plants, 
 mixed with a very considerable quantity of 
 slimy matter. By evaporating the faeces to 
 dryness, and then burning them, he obtained 
 an ash which contained, besides the sand, 
 
 the following substances : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lime - - - 12 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 12 -5 
 
 Magnesia - 2 
 
 Iron - - - - 5 
 
 Alumina, with some manganese - 14 
 
 Silica - - - - 52 
 
 Muriate and sulphate of potash - 1'2 
 441 
 
 The ingredients of which the urine and 
 fasces of cattle are composed will, of course, 
 differ slightly in different animals of the 
 same kind, and according to the different 
 food upon which they are fed ; but this dif- 
 ference will not in any case be found very 
 material. 
 
 The excrements of the sheep have been 
 examined by Block : according to him, every 
 100 lbs. of rye-straw given as fodder to 
 sheep yield 40 lbs. of excrements (fluid and 
 solid) ; from 100 lbs. of hay, 42 lbs. ; from 
 100 lbs. of potatoes, 13 lbs. ; from 100 lbs. 
 of green clover, 8£ lbs. ; and from 100 lbs. 
 of oats, 49 lbs. of dry excrement. The 
 solid excrements of sheep fed on hay were 
 examined by Zierl : 1000 parts by weight, 
 being burnt, yielded 96 parts of ashes, 
 which were found to consist of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda 16 
 Carbonate and phosphate of lime - 20 
 
 Silica - - - - 60 
 
 96 
 
 100 parts of the urine of sheep kept 
 at grass contained — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - - - - 96- 
 
 Urea, albumen, &c. - • - 2*8 
 
 Salts of potash, soda, lime, and mag- 
 nesia, &c. - - -1*2 
 
 {Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 482.) 100*0 
 
 The urine of the pig has been examined 
 by Dr. Sprengel (ibid. p. 492.) : he found in 
 100 parts of that of the animal fed on corn 
 offal — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - - - - 92 6 
 
 Urea, mucus, albumen, &c. - 5*64 
 
 Common salt, muriate of potash, gyp- 
 sum, chalk, and glauber salt - 1'76 
 
 100.00 
 
 Such are the principal constituents of the 
 manure from a farm-yard ; but of these, 
 most of the soluble salts are usually washed 
 away by the rain, or are suffered to drain 
 away into ditches, while a considerable 
 quantity of the salts of ammonia and some 
 of the carbon are commonly lost by being 
 either over-heated, or by being allowed to 
 remain too long in a putrefying state. 
 
 Farm-yard manure has a very consider- 
 able attraction for the moisture of the at- 
 mosphere : some experiments to ascertain 
 its extent I have given under the head 
 Manure. 
 
 There have been many arguments and 
 much difference of opinion among cultiva- 
 tors, with regard to the advantages of em- 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 ploying dung in a fresh or in a putrid state ; 
 and, as is too often the case, both parties 
 have run into extremes, the one side con- 
 tending for the propriety of employing it 
 quite fresh from the farm-yard, the other 
 contending that it cannot well be too rotten. 
 The mode employed by Lord Leicester is 
 the medium between these equally erroneous 
 extremes. He found that the employment of 
 the fresh dung certainly rnade the dung go 
 much farther ; but then a multitude of the 
 seeds of various weeds were carried on to 
 the land along with the manure. He has, 
 therefore, since used his compost when only 
 in a half putrefied state (called short dung 
 by farmers); and hence the seeds are de- 
 stroyed by the effects of the putrefaction, 
 and the dung still extends much farther 
 than if suffered to remain until quite pu- 
 trefied. 
 
 Putrefaction cannot go on without the 
 presence of moisture. Where water is entirely 
 absent there can be no putrefaction ; and 
 hence many farmers have adopted the prac- 
 tice of pumping the drainage of their farm- 
 yards over their dung heaps ; others inva- 
 riably place them in low damp situations. 
 This liquid portion cannot be too highly 
 valued by the cultivator. The soil where 
 a dunghill has lain in a field is always dis- 
 tinguished by a rank luxuriance in the 
 succeeding crop, even if the earth beneath, 
 to the depth of six inches, is removed and 
 spread with the dunghill. 
 
 The controversy, too, which once so keenly 
 existed, as to the state of fermentation in 
 which dung should be used on the land, has 
 now pretty well subsided. There is no 
 doubt but that it cannot be applied more 
 advantageously than in as fresh a state as 
 possible, consistent with the attainment of 
 a tolerably clean husbandry, and the de- 
 struction of the seeds of weeds, grubs, &c, 
 which are always more or less present in 
 farm-yard dung. These are the only evils 
 to be apprehended from the desirable em- 
 ployment of this manure in the freshest 
 state ; for otherwise the loss of its most 
 valuable constituents commences as soon as 
 ever fermentation begins. This was long 
 since demonstrated by Davy, whose experi- 
 ments I have often seen repeated and varied. 
 He says, " I filled a large retort, capable of 
 containing three pints of water, with some 
 hot fermenting manure, consisting princi- i 
 pally of the litter and dung of cattle; I 
 adapted a small receiver to the retort, and 
 connected the whole with a mercurial pneu- 
 matic apparatus, so as to collect the con- 
 densible and elastic fluids which might arise 
 from the dung. The receiver soon became 
 lined with dew, and drops began, in, a few 
 hours, f<> trickle down the sides of it. Elastic 
 442 
 
 1 fluid likewise was generated; in three days 
 thirty-five cubical inches had been formed, 
 which, when analysed, were found to contain 
 twenty-one cubical inches of carbonic acid ; 
 the remainder was hydrocarbonate, mixed 
 with some azote, probably no more than ex- 
 isted in the common air in the receiver. The 
 fluid matter collected in the receiver at the 
 same time amounted to nearly half an ounce. 
 It had a saline taste, and a disagreeable 
 smell, and contained some acetate and car- 
 bonate of ammonia. Finding such products 
 given off from fermenting litter, I introduced 
 the beak of another retort, filled with similar 
 dung very hot at the time, in the soil amongst 
 the roots of some grass in the border of a gar- 
 den ; in less than a week a very disagreeable 
 effect was produced on the grass : upon the 
 spot exposed to the influence of the matter 
 disengaged in fermentation it grew with 
 much more luxuriance than the grass in any 
 other part of the garden." (Lectures, p. 204.) 
 
 Nothing, indeed, appears at first sight so 
 simple as the manufacture and collection of 
 farm-yard dung ; and yet there are endless 
 sources of error into which the cultivator is 
 sure to fall, if he is not ever vigilant in their 
 management. The late Mr. Francis Blakie, 
 in his valuable tract upon the management 
 of farm-yard manure, dwells upon several of 
 these ; he particularly condemns the practice 
 " of keeping the dung arising from different 
 descriptions of animals in separate heaps or 
 departments, and applying them to the land 
 without intermixture. It is customary," he 
 adds, " to keep the fattening neat cattle in 
 yards by themselves ; and the manure thus 
 produced is of good quality, because the 
 excrement of such cattle is richer than that 
 of lean ones. Fattening cattle are fed with 
 oil-cake, corn, Swedish turnips, or some 
 other rich food ; and the refuse and waste of 
 such food thrown about the yard increases 
 the value of the manure : it also attracts the 
 pigs to the yard. These rout the straw and 
 dung about, in search of grains of corn, bits 
 of Swedish turnips, and other food ; by which 
 means the manure in the yard becomes more 
 intimately mixed, and is proportionally 
 increase I in value. The feeding troughs and 
 cribs in the yard should, for obvious reasons, 
 be shifted frequently." 
 
 " The horse dung," continues Blakie, " is 
 usually thrown out at the stable doors, and 
 there accumulates in large heaps. It is 
 sometimes spread a little about, but more 
 generally not at all, unless where necessary 
 for the convenience of ingress and egress, 
 or perhaps to allow the water to drain away 
 from the stable door. Horse dung, lying in 
 such heaps, very soon ferments, and heats 
 to an excess ; the centre of the heap is 
 chari ed or burned to a dry white substance, 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 provincially termed fire-fanged. Dung in | 
 this state loses from 50 to 75 per cent, of its ! 
 value. The diligent and attentive farmer i 
 will guard against such profligate waste of 
 property, by never allowing the dung to 
 accumulate in any considerable quantity at 
 the stable doors. The dung from the feeding 
 hog sties should also be carted and spread 
 about the store cattle yard, in the same ! 
 manner as the horse dung. (Blakie on 
 Farm-yard Dung, p. 6.) There is no doubt 
 of the superior fertilising effects of horse- 
 dung. In an experiment with beans, in 
 which six acres were manured with horse- 
 dung, and nine with that from a cow-yard, 
 the six yielded more beans than the nine. 
 (Agr. Rep. of Essex, vol. ii. p. 280.) The 
 same observation was made in Lincolnshire. 
 (Sinclair's Agr., p. 214.) The heat pro- 
 duced by the fermentation of the dung of 
 different animals has been made the subject 
 of repeated experiment. When the tem- 
 perature of the air was 40°, that of 
 
 Common farm-yard dung was - 70° 
 A mixture of lime, dung, and earth - 55° i 
 — swine and fowls' dung 85° 
 
 (Farmer s Magazine, vol. x. iv. p 160.) 
 
 The cultivator will readily allow the ad- 
 vantages of the plan thus recommended by 
 Mr. Blakie ; and the student must see from 
 the following experiments, that the dung of 
 different animals differs very much in their 
 fertilising powers. 
 
 The subjoined table contains the results 
 of the experiments made with three dif- 
 ferent manures on the growth of potatoes, 
 by Mr. Oliver, of Mid Lothian; the cow and 
 horse dung were recently made ; the potatoes 
 were of the description called Pinkeyes, and 
 forty loads of about eighteen cwt. per acre 
 were employed of each manure. (Ency. 
 Metrop. vol. vi. p. 61.) 
 
 Distance 
 between 
 Rows. 
 
 Kind of 
 Manures 
 used. 
 
 Produce 
 per Acre- 
 
 Value 
 perBoll. 
 
 Value per 
 Acre. 
 
 Cost of 
 produc 
 tion. 
 
 
 Price of 
 Manure 
 pevCart. 
 
 
 
 B.F.P.L. 
 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 42 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 16 16 0 
 
 25 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 0 
 
 -1 
 
 Horse 
 
 47 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 18 17 6 
 
 23 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 Street 
 
 420 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 16 16 0 
 
 24 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 60 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 24 0 0 
 
 24 8 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 ■J 
 
 Horse 
 
 51 2 8 0 
 
 8 
 
 23 0 0 
 
 22 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 Street 
 
 45 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 18 0 0 
 
 23 8 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 60 I 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 24 2 0 
 
 22 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 -J 
 
 Horse 
 
 61 0 3 0 
 
 8 
 
 24 9 6 
 
 24 0 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 
 Street 
 
 39 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 15 12 0 
 
 23 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 66 2 2 0 
 
 8 
 
 26 13 0 
 
 23 13 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 30 \ 
 
 Horse 
 
 66 2 2 0 
 
 8 
 
 26 13 6 
 
 21 13 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 Street 
 
 463 2 0 
 
 8 
 
 18 15 0 
 
 22 13 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 63 0 3 0 
 
 8 
 
 25 5 6 
 
 23 10 
 
 0 
 
 4 0 
 
 3G^ 
 
 Horse 
 
 67 2 2 I 
 
 8 
 
 27 0 71 
 
 21 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 0 
 
 
 Street 
 
 47 0 0 0 
 
 8 
 
 !l8 16 0 
 
 22 10 
 
 0 
 
 3 6 
 
 Malcolm (Com. of Mod. Hush. vol. ii. 
 
 E. 19.5 see a l so Brit. Hush. vol. i. p. 260.) 
 as given an estimate of the number of cubic 
 yards or tons of farm-yard compost neces- 
 sary for various soils per acre, which is as 
 follows : — 
 
 443 
 
 On strong Land. 
 
 Loams. 
 
 Gravels. 
 
 Chalks. 
 
 •Sands. 
 
 For Wheat 30 
 
 20 to 25 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Barley 25 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 Turnips 30 
 
 20 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Clover 15 to 20 
 
 15 
 
 20 
 
 16 
 
 1G 
 
 Sainfoin — 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 Pasture 15 to 20 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 1G 
 
 Some experiments of Mr. Wright, made 
 upon plots of ground of equal size, indicate 
 the number of stems of barley produced by 
 various fertilisers : each plot was dibbled 
 with 60 corns of barley. (Agr. Mag. vol. i. 
 p. 328.) 
 
 No. 
 
 
 
 No. of 
 
 
 
 Items. 
 
 1. 
 
 No manure - 
 
 - 159 
 
 2. 
 
 Manured 
 
 with 5 tons of Cow dung per acre 
 
 - 167 
 
 3. 
 
 
 — Horse do. — 
 
 - 22G 
 
 4. 
 
 
 — Pig do. — 
 
 - 233 
 
 5. 
 
 
 — Sheep do. — 
 
 - 244 
 
 6. 
 
 
 80 bush. Coal ashes — 
 
 - 233 
 
 7. 
 
 
 — Wood do. — 
 
 - 211 
 
 8. 
 
 
 — Goose dung — 
 
 - 185 
 
 9. 
 
 
 — Hen do. — 
 
 - 303 
 
 10. 
 
 
 — Duck do. " — 
 
 - 282 
 
 With regard to the form of dung yards, 
 there is some little difference of opinion. 
 " Some theorists," says Blakie, " recom- 
 mend the yards to be made so concave, as 
 almost to amount to a well-shape, giving 
 as a reason, in support of their opinion, 
 that the virtues of dung can only be pre- 
 served by being saturated in urine, or some 
 other moisture. Others again assert that 
 dung yards should be formed convex, and 
 assign as their reason, that farm-yard dung 
 should be kept dry. Practical experience 
 points out that a medium between those 
 two extremes is the best; and a yard a 
 little hollowed is the most common shape. 
 ( On Farm-yard Manure, p. 7.) 
 
 I will here introduce the description re- 
 commended by Mr. Blakie, of the best mode 
 of forming dung heaps or pies in turnip 
 fields, so as to prevent, as much as possible, 
 the waste of gaseous matters, during the 
 fermentation of the manure. " When," 
 said this intelligent agriculturist, "it is 
 found necessary to empty the dung yards 
 early in the season, I recommend that pre- 
 paration should be made in the usual way, 
 for the reception of the dung heaps in the 
 intended turnip fields, by collecting large 
 heaps of clay marl, or such other materials. 
 The bottoms for the heaps should not, how- 
 ever, be laid above six or eight inches thick 
 of the earthy material, and a good quantity 
 of it should be placed in rows on each side 
 of the bottoms marked out ; the dung 
 should then be drawn out of the yards, and 
 placed upon the bottoms, but not in the 
 usual way of throwing it up loosely, to 
 cause fermentation; on the contrary, by 
 drawing the carts, with their loads upon 
 the heaps, for the purpose of compressing the 
 dung, and thereby retarding fermentation. 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 One or two men should remain constantly at 
 the heaps, while the teams are at work, on 
 purpose to spread and level the dung re- 
 gularly, so as to render the ascent easy for 
 the succeeding teams, as they come with 
 their loads. If the dung has not been pre- 
 viously mixed in the yards, it should be so 
 in drawing to the heaps, by taking up a few 
 loads from one yard, and then a few from 
 another, alternately; and even from the 
 same yard, the loads of dung should be 
 taken from different parts alternately ; for 
 the dung is not of equal quality, nor made 
 with the same regularity, in all parts of the 
 yard. 
 
 " The coal ashes, road scrapings, and all 
 other collections of manure about the farm- 
 house, should also be carried to these dung 
 heaps ; and when the heaps are raised as 
 high as convenient for the horses to draw 
 up, several loads should be shot up at the 
 ends of the heaps, for the purpose of making 
 them up to the square of the centre ; the 
 whole heaps should then be completely 
 covered with the marl and clay, or soil pre- 
 viously collected in rows by the sides of the 
 heaps, so as effectually to enclose the dung 
 heaps in crusts, and they are thenceforth de- 
 nominated pies. In these, the dung will be 
 preserved in a very perfect state, with little 
 or no fermentation, and without loss by ex- 
 halation or evaporation. The pies, within 
 ten days or a fortnight of the time the com- 
 post is wanted for the turnip ground, should 
 be turned carefully over, and the crust, top, 
 bottom, and sides, intimately mixed up with 
 the dung. When the turning is completed, 
 with the natural soil around the heaps, 
 again coat the heaps all over ; the pies will 
 then undergo a gentle fermentation ; the 
 earth, intermixed with and covering the 
 dung, will absorb the juices and gaseous 
 matters produced, and the compost come 
 out in a fine state of preparation for using 
 on the turnip lands. When the dung is 
 taken out of the yards late in the spring, or 
 only a short time before it is required for 
 the turnip ground, the preparation should be 
 somewhat different, because of the compost 
 heaps having less time to incorporate. Thus 
 the dung should not be carted upon the 
 heaps to compress them, and prevent fer- 
 mentation, as in winter. On the contrary, 
 the dung should be thrown up lightly with 
 the fork upon the bottoms, and the side 
 heaps of earth mixed intimately along with 
 the dung. Turf turned up for a year pre- 
 ceding on wastes by the sides of roads 
 makes excellent pie meat." 
 
 The temperature of the dung heap is a 
 pretty sure criterion of the state of its fer- 
 mentation ; if a thermometer, plunged into 
 it, does not rise above 100°, there is little 
 444 
 
 danger of too much gaseous matter being 
 lost. If the temperature is higher, means 
 should be taken to check the fermentation ; 
 and the same overheating may be regarded 
 as going on, if, when a piece of paper 
 moistened with muriatic acid is held over a 
 dunghill, dense fumes appear, for then 
 ammonia is disengaging. {Davy, p. 307.) 
 With skilful management, and under ordi- 
 nary circumstances, one ton of dry straw 
 is found to produce three tons of manure ; 
 so that, as the common weight of straw per 
 acre is about one ton and a half, the straw 
 grown upon that extent of land should 
 yield about four tons and a half of compost. 
 The quantity of manure produced by stock 
 necessarily varies with the quantity and 
 quality of the food upon which the animals 
 are fed. In an experiment made at the 
 Cavalry Depot, at Maidstone, a horse con- 
 sumed in a week — 
 
 'Lbs. 
 
 Oats - - - 70 
 
 Hay - - - 84 
 
 Straw - - - 56 
 
 210 
 
 He drank, within this time, 27 gallons of 
 water. The weight of the dung and litter 
 produced was 327£ lbs. 
 
 In another experiment, on a large-sized 
 Yorkshire milch cow, she consumed in 
 24 hours — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Brewers' grains - - 81 
 
 Raw potatoes - - 30 
 
 Meadow hay - - - 15 
 
 126 
 
 And during this period she drank two 
 pailfnls of water. The urine was allowed 
 to escape. She had no litter of any kind. 
 The weight of the solid dung she produced, 
 was 45 lbs. When fed, on another day, 
 with 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Raw potatoes - - 170 
 
 Hay ■ - - 28 
 
 198 
 
 she produced, under the same circumstances, 
 73 lbs. of solid manure. {British Husbandry, 
 vol. i. p. 255.) Taking, therefore, the 
 average produce to be equal to 60 lbs. per 
 day, it follows that a cow will make about 
 9 tons of solid dung in the course of the 
 year. 
 
 The quality of farm-yard compost natu- 
 rally varies with the food of the animals by 
 which it is made : that from the cattle of 
 the straw -yard is decidedly the poorest — 
 that from those fed on oil-cake, corn, or 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 Swedes, the richest. Of stable-dung, that 
 from corn-fed horses is most powerful — 
 from those subsisting on straw and hay, the 
 poorest ; the difference between the fer- 
 tilising effects of the richest and the inferior 
 farm-yard dung is much greater than is 
 commonly believed — in many instances the 
 disparity exceeds one half; thus, that pro- 
 duced by cattle fed upon oil-cake is fully 
 equal in value to double the quantity fed 
 upon turnips. My friend, Mr. Hewitt 
 Davis, of Spring Park, near Croydon, an 
 excellent scientific practical farmer, had oc- 
 casion to notice this in an experiment which 
 commenced in 1834. In that year, on half 
 of a field of turnips fed off with sheep he 
 gave them oil-cake ; on the other half they 
 fed only on the turnips. The succeeding 
 crops were all distinguished by their su- 
 periority on the half of the field where the 
 sheep had oil-cake; and in 1838, when the 
 field had again a crop of turnips, the half of 
 the field, on which four years previously 
 the sheep were fed with oil-cake, had by far 
 a better crop of turnips than that which had 
 been manured in common with the rest of 
 the field and fed off in the ordinary manner. 
 And as the food consumed so materially 
 influences the quality of the manure, it fol- 
 lows, as a natural consequence, that that 
 made in summer by the clover, grass, and 
 tare-fed stock is much superior to that pro- 
 duced during the winter months by the 
 store-fed cattle of the straw-yard, which is 
 usually still further impoverished by the 
 rains and snows. Hence, too, the superior 
 richness of the manure of fatting swine to 
 those of pigs in a lean state, and the far su- 
 perior strength of night soil to any manure 
 produced from merely vegetable food. Che- 
 mical examinations are hardly necessary to 
 prove these facts. Every farmer who has 
 had stall-fed cattle will testify to their truth 
 — every cultivator will readily acknowledge 
 the superiority of "town-made," that is, 
 corn-produced stable-dung, to that from 
 horses fed only on hay and straw, and that 
 night soil is far superior in " strength " to 
 either. The relative quantities employed 
 by the cultivator betray the same fact ; for 
 on the soils where he applies twenty loads 
 of good farm-yard compost per acre, he 
 spreads not half that quantity of night soil. 
 Mr. Dixon, whose observations I have 
 quoted at some length in this paper, deems 
 "six tons of night-soil in compost with 
 peat amply sufficient for an acre." Mr. H. 
 Davis is of the same opinion. It is not, as 
 the farmer is well aware, the mere straw of 
 the farm -yard manure which influences its 
 fertilising quality, but the excrements with 
 which that straw is mixed. Thus other 
 substances, when thoroughly saturated with 
 445 
 
 the stercoraceous matters of cattle, are found 
 to be just as fertilising as straw : saw-dust, 
 peat, tanners' bark, or turf, are as service- 
 able in this respect as the best straw. 
 Arthur Young found this to be the case 
 when turf was employed mixed with urine. 
 (Annals of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 652. — 
 Ibid. vol. iii. p. 67 — 79.) Lord Meadow- 
 bank, Mr. Dixon, and others, have suc- 
 cessfully employed peat in a similar way 
 (English Agric. Soc. Journ. vol. i. p. 138.), 
 and the latter agriculturist often makes his 
 excellent compost-heaps of merely peat and 
 urine. The liquid or soluble portion of 
 farm-yard manure constitutes, in fact, its 
 richest portion. Of the powerful effect 
 produced, by the urine of cattle and other 
 liquid fertilisers, I shall have hereafter oc- 
 casion to speak, when treating on liquid 
 manure. 
 
 It is usual for the farmer, although not 
 so common a practice as is desirable, to in- 
 crease the bulk, if not the quality, of his 
 dung-heaps, by adding to them various other 
 substances : thus, as to enlarging them, by 
 adding to that of the farm-yard, peat-moss, 
 the late Lord Meadowbank made many 
 experiments with success ; and his directions 
 are of a very simple and easily followed 
 description. " Let the peat-moss," he says, 
 " be thrown out of the pit for some weeks 
 or months, in order to lose its redundant 
 moisture. By this means it is rendered the 
 lighter to carry, and less compact and 
 heavy, when made up with fresh dung for 
 fermentation ; and accordingly less dung is 
 required for this purpose than if the pre- 
 paration is made with peat taken recently 
 from the pit ; the peat taken from near the 
 surface or at a considerable depth answers 
 equally well. Take the peat-moss to a dry 
 spot convenient for constructing a dunghill, 
 to serve the field to be manured ; lay the 
 cart-loads of it in two rows, and of the dung- 
 in a row between them. The dung thus 
 lies nearly on an area of the future com- 
 post dunghill, and the rows of peat should 
 be near enough each other, that workmen, 
 in making up the compost, may be able to 
 throw them together by the spade. In 
 making up, let the workmen begin at one 
 end, and at the extremity of the row of 
 dung (which should not extend quite so 
 far at that end as the rows of peat on each 
 side of it do), let them lay a bottom of peat 
 six inches deep and fifteen feet wide, if the 
 ground admits of it; then throw forward 
 and lay on about ten inches of dung above 
 the bottom of peat, then add from the side- 
 rows about six inches of peat, then four or 
 five of dung, and then six more of peat; 
 then another thin layer of dung, and then 
 cover it over with peat at the end where ii 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 was begun, and at the two sides. The 
 compost should not be raised above four 
 feet or four feet and a half high, otherwise 
 it is apt to press too heavily on the under 
 parts, and check the fermentation ; when a 
 beginning is thus made, the workmen will 
 proceed working backwards, and adding to 
 the column of compost, as they are furnished 
 with the three rows of materials directed to 
 be laid down for them. They must take 
 care not to tread on the compost, or render 
 it too compact; and, of consequence, in pro- 
 portion as the peat is wet it should be 
 made up in lumps, and not much broken. 
 In mild weather, seven cart-loads of com- 
 mon farm dung, tolerably fresh made, is 
 sufficient for twenty-one cart-loads of peat- 
 moss ; but, in cold weather, a larger pro- 
 portion of dung is desirable. To every 
 twenty-eight cart-loads of the compost 
 when made up, it is of use to throw on 
 above it a cart-load of ashes, either made 
 from coal, peat, or wood ; or, if these can- 
 not be had, half the quantity of slacked 
 lime may be used, the more finely powdered 
 the better : but these additions are nowise 
 essential to the general success of the com- 
 post. The dung to be used should either 
 have been recently made or kept fresh by 
 compression, as by the treading of cattle or 
 swine, or by carts passing over it ; and if 
 there is little or no litter in it, a smaller 
 quantity will serve, provided any spongy 
 vegetable matter is added, at making up the 
 compost, as fresh weeds, the rubbish of a 
 stackyard, potato-shaves, sawings of tim- 
 ber, &c. ; and as some sorts of dung, even 
 when fresh, are much more advanced in 
 decomposition than others, it is material to 
 attend to this ; for a much less proportion 
 of such dung as is less advanced will serve 
 for the compost, provided care is taken to 
 keep the mass sufficiently open, either by a 
 mixture of the above-mentioned substances, 
 or, if these are wanting, by adding the peat 
 piecemeal ; that is, first making it up in 
 the usual proportion of three to one of 
 dung, and then adding, after a time, an 
 equal quantity more or less of moss. The 
 dung of this quality of greatest quantity is 
 shamble-dung, with which, under the above 
 precautions, six times the quantity of peat, 
 or more, may be prepared. The same 
 holds as to pigeons' dung and other fowl 
 dung, and to a certain extent, also, as to 
 that which is collected from towns, and 
 made by animals that feed on grains, refuse 
 of distilleries, &c. 
 
 " The compost, after it is made up, gets 
 into a general heat, sooner or later, accord- 
 ing to the weather and the condition of the 
 dung: in summer, in ten days or sooner; 
 in winter, not perhaps for many weeks if 
 44G 
 
 the cold is severe. It always, however, has 
 been found to come on at last; and in 
 summer it sometimes rises so high as to be 
 mischievous, by consuming the materials 
 (Fire-Fanging). In that season a stick 
 should be kept in it in different parts, to 
 pull out, and feel now and then ; for, if it 
 approaches to blood heat, it should either 
 be watered or turned over, and, on such an 
 occasion, advantage may be taken to mix it 
 with a little fresh moss. The heat subsides 
 after a time, and with great variety, ac- 
 cording to the weather, the dung, and the 
 perfection of the making up of the compost, 
 which then should be allowed to remain 
 untouched till within three weeks of using, 
 when it should be turned over upside down, 
 and outside in, and all lumps broken ; then 
 it comes into a second heat, but soon cools, 
 and should be taken out for use. In this 
 state the whole, except bits of the old de- 
 cayed wood, appears a black free mass, and 
 spreads like garden mould. Use it weight 
 for weight as farm-yard dung, and it will 
 be found in a course of cropping fully to 
 stand the comparison." After a long-con- 
 tinued observation and successful use of 
 peat, Mr. H. Davis is of opinion that peat, 
 in common with most organic manures, has 
 a strong tendency to rise to the surface of 
 all cultivated soils, thus following a rule 
 directly opposite to those of earthy fertil- 
 isers, which certainly descend into the land. 
 (Young's Annals, vol. xli. p. 247.) 
 
 Compost, if made up before January, has 
 hitherto been in good order for the spring- 
 crops ; but this may not happen in a long 
 frost. In summer, it is ready in eight or 
 ten weeks; and, if there is an anxiety to 
 have it soon prepared, the addition of ashes 
 or of a little lime rubbish of old buildings, 
 or of lime slackened with foul water, ap- 
 plied to the dung used in making up, will 
 quicken the process considerably. " Peat 
 prepared with lime alone has not been found 
 to answer as good manure ; in one instance, 
 viz. on a bit of fallow sown with wheat, it 
 was manifestly pernicious." (Edinburgh 
 Encyc. vol. i. p. 279.) The opinion of Lord 
 Meadowbank in favour of the use of peat 
 or saw-dust as a mixture with farm-yard 
 compost, has been recently confirmed by 
 Mr. Dixon, of Hathershaw, in Lancashire, 
 who, in his Prize Essay, thus describes the 
 result of his long experience (Journal of the 
 English Agric. Society, vol. i. p. 135.) : — 
 
 " My farm is a strong retentive soil, on a 
 substratum of ferruginous clay. My object 
 was to improve its texture at the least cost. 
 For this purpose we carted great quantities 
 of fine sawdust and peat-earth, or bog ; Ave 
 had so far to go for the latter, that two 
 horses would fetch little more than three 
 
FARM-YARD MANURE. 
 
 tons in one day; one horse would fetch 
 three cart-loads of sawdust in the same 
 time. Having brought great quantities of 
 both peat and sawdust into my farm-yard, 
 I laid out, for the bottom of a compost 
 heap, a space of considerable dimensions, 
 arid about three feet in depth ; three-fourths 
 of this bottom was peat, the rest sawdust ; 
 on this we conveyed, daily, the dung from 
 the cattle-sheds; the urine, also, is con- 
 ducted through channels tc wells for its 
 reception (one on each side of the compost 
 heap) ; common water is entirely prevented 
 from mixing with it. Every second day 
 the urine so collected is thrown over the 
 whole mass with a scoop, and at the same 
 time we regulate the accumulated dung. 
 This being continued for a week, another 
 layer, nine inches or a foot thick, of peat 
 and sawdust (and frequently peat without 
 sawdust) is wheeled on the accumulated 
 heap. These matters are continuously 
 added to each other during winter ; and in 
 addition, once in every week, never less 
 than 25 cwt., more frequently 50 cwt., of 
 night soil and urine : the latter are always 
 laid next above the peat or bog earth, as 
 we think it accelerates their decomposition. 
 It is, perhaps, proper here to state, that the 
 peat is dug and exposed to the alternations 
 of the weather for several months before it 
 is brought to the heap for admixture : by 
 this it loses much of its moisture. Some 
 years' experience has convinced me of the 
 impropriety of using recently dug peat : 
 used in the manner I recommend, it is 
 superior and more convenient on every ac- 
 count; very much lighter to cart to the 
 farm-yard, or any other situation where it 
 is wanted; and so convinced am I of its 
 utility in composts for every description of 
 soil, except that of its own character, that 
 wherever it can be laid down on a farm at 
 less than four shillings per ton, I should 
 recommend every agriculturist and horti- 
 culturist that can command it, even at the 
 cost here stated, to give it a fair trial. So 
 attractive and retentive of moisture is peat, 
 that if liberally applied to an arid, sandy 
 soil, that soil does not burn in a dry season, 
 and it so much improves the texture and 
 increases the produce of an obdurate clay 
 soil, if in other respects rightly cultivated, 
 that actual experience alone can fairly de- 
 termine its value. 
 
 " For the conveyance of night soil and 
 urine, we have the largest and strongest 
 casks, such as oils are imported in ; the top 
 of which is provided Avith a funnel to put 
 the matters through, and the casks are fixed 
 on wheels like those of a common dung- 
 cart. For the convenience of emptying 
 this carriage, the compost heaps are always 
 447 
 
 lower at one end ; the highest is where we 
 discharge the contents, in order that they 
 may, in some degree, spread themselves 
 over the whole accumulation. The situ- 
 ation on which the wheels of these carriages 
 stand, while being discharged, is raised con- 
 siderably ; this we find convenient, as the 
 compost heap may be sloped six or seven 
 feet high : low compost heaps, in my opinion, 
 should be avoided. The plan here recom- 
 mended I have carried on for some time. 
 I find no difficulty in manuring my farm 
 over once in two years; by this repetition 
 I keep up the fertility of my land, and it 
 never requires more than a moderate ap- 
 plication of manure. 
 
 " I am fully aware that there are many 
 localities where neither peat nor night soil 
 can be readily obtained ; but it is worth a 
 farmer's while to go even more than twenty 
 miles for the latter substance, provided he 
 can have it without deterioration : the 
 original cost is often trifling. On a farm 
 where turnips or mangel are cultivated to 
 some extent, the system here recommended 
 will be almost incalculably advantageous. 
 A single horse is sufficient for one carriage ; 
 mine hold upwards of a ton each ; six tons 
 of this manure in compost with peat, or, if 
 that is not convenient, any other matters, 
 such as ditch scourings, or high headlands 
 which have been properly prepared and 
 laid dry in a heap for some time, would be 
 amply sufficient for an acre of turnips or 
 mangel. This manure is by far the most 
 invigorating of any I have ever yet tried ; 
 bones in any state will bear no comparison 
 to it for any crop ; but it must be remem- 
 bered that I write on the supposition that 
 it has not been reduced in strength before 
 it is fetched. 
 
 " Convenience frequently suggests that 
 compost heaps should be raised on different 
 parts of a farm; but, unless in particular 
 instances, it is well to have them in the 
 yard. In the farm-yard, all the urine from 
 the cattle-stalls may be employed with the 
 greatest economy; and, be it remarked, 
 that the urine from animals, in given weights, 
 is more powerful than their solid excrements. 
 How important, then, must it not be to the 
 farmer to make the most extensive and the 
 most careful use of this liquid ! It is some- 
 times carted on the land ; but that practice 
 will not bear a comparison with making it 
 into composts in the manner here recom- 
 mended. Great waste is often made in 
 putrescent manures after they are carted 
 on the land ; instead of being immediately 
 covered or incorporated with the soil, we 
 not unfrequently see them exposed for days 
 together in the hot rays of a scorching sun, 
 or to the injurious influences of a dry wind. 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 I have before stated that compost heaps 
 should, on many considerations, be raised 
 in the farm-yard; still, circumstances are 
 frequently such, that it is more proper to 
 make them at some distance in the fields. 
 If a headland becomes too high by frequent 
 ploughings or working of the land, in that 
 case it should be ploughed at the time when 
 clover or mixed grass seeds are sown with 
 a white crop ; for instance, barley or oats, 
 and clover for the year following : a head- 
 land might then be ploughed, and a number 
 of cart-loads of some manure heaped from 
 one end to the other. Immediately after 
 this it should be trenched with the spade 
 (or what is sometimes called digging), and 
 ridged high, in order that an action may 
 take place between the soil and manure ; 
 by this means the mass would soon be in a 
 condition for turning over, and any ditch 
 scourings, or other matters which had not 
 in the first instance been used, might now 
 be added to the mixture. The heap should 
 then be allowed to remain closed for a few 
 weeks, then turned over again; at this 
 turning, in all probability, the mass would 
 be much reduced; and if so, raise the 
 ridge of compost well on both sides ; but, 
 instead of its top being pointed, make a 
 trench or cavity on the top from one end 
 of the heap to the other. This cavity 
 should be made tolerably retentive of 
 moisture, which may be effected by tread- 
 ing with the feet ; carriages of night soil, 
 or urine from the cattle-stalls, may then 
 be emptied into the trench, and the bulk 
 of the heap would determine how many 
 were required. This being done, a little 
 earth should be thrown into the trench, 
 and the heap allowed to remain in that 
 state until the middle or latter end of au- 
 tumn ; it will then be ready for another 
 turning ; but at this time care must be 
 taken to have the heap well made up at the 
 sides, and pointed at the top : in this situa- 
 tion rain will be thrown off, and the com- 
 post preserved dry until winter presents 
 some favourable opportunity for laying it 
 on the young clover, wheat, or any other 
 crop which may require it. 
 
 " In the year 1826," adds Mr. Dixon, 
 " my attention was first directed to raising 
 compost heaps from urine. This I now do 
 frequently, without the help of any dung 
 from the cattle-stalls. The same occasion 
 called my mind to another matter, well 
 worthy every farmer's attention. I allude 
 t<> the great superiority of the manure 
 raised in summer soiling, to that produced 
 in the stalls during winter." 
 
 "The strength and consequent value of all 
 cattle-dung," says Mr. Burke, in a note 
 upon this paper, "will of course depend 
 448 
 
 upon the nature of their food ; if soiled, 
 during the summer, upon clovers, tares, 
 sainfoin, &c, there can be no doubt that 
 the manure will have a proportionately 
 greater effect upon the land, than if the 
 beasts be kept in the straw -yard ; and if 
 stall-fed, either in winter or in summer, for 
 the purpose of fatting, it will be still better. 
 Thus, it was found, on comparing the effects 
 of dung voided by animals fed chiefly on 
 oil-cake with that of store-stock, twelve 
 loads of the former exceeded in superiority 
 of product twenty-four of the latter." (See 
 The Complete Grazier, 6th edit. p. 103.) 
 
 I verily believe the difference is fifty per 
 cent., unless stock are fed in a great mea- 
 sure, during winter, with artificial food. 
 In an arrangement for making compost 
 heaps from urine, I would recommend a 
 receptacle to be made at the back of the 
 cattle-stalls, just outside the building : this 
 should hold about twenty cart-loads of 
 mould, or any other matters to be em- 
 ployed ; if its situation were a little lower 
 than the cattle-sheds, all the urine would 
 pass into it, and remain there until the mass 
 is completely saturated, which will be suf- 
 ficient ; when the earthy matters are covered 
 over, the compost may then be thrown out, 
 and the proceeding again renewed. In order 
 to show part of the benefits of this practice, 
 I beg here to observe, that the most foul or 
 Aveedy mould may be used ; the action of the 
 urine, if not reduced by water, is so power- 
 ful, that wire-worms, the black slug, many 
 other destroying insects, and all vegetables, 
 weeds, &c, when in contact with the urine 
 for a time, are killed. The situation for 
 raising this compost should be protected 
 from the weather by a covering, similar to 
 a cart-shed ; indeed, the deteriorating in- 
 fluences of rain, sun, and arid winds, on all 
 putrescent manures or compost, are so se- 
 rious, that, in my humble judgment, it 
 would be worth while to have places under 
 cover where these are usually laid down. 
 The ordinary method of conveying manures 
 on land, admits of much improvement. 
 
 On the black hungry gravels of -Spring 
 Park, near Croydon in Surrey, peat has 
 been long and skilfully applied, with the 
 best success, by Mr. Hewitt Davis. The 
 peat on his farm is found resting in con- 
 siderable masses on a silicious stratum ; 
 he uses it both mixed with his farm-yard 
 compost, and also with lime; in the first 
 case, he has the peat previously dried ; in 
 the latter, the operation of the lime, ab- 
 sorbing the moisture of the peat as it slakes, 
 renders drying unnecessary; he finds the 
 lime and peat an admirable top dressing for 
 young clover. To the compost of the farm- 
 yard he adds about an equal bulk of peat : 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 he also burns a considerable quantity of 
 peat, and with the ashes top-dresses his 
 turnips with decided advantage ; it not 
 only promotes the growth of the crop, but 
 he thinks that the smell of the ashes is very 
 noxious to the turnip fly. There is no 
 doubt but that peat, when saturated with 
 urine, and in a state of gradual decomposi- 
 tion, is nourishing to plants. Mr. Davis has 
 noticed that when the land is manured with 
 the peat and farm-yard compost, the roots of 
 the turnips and tares will encircle the lumps 
 of peat, just as is the case when crushed bones 
 are employed. I am not aware of any farm 
 of similar extent (500 acres), where peat has 
 been more skilfully and successfully applied 
 than at Spring Park, under the manage- 
 ment of this able agriculturist. Peat, which 
 has thus been so successfully employed as 
 a manure in compost, is composed princi- 
 pally of the inert, long accumulating ve- 
 getable remains of either wood, moss, or 
 heath ; it abounds also with earthy and sa- 
 line matters ; those of Berkshire and Wilt- 
 shire contain from one fourth to one third 
 of their weight of gypsum ; their earthy 
 matters are always analogous to the stratum 
 of earth on which it reposes ; where that is 
 chalk, the peat abounds with calcareous 
 earth and gypsum, and but little alumina 
 or silica. " Different specimens of peat, 
 that I have burnt," says Davy, " from the 
 granitic and schistose soils of different parts 
 of these islands, have always given ashes 
 principally silicious and aluminous ; and a 
 specimen of peat from the county of Antrim 
 gave ashes which afforded very nearly the 
 same constituents as the great basaltic stra- 
 tum of the county." (Chemistry, p. 192.) 
 In those instances, where the farmer finds 
 such excellent results from dressing young 
 clover with a mixture of peat and compost, 
 as noticed by Mr. Dixon, with the Lanca- 
 shire peat, it may be reasonably concluded 
 to contain gypsum ; (Journ. Eng. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 138.) and, if it requires the ad- 
 dition of a portion of lime, before it is found 
 to promote very decidedly the growth of 
 clover, it then is very likely to be saturated 
 with sulphate of iron. 
 
 The too general neglect of peat as a mix- 
 ture with farm-yard dung is not owing to 
 its being a very modern discovery, for it 
 was publicly recommended in this country 
 nearly half a century since. " In Sweden, 
 as in other countries," says the Baron de 
 Sehulz, when writing to Sir John Sinclair 
 in 1796, " farmers have endeavoured to in- 
 crease the quantity of manure by mixtures 
 of all kinds of vegetables and soils, and by 
 collecting urine in cow-houses well adapted 
 for that purpose ; they likewise, in some 
 parts of the country, lay below their cattle 
 449 
 
 soil from the shores of the lakes, leaves, 
 moss, saw-dust, chopped alder, and pitch 
 fir, brushwood, reeds, and straw. They 
 often now place their dunghills ■ on a slope 
 instead of the former hollow, and by means 
 of pumps, water them with urine and 
 dung-water. Many farmers, however, still 
 prefer the fresh dung to that which is fer- 
 mented, and which they suppose has lost in 
 the process a great part of its vegetating 
 power." (Com. Board of Agr. b. 1. p. 326.) 
 
 On the sea-shore, it is usual for the 
 farmers to mix sea-weed with their dung ; 
 in Essex they mix it with chalk ; in Suffolk, 
 with a peculiar red shelly sand or marl ; 
 and in the west of England, with the calca- 
 reous sand of the sea-shore; a practice 
 which is thus described by Mr. Edward 
 Bennett : — 
 
 " The quantity of sand which a barge 
 usually contains is about ninety horse seams 
 of two and a half cwt. each ; the price varies 
 according to the distance it is carried up 
 the rivers Notter and Tamar, from eighteen 
 to twenty-five shillings, and three shillings 
 drinking money, or three gallons of cider. 
 It is dragged for in Plymouth sound in three 
 to six fathom water. In summer the barges 
 frequently run on the sand bank in Whitsand 
 Bay at two hours before low water ; when 
 the tide leaves them, they load, waiting for 
 the flood to bring them off. For arable 
 land, the sand is thought to be best mixed 
 with old earth, or manure collected in 
 roads ; but for pasture it is best mixed with 
 stable muck ; the proportion is two seams 
 of muck to one of sand ; a barge load thus 
 mixed is thought to be good manure for an 
 acre." {Annals of Agr. vol. xii. p. 35.) 
 
 Farm-yard dung is usually employed in 
 all experiments upon manures, as the basis 
 upon which comparative results are most 
 usually obtained ; and it is not often that 
 any substance can be found to exceed it in 
 fertilising effects. It was compared with 
 salt, lime, and oil cake, by Mr. George Sin- 
 clair, most of whose elaborate experiments 
 are given under the head Salt. In my own 
 experiments with potatoes in a light gra- 
 velly soil, I found that when the soil simply 
 produced 120 bushels per acre, that manured 
 with 20 tons of stable dung it yielded 219 
 bushels ; and with 20 bushels of salt onlv 
 1921 bushels. (My Essay on Salt, p. 84.) 
 In those of my brother, Mr. George John- 
 son, where 20 tons per acre of stable dung 
 produced 23 tons of carrots, 20 bushels of 
 salt applied to a similar space produced 18 
 tons (Ibid. p. 146.) ; and, with the same 
 proportions, when the salted soil produced 
 4^ tons of red beet-root, the spit manure 
 yielded 6£ tons. (Ibid. p. 149.) In those 
 of the Rev. E. Cartwright upon potatoes, 
 
 G G 
 
FARM- YARD MANURE. 
 
 when the soil simply produced 157 bushels 
 per acre, the same quantity of land when 
 dressed with 
 
 363 bushels of fresh dung yielded 192 bushels 
 
 30 
 60 
 60 
 363 
 363 
 363 
 
 soot — 192 
 
 wood ashes — 187 
 
 malt dust — 184 
 
 decayed leaves — 175 
 
 peat — 159 
 
 saw-dust — 155 
 
 (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 370.) 
 
 Some valuable experiments on farm-yard 
 dung, compared in various proportions with 
 other manures, applied to potatoes and oats, 
 were made by Arthur Young, of which the 
 following was the result : — 
 
 "In the last week in March, 1787," he 
 says, " the white champion potato was 
 planted in beds, each containing a square 
 perch of a good sandy loam, on a wet clay 
 marie bottom, the sets being planted one 
 foot apart. 
 
 
 Quantity per Acre 
 of Manure. 
 
 Produce in Bushels 
 per Acre. 
 
 Soil simple 
 
 
 180 
 
 Farm-yard dung 
 
 16 cubic yards 
 
 240 
 
 
 21 — 
 
 200 
 
 
 32 — 
 
 280 
 
 
 32 _ 
 
 400 
 
 
 42 _ 
 
 360 
 
 
 53 — 
 
 400 
 
 Soot 
 
 160 bushels 
 
 360 
 
 Wood ashes 
 
 160 — 
 
 240 
 
 " At the same time, and on the same 
 ground, twelve square perches were planted 
 with the same potatoes, and manured as 
 described in the following table, which also 
 gives their respective products. 
 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Produce in Bushels 
 per Acre. 
 
 Soil simple 
 
 
 280 
 
 Dung 
 
 32 cubic yards 
 40 bushels 
 
 400 
 
 Wood ashes 
 
 400 
 
 Slaked lime 
 
 160 — 
 
 380 
 
 Rotten straw.with 
 
 
 
 some little ani- 
 
 
 
 mal manure - 
 
 32 cubic yards 
 
 400 
 
 Urine and soap 
 
 
 water in equal 
 
 
 
 moieties 
 
 1440 gallons 
 
 240 
 
 Barley straw 
 
 1£ tons 
 
 300 
 
 Potash 
 
 340 bushels 
 
 380 
 
 Dung 
 
 32 cubic yards > 
 
 400 
 
 Salt 
 
 160 lbs. $ 
 
 Dung 
 
 32 cubic yards 1 
 
 480 
 
 Lime 
 
 160 bushels J 
 
 Dung 
 
 32 cubic yards \ 
 
 520 
 
 Urine 
 
 480 gallons j 
 
 " The great product," adds Young, "which 
 attends the addition of urine to dung, affords 
 a very important lesson ; which is, to manage 
 dunghills in such a manner as to save, if 
 possible, every drop ; this is a point too 
 much neglected, and, indeed, by most com- 
 mon farmers very little attended to." (An- 
 nals of Agr. vol. ix. p. 652.) 
 
 A rood of a poor blue pebbly gravel, 
 450 
 
 which yielded turnips in 1770, in June 1771 
 was marked in spaces for manures, each of 
 two square perches, by Arthur Young, and 
 sown with oats. 
 
 2 Square Perches. 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 Produce of Oats per 
 Acre. 
 
 Manure. 
 
 Cubic Yards. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 Soil simple - 
 
 
 30 
 
 l\ 
 ?* 
 
 Farm-yard compost 
 
 80 
 
 40 
 
 
 40 
 
 51 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 45 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 46 
 
 1 
 
 Bones 
 
 25 
 
 63 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 57 
 
 0 
 
 Slaked lime 
 
 200 bush. 
 
 38 
 
 
 Chalk 
 
 80 
 
 31 
 
 i f 
 
 
 160 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 
 240 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 80T 
 
 
 
 Turf mixed with 
 
 
 33 
 
 i 
 
 train oil 
 
 80 j 
 
 
 Chalk and urine - 
 
 80 
 
 37 
 
 2 
 
 Chalk 
 
 80 7 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 Turf alone - 
 
 80 J 
 
 Farm-yard earth 
 
 
 
 
 from under dung 
 
 80 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 Red hungry gravel 
 
 240 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 320 
 
 31 
 
 
 " I observe," adds Young, " that dung in 
 general much exceeds all the manures but 
 bones, the superiority of which is very re- 
 markable. (His following remarks show 
 how little was then known of bones as 
 manure.) It is a manure not uncommon in 
 this neighbourhood ; all are brought from 
 London, where are people who make it their 
 business to collect them and break them in 
 small pieces for those who boil them for the 
 grease : this operation, one would suppose, 
 would leave them of not much value, but 
 the contrary is the fact. When I found, 
 by this and other trials, that their effect 
 was so very great, I bought all I could get ; 
 the price 10s. 6d. a waggon-load, at London 
 96 bushels, which by the time they were on 
 the farm (for I generally went on purpose 
 for them) amounted from 25s. to 30s. a load. 
 Five and twenty cart loads in this trial 
 being superior to fifty, was owing to the 
 latter quantity being too great a dressing. 
 For this miserable soil, which with a summer 
 fallow yielded but thirty bushels, to produce 
 sixty-three by a moderate manuring of bones, 
 shows their amazing effect. 
 
 " The advantage of using fresh long dung," 
 adds Arthur Young, " appears very strong ; 
 nor can any thing be clearer than the be- 
 nefit of retaining the drainings of the dung- 
 hill. The lime without mixture appears to 
 more advantage than it has generally done 
 with me ; but even here, in the profitable 
 view, it has done nothing." (Ann. of Agr. 
 vol. iii. p. 67—77.) 
 
 The turf composts have nothing decisive 
 in their effect. The urine appears to have 
 the superiority. A portion of the same 
 soil was planted with potatoes : the following 
 table gives the result : — 
 
FARRIER. 
 
 FAT. 
 
 Soil simple 
 
 a Cubic yard farm -yard 
 
 compost 
 a ditto - 
 f ditto - 
 a ditto - 
 
 1 a ditto - 
 )A ditto - 
 lfditto- 
 
 2 ditto - 
 
 a ditto, saturated with 
 
 yard drainings 
 | ditto - 
 
 1 bushel slaked lime 
 
 2 bushels lime 
 
 a cubic yard long fresh 
 stable dung: - 
 
 33f 
 67A 
 
 10IA 
 
 135 
 
 16H| 
 20-4 
 236a 
 270 
 
 332 
 
 10l| l9*ds 
 135 bushels 
 270 ditto 
 
 Produce per Acr< 
 
 Bushels. 
 135 
 
 1(>'5 
 371* 
 278J 
 371a 
 
 422 -J 
 405 
 422 
 
 270 
 35 J a 
 253A 
 
 405 
 
 As manures are often applied in cubic 
 yards, it will be well for the farmer to know 
 the respective weight of various measures of 
 manures. (Farmer's Mag. vol. xiv. p. 102.) 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 A cubic yard of garden mould - 19 3 25 
 
 — water - - 15 0 7 
 
 — compost of dung, 
 
 with weeds and 
 lime, which had 
 been onceturned 
 over in 9 months 14 0 5 
 
 — new dung - 9 3 18 
 
 — leaves and sea- 
 
 weed - - 9 0 7 
 There have been many excellent sugges- 
 tions for the improvement of farm-yard 
 manure. The late Mr. Blakie published an 
 excellent essay, of which I have largely 
 availed myself. Mr. Kirk of Preston Mains 
 (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. viii. p. 483.) has 
 suggested that the straw produced by dif- 
 ferent soils should be kept separate, and 
 when made into manure, applied to dif- 
 ferent soils. Mr. Pearson has very properly 
 (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 299.) con- 
 demned the careless way in which farm-yard 
 manure is often flooded with the rain water 
 from buildings, &c. Mr. Baker is an advo- 
 cate for using farm-yard manure in its 
 freshest state. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. vii. 
 584., and ix. 597.) Mr. W. Sim has re- 
 ported several comparative experiments at 
 Drummond, in Ross-shire, with barley. The 
 soil a good deep loam, on a gravelly subsoil ; 
 the previous crop peas. (Joum. Royal Agr. 
 Soc. vol.i. p. 419.) 
 
 i Kind of 
 j Jlaiiure. 
 
 Quantity per 
 Scotch Acre 
 equal to 1 J En- 
 glish. 
 
 Produce of 
 Grain per 
 Acre. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 Bush. 
 
 Straw per 
 Acre in 
 stones of 
 16 lbs. 
 
 
 
 qrs. bis. ps. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 st. lbs. 
 
 Farm-yard 
 
 
 
 
 manure - 
 
 18 double Ids. 
 
 8 1 1 
 
 53 
 
 226 8 
 
 Rape dust 
 
 10 cwt. 
 
 7 3 0 
 
 
 252 8 
 
 Bone dust 
 
 10 bushels 
 
 7 5 2 
 
 53 
 
 211 14 
 
 N itrate of 
 
 
 
 
 
 soda 
 
 140 lbs. 
 
 7 5 0 
 
 52i 
 
 213 0 
 
 Saltpetre - 
 
 140 lbs. 
 
 6 2 0 
 
 52A 
 
 186 0 
 
 FARRIER. (Fr.ferrier, Lat.ferrarhis.) 
 A person who forges horses' shoes. As the 
 451 
 
 errors committed by ignorance in this art 
 were the cause of many diseases in the feet 
 of horses, it naturally followed that farriers 
 were resorted to for the cure of them. Hence 1 , 
 the whole of the diseases of these animals 
 came by degrees to be treated by farriers, 
 who are, however, now superseded by a 
 more enlightened class of veterinary practi- 
 tioners. 
 
 FARRIER'S POUCH. In horseman- 
 ship, a leathern bag, used for carrying nip- 
 pers, shoes, nails, and all the requisites for 
 shoeing a horse, in case of casting a shoe. 
 
 FARRIERY. The art of preventing, 
 curing, or alleviating the disorders to which 
 horses and cattle are subject. The practice 
 of this useful profession was, until within 
 the last half century, almost entirely confined 
 to a class of men, who were utterly ignorant 
 of the anatomy and physiology of the horse, 
 &c, and the general principles of the art of 
 healing. Their prescriptions were as absurd 
 as the reasons they assigned for administer- 
 ing their boluses and drenches. But the 
 institution of a veterinary college, and a 
 better educated class of persons having 
 taken up the profession, has created a new 
 era in veterinary science. 
 
 FARROW. A sow is said to farrow 
 when she brings forth pigs ; and the pigs 
 brought forth are called a litter or farrow. 
 
 FARTHING-BOUND. A provincial 
 term for a stoppage or obstruction in the 
 intestines of the cow. 
 
 FARTHING-DALE. The fourth part 
 of an acre of land, now generally called a 
 rood. It is sometimes written farding-dalc. 
 
 FAT. (Teut. vet ; Ice. feits ; Sax. r*r.) 
 An unctuous solid substance, or, more pro- 
 perly, a concrete oil, deposited in little mem- 
 branous cells in various parts of animal 
 bodies. It is generally white or yellowish, 
 with little taste or smell, and varies in con- 
 sistency according to the relative quantities 
 of stearine and oleine which it contains. 
 Goats' fat, besides these principles, contains, 
 also, hircine, to which it owes its peculiar 
 smell. DhTerent kinds of fat liquify at dif- 
 ferent temperatures. Lard is softer than 
 tallow, melts at 97° ; but the fat extracted 
 from meat by boiling requires a heat of 127°. 
 The ultimate elements of animal fat are the 
 same as those of vegetable oils. According 
 to the analysis of Chevreul, 100 parts of 
 human fat are composed of 79*0 carbon, 
 11 4 hydrogen, and 9'6 oxygen. Hog's lard 
 and mutton suet are very similarly consti- 
 tuted. Fat is insoluble in water, alcohol, 
 and ether. The strong acids dissolve, and 
 gradually decompose it. With the alkalies 
 it combines and forms soap ; hard with soda, 
 and soft with potassa. Fat serves to defend 
 the muscles and bones against cold, to temper 
 
 G G 2 
 
FAT-HEN. 
 
 FEBRUARY. 
 
 the acids of aliments, and to invigorate and 
 support the whole frame. (Brandes Diet, 
 of Science ; Thomsons Chem. vol. iv. p. 
 431.) 
 
 FAT-HEN. A provincial name for the 
 wild spinach (Chenopodium album). It is 
 also sometimes applied to the weed goosefoot. 
 
 FATHOM. (Sax. raebem.) A measure 
 of length containing six feet, or two yards ; 
 chiefly used for measuring the length of 
 cordage, and the depth of water and mines. 
 
 FATTENING OF ANIMALS. See 
 Food, Cattle, Sheep, &c. 
 
 FAUD. A provincial word for a truss 
 of short straw, containing as much as the 
 arms can fold. 
 
 FAUGH. A local term signifying a fal- 
 low, or ground repeatedly tilled without an 
 intervening crop. It is sometimes written 
 fauf. 
 
 FEABES. A country name in some 
 parts for gooseberries. It is frequently 
 written Feaberries. 
 
 FEAL. A provincial word signifying 
 the sward or turf cut up. 
 
 FEAL-DIKE. An earthy fence made 
 of feal. 
 
 FEAL -MANURE. Manure procured 
 from the rotting of turf, sward, or feal. 
 
 FEATHERFOIL, or WATER VIO- 
 LET. (Hottonia palustris.) A little in- 
 digenous aquatic plant, growing in ditches 
 and ponds on a gravelly soil ; herbage 
 smooth, entirely under water ; root creep- 
 ing ; leaves crowded, three or four inches 
 long, bright green, deeply pinnatifid ; flower 
 stalks central, solitary, naked below, rising 
 high above the water, with numerous whorls 
 of elegant pink or deep rose-coloured flowers 
 of the shape and nearly the size of a prim- 
 rose, making a very handsome appearance. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 276.) 
 
 FEATHER-GRASS. (Stipa pennata.) 
 This is a doubtful native ; it is found some- 
 times on dry mountainous rocks. It is a 
 perennial, flowering in June. The root is 
 fibrous ; stems a foot high, covered with 
 dense tufts of long, narrow, acute, dark- 
 green, roughish leaves ; sheaths striated and 
 very long ; stipules oblong, obtuse ; flowers 
 in panicles, simple, erect, six to seven 
 flowers ; awns nearly a foot long. At the 
 time of flowering, the produce per acre 
 from a heath soil was 9528 lbs. ; dry pro- 
 duce, 3454 lbs. ; nutritive matter, 409 lbs. 
 This produce was taken from a heath soil 
 that had been planted with the grass, for the 
 wild' seed does not vegetate; but it may be 
 propagated to any extent by parting the 
 roots. Its agricultural merits appear to be 
 so inconsiderable as to rank it among the 
 inferior grasses. The beautiful feather- 
 like awns which terminate the larger valves 
 452 b 
 
 of the blossom, and adhere to the seed, 
 serving as a sail to waft it from rock to 
 rock, have procured it a place in the flower- 
 gardens of the curious, and serve to dis- 
 tinguish it from all other grasses. The 
 feathered awns are sometimes worn by 
 ladies instead of feathers, which they re- 
 semble. The seed is ripe about the middle 
 of September. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 161. ; 
 Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 283.) 
 
 FEATHERS. (Sax. reben i Germ, fe- 
 dern.) A general name applied to the 
 exterior covering or plumage of birds, and 
 by which they are enabled to fly. Feathers 
 vary in form, size, and function, in different 
 parts of the bird, and have accordingly 
 received distinct names in ornithological 
 science. The development of feathers is 
 always preceded by that of down, which 
 constitutes the first covering of young 
 birds. The mechanism concerned in the 
 formation of a feather is, as might be ex- 
 pected, of a very complicated character. 
 The quill part consists of coagulated albu- 
 men. The feathers chiefly in use in this 
 country are goose feathers. Those from 
 Somerset are considered the best, and the 
 Irish feathers the worst. Great quantities 
 of goose and other feathers are annually 
 imported from the North of Europe, which, 
 however, are insufficient for the demand ; 
 hence poulterers dispose of vast numbers of 
 the feathers of other domestic poultry, all 
 of which are much inferior to those of 
 geese. The feathers, after they are plucked, 
 are generally dried in an oven. Notwith- 
 standing every apparent caution, the fea- 
 thers will frequently be found to be tainted, 
 either from carelessness in plucking, or by 
 neglecting to attend to them afterwards. 
 In this case, the only method to render 
 them sweet is to boil them a few moments 
 in stout calico or canvass bags in a copper, 
 and afterwards dry them in the open air. 
 In about a fortnight, if the weather be fine, 
 they will become perfectly sweet and ready 
 for use. The bed feathers imported in 
 1828 amounted to 3103 cwt., yielding 
 6826/. of duty. Swan down, ostrich, ami 
 other feathers, are also largely imported for 
 ornament and dress. (Willich's Dom. En- 
 cyc. ; Brandes Diet, of Science ; Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. x. p. 480. ; M^Cidloclis 
 Com. Diet.) 
 
 FEBRIFUGE. (Fr.) In farriery, such 
 medicines as are beneficial in cases of fever. 
 See Fever. 
 
 FEBRUARY. The second month of 
 the year. 
 
 Farmer's Calendar. — Most of the bu- 
 siness of the last mouth may still be con- 
 tinued ; the flail and the (lung-carl during 
 the season, and the plough in open weather. 
 
FEBRUARY. 
 
 The ground should now be getting forward 
 for oats and barley. Early sown corn is 
 less apt to lodge, and yields the finest sam- 
 ples. The Essex and Kent farmers begin 
 to sow their barley the end of this month 
 on warm dry land. Vetches, peas, beans, 
 Talavera, and other spring wheat, may now 
 be sown, and rye also, where it missed plant 
 in the autumn. Hop grounds can now be 
 dug and manured. For these, many pow- 
 erful fertilisers may be had recourse to. 
 There is, perhaps, no plant which delights 
 more in those of an oily nature than the 
 hop. The Kentish growers of the valley of 
 the Medway successfully employ large 
 quantities of sprats, for which they readily 
 give lOd. per bushel. They use from forty 
 to sixty, or more, bushels per acre. Other 
 planters employ woollen rags, chopped into 
 small pieces; from one to two tons per 
 acre ; they last for two years : these cost 
 about 51. 5s. per ton. Salt, also, is an ex- 
 cellent addition, in conjunction with these, 
 at the rate of from ten to fifteen bushels 
 per acre. Look to your wheat, and, if the 
 worm or the grub is at work, apply the 
 salt, as directed in the calendar for last 
 month, and dibble in spring wheat in vacant 
 places. This is a good time to repair and 
 plant hedges, &c. : in the formation of these, 
 a little manure should be added to the rows 
 of young plants, either of earth or of com- 
 mon compost ; a very small quantity of 
 each will produce great effects on the rapid 
 growth of the quick. In Scotland, they find, 
 in planting the larch and other timber trees, 
 that even four bushels of lime per acre — a 
 handful under each plant — is productive 
 of considerable advantage. You may now 
 plant poplars, osiers, and willows, and still 
 cut timber and underwood. Look to your 
 live stock : they very commonly suffer more 
 severely this month and the next, by the 
 weather, than during any others. Give your 
 sheep oil cake when feeding on turnips : the 
 benefit will not be confined to the stock : 
 the increased richness of the ground, where 
 sheep fed with oil cake have been folded, 
 may be, in some instances, discerned for 
 three or four years. (See Mr. Hewitt Davis 1 s 
 Experiments ; C. W. Johnson on Fe? , tilisers, 
 p. 65.) Stock ewes are now commonly 
 beginning to lamb: look carefully to their 
 cleanliness and their warmth, but beware of 
 keeping them too much in wet yards. The 
 lambs will bear a dry cold better than a wet 
 warm laying. On turnips, all sheep now 
 require hay or other dry food ; they will 
 well reward the most unremitting attention. 
 Lay up your fallows in ridges for the frost, 
 to ameliorate, and pulverise, and kill the 
 insects ; do not believe, however, that snow 
 has any enriching qualities in it, as the old 
 453 
 
 farmers were wont to dream ; neither does 
 it contain any nitre : it protects crops from 
 sudden transitions in the temperature of the 
 atmosphere, and, when it melts, it kills some 
 of the smaller vermin of the soil, for snow- 
 water is totally free from the vital air (oxy- 
 gen gas) and other gases which common 
 water contains : even fish cannot, in conse- 
 quence, exist in snow-water. Look to your 
 fish-ponds, and break holes in the ice, not 
 only to let in the air but to let out the nox- 
 ious gases, such as carburetted and sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen, which are always generated 
 in stagnant water. You may sow cabbage 
 seed for planting out in May and June. The 
 value of this plant for feeding is too little un- 
 derstood ; they may be employed to make 
 good the deficiencies in the turnip fields, 
 where the plant has missed. Plough and 
 subsoil your land for carrots and parsnips : 
 sow the seeds, dress your grass lands, open 
 the trenches, in meadows ; crop pollard trees 
 for firing, and other farm purposes. Sow 
 sainfoin, and dress it with gypsum : cwt. 
 per acre is sufficient. Sow as early as the 
 season admits, and by the drill. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. — Kitchen Gar- 
 den. Artichokes defend in frosty weather. 
 Asparagus sow e., plant e., plant in hot-bed, 
 attend to that in forcing. Balm, plant. 
 Beans plant, draw earth to advancing jilants ; 
 transplant those raised under frames. Beets, 
 sow <?., plant for seed, dig up and store any 
 left in the bed. Borecole, sow m. e. Brocoli, 
 sow m. e. Cabbages, plant and sow, plant for 
 seed. Cauliflowers, attend to, in frames, 
 plant into border e., sow b. m., prick out. 
 Carrots, sow, m. e. ; sow to draw young in a 
 hot-bed, plant for seed. Celery, dress and 
 earth up winter standing, sow in a hot-bed 
 or warm border. Chervil, sow. Clary, sow 
 m. e. Composts, prepare and turn over. 
 Coriander, sow. Corn salad, sow. Cucum- 
 bers, sow in hot-beds, prick and plant out, 
 attend to those in forcing. Dill, sow m. e. 
 Dung, prepare for hot-beds. Earthing up, 
 perform where necessary. Endive, blanch, 
 transplant into frames. Fennel, soav or plant. 
 Garlick, plant. Horse-radish, plant. Hot- 
 beds are now variously required. Jerusalem 
 artichokes, plant. Kidney beans, soav in hot- 
 bed, &c. Leeks, sow m. e., transplant for 
 seed. Lettuces, in frames, attend to, and 
 transplant from e., soav in a warm border or 
 hot-bed b. m., and in any open situation e. 
 Lettuces, prick out seedlings into a moderate 
 hot-bed. Liquorice, plant, dig up three- 
 year-old roots. Melons, attend to those in 
 hot-beds, sow, prick out. Mint, force in hot 
 bed, make plantations. Mushroom beds, 
 make, attend to those in productions. Mus- 
 tard and cress, soav m. e. Onions, soav main 
 crop m. <?., clear off Aveeds. Winter standing 
 
 G G 3 
 
FEBRUARY. 
 
 otato, plant. Parsley, sow m. e. Ham- 
 urgh, sow m. e. Parsnips, sow main crop 
 m. e., dig up and store winter-standing plants 
 for seed. Peas, sow, hoe advancing, stick, 
 when three inches high, attend to those in 
 hot-beds b. m. Pennyroyal, plant m. e. Po- 
 tatoes (early), plant in hot-beds b. m. and in 
 borders m e. Radishes, sow in a hot-bed 
 b. m., attend to those in hot-beds, sow in 
 open ground. Rape, sow for salading (edi- 
 ble rooted), sow. Rhubarb, sow. Spinach, 
 sow b. m., clear from weeds advancing crops. 
 Shalots, plant. Scorzonera, sow m. e. Sor- 
 rels, sow and plant m. e. Shirrets, sow m. e. 
 Salsafy, sow m. e. Savoys, sow m. e. Sage, 
 plant e. Turnips, sow e., plant for seed. 
 Tansy, plant e. Tarragon, plant e. Thyme, 
 plant e. Vacant ground, dig, manure, &c. 
 Weeds, destroy. 
 
 Flower- Garden. February is the first 
 spring month, and the parterre will begin to 
 make gradual approaches to gaiety and life. 
 The anemones, hepaticas, &c. will now bud 
 and flower if the weather is genial ; and the 
 crocus and snow-drop will put forth their 
 blooms to meet the sun on his returning 
 march. About the end of this month you 
 may begin to sow hardy annuals ; we prefer 
 April, but it may not be convenient always 
 to wait so long ; therefore, sow now the seeds 
 of hawkweed, lavatera, Venus's looking- 
 glass, Venus's navelwort, candytuft, lark- 
 spurs, lupins, convolvulus, flos adonis, dwarf 
 lychnis, nigella, annual sunflowers, &c. This 
 month you may plant and transplant fear- 
 lessly all hardy fibrous-rooted flowering pe- 
 rennials and biennials, such as saxifrage, 
 gentinella, hepaticas, violets, primroses of 
 all sorts, polyanthuses, double daisies, thrift, 
 &c. ; rose campions, rockets, campanulas, 
 sweet-williams, hollyhocks, scarlet lychnis, 
 carnations, pinks, monk's-hood, perennial 
 asters, and sunflowers, &c. Plant cuttings of 
 roses, honeysuckles, and jasmines. If the 
 weather is mild you may transplant many 
 kinds of evergreen shrubs, such as phillyreas 
 laurels, laurustinus, pyrocanthas, cistuses, 
 &c. Let there be a ball of earth round 
 their roots, when you take them out of the 
 ground ; if box-edging is required, plant 
 it now ; water it, and the plants will soon 
 root ; dig the borders carefully and lightly 
 with the garden fork; make the garden 
 neat and free from weeds ; clear away dead 
 leaves, sweep the lawn and walks, and let 
 spring advance in its proper order. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — February 
 was made the second of the twelve months 
 by Numa Ponipilius, who added fifty-seven 
 days to the Roman year. Its name is de- 
 rived either from Fcbrua, a title which the 
 Romans ;::ive to the Feralia sacrifices offered 
 to the infernal deities during eleven days 
 
 subsequent to the 17th or the 21st, a period 
 during which the punishment of Tartarus 
 was believed to be suspended ; or more pro- 
 bably from Februs, to purify, because this 
 being originally the last month of Numa's 
 year, the people offered an expiatory sacri- 
 fice for their twelve months' sin. Hence 
 Februa, Februara, or Februalis, were epi- 
 thets of Juno, because she was considered 
 as presiding over the purification of women. 
 Our Saxon ancestors designated this month 
 sprout-kele, because then* kele-wuri, or cole- 
 wort, first began to shoot out during its con- 
 tinuance, an event of considerable import- 
 ance in those days, since it was the chief sus- 
 tenance of the husbandman, and the water 
 they were boiled in was a common medicine 
 with them, as it was with the Romans. Cato, 
 who died 150 years before the Christian era, 
 in his treatise on agriculture, says, " It is 
 salutary to the bowels, and a decoction made 
 of it is salubrious in all cases. If you wish 
 to drink plentifully at a feast, and sup 
 freely, eat as much as you wish of it raw, 
 with vinegar, before supper, and when you 
 have supped eat some of it ; it will promote 
 digestion, and you may drink as much as 
 you please." This last is a property of the 
 cabbage tribe which is still foolishly believed 
 by many votaries of Bacchus. In later ages, 
 the Saxons denominated this month Sol- 
 monath. 
 
 Numa assigned to this month twenty-nine 
 days. The Decemvirs altered them to twen- 
 ty-eight. The original number Avas returned 
 to by Julius Caesar ; but Augustus again 
 changed them to twenty-eight, as they have 
 ever since continued. The additional day 
 was intercalated every fourth, or leap year, 
 between the 23d and 24th, until Pope 
 Gregory XIII. made his regulation of the 
 calendar in 1582. February was divided 
 by the revolutionists of France between their 
 Pluviose and Ventose, the first of which 
 continued from the 20th of January until 
 the 19th of February ; the second from that 
 day until the 21st of March. In our climate, 
 February is always of uncertain habit ; — 
 " as yet the trembling year is unconfirmed," 
 but rain is generally its prevailing accom- 
 paniment, (hence the ancient epithet of 
 " February fill-dyke,") together with stormy 
 gales, which usually increase as the equinox 
 approaches. The animal and vegetable cre- 
 ation arise from inanimation, and intimate 
 the approach of more genial days. The 
 ranges of the botanist are still circumscribed 
 almost entirely to the garden, that enclosure 
 which is indeed " friendly to thought, to 
 virtue, and to peace." Gardening is a source, 
 perhaps, of the purest of human pleasures ; 
 no vegetables arc so palatable as those our 
 own hands have planted in the kitchen- 
 
FEED. 
 
 FELT. 
 
 garden ; no fruit so grateful as that from 
 trees our own knife has pruned ; no flower 
 so beauteous as that which we have nurtured 
 ourselves. 
 
 The barren strawberry, furze, the white 
 dead-nettle, the laurustinus, the yew-tree, 
 the common crow-foot, or butter-cup, pop- 
 lars, and willows, blossom in the course of 
 this month ; as also the hazel ; " the morning- 
 star of flowers," the snow-drop, and the little 
 forget-me-not. 
 
 Early in this month the naturalist re- 
 cognises the sweet notes of the woodlark, 
 and the wild ones of the thrush, the shrill 
 whistling of the yellow-hammer and chaf- 
 finch, the loud voice of the green wood- 
 pecker, the hootings of the wood-owl, and 
 the clamour of the stone curlew. Rooks, 
 ravens, missel-thrushes, and partridges begin 
 to pair ; frogs commence their croakings, 
 and the hillocks of the mole betray that his 
 subterraneous borings are renewed. (Far- 
 mer s Almanac.) 
 
 FEED. (Sax, reban,) The quantity of 
 oats or grain given to a horse or other ani- 
 mal at one time. It also signifies to fatten 
 animals, as cattle or sheep. 
 
 FEEDERS. Fattening cattle. 
 
 FEG. A word provincially applied to 
 tough dead grass. 
 
 FELL. The skin or hide of an animal ; 
 hence fellmonger is one who dresses the 
 skins or hides of animals. 
 
 FELLING TIMBER. The act of cutting 
 down trees for the purposes of timber. This 
 term is only used in respect to full-grown 
 trees, and is never applied to young trees nor 
 to bushes, underwood, or hedges. Much has 
 been written respecting the proper season 
 for felling trees ; some arguing in favour of 
 midwinter, and others in favour of mid- 
 summer. The question principally turns 
 upon the quantity, and the value of the soft 
 or outer wood in the trunk of the tree to be 
 felled, known by foresters and carpenters as 
 the sap-wood. As this sap, or outer, wood is 
 the only portion of the trunk in which the 
 sap or juices of the tree flow, it is evi- 
 dent that if no value be set upon it, the 
 tree may be cut down at any season ; be- 
 cause the truly valuable part of the trunk, 
 the mature timber, is impermeable to the 
 sap in its ascent through the soft wood, and 
 is therefore in the same state at every season 
 of the year. On the other hand, where much 
 value is attached to the soft or outer wood, 
 where this outer wood is to be made as 
 valuable as possible, or where, as in the case 
 of comparatively young trees, the greater 
 part of the trunk consists of sap-wood, felling 
 ought to take place when there is least sap 
 in the course of ascending. This season is 
 without doubt mid-winter, which, all other 
 455 
 
 circumstances being equal, is unquestionably 
 the best season for felling timber ; the next 
 best being midsummer, when the sap is 
 chiefly confined to the young shoots, the cir- 
 cumference of the soft wood and the bark. 
 The worst time for felling timber is the 
 spring, just before the development of the 
 buds, when the tree is fullest of sap, and re- 
 ceiving constantly fresh supplies from the 
 root ; and in autumn, immediately before 
 the fall of the leaf, when there is a super- 
 abundance of sap, from its being as it were 
 thrown out of employment by the falling of 
 the leaf. In general all the soft woods, such 
 as the elm, lime, poplars, willow, &c, should 
 be felled during winter : hard woods, like 
 the oak, beech, ash, &c, when the trunks are 
 of large size, and valued chiefly for their 
 heart wood, may be felled at any time. When 
 the bark, however, is to be taken into con- 
 sideration, as in the oak, the tree should be 
 felled in spring, as then the bark contains 
 four times the quantity of astringent mat- 
 ter to that felled in winter. See Timber 
 and Woods. (Biggin, Phil. Trans. 1799 ; 
 Branded Diet, of Science.) 
 
 FELLMONGER'S POAKE AND 
 CLIPPINGS. Poake is the waste arising from 
 the preparation of skins, and is compounded 
 of various proportions of lime, oil, and hair. 
 It is commonly used as a manure, in the 
 state of compost with, earthy substances, 
 and sometimes, when it -is thought expedient 
 to increase the powers of farm manure, also 
 with stable dung. The clippings are the 
 parings and scrapings of the skins. When 
 ploughed in upon a summer fallow for wheat, 
 these clippings have been found highly ser- 
 viceable to deep loamy land, and to strong 
 soils which are not too wet, for they not only 
 produce a full clean grain, with a bright 
 straw, but the bulk of the crop is also 
 greatly increased. Care should, however, be 
 taken to cover them well with the soil, for 
 if left near the surface, the putrid effluvia, 
 which they soon emit, attract the crows in 
 swarms, and great quantities are thus lost 
 out of the ground. From thirty to forty 
 bushels per acre is the usual quantity ap- 
 plied ; the price varies in different places 
 from Ad. to 9d. per bushel heaped loose. 
 (Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 423, 424.) 
 
 FELLY. A provincial word meaning to 
 break up a fallow. It also signifies a part of 
 a wheel. 
 
 FELON, or FETLOW. In farriery, a 
 term for a sort of inflammation in animals, 
 similar to that of whitlow in the human 
 subject. 
 
 FELT. A kind of stuff formed of fur or 
 wool alone, or of a mixture of these articles 
 with camel's hair, which are blended into a 
 compact texture used principally in the ma- 
 g g 4 
 
FELWORT, MARSH. 
 
 FEN LANDS. 
 
 nufacture of hats. Hare and rabbit fur, wool 
 and beaver, are the chief materials used ; 
 they are mixed in proper proportions and 
 tossed about by the strokes of a vibrating 
 string or bow, till they become duly matted 
 together. Felt strongly compressed is now 
 used as cloth. It has one advantage over 
 woven cloth, it does not become threadbare 
 by use. ( WillicKs Dom. Ency. ; Brandes 
 Diet, of Science and Art.) 
 
 FELWORT, MARSH, or SWERTIA. 
 (Swertia perennis.) An herbaceous very 
 bitter perennial plant, nearly allied to gen- 
 tian, found in watery alpine meadows. The 
 root consists of several long, cylindrical, 
 whitish, intensely bitter fibres ; stem erect, a 
 foot or more in height, square ; herb quite 
 smooth, bitter. Leaves, about the base of 
 the stem, acute, ovate, stalked, one and a 
 half or two inches long. Panicle of about a 
 dozen light purplish flowers, on opposite 
 angular stems, furnished with a pair of el- 
 liptic, oblong bractes ; calyx purplish ; ger- 
 men often abortive. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 26.) 
 
 FEN. The name of a distemper to which 
 hops are subject. It consists of a quick- 
 growing mould, or moss, which spreads itself 
 with much rapidity, and occasions great in- 
 jury. 
 
 FENCE. In rural economy, is any kind 
 of erection made for the purpose of enclosing 
 ground ; as a hedge, wall, ditch, bank, paling, 
 &c, or any continuous line of obstacle inter- 
 posed between one portion of the surface of 
 land and another, for the purpose of separa- 
 tion or exclusion. The kind of obstacle or 
 material differs according to the animals 
 which are to be separated, excluded, or con- 
 fined, and the nature of the soil and situation. 
 In the early state of husbandry, fences were 
 little known or wanted, except in particular 
 places, as near houses or yards. The in- 
 troduction of fences into agriculture was 
 about as great an improvement in the pro- 
 gress of that art, as that of the principle of 
 the division of labour into the art of manu- 
 facture. 
 
 Fences may be considered as of two kinds 
 — simple or compound. Of the first sort 
 are all such as are sufficient of themselves 
 for the purposes of enclosure, without the 
 assistance of another kind ; as simple ditches, 
 hedges, palings, railings, dikes, walls, &c : 
 2dly, such as require the assistance of an- 
 other kind, either to guard and protect, or 
 render them more secure ; as hedge and 
 ditches or banks; hedge ditches and palings, 
 or railings ; double hedges ; hedge and wall; 
 hedge ditch and wall ; hedge ditch and 
 trees; hedge, or hedge-wall and belt of 
 planting, &c. All fences are either live or 
 dead, or a compound of these. Live fences 
 456 
 
 are hedges ; that is, rows of shrubs placed 
 close together, and pruned on the sides, so 
 as to form a sort of living wall. Dead fences 
 are either stone walls, mounds of earth, or 
 structures of wood or of other materials 
 raised above the ground surface, or upon 
 ditches excavated in it. The latter are some- 
 times filled with water. Mixed fences are 
 those in which some kind of dead fence is 
 used with some kind of live fence ; for ex- 
 ample, a ditch with a bank of earth on one 
 side, or a ditch with a wall or hedge on one 
 side : the latter the most common of all 
 fences. Various kinds of plants have been 
 recommended for constructing the common 
 fences, of which the principal in use are the 
 white and black thorn, furze, holly, elder, 
 and hornbeam, which are all treated of under 
 their separate heads. (See Hedges.) Mr. 
 W. Bell received the silver medal of the 
 Highland Society, for an essay " On, the 
 Whin as a Fence " (see Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. v. p. 466.). There are also some inter- 
 esting details on the subject of fences, by the 
 Rev. J. Willis, in the Com. to Board of 
 Agricul. vol. vi. p. 237. {Brandes Diet, of 
 Science ; WillicKs Dom. Ency.) 
 
 FEN LANDS, or FENS. Boggy or 
 marshy lands, the subsoil of which is con- 
 stantly in a state of saturation with water, 
 and the surface liable to be overflown by 
 rivers or streams during spring or autumn. 
 The soil of these lands is generally black, 
 light, and rich to the depth of two or three 
 feet ; and as the surface water readily filtrates 
 through this soil to the subsoil, fen lands 
 generally produce, when properly drained 
 and cultivated, bulky crops of grass and 
 corn. As they have very seldom any na- 
 tural outlet for their drainage, this is usu- 
 ally performed by machinery ; and when 
 this is the case fen lands are more pro- 
 ductive. (See Draining and Warping.) 
 Till lately windmills were employed for 
 draining the English fens ; but steam is now 
 frequently had recourse to as the moving 
 power, and the advantages to the cultivator 
 are immense, because he can lay his lands 
 dry at the most convenient season ; whereas 
 the operation of the windmill is always a 
 matter of chance. The principal fens in Eng- 
 land are those of Lincolnshire, Cambridge- 
 shire, and the adjoining counties, a very 
 full account of which will be found in the 
 British Statistics, and M l CullocKs Geogr. 
 Diet. art. " Bedford Level." (See also 
 Brit. Hush. vol. i. p. 466—469. " On the 
 Course of Cropping in the Fens," vol. ii. 
 p. 107.) Fens generally abound with saline 
 plants, which are very nourishing to cattle. 
 (Bi*andes Diet, of Science ; WillicKs Dom. 
 Encyc. ; Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iii. p. 300. 
 See Irrigation.) 
 
FENNEL, COMMON. 
 
 FERMENTATION. 
 
 FENNEL, COMMON. (Meum famicu- 
 lum, Smith.) This is a well-known biennial 
 plant, cultivated in our kitchen gardens as 
 a garnish. The poor use it only as a 
 medicine. Root tap-shaped ; herb smooth, 
 of a deep glaucous green ; stem 3 or 4 feet 
 high ; leaves triply pinnate ; leaflets, thread- 
 like, acute, drooping ; footstalks, broad and 
 sheathing; umbels, terminal, broad, flat, 
 with numerous angular rays ; the pistil, 
 short, slender, unequal ; calvx, none ; petals, 
 obovate, broad, obtuse, golden yellow ; sta- 
 mens, yellow ; styles, short, with a large, 
 ovate, yellow base. The taste and aro- 
 matic qualities of the garden fennel are 
 well known. The sweet and warm seeds 
 are a common carminative medicine for 
 infants. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 84.) 
 
 FENNEL, SWEET. (Fceniculum dulce.) 
 This species of fennel is an annual plant, a 
 native of Italy and Portugal, where it is 
 cultivated as a pot-herb, as well as for the 
 seeds and the oils which these afford. It is 
 a smaller plant than the common fennel. 
 The stem is somewhat compressed at the 
 base ; the radical leaves are distichous ; 
 the lobes capillary and elongated. The 
 umbels have only six or eight rays, and the 
 fruit is much longer than that of the com- 
 mon fennel, being nearly five lines long, 
 less compressed, somewhat curved and paler, 
 with a greenish tinge. The turions are 
 also sweeter and less aromatic, and the fruit 
 (seed) has a more agreeable odour and 
 flavour. 
 
 The fruit is imported, and affords the oil 
 of fennel and the fennel water of the drug- 
 gists. Both are useful in flatulent colic ; 
 and the latter is a pleasant vehicle for ad- 
 ministering other medicines to children. 
 
 FENNEL, AZOREAN. See Azorean 
 Fennel. 
 
 FENNEL, WATER. See Water 
 Starwobt. 
 FENNEL, HOG'S. See Sea Sulphur 
 
 W^ORT. 
 
 FENNEL FLOWER: Devil in a 
 Bush. (Nigella, from niger, black; the 
 seed being black.) The species of fennel 
 flower are curious and ornamental. They 
 only require to be sown in the open ground. 
 The seeds of N. sativa and N. arvensis were 
 formerly used instead of pepper, and are said 
 to be still used in adulterating it. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet.) The genus is known by its 
 brownish white and singular-looking flowers 
 placed at the top of their stalks, and shel- 
 tered by a large leafy involucre, which is 
 much divided. The flowers are yellow, or 
 blue in some of the species. The seeds are 
 sown in March, and they ripen in August. 
 
 FENUGREEK. (Trigonella, Fccnum- 
 grcpxum.) Fenugreek is a species of trefoil 
 457 
 
 sometimes cultivated in fields for its seed ; 
 but it yields a very uncertain crop, owing 
 to the variable nature of the weather in 
 England. The stem is a foot high, erect, 
 with round branched stalks, trifoliate leaves, 
 toothed ; the flowers small and white ; the 
 fruit a sessile, straight, erect, some curved, 
 acuminate, flat pod ; containing a number of 
 yellowish seeds having a strong disagreeable 
 smell, and an unctuous, farinaceous, and 
 somewhat bitter taste. These seeds are 
 very emollient, and useful in cataplasms 
 and fomentations. 
 
 FENUGREEK, RUSSIAN. (Trigo- 
 nella ruthenica.) A hardy perennial native 
 of Siberia, blowing yellow papilionaceous 
 blossoms in July and August. It loves a 
 strong loamy soil, and an open situation. 
 It is propagated either by parting the roots 
 in spring, or from seed. 
 
 FERMENT. (Lnt. ferveo, I boil.) Any 
 substance employed to raise or produce 
 fermentation when mixed with or applied 
 to another. Ferments are therefore either 
 such substances as are naturally present 
 in the vegetable juice, as in the grape 
 and apple ; or are added, as in the manu- 
 facture of beer and bread, where yeast 
 and leaven constitute the ferment. Fer- 
 mentation is met with in fermenting liquors 
 of different kinds, as wine and beer, and the 
 froth or head thrown up by them and its 
 principles are contained in the newly ex- 
 pressed saccharine juices of various summer 
 fruits. 
 
 Ferments are of an albuminous and glu- 
 tinous character ; and the presence of ni- 
 trogen seems essential in their composition. 
 
 FERMENTATION. When certain ve- 
 getable substances are dissolved in water 
 and subjected to a temperature of 65° to 
 85°, they undergo a series of changes which 
 terminate in the production of alcohol or 
 spirit; these changes constitute the phe- 
 nomena of vinous fermentation. Sugar and 
 some ferment are essential to the process, 
 and during the formation of the alcohol the 
 sugar disappears, and carbonic acid is more 
 or less abundantly evolved. The simplest 
 case of fermentation is that of must, or of 
 the expressed juice of the grape, which when 
 exposed either in close or open vessels to a 
 temperature of about 70°, soon begins to 
 give off carbonic acid, and to become turbid 
 and frothy ; after a time a scum collects 
 upon the surface, and a sediment is depo- 
 sited ; the liquor which had grown warm 
 gradually cools and clears, loses its sweet 
 taste, and is converted into wine. The 
 chief component parts of must are 
 water, sugar, mucilage, gluten, and tartar 
 (bitartrate of potassa). During the fer- 
 mentation carbonic acid escapes, the sugar 
 
FERMENTATION. 
 
 FERN. 
 
 disappears, and with it the greater part of 
 the mucilage ; the gluten chiefly forms the 
 scum and a portion of the sediment; and 
 the tartar originally in solution is thrown 
 down in the form of a coloured deposit. 
 Sugar and water alone will not ferment ; 
 the ingredient requisite to the commence- 
 ment of the change is the gluten, which 
 absorbs in the first instance a little oxygen 
 from the air, becomes insoluble, and induces 
 the subsequent changes. The reason why 
 grapes never ferment till the juice is ex- 
 pressed, seems to depend upon the exclusion 
 of air by the husk or membranes. In beer 
 the alcohol is derived from the sugar in the 
 malt. When wine is exposed to air and a 
 due temperature, a second fermentation en- 
 sues, which is called the acetous fermentation, 
 and which terminates in the production of 
 vinegar. During this process oxygen is 
 absorbed, and more or less carbonic acid 
 is evolved ; but the apparent cause of the 
 formation of vinegar is the abstraction of 
 hydrogen from the alcohol, so as to leave 
 the remaining elements in such proportions 
 as to constitute acetic acid. Thus alcohol 
 is theoretically constituted of charcoal, water, 
 and hydrogen, and acetic acid of water and 
 charcoal only : the oxygen of the air, there- 
 fore, converts the hydrogen of the alcohol 
 into water, and so effects the change into 
 vinegar. See Alcohol and Brewing. 
 {Brandes Diet, of Science, fyc.) To illus- 
 trate these facts let us suppose that the 
 following substances are put together to 
 undergo fermentation : — 300 parts sugar, 
 600 parts water, 60 yeast ; — the products 
 will be 771 '5 parts of weak spirit, of which 
 171*5 is alcohol of spec. grav. 0-822 ; 94-6 
 carbonic acid, which flies off and carries 
 with it 41*9 of water, 12 nauseous residue, 
 and 40 residual yeast. 
 
 Or it may be illustrated in reference to 
 the formation of the alcohol and the car- 
 bonic acid, which are the only real products 
 of vinous fermentation, by the changes which 
 take place in the chemical components of 
 the sugar. If we take 162 parts of sugar, 
 and 18 of water, regarding any yeast em- 
 ployed as merely the means of commencing 
 the fermentation, the product should be 92 
 of alcohol and 88 of carbonic acid — 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 102 parts of sugar consist of 
 18 parts of water consist of 
 
 72 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 80 
 16 
 
 Ingredients 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 96 
 
 02 parts of alcohol consist of 
 HH parts of carbonic acid 7 
 consist of - -J 
 
 48 
 24 
 
 12 
 
 32 
 G4 
 
 Products 
 
 72 
 
 12 
 
 •JG 
 
 Thus wo see that the 72 parts of carbon 
 458 
 
 of the sugar is divided between the alcohol 
 and the carbonic acid; that the whole of 
 the hydrogen both of the sugar and the 
 water enter into the composition of the al- 
 cohol, and only 32 parts of the oxygen of the 
 sugar, and none of that of the water. Fer- 
 mentation, therefore, effects merely a change 
 in the distribution of the components of the 
 bodies subjected to its action ; the yeast or 
 ferment being the agent which effects these 
 changes without itself entering into the 
 products resulting from them. "The yeast, 
 if added, remains as residual matter, but 
 where no yeast is required, that substance 
 is one of the products of the process. 
 
 But this is only that species of fermenta- 
 tion which is denominated vinous. If the 
 fermentation proceeds beyond the point 
 which has been described, such changes, as 
 already stated, take place ; and vinegar or 
 acetic acid is generated, and the process is 
 then termed acetous fermentation. A third 
 kind of fermentation also follows in most ve- 
 getable matters, namely, the putrefactive, in 
 which there is a large production of gases, 
 and vegetable mould or humus. In general 
 parlance, however, the term fermentation 
 implies either the vinous or the acetous 
 fermentation. 
 
 FERMENTED LIQUORS are those li- 
 quids obtained by the process described in 
 the preceding article. See also Beer, Cider, 
 Wine, Alcohol, &c. All liquors which 
 have undergone the vinous fermentation 
 are considered as great antidotes to putre- 
 faction ; for it has been remarked that since 
 the custom of brewing and distilling liquors 
 has prevailed in Europe, many of those 
 cutaneous and putrid diseases with which 
 our forefathers were afflicted have been less 
 frequent and severe than they formerly 
 were. The total abstinence from ferment- 
 ed liquors by the Turks is further assigned 
 as one of the chief causes why they are 
 more liable to the plague and other con- 
 tagious diseases, than those nations among 
 whom beer or wine is the common beverage. 
 ( WillicTis Dom. Encyc.) This opinion, how- 
 ever, is purely hypothetical. 
 
 FERN. An acotyledonous or flowerless 
 class of weeds, of which there are many 
 species in this country. They grow chiefly 
 in mountainous tracts of natural pasture. 
 Fern is extremely difficult to eradicate, as 
 the roots in deep soils have been found at 
 the depth of seven or eight feet. But 
 however troublesome this plant may prove 
 to the industrious husbandman, it is not 
 altogether useless. It forms a good litter 
 for cattle, and may be used as thatch ; for 
 though inferior to many other materials, it 
 will last ten or twelve years. It forms a 
 good manure for potatoes when dug into 
 
FERN. 
 
 the soil; and serves for fuel, where it is 
 plentiful, for brewing, baking, heating ovens, 
 burning lime, &c. The ashes, which the 
 plant affords in great abundance, yield 
 potash ; and the poor in some districts mix 
 the ashes with water and form lye balls for 
 scouring linen, which are a useful and 
 cheap substitute for soap. In Norway the 
 dried leaves are infused in hot water, and 
 thus afford a wholesome and relishing food 
 for all domestic cattle, which eat them 
 eagerly, and manage to thrive and grow fat 
 upon them. 
 
 From a report of Mr. David Campbell to 
 the Highland Society of Scotland, it appears 
 that the following is the expense of thatch- 
 ing with fern. He says, " I shall apply the 
 calculations to a house 40 ft. long, and the 
 height of the roof 13 ft. on each side, which 
 will give a surface of 115^ square yards, or 
 3 roods 7% ells to be thatched. If the fern 
 be abundant, and easily taken out of the 
 ground, an active man will pull about a 
 cart load of it in a day, for which he would 
 require Is. 6d. This cart load it is con- 
 sidered would thatch about 6j square yards, 
 so that it would take 18 cart loads to thatch 
 the given space, thus making the expense 
 of 
 
 £. s. d. 
 
 Pulling the fern, about - - 1 7 0 
 Thatcher, 17 days, at Is. 6d. -15 6 
 Carriage of fern, at 9d. per load - 0 13 6 
 Expense of turf for rigging, and 
 
 of securing the thatch - -090 
 
 3 15 0 
 
 or something more than 7\d. per square 
 yard. This kind of thatch, if done properly, 
 will last on the south or sunny side of a 
 house for eighteen to twenty years ; (m 
 some instances it has been known to endure 
 for thirty years ;) while on the north side, 
 its duration cannot be calculated on much 
 beyond eight or ten years ; for while heat 
 and dryness contribute to the preservation 
 of the fern, wet and damp hasten its decay. 
 (Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 189.) 
 
 In a botanical point of view, it would 
 be impossible and useless to describe the 
 native ferns in this work ; we shall therefore 
 notice particularly those only which are 
 applicable to other uses than thatching, or 
 the production of alkali from their ashes, or 
 constituting manure, as they may all be 
 employed for these purposes. 
 
 1. Male Shield Fern (Aspidium filix-mas) 
 is a perennial, growing in woods, dry ditches, 
 and on shady banks. Its roots are tufted, 
 large, scaly ; its fronds or herbage are 
 several from one root, three feet high, doubly 
 pinnate, erect ; the midribs scaly, and the 
 leaflets obtuse, serrated, partly confluent ; 
 459 
 
 the masses of seminal capsules • near the 
 midrib, and not occupying more than the 
 half of each leaflet ; and the capsular cover 
 orbicular. 
 
 The root is nauseous, and was at one 
 time much used as a remedy for tape worm ; 
 it indeed was the principal ingredient in the 
 celebrated remedy of Madame Nouffer, who 
 received 18,000 francs from Louis XVI. for 
 her secret : but since the introduction of 
 the oil of turpentine, as a remedy for 
 tape worm, fern root has ceased to be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 2. Maidenhair (Adianturn capillus ve- 
 neris) is a perennial found on moist rocks 
 and old walls near the sea. It is an elegant 
 fern; the roots are blackish, shaggy, creeping; 
 the fronds from 6 to 12 inches high, doubly 
 compound ; the leaflets alternate on capillary 
 stalks, wedge-shaped, lobed, deep green, 
 smooth, and each segment terminated in a 
 roundish, flat scale, with the cover trans- 
 versely oblong. 
 
 This fern, as well as another species of 
 the same genus, A. pedatum, is employed for 
 making the well-known syrup called ca- 
 pillaire, which is, when diluted with water, 
 a pleasant beverage in fever. 
 
 3. Fir Club Moss (Lycopodium selugo). 
 A perennial, common on the Derbyshire 
 and Yorkshire hills, and in the Highlands 
 of Scotland. The root is fibrous ; the stem 
 5 to 10 inches high, once or twice forked, 
 and level at the top. The leaves uniform, 
 crowded in eight rows, lanceolate, obtuse, 
 entire, slightly spreading ; capsules on the 
 uppermost shoots, kidney-shaped. See Club 
 Moss. 
 
 The Highlanders use this fern instead of 
 alum to fix colours in dyeing. The root is 
 a powerful emetic and purgative ; but its 
 action is attended with giddiness and con- 
 vulsions, consequently it is dangerous. 
 
 4. Greater Rough Horsetail (Equisetum 
 hyemale). A perennial, found in boggy 
 woods. The root is black and variously 
 branched ; the stem 2 to 3 feet high, erect, 
 naked, rough, branching at the top, em- 
 braced by tight whitish sheaths, black at 
 the top and bottom ; and the teeth deciduous. 
 The fruit is in a terminal catkin, and 
 abounds with whitish powdery seeds. 
 
 This fern is well known for its use as a 
 polisher, owing to the flinty particles (silex) 
 deposited in the furrows of the cuticle. It 
 is usually imported from Holland, and is 
 therefore called Dutch rushes. (WillicKs 
 Dom. Encyc. ; Low's Prac. Agr.) 
 
 FERN, BLADDER. See Bladder 
 Fern. 
 
 FERN, BRISTLE. See Bristle Fern. 
 FERN, FEMALE. See Brakes. 
 FERN, FILMY. See Filmy Fern. 
 
FERRET. 
 
 FESTUCA. 
 
 FERRET. {Mustelafuro, Lin.) An use- 
 ful animal, which came originally from Africa, 
 whence it was introduced into Spain, and 
 subsequently into this country. It has red 
 fiery eyes ; the colour of its whole body is 
 of a pale yellow ; and its length from the 
 nose to the end of the tail is about 19 inches. 
 The female is rather smaller in size, and 
 produces, twice annually, from five to eight 
 or nine young ones, after a gestation of six 
 weeks. Ferrets are principally employed 
 for the purpose of hunting rabbits, to which 
 they are mortal enemies, and of destroying 
 vermin in corn stacks and outbuildings. 
 These animals are always kept confined in 
 a box or cask, and fed upon bread, milk, 
 &c. 
 
 FERRUGINOUS SOILS. Soils which 
 contain a large proportion of iron. 
 
 FESCUE GRASSES. See Festuca. 
 
 FESTING-PENNY. A term provin- 
 cially applied to the earnest given to ser- 
 vants when hired at fairs, markets, and other 
 places. 
 
 FESTUCA. The Fescue Grass. Avery 
 extensive genus of grasses, of which the 
 meadow fescue (F.pratensis) and the hard 
 or smooth fescue (F. duriuscula, vel glabra) 
 are those of the greatest use in perma- 
 nent pasture. Combined with cock's-foot 
 grass, and some other of the natural grasses, 
 these two species of festuca will be found 
 well adapted for the alternate husbandry, 
 and secure the most productive and nu- 
 tritive pasture in alternation with grain 
 crops. Sir J. E. Smith, in his Eng. Bot., 
 observes, " that in this genus it is hard to 
 say what may, or what may not, be a 
 species ; " and with his usual force and clear- 
 ness he reduces the F.glauca, F. glabra, F. 
 Cambrica, F. duriuscula, and F. rubra of 
 Hudson, Lightfoot, Withering, Winch, and 
 Stillingfleet, &c. into one species. All these 
 grasses vary much from change of soil and 
 situation ; the flowers are particularly apt 
 to vary in number as well as in the length 
 of their awns. There is one character, 
 however (says Sinclair), which I have never 
 found to change under any variety of cul- 
 ture, which is the creeping root ; and this 
 is also an agricultural distinction which is 
 never to be lost sight of, as it always pro- 
 duces a specific effect upon the soil, very 
 distinct indeed from that of the fibrous- 
 rooted kinds. It will be sufficient, there- 
 fore, for the purposes of the agriculturist, 
 to consider these grasses as two distinct 
 spe 3ies, the fibrous-rooted and the creep- 
 ing-rooted, noting at the same time their 
 varieties from other parts of the plant, 
 Following the experiments instituted by 
 Sinclair, in his valuable work on the grasses, 
 J shall proceed to notice, seriatim, the dif- 
 460 
 
 ferent species of festuca, and point out their 
 relative properties. 
 
 Festuca alopecuris. Foxtail-like fescue- 
 grass. Root annual. Although sometimes 
 classed as a. Bromus, this grass is evidently 
 a. Festuca. Culms smooth, upright ; the 
 larger valve of the blossom furnished with 
 long, straight, flat-lying hairs at the edges, 
 which distinguish it from every other species 
 of fescue. The long, linear, channelled, 
 smooth, glaucous leaves also distinguish it 
 at first sight from the different annual 
 species of fescue or brome grass. From the 
 amount of produce and nutritive powers 
 afforded by this annual fescue, it will be 
 found much inferior to the soft brome-grass 
 (B?*omus mollis), many-flowered brome- 
 grass (B. multiflorus), and other of the an- 
 nual indigenous grasses, and it does not 
 therefore appear suitable for agricultural 
 purposes. The leaves attain to a considerable 
 length, and contain more nutritive matter, 
 but the culms less, than most of the other 
 annual grasses. It flowers about the end 
 of July, and the seed is ripe in the begin- 
 ning of September. 
 
 Festuca bromoides. Barren fescue-grass. 
 Panicle nearly erect, racemose. Florets 
 tapering, shorter than their awns, slender, 
 cylindrical, rough at the top ; leaves nar- 
 row, tapering, sometimes hairy on the upper 
 side, shorter than their sheaths ; upper half 
 of their stem naked. Root of many small 
 brown fibres ; annual ; some say biennial. 
 Stems several, 4 to 12 inches high, bent at 
 some of the lowest joints. A pale, smooth, 
 slender, insignificant grass of short duration, 
 at least after it has flowered in June. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 142.) 
 
 Festuca calamaria. Reed fescue-grass. 
 Panicle repeatedly compound, spreading 
 while in flower, erect. Florets from 2 to 
 5, oblong, cylindrical; root fibrous, tufted; 
 Spikelets small in comparison with the 
 herbage, erect, often tinged with purple or 
 brown. Stems several, upright, 2 or 3 feet 
 high, leafy, round, smooth. Leaves lanceo- 
 late or linear, flat, taper-pointed, erect, 
 many-ribbed, rough at the edges, and some- 
 times on both sides, from 6 to 18 inches 
 long, of a deep green colour. This species, 
 which is too large and coarse to possess any 
 agricultural merits, is found in mountainous 
 woods in Scotland, Ireland, and the north- 
 west part of England. There is a smaller 
 variety, with much narrower leaves, some- 
 times met with in Scotland. 
 
 Festuca Cambrica. Welsh fescue. Tin's 
 constant variety of F. rubra (see Smith's 
 Engl. Flora, vol.J. p. 142.) is readily dis- 
 tinguished from the /•'. ovina, and the va- 
 rieties of F. rubra and F. ditri/iscida, by 
 the pale green colour of the panicle and 
 
FESTUCA. 
 
 culms. The root leaves grow more upright 
 and flat when cultivated, the spikelets 
 consist of 10 or 12 florets. Roots creep- 
 ing; perennial. Flowers about the first 
 week in June, and the seed is ripe in the 
 close of July. Experiments tend to prove 
 that this grass is greatly inferior to the F. 
 duriuscula in the quantity, and nutrient 
 qualities of its produce. It springs rather 
 earlier than the hard fescue, and also rises 
 better after being cropped, but not ap- 
 parently in a sufficient degree to compen- 
 sate for its deficiencies in other respects. 
 It is far from being so common as the F. 
 duriuscula, and inhabits the drier sorts of 
 pastures. The yield and value of this grass 
 at each of its stages of growth is about 
 equal. The superior weight of nutritive 
 matter afforded by the crop at the time the 
 seed is ripe, arises from the increase of 
 grass which takes place during the time the 
 seed is perfecting. 
 
 Festuca dumetorum. Pubescent wood- 
 fescue-grass. Root perennial, slightly 
 creeping. Panicle branches pointing in 
 many directions. Leaves long, slender, 
 thread- shaped, and pointing downwards ; 
 culms slanting. The whole plant is of a 
 light glaucous colour, the spikelets nearly 
 white, with the numerous fine hairs that 
 clothe them. The peculiar pubescence of 
 the spikelets and the distorted figure of the 
 panicle, which remains unaltered from seed, 
 particularly distinguish this species from 
 the hard, smooth, Welsh and creeping fescues. 
 This grass, which appears to belong to the 
 inferior kinds, is a native of woods, where 
 the soil is dry and sandy. Its nutritive 
 powers are about one third inferior to those 
 of the F. ovina, although it yields a larger 
 crop ; it is also much later in the produc- 
 tion of foliage in the spring, and the latter 
 math is very deficient. 
 
 It flowers in the second week of June, 
 and the seed is ripe about the middle or 
 end of July. 
 
 Festuca duriuscula. Hard fescue. Pa- 
 nicle unilateral, oblong, much spreading 
 when in flower ; florets longer than their 
 awns ; stem round, upper leaves flat, root fi- 
 brous, perennial ; scarcely creeping, though 
 sometimes throwing out short lateral shoots. 
 Stem 1^ or 2 feet high, erect, leafy, stri- 
 ated, smooth. {Eng. F lor. vol. i. p. 141.) 
 The hard fescue early attains to maturity ; 
 the culms are succulent and nutritious ; it 
 grows quickly after being cropped, and 
 springs pretty early. From the above de- 
 tails, although very deficient in the weight 
 of produce, it appears to be one of the 
 chief of the fine or dwarf-growing grasses. 
 This grass is most prevalent on light rich 
 soils ; but it is also continually found in the 
 461 
 
 richest natural pastures where .the soil is 
 retentive of moisture, and is never absent 
 from irrigated meadows that have been 
 properly formed. It attains to the greatest 
 perfection when combined with the F. pra- 
 tensis and Poa trivialis. From its property 
 of withstanding drought in rich natural pas- 
 tures better than many other grasses, added 
 to the merits above-mentioned, this grass is 
 entitled to a place in the composition of the 
 best pastures, but not in any very large pro- 
 portion on account of its inferior produc- 
 tive powers. 
 
 When cultivated on a poor silicious soil, 
 or on a thin heath soil, the culms become 
 very fine and slender, and promise to be 
 valuable for the manufacture of straw hats. 
 This grass flowers about the middle of June, 
 and the seed is ripe late in July. 
 
 Festuca elatior, var. fertilis. Fertile- 
 seeded tall fescue-grass. This is a coarse 
 but nutritious grass, forming sometimes a 
 considerable proportion of the crop of 
 marsh land hay. Root somewhat creeping, 
 with downy fibres penetrating deeply into 
 the mud or clay. Stem about 4 feet high, 
 reedy, striated, smooth, and leafy. Panicle 
 a foot or more in length, repeatedly com- 
 pound, spreading widely. Every part is 
 nearly twice the size of F. pratensis. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 149.) This grass differs 
 from the common variety of tall fescue in 
 having the panicle somewhat drooping ; 
 spikelets six-flowered, more ovate and flat ; 
 the larger husks of the calyx often uncover- 
 ed, and the awn is fixed on the apex more in 
 the manner of a bromus than of a fescue. 
 Leaves smoother, and of a less dark green 
 colour. For damp soils, that cannot con- 
 veniently be thoroughly drained, this would 
 be a most valuable plant, either to be cut 
 for soiling, or made into hay, and reduced 
 to chaff as it might be wanted. This grass 
 (which is nearly allied to the common F. 
 elatior, next to be described) perfects an 
 abundance of seed (though not entirely 
 free from diseased portions), and is there- 
 fore not liable to the objection which takes 
 so much from the value of that variety. It 
 is equally early in the produce of foliage, 
 and the nutritive properties are about the 
 same. It flowers early in July, and the 
 seed is ripe in the first week in August. 
 
 Festuca elatior, var. sterilis. Barren- 
 seeded tall fescue. This species greatly 
 resembles the F. pratensis, but is larger in 
 every respect, and flowers eight or ten 
 days later. The panicle of the pratensis is 
 upright at first, afterwards drooping ; while 
 the panicle of the elatior is drooping at first, 
 and afterwards erect ; spikelets of a green 
 and purple colour, cylindrical, generally 
 awned ; leaves rougher and less pointed than 
 
FESTUCA. 
 
 those of the F. pratensis. Root perennial, 
 fibrous. This is a grass admirably adapted 
 for tenacious clay soils, and might be culti- 
 vated with advantage by the farmer com- 
 bined with some of the other highly pro- 
 ductive grasses, in such moist spots of the 
 soil as are peculiarly suited to the growth 
 of this species, although less fitted for the 
 growth of proper pasture grasses. It is 
 nutritive and very productive, and one of 
 the first grasses in the production of foliage 
 early in spring. The produce, like that of 
 all grasses which yield a great weight of 
 crop, may be considered coarse when com- 
 pared with the F. pratensis and Alopecuris 
 pratensis ; but this objection may be over- 
 come by reducing the hay to chaff, and 
 mixing it with clover-hay. The nutritive 
 matter contains but little bitter extractive 
 or saline matter, while the clover contains 
 an excess. It flowers in the second week in 
 July ; the seed is universally affected with 
 the disease termed davits, and consequently 
 tinfertile ; it can only, therefore, be propa- 
 gated by parting and planting the roots. 
 
 Festuca gigantea. Tall fescue -grass. 
 Root fibrous, perennial, fibres woody; 
 from two to four feet high, erect, naked, 
 round, striated, smooth ; leaves sword- 
 shaped, dark green, a foot and a half long ; 
 panicle nodding at the top ; awns somewhat 
 flexuose, longer than the husks. This species 
 is confined to woods in its natural state; 
 but it continues in the soil, and appears to 
 thrive equally well when cultivated in open 
 situations. It is a coarse grass, and but 
 little nutritive, although greatly superior to 
 the spiked and wood fescue grasses. The 
 seeds are eaten by birds ; and this appears 
 to be the chief use of the plant, its large 
 structure being apparently intended to en- 
 able it to perfect its seed among bushes, 
 where it would else be choked up. It flowers 
 late in June, and the seed is ripe towards 
 the close of July. 
 
 Festuca glabra, var. Smooth fescue. Pa- 
 nicle branched, upright, compact ; spikelets 
 spear-shaped, 4-6-flowered, smooth, awned ; 
 root fibrous ; perennial. This grass is nearly 
 allied to the F. duriuscula and F. rubra. 
 According to Sir J. Smith, it is a variety of 
 the last-named. It differs in having the 
 awns longer ; panicles, branches, and spike- 
 lets smoother ; spikelets shining; root scarcely 
 creeping ; root-leaves much longer. The 
 distinction of creeping root is sufficient to 
 guide the agriculturist in this instance, for 
 the varieties of the creeping-rooted species 
 ore all to be rejected as less desirable for 
 cultivation; and among the fibrous-rooted 
 varieties of the F. duriuscula, there is not 
 so great a difference in their comparative 
 ralue as to lender the adoption of one for 
 462 
 
 the other of so much importance as in many 
 other instances, where the distinctions are 
 equally minute. From the trials made with 
 this grass, it seems to be inferior both in 
 produce and nutritive matter to the F. du- 
 riuscula, but is superior in regard to early 
 produce, and the herbage is uncommonly 
 fine and succulent. These merits, however, 
 appear hardly sufficient to compensate for 
 the deficiency of produce. If it be com- 
 pared with some of the early grasses, An- 
 thoxanthum odoratum, for instance, it will be 
 found superior in nutritive matter in the 
 proportion of about one third. While this 
 grass cannot be recommended in preference 
 to the F. duriuscula, yet, among the fine- 
 leaved fescues, it will be found the best sub- 
 stitute for that species when wanting. It 
 is not so common as the F. duriuscula, being 
 more confined to the moist spots of pastures, 
 although occasionally found also on the 
 drier places in company with it. It comes 
 into flower about the middle of June, and 
 the seed is ripe about the middle of July. 
 
 Festuca glauca. Glaucous fescue-grass. 
 Panicle rather spreading ; spikelets spear- 
 shaped, awned ; culms and leaves smooth ; 
 whole plant glaucous ; root perennial, fi- 
 brous. Mr. Curtis, in his enumeration of 
 British grasses, mentions this grass as indi- 
 genous ; but it is very rare to meet with it 
 in its natural state. There is a variety of 
 this species with subulate leaves, which 
 grow in dense tufts. Every part of the plant 
 is smaller than the first variety, and, from a 
 difference in the shade of colour, it may be 
 called var. glaucescens. Unlike the Poa 
 trivialis, and some other grasses, the yield 
 of dry produce is no greater when the seed 
 is ripe than at the time of flowering, which 
 affords one out of many proofs that might 
 be advanced, of the value of the culms in 
 grasses intended for hay. The culms, at 
 the time of flowering, are of a very succu- 
 lent nature ; but from that period until the 
 seed be perfected, they gradually become 
 dry and wiry ; and neither in the root, 
 leaves, or any other part of the plant, ex- 
 cept the seeds and roots, does any apparent 
 increase take place. 
 
 The F. glauca is a native of alpine situ- 
 ations, but thrives better when cultivated 
 on lower ground than most other species 
 having the same origin. Although its 
 merits do not appear sufficiently great to 
 entitle it to a prominent place among the 
 superior grasses for light soils, yet its 
 hardy and nutritive nature, and property 
 of forming a thick turf, prevent it from 
 being altogether rejected as of no value. 
 It llowers in the second week of June, and 
 the seed is ripe about the first week of J uly. 
 
 Festuca loliacca. Darnel-like fescue- 
 
FESTUCA. 
 
 grass. Spike two-ranked, drooping ; spike- 
 lets nearly sessile, linear-oblong; florets 
 cylindrical, awnless, pointed with fine slight 
 ribs at the top. Root fibrous, perennial. 
 At a casual glance this grass bears a near 
 resemblance to the Lolium perenne (rye- 
 grass), and affects the same kind of soil ; 
 but, on a more minute inspection, the calyx 
 or outer husk so conspicuous in the spike- 
 lets of the rye-grass, in this grass will be 
 found almost wanting. Another mark of 
 difference is, that in the rye-grass the 
 spikelets are arranged so as to stand facing 
 the spike-stalk ; while in the darnel-like 
 fescue they stand with their back towards 
 it. This grass possesses all the valuable 
 properties of rye-grass, and few of its de- 
 fects. Its produce is larger; it springs 
 earlier and improves by age, which is not 
 the case with common rye-grass. It would, 
 doubtless, be the best substitute for that 
 species in alternate cropping; but, unfor- 
 tunately, it does not perfect a sufficiency of 
 seed, the flowers generally proving abortive, 
 which renders its propagation inconvenient 
 and expensive. In rich meadows this grass 
 is very common, particularly where the 
 land is periodically overflown. The darnel- 
 like fescue flowers in the close of June, and 
 the seed (if any) is ripe in the third week 
 of July. 
 
 Festuca myurus. Wall-fescue, Capon's- 
 tail-grass. Panicle drooping, elongated, 
 rather close ; florets tapering, shorter than 
 their awns, rough at the top ; leaves awl- 
 shaped ; stem leafy to the very summit. It 
 is, perhaps, the " trembling rye-grass " of 
 poets. Root annual {Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 143.). The flowers have only one sta- 
 men, which distinguishes it from all other 
 species of fescue. This grass has great 
 affinity to the barren fescue (F. bromoides), 
 but the whole plant is larger and stouter, 
 the stem clothed with leaves to the top, and 
 the panicle four times as long. The inner 
 valve of the blossom is fringed towards the 
 top ; the awns are longer than those of the 
 F. bromoides. This grass is found on walls, 
 and dry, barren, sandy places. As soon as 
 the seeds are ripe, they fall out of the husks, 
 and vegetate quickly after, without any 
 covering of earth. The plants are of the 
 finest green colour, and retain their verdure 
 during the winter. This circumstance seems 
 to have led to the supposition that it was a 
 biennial grass. The seeds being numerous, 
 the young plants form a most beautiful 
 dark green turf, surpassing, in this respect, 
 every other grass. But this property de- 
 clines with the spring, when the growth of 
 other grasses becomes general, and before 
 the time of flowering, it is invariably at- 
 tacked with the rust, which renders its pro- 
 463 
 
 duce of small value, even were it . afforded 
 in a quantity sufficient to induce its culti- 
 vation. It flowers in the first week of July, 
 and the seed is ripe about the last day of 
 that month. Birds appear to be very fond 
 of the seed. 
 
 Festuca ovina. Sheep's fescue-grass. 
 Panicle small, erect, unilateral, rather close ; 
 florets 4 or 5, nearly cylindrical, pointed or 
 awned, smooth at the base and at the edges 
 of the inner valve ; stem from 6 to 12 inches 
 high, erect, slender, rather rigid, smooth, 
 leafy below, square in the upper part; 
 leaves very numerous, composing dense 
 tufts, folded, bristle-shaped ; stipulae very- 
 short and obtuse ; {Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 139.) root fibrous, perennial. The awns 
 appear to be an uncertain character in this 
 grass, as it is frequently awnless, and there 
 are varieties of it having awns. All the 
 varieties may, however, be distinguished at 
 first sight from the F. duriuscida, glauca, 
 rubra, &c, to which it is nearest allied, by 
 the compact though simple appearance of 
 the panicle, which more distinctly faces one 
 way. 
 
 Linnaeus affirms that sheep have no re- 
 lish for hills and heaths that are destitute 
 of this grass. Emelin, in his Flora Siberica, 
 also informs us that the Tartars select places 
 for pasturage during the summer where 
 this grass is in the greatest plenty, because 
 it affords a most wholesome food for all 
 sorts of cattle, but chiefly sheep. Dr. An- 
 derson, in his Agricultural Essays, affirms 
 that it is capable of affording an immense 
 quantity of hay. Mr. Curtis, however, in his 
 Practical Observations on British Grasses, 
 very justly combats this opinion, and as- 
 serts that it is more fitted for forming grass- 
 plats ; but even for this purpose it will only 
 succeed on soils which are nearly as dry and 
 light as that on which it is spontaneously 
 produced. From trials which have been 
 made, the sheep's fescue does not appear 
 to possess the nutritive powers usually 
 ascribed to it. It has, however, the advan- 
 tage of a fine and succulent foliage, and 
 may, on that account, be better adapted to 
 the masticating organs of sheep than the 
 larger grasses, whose nutritive powers are 
 greater. Hence it may be of some value as 
 a pasture for sheep, in situations where it 
 grows naturally. It flowers in the third 
 week of J une, and ripens the seed about the 
 last day of July. 
 
 Festuca ovina hordeiformis. Long-awned 
 sheep's fescue-grass. Panicle compact ; 
 branches subdivided, upright. Spikelets 
 crowded, 6-10-flowered. Root-leaves thread- 
 shaped, stem-leaves very long. Root fibrous, 
 perennial. This grass is much superior to 
 the F. ovina, of which it is considered a 
 
FESTUCA. 
 
 variety. It flowers earlier than any of the 
 other fescues, and appears to possess suffi- 
 cient merit to entitle it to a place in the 
 composition of the best pastures, particu- 
 larly as a substitute for the F. cluriuscula, 
 on soils of a drier or sandy nature. Its 
 nutritive qualities are nearly the same as 
 those of the F. duriuscula, but it is superior 
 to that species, and to most others, in the 
 produce of early herbage in the spring ; | 
 and the herbage is very fine, tender, and 
 succulent. The culms are well adapted for 
 the manufacture of the finest straw plait, 
 being very distant in the joints, and of an 
 equal thickness throughout. This grass 
 flowers in the last week of May, and the 
 seed is ripe in June. 
 
 Festuca pinnata. Spiked heath fescue- 
 grass. This is the winged-spiked brome- 
 grass of some botanists, and seems to con- 
 nect the bromes and fescues in a natural 
 series. Spike simple, erect, two-ranked ; 
 spikelets nearly cylindrical, a little distant, 
 awned ; awns after flowering a little spread- 
 ing, shorter than the husks ; leaves nearly 
 smooth ; root perennial, scaly, rather creep- 
 ing. It is found sometimes in open fields and 
 heaths, on a chalky soil, but grows chiefly 
 in dry, hilly woodlands, particularly where 
 the soil is calcareous. This grass cannot as 
 yet be considered in any other light than a 
 noxious weed ; for though the weight of the 
 produce is considerable, it is neither early, 
 nor nutritive, nor relished by cattle. This, 
 and the F. sylvatica, which is also an inhabit- 
 ant of woods where the soil is silicious, may 
 be considered the least useful of the British 
 grasses. It flowers about the third week 
 of July, and ripens the seed late in August. 
 
 Festuca pratens is. Meadow fescue-grass. 
 Panicle nearly upright, branched, spread- 
 ing, turned to one side ; spikelets linear, 
 compressed ; florets numerous, cylindrical, 
 obscurely ribbed ; nectary four-cleft ; root 
 fibrous, perennial. 
 
 Dr. Withering makes this grass a variety 
 of the F. elatior ; but it is more justly made 
 a distinct species by Sir J. E. Smith. It 
 differs from the F. elatior in being only 
 half as high, the leaves only half as broad, 
 and the panicle shorter, and containing only 
 half the number of flowers. The panicle is 
 but once branched, droops but slightly, and 
 leans to one side when in flower, and the 
 flowers grow all one way. In the elatior 
 the panicle branches both ways, it droops 
 much at first, and the flowers grow more 
 loosely ; the spikelets are rounder, ovate, 
 and pointed, while in the pratensis they are 
 somewhat linear, flat, and obtuse. 
 
 Tin- F. pratensis is eaten by horses, cattle, 
 and sliccp, which are all very partial to it. 
 In point of early produce in the spring, this 
 4(\4 
 
 grass stands next to the meadow fox-tail, 
 {Alopecurus pratensis) and is superior in this 
 respect to the cock's-foot. 
 
 The meadow fescue constitutes a very 
 considerable portion of the herbage of all 
 rich natural pastures and irrigated mea- 
 dows ; it makes excellent hay, and though a 
 large plant, yet the herbage is succulent and 
 tender, and much relished by cattle, as it 
 does not form rank tufts like the larger 
 grasses. Although essential for permanent 
 pasture, yet this grass is not by itself very 
 adapted for the alternate husbandry, but 
 should be combined with cock's-foot, rye- 
 grass, and rough -stalked meadow-grass. 
 The F. pratensis is not so abundant in the 
 deep alluvial soils of Lincoln, as in the clay 
 districts. In the vale of Aylesbury it con- 
 stitutes a considerable portion of the most 
 valuable and fattening pastures of that rich 
 grazing district. Mr. Taunton's experience 
 of this grass grown on a stiff clayey soil, 
 proved that a copious crop of seed- stalks 
 may be obtained the second year from sow- 
 ing. It flowers in June, and ripens the seed 
 late in July, or early in the following month. 
 
 Festuca rubra. Creeping or purple fes- 
 cue-grass. Panicle unilateral, spreading ; 
 florets longer than their awns ; leaves downy 
 on the upper side, more or less involute; 
 root perennial, extensively creeping, on 
 the sea coast often extending to many feet 
 or even yards in length. There are two 
 varieties of this species ; one with narrow 
 bristle-shaped root-leaves, and the other 
 with broader leaves. It has much affinity 
 to the F. cluriuscula, from which it is how- 
 ever distinguished by the leaves, which are 
 broader and longer, and the branches of the 
 panicle are also longer ; the sheaths of the 
 leaves are always more or less pubescent ; 
 — but the essential and unerring distinc- 
 tion is the creeping root, which in the 
 broader-leaved variety is nearly as strong 
 as that of common couch-grass ; in the 
 smaller-leaved variety the root is less power- 
 fully creeping. The resemblance which 
 exists between the F. cluriuscula, F. glabra, 
 F. Cambrica, and F. rubra is very great ; 
 but there is not much difference with re- 
 gard to their comparative value and merits, 
 except the distinction of the creeping root 
 of the latter, which is of the most conse- 
 quence to the farmer. 
 
 From the detailed table of experiments 
 on the next page, it will be seen that the 
 creeping fescue has no sufficient merit over 
 those species it resembles in habit, to com- 
 pensate for the impoverishing effects of its 
 creeping roots to the soil. This grass 
 flowers in the third week of June, and the 
 seed is ripe in the second week of July. 
 
 Festuca sylvatica. Slender wood fescuei 
 
FESTUCA. 
 
 grass, or the wood brome-grass of some bo- 
 tanists. Spike simple, drooping ; spikelets 
 distant, nearly cylindrical, turned to one 
 side ; awns longer than the glumes or husks ; 
 leaves bright green, spreading, pointed, 
 rough, more or less hairy ; root fibrous, 
 perennial. This species appears to be nearly 
 allied to the F. pinnata, but the distinction 
 is nevertheless obvious : in this the spike 
 stalk is nodding, in that erect ; the awns of 
 the F. piniiata are shorter than the blossom ; 
 those of the F. sylvatica are longer. The 
 root of the former is creeping, but this grass 
 has a fibrous root. The general appearance 
 of both these grasses promises but little to 
 reward the labours of the experimentalist. 
 The natural place of growth of the F. syl- 
 vatica is in woods, hedges, and damp shady 
 places. Oxen, horses, and sheep refuse this 
 grass when offered to them. Hares and 
 rabbits only crop the extremities of the 
 leaves during deep snows and severe frosts ; 
 and even birds seem to neglect the seeds, 
 until every other resource fails. This grass 
 
 flowers in the second week of July,' and the 
 Beed is perfected about the first week of 
 August. It is very subject to the rust at 
 the time of flowering. 
 
 Festuca uniglumis. Single-husked fescue- 
 grass. Panicle erect, nearly simple ; spike- 
 lets erect, or a little turned to one side ; 
 florets tapering, compressed, awned ; one 
 valve of the calyx very short ; stems several, 
 from 6 to 14 inches high, erect, leafy nearly 
 to the top, simple, very smooth ; leaves 
 acute, somewhat involute, furrowed and 
 often hairy on the upper side ; root biennial, 
 fibrous, slightly downy. This grass is found 
 on the sandy seacoast, chiefly of Sussex ; it 
 possesses no agricultural merits, and Sin- 
 clair does not even notice it. 
 
 The following tabular arrangement is 
 condensed from the extensive and valuable 
 experiments made on these grasses by the 
 late Mr. George Sinclair. There are some 
 few which he has not thought it worth while 
 to submit to trial. {Sinclair's Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. ; Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 
 
 
 Produce per Acre i 
 
 a lbs. 
 
 
 Species of grass. 
 
 Description of Soil. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Green. 
 
 
 Dry. 
 
 
 Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Festuca alopecurus, in flower 
 
 Silicious sand 
 
 8,167 8 
 
 0 
 
 2,624 2 
 
 0 
 
 319 0 
 
 0 
 
 Cambrica, in flower 
 
 Sand 
 
 6,806 4 
 
 0 
 
 2,892 10 
 
 8 
 
 239 .4 
 
 8 
 
 , when seed ripe 
 
 
 13,612 8 
 
 0 
 
 4,083 12 
 
 0 
 
 478 9 
 
 0 
 
 dumetorum, in flower - 
 
 ("Rich black sand, ineum-7 
 i bent on clay J 
 
 10,890 ,0 
 
 0 
 
 5,445 0 
 
 0 
 
 170 2 
 
 8 
 
 , when seed ripe 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 0 
 
 2,858 10 
 
 0 
 
 223 5 
 
 4 
 
 
 Clayey loom, manured 
 
 18,376 14 
 
 0 
 
 8,269 9 
 
 8 
 
 1,004 15 
 
 12 
 
 — , when seed ripe 
 
 
 19,057 8 
 
 0 
 
 8,575 14 
 
 0 
 
 446 10 
 
 9 
 
 elattor, v&r.fertilis, in flower - 
 
 f Black sand}- loam, incum- 1 
 (_ bent on clay J 
 
 54,450 0 
 
 0 
 
 23,821 14 
 
 0 
 
 4,253 14 
 
 0 
 
 , var. sterilis, in flower - 
 
 Black rich loam 
 
 51,046 14 
 
 0 
 
 17,866 6 
 
 8 
 
 3,988 0 
 
 9 
 
 ■ — — , seed ripe - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,392 13 
 
 2 
 
 gigantea, in flower 
 
 Rich silicious sand 
 
 27,225 0 
 
 0 
 
 1,063 7 
 
 0 
 
 837 7 
 
 11 
 
 glabra, in flower 
 
 Sandy loam with manure 
 
 14,293 2 
 
 0 
 
 5,717 4 
 
 0 
 
 446 10 
 
 9 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 0 
 
 3,811 8 
 
 0 
 
 186 1 
 
 0 
 
 glauca, in flower 
 
 Brown loam 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 0 
 
 3,811 8 
 
 0 
 
 446 10 
 
 0 
 
 — — — , seed ripe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 223 5 
 
 4 
 
 loliacea, in flower 
 
 Rich brown loam 
 
 16,335 0 
 
 0 
 
 7,146 9 
 
 0 
 
 765 11 
 
 0 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 
 10,890 0 
 
 
 4.492 2 
 
 0 
 
 553 2 
 
 0 
 
 myurus, in flower 
 
 Silicious sand 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 § 
 
 2.858 10 
 
 0 
 
 223 5 
 
 1 
 
 ovina, in flower ... 
 
 Light sand 
 
 5,445 0 
 
 0 
 
 212 11 
 
 0 
 
 66 7 
 
 0 
 
 , when seed ripe - 
 
 o. hordeiformis, in flower 
 
 1 S eed ripe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 127 9 
 
 0 
 
 Sand with manure 
 
 13,612 8 
 
 0 
 
 4/83 12 
 
 0 
 
 478 9 
 
 0 
 
 
 9,528 12 
 
 
 3,81 1 8 
 
 0 
 
 260 13 
 
 0 
 
 pinnata, in flower 
 
 Silicious sand manured 
 
 20,418 12 
 
 
 8,107 8 
 
 0 
 
 398 12 
 
 0 
 
 pratensis, in flower 
 
 5"Fertile peat manured with 7 
 l_ coal ashes J 
 
 13,012 8 
 
 0 
 
 6,465 15 
 
 0 
 
 957 2 
 
 1 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 
 19,057 8 
 
 0 
 
 7,623 0 
 
 0 
 
 446 10 
 
 9 
 
 
 Light sand 
 
 10,209 6 
 
 0 
 
 4.338 15 
 
 0 
 
 239 4 
 
 0 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 
 10,890 0 
 
 0 
 
 4.900 8 
 
 0 
 
 340 5 
 
 0 
 
 sylvatica, in flower 
 
 Rich silicious sandy loam 
 
 20,418 12 
 
 0 
 
 8,107 8 
 
 0 
 
 038 1 
 
 6 
 
 vivipara, in flower 
 
 Light sand" 
 
 6,806 4 
 
 0 
 
 
 
 283 9 
 
 0 
 
 Festuca vivipara. Viviparous fescue- 
 grass. Panicle unilateral, rather close ; 
 florets compressed, keeled, awnless, some- 
 what downy, as well as the edges of their 
 inner valve and the calyx ; stem square ; 
 leaves folded, bristle-shaped, smooth. The 
 roots, leaves, and general habit nearly agree 
 with the F. ovina, of which most botanists 
 have esteemed this a variety. This grass 
 forms a curious exception to the general 
 465 
 
 law of nature in the propagation of plants 
 by their seed. It has every part of a flower, 
 except the two most essential ones, for its 
 propagation, namely stamens and pistils. 
 Yet from this imperfect flower it produces 
 perfect plants. The rudiment of the future 
 paint originates in the upper floret of each 
 spikelet, and in its first stage appears like 
 a minute globule of water, scarcely visible to 
 the naked eye ; but after the spike is deve- 
 
 H H 
 
FETLOCK. 
 
 FEVERFEW. 
 
 loped, it gradually assumes an oblong figure, 
 becomes pointed, and at last puts forth a 
 single leaf, after the manner of perfect seed 
 . of grasses ; other leaves succeed to this, till 
 the weight of these (now a perfect plant of 
 grass, except the root) forces it to fall 
 from the spike to the ground, or bends 
 down the spike, where it soon strikes root. 
 This grass continues viviparous on all soils. 
 Many other grasses are viviparous, as Alo- 
 pecurus pralensis, Cynosurus cristatus, Poa 
 alpina, Phlcurn pratense, Anthoxanthum odo- 
 ratum, &c; but in these the seed is first 
 perfected, and merely vegetates in the husk 
 from accidental circumstances, such as grow- 
 ing in shaded places, and from long con- 
 tinuance of moist warm weather. . 
 
 This grass, which is natural to alpine situ- 
 ations, can only be propagated by parting 
 the roots, or by planting the young plants 
 formed in the ear. But from the trials that 
 have been made of it, it appears to have 
 no excellence that can recommend it to the 
 notice of the agriculturist. 
 
 FETLOCK. In horsemanship, the part 
 of the leg where the tuft of hair grows be- 
 hind the pastern joint of horses ; those of 
 low size have scarcely any tuft. In work- 
 ing horses, which have them large with 
 much hair, care should be taken to keep 
 them clean, in order to prevent the grease. 
 The fetlock joint is a very complicated one, 
 and from the stress which is laid on it, and 
 its being the principal seat of motion below 
 the knee, it is particularly subject to in- 
 jury. An affection of this part should be 
 well fomented and immediately blistered. — - 
 (The Horse, p. 252. ; Claters Far. p. 258.) 
 
 FETTER. A term applied to the chain 
 used for confining the legs of animals. 
 
 FEVER. In farriery, a disease that fre- 
 quently attacks horses and cattle, and in 
 which there is an increased quickness of 
 circulation of the blood. Fevers may be of 
 different kinds ; but in that with which 
 horses are the most commonly attacked, 
 the symptoms are, great heat and dryness 
 of the skin, jaws, and tongue, restlessness, 
 the creature ranging from one end of the 
 rack or stall to the other ; his flanks beat ; 
 his eyes are red and inflamed ; his tongue 
 parched and dry ; his breath hot, and of a 
 strong smell ; he loses his appetite, and 
 nibbles his hay, but without chewing it, and 
 is frequently smelling to the ground ; the 
 whole body is hotter than ordinary ; he 
 dungs often, little at a time, usually hard, 
 :n id in small bits ; he sometimes stales with 
 difficulty, and his urine is high coloured; 
 lie seems to be thirsty, but only drinks 
 little at a time and often; his pulse beats 
 full and hard. 
 
 The first effort in this kind of fever is 
 4(if) 
 
 bleeding, to the quantity of two or three 
 quarts, if the horse is strong and in good 
 condition, and repeated if necessary ; then 
 give a gentle dose of physic, which may be 
 assisted by a glyster if necessary, then give 
 a fever ball composed of 
 
 1 drachm tartar emetic, 1 drachm of cam- 
 phor ; with linseed meal and treacle sufficient 
 to form a bolus. 
 
 FEVERFEW. (Pyrethrum; from pyr, 
 fire, the roots being hot to the taste.) Of 
 this interesting genus of plants, the Matri- 
 caria of Linnaeus, three species only are in- 
 digenous. 
 
 1 . The common feverfew (P. parthenium), 
 a biennial which grows in waste grounds, 
 hedges, and walls, flowering in June or 
 July. Root tapering, small and white ; 
 stem erect, branched, leafy, round, many 
 flowered, about two feet high ; leaves stalked, 
 of a hoary green, pinnatifid. Flowers nu- 
 merous, like daisies, white or yellowish, in 
 a corymbose panicle, sometimes compound, 
 on long naked stalks, erect, about half an 
 inch broad. The whole plant has a strong 
 disagreeable smell, a bitter taste, and yields 
 a volatile oil by distillation. It was for- 
 merly reckoned tonic, stimulating, and anti- 
 hysterical, and the oil is still regarded as 
 such. It contains much tannic acid ; and 
 in Germany it has been usefully employed 
 in tanning and currying leather. 
 
 2. The corn feverfew, or scentless May 
 weed (P. inodorum), is very common in 
 cultivated fields, and by waysides, or gra- 
 velly soils. Root tapering, rather large, 
 annual, flowering in August or September. 
 Herb nearly destitute of the peculiar agree- 
 able or disagreeable odours of its tribe. 
 Stem branched, spreading, leafy, angular, 
 smooth. Leaves sessile, pinnate. Flowers 
 as in the last. The seeds crowned with a 
 membrane, the best diagnostic character of 
 the species. 
 
 3. The sea feverfew (P. maritinum), a 
 perennial, flowering in July or August, is 
 found on the sea coast in sandy or stony 
 ground. The thick, woody, long-enduring 
 root runs deep into the ground, producing 
 a number of hollow stems, spreading cir- 
 cularly on the ground, often tinged with 
 purple. Leaves crowded, sessile, doubly 
 pinnate, of a dark shining green ; crown of 
 the seeds lobed ; stem diffuse. Flowers not 
 quite so broad as those of P. inodorum. 
 The whole herb is slightly aromatic. 
 
 The common wild chamomile, Matricaria 
 chamomilla, was formerly classed as a fever- 
 few. The greenhouse kinds of feverfew grow 
 in any rich light soil, and young cuttings 
 root readily when planted under ;i glass. 
 Any common soil suits the hardy kinds, which 
 are increased by divisions or seeds. It pos- 
 
FEY. 
 
 FIELDVOLE. 
 
 sesses the properties of the real chamomile 
 in a marked degree, and might be substi- 
 tuted for it as a medicinal agent. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 451.) 
 
 FEY. A provincial word signifying to 
 winnow grain with the natural wind ; and 
 also to clean wells or ponds. 
 
 FIAR. A word of Gothic origin, ap- 
 plied, in the northern parts of the island, to 
 certain averaged returns of the prices of 
 grain for the current year in the different 
 counties, which are fixed by the sheriffs 
 respectively, with the assistance of juries, 
 in the month of February. When the jury 
 has been called, evidence of the prices of 
 the different grains raised in the county 
 must be laid before them ; and the averages 
 struck by the jury and sanctioned by the 
 judge are termed the fiars of the year in 
 which they are struck, and regulate the 
 prices of all grain stipulated to be sold at 
 the fiar prices. These fiars also regulate 
 (where no price has been otherwise agreed 
 upon) the contract price upon delivery for 
 grain grown in the county. Having the 
 prices of grain, &c. ascertained in each 
 county has greatly facilitated the introduc- 
 tion into Scotland of the practice of letting 
 land for corn rents, convertible at the prices 
 of the day. In England, where there are 
 no such authentic local returns, there is 
 great difficulty in converting corn rents 
 into money rents, as reference can only be 
 made to the prices of some particular mar- 
 ket, which would be too limited a criterion, 
 or in the kingdom at large, which, on the 
 other hand, would be too extensive. (Bell's 
 Law Diet.) 
 
 FIELD. (Sax. pelb; Qevm.feld; Dutch, 
 veld.) A portion of land enclosed by a 
 fence, or rendered distinct by some line of 
 separation, and set apart either for tillage or 
 pasture. In former times, and until within the 
 last two centuries, almost all the land cul- 
 tivated with the plough throughout Europe 
 was unenclosed; and the term " field" was 
 then applied, in Britain at least, to the lands 
 under culture by the plough. Subse- 
 quently, when farmers enclosed and sub- 
 divided a portion of the lands near the farm- 
 yard, these portions were called fields, and 
 the more distant portion which remained 
 open was called open field, or common field, 
 while grass lands unenclosed were called 
 commons. In the present improved state 
 of agriculture, every farm is divided into 
 fields, either simply by lines of demarcation, 
 which are sufficient when no animals are to 
 be grazed on the farm, or by lines of sepa- 
 ration which will act as fences, such as 
 walls, hedges, ditches, &c, where cattle are 
 to be grazed. Each field on a farm is 
 always known by a particular distinguish- 
 467 
 
 ing name. Without some regular fixed 
 division of arable lands, it would be next to 
 impossible to conduct a rotation or succes- 
 sion of crops. It is interesting to observe 
 that, as agriculture in a rude state had no 
 fences, so this is also beginning to be the 
 case in agriculture in its most refined form; 
 because it is found much more advantage- 
 ous, both for the production of butcher's 
 meat and manure, to consume the grass 
 and herbage grown on farm lands in farm 
 yards, with the single exception of that por- 
 tion which is eaten by sheep ; and these are 
 now often merely confined to successive 
 portions of grass and other green crop lands 
 by light netting or hurdles, scarcely visible 
 at a short distance. (See Folding.) By 
 thus getting rid, to a more considerable 
 extent, of fences of every description, from 
 a tenth to a fifth will be added to the con- 
 tents of the greater number of corn farms ; 
 and a very considerable first cost and an- 
 nual expense will be saved in planting 
 hedges or building walls, and in keeping 
 them in repair afterwards. {Brande's Diet, 
 of Science, Sfc.) 
 
 FIELDFARE. (Turdus pilaris.) A 
 bird of the thrush tribe, which is a seasonal 
 visitant in this island. It seldom makes its 
 appearance before the beginning of Novem- 
 ber, migrating in flocks from the colder 
 northern parts of the continent, numerous 
 according to the severity of the season. 
 The fieldfare leaves us again about Feb- 
 ruary or March, and retires to breed in Swe- 
 den, Russia, and Norway, where they are 
 very plentiful. They fly in a body, and, if 
 the weather continues open and mild, spread 
 themselves over pasture lands in quest of 
 worms, slugs, the larva? of insects, and any 
 other soft-bodied animals ; but on the oc- 
 currence of snow or frost they betake them- 
 selves to the hedges, and feed greedily on 
 haws and various other berries. When the 
 fieldfare breeds in this country, (which is a 
 very rare occurrence,) it fixes its nest, 
 formed of sticks, coarse grass, weeds, and 
 clay, against the trunk of a fir, and lays 
 four to six eggs, of a light blue, mottled 
 with spots of dark-red brown, one inch three 
 lines long by ten lines broad. The call- 
 note of the fieldfare is harsh, but its song is 
 soft and melodious. The whole length of 
 the bird is ten inches ; general colour of the 
 plumage ash-grey, mottled with brown ; 
 chin and throat golden amber, breast red- 
 dish-brown, belly white. (YarrelVs Brit 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 189.) 
 
 FIELD GATE. See Gates. 
 
 FIELD LARK. See Lark. 
 
 FIELD MOUSE. See Fieldvoee. 
 
 FIELDVOLE. (Arvicola agrestis.) A 
 name of the short-tailed field mouse or 
 
 R H 2 
 
FIELD LARK. 
 
 FIGWORT. 
 
 meadow mouse ; a species which subsists 
 exclusively on vegetable productions ; and 
 being, like the rest of" the rat tribe, ex- 
 tremely prolific, multiplies occasionally to 
 such a degree, even in this country, as to 
 become the most injurious of our wild qua- 
 drupeds. " After having followed the la- 
 bours of the reaper, and taken their share of 
 the harvest," the fieldvoles, says Mr. Bell, 
 " attack the newly-sown fields, burrowing 
 beneath the surface, and robbing the hus- 
 bandman of his next year's crop, and at 
 length, retreating to the woods and planta- 
 tions, commit such devastations on the 
 young trees as would scarcely be credible, 
 were not the evidence too certain to be 
 doubted. In the years 1813 and 1814, these 
 ravages were so great in the New Forest and 
 the Forest of Dean, as to create consider- 
 able alarm, lest the whole of the young trees 
 in those extensive woods should be de- 
 stroyed by them." A timely and assiduous 
 attention to restraining the increase of this 
 pernicious species, by the aid of terriers, 
 ferrets, and traps, is imperative on those 
 who have the charge of young plantations ; 
 but when the numbers of the fieldvole have 
 surpassed the usual bounds, then it is re- 
 commended to dig holes about a foot in 
 depth, and the same in diameter, taking care 
 to make them much wider at the bottom 
 than at the top, so that the animal once in 
 cannot easily get out again. In holes of 
 this kind, Mr. Jesse states that at least thirty 
 thousand fieldvoles were caught in the course 
 of three or four months in Dean Forest plan- 
 tations ; that number having been counted 
 out and paid for by the proper officers of 
 the forest. (Brandes Diet, of Science.) 
 
 FIG. (Ficus.) The genus to which the 
 common fig-tree belongs is of considerable 
 extent ; and its species are among the most 
 noble objects belonging to the vegetable 
 kingdom. In tropical countries the trees 
 which yield caoutchouc (India rubber) of 
 the finest quality belong to this species, par- 
 ticularly F. elastica. The celebrated ban- 
 yan-tree (F. religiosa) of India is a kind of 
 fig-tree. It is remarkable that the common 
 fig-tree (F. carica), although it produces 
 so agreeable a fruit, is in some measure 
 poisonous, particularly the milky juice which 
 exudes from the leaves and the branches 
 when wounded, and which is acrid to the 
 taste. The fruit of the fig-tree is of a dif- 
 ferent nature from the orange, apple, and 
 other fleshy seed vessels ; being a hollow re- 
 ceptacle, containing a multitude of minute 
 (lowers ; the ripe fruit of which is the seed, 
 as ii is wrongly called, that is imbedded in 
 the pulp. The fig is a native of Asia and 
 Barbary, and also inhabits the south of 
 Europe; according to the Hortus Kcwensis, 
 4G8 
 
 it was first planted in this country in 1548- 
 The varieties in fig coiintries are almost as 
 numerous as those of the grape. Those 
 held most in esteem in England are the 
 brown chestnut-coloured Ischia, the black 
 Genoa fig, the small white early fig, the 
 large white Genoa fig, the black Ischia, 
 brown and black small Italian fio- s , the 
 Malta fig, the Murrey or brown Naples fig, 
 the green Ischia, the Madonna, the Bruns- 
 wick or Hanover fig, the common blue or 
 purple fig, the long brown Naples fig, the 
 small brown Ischia fig, the yellow Ischia fig, 
 and the Gentile fig. According to Forsyth, 
 the figs proper for a small garden are the 
 large white Genoa, the early white, the 
 Murrey fig, the small brown Ischia, and the 
 black Ischia. Figs may be propagated from 
 seed, cuttings, layers, suckers, roots, and by 
 ingrafting; the most generally approved me- 
 thod is by layers or cuttings, which come 
 into bearing the first or second year. Stand- 
 ard fig-trees require protection during win- 
 ter, and should be covered with matting, 
 reed, pease-haulm, straw, or any other 
 light covering. 
 
 The only orchards of standard fig-trees in 
 England are at Tarring and Sompton, near 
 Worthing : the produce is great, and the 
 figs of a very superior quality. The fig has 
 been analysed by Bley, and found to con- 
 tain the following substances, 62-5 of sugar, 
 0*9 fatty matter, 0'4 extractive with chloride 
 of calcium, 5*2 gum with phosphoric acid, 
 150*0 woody fibre and seeds (achenia). Figs 
 are nutritive and laxative. The oldest ca- 
 taplasm on record was composed of figs. 
 In the illness of Hezekiah, Isaiah said, " Take 
 a lump of figs ; and they took and laid it 
 on the boil, and he recovered." (2 Kings, 
 chap. xx.; Loudon's Ency. of Gard.; Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.') 
 
 FIGWORT. (Scrophularia.) There are 
 four kinds of indigenous figwort, all peren- 
 nial; the herbaceous part is foetid, smooth 
 or downy, sometimes shrubby ; stem tall, 
 erect, more or less acutely quadrangular, 
 leafy, panicled ; leaves opposite, serrated, 
 simple or pinnate. Flowers numerous, 
 usually with dark coloured tips, sometimes 
 altogether yellow. The species of figwort 
 are all of the easiest culture, growing freely 
 in a light soil, preferring moisture ; they 
 may be propagated by seed. The shrubby 
 species require protection in winter : they 
 are, 1. The knotty-rooted figwort (S. no- 
 dosa), which grows in woods and moist 
 hedges. 2. Water figwort or water betony 
 (S. aquatica), found in wet meadows, the 
 margin of pools and rivers, and ot her wet 
 places. 3. Balm-leaved figwort (S. scoro- 
 donia), a very rare species, growing on the 
 banks of rivulets in the south. This plant 
 
FILBERT. 
 
 FIORIN GRASS. 
 
 is reputed by some authors to be an effica- 
 cious remedy for scrofulous ulcers. The 
 leaves, as a poultice, is useful in piles. An 
 ointment made with the juice is used in 
 some scurfy affections of the skin. The 
 leaves are acrid, and when taken internally 
 they are poisonous. 4. Yellow figwort (S. 
 ve?-nalis), also a rare species, met with 
 sometimes in thickets, under hedges, and 
 other shady places. The two first species 
 are attenuating, and used in scrofula. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 137. ; Paxton's Bot. Diet.) 
 
 FILBERT, or FILBERD. (Corylus 
 avellana, so named from Abella or Avella, a 
 town of Campania, where the best were 
 cultivated. Pliny, b. xv. c. 22.) This well- 
 known fruit of the cultivated hazel nut is 
 a .seed vessel inclosed within an involucre 
 or husk. This organ is of the same nature 
 as the cup of the acorn, and the prickly 
 case in which the nuts of the sweet chestnut 
 and the beech mast are enclosed. In the 
 filbert the shell or husk is much longer 
 than in the common nut ; and this character, 
 with the lengthened shape of the nut, dis- 
 tinguishes the two races of nuts andfilberts, 
 of each of which there are numerous va- 
 rieties. The best known varieties of the 
 filbert are the white, the red, and the friz- 
 zled. The white is the kind most com- 
 monly grown in this country. In the 
 neighbourhood of Kent many hundred acres 
 are planted with filberts, for which the 
 county is celebrated, and whence the Lon- 
 don market is principally supplied. When 
 quite ripe, filberts will keep for several 
 years in a dry room ; and if the air is ex- 
 cluded, or the nuts placed in an air-tight 
 jar, they will keep good and retain their 
 flavour for an indefinite period. (Phillips* 
 Hist, of Fruits ; Brande's Diet.) 
 
 FILLER, or THILLER. A term pro- 
 vincially applied to the horse which is fast- 
 ened immediately to the cart, and which 
 supports the shafts. It is most commonly 
 written thiller. 
 
 FILLY. A young mare, or female of the 
 horse kind. 
 
 FILMY-FERN, TUNBRIDGE. (Hy- 
 men ophyllum Tunbridgense ; from hymen, a 
 membrane, and phyllon, a leaf ; alluding to 
 the leaves.) The genus to which this species 
 belongs rank among the most elegant of the 
 ferns ; it is a native of wet mossy rocks or 
 trunks of trees, most plentiful in tropical 
 countries. This species is the only one of 
 European growth, and flourishes amongst 
 moss in watery shady places, in the rocky 
 or mountainous parts of Great Britain, and 
 grows in most parts of Europe from Nor- 
 way to Italy. The roots are long, slender, 
 smooth, wiry, creeping horizontally ; fronds 
 scattered, erect, smooth, of a filmy pellucid 
 469 
 
 texture, curling up as they dry ; the stalk 
 wiry, without any wing or border. The 
 filmy ferns thrive .best when grown in small 
 pots, in a mixture of loam and peat, and 
 increase freely by seed, or dividing the 
 roots. (Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 325. ; Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 FIMBLE-IIEMP. A local term for 
 early ripe hemp. 
 
 FIN. A term applied to the sharp or 
 cutting plate, fixed upon a sock or coulter 
 of a plough. It is also a provincial name 
 for the troublesome weed called Rest-harrow. 
 
 FINCH. The common name for a large 
 variety of birds, including, among others, 
 the bullfinch, chaffinch, goldfinch, green- 
 finch, hawfinch, mountain finch, &c. See 
 these separate heads. 
 
 FINCHED, or FINCHBACKED. A 
 term signifying streaked with white in 
 
 ^FINE BENT-GRASS. See Agrostis. 
 
 FINGER GRASS, COCK'S FOOT. 
 (Dactylis sanguinalis, from dactylos, a fin- 
 ger ; the head is divided so as fancifully to 
 resemble fingers.) This is an uninteresting 
 native wild grass, found in sandy cultivated 
 fields, but not common : like all other 
 plants it is variable in its places of growth. 
 Root fibrous ; stems numerous, bent and 
 decumbent at the base, then ascending 
 about a foot long, jointed, with swelling- 
 sheaths, bent with little warts, crowned 
 with bristles. Leaves broad, pointed, stri- 
 ated, wavy at the edges, besprinkled, like 
 their long swelling sheaths, with little warts, 
 many of which bear bristly hairs. Flowers 
 in pairs, dark purplish, erect. The specific 
 name is said to have originated in the use 
 made of this grass in Germany, which is to 
 procure bleeding at the nose by thrusting 
 its spikes up the nostrils. (Eng. Flor. vol. 
 i. p. 96. ; Paxton's Bot. Diet) 
 
 FINGERS AND TOES. The common 
 name for a disease in turnips. See Anbury. 
 
 FIORIN GRASS. A name under which 
 a variety of the longer leaved creeping 
 bent (Agrostis vulgaris, or stolonifera, var. 
 latifolia) was introduced about twenty- 
 seven years ago, by Dr. Richardson of Clon- 
 feale, in the county of Tyrone, Ireland. 
 That gentleman laboured with great zeal, 
 by his writings and practice on a large 
 scale, to prove the superiority of this grass 
 over every other for meadow purposes. 
 One of his modes of propagating florin was 
 to plant the stoles of the grass, which are 
 as vivacious as those of couch grass, on fal- 
 low ground, and thus create "a meadow; 
 but his favourite and most expeditious 
 system was to encourage its spontaneous 
 growth on alluvial and flat peaty ground. 
 Unquestionably Dr. Richardson did ex- 
 II H 3 
 
FIORIN GRASS. 
 
 FIRES. 
 
 hibit extraordinary crops of florin on the 
 level surface of denuded and cut-out bog 
 land of little value, and for several years 
 mowed enormous crops* Fiorin, being one 
 of the indigenous grasses of Ireland, espe- 
 cially on peaty soil, is seen abundantly on 
 the black shallow bogs which have been 
 drained in any degree, and particularly on 
 the margins of pools or ditches. Cows re- 
 lish it much if it be not soured by stagnant 
 water, and yield milk abundantly when fed 
 upon it. However, though it has produced 
 from six to ten tons per acre when top 
 dressed and preserved from the poaching of 
 cattle, the attempt to keep any land under 
 the occupation of this grass for meadows, 
 to the exclusion of all others, has been to- 
 tally abandoned. Two great objections to 
 fiorin are, the difficulties of mowing it, as it 
 lies flat and entangled, and of saving it at 
 the very late season when it is ripe for the 
 scythe. Some writers very erroneously de- 
 scribe the Agrostis alba as fiorin ; and 
 add, " it sometimes passes under the name 
 of black couch grass." I am surprised that 
 any person of experience should mistake 
 fiorin for black couch grass (though the 
 Woburn reports make a similar remark), 
 to which it scarcely bears any resemblance, 
 and from which in some respects it is es- 
 sentially different. Fiorin is a soft silky- 
 like grass, with a very narrow or linear 
 leaf, and, although rough on both sides, yet 
 not creeping, throwing out roots with its 
 joints under the surface : it is very easily 
 pulled out, and has not those knotted and 
 vivacious roots which characterise black 
 couch. The varieties may sometimes be 
 mistaken for one another, but the different 
 species have always some broad distinguish- 
 ing marks of difference. As it is of great 
 importance to the farmer to be able to dis- 
 tinguish fiorin from the other species of 
 bent grass, which are unprofitable and per- 
 nicious weeds, I will here point out a few 
 distinguishing characteristics. In fiorin the 
 body of the seed is covered with the husks 
 of the blossom, which do not open : it is cy- 
 lindrical, but tapers to a point at each end. 
 The seed of the clayey couch grass (A. alba) 
 is very slender and smooth, one half the size 
 only of the fiorin, and more slender than 
 the A. vulgaris. The seed of the A. canina 
 is furnished with a jointed awn of a brown 
 colour, which readily distinguishes it from 
 the other species. There is an awnless va- 
 riety of the A. canina which is distinguished 
 by being shorter and more plump than the 
 fiorin of the clay couch bent. The seed of 
 the A. fascicularis is not one third of the 
 size of that of the fiorin, more rounded at 
 the bottom, and of a light straw colour. 
 The A. palnstria has seed about one fifth 
 470 
 
 shorter than that of the fiorin, of a lighter 
 browncolour, and more plump and rounded. 
 The variety of fiorin called aristata has an 
 awn which distinguishes it at once from 
 the seed of the more valuable variety. The 
 distinguishing characters of the different 
 species of agrostis are well set forth in the 
 late Mr. G. Sinclair's valuable work on 
 grasses; but it would rather tend to perplex 
 than inform were I to attempt any further 
 notice, which must necessarily be a mere 
 abridgment. See Agrostis. (Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. ; Pract. Husb. ; Com. to Board of 
 Agr. vol. vi. p. 108.) 
 
 FIRE BLAST. A term of very doubt- 
 ful meaning, like the word blight, but gene- 
 rally implying an accident to which hops 
 are very liable : it usually occurs in the 
 month of July, and sometimes scorches up 
 whole plantations from one end of the 
 ground to the other, when a hot gleam of 
 sunshine has come immediately after a 
 shower of rain; while at others it only affects 
 them partially, or in a particular portion of 
 the plant. When the lower leaves of hops 
 are shrivelled up and unhealthy, they are 
 said to be fire blasted. This is stated to arise 
 from the want of sufficient nourishment in 
 the root, the whole supply of the sap juice 
 being required to complete the growth of 
 the hops on the top of the pole, but little 
 can return to the lower leaves : this is par- 
 ticularly observable when the hops are 
 ripening, on those hills which have too long 
 a pole put to them. (Brit. Husb. vol. ii. 
 p. 354. ; The Hop Farmer, p. 89.) 
 
 FIRE BOTE. A faggot or quantity of 
 wood bound up for fuel. 
 
 FIRES. Sax. pyn. The legislature has 
 wisely afforded very considerable facilities to 
 the insurance of farming stock. By the act 
 3 & 4 W. 4. c. 23. s. 5. farming stock is exempt- 
 ed from duty. " The Farmer's Insurance 
 Institution" insures it at Is. 9d. per cent., 
 without the average clause ; thus easily re- 
 paired are the ravages of the incendiary, of 
 accidental fires, and lightning. To small 
 farmers and others, also, the legislature, by 
 the 5 & 6 W. 4. c. 64., have increased the 
 facilities for life insurance by reducing the 
 stamp duty for policies under 501. to 2s. 6d., 
 and under 100/. to 5s. All such imposts 
 ought, however, to be entirely abolished, 
 for they are, in fact, as it has been well re- 
 marked, taxes upon prudence. 
 
 The tenant from year to year, in the ab- 
 sence of a special agreement, is neither 
 obliged to insure his landlord's premises, 
 nor is he liable for accidental fires (stat. 
 6 Anne, c. 31.); and if he is prosecuted, 
 and the plaintiff is nonsuited, he shall re- 
 ceive treble costs. When in a lease the co- 
 venant is to insure the property, it usually 
 
FIRES. 
 
 FIRE, CAUSES OF. 
 
 specifies to what amount, or in what office, 
 but " in some sufficient office within the 
 cities of London or Westminster" will suf- 
 fice. (Doe v. Shewin, 3 Campb. 134.) 
 When the covenant is merely to insure, and 
 there is no provision to apply the insurance 
 money in case of fire, this is merely a per- 
 sonal contract; it binds only the covenantor 
 and his representatives, but not an assignee 
 of the term. If the term is forfeited by a 
 breach of the covenant to insure, the Court 
 of Chancery will not relieve the tenant. 
 (White v. Warner, 2 Merr. 459.; Green v. 
 Bridges, 4. Sim. 96.) And it will be a 
 breach of the covenant to insure, the suf- 
 fering the premises to remain uninsured for 
 ever so short a period, even if no damage 
 ensues, such as if he omits to pay the pre- 
 mium within the fifteen days allowed by 
 the office. (Doe v. Shewin, 3 Campb. 137.) 
 
 A tenant has no equity to compel a land- 
 lord who has received money from an in- 
 surance office, to expend it, on the demised 
 premises being burnt down, in rebuilding 
 the premises, or to restrain the landlord 
 from sueing for the rent until the premises 
 are rebuilt. (Leeds v. Cheetham, 1 Sim. 
 146.). See Arson. (Farmer's Almanac.) 
 
 Causes of Fire. Mr. J. Murray has re- 
 cently published a letter in a Liverpool paper 
 on the frequency, causes, and prevention of 
 fire, which contains many facts well worthy 
 of attentive consideration. Among other 
 observations, he says : — 
 
 " There is far too little attention paid to 
 the locomotive engine on our railroads. 
 The ignited coals that fall below are often 
 blown to considerable distances, carried into 
 the adjoining fields, and may, in contact 
 with farming stock, prove a serious evil; 
 and I have witnessed brushwood and tufts 
 of grass consumed by this means. A green 
 taper, coloured as it is by means of oxide 
 of copper, when blown out, acts on an 
 aphlogistic principle, and may continue to 
 the end of the coil in an ignited though 
 nameless state, and, in contact with com- 
 bustible materials, may prove seriously de- 
 structive. It has set a mahogany table on 
 fire — providentially discovered in time. 
 Damp rags, en masse, may spontaneously 
 take fire, and have consumed the premises. 
 Linseed and other oils, but especially that 
 of linseed, have been the fruitful sources of 
 conflagration in cotton factories and the 
 warehouses of the merchants. Nets dipped 
 in oil, and cast over the rafters in an outer 
 shed, set them on fire ; and a bale of cotton 
 wool burst into a flame from linseed oil 
 ' being poured upon it. Even animal mat- 
 ters, such as woollen, under such circum- 
 stances, come within the precincts of danger, 
 I find that strong red fuming nitrous acid 
 
 will set fire to straw ; and an accident of 
 this kind once occurred to myself. The 
 vapour of sulphuric ether, instead of being 
 volatile, and ascending, as is generally sup- 
 posed, falls to the ground like water ; and 
 accidents in the laboratory and shop of the 
 druggist, from ignorance of this fact, are by 
 no means unfrequent. I am personally ac- 
 quainted with three distinct cases, wherein 
 the premises were set on fire originating in 
 this source. Specks or bull's eyes in win- 
 dow glass may, on the principle of burning 
 lens, ignite inflammable substances brought 
 within the limits of their focus ; hence the 
 curtains used in some factories may be 
 easily ignited : thus, too, a water-bottle left 
 in a window may in sunshine be the means 
 of setting premises on fire, especially in a 
 house shut up during the absence of the 
 family ; and I have seen a silk curtain con- 
 sumed to tinder by the concentrated rays 
 of the sun, in passing through the show- 
 bottle in the druggist's window. Spirits of 
 turpentine will inflame if poured out in the 
 hot sunbeam ; and I am informed by the 
 distillers of tar and turpentine that the 
 head of the still cannot be safely removed 
 for thirty hours after the fire has been ex- 
 tinguished, as an explosion might be other- 
 wise anticipated. Lucifers, or Congreve 
 matches, are one of the fruitful sources of 
 fires. Those that are called Dutch, con- 
 taining phosphorus, and having a very 
 foetid phosphoric smell, are exceedingly 
 dangerous : they may ignite spontaneously 
 at the temperature of summer heat ; and it 
 may now suffice to say that a recent con- 
 flagration has been traced to this cause. 
 The cigar and the pipe are pre-eminent 
 sources of modern conflagration ; and I have 
 no doubt that of the seat of the Marquis 
 of Londonderry, and the late one of York 
 Minster, are entirely attributable to the 
 pipe or cigar used by the workmen engaged 
 in repairs. It is not generally known that 
 tobacco contains nitre, and that, like " touch 
 wood," it continues ignited for hours. Fires 
 occurring from this cause are, I apprehend, 
 too notorious to need specific detail. It is 
 clear that the end of a cigar dropped among 
 wood shavings might be fanned into a flame 
 by a current of air ; and tossed from the 
 top of the coach into an adjoining field, and 
 carried by the breeze into a farmer's stack- 
 yard, hay-ricks and wheat stacks may even 
 burst into a flame. I believe many a cigar 
 smoker is an unintentional incendiary." 
 
 Fires in farm yards, also, may originate 
 from quick lime left in a cart under a shed, 
 and moisture getting to it. Heat sufficient to 
 cause combustion is developed. The spon- 
 taneous combustion of haystacks from the 
 dampness of the hay, is a danger to which 
 h h 4 
 
FIRE, CAUSES OF. 
 
 FIR TREE. 
 
 the negligent farmer is often exposed. In 
 our present state of chemical knowledge it 
 is idle to attempt to follow this phenomenon 
 through its course, or explain the reasons 
 for the heat produced in fermentation. As 
 water must be present in fermentation, it 
 is probable that it is decomposed, and it is 
 commonly said that the flame produced is 
 the result of intense chemical action ; but, 
 as Dr. Thomson remarks {System of Chem. 
 vol. iv. p. 364.), " All the phenomena of 
 fermentation lay for many years concealed 
 in complete darkness, and no chemist was 
 bold enough to hazard an attempt even to 
 explain them. They were employed, how- 
 ever, and without hesitation too, in the ex- 
 planation of other phenomena ; as if giving 
 to one process the name of another of which 
 we are equally ignorant, could, in reality, 
 add any thing to our knowledge." 
 
 FIRING. In farriery, an operation per- 
 formed on different parts of the horse, but 
 which is growing into disuse. It is prin- 
 cipally resorted to in bad cases of sprains. 
 In firing about the sinews and nervous parts, 
 great care should be taken not to go too 
 deep, for if the fire once touches the sinew 
 the horse will go lame for life. Firing is 
 sometimes resorted to in cattle, in order to 
 remove bony tumours about the region of 
 the eye, which incommode or obstruct the 
 vision. In general, this operation is per- 
 formed in a manner calculated to excite 
 great pain to the horse. When the iron is 
 white hot, and is rapidly applied, the life of 
 the part is instantly extinguished, and all 
 sensation being destroyed, no pain, except 
 when the iron is approaching the part, is ex- 
 perienced ; but much pain follows the ap- 
 plication of an imperfectly heated iron. 
 
 FIRKIN. A measure of capacity, being 
 the fourth part of a barrel, or containing 
 9 ale gallons, or 7 J imperial gallons ; that is, 
 2538 cubic inches. 
 
 FIRLOT. A dry measure used in Scot- 
 land, but of different capacities, according 
 to the article it is used for measuring : four 
 firlots make a boll. The Linlithgow wheat 
 jirlot is to the imperial bushel as -998 to 1 ; 
 and the barley Jirlot to the imperial bushel 
 as 1-456 to 1. M. Somerville, in his Agri- 
 cultural Survey of East Lothian, says the fir- 
 lot differs in size in the proportion of 21, 25 
 to 31. Wheat, rye, beans, and peas are, he 
 says, sold by the small firlot ; malt, barley, 
 and oats by the large one. Four small fir- 
 lots are equal to 4 087276 Winchester 
 bushels ; four large ones to 5-96263 Win- 
 chester bushels. 
 
 FIR, SCOTCH. See Pines. 
 FIR-TREE. (Lat Abies; Sax. F unh ; 
 Welsh, fyrr; fir-wood.) " The fir, the pine, 
 and the larch," says Mr. Baxter, " con- 
 472 
 
 stitute a perfectly natural genus or family, 
 and, next to the oak, are the most- valu- 
 able of our timber trees ; but, independ- 
 ently of their value in this respect, their 
 beautiful foliage and magnificent appear- 
 ance have at all times rendered them ob- 
 jects of admiration and attention. They 
 constitute the greater part of the natural 
 order Coniferce. The term fir is often in- 
 discriminately applied both to the fir and 
 the pine, or Abies and Pinus, and hence we 
 frequently hear the Scotch pine improperly 
 called the Scotch fir, by those who are un- 
 acquainted with botanical nomenclature. 
 The most obvious and ready character of 
 distinction between the different genera 
 Abies and Pinus is to be found in the na- 
 tural arrangement of the leaves. The firs, 
 (Abies) have the leaves solitary, or issuing 
 from one scale or sheath on the bark of the 
 branches, over which they are scattered." 
 The catkins of male flowers are also solitary, 
 not racemose ; the scales of the cone are 
 imbricated, and thin at the apex, and are all 
 turned to one side. They are further dis- 
 tinguished from the pine by their more 
 pyramidal form. The spruces have also the 
 leaves growing singly round the branches, 
 and all spreading equally. 
 
 The larches have the leaves growing in 
 clusters, which are deciduous. 
 
 The cedars and pines have from two to five 
 leaves issuing from one sheath at their base, 
 growing also in little bundles or tufts, but 
 they are evergreen. Of these four natural 
 tribes, into which the firs resolve themselves, 
 the silver fir may be taken as the repre- 
 sentative of the first, the Norway spruce of 
 the second, the Larch of the third, and the 
 Cedar of Lebanon of the fourth. As all the 
 others are noticed under their separate 
 heads, we have only to confine our attention 
 in this place to the firs. One property is 
 common to all the species of this genus, that 
 of affording resinous matter, either from 
 the wood, bark, or cones. 
 
 The silver fir (A. picea, or pectinatu) is 
 grown in this country for ornament ge- 
 nerally. We call it the silver fir from 
 the colour of its leaves on the under side, 
 which are shorter, broader, and set much 
 thicker on the spray than those of other 
 firs and pines, and have a beautiful sil- 
 very appearance when the under side is 
 viewed, or when the wind turns the branches 
 from the eye ; whilst the upper surface is 
 of the brightest and handsomest green of 
 all the species of fir. It is a fine majestic 
 tree, and the most beautiful, but at the 
 same time the most delicate, of the fir lril>i> 
 usually cultivated in Britain. This tree is 
 very rapid in its growth, and soon attains 
 to a great size ; but the timber is not so 
 
FIR THEE. 
 
 valuable as that of the pins and the spruce 
 fir. It yields, however, Burgundy pitch 
 (whence its name of picea) and Strasburgh 
 turpentine ; and it is much used on the Con- 
 tinent both for carpentry and ship-building. 
 The silver fir likes a deep soft soil, and 
 a sheltered situation. From its extreme 
 tendency to lose its leader it does not ap- 
 
 gear to be well suited for exposed grounds, 
 ome of the finest trees in England are in 
 the vale of Mitcham, between Dorking and 
 Guildford, where the soil is nothing more 
 than a deep soft sand lying on chalk. The 
 well-known disease of the larch, commonly 
 called American blight (see this head), or 
 plant lice, proves fatal to the silver fir. 
 Col. Miller says he has cured the disease 
 with a wash of lime water ; but recommends, 
 in advanced stages of the disease, free and 
 early pruning. This doctrine may startle 
 many wood growers ; but the Colonel, in 
 proof of the soundness of his opinion, adds, 
 that he has adopted it successfully for many 
 years. No large branch should, however, 
 be removed when the tree is near maturity. 
 The Swedes and Norwegians prune their 
 trees freely, and hence the reason why they 
 produce such a large quantity of sound 
 timber, and are so free from knots. A weak 
 solution of spirits of turpentine and to- 
 bacco liquor appears to be a useful wash 
 for the disease. 
 
 2. The balm of Gilead fir (A. balsamea). 
 This is also a delicate ornamental tree, 
 but it rarely attains to any considerable 
 size. This species and the silver fir are 
 often confounded, but may be distinguished 
 thus : " the leaves of the silver fir are 
 arranged nearly on opposite sides of the 
 branch, comb-like. The under sides of the 
 leaves have a white line running lengthwise 
 on each side of the mid-rib, which gives 
 them a silvery hue. The leaves of the 
 balm of Gilead fir are shorter, blunter, and 
 stand nearly upright in double rows, on the 
 upper side of the branches ; while in the 
 silver fir they are flattened and irregularly 
 single-rowed." The balm of Gilead fir is so 
 called because the clear transparent tur- 
 pentine which is obtained from the wounds 
 of this tree is very similar to the true balm 
 of Gilead of the shops, which is the pro- 
 duction of the Balsamadendron Gileadense. 
 It commonly passes under the name of Ca- 
 nadian balsam. The wood of this tree is of 
 a pale yellow colour, and but slightly resin- 
 ous ; its principal use" is to split up into 
 staves for fish barrels, for which the wood of 
 some of the other species is much preferable, 
 
 3. The Norway or spruce fir (A. cxcel- 
 sa), when standing singly, with its regular 
 pyramidal figure, and its long drooping 
 branches reaching to the ground, forms a 
 
 473 
 
 beautiful object; but it does not' thrive 
 well generally in exposed situations. It 
 grows best in moist and springy places, 
 and likes a deep soil. The spruce is 
 readily known by its leaves of one uni- 
 form dull green colour, spread equally 
 round the branches, and by its long pen- 
 dant cones. All these firs may be raised 
 from seed, which can be separated from the 
 cones by moderate heat before a fire, care 
 being taken not to destroy the vegetative 
 power. Or the separation may be facilitated 
 by steeping the cones a few hours in warm 
 water. The seed ripens in December, and 
 the cones, should be preserved till April, 
 which is the proper period for sowing. The 
 seeds must be only covered about half an 
 inch deep. The soil should be tolerably 
 rich. The seedlings must be transplanted 
 the second year ; for if left longer it will 
 be completely spoiled. For the Scotch pine 
 or fir I must refer the reader to the head 
 Pines (Pinus) ; and other information on the 
 subject of firs will also be found under the 
 head Larch. It may, however, be well to 
 enumerate the principal other firs : any- 
 thing like a description in this place would 
 be needless. 
 
 1. Firs. The Siberian silver fir (A. Si- 
 berica). The great Californian fir {A. 
 grandis). The large-bracted fir {A. nobilis). 
 The double balsam fir (A.Frazeri). Webb's 
 fir (A. Webbiana). The hemlock spruce fir 
 (A. Canadensis). The deciduous silver fir 
 (A. Brunoniana). The sacred Mexican fir 
 (A. religiosa). The hairy fir (A. hirtella). 
 The Indian silver fir (A. Smithiana). 
 
 2. Spruces. The oriental fir (A. orien- 
 talis) ; the white spruce fir (A. alba) ; the 
 black, or red, spruce fir (A. nigra) ; the 
 Douglas fir (A. Douglasii) ; the Menzies 
 fir {A. Menziesii). 
 
 3. Larches. The common larch fir {A. 
 larix) ; the red larch fir {A. microcarpa) ; 
 the black larch fir (A.pendula). 
 
 4. Cedars. The cedar of Lebanon fir 
 (A cedrus) ; the sacred Indian fir (A. de- 
 odara). See Cedar or Lebanon. 
 
 A large number of almost unknown va- 
 rieties might be added to the above list. 
 {Baxter s Lib. of Agr. ; Penny Cyclo. ; 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol vi. pp. 505 — 516. ; 
 Phillips's Shrubbery, vol. i. p. 225. ; Tred- 
 gold's Prin. of Carp.) 
 
 FISH. (Lat. Pisces ; Germ. Fische ; Du. 
 Vischer; Dan. and Swed. Fish.) A term 
 used in natural history to denote every 
 variety of animal inhabiting seas, lakes, 
 rivers, ponds, &c. that cannot exist for any 
 considerable time out of the water. But in 
 a commercial point of view, those fishes 
 only are referred to that are caught by man 
 and used either as food, or for some other 
 
FISH. 
 
 useful purpose. Among the most Important 
 of these are the herring, salmon, cod, pil- 
 chard, mackarel, turbot, lobster, oyster, 
 whale, &c. The most natural and popular 
 division of this subject is into fresh and 
 salt-water fish; the former will be found 
 noticed under their separate heads, and 
 with the latter in a work of this character 
 we have little or nothing to do. 
 
 According to Linnaeus, there are about 
 400 species of fish with which naturalists 
 are acquainted, but those yet unknown are 
 supposed to be still numerous, and many 
 species will probably remain for ever un- 
 discovered. The anatomy and physiology 
 of fish offer a wide field of study for the 
 enquiring mind. Their extraordinary fe- 
 cundity is truly astonishing. Having al- 
 ready treated of the different methods of 
 angling for fish, baits, &c, I shall in this 
 place confine myself to a few general ob- 
 servations. Fish in general are less nourish- 
 ing than other animal food, but are not 
 difficult of digestion, when in a fresh state, 
 to a healthy stomach ; but from the large 
 quantity of undissolved egestar, it is irri- 
 tating to a dyspeptic stomach. Except in 
 London and a few sea-port towns, the con- 
 sumption of fish in England is not great. 
 See Breeding Ponds and Fish Ponds. 
 (WillicVs Dom.Ency.; M^Culloclxs Com. 
 Diet.) 
 
 FISH, as a Manure. The fish which 
 are usually employed as manures are sprats, 
 pilchards, herrings, sticklebacks, and whale 
 blubber. These are very rich fertilisers ; 
 the fleshy or muscular portions abounding 
 in oil. The scales are composed of co- 
 agulated albumen and phosphate of lime ; 
 their bones are full of oil, and the solid 
 portion is composed of phosphate of lime 
 and carbonate of lime, in different pro- 
 portions. 
 
 Sprats. In the counties of Essex, Kent, 
 and Suffolk, the use of this manure is very 
 general, although the practice is not of very 
 long standing. The quantity applied per 
 acre varies from 25 to 45 bushels, the poor 
 gravelly soils requiring more than the loamy 
 lands. They are spread by hand, from seed 
 baskets, and on winter fallows intended for 
 oats, on which, especially if the summer is 
 not too dry, it produces most luxuriant 
 crops, of a peculiar dark green colour, 
 yielding 10 or 11 quarters per acre, and 
 that on land of a very second-rate de- 
 scription. The effect of the application, 
 however, remains only for one crop. They 
 produce an equally good result if mixed 
 with earth, and suffered to remain and dis- 
 solve, for some time, in the heap, before 
 lin y are carted on the land. In this way 
 they answer exceedingly well for turnips. 
 
 They are usually obtainable at the rate of 
 from 6c?. to 8c?. per bushel. 
 
 The extent to which this manure is used 
 may be judged by that of the Stow-boat 
 fishery, which is solely devoted to catching 
 these fish. Upon this fishery the committee 
 of the House of Commons of the session of 
 1833 reported : — " This fishery, which 
 prevails principally upon the Kentish, Nor- 
 folk, and Essex coasts, has been proved to 
 your committee to occasion very extensive 
 injury to the spawn and brood offish. The 
 nets used in it are of a very fine description, 
 so small as not to let a pen pass through, 
 and they enclose not only sprats, but the 
 spawn and young brood of all other kinds 
 of fish; and as these nets are frequently 
 drawn along the ground, and in shallow 
 waters, during the breeding season, and in 
 the winter months before the young fish 
 are gone into deep waters, an immense de- 
 struction of the spawn and breed of fish is 
 the inevitable consequence ; whilst, from 
 the almost unlimited demand for this species 
 of manure for land, and there being a ready 
 sale for all that can be procured, this branch 
 of fishing has greatly increased ; and there 
 are at present from 400 to 500 boats en- 
 gaged in Stow-boating on the Kentish coast 
 only, which remain upon the fishing grounds 
 frequently for a week together, not for the 
 purpose of catching sprats or any other fish 
 to be sold as food in the market, but until 
 they have obtained full cargoes of dead 
 fish for the purpose of manuring the land." 
 
 The farmers of Essex and Suffolk pur- 
 chase these fish by thousands of bushels at 
 a time, and carry them in waggons 10 or 
 15 miles into the inland districts. 
 
 Pilchards are extensively employed in 
 Cornwall and Devonshire, both in the fresh 
 and in the salted state. The pilchard is a 
 small fish not larger than a herring ; it visits 
 part of the coast of Cornwall and Devon in 
 large shoals, during the months of August 
 and September, and again in November or 
 December. The refuse fish, which are those 
 principally used by the cultivator, are usually 
 mixed with earth, sea-sand, sea-weed, or 
 some other substance, to prevent them from 
 causing too rank a growth. The effects of 
 these pilchards, according to Sir H. Davy, 
 are apparent for several years. The pilchard 
 is a very oily fish, and may be had in almost 
 inexhaustible quantities. Between 8000 and 
 9000 persons, at sea and on shore, are em- 
 ployed in this fishery, and about 30,000 hogs- 
 heads are annually exported either to the 
 West Indies or the Mediterranean. 
 
 The Herring. — The employment of this 
 valuable fish for the purpose of manuring 
 the ground is limited to those districts near 
 the sea to which the shoals of herrings are 
 
fish. 
 
 regularly visiters; and even there, their 
 use is confined to those seasons in which 
 there is an unusual glut, as occasionally hap- 
 pens on the coasts of Scotland and the 
 eastern side of England. They are a very 
 oily fish, and produce the same rank luxu- 
 riance of growth as sprats or pilchards. 
 Arthur Young has given us an account of 
 an experiment, in which some wheat, ma- 
 nured with these fish, grew so luxuriantly, 
 that it was entirely laid before the period of 
 harvest. Very numerous or accurate com- 
 parative experiments with this fish can 
 hardly be expected, for its use must neces- 
 sarily be confined to peculiar districts ; and 
 when obtained, it is generally ploughed in 
 with considerable expedition, or dug into 
 earth heaps, which is a mode found to answer 
 extremely well. And it has been found, in 
 the case of spoiled red herrings, that their ap- 
 plication is extremely advantageous to the 
 hop plantations. (Essay on Salt, p. 101.) 
 
 Sticklebacks. — The use of the stickleback 
 is principally confined to the neighbourhood 
 of the Fens of Lincolnshire and Cambridge, 
 in which it breeds with great rapidity, and 
 in whose shallow waters they are caught, 
 at certain seasons, entirely as an article for 
 manure. They are used in much the same 
 proportions, either by themselves or mixed 
 with earth, &c, as sprats, and are not more 
 durable in their good effects. 
 
 The Fat or Blubber of the Whale. — Whale 
 blubber was employed by the late Lord 
 Somerville, at his farm at Fairmile, in 
 Surrey, as a manure, and produced the 
 richest crops. It was mixed with the sandy 
 earth, and suffered to dissolve in the heap. 
 It cost, at the wharf in London, twenty 
 shillings, and, with the expenses of carriage, 
 about two pounds per ton. It answered 
 equally well upon arable and pasture lands, 
 producing most luxuriant crops ; and its 
 good effects were visible for two or three 
 years. Its general high price, however, 
 rarely admits of its employment by the 
 farmer. 
 
 Whale blubber is composed principally of 
 train oil and other animal matters ; but the 
 oil is by far the largest portion of the blub- 
 ber; and to the presence of this fish oil, 
 which does not appear to differ materially 
 in composition, from whatever fish it is ob- 
 tained, must be attributed the chief fer- 
 tilising value of all fish. Train oil has been 
 analyzed by Dr. Thomson. He found in 
 100 parts — (Chemistry, vol. iv. p. 433.) 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - - 68*87 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 16*10 
 
 Oxygen - - - 15-03 
 
 100- 
 
 475 
 
 Spermaceti oil, according to Dr. Ure, con- 
 tains, in 100 parts — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - -78* 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 11*8 
 
 Oxygen - - - 10'2 
 
 100- 
 
 Fish oils, therefore, are composed of ex- 
 actly the same materials that constitute 
 almost all vegetable substances, differing 
 only in the proportions ; for sugar, starch, 
 gluten, gum, &c. &c, are all composed of 
 these three substances — carbon, hydrogen, 
 and oxygen ; blubber, therefore, may be re- 
 garded as the most condensed manure that 
 it is possible to apply to a soil : it contains 
 little, if any, water, and every portion of it 
 is food for plants. The same remarks will 
 apply to the dregs of train oil, &c., which 
 are sometimes applied, mixed with earth, to 
 the same purpose ; but it is seldom that 
 these substances can be procured in any 
 quantity, at a sufficiently reasonable rate. 
 
 It is evident, from the experience of all 
 who have tried blubber, that it is best used 
 when previously mixed with from ten to 
 twenty times its weight of earth, and turned 
 over once or twice during three or four 
 months. In its uncombined state, it is evi- 
 dently too powerful. When mixed with 
 mould, it speedily undergoes a strong fer- 
 mentation, and the mass becomes of the 
 most friable and fertilising description. Train 
 oil has also been employed with the most de- 
 cided success ; it has been used united with 
 screened earth, and produced the most lux- 
 uriant of crops. In an experiment made by 
 Mr. Mason, of Chilton, which is described 
 by Lord Spencer, in a communication fur- 
 nished to the Doncaster Agricultural So- 
 ciety, 40 gallons of unrefined train oil, which 
 cost S^d. per gallon, were mixed with 120 
 bushels of screened earth, about a month be- 
 fore it was applied to one acre of a tenacious 
 soil, sown with turnips ; and on an adjoin- 
 ing acre of similar land, were applied 40 
 bushels of bones, broken small, and mixed 
 with 80 bushels of burnt earth; the crop 
 produced was as follows : — 
 
 Produce of turnips per acre. 
 
 tons. cwt. st. 
 Oil, 40 gallons - -\ . 
 
 Screened earth, 120 bushels J 
 Bones, 40 bushels - 
 
 Burnt earth, 80 bushels -J b 
 And in The Mark Lane Express of Feb- 
 ruary 8. 1841, Mr. W.Sharp of Searthing 
 Moor, in Nottinghamshire, thus describes 
 his experiments with fish oil, mixed with 
 bone dust : — " I will give you my experiment 
 with oil. The soil is a poor gravel, — the 
 farm in the parish of Edwinstow, and in- 
 
FISH. 
 
 closed off the old Forest, near to Thorseby 
 Park. 
 
 " My attention was drawn to the use of 
 oil, in consequence of the serious expense 
 (31. to 41. per acre) I was obliged to go to 
 in bones and rape dust, for I never use yard 
 manure for turnips, as the soil is so poor, I 
 cannot get wheat without manure ; I there- 
 fore save it all for my wheat. My first trial 
 was in 1839, on 2 acres, in a 9-acre field, 
 and nearly in the middle of it. I give you 
 the cost of one acre — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 5 strikes of half inch bones, the dust 
 
 in (2s. l\d. per strike), per acre 0 13 l|- 
 
 3 gallons of train-oil, at 2s. 6c?. per 
 
 gallon - - - - 0 7 6 
 
 10 strikes of coal ashes - - 0 0 0 
 
 1 0 1\ 
 
 Remainder of the field as below : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 16 strikes of bones, as above, at 
 
 2s. 1\d. per strike - - 2 2 0 
 
 5 hundred of rape-dust, at 6s. 9d. 
 
 per hundred - - - 1 13 9 
 
 3 15 9 
 
 With oil - - 1 0 7£ 
 
 Balance in favour of oil 2 15 li 
 
 " The oil turnips were as good as the re- 
 mainder of the field ; and all as fine as I 
 could wish, for the land. The barley as 
 good — and the clover is now excellent. My 
 next trial in 1840, on 9 acres — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1 1 strikes of half-inch bones, dust in, 
 
 at 2s. 6c?. per strike, per acre - 1 7 6 
 
 3 gallons of train-oil, at 2s. 6c?. per 
 
 gallon - - - - 0 7 6 
 
 1 15 0 
 
 "11 acres, dressed as below, is a trial 
 against oil. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 16 strikes of bones, at 2s. 6 c?. per 
 strike, per acre - - 1 17 6 
 
 5 hundred of rape-dust, at 6s. 9c?. 
 
 per hundred - - 1 13 9 
 
 16 strikes of pigeon manure, at 
 
 Is. 6c?. per strike - -14 0 
 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 With oil 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 Balance in favour of oil 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 " I think the 9 acres with oil rather the 
 best field, and the turnips are decidedly 
 better. The rape-dust I sow broadcast, on 
 the surface ; it is then drawn in its proper 
 47G 
 
 place by ridging ; I then drill my bones on 
 the ridges 22 Inches apart — the turnips 
 were white tops. I do not like the ashes 
 mixed with the oil ; it makes it dirty and 
 bad to drill; the 11 strikes of bones care- 
 fully mixed will absorb the oil, so as to drill 
 excellent. I let them lie about two days 
 after mixing. I know your readers will 
 say, how is barley grown after so light a 
 dressing ? I answer — with my feeding sheep 
 I use oil-cake, and with my store sheep malt- 
 coombs, and the straw in the yard is all 
 consumed — with oil-cake I take my seeds 
 up for wheat. 
 
 " Some farmers may possibly doubt the 
 corectness of my assertion, that all the prin- 
 cipal vegetable substances are composed of 
 precisely the same ingredients as oil and 
 other purely animal matters ; and as it is of 
 the first importance that the cultivator 
 should clearly understand the reason why 
 the decomposition of animal matters fur- 
 nishes such admirable food for vegetation, I 
 must beg of him to compare the analysis of 
 the oils which I have already stated, with 
 that of the following common vegetable 
 substances, as ascertained by the most care- 
 ful analysis. I will merely give that of 
 three substances: — Sugar, 100 parts of 
 which are composed, according to M. Berze- 
 lius, of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - - - 51 '47 
 
 Carbon - - - 41-48 
 
 Hydrogen - - 7*05 
 
 100-00 
 
 (Ann. of Phil. vol. v. p. 262.) 
 
 In 100 parts of starch from wheat flour 
 are found — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - 49*68 
 Carbon - - - 43-35 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 6*77 
 
 100-00 
 
 (Gay Lussac, Reck. v. ii. p. 291.) . 
 The wood of oak is composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - 41-78 
 Carbon - 52-53 
 Hydrogen - - - 5-G9 
 
 100-00 
 
 (Ibid., vol. ii. p. 294.) 
 
 " All oily and other animal substances, 
 therefore, as they decompose in the soil, are 
 slowly converted into those gaseous sub- 
 stances, which are the food or breath of 
 vegetable life, such as carbonic acid gas 
 (fixed air), or carburetted hydrogen (the 
 gas employed for illumination), and which 
 are absorbed either by the roots or the 
 
FISH. 
 
 FISH, ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF. 
 
 leaves of the plant as they are formed. 
 There is little or no waste in these, for when 
 the decomposition of the oils and fibrous 
 matters of fish is finished, there is very little 
 or no earthy or solid matter remaining use- 
 less in the soil. In this, again, the experi- 
 ence of the farmer substantiates the chemist's 
 doctrines, for he uniformly tells us in an- 
 swer to our enquiries, that " the fish only 
 last for one crop." 
 
 In the east of England, the farmers of 
 those soils conveniently situated for water 
 carriage employ to a very considerable ex- 
 tent, as manure, several kinds of fish be- 
 sides sprats, such as five-fingers, cockles, 
 muscles, &c, and this use is only limited by 
 the supply, or what is commonly a more 
 important impediment, the difficulty of trans- 
 porting them any distance while sufficiently 
 fresh. When once the fish begin to putrefy, 
 their fertilising properties rapidly diminish ; 
 the oil from the fermenting sprats I have 
 seen dripping from the waggons as they 
 travelled along : thus they speedily lose in 
 weight, and become intolerably obnoxious 
 to the district through which they pass ; 
 several convictions have, indeed, taken place 
 among my neighbours in Essex, for carry- 
 ing putrefying fish through towns and po- 
 pulous villages. 
 
 This is hardly a matter of astonishment, 
 since the farmer, who has to convey a 
 freight -of several hundred bushels of sprats, 
 perhaps ten or twelve miles, has often much 
 too littl§ time allowed him for that purpose. 
 The fish, perhaps, arrive stale. Is a load 
 detained by contrary winds, or prevented 
 by circumstances from reaching another 
 destination ? the farmer has to be informed 
 of their arrival; he cannot despatch his teams 
 as speedily as the nature of the case re- 
 quires, the fish become offensive, and his 
 ardour for the improvement of his land is 
 checked by a magistrate's summons and a 
 conviction for a nuisance. These are the 
 reasons which retard the use of these kinds 
 of fish as a manure, but cannot entirely pre- 
 vent their being employed. Their use is 
 still, in spite of all impediments, annually 
 increasing, especially in the neighbourhood 
 of those places to which the fishing smacks 
 find a ready access. 
 
 By the general formation of railroads, 
 the cultivator, even of the inland soils of 
 England, will have all these valuable sources 
 of improvement offered for his service — 
 fertilisers of even national interest, since 
 they are drawn from an inexhaustible source, 
 afford employment to a branch of industry 
 invaluable in a maritime point of view, as 
 a nursery for seamen, and have, moreover, 
 this great and paramount advantage, that 
 they add to the permanent riches of the 
 477 
 
 land, and are not, as is the case with other 
 fertilisers, drawn from one district of the 
 state to enrich another. There need be no 
 fear of the supply not keeping pace with 
 the demand, for the ocean is inexhaustibly 
 tenanted with fish. As fresh agricultural 
 markets arise and are furnished by the rail- 
 ways, fresh sources of supply will be dis- 
 covered, other coasts explored, and increased 
 fisheries established. (Johnson on Fertilisers, 
 p. 113.) 
 
 FISH, ARTIFICIAL BREEDING 
 OF. Some practical instructions for the 
 breeding of salmon and other fish artificially, 
 by Sir Francis A. Mackenzie, have been 
 recently published. He makes the follow- 
 ing remarks: — "In the autumn of 1840, 
 having selected a brook flowing rapidly 
 into the river Ewe, a hollow spot adjoining 
 to it was cleared out, of the following di- 
 mensions : — Length, twenty-three yards ; 
 breadth, from twelve to eighteen feet. All 
 large stones having been removed, the bot- 
 tom was covered one foot thick with coarse 
 sand and small gravel — the largest stones 
 not exceeding the size of a walnut. A 
 stream from the brook was then led into 
 this hollow, so as to form a pool of about 
 eight inches in depth at the upper, and 
 three feet at the lower end : thus giving it 
 one gentle uniform current over the whole 
 pool, whilst the supply of water was regu- 
 lated by a sluice, so as to have the same 
 depth at all times, and a strong stone wall 
 excluded all eels or trout, so destructive to 
 both spawn and fry. 
 
 " On the 13th of November, four pair of 
 salmon, male and female, were taken by net 
 from the river Ewe, and carefully placed in 
 the pool. On the 18th they showed a dis- 
 position to spawn, but on the 20th the 
 whole were carried away by some ill-dis- 
 posed persons, and, on examining the pool, 
 only a small quantity of ova appeared to 
 have been deposited. On November 23d, 
 four pair of salmon were again caught, and 
 placed in the pool, which were observed to 
 commence spawning on the day following. 
 They were caught carefully, and about 
 1,200 ova were gently squeezed from a 
 female into a basin of water, and then they 
 were covered over with an equal quantity 
 of milt pressed from a male fish. The 
 two were stirred about together gently, 
 but well with the fingers, and, after allow- 
 ing them rest for an hour, the whole was 
 deposited and spread in one of the wicker 
 baskets recommended by Professor Agassiz, 
 having above four inches of gravel below 
 and two or three inches of gravel above 
 them. 
 
 " A similar quantity of ova treated in the 
 same way was also deposited in one of the 
 
FISH, ARTIFICIAL BREEDING OF. 
 
 copper wire bags, as used by Mr. Shaw, and 
 both were then immediately placed under 
 water in the pool. A little of the ova was 
 buried in the open gravel at about three 
 inches in depth. In another basket, and 
 also in another copper wire-bag, two or 
 three inches of gravel were placed over- the 
 bottom of each, and both basket and bag 
 laid in the pool, covered with about four 
 inches of water. The ova of a female and 
 milt of a male were then successively 
 squeezed from two fish on the gravel in 
 both basket and bag, and spread over it 
 regularly with the hand one after the other ; 
 and after leaving them exposed in this state 
 to the water for a few minutes, the whole 
 was covered with two or three inches of 
 gravel and left in the pool. These four 
 pair of fish afterwards emitted voluntarily 
 a small quantity of spawn which had been 
 left with them, and on the 1st December 
 they were all turned out into the river. 
 On the 3d December, three pair of salmon, 
 which had already partially spawned in the 
 Ewe, were caught, and the spawn treated in 
 another bag and basket in the same way as 
 last described. These fish were then also 
 allowed to deposit voluntarily the little spawn 
 of which they had not been deprived, and 
 afterwards turned out to the river. 
 
 " On the 19th of February the ova were 
 examined, life was plainly observed in the 
 baskets, wire-bags, and unprotected gravel, 
 both where placed artificially, and deposited 
 by the salmon themselves. 
 
 " On the 19th March, the fry had increased 
 in size, and went on gradually increasing, 
 much in proportion to the temperature of 
 the weather. 
 
 " On the 22d the eyes were easily visible, 
 and a few of the ova had burst, the young 
 fry having a small watery bladder-like bag 
 attached to the throat. 
 
 " On the 18th of April the baskets and 
 bags were all opened. The bags had become 
 detached from their throats ; the fry mea- 
 sured about three quarters of an inch in 
 length, and they swam about easily, all dis- 
 tinctly marked as par. 
 
 " The baskets recommended by Professor 
 Agassiz proved themselves superior to the 
 wire bags used by Mr. Shaw. In the latter 
 only about 20 per cent, came to maturity, 
 whilst in the former not above 10 per cent, 
 proved barren ; and in the baskets used on 
 the 5th of December, not above 5 per cent, 
 was unproductive. It is impossible to say 
 exactly the proportion of ova which came 
 t<> life, either of that artificially impreg- 
 nated and deposited in the open gravel, or 
 of what was spawned by the fish themselves 
 naturally. But, so far as could be judged, 
 1hey Bucceeded equally well with 'that in 
 47M 
 
 the baskets. Perhaps the baskets may have 
 a preference over the other methods tried, 
 as affording more certain protection to the 
 spawn during winter; and it is right to 
 state _ that the last described mode of de- 
 positing the ova and milt was most suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 " There can be no doubt, from the success 
 which has attended the above described 
 experiments, that the breeding of salmon, 
 or other fish, in large quantities, is, com- 
 paratively speaking, easy ; and that millions 
 may be produced, protected from every 
 danger, and turned out into their natural 
 element at the proper age, which Mr. Shaw 
 has proved, by repeated experiments on a 
 small scale, to be when they have attained 
 about two years of age, when the par 
 marks disappear; they assume the silvery 
 scales of their parents, and distinctly show 
 a strong desire to escape from confinement, 
 and proceed downwards towards the sea. 
 
 " Professor Agassiz asserts, and Sir Fran- 
 cis Mackenzie believes with truth, that the 
 ova of all fish, if properly impregnated, can 
 be conveyed in water of a proper tempera- 
 ture even across the Atlantic, as safely as 
 if it were naturally deposited by the pa- 
 rent fish ; so that any quantity of salmon or 
 other spawn can, after impregnation on the 
 banks of a river, be carried to other streams, 
 however distant, which may be favourable 
 for hatching. It is right to observe that, 
 as the fry are to remain two years in the ar- 
 tificial pools where hatched, fresh places 
 must be used every second season for the 
 spawn, as even one-year old fry will destroy 
 spawn, or their more infantile brethren, if 
 left together. Old spent salmon are, also, 
 destructive to both spawn and fry. 
 
 " It can only be ascertained by experience 
 what kind or quantity of food will be re- 
 quired for the fry. Carrion hung at the 
 top of the pool would, in the opinion of Pro- 
 fessor Agassiz and Mr. Shaw, supply them 
 with maggots ; but in this there are diffi- 
 culties, and when tried by Sir Francis Mack- 
 enzie, this season, a few of the fry were found 
 dead round the earrion given to them. The 
 droppings of cattle allowed to rest till half 
 dry, and occupied by worms and the ova of 
 insects, appears to suit them best. 
 
 " About the 1st of September last, Sir 
 Francis, when on an agricultural tour in 
 Belgium, visited an establishment belonging 
 to King Leopold, adjoining his new palace 
 of Ardennes, on a much more expensive 
 scale than that now described, where the 
 breeding of trout had been tried for the 
 three previous seasons, though with but little 
 success. 
 
 " A very few small trout, bred 1839-40, 
 were still alive ; but the ova of 1841 were a 
 
FISHING. 
 
 FISHING, LAW OF. 
 
 complete failure, chiefly from not properly 
 covering the spawn with gravel, and other 
 errors. Bread made of brown and white 
 flour mixed was the food found best suited 
 to the few living, who, judging from their 
 shape as seen swimming about in a small 
 pool, were in excellent condition. The trout- 
 breeding establishment of Ardennes, how- 
 ever, proves that trout spawn, if treated in 
 the same way as that of salmon above de- 
 scribed, will produce the same successful 
 results ; and that any one possessing a con- 
 venient pond or stream may stock it with 
 the best kind of trout or other fish in one 
 or two years, and by good feeding have them 
 in high condition. Where the trout already 
 exist, of small size and inferior quality, Sir 
 Francis advises wholly destroying the breed 
 by saturating the water with quick lime, or 
 any other mode more advisable, and pro- 
 curing spawn or fry from lakes where the 
 best kinds of trout are found, in Scotland or 
 elsewhere. The same may be said of gray- 
 ling pike, or any other kinds of fish suited to 
 ponds, brooks, or rivers, as may be desired 
 by their owners ; which renders the disco- 
 very now made known of value to all." 
 See Ponds. 
 
 FISHING. The art of catching fish, 
 whether by means of nets, spears, or of lines 
 and hooks. The former are used in fresh 
 and salt waters, for the taking of large fish, 
 which go in shoals ; the latter are employed 
 for catching single ones, such as carp, trout, 
 &c. The most important points to be con- 
 sidered in fishing, are the proper season, 
 place, bait, and mode of application. In 
 March, April, and September the warmest 
 days are the most successful for this sport, 
 when the bait should be deep, for during 
 those cool months the fish lie near the bot- 
 tom. For fly fishing the most proper season 
 is from April to June, after a gentle shower 
 of rain has beaten the insects down upon the 
 water, without rendering it turbid ; and the 
 most promising hours are about nine or ten 
 in the morning, and three or four in the 
 afternoon : in still warm evenings, however, 
 fish will bite readily till night approaches, 
 because at those seasons gnats are flying in 
 great numbers. In the hot days of Mid- 
 summer and in cold weather, little success 
 can be expected in any water. The north 
 and east winds are particularly unfavourable 
 to fishing, as well as tempestuous weather 
 in general ; but if a gentle breeze prevail it 
 will considerably facilitate the operations of 
 the angler. For further particulars relative 
 to the proper seasons, and the necessary 
 tackle for taking fish, I must refer the in- 
 experienced angler to Blaine's Ency. of 
 Rural Sports, and Isaac Walton's Complete 
 Angler, where he will find ample instruc- 
 479 
 
 tions, blended with considerable amuse- 
 ment. 
 
 FISHING, L AAV OF. Every person 
 has a general right to fish in the open sea, 
 and in the tideway of rivers, but in rivers 
 which are not navigable, the fish belongs to 
 the owners of the soil on each bank. (Carter 
 v. Thurcot, 4 Burroughs, 2163.) In tbis case 
 Lord Mansfield C. J. said, " In navigable 
 rivers the fishery is common, it is prima facie 
 in the king, and is public. If any one claims 
 it exclusively, he must show a right. The 
 presumption is against him unless he can 
 prove such a prescriptive right." And in 
 the absence of an exclusive right by grant 
 or prescription, every subject has a right to 
 the fish found between high and low water 
 mark (Bagot v. Orr, 2 Bos. & P., 472.) ; but 
 it is doubted whether the right extends to 
 fish shells. (Id.) And there may be even an 
 exclusive right by prescription to the fish 
 in an arm of the sea. (Orford v. Richardson, 
 4 T. R. 439.) Every one who fishes in a 
 private water is, of course, liable to be con- 
 sidered as a trespasser ; and by the act of 
 parliament, the 7 & 8 G. 4. c. 29*. s. 34. it is 
 enacted, That if any person shall unlawfully 
 and wilfully take or destroy any fish in any 
 water which shall run through or be in any 
 land adjoining or belonging to the dwelling- 
 house of any person, being the owner of 
 such water, or have a right to fishery there- 
 in, every such offender shall be guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and, being convicted thereof, 
 shall be punished accordingly ; and if any 
 person shall unlawfully and wilfully take or 
 destroy, or attempt to take or destroy, any 
 fish in any water not being such as afore- 
 said, but which shall be private property, or 
 in which there shall be any private right of 
 fishery, every such offender, being convicted 
 thereof before a justice of the peace, shall 
 forfeit and pay over and above the value of 
 the fish taken or destroyed (if any), such 
 sum of money, not exceeding 57., as to the 
 justice shall seem meet ; provided always, 
 that nothing hereinbefore contained shall 
 extend to any person angling in the day- 
 time ; but if any person shall, by angling in 
 the day-time, unlawfully and wilfully take 
 or destroy, or attempt to take or destroy, any 
 fish in any such water as first mentioned, he 
 shall, on conviction before a justice of the 
 peace, forfeit and pay any sum not exceed- 
 ing 51. ; and if in any such water as last 
 mentioned he shall, on the like conviction, 
 forfeit and pay any sum not exceeding 21. 
 as to the justice shall seem meet ; and if the 
 boundary in any parish, township, or vill 
 shall happen to be in or by the side of any 
 such water as is hereinbefore mentioned, it 
 shall be sufficient to prove that the offence 
 was committed either in the parish, town- 
 
FISHING NET. 
 
 FIXTURES. 
 
 ship, or vill named in the indictment or in- 
 formation, or in any parish, township, or vill 
 adjoining thereto. 
 
 FISHING NET. A contrivance of a 
 recticular texture appropriated to the taking 
 of fish. They are mostly made by hand, 
 but machinery is sometimes made available 
 for the purpose. The net principally used 
 by the angler is termed a " landing net," 
 and is intended to render the capture of the 
 fish after it is hooked more secure. The 
 hoop net is intended to keep the fish alive, 
 by suspension in the water after they are 
 caught. The minnow net is used to secure 
 these small fish for bait. 
 
 FISH PONDS. Reservoirs made by 
 art, for the breeding, rearing, fattening and 
 preserving of different kinds of fish. (See 
 Breeding Ponds, and Fish, Artificial 
 Breeding of.) 
 
 Fish Ponds, destroying of. The 7 & 8 
 Geo. 4. c. 30. § 15. enacts, That if any per- 
 son shall unlawfully and maliciously break 
 down or otherwise destroy the dam of any | 
 fish pond, or of any water which shall be 
 private property, or in which there shall 
 be any private right of fishery, with in- 
 tent thereby to take or destroy any of the 
 fish in such pond or water, or so as thereby 
 to cause the loss or destruction of any of the 
 fish, or shall unlawfully and maliciously put 
 any lime or other noxious material in any 
 such pond or water, with intent thereby to 
 destroy any of the fish therein, or shall un- 
 lawfully and maliciously break down or 
 otherwise destroy the dam of any mill pond, 
 every such offender shall be guilty of a mis- 
 demeanor, and, being convicted thereof, shall 
 be liable, at the discretion of the court, to 
 be transported beyond the seas for the term 
 of seven years, or to be imprisoned for any 
 term not exceeding two years ; and, if a 
 male, to be once, twice, or thrice, publicly 
 or privately whipped (if the court shall so 
 think fit), in addition to such imprisonment. 
 
 FISTULA. (Lett.) A long sinous ulcer, 
 often communicating with a larger cavity, 
 and having a small external opening. 
 
 All animals are liable to fistulas, but the 
 horse more particularly so ; they attack the 
 withers and the poll. They are produced 
 by blows, by bruises from the saddle, and 
 whatever causes inflammation ; also by the 
 presence of extraneous substances. 
 
 In curing this disease, it is requisite^ in 
 the first instance, to ascertain the direction 
 the fistula pursues, and whether it materially 
 interferes with any of the larger blood- 
 vessels, so as to render a full incision into the 
 parts a matter of too much hazard to be 
 attempted. When secure from any danger 
 of this nature, the most effectual practice is, 
 to lay the fist ula, or fistulas, when more than 
 480 
 
 one, so thoroughly open, as to have a com- 
 plete view of their internal surfaces. It is 
 not, however, necessary in the simple sinus, 
 where the matter is in a healthy state, and 
 requires only a sufficient passage ; but in 
 cases where the discharge, by having been 
 long detained, indurates and corrodes the 
 contiguous parts ; as the means fully ade- 
 quate to remove the former avail little in 
 the radical cure of the latter, a more severe 
 practice of course becomes necessary. 
 
 When the fistular cavities have been fully 
 laid open by the knife, they should be dressed 
 with powerful caustic compositions, until the 
 unsound parts slough away, and the wound 
 presents a healthy appearance. Cleanliness, 
 with more mild applications, should now be 
 had recourse to, taking care that the wound 
 be not closed before the cavities are properly 
 and uniformly healed. 
 
 FITZHERBERT, SIR ANTHONY, 
 was born at Norbury, in Derbyshire. After 
 studying at Oxford, he removed thence to 
 one of the Inns of Court, and was called to 
 be a Serjeant-at-Law in 1511. He was 
 created a knight in 1516, and seven years 
 subsequently was raised to the dignity of a 
 Justice of the Court of Common Pleas, fie 
 followed husbandry as a recreation for forty 
 years, and he was the first English author who 
 wrote upon this subject. He died in 1538, 
 and was buried at Norbury. His law works 
 are numerous, of which his " Grand Abridg- 
 ment" is the most noted. The works for 
 which he deserves mention here, are — 
 
 1. The Boke of Husbandrie, very profitable and neces- 
 sary for all persons, London, 1-532. 8vo. Editions of it 
 also appeared in 1534, 1546, 1548 (by Thomas Marsh), 
 1559 (by John Awdeley), and 1562, all in 8vo. Many 
 other editions appeared without dates. There was a re- 
 print [of this and the following in 1767, in 8vo. with a 
 treatise of Xenophon's. 2. Surveying, and Book of Hus- 
 bandry, London, 1547, 8vo. Again in 1562, 8vo. and in 
 1598, 4to. There are some differences of opinion re- 
 specting the first appearance of the works, but after a 
 careful survey of the various authorities, I think the 
 
 above will be found correct (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of 
 
 Engl. Gard. ; Quar. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 474.) 
 
 FIXTURES. In Law, a term generally 
 applied to all articles of a personal nature 
 affixed to land. This annexation must be 
 by the article being let into, or united with 
 the land, or with some substance previously 
 connected therewith. Thus a barn built on 
 a frame not let into the earth, is not a fix- 
 ture ; a brewer's stills set in brickwork 
 resting on a foundation, are fixtures, and 
 the application of the same principle gives 
 in every case the true rule to judge whether 
 any thing be a fixture or not. Whatever 
 is thus fixed becomes by law parcel of the 
 freehold or realty. It is therefore, on ge- 
 neral principles, not removable ; but there 
 arc exceptions to this rule established by 
 custom. (Brando's Diet, of Science.) 
 
 The law with regard to fixtures or any 
 
FIXTURES. 
 
 FLANDERS, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 thing aliixed to the freehold, is by no means 
 so clear and defined as is desirable ; and 
 what is granted in favour of trade, to the 
 removal of fixtures erected for the pur- 
 pose of manufacture, does not extend to 
 the erections made by the tenant for agri- 
 cultural purposes. — The agreement made 
 between the farmer and his landlord should 
 therefore always contain a covenant by 
 which this power should be clearly defined. 
 The celebrated judgment of Lord Ellen- 
 borough in Elwes v. Mawe, 3 East, 38., con- 
 tains such an epitome of the law of fixtures, 
 that I shall insert at length the opening 
 portion of it : — 
 
 " This, was an action upon the case in 
 the nature of waste by a landlord, the re- 
 versioner in fee against his late tenant, who 
 had held under a term for twenty-one 
 years a farm, consisting of a messuage and 
 lands, outhouses and barns, &c, and who at 
 the case reserved, stated that during the 
 term, and about fifteen years before its ex- 
 piration, he erected at his own expense a 
 beasthouse, carpenter's shop, a fuel house, a 
 cart-house, a pump-house, and a fold-yard. 
 The buildings were of brick and mortar, 
 and tiled, and the foundations of them were 
 about a foot and a half deep in the ground. 
 The carpenter s shop was closed in, and 
 the other buildings were open to the front, 
 and supported by brick pillars. The fold- 
 yard wall was of brick and mortar, and its 
 foundation was in the ground. The tenant 
 previous to the expiration of his lease, 
 pulled down the erections, dug up the foun- 
 dations, and carried away the materials, 
 leaving the premises in the same state as 
 when he entered upon them. The case 
 further stated that these erections were 
 necessary and convenient for the occupation 
 of the farm ; and the question for the opinion 
 of the court was, whether the tenant had a 
 right to take away those erections ? Upon a 
 full consideration, we are all of opinion that 
 he had not a right to take away those erec- 
 tions." 
 
 Without any special agreement, a tenant 
 cannot remove a border of box planted by 
 himself (Empton v. Soden, 4 B. & Ad. 655.) ; 
 neither can ordinary tenants remove fruit 
 trees, though planted by themselves (Amos 
 on Fixtures, 279.), but nurserymen may. 
 If the freehold is sold without any stipu- 
 lation about the fixtures, they pass with the 
 land. (Colegrave v. Dios Santos, 3 D. & R. 
 255.) Neither can the fixtures be taken in 
 execution by the sheriff. ( Wynne v. Ingelly, 
 1 D. & R. 247.) Ranges and ovens are fix- 
 tures. (Ibid, and Bell's Lyde v. Russel, 1 B. 
 & Ad. 394.) But a pump erected by a te- 
 nant, and so fixed as to be removable with- 
 out injury to the freehold, may be taken 
 481 
 
 | away by him at the expiration of his term, 
 as being an article of domestic use or con- 
 venience. (Gyrimes v. Boweren, 1 Bing. 
 437.) A conservatory on a brick founda- 
 tion, affixed to and communicating with 
 rooms in a dwelling house by windows and 
 doors cannot be removed by the tenant, 
 even if he erected them. (Buckland v. But- 
 terfield, 4 Moore, 440.) 
 
 FLAG, THE WATER; or FLEUR- 
 DE-LIS. See Ibis. 
 
 FLAG, THE SWEET. See Aromatic 
 Reed. (Calamus aromaticus.) 
 
 FLAG. A term sometimes applied to 
 the turf, or surface of the ground, which is 
 pared off for burning. It also signifies a 
 large flat paving stone, and the furrow-slice 
 of ley lands, when under the plough. See 
 Paring and Burning. 
 
 FLAIL. (Lat. flagellum.') A wooden 
 implement for thrashing corn by hand. It 
 anciently was truly a whip, and sometimes 
 had two or more lashes : the modern flail 
 consists of the handle or handstaff, which 
 the labourer holds in his hand, and uses as a 
 levei", to raise up, and bring down the swiple, 
 or part which strikes the corn, and beats 
 out the grain and chaff from the straw. 
 The swiple is joined to the hand-staff by the 
 caplins or couplings, which are thongs of 
 untanned leather, and sometimes the skins 
 of eels or of other fish. These thongs are 
 passed through holes in the ends of the 
 handle and swiple, and made fast by being 
 sewed together. The whip-flail was in use 
 among the Romans, though the prevailing 
 mode of separating corn from straw among 
 the nations of antiquity was by treading it 
 out with cattle in the open air. (See Agri- 
 culture.) In the colder parts of Europe, 
 this could never have been generally the 
 case, for obvious reasons ; and hence the 
 flail was the universal thrashing implement 
 till the introduction of the thrashing ma- 
 chine, which is now taking the place of the 
 flail in all countries where capitalists engage 
 in farming. See Thrashing Machine. 
 (Brande's Diet of Science.) 
 
 FLANDERS, the Agriculture of. 
 The mode of tillage adopted by the cul- 
 tivators of Flanders has long and bene- 
 ficially engaged the attention of the .British 
 farmer ; who, whatever may be his supe- 
 riority to the Fleming in most respects, yet 
 in some particular instances has learnt, and 
 in others (such as in the careful husband- 
 ing and preparation of manure, the succes- 
 sion of crops, the deepening of the soil, &c.) 
 may still profitably imitate the practices of 
 the small industrious cultivators of Flan- 
 ders. The best report of the modern agri- 
 culture of the Flemish farmers is that drawn 
 up for the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 i i 
 
FLANDERS, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 Knowledge, by the Rev. W. Rham, from 
 which, and from his paper in the Journ. 
 of Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng. vol. ii. the chief 
 facts of this article are obtained. The cli- 
 mate of Flanders pretty closely resembles 
 that of Kent and Essex : it is, however, 
 rather warmer in summer, and the snow 
 lies longer in winter. The soil is various ; 
 there are extensive districts of sand which are 
 brought into cultivation by dressing them 
 Avith mud. In proportion to the quantity 
 of the mud, which is a very fine clay, with 
 a portion of decayed shells and organic 
 matter, the soil is more or less fertile ; and 
 when the mud enters into it in considerable 
 proportion, it forms a rich compact loam. 
 In many places there are alternate narrow 
 strata of sand and loam, which, being mixed 
 together, form a very productive soil. A 
 small portion of carbonate of lime produced 
 from the decomposition of sea shells, is found 
 in the mud when it is analysed ; but there 
 is no chalk, nor marl, in any portion of this 
 coast. 
 
 The industry of the tenants of these sands 
 is proverbial. The poor sandy heaths which 
 have been converted into productive farms, 
 evince their indefatigable industry and per- 
 severance. The sand in the Campine can 
 be compared to nothing but the sands on 
 the sea shore, which they probably were 
 originally. It is highly interesting to follow, 
 step by step, the progress of improvement. 
 Here you see a cottage, and rude cow-shed 
 erected on a spot of the most unpromising 
 aspect. The loose white sand, blown into 
 irregular mounds, is merely kept together by 
 the roots of the heath : a small spot only is 
 levelled, and surrounded by a ditch. Part 
 of this is covered with young broom ; another 
 part is covered with potatoes ; and perhaps 
 a small patch of diminutive clover may show 
 itself ; but there is a heap of dung and com- 
 post forming. The urine of the cow is col- 
 lected in a small tank, or, perhaps, in a cask 
 sunk in the earth ; and this is the nucleus 
 from which, in a few years, a little farm will 
 spread around. (Outlines, p. 11.) 
 
 Of their use of liquid manure, I shall here- 
 after, under that head, have occasion to speak. 
 Their implements of husbandry are much 
 inferior to ours. They employ, however, the 
 spade to a much greater extent than we do ; 
 thus it is a common practice with them to 
 deepen the trenches between the lands with 
 the spade, and spread the earth over the 
 surface of the ground : by this means the 
 land is gradually completely trenched, and 
 ili'' immediate good effect by keeping the 
 soil of the field dry is very considerable. 
 
 Their rotation of crops on sandy soils is 
 commonly, 1. flax and carrots; 2. Rye and 
 turnips ; 3. Rye and turnips ; 4. Potatoes, 
 482 
 
 peas, and carrots ; 5. Oats and rye ; 6. Clo- 
 ver ; 7. Rye, or barley and turnips ; 8. 
 Turnips, oats, and potatoes ; 9. Flax and 
 carrots ; 10. Rye and turnips. 
 
 In a stiff loam near Alost, the following- 
 rotation is adopted : — 1. Potatoes with 20 
 tons of dung per acre ; 2. Wheat with 3£ 
 tons, and 50 barrels of urine ; 3. Flax with 
 12 tons of dung, 50 barrels of urine, and 5 
 cwt. of rape cake ; 4. Clover, with 20 bushels 
 of wood- ashes ; 5. Rye, with 8 tons of dung, 
 and 50 barrels of urine. 6. Oats, with 50 
 barrels of urine ; 7. Buck-wheat without 
 manure. 
 
 They grow large quantities of hemp and 
 tobacco ; and are large exporters of seeds 
 of all kinds. With such exhausting crops, 
 therefore, an attention to the careful saving 
 of all kinds of manure is absolutely essential 
 to the preservation of the fertility of the 
 soil ; and no cultivators are more particular 
 in this respect than those of Flanders. 
 
 They keep large quantities of cattle. 
 " A beast for every three acres of land is 
 a common proportion ; and in very small 
 occupations, where much spade husbandry 
 is used, the proportion is still greater." 
 These are maintained on turnips, potatoes, 
 carrots, &c, which are chopped together in 
 a tub, with beans, rye, or buck-wheat meal, 
 and mixed with boiling water (which they 
 call h^assin), about two pails full are given 
 each cow. 
 
 " The horses of Flanders have been long 
 noted for their bulk. Flanders mares were 
 at one time in request for the heavy town 
 carriages of the nobility and men of fortune 
 in England and on the Continent. Since the 
 improvement in the roads, and in the paving 
 of streets, activity has been preferred to 
 strength, and the English carriage horses 
 now partake more of the breed of hunters, 
 and are more nearly allied to full blood. 
 The Flanders horses are probably the same 
 at this time as they were a century ago ; 
 but compared with the present breeds of 
 coach and cart-horses in England they are 
 inferior. They are in general large in the 
 carcase, and pretty clean in the leg ; patient 
 and enduring, if not too much hurried. 
 They are steady in the collar, and good at 
 a dead pull, inconsequence of their weight ; 
 but they are very heavy in the forehand, 
 inclined to get fat, and deficient in activity. 
 They fall off in the rump, and the hips stand 
 out too much from the ribs. The worst 
 point in most of them is the setting on of 
 the tail, which is low, and pointing down- 
 wards. These are the general characters of 
 the real Flemish horse. A more useful kind 
 of horse, although not so sleek, is found in 
 the provinces of Brabant and Namur, where 
 they draw heavy loads of stones and coal over 
 
FLANDERS, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 bad roads. The feet of the Flemish horses 
 are generally flat, denoting the moist pas- 
 tures in which they are fed when young, or 
 the dung of the stables in which they have 
 stood : for many of them have never been 
 turned out loose, and have been reared and 
 fed in the stable as the cows are. This will 
 account for want of vigour and muscle, as 
 well as for the propensity to get fat. The 
 food of the farmers' horses is not calculated 
 to produce hard flesh : green clover in 
 summer, and roots with cut straw in winter, 
 are the chief provender." 
 
 Of the spade-husbandry of Flanders, the 
 following description is given by the author 
 whom I have already quoted so freely : — 
 
 " The husbandry of the whole of the 
 north-eastern part of East Flanders, where 
 the soil is a good sandy loam, may be con- 
 sidered as a mixed cultivation, partly by the 
 plough, and partly by the spade. Without 
 the spade, it would be impossible to give 
 that finish to the land, after it is sown, 
 which makes it appear so like a garden, and 
 which is the chief cause of the more certain 
 vegetation of the seed. There is a great 
 saving of seed by this practice, as may be 
 seen by comparing the quantity usually 
 sown in Flanders with that which is required 
 in other countries, where the spade is more 
 sparingly used. In large farms in England, 
 the spade is only used to dig out water- 
 furrows, and to turn heaps of earth, which 
 are made into composts with different kinds 
 of manure. But in Flanders, where the 
 land is usually laid in stitches of about six 
 or seven feet wide, the intervals are always 
 dug out with the spade, and the earth spread 
 evenly {sifted, as they call it) over the seed 
 which has been harrowed in. The earth 
 may not be of a fertile nature below the 
 immediate surface ; sometimes it is only a 
 poor sand, or a hard till ; but this is no 
 reason why it should not be dug out. If it 
 is very light and poor, a good soaking with 
 urine, a few days before it is dug out, will 
 impart sufficient fertility to it. If it is very 
 stiff, the clods must be broken as small as 
 possible in the digging, as is done when stiff 
 ground is trenched in gardens ; and what is 
 left unbroken on the surface, and not pul- 
 verised by passing the traineau (a kind 
 of heavy broad wooden sledge, made of 
 beams of wood and boards) over it, will in- 
 evitably be reduced to a powder by the frost 
 in winter. Thus the land is not only per- 
 fectly drained, but the seed, being covered 
 by an inch or more of earth, is placed out of 
 the reach of birds, without danger of being 
 buried too deep. The soil from the bottom 
 of the trench contains few seeds of weeds, 
 and the root-weeds are necessarily cleaned 
 out in the spreading. This earth, spread 
 483 
 
 j over the surface of the land, keeps it clean, 
 by burying the smaller seeds, which the 
 harrows may have brought to the surface, 
 and preventing their vegetating. It is for 
 this reason that the roller, or the traineau, 
 is made to press the surface, or that, in very 
 light soils, men and women tread it regularly 
 with their feet, as gardeners do after they 
 have sown their beds. The trench, which 
 is thus dug, is a foot wide, or, more pro- 
 perly, one sixth part of the width of the 
 stitch, or bed ; and the depth is from a foot 
 to eighteen inches, according' to the soil. 
 Thus, a layer of earth, about two inches 
 deep, at least, is thrown over the seed, 
 which has been sown on a surface made 
 even by the small harrows, or the bush- 
 harrow. These two inches gradually in- 
 corporate with the soil below ; and thus, at 
 every such operation, the soil is deepened 
 so much. 
 
 The trenches are so arranged, that every 
 year a fresh portion of the ground is dug 
 out, and in six years the whole land will 
 have been dug to the depth of at least one 
 foot. In the next course, the trench is 
 dug a few inches deeper, which brings up a 
 little of the subsoil ; and, after four or five 
 such courses of trenching, the whole soil 
 comes to be of a uniform quality to the 
 depth of eighteen or twenty inches ; a most 
 important circumstance to the growth of 
 flax, potatoes, and carrots, all of which are 
 very profitable crops to the farmer, and the 
 two last indispensable to the maintenance of 
 the labourers and the cattle. In the Waes 
 country, they proceed differently, for they 
 have a soil which, by repeated trenchings, 
 has long been uniform in quality to the re- 
 quired depth. There they regularly trench 
 one sixth part of the land every year, and 
 plant it with potatoes, or sow carrots in it. 
 
 " From this outline of Flemish hus- 
 bandry," concludes Mr. Rham, " the general 
 principles which pervade the whole system 
 are easily discovered. The garden has 
 evidently been the model for the operations 
 of the farm. The spade has originally been 
 the chief instrument of cultivation ; and 
 when a greater extent of farms necessarily 
 introduced the plough, the favourite spade 
 was not entirely laid aside. A Flemish 
 farm of forty or fifty acres must still be 
 looked upon as an enlarged garden ; and if 
 a comparison is instituted with the culti- 
 vation of land in England, we can only 
 compare the Flemish husbandly, as far as 
 tillage is concerned, with those large un- 
 enclosed gardens which are found in the 
 neighbourhood of London, where the com- 
 mon vegetables are raised which supply the 
 markets ; where green crops are cut early 
 for horses and cows kept in London ; and 
 11 2 
 
FLANNEL. 
 
 FLAX COMMON. 
 
 where the soil is continually enriched by the 
 manure which is brought every time a cart 
 returns from having carried out the produce. 
 In these grounds, the system is similar to 
 the Flemish — deep digging, or trenching, 
 abundant manuring, and a rapid succession 
 of crops." {Flemish Hash. ; Journ. of Roy. 
 Agr. Soc. of Eng. vol. ii. p. 43.) 
 
 FLANNEL. See Woollen Manufac- 
 ture. 
 
 FLAX. (Lat. Linum, from the Celtic 
 word llin, a thread ; whence the Greek linon, 
 the Ital. and Span, lino, and Fr. lin.) An 
 extensive genus of plants, of which more 
 than seventy species are enumerated by bo- 
 tanists. It belongs to the natural order Li- 
 nacece. The plants are distinguished by the 
 tenacity of their fibres, the mucilage of their 
 seeds, and, generally, by the beauty of their 
 flowers- 
 Four species only are indigenous, of which 
 the common flax (Z. usitatissimum) to be 
 next noticed, is the most important and use- 
 ful. As ornamental plants, they are well worth 
 cultivating in every collection. The green- 
 house and frame kinds grow best in a mix- 
 ture of loam and peats : the hardy shrubby 
 kinds do well in any light soil. The hardy 
 herbaceous species are well suited for orna- 
 menting flower-borders ; but the dwarf 
 kinds do best on rock-work, or in pots, that 
 they may be protected by a frame in frosty 
 or very wet weather ; they may be increased 
 by divisions of the root, by cuttings, or by 
 seeds. The annual and biennial species 
 should be sown in the open ground in April. 
 {Paxtons Bot. Diet.) The indigenous spe- 
 cies are — 1 . Common flax {L. usitatissimum) 
 which is an annual, rising one to two feet 
 high, with a smooth slender upright stem, 
 branched near the top, narrow lanceolate 
 leaves, rather glaucous, blowing in July a 
 corymbose panicle of pale purplish-blue 
 flowers. The seed-vessel is globular ; the 
 seed flattened, oval, glossy, brown exteriorly, 
 white within. The testa or skin of the seed 
 abounds with mucilage ; the cotyledons with 
 oil, easily procured by pressure. The mu- 
 cilage extracted by hot water is demulcent, 
 the oil a mild laxative. The use of linseed 
 oil in the arts is very extensive. 2. Peren- 
 nial blue flax (L. perenne.) 3. Narrow- 
 leaved pale flax {L. angustifolium.) 4. 
 Purging flax {L. catharticum) rises only from 
 two to six inches high; the flowers are white, 
 small, and drooping. The plant has no odour, 
 but has a bitter taste : it is purgative, but 
 is seldom used. The first and fourth are 
 mentioned further in detail in articles 
 which follow. The others require little 
 notice; they are found growing in sandy or 
 chalky soils, and arc; perennial, flowering in 
 J line or July. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 118.) 
 
 FLAX, BASTARD TOAD. See Bas- 
 tard ToAD-FEAX. 
 
 FLAX, COMMON. (Sax. rleax or 
 pk-x, Ger.flachs; Dutch, vlasch.) The fibre 
 of the Linum usitatissimum, which, after 
 undergoing the process of washing, beating, 
 and other operations, is spun into thread, 
 and woven into linen textures, lace, &c. 
 The seed is also crushed for oil ; and the re- 
 fuse husk, after the oil is expressed, is made 
 into oilcake for cattle. The fibres of the 
 bark of this important plant have been 
 applied to the manufacture of thread and 
 cloth in this and other countries from the 
 remotest periods. " Flax," says Professor 
 Low, " being a native plant, is sufficiently 
 hardy to endure the climate of this and 
 other northern countries. It has, indeed, 
 a wide range of temperature, being culti- 
 vated, and for the like purposes, from 
 Egypt almost to the polar circle." The 
 wild flax grows in corn-fields, and gravelly 
 or sandy pastures ; but, when cultivated, it 
 thrives most luxuriantly in deep rich 
 mould, but particularly in untilled alluvial 
 soils. 
 
 Its roots sink very deep when it has room ; 
 and it is generally said that the roots of 
 good flax should strike into the soil to a 
 depth equal to half the length, at least, of 
 the stem above ground. A porous subsoil, 
 or one that is well drained, is therefore es- 
 sential. In Flanders, flax may be consi- 
 dered as a staple commodity, and a great 
 portion of the population of that country is 
 employed in preparing large quantities for 
 exportation ; the cultivation and preparing 
 of it, is, therefore, most perfectly under- 
 stood, and the Dutch flax is always well 
 dressed, and of the finest quality. The pre- 
 miums given by the legislature of this 
 country to force the cultivation of flax 
 have had very little effect, it being one of 
 the most exhausting crops when allowed to 
 ripen its seed ; and its culture being found 
 to be much less profitable than corn. The 
 native growth of flax being quite insuffi- 
 cient to the demand for home consumption, 
 &c, we have long been in the habit of im- 
 porting a large proportion of our supplies. 
 The principal countries from whence we 
 obtain flax are Russia, the Netherlands, 
 Prussia, and France, with small quantities 
 from America, Italy, New South Wales, 
 &c. The duty is at present Id. per cwt. 
 
 In Ireland, flax usually follows potatoes. 
 In Scotland, land that has been several years 
 in pasture, and from which one crop of 
 grain has been taken, is preferred. In 
 Flanders, the crops which immediately pre- 
 cede flax, in light soils, are barley or rye. 
 with turnips after them the same year. All 
 these crops are more highly manured than 
 
FLAX, COMMON. 
 
 FLAX, PURGING. 
 
 usual, and before the flax-seed is sown, peat j 
 ashes, at the rate of thirty bushels per acre, 
 are spread and harrowed in, and a lew days 
 afterwards ten hogsheads of strong liquid 
 manure is poured regularly over the land, 
 and left for a week or ten days to soak 
 thoroughly into the soil. The seed is then 
 sown very abundantly ; cloudy or showery 
 weather is the time chosen ; the quantity 
 varies, but the general proportion is 160 lbs. 
 to the acre. It is lightly covered in by a 
 bush-harrow, drawn over the land, for if 
 the seed were buried more than half an 
 inch deep it would prevent its vegetating. 
 The choice of seed requires great care and 
 circumspection : good fresh seed should be 
 of a bright colour, with a sweet taste, and 
 it will feel smooth, slippery, and plump, and, 
 on being broken, should appear of a greenish 
 yellow colour, and should sink in water. 
 Genuine seed will average 18 lbs. per peck, 
 but good Riga seed is somewhat lighter. 
 Hand weeding should be attended to when 
 the stems are from two to three inches 
 above the surface, for when the flax is 
 higher, it is liable to be injured by the 
 vveeders. The proper time for pulling flax, 
 when not intended for seed, is when about 
 two-thirds of the stalk is observed to turn 
 yellow, and to lose the leaves. If intended 
 for seed, the flax should not be pulled until 
 the capsules have acquired a brown colour, 
 and the points have become firm, and so 
 sharp as to fix themselves in the hand when 
 pressed, and when nearly all the leaves and fo- 
 liage have withered and fallen from the stem. 
 
 When flax is raised both for the seed and 
 stalk, it is submitted to an operation called 
 rippling, which consists in separating the 
 seed from the stalk, by passing the flax 
 through a kind of comb, before it is steeped 
 in water. The iron teeth of these combs 
 are placed so close together that the heads 
 cannot pass through, and are consequently 
 pulled off. Another practice is to beat out 
 the seed in the field with a piece of wood, 
 or a heavier stick than that of the common 
 flail, and then to sift the seed into a large 
 sheet. In preparing flax for the manufac- 
 turer, the first operation it undergoes is 
 that of steeping it in water, to loosen the 
 bark and separate it from the stalk ; for this 
 purpose it is tied into small bundles, and 
 then placed in a pond or reservoir of soft 
 water. The sheaves are slightly covered 
 with straw, fern, rushes, or coarse herbage 
 (kept down by stones or heavy bodies), to 
 prevent the flax from being discoloured by 
 the sun. In the course of seven or eight 
 days the rind will be sufficiently loosened, 
 and the flax must be taken out of the water 
 and spread out to dry. Phillips says there 
 is an act of parliament in force, which for- 
 485 
 
 bids the steeping of flax in rivers, or any 
 waters where cattle are accustomed to drink, 
 as it is found to communicate a poison de- 
 structive to the cattle which drink of it, and 
 to the fish which live in such waters. The 
 odour it exhales is most disagreeable, and 
 has often been productive of fever. An- 
 other, but far more tedious process, resorted 
 to for separating the bark from the stalk, is 
 called dew retting, and consists in spreading 
 the flax upon grass lands, and exposing it 
 to the constant action of rain and dew. Hot 
 water and soft soap are said to decorticate 
 the stalk in a few hours. Grassing or 
 bleaching the flax on old grass ground is the 
 next operation, and is intended to rectify 
 any defect, in the steeping. The last pro- 
 cess is that of bruising and scutching, pre- 
 vious to which it should be moderately 
 dried. The woody part of the stem was 
 formerly beaten or bruised with a hand 
 mallet ; but this operation is now more 
 effectually performed by machinery. Flax- 
 mills, with suitable wheels and rollers, now 
 greatly facilitate the processes of bruising 
 and scutching. Mr. James Durno (then 
 British consul at Munich) gives an interest- 
 ing account in the sixth volume of the Com. 
 to Board, of Agr. p. 75., of " the mode of 
 cultivating flax and hemp in Russia, Prussia, 
 and Poland ; " and Mr. Robert Somerville 
 of Haddington has also a very excellent 
 paper in the same volume (p. 84.), urging 
 very strenuously the necessity for a more 
 general home cultivation of those essential 
 articles, hemp and flax, and suggesting im- 
 provements in the processes of dressing, &c, 
 many of which have since been carried out. 
 (F. H. Phillips's Cult Veg. vol. i. p. 189. ; 
 Brit. Hush. vol. iii. p. 42. ; Quart. Journ 
 Agr. vol. iv. p. 159. ; Pooler s Manual; Irish 
 Farmei^s Mag. ; Low's Prac. Agr. ; Baxter s 
 Agr. Libr. ; M'Culloclts Com. Diet.) 
 
 FLAX, PURGING. Mill mountain. 
 Dwarf wild flax. (Linum catharticum .) 
 This is a pretty herb, seldom more than 
 eight or ten inches high, growing in parks, 
 warrens, and dry hilly pastures. The stalk 
 is slender and delicate, round, firm, and 
 divided into small branches. The leaves 
 are small, obtuse, bright green, and stand- 
 ing two at each joint. The tremulous 
 flowers are small and white, pendulous 
 before expansion, and not unlike chickweed. 
 The root is small and tapering. This plant 
 is bitter and cathartic. Dr. Withering found 
 two drams or more in a dose, of the dried 
 herb, useful in obstinate rheumatisms. It 
 is purgative in doses of 3 scruples. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 120.) The country people 
 boil it in their ale or beer for the cure of 
 rheumatism ; but it is not so useful as a 
 dose of colchicum. 
 
 i i 3 
 
FLAX SEED. 
 
 FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. 
 
 FLAX-SEED. See Linseed. 
 FLAX-SEED, THYME-LEAVED. 
 (Badiola millegrana) . A little Avhite-flower- 
 ing insignificant plant, found in wet sandy 
 places. It is an annual, flowering in July 
 and August ; root small and fibrous ; stem 
 repeatedly forked, one or two inches high ; 
 leaves sessile, ovate. 
 
 FLAY CRAKE. A provincial name for 
 a scarecrow, hung in gardens or fields. 
 
 FLEABANE. (Erigeron, from er, 
 spring ; and geron, an old man ; the plants 
 become old in the beginning of the season.) 
 This extensive genus comprehends many 
 exceedingly handsome species, varying from 
 a few inches to two feet or more high, and pro- 
 ducing a great and copious display of blos- 
 som ; they will grow in almost any soil, and 
 are increased with facility from either seeds 
 or divisions. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) The 
 fleabane has lost its reputation both for 
 banishing fleas and insects by its smell, and 
 answering other superstitious incantations, 
 for which it was celebrated in former times. 
 There are four indigenous species. The 
 Canada fleabane (E. Canadensis), and blue 
 fleabane (E. acris), which are diuretic. 
 The alpine fleabane (E. alpinus), and pale- 
 rayed mountain fleabane (E. uniflorus). 
 The first is annual, the second biennial, the 
 third and fourth perennial. (Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 421.) 
 
 FLEABANE, COMMON. (Inula dy- 
 sentareca.) This plant is very abundant in 
 clear ditches and in watery places about 
 road sides. It is a perennial, with a creep- 
 ing root ; herb more or less woolly or cot- 
 tony, glutinous, with a peculiar acid aro- 
 matic scent, somewhat like the flavour of 
 peaches. The stem is 12 or 18 inches high, 
 branched and leafy, corymbose at the 
 summit, with many bright yellow flowers. 
 Linnaeus records, on the authority of Ge- 
 neral Keith, that the use of this plant cured 
 the Russian army of dysentery; — hence the 
 specific name. Its medical properties, how- 
 ever, are simply diuretic. The small flea- 
 bane (/. pulicaria) is an annual, and is said 
 to banish insects by its smell. It grows on 
 moist sandy spots, especially where water 
 has stagnated during winter. There is an- 
 other species, the samphire-leaved fleabane, 
 which grows on the sea-coast, in a muddy 
 soil. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 440—443.) 
 
 FLEABANE, GREAT. Ploughman's 
 Spikenard. See Spikenard. 
 
 FLEAK. A wattled hurdle or kind of 
 gate, which, by negligent farmers, is some- 
 times set up in the gaps of their hedges. 
 See IIurdee. 
 
 FLEAM. In farriery, an instrument 
 used for letting blood in horses or other 
 animals. 
 
 486 
 
 FLEA-WORT (Cineraria, from cineres, 
 ashes ; referring to the soft white down 
 which covers the surfaces of the leaves.) 
 These are downy or cottony herbs, some- 
 times shrubby, more numerous in Southern 
 Africa than elsewhere. There are but two 
 native species; the marsh flea-wort (C.pa- 
 lustris) found in ditches and the boggy 
 margins of deep pools, chiefly in the eastern 
 parts of England. It has a stout shaggy 
 stem three feet high, corymbose at the top, 
 a long fibrous root running deep 'into the 
 mud, leaves broadly lanceolate ; flowers 
 numerous, of a bright lemon colour. 
 
 The mountain flea-wort (C. integrifolid) 
 is only found on chalky downs or limestone 
 cliffs. The stem is only 6 or 8 inches high, 
 terminating in an imperfect umbel of three 
 or four bright yellow flowers. The cultivated 
 species thrive best in a mixture of loam 
 and peat, and young cuttings root freely 
 under a glass. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 443. ; 
 Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 FLEA- WORT. (Plantago.) A genus, 
 the greater number of the species of which 
 are mere weeds, of the easiest culture and 
 propagation. See Plantain. 
 
 FLECKED. A provincial term used to 
 signify pied, as cattle. 
 
 FLEECE. The woolly covering shorn 
 from off the body of the sheep. Mr. J ames 
 Dickson of Edinburgh contributed a very 
 able prize essay to the Highland Society 
 (Trans, vol. vi. p. 205.) ; ' on the treatment 
 of sheep, with a view to the improvement 
 of the fleece." The earliest and rudest 
 method of obtaining the fleece was to drive 
 the flocks hastily through a narrow passage, 
 when by their pressure against each other 
 the greater part of the fleece was loosened, 
 or completely detached. To this succeeded 
 another more inhuman mode. The sheep 
 was caught, and the fleece pulled from its 
 back. This barbarous practice prevailed to 
 a very recent date in the Orkney Islands. 
 The average value of the fleece in 1315 was 
 6d. (7s. 6d. of the present money), being 
 nearly half as much as the value of the car- 
 case. ( The Sheep, Lib. of Use. Know. p. 33. 
 205.) See Hair, Sheep-Shearing, and 
 Wooe. 
 
 FLEETWOOD, WILLIAM, was born in 
 the Tower of London, where his father had 
 his residence in 1656. In 1706, he was 
 created Bishop of St. Asaph, and eight years 
 afterwards was translated to Ely, of which 
 he died the diocesan in 1723. Fleetwood 
 requires notice here from being the author 
 of " Curiosities of Nature and Art in Hus- 
 bandry and Gardening." London, 1707. 
 8vo. 
 
 FLEMISH HUSBANDRY. See Exan- 
 ders, Agriculture or. 
 
FLESH. 
 
 FLOUR. 
 
 FLESH. Muscular flesh, which is too 
 well known to need any particular descrip- 
 tion, is composed of a number of white or 
 red fibres, compounded of still smaller 
 fibres. It is united in ordinary cases with 
 a variety of substances, such as blood, fat, 
 ligament, sinew, and nerves. It has been 
 analysed by M.Berzelius who found in it — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Fibrin vessels and nerves - 15'8 
 
 Cellular matter - - 1 9 
 
 Muriate and lactate of soda - T80 
 Albumen and colouring matter of 
 
 the blood - - - 2-20 
 Phosphate of soda - - 0-90 
 Extract - - - - 0*15 
 Albumen holding in solution phos- 
 phate of lime - - - 0 08 
 Water and loss - - - 77*17 
 
 100 
 
 The chief nutriment afforded by animal 
 food is derived from muscle or flesh. That 
 of adult animals is more nutritive than that 
 of young animals ; hence beef and mutton 
 are better adapted to support the frame 
 than veal or lamb. The latter yield most 
 gelatin ; but the popular idea of the nutri- 
 tive property of animal jellies is erroneous. 
 
 FLET MILK. In the country, means 
 such milk as has been skimmed, or had the 
 cream taken from it. 
 
 FLEW. A provincial name for the 
 fleam or phleme, used in bleeding cattle. 
 
 FLINT. Common flints are nearly pure 
 silica, which is composed of a metal (sili- 
 cium) and oxygen gas ; it is tasteless, inso- 
 luble in water, or fluoric acid, and dissolv- 
 able only by means of potash. Flints usually 
 occur in irregular nodules in chalk. They 
 abound considerably in some sorts of soils. 
 Sand is commonly chiefly composed of flint. 
 A specimen of flint analysed by M. Klaproth 
 contained 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 98 
 
 Alumina - 0*25 
 Oxide of iron - - 0*25 
 
 Water - - - 1-50 
 
 100 
 
 Flint, when exposed to intense heat, be- 
 comes opaque, and forms a kind of porcelain. 
 This was well illustrated in the fire in the 
 Tower, in 1841. The flints of the muskets 
 were all thus changed. See Earths. 
 
 FLIXWEED. See Hedge Mustard. 
 
 FLOAT. A raft of timber bound to- 
 gether to be conveyed by water. It also 
 signifies locally to turn water upon meadow 
 land for improving it ; and likewise to pare 
 off the surface or sward. 
 487 
 
 FLOAT BOARDS. The boards fixed 
 to the rim or outer circumference of the 
 undershot water wheels of mills. 
 
 FLOATING OF MEADOWS. See 
 Irrigation. 
 
 FLOATSTONE. A porous variety of 
 flint, which floats upon water. Thomson 
 (Sys. of Chem. vol. iii. p. 344.) describes a 
 species of floatstone found at St. Omer, 
 near Paris, which he states to be of a yel- 
 lowish grey, very soft, and rather brittle in 
 its texture. Specific gravity 0*448. 100 
 parts consist of 98 parts silica, and 2 lime. 
 
 FLOCK. An indefinite number of sheep 
 kept together under a shepherd. 
 
 FLOUNDER (Pleuronectes.) This fish 
 is very numerous in the seas around the 
 British coast, and in all rivers that com- 
 municate with them. It may easily be 
 distinguished from plaice and other fish 
 of the same genus by a row of small 
 but sharp spines, which surround its upper 
 sides. The superior part of the body is of 
 a pale brown, sometimes marked with a few 
 spots of dirty yellow : the belly is white. 
 Flounders seldom grow to a large size in the 
 rivers, few exceeding the weight of five or 
 six pounds. Brandlings that are taken from 
 rotten tan, well scoured, are the best baits, 
 but they will take the lobworm, minnows, 
 or greaves. (Walton s Angle?*; Blaine s 
 Rural Sports.) 
 
 FLOUR. (Span, flor; It. fiore ; Fr.fieur 
 de farnie.) The meal of wheat corn or 
 other grain, separated from the husk or 
 bran, and finely ground and sifted. There 
 are three qualities of flour, denominated 
 first, seconds, and thirds, of which the first 
 is the purest. (See Bread and Corn Laws.) 
 The proportion of flour which a bushel of 
 grain affords greatly varies. A bushel of 
 Essex wheat, Winchester measure, weighs 
 upon an average about 60 lbs., which, when 
 ground, will yield (exclusive of the loss in- 
 curred by the grinding and drying) 45^ lbs. 
 of the flour called seconds, which alone is used 
 for baking throughout the greater part of 
 England, and affords the most wholesome, 
 though not the whitest bread. Besides the 
 seconds, such a bushel of wheat yields 13 lbs. 
 of pollard and bran : the total loss in grind- 
 ing seldom exceeds one pound and a half. 
 
 The corn of the different species of grain 
 produces, when ripe, nearly the following 
 quantities of meal or household flour and 
 bread per bushel : viz. 
 
 Wheat if weighing 60 lbs., of Flour 48 lbs. of Bread 64 lbs. 
 Rye — 54 — 42 — 56 
 
 Barley — 48 — 37± — 50 
 
 Oats — 40 — 22i — 30 
 
 The flour of wheat which is cut before it 
 is quite ripe is whiter than that which is 
 allowed to come to maturity, and bears a 
 higher price in the markets. The grain 
 1 1 4 
 
FLOWER DE LUCE. 
 
 FLOWERS. 
 
 which is intended for the miller should, 
 therefore, be reaped before it has reached 
 its utmost growth ; but that which is meant 
 for seed should be allowed to stand until 
 the last moment at which it can be cut 
 with safety. The corn is ground into meal 
 of various degrees of fineness, and a bushel 
 of 60 lbs. generally yields, when dressed, 
 about the following quantities, viz. 
 
 Fine flour - - 25^ lbs. 
 
 ' Household flour - - 22^ 
 
 Pollards - - 8~ 
 
 Bran - - 3 
 
 A bushel of wheat, therefore, averages 
 48 lbs. of both kinds of flour of the sort 
 called " seconds," and a sack of marketable 
 flour should by law weigh 280 lbs. These 
 products must, however, vary according to 
 the quality of the grain ; some will pro- 
 duce more or less bran, as the husk may be 
 more or less thick ; and the bakers admit 
 they can make two or three more quartern 
 loaves than the usual quantity from one 
 sack of flour, when it is the genuine pro- 
 duce of good wheat. Thus it was found 
 upon a comparative trial between English 
 and Scotch wheat, of apparently equal qua- 
 lity, that there was a difference in favour of 
 the former of no less than 13 lbs. of bread 
 upon 2^ cwts. of flour. (Willictis Bom. 
 Ency. ; Brit. Hush. vol. ii. pp. 137. 155. ; 
 Farmer s Mag. vol. xxii. p. 2.) 
 
 FLOWER DE LUCE, or LIS. FLAG. 
 See Iris. 
 
 FLOWERING ASH. (Scopoli.) All 
 the species of the genus Scopoli are orna- 
 mental and useful ; they are easily culti- 
 vated, and may be raised from seeds, like 
 the common ash, or they may be increased 
 by budding or grafting on the common ash. 
 
 FLOWERING RUSH, COMMON. 
 (Butomus umbellatus.) This beautiful aqua- 
 tic plant is a native of ponds, ditches, and 
 the margins of our rivers on a gravelly soil. 
 It flowers in July and August. The leaves 
 are narrow, acute, nearly a yard long. The 
 stalk is still taller, round, and very smooth, 
 and bears a large bracteated umbel of hand- 
 some rose-coloured flowers, each about an 
 inch broad, without scent. This rush may 
 be increased with little difficulty. The 
 leaves of this plant are said to cause the 
 mouths of cattle to bleed that crop it ; 
 hence the name, from bous, ox, and tem.no, 
 to cut. (Paxtori's Bot. Diet. ; Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 246.) It was some years since 
 much celebrated in Russia as a remedy for 
 hydrophobia ; but like all specifics, its fame 
 was destroyed by excess of praise. It has 
 no influence in curing that disease. 
 
 FLOWERS. The most beautiful parts 
 of plants and trees, which contain the or- 
 gans of fructification. (See Botany.) From 
 488 
 
 their frequent utility, as medicinal drugs, 
 as well as their external beauty, the cul- 
 tivation of flowers in our gardens becomes 
 an object of some importance. As I have 
 treated of almost every flowering plant 
 alphabetically under its separate head, I 
 shall confine myself in this place to a few 
 general remarks. # Flowers are many of 
 them excellent indicators of the approach- 
 ing weather by expansion or closing, and 
 other motions. It is an established fact, 
 that flowers as well as fruits grow larger in 
 the shade, and ripen and decay soonest 
 when exposed to the sun. The immediate 
 cause of the various colours presented by 
 some flowers, such as poppies, has not 
 hitherto been distinctly ascertained. Co- 
 louring matter is contained in almost every 
 flower and root of vegetables, and may 
 be extracted by a very simple process. 
 Flowers which are to be used or pre- 
 served for medicinal purposes should, with 
 a few exceptions, be gathered in full bloom, 
 and dried as speedily as possible. The rose, 
 Rosa Gallica, is gathered before it is fully 
 blown. In drying flowers, the calyces, claws, 
 &c. should be previously taken off* : when 
 the flowers are very small, the calyx is left, 
 or even the whole flowering spike, as in the 
 greatest portion of the labiate flowers. In 
 some instances, as in the baidistines, or 
 pomegranate flower, the active matter resides 
 chiefly in the calyx. Compound flowers with 
 pappous seeds, as colt's-foot, ought to be 
 dried very high, and before they are entirely 
 open, otherwise the slight moisture that re- 
 mains would clevelope the pappus, and form 
 a kind of cottony nap, which would be very 
 hurtful in infusions, by leaving irritating 
 particles in the throat. Flowers of little or 
 no smell may be dried in a heat of 75 to 
 100° Fahr. The succulent petals of the 
 liliaceous plants, whose odour is very fuga- 
 cious, cannot well be dried, as their mu- 
 cilaginous substance rots and grows black. 
 Several sorts of flowering tops, as those of 
 lesser centaury, wormwood, melilot, water 
 germander, &c, are tied in small parcels 
 and hung up, or else exposed to the sun, 
 wrapped in paper cornets, that they may 
 not be discoloured. After some time, blue 
 flowers, as those of violets, bugloss, or bo- 
 rage, grow yelloAV, and even become en- 
 tirely discoloured, especially if they are 
 kept in glass vessels that admit the light : 
 if, however, they are dipped for a moment 
 in boiling water, and slightly pressed before 
 they are put into the drying stove, the blue 
 colour is rendered permanent. {Grays 
 Sup. to Pharmacop.') It is probable that 
 varieties in the colours of single flowers 
 raised from seeds may be generally ob- 
 tained by sowing those which already pos- 
 
FLUELLIN. 
 
 FLY-CATHER, THE PIED. 
 
 sess different shades contiguous to others of 
 the same species ; or by bending the flowers 
 of one colour, and shaking the anther-dust 
 over those of another. The origin of double 
 flowers is believed to result from the luxu- 
 riant growth of the plant, in consequence 
 of excessive nourishment, moisture, and 
 warmth; they arise from the increase of 
 some parts of the flower, and the conse- 
 quent exclusion of others : thus the stamens 
 are often converted into petals. Botanists 
 very properly term such multiplied flowers 
 vegetable monsters, because they possess no 
 stamens or pistils, and therefore cannot 
 produce seeds. There subsists (says Dr. 
 Darwin) a curious analogy between these 
 vegetable monsters and those of the animal 
 world ; for a duplicature of limbs frequently 
 attend the latter, as chickens and turkeys 
 with four legs or four wings, and calves 
 with two heads, &c. The science of flori- 
 culture, or the culture, propagation, and 
 general management of plants, divides itself 
 into five sections, viz. J. Stove plants; 2. 
 Greenhouse plants ; 3. Hardy trees and 
 shrubs ; 4. Hardy herbaceous plants ; 5. 
 Annuals and biennials. But as I do not 
 intend to go into the separate consideration 
 of these different heads, I shall merely refer 
 the reader, who wishes to study the subject 
 more fully, to the " Florists' Manual," " The 
 Hothouse and Greenhouse Manual," " Lou- 
 don's Encyclopedias of Plants and Garden- 
 ing ; " — and numberless other excellent 
 works which are published on this subject. 
 
 FLUELLIN, TOADFLAX, or SNAP- 
 DRAGON. (Antirrhinum.} Of this genus 
 there are two indigenous species noticed 
 by Smith. 1. The round-leaved Fluellin 
 (A. spurium), which is a rare plant, with 
 ovate, downy leaves. 2. The sharp-pointed 
 Fluellin (A. elatine), which is more slender 
 than the last, with halberd-shaped, usually 
 smaller, leaves. It is very common in corn 
 fields after harvest, on a gravelly or chalky 
 soil, blowing its pretty purple and yellow 
 flowers, which are paler, smaller, and less 
 conspicuous than those of the first-men- 
 tioned species. The stalks are spreading 
 and procumbent, about six inches long. 
 {Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 132.) 
 
 FLUKE WORM. {Distoma hepati- 
 cum ; Fasciola hepatica, Linn.) A small flat 
 entozoon or worm, about an inch long, which 
 infests the ducts of the liver and gall bladder 
 of different animals, especially sheep. In 
 those that have died of the rot, it is gene- 
 rally found fixed by two points, one at one 
 extremity, and the other about the middle 
 of the abdomen of the worm ; it bears some 
 resemblance to the seed of the common 
 gourd, and thence is often called the gou?'d- 
 worm. See Sheep, Diseases or. 
 489 
 
 FLY-CATCHER, THE SPOTTED. 
 
 {Muscicapa grisola.) This bird is one of 
 the latest, but at the same time one of the 
 most regular, of our summer visitors. Mr. 
 Selby says, this bird seldom makes its ap- 
 pearance till the oak leaf is partly expanded, 
 and it begins to form a nest of moss, roots, 
 grass, and feathers immediately on its arri- 
 val. It frequents orchards, gardens, lawns, 
 and pleasure grounds, and is not a little re- 
 markable for the singularity of the places in 
 which it sometimes makes its nest. It has 
 been known to fix its nest on the crown of 
 a lamp, in a bird cage left hanging out of 
 doors, in the head of a garden rake, &c. The 
 more usual places for this bird's nest are 
 the side of a faggot-stack, a hole in a wall, 
 or on a beam in an out-building ; whence 
 arises one of its provincial names, that of 
 Beam-bird ; it also fixes its nest on a branch 
 of a pear tree, a vine, or a honey-suckle 
 when trained against a building. These 
 birds are believed to feed almost exclusively 
 on winged insects. The eggs of the spotted 
 fly-catcher are four or five in number, white, 
 tinged with blue, and spotted with pale red ; 
 nine lines in length by seven in breadth. 
 The upper surface of the body and wing- 
 coverts of the bird are hair brown, with a 
 few darker spots upon the top of the head, 
 breast, and chin ; legs, toes, and claws black. 
 Whole length of the bird five inches and 
 five eighths. {YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 164.) 
 
 FLY-CATCHER, THE PIED. {Mus- 
 cicapa atricapilla.) The pied fly-catcher is 
 much less numerous as a species than its 
 generic companion last described, and, ex- 
 cept in certain localities, is a rare bird in 
 England, and can be considered only as a 
 summer visitor to this country, arriving in 
 April, and quitting it to go further south in 
 September. It appears to be most plentiful 
 in the vicinity of the Lakes of Cumberland 
 and Westmoreland, and in some of its ha- 
 bits, particularly in its mode of feeding, 
 and the nature of its food, it resembles the 
 well-known spotted fly-catcher ; but with 
 these distinctions, that it builds in the holes 
 of decayed oaks or pollard trees, is exceed- 
 ingly noisy and clamorous when its re- 
 treat is approached, and that it lays some- 
 times as many as eight eggs. Its nest is a 
 loose assemblage of roots and grass, with a 
 few dry leaves, dead bents, and hair ; esjors 
 eight and a half Hues long by six and a half 
 in breadth, of an uniform pale blue. Colour 
 of plumage : upper part of head and neck 
 dark brownish black, edges of the greater 
 wing coverts, and some of the other feathers, 
 white ; whole of the back a decided black ; 
 all the under surface of the body white. 
 I The whole length of the bird, five inches and 
 
FLY IN SHEEP. 
 
 FLY IN TURNIPS. 
 
 one eighth. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 169.) 
 
 FLY IN SHEEP. See Sheep, Dis- 
 eases OF. 
 
 FLY IN TURNIPS. {Altica nemo- 
 rum.) The vulgar name for a species of 
 flea-beetle, which attacks the turnip crop 
 in the cotyledon, or seed leaf, as soon 
 as it appears : it is sometimes called the 
 blackjack, and sometimes the flea, or black 
 fly. A universal and very remarkable cha- 
 racteristic of this family of beetles, is the 
 property of making great leaps by means of 
 their very thick hind legs. There appear 
 to be at least two species of fly or beetle 
 injurious to the turnip crop, the striped, 
 and the brassy, or tooth-legged, also called 
 saw-fly. The habits of the latter are not 
 known. As the former is the most general 
 and destructive, I shall confine my observ- 
 ations principally to that species. All the 
 species are among the smallest insects ; se- 
 veral are scarcely a line long : the length of 
 the largest is hardly two lines, and one in 
 breadth. The greatest number are shining 
 green, with a brown or yellowish hue. 
 Early in spring they are seen sitting on 
 walls in great numbers ; in winter they live 
 under leaves, stems of plants, and in chinks 
 in walls : during summer they are the most 
 dangerous enemies of various vegetables, 
 particularly the cabbage tribe. They also 
 attack different sorts of the root genus 
 Brassica, such as the turnip, &c, as well as 
 the radish, the common cress, and the water 
 cress. Besides these sorts of vegetables, 
 they also prey upon flax, tobacco, hops, 
 seedling clover, and sainfoin, but more espe- 
 cially the summer and winter turnips, which 
 are left for seed, and often entirely spoil the 
 future harvest during the flowering season, 
 when the weather is warm and dry. So 
 extensive are the ravages thus committed, 
 that whole fields have often to be resown. 
 Arthur Young calculated the loss in De- 
 vonshire, from this cause alone, in 1786, at 
 100,000/. We could scarcely believe that 
 so small a creature was capable of causing 
 perceptible injury to vegetation ; but what 
 these beetles want in size is made up by 
 their numbers and voracity : the extent of 
 the injury is also much increased by the 
 circumstance of their attacking, when young, 
 many vegetables, and not gnawing the ten- 
 der leaves, like most other insects, only on 
 the edge, but eating their surface, piercing 
 them like a sieve, and disturbing the cellu- 
 lar (issue, thus preventing their growth, 
 and finally causing the total destruction of 
 the plant. They love warmth and sun- 
 shine; thus are seldom found in shady places: 
 and ii isa veryjustobservation that plant beds 
 bordered by many trees have little to fear 
 490 
 
 from them. The turnip beetle belongs to 
 the order Coleoptera, from its wings with 
 which it flies being folded beneath two 
 horny cases. It is included in the family 
 Chkysomeeid^}, or golden beetles, for cer- 
 tain scientific reasons, in conformity with 
 its structure, and is one of about one hundred 
 species forming the genus Aetica, some- 
 times written IIaltica. 
 
 The striped turnip beetle is named in our 
 catalogues Altica nemorum. The former 
 word, derived from the Greek, alludes to 
 the leaping powers of the genus, and the 
 latter signifying that this species inhabits 
 woods and groves, which were more espe- 
 cially its haunts before turnip cultivation 
 became general. 
 
 Mr. Curtis says the eggs are laid upon 
 the under side of the rough leaf from April 
 to September : they hatch in ten days. 
 The maggots live between the two skins or 
 cuticles of the rough leaf, and arrive at ma- 
 turity in sixteen days. The chrysalis is 
 buried just beneatl* the surface of the earth, 
 where it remains about a fortnight. The 
 beetles live through the winter in a torpid 
 state, and revive in the spring. There are 
 five or six broods in a season, and all agree 
 that the insects are most to be feared in 
 fine weather ; for heavy rains, cold springs, 
 and long droughts destroy them. Their 
 scent appears to be very perfect : they fly 
 against the wind, and are attracted from a 
 long distance. 
 
 Professor Rennie says the eggs are laid 
 in July, and the dusky-brown grubs are 
 hatched in the following May. They lie in 
 the pupa state fifteen days, the beetles ap- 
 pear in July, and die after they lay their 
 eggs. Turnips, therefore, sown rather 
 earlier or later than this, are safe. At other 
 times radish seed, or, what is cheaper, rape, 
 may be sown between the turnip drills for 
 the beetles to feed on, and save the turnips. 
 Some say the larvae live where the perfect 
 insect does ; others, that they attack the 
 roots and stems of plants. No natural ene- 
 mies are yet known of these destructive in- 
 sects. Shade, coolness, and rainy weather 
 are the surest protection of young plants 
 from the attacks of the flea-beetles. 
 
 Remedies are not wanting, which have 
 been recommended by various agriculturists 
 and gardeners, against these insects. All 
 these remedies are enumerated and pro- 
 perly explained in an excellent treatise by 
 M. Wundram, a clergyman at Dorste in 
 Hanover (in the Trans. R. I. Agr. Soc. of 
 Vienna, new series, vol. i. p. 103.), and 
 those particularly deserve to be recom- 
 mended which are proposed by the an I hor, as 
 they have been tested by many years' expe- 
 rience, are easily tried, require scarcely any 
 
FLY IN TUKNIPS. 
 
 expense, and take proportionally little time. 
 These remedies consist in the employment 
 of an infusion of wormwood, and sprinkling 
 with road dust, and though only adapted 
 to gardens and small plots, yet the descrip- 
 tion of them may be useful as leading to 
 further experiments. In the first remedy, 
 boiling water has to be poured on fresh or 
 dry wormwood, and the turnips well sprin- 
 kled with the infusion by means of a wisp 
 of straw dipped in it, and scarcely an earth 
 flea-beetle will afterwards attack them. 
 The bitterness lasts so long that the plants 
 seldom repuire a second watering, unless 
 frequent heavy showers fall soon after. 
 Plants may also be rescued from the greedy 
 voracity of these small devastators in a 
 more simple and easy manner by the appli- 
 cation of the second remedy, viz. road dust. 
 The dust of chalky stones is to be gathered 
 on the road in a fine day, and stowed up in 
 a dry place for future use. As soon as it is 
 perceived that the earth flea-beetles appear 
 on the turnips, a night must be chosen when 
 a great deal of dew has fallen, and while 
 the young plants are still wet they are to be 
 thickly sprinkled with the road dust till 
 they look as if covered with powder : whe- 
 ther the dust is injurious to their bodies 
 generally, or only by covering the leaves it 
 obstructs or is injurious to the action of 
 their organs of manducation, is not known, 
 but the earth flea-beetles all at once dis- 
 appear, particularly if the sun shines brightly 
 the following day, and the dust is dried on 
 the plants. If heavy rain falls immediately 
 after the first sprinkling, and washes the dust 
 off the plants, it must be repeated as before. 
 
 The recent investigations which have 
 taken place in this country, of the habits of 
 the turnip fly, have enabled us to clear up 
 many points in the natural history of this 
 tribe of beetles. The committee appointed 
 by the Doncaster Agricultural Association, 
 in 1830, to institute enquiries " On the 
 turnip fly, and the means of its preven- 
 tion," and the proposal of this subject by 
 the Entomological Society of London as one 
 of their Prize Essays, have led to the pub- 
 lication of a report by the former body, 
 comprising a vast deal of practical matter ; 
 and more especially to the production of a 
 memoir by Mr. H. Le Keux, published in 
 the second volume of the Transactions (p. 
 24.) of the latter society, in which the com- 
 plete history of the insect in all its stages is 
 at last most satisfactorily traced, and from 
 which it is evident that all the former 
 notions relative to the deposition of the 
 eggs of the insect in manure, or attached to 
 the seed, are quite erroneous ; the larva 
 feeding within the full-grown leaf, to which 
 the egg has been fastened by the parent 
 491 
 
 beetle. A very interesting paper by Mr. Cur- 
 tis, F.L.S., &c, is also given in the second 
 volume of the Journal of the lloyal English 
 Agricultural Society, p. 193., describing at 
 considerable length the insect, and throw- 
 ing out many hints and remedies for the 
 prevention of their attacks, of which I shall 
 endeavour to give an abridged account. 
 
 Burning has been found a good preven- 
 tive against the beetle by some, since it 
 destroys any chrysalides in the land, and 
 spreading the ashes afterwards over the 
 ground will prove an additional security ; but 
 this system does not suit sandy soils, and 
 could not be regularly followed up on any 
 land. Feeding off the turnips is strongly 
 recommended as an antidote to the beetle, 
 as well as from its peculiar advantages of 
 manuring and preparing the land for the 
 barley crop and succeeding seeds. The be- 
 nefits to be derived from sheep-folding, as 
 regards the beetle, are doubtless principally 
 to be attributed to the perfect stamping 
 down of the soil and herbage, by which all 
 insect life is destroyed, rather than to any 
 peculiar quality in sheep manure, unless it 
 be contained in their urine. 
 
 It is the opinion of a great many agricul- 
 turists that raw and long manure harbours 
 the beetle, and if turnips be sown on a 
 stubble crop they are often completely de- 
 stroyed. 
 
 Powdered lime and soot have met with 
 some advocates, but do not appear to be of 
 any use. 
 
 Hoeing and rolling may harass and kill 
 many of the beetles ; and as this process 
 promotes the more rapid growth of the 
 plants, it must be attended with no slight 
 advantages. From the dislike the fly has 
 to repeated wet, frequent watering the tur- 
 nips would evidently be very beneficial, 
 particularly with brine (not strong enough 
 to injure the plants) or liquid manure, 
 which would stimulate the growth most ef- 
 fectually ; and many of the beetles would 
 necessarily be forcibly brushed off", and get 
 set fast in the earth, and die. Sulphuric 
 solutions sprinkled by machinery would 
 also have a powerful effect. Nitrate of soda 
 has been tried in a few instances on crops 
 of Swedish turnips with very beneficial 
 results. A net (called after its inventor the 
 Paul net) dragged over the field has been 
 usefully employed; and a board newly 
 painted with white paint, or tarred, drawn 
 over the turnips, will catch multitudes of the 
 beetles ; for, on being disturbed, they leap 
 against it, and cannot release themselves. 
 
 Having already devoted a considerable 
 space to the subject, I shall conclude with 
 a few practical directions, and also append 
 those given in the Doncaster report. 
 
FLY IN TURNIPS. 
 
 The first appearance of the beetles is to 
 be punctually observed, as affording the best 
 chance in applying remedies. 
 
 The rapid growth of the plant appears to 
 be the best security against the ravages of 
 the insect ; and to insure this, plenty of seed 
 should be sown, all of the same year's 
 growth. Deep ploughing will be found 
 advantageous when the chrysalides are in 
 the soil. Drilling is far superior to broad- 
 cast sowing, and in Scotland is believed to 
 keep away the beetles. Early sowing is at- 
 tended with disadvantages ; for the same 
 warmth and sunshine that make the seed 
 vegetate will also bring the hungry swarms 
 of beetles from their winter quarters. 
 Charlock, hedge mustard, common ladies' 
 smock, and all cruciferous weeds in fields 
 and hedges should be carefully destroyed, 
 as they afford support to the beetles before 
 the turnips come up. 
 
 Fumigation, by burning brimstone, stub- 
 bles, green weeds, or furze, damp straw, &c. 
 in heaps round the field, so that the smoke 
 drives along the ground, has been found 
 one of the most effectual remedies, and can 
 be the most easily resorted to, because it 
 is in dry weather that the fly infests the 
 turnip crop. A correspondent of the Mark 
 Lane Express proposes, on the first appear- 
 ance of the turnips above the ground, that 
 the following mixture, calculated for two 
 acres, should be strewed over it : — 1 bushel 
 of flour of brimstone, 1 bushel of sulphuret 
 of lime (from a gas work), and 6 bushels of 
 dry sand. 
 
 Such are a few of the remedies and pre- 
 ventatives proposed ; the subject still offers 
 a wide field for inquiry and observation, 
 and can scarcely be grasped and properly 
 understood until correct data are obtained 
 from every sort of soil under the various 
 influences of climate and effects of cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 The Doncaster committee received up- 
 wards of 100 answers in reply to the queries 
 which they addressed to practical farmers 
 and others in all parts of England. The 
 evidence afforded by those various commu- 
 nications are certainly most valuable ; but 
 the remedies recommended in the following 
 practical directions which they publish, 
 cannot be considered as altogether effica- 
 cious, though probably preventive : — 
 
 1. That, most effectually to insure the 
 speedy growth of the plant, the land should 
 be kept in the best possible state of cul- 
 tivation. 
 
 2. That scuffling or ploughing the land 
 befbre winter, and clearing the hedge bot- 
 toms, and every other place which can har- 
 bour the insect, should be systematically 
 attended to. 
 
 492 
 
 FLY IN WHEAT. 
 
 3. That the fallow should be completed 
 as early as possible, so as to give an oppor- 
 tunity for choosing a favourable season for 
 sowing. 
 
 4. That the system of ridging the land, 
 with manure under the rows, and drilling 
 on the ridges, be in every possible case 
 adopted. 
 
 5. That the most favourable opportunity 
 for ridging be chosen ; particularly that the 
 land be not ridged in too dry a state. 
 
 6. That as soon as the land be opened for 
 the manure, it be laid in, the ridges formed, 
 and the seed drilled immediately. The 
 quicker these operations follow each other, 
 the better chance of the crop. 
 
 7. That the manure chosen be such as 
 will be adapted to the soil, and insure the 
 speediest growth of the young plant, and 
 that a full quantity be allowed. 
 
 8. That the seed be not deposited in the 
 manure ; but the manure be thinly covered 
 with soil, and the seed drilled in the soil. 
 
 9. That a very liberal allowance of seed 
 be given, as much as 3 or 4 lbs. per acre 
 for drill, and 6 or 7 for broadcast ; and that 
 this seed be of one year's growth. 
 
 10. That as soon as the plant appears 
 above ground it be dusted with quicklime, 
 and this repeated as often as rain or wind 
 beats it off and the fly reappears. 
 
 1 1 . That in places which suit, and in sea- 
 sons particularly dry, watering by a water- 
 ing-machine be resorted to. 
 
 Under these precautions the committee 
 confidently trust that the loss of crop from 
 the turnip fly, may be, in most cases, pre- 
 vented. 
 
 Having spoken thus at length of the tur- 
 nip flea-beetle, I have little room for remark 
 on the turnip saw-fly (Athalia spinarum), 
 which is a less common depredator, but 
 occasionally found in company ■ with the 
 former. A very minute account of it is 
 given by Mr. Duncan. (Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. vii. p. 558.) It receives its name 
 from the use and appearance of the instru- 
 ment with which it deposits its eggs. This 
 is placed at the extremity of the abdomen 
 of the female, on the under side, and is so 
 constructed that it combines the properties 
 of a saw and auger. (Kollar on Insects in- 
 jnridus to Farmers, Miss Loudon's Transl. ; 
 Doncaster Report; Mr. Curtis on Insects 
 affecting the Turnip Crop; Tract. Husban- 
 dry.) 
 
 FLY IN WHEAT. (Tipida tritici, Kir- 
 by ; Cecidomyia tritici, Latr.) When the 
 wheat is in blossom, it is sometimes attacked 
 by this small beautiful fly, with an orange- 
 coloured body and white wings, which lays 
 its eggs in the middle of the blossom, by 
 means of along retractile ovipositor. AY hen 
 
FLY IN WHEAT. 
 
 FOAL 
 
 the eggs are hatched, the larvae, which are 
 very small, from ten to fourteen being some- 
 times found in one grain, prevent the fruc- 
 tification of the grains, p*robably by eating 
 the pollen, and thus frequently destroy 
 some part of the harvest. Mr. Shirreff 
 (Quar. Joum. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 501.) says 
 the fly generally appears when the wheat 
 plant comes into ear. In 1829 and 1830, 
 flies were first seen by him on the 21st June, 
 and, in 1831, on the 10th of the same month. 
 The larvae, after a period, fall to the ground, 
 and burrow in the earth, where they remain 
 till the following summer. According to 
 Mr. Gorrie {Mag. Nat. Hist, Sept. 1829, 
 p. 324.), all the larvae have quitted the ears 
 of wheat and descended to the earth by the 
 1st of August; going into the ground to 
 about the depth of half an inch, where it is 
 probable that they pass the winter in the 
 pupa state. 
 
 The extraordinary smallness of this insect, 
 both in its larva and perfect state, with the 
 circumstance that the destruction of the 
 wheat takes place when it is in blossom, and 
 that not all the ears on one and the same 
 field are attacked, allows of but little that 
 can be effected by human aid against this 
 enemy of grain. The safest and almost 
 only certain means of diminishing such an 
 evil for the succeeding year, consists in not 
 sowing wheat again on the same field, nor 
 in its neighbourhood ; for, in all probability, 
 the pupae lie in the earth, and will only be- 
 come flies next year at the season when the 
 corn is in blossom. Fortunately, nature 
 has in this case provided another still smaller 
 parasitic insect allied to the family of Ich- 
 neumons, to keep the midge also within its 
 proper bounds. Mr. Kirby, who first made 
 us acquainted with the natural history of 
 this insect, calls the parasite Ichneumon 
 Tipulce. It is a species of the genus Platy- 
 gaster of Latreille, belonging to the family 
 Proctotrupidce. 
 
 Mr. Gorrie states, that from experiments 
 which he made in the season 1831, the va- 
 riety of wheat cultivated under the name 
 of Cone wheat (Triticum turgidum) is not 
 liable to the attacks of the fly (Quar. Joum. 
 of Agr. vol. iii. p. 639.) Mr. Shirreff (Ibid. 
 p. 305.), also considers the Polish wheat 
 ( T. polonicum) to be in a measure secure 
 from its attacks. 
 
 The ravages committed by the wheat- 
 fly are sometimes very extensive. It is 
 stated by Mr. Shirreff, that throughout the 
 whole of East Lothian, during the years 
 1827, 1828, 1829, and 1830, the fly injured 
 the wheat crop to the amount of 30 per 
 cent. Should the fly abound in this pro- 
 portion throughout the kingdom in suc- 
 cessive years, the loss to the community 
 493 
 
 would be incalculable. Mr. Gorrie' seems 
 to think that the wheat-fly maggot might 
 be so buried as not to be able to work their 
 way up through the superincumbent soil ; 
 if, in ploughing in the wheat stubble, a 
 scarifier or skimmer were fixed upon the 
 beam before the coulter, so constructed as 
 to lay about an inch of the surface in the 
 bottom of the furrow. There is another 
 kind of fly or midge (Tipula cerealis, Sauter), 
 which is particularly injurious to spelt (a 
 kind of dwarf wheat) and barley. (Kollar 
 on Insects injurious to Agriculture. Quar. 
 Joum. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 3. ; Westwood on 
 Wheat Flies, in Gard.Mag. vol.xiii. p. 289.) 
 
 FOAL. (Su. Goth, fole; Sax. F ola.) 
 The young of the horse kind ; the male 
 being termed a colt foal, and the female 
 a filly. The foal and its mother should 
 always be well fed, and two feeds of corn, 
 at least, be added to the green food which 
 they get, when turned out after their work 
 at night. The growing colt should con- 
 tinue to have liberal nourishment ; bruised 
 oats and bran should form a considerable 
 part of his daily provender. In five or six 
 months, according to the growth of the foal, 
 it may be weaned. It should then be housed 
 for three weeks or a month, or turned into 
 some distant rick-yard. The process of 
 breaking in should commence from the very 
 period of weaning ; and the foal should be 
 daily handled, partially dressed, accustomed 
 to the halter, led about, and even tied up ; 
 for on this much of the tractability, good 
 temper, and value of the horse will depend. 
 After the second winter, the work of break- 
 ing in may commence in good earnest. (The 
 Horse, p. 225.) 
 
 Management of Foals after Weaning. — 
 The principal object with most breeders is 
 to have their stock large and powerful at an 
 early age. It is really wonderful what may 
 be done towards effecting this by means of 
 good food judiciously supplied, proper shel- 
 ter, and liberty of range in favourable 
 weather. It is natural to suppose, when a 
 foal is first taken from its dam, that it will, 
 in some degree, fall away in condition and 
 lose flesh ; the nutritive properties of its 
 " mother's milk " cannot be taken from it 
 without affecting its yet tender constitution. 
 To guard against this, every attention must 
 be directed to the quality as well as quantity 
 of food which is presented to it ; that which 
 contains most nourishment must be pro- 
 vided, and although the bulk of hay which 
 a foal consumes is very trifling, it should be 
 of the best quality. For foals, when they 
 are first weaned, linseed gruel should be 
 their constant beverage, and, indeed, it 
 cannot be too highly recommended for all 
 horses. A liberal allowance of oats is like- 
 
FOALING. 
 
 FOGGING. 
 
 wise necessary ; foals, if in health, will eat 
 at least two quarterns per day ; and, as 
 they increase in age, this allowance may be 
 augmented. The seeds which are left from 
 the linseed gruel, should be given with the 
 corn. I have frequently recommended the 
 practice of bruising the oats, and must cer- 
 tainly repeat it, even in opposition to the 
 arguments of some persons who are averse 
 to it. Bran mashes may be given at least 
 once a week, and in some instances more 
 frequently. Carrots will likewise be found 
 a very proper food for young stock, and 
 should be given once or twice a day. Too 
 long a continuance of the same food cloys 
 the appetite. Boiled barley is found to be 
 very nutritious food, and most horses are 
 very fond it. As an alternative, it may be 
 given with great advantage, if foals do not 
 consume their corn with their usual ap- 
 petite. It requires to be well boiled for 
 two or three hours in a small quantity of 
 water, frequently replenishing it that the 
 grain may not burn, and constantly stirring \ 
 it that every grain may undergo an equal j 
 process ; it may be considered sufficiently 
 boiled when all the corns have burst, and, j 
 when given, should have a little bran or 
 finely-cut hay mixed with it. About ten 
 days or a fortnight after they are weaned, 
 each foal should have a gentle dose of j 
 physic — one drachm to a drachm and a 
 half of aloes, with a drachm of Castile soap, 
 and the same quantity of ginger, will gene- 
 rally be found sufficient. 
 
 FOALING. A term applied to the act 
 of parturition, or bringing forth young in 
 the mare. Good feeding and moderate ex- 
 ercise are found to be the best preventives 
 against slinking, which is most prevalent 
 when half the time of pregnancy has elapsed. 
 (See Abortion.) If a mare has been re- 
 gularly exercised, and apparently in health 
 while she was in foal, little danger will at- 
 tend the act of parturition. If there be 
 false presentation of the foetus, or difficulty 
 in producing it, it will be better to have 
 recourse to a well-informed veterinary prac- 
 titioner, rather than injure the mother by 
 the violent and injurious attempts which 
 are often made to relieve the animal. As 
 soon as the mare has foaled, she should be 
 turned into some well sheltered pasture, 
 with a hovel or shed to run into when she 
 pleases ; and as, supposing she has foaled in 
 April, the grass is scant}'-, she should have 
 a couple of feeds of corn daily. The mare 
 may be put to moderate work a month after 
 fouling. (The Horse, p. 222.) 
 
 FODDER. (Germ /utter ; Sax robbop ; 
 from Foeban to eat ; Irish, /oder, straw ; Icel. 
 Jo'lr.) In agriculture, the ordinary food 
 given to cat tle, which consists of the steins 
 494 
 
 j and leaves of plants, such as clover, hay, 
 chopped straw, &c. ; the culmiferous stems 
 of the grasses, the haulm of legumes, po- 
 tatoes, &c. Corn, beans, turnips, and other 
 articles which present nourishment in a 
 more concentrated form, are not included 
 under the term fodder, but are rather known 
 as solid food. See Food. 
 
 FOG (Dan. fog.) In meteorology, a 
 dense vapour near the surface of the land 
 or water. Fogs in general are the conse- 
 quence of the nocturnal cooling of the at- 
 mosphere.' The air, by its rapid cooling, 
 becomes surcharged with moisture ; a part 
 of which being precipitated in the form of 
 a cloud, gives rise to the ordinary fog. 
 During the day the heat of the sun gene- 
 rally disperses the fog, because the quantity 
 of moisture which the air is capable of hold- 
 ing becomes considerable in proportion as 
 its temperature is increased. In calm wea- 
 ther the surfaces of rivers, lakes, &c. are 
 frequently covered with fog. The reason 
 is this. During the night the air is colder 
 than the water ; the strata of air in contact 
 with the water are consequently heated, and 
 become saturated with moisture. The mix- 
 ture of the vapour with the air, together 
 with its elevation of temperature, renders 
 the air specifically lighter. It rises in con- 
 sequence, and mixing with the cold air in 
 the superior strata, is cooled, and precipi- 
 tates its moisture. The cloud or fog re- 
 sulting from this precipitation can only rise 
 to a small height, because the uniformity of 
 temperature is soon restored. Hence it is 
 easy to see how winds, or a great agitation of 
 the water, prevent the formation of fogs over 
 the surface of water. In the equinoxial 
 regions, fogs sometimes continue during a 
 considerable part of the year. In the Polar 
 seas thick fogs often prevail, even during 
 the warmest months ; and they are so dense 
 that objects frequently cannot be distin- 
 guished at the distance of a few yards. 
 (JBrandes Diet, of Seience.) 
 
 FOGGAGE (Low L&t.fogagium.) Coarse 
 or rank grass not eaten down in the sum- 
 mer or autumn. The practice of fogging 
 grass-lands for the winter support of stock 
 has been found highly useful. 
 
 FOGGE. A common word in the north 
 that properly signifies the grass which im- 
 mediately springs after the hay-crop has 
 been taken, but it is sometimes used for the 
 long grass remaining in the pastures till 
 winter. (See After-Grass.) It is also used 
 for moss, in some parts of Scotland : thus a 
 fog-house means a house built or lined 
 with moss. 
 
 FOGGING. A peculiar practice in the 
 management of grass-la nds, confined chiefly 
 to the district of South W ales. It consists 
 
FOISSEN. 
 
 FOMENTATION. 
 
 in keeping the whole growth of grass in up- 
 land meadows free from either scythe or 
 stock, and eating it in the following winter. 
 Arthur Young states, that many years ago, 
 he knew a Suffolk clergyman, who was in 
 the regular habit of this singular practice, 
 and spoke of it as a most profitable one. 
 He has,, he says, tried it thrice, and with 
 success ; and he finds that it thickens the 
 herbage greatly, and yields far more valu- 
 able winter and spring food, than any per- 
 son would expect, who never tried it. But 
 it should be practised only on dry or toler- 
 ably dry land. 
 
 FOISSEN. A local term sometimes used 
 to imply the natural juice or moisture of 
 grass or other herbs. 
 
 FOIST or FOUST. A provincial word 
 signifying mouldy or musty. 
 
 FOLD. ( Sax" realbe.) A temporary pen 
 or enclosure for keeping cattle or other agri- 
 cultural animals together, either for the pur- 
 pose of confinement during the night, or 
 jointly for protection and feeding. Some- 
 times, also, sheep are folded for the purpose 
 of manuring. Sheep-folds are of two kinds : 
 either houses or sheds set apart for that 
 purpose adjoining to the farm-yard, or 
 moveable folds formed by hurdles, &c. 
 On the Continent, sheep are principally 
 folded in sheds, &c, the floors of which are 
 strewed with straw, sand, or clean dry earth, 
 by which an additional quantity of manure 
 is obtained. The temporary fence or bar- 
 rier of which moveable folds are constructed 
 is most commonly wooden hurdles ; but 
 sometimes, when the fold is only to contain 
 ewes and lambs, netting stretched between 
 posts is made use of, there being a strong 
 rope fixed to the lower parts of the post, 
 close to the ground, to which the under edge 
 of the netting is attached, while its upper 
 edge is fastened to a rope stretched along 
 the tops of the same post. Netting is by 
 far the cheapest and neatest substance for 
 barriers for folds. (See Hurdles.) Mr. Chil- 
 dren has recently advocated a system of shed- 
 feeding {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 40.), 
 and there is little doubt that sheep, in com- 
 mon with all live stock, suffer more from the 
 effects of wet and cold when feeding in ex- 
 posed situations, than is commonly supposed. 
 
 FOLD -GARTH. A term formerly used 
 to signify a farm-yard. 
 
 FOLDING. The practice of confining 
 sheep and other animals upon land, by means 
 of hurdles, &c, for the purpose of feeding 
 on and manuring it. The practice of fold- 
 ing sheep on naked fallows, with a view to 
 manuring them, is still common in several 
 parts of England ; but the more improved 
 sheep farmers consider that it deteriorates 
 the wool and impedes the fattening of the 
 495 
 
 sheep, by keeping them for the greater part 
 of every night wholly without food. Others, 
 however, assert that folding is not injurious 
 to sheep, if they are kept in a good pasture 
 during the day, and not folded too early in 
 the evening, or kept in the fold too long in 
 the morning. In some large arable land 
 farms, in Hampshire and other counties, 
 folding is still considered necessary, and 
 large flocks of breeding ewes are kept spe- 
 cially for that purpose. Sheep are occa- 
 sionally penned or folded on young wheat, 
 but more commonly on turnips, a certain 
 portion being enclosed sufficient for them 
 to eat off in one or two days. 
 
 FOLD-YARD. The yard where cattle 
 of different sorts are confined and fed dur- 
 ing the winter season. Yards of this na- 
 ture should be properly fitted up with con- 
 venient sheds and racks for the animals to 
 eat their fodder from, and have suitable 
 divisions for containing different denomina- 
 tions of cattle, or other live stock. See 
 Farm- Yard. 
 
 FOLE-FOOT. A provincial name for 
 the weed colt's-foot (Tussilago farfara), 
 which see. 
 
 FOMENT ATION. Local bathing with 
 flannels wrung out of hot or cold water, or 
 medicated decoctions. Hot fomentations 
 increase the warmth of the skin, open the 
 pores of it, and promote perspiration, and 
 so lessen the tension and abate the swel- 
 ling of an inflamed part, assuage pain, 
 and relieve the inflammation. Fomenta- 
 tions, to be useful, should be long and fre- 
 quently employed, and at as great a degree 
 of heat as can be used without giving the 
 animal pain. Poultices are nothing but a 
 modification of fomentations, more perma- 
 nent or longer continued than common fo- 
 mentations. Poultices are made of bread, or 
 oatmeal, or linseed meal, or any substance 
 which is soft and calculated to retain heat. It 
 is often very difficult to decide when a cold 
 or a hot application is to be used, and no ge- 
 neral rule can be laid down, except that in 
 cases of superficial inflammation, and in the 
 early stage, cold lotions will be preferable ; 
 but when the inflammation is deeper seated, 
 or fully established, warm fomentations or 
 poultices may be most serviceable. Foment- 
 ations are best applied by means of flannel 
 frequently dipped in the hot water, or on 
 which the water is poured, and the heat 
 should be as great as the hand will bear. 
 When it is intended to produce a sudden 
 effect, but not a permanent one, the flannels 
 should be black, or of some dark colour ; 
 when the heat is wished to be gradually 
 applied, but more permanent, they should 
 be white. In the first, the heat is rapidly 
 radiated, and the flannels soon cool ; in the 
 
FOOD. 
 
 second, it is slowly given out, and the flan- 
 nels remain long warm. ( The Horse, pp. 
 176. 392.) 
 
 FOOD. (Sax. Fob.) All substances sus- 
 ceptible of digestion and assimilation may 
 come under the denomination of food ; but 
 the proximate principles of organic bodies 
 on which their nutritive powers depend are 
 comparatively few, although the articles 
 employed in different countries for the sup- 
 port of animal life are almost infinitely va- 
 rious, their sustaining powers may be re- 
 ferred to certain substances capable of being 
 separated and identified by chemical ana- 
 lyses and tests. Amongst the proximate 
 elements of vegetable food, gluten and its 
 modifications, starch, gum, sugar, and lig- 
 nin or woody fibre, are by far the most 
 important ; and amongst those of animal 
 food, fibrin, albumen, gelatin, and their mo- 
 difications, together with fats and oils, which 
 are common to both kingdoms of nature. 
 To illustrate the actual simplicity of our 
 food, as compared with its apparent multi- 
 fariousness and complexity, it may suffice 
 to state that wheat, and almost all the escu- 
 lent grains, consist principally of starch 
 and gluten ; that the same ingredients are 
 found in many fruits and roots ; that sugar, 
 gum, or a relation of gum, which is called 
 vegetable jelly, together with minute traces 
 of aromatic principles which give flavour, 
 and more or less abundance of water, and 
 of vegetable acids, are the chief component 
 parts of apples, peaches, currants, &c, and 
 all pulpous and juicy fruits ; a very few also 
 contain oil. Then, as regards animal food, 
 the muscular fibres of various animals closely 
 resemble each other in composition and 
 nutritive power ; in some cases texture 
 merely, and in others minute additions of 
 foreign matters, confer upon them their 
 relative digestibilities, and their different 
 aspects and flavours. Albumen or fibrine 
 and gelatin, small proportions of saline 
 bodies, and a large quantity of water, are 
 found in them all. 
 
 It often happens that the truly nutritious 
 part of food is so combined with or pro- 
 tected by indigestible matters, as to escape 
 the solvent powers of the stomach, unless 
 previously prepared and modified by va- 
 rious chemical and mechanical agents. In- 
 durated woody fibre, for instance, or lignin, 
 as chemists call it, will often resist the joint 
 action of the stomach and bowels, and pass 
 through the alimentary canal with scarcely 
 any alteration. The husks of many seeds 
 and fruits are composed almost exclusively 
 of I his material. This is the case with the 
 kernels of the apple, pear, &c. ; the seeds 
 oi tli'' currant, gooseberry, melon, and so 
 on; the skin or husk of peas, beans, &c. ; 
 496 
 
 and of wheat, barley, and oat s : so that un- 
 less the woody part is either broken down 
 by the teeth, or previously removed, the 
 food which it envelopes is protected in some 
 degree from the solvent action of the secre- 
 tions of the stomach. This is a wise and 
 curious provision in nature, for birds in 
 this way become the carriers of seeds, which 
 pass through them not only undigested, but 
 even retaining their vegetative powers ; and 
 in this way uninhabited and sterile portions 
 of the globe may gradually become clothed 
 with verdure, and shrubs and trees ; hence 
 the advantage derived from bruising the 
 corn given to live stock. Bones are highly 
 nutritive, but unless broken into very small 
 fragments by the masticatory powers of the 
 animals which eat them, they, too, would 
 elude digestion. 
 
 There is another important point in the 
 history of food, which is, its ultimate com- 
 position. Four elements only are prin- 
 cipally concerned in the production of the 
 food of animals ; these are carbon, hydrogen, 
 oxygen, and nitrogen. Among vegetable 
 substances gluten (including vegetable al- 
 bumen), is the only one which abounds in 
 nitrogen ; gum, sugar, starch, and the rest, 
 are constituted of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen only. There are two very singular 
 points in reference to the chemical history 
 of food : the one is, that no animal can sub- 
 sist for any length of time upon food which 
 is destitute of nitrogen ; and the other, that 
 a certain mixture of different food is ab- 
 solutely essential. Habit, as is well known, 
 will do much in accustoming the stomach 
 to particular descriptions of food; many 
 persons live exclusively, or almost so, on 
 vegetables, others on animal matters, and 
 particular kinds of diet are forced on the 
 inhabitants of many regions of the globe ; 
 but as far as we are concerned, a due mix- 
 ture of vegetable and animal matter is not 
 only most palatable, but most conducive 
 to health. Nothing is fit for food which 
 has not already undergone organization ; 
 and water, though an essential part of the 
 food of all animals, is obviously not in itself 
 nutritious, though it performs the extremely 
 important function of dissolving nutritive 
 matter, so as to render it eonveyable by 
 the lacteals and other absorbents into the 
 blood. 
 
 The following table represents the re- 
 lative proportion of solid digestible matter 
 contained in 1000 parts of the different 
 articles of food which are enumerated. 
 Upon an average the nutritive matter in a 
 pound of meat is not more than four ounces. 
 This, however, applies only to raw meat ; 
 for when dressed a considerable portion .of 
 its constituent water is dissipated. 
 
FOOD. 
 
 Table showing the average Quantity of 
 Nutritive Matter in 1000 Pa?°ts of several 
 varieties of Animal Food. 
 Bones - 510 Veal - - 250 
 Mutton - 290 Pork - - 240 
 Beef - - 260 Blood - - 215 
 Chicken - 270 Cod and sole 210 
 
 Brain - - 200 White of egg 140 
 Haddock - 180 Milk - - 72 
 
 The next table will serve to show the 
 comparative value of the principal cereal 
 and other grasses, legumes, roots, &c. (Davy, 
 Elem. Ag. Chem. 150.) 
 
 II. Table of the Quantities of Soluble or Nutritive Matters afforded by 1000 Parts of 
 different Vegetable Substances examined in their green state. 
 
 Vegetable Substances. j 
 
 Whole Quan- 
 tity of Soluble 
 or Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Mucilage or 
 Starch. 
 
 Saccharine 
 Matter or 
 Sugar. 
 
 T51uten or 
 Albumen. 
 
 Extract, or 
 matter ren- 
 d6rcd inso* 
 luble during 
 evaporation. 
 
 Middlesex wheat, average crop 
 
 955 
 
 765 
 
 
 190 
 
 
 Spring wheat - 
 
 940 
 
 700 
 
 
 240 
 
 
 Mildewed wheat of 1806 - 
 
 210 
 
 17o 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 Blighted wheat of 1804 - 
 
 650 
 
 520 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 Thick-skinned Sicilian wheat (18 10) 
 
 955 
 
 725 
 
 ... 
 
 236 
 
 
 lhin-skinned Sicilian wheat (1810) 
 
 961 
 
 722 
 
 
 239 
 
 
 W heat from Poland 
 
 950 
 
 750 
 
 
 206 
 
 
 North American wheat 
 
 955 
 
 730 
 
 
 225 
 
 
 Norfolk barley - 
 
 920 
 
 790 
 
 70 
 
 66 
 
 
 Oats, from Scotland 
 
 743 
 
 641 
 
 15 
 
 87 
 
 
 Rye, from Yorkshire 
 
 792 
 
 645 
 
 38 
 
 109 
 
 
 Common bean - 
 
 570 
 
 426 
 
 
 103 
 
 
 Dry peas - 
 
 574 
 
 501 
 
 22 
 
 35 
 
 41 
 
 Potatoes - 
 
 260 to 200 
 
 200 to 155 
 
 20 to 15 
 
 40 to 30 
 
 
 Linseed cake - 
 
 151 
 
 123 
 
 1 1 
 
 17 
 
 
 Red beet - 
 
 148 
 
 1 A 
 
 121 
 
 14 
 
 
 White beet - 
 
 136 
 
 13 
 
 1 19 
 
 4 
 
 
 Parsnips - 
 
 99 
 
 9 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 Carrots - - - 
 
 98 
 
 3 
 
 95 
 
 
 
 Cabbage - - . - 
 
 73 
 
 41 
 
 24 
 
 8 
 
 
 Swedish turnip - 
 
 64 
 
 9 
 
 51 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 Common turnip - 
 
 42 
 
 7 
 
 34 
 
 1 
 
 
 Broad-leaved clover 
 
 39 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 - 
 
 Long-rooted clover 
 
 39 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 White clover - 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 
 Sainfoin - 
 
 39 
 
 28 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Lucern - 
 
 23 
 
 18 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 Meadow fox-tail grass 
 
 33 
 
 24 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 Perennial rye grass 
 
 39 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 
 5 
 
 Fertile meadow-grass 
 
 78 
 
 65 
 
 6 
 
 
 7 
 
 Roughish meadow-grass - 
 
 39 
 
 29 
 
 5 
 
 
 6 
 
 Crested dog's-tail grass 
 
 35 
 
 28 
 
 3 
 
 
 4 
 
 Spiked fescue grass 
 
 19 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 Sweet-scented soft grass - 
 
 82 
 
 72 
 
 4 
 
 
 6 
 
 Vernal grass - - - 
 
 50 
 
 43 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 
 
 Fiorin 
 
 54 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 A very interesting report on the nutritive 
 properties of food was recently presented to 
 the French Minister of the Interior, by 
 MM. Percy and Vauquelin, two members 
 of the Institute. The result of their expe- 
 riments is as follows : — 
 
 In bread, every hundred pounds weight 
 are found to contain 80 lbs. of nutritious 
 matter. Butchers' meat, averaging the va- 
 rious sorts, contain only 35 lbs. in 100. 
 French beans (in the grain), 92 lbs. in 100 ; 
 broad beans, 89 ; peas, 93 ; lentilles, 94 in 
 100. Greens and turnips, which are the 
 497 
 
 most aqueous of all vegetables used for do- 
 mestic purposes, furnish only 8 lbs. of solid 
 nutritious substance in 100. Carrots, 
 14 lbs. ; and what is very remarkable, as 
 being in opposition to the hitherto acknow- 
 ledged theory, 100 lbs. of potatoes only yield 
 25 lbs. of substance valuable as nutritious. 
 1 lb. of good bread is equal to 2± lbs. or 
 3 lbs. of the best potatoes ; and 75 lbs. of 
 bread and 30 of meat are equal to 300 lbs. 
 of potatoes : or, to go more into detail, f of 
 a pound of bread and 5 oz. of meat are 
 equal to 3 lbs. of potatoes. 1 lb. of po- 
 
 K K 
 
FOOD. 
 
 tatoes is equal to 4 lbs. of cabbage and 3 lbs. 
 of turnips ; but 1 lb. of rice, broad beans, 
 or French beans (in grain), is equal to 3 lbs. 
 of potatoes. 
 
 In the esculent roots, such as carrots, &c, 
 but especially turnips, sugar is the leading 
 nutritive matter ; and the common fruits 
 contain sugar, gum, albuminous matter, and 
 acids, together with a highly attenuated 
 form of woody fibre or lignin, which, in 
 that state, is probably digestible. The 
 comparative nutritive properties of the most 
 common fruits will be seen by a reference 
 to the annexed table. 
 
 III. Table showing the average Quantity of 
 Nutritive Matter in 1000 Parts of several 
 varieties of Vegetable Food. 
 
 Morels - 896 Peaches - 200 
 Almonds - 650 Gooseberries 190 
 Tamarinds - 340 Apples - 170 
 Plums - 290 Pears - 160 
 Grapes - 270 Strawberries 100 
 Apricots - 260 Melon - 30 
 Cherries - 250 
 
 On fattening Animals. — There is a very 
 great difference in the quantity of food 
 which animals require, and in the time which 
 they can pass without it. In general those 
 animals which are the most active require 
 most, and those which are most indolent 
 require least food. The cause of this is 
 pretty obvious ; the bodies of animals do 
 not remain stationary, they are constantly 
 wasting ; and the waste is proportional to 
 the activity of the animal ; hence the body 
 must receive, from time to time, new sup- 
 plies in place of what has been carried off. 
 The use of food answers this purpose. Al- 
 most all the inferior animals have particular 
 substances on which they feed exclusively. 
 Some are herbivorous, some are granivorous, 
 and others again are carnivorous. 
 
 From various experiments, we have the 
 following result : — 
 A horse will consume as much food, 
 
 besides corn, as - - - 8 sheep 
 
 A cow - - - - 12 
 
 A fattening ox - - - 10 
 
 A three year old heifer - - 8 
 
 A two year old heifer - - 6 
 
 A one year old heifer - - 4 
 
 A calf - - - - 2 
 
 There are some rules which may be ad- 
 vantageously adopted in feeding animals, 
 which, however obvious they may be, are 
 too often neglected. . 1. Food should be so 
 prepared that its nutritive properties may 
 be all made available to the use of the 
 animal ; and Dot only so, but appropriated 
 with the least possible expenditure of mus- 
 cular energy. The ox that is obliged to 
 wander over an acre to get the food he 
 45)8 
 
 should find in two or three square rods — the 
 horse that is two or three hours eating the 
 coarse food he would swallow in fifteen 
 minutes if the grain were ground, or the hay 
 cut as it should be — the sheep that spends 
 hours in making its way into a turnip, when 
 if it were sliced it would eat it in as many 
 minutes — the pig that eats raw potatoes, or 
 whole corn, when either cooked could be 
 eaten in one quarter of the time, may in- 
 deed fatten, but much less rapidly than if 
 their food were given them in a proper man- 
 ner. All food should be given in such a 
 state, to fattening animals, that as little 
 time as possible, on the part of the animal, 
 shall be required in eating. 
 
 2. From the time the fattening process 
 commences, until the animal is slaughtered, 
 he should never be without food. Health 
 and appetite are best promoted by change 
 of diet rather than by limiting the quantity. 
 The animal that is stuffed and starved by 
 turns may have streaked meat, but it will be 
 made too slowly for the pleasure or the 
 profit of the good farmer. 
 
 3. The food should be given regularly. 
 This is one of the most essential points in 
 feeding animals. If given irregularly, the 
 animal will consume his food, but he soon 
 acquires a restless disposition, is disturbed 
 at every appearance of his feeder, and is 
 never in that quiet state so necessary to 
 take on fat. It is surprising how readily 
 any animal acquires habits of regularity in 
 feeding, and how soon the influence of this 
 is felt in the improvement of his condition. 
 When at the regular hour the pig has 
 had his pudding, or the sheep his turnips, 
 they compose themselves to rest, their di- 
 gestion is not unseasonably disturbed, or 
 their quiet broken by unwonted invitation 
 to eat. 
 
 4. The animal should not be needlessly 
 intruded upon during the hours of eating. 
 All animals fatten much faster in the dark 
 than in the light, a fact only to be accounted 
 for by their greater quiet. Some of those 
 creatures that are the most irritable and 
 impatient of restraint while feeding, such 
 as turkeys and geese, are found to take on 
 fat rapidly when confined in dark rooms, 
 and onlv fed at stated hours by hand. 
 There is no surer proof that a pig is doing 
 well, than to see him eat his meal quickly 
 and then retire to his bed till the hour of 
 feeding returns. Animals, while fattening, 
 should never be alarmed, never rapidly 
 driven, never be fed at unseasonable hours, 
 and, above all things, never be allowed to 
 want for food. 
 
 The following table will show the ulti- 
 mate composition of those proximate prin- 
 ciples which have been already adverted 
 
FOOD. 
 
 FORCING. 
 
 to as constituting the nutritive part of 
 food. 
 
 IV. Table showing the ultimate elerft-entary 
 Co?nposition of 1000 parts of the follow- 
 ing proximate Principles of Animal and 
 Vegetable Food, 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Nitro- 
 gen. 
 
 Albumen 
 
 516 
 
 76 
 
 258 
 
 150 
 
 Gelatin 
 
 483 
 
 80 
 
 276 
 
 161 
 
 Fat 
 
 780 
 
 122 
 
 98 
 
 
 Curd of milk 
 
 609 
 
 73 
 
 116 
 
 203 
 
 Sugar of milk 
 
 454 
 
 61 
 
 485 
 
 
 Gluten 
 
 557 
 
 78 
 
 220 
 
 145 
 
 Starch 
 
 438 
 
 62 
 
 500 
 
 
 Gum 
 
 419 
 
 68 
 
 513 
 
 
 Sugar 
 
 444 
 
 62 
 
 494 
 
 
 Lignin 
 
 500 • 
 
 56 
 
 444 
 
 
 See also the heads Cattle, Fodder, 
 Sheep, Swine, Horses, &c. (Brande's Diet, 
 of Science; Willich's Dom.Encyclo.; Thom- 
 sons Chem. vol. iv. ; Davys Ag. Chem.) 
 
 Food, it is scarcely necessary to say, 
 influences all the external characters of 
 quadrupeds. Without adverting to the 
 different appearance of an ill-fed beast and 
 one which has an abundant supply of whole- 
 some food, we may remark, that the form 
 of the young animal that suffers a depri- 
 vation, either in the quantity or the quality 
 of its food, never becomes perfectly de- 
 veloped, either in its bulk or proportions. 
 The integuments never present the gloss 
 of health, neither is the constitution at 
 large long free from disease ; internal con- 
 gestions take place, and the mesenteric 
 glands frequently become scirrhous : on the 
 contrary, in proportion as the supply, within 
 prudent means, is liberal, so is the growth 
 extended, and the form reaches to the 
 standard of the parent. It often also ex- 
 ceeds the parent stock from the excess 
 of nutritive stimulus applied ; and thus 
 horses, oxen, and sheep, brought up in low, 
 marshy lands, where the herbage is luxu- 
 riant, attain to a monstrous size. Florses, 
 in particular, when bred and pastured in the 
 rich flat lands of Lincolnshire, become ex- 
 panded in bulk ; and it is from such sources 
 that our carriage and heavy troop horses 
 are supplied. To what a degree of mon- 
 trosity may not our bacon hogs and our 
 prize oxen be fed ! They exhibit the extra- 
 ordinary powers of food when forced on an 
 animal by increasing the supply and re- 
 straining the expenditure. It is from our 
 artificial mode of feeding cattle that our 
 markets are now furnished with veal all the 
 year round, and lamb is common some 
 months before it appeared on the tables of 
 our forefathers. Stimulating food produces 
 499 
 
 the sexual appetite at almost any time the 
 owner may desire ; and as man by domes- 
 tication has provided artificial sustenance 
 and housing for the young animals thus 
 unseasonably produced, nature does not 
 interfere in this breach of her ordinary 
 laws. 
 
 FOOD OF PLANTS. See Earths, 
 Gases, Saets, Water, and Manures, their 
 uses to Vegetation. Plants absorb their 
 nutriment from the air and from the soil ; 
 they assimilate inorganic as well as organic 
 matter ; they become the food of the gram- 
 niverous tribes, and from these man derives 
 the great bulk of his animal sustenance. 
 
 FOOL'S PARSLEY. Common Lesser 
 Hemlock (jEthusa cynapium.) An um- 
 belliferous plant, common in gardens, 
 waste grounds, and cultivated fields, and 
 so called from its resembling parsley 
 enough in appearance to deceive ignorant 
 persons. It is an annual weed, with a ta- 
 pering whitish root; stem round, often 
 purplish, a foot high ; flowers pearl white ; 
 the herbage of a dark livid green, and 
 fetid. The plant is poisonous, acting like 
 hemlock upon the human system, and is 
 easily known by the involucels having each 
 three linear leaflets, which are placed next 
 the circumference of the umbel. It is eaten 
 by cattle and sheep, but is pernicious to the 
 latter. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 64.) 
 
 FOOL'S STONES. (Orchis morio.) 
 See Twayblade. 
 
 FOOT. (Sax. roc. Germ, fuss ; Dutch 
 fute.) A linear measure, which, since the 
 term is employed in almost all languages, 
 has doubtless been derived from the length 
 of the human foot. Though the denomina- 
 tion is the same, the measure itself varies 
 considerably in different European coun- 
 tries. In all of them, however, it is divided, 
 like the English foot, into twelve equal parts, 
 or inches. See Weights and Measures. 
 
 Foot is also the lower part of the limbs of 
 an animal which afford support, and enable 
 it to move with ease and convenience from 
 place to place. An excellent article on the 
 anatomy and diseases of the foot of the 
 horse, by Mr. Dick, will be found in the 
 second volume of the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. p. 214. The best and most natural 
 form of the foot of the horse is that where 
 the bottom approaches to a circle : it is 
 most complicated in its structure, and liable 
 to a variety of diseases. See the heads 
 Canker, Corns, Cracks, Shoeing, and Dis- 
 eases or the Horse. 
 
 FOOT-ROT. See Sheep, Diseases of. 
 
 FOOT-TREXCHES. A term signify- 
 ing small superficial drains, about a foot 
 wide. 
 
 FORCING. In Horticulture, the art of 
 
 K K 2 
 
FORCING-PITS. 
 
 FOREST. 
 
 accelerating the growth of plants so as to 
 obtain fruit, vegetables, or flowers at sea- 
 sons when they are not produced naturally 
 in the open air. The practice appears to 
 be as old as the time of the Romans. In 
 England forcing seems to have been prac- 
 tised from a very early period. At the 
 present time forcing is carried on in Britain, 
 and in analogous climates throughout Eu- 
 rope and North America, chiefly under glass 
 roofs. Structures for forcing are known, as 
 frames, pits and houses, all of which have 
 glass roofs : but there are also structures for 
 forcing without glass roofs, such as cellars 
 and sheds for growing mushrooms in the 
 winter season ; and also sea-kale, rhubarb, 
 blanched succory, and such other stalks or 
 leaves of plants as are eaten in a blanched 
 state, and consequently do not require 
 much light. 
 
 FORCING PITS. Instead of forming 
 hotbeds with open sides, pits of brick-work 
 and other materials are very generally con- 
 structed for containing the fermenting mass 
 of dung necessary for forcing. 
 
 Mr. Flanagan, gardener to Sir T. Hare 
 of Stow Hall, Norfolk, and Mr. West, who 
 holds the same situation under the Marquis 
 of Northampton, at Castle Ashby, have each 
 proposed plans of pits, of which that of the 
 first horticulturist is the least expensive ; 
 that of the latter more economical in other 
 respects, not only as preventing the waste 
 of heat, but the best mode of applying it. 
 The plan of Mr. Smith, which will be given 
 under the head Melon, appears to be supe- 
 rior to either. It may be laid down as a 
 fundamental principle, that, in applying 
 heat, it should always be brought to the 
 bottom of the body to be heated. 
 
 Mr. Flanagan only allows the heat of fer- 
 menting dung to be employed, the steam 
 being prevented entering the frame. One 
 advantage arising from this he states to be, 
 that fresh-made dung may be employed, 
 and, consequently, the loss sustained by any 
 preparation is prevented. If, however, it 
 be a fact that the steam of dung is rather 
 beneficial than otherwise, fresh fermenting 
 dung can be used, without any detriment 
 that I am aware of, in other pits of which 
 we have plans. Mr. F. describes his pit as 
 follows : — It is four feet deep within; the 
 lowest ten inches of solid brick- work sunk 
 in the earth ; the remainder is a flue, three 
 inches wide in the clear, carried entirely 
 round the pit ; the inner wall of which, 
 forming the sides of the pit, is four-inch 
 work, well bedded in mortar, and pointed, 
 to prevent the steam penetrating; the outer 
 wii.ll of the Hue is also four-inch, but open- 
 work, to admit the Bteam and that of dung- 
 coatings into the flue, the top of which is 
 500 
 
 rendered tight by a covering of tiles, &c. 
 The frame rests on the external wall of the 
 flue. The cavity of the pit, which is kept 
 dry by means of drains, is nine feet two 
 inches long, two feet eight inches wide, and 
 four feet deep. It is filled with broken 
 bricks, to within eighteen inches of the top ; 
 then a foot of short cold dung, six inches of 
 very rotten dung, trod down so as to admit 
 half an inch depth of coal-ashes, for pre- 
 venting the intrusion of any worms that 
 may be in the dung, complete the structure. 
 {Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 188. ; 
 G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 FOREHAND. In horsemanship, that 
 part of the animal which is before the rider. 
 
 FOREHAND RENT. A certain pro- 
 portion of rent that is paid in some instances 
 before entering upon, or deriving profit 
 from the farm. 
 
 FOREST. (Germ, forst; Yr.foret; Ital. 
 foresta.) Strictly an extensive surface co- 
 vered naturally by trees and undergrowth, 
 as opposed to a plantation which has been 
 made by art, but indiscriminately used for 
 any very extensive tract covered with trees. 
 The utility of timber plantations to a com- 
 mercial nation is very great, as, by the 
 quantity of timber they afford, a consider- 
 able expense may be saved which must 
 otherwise be incurred by the importation 
 of materials for ship-building. (See Plant- 
 ation.) In former times the greater part 
 of every country in the temperate parts of 
 Europe was undoubtedly covered with fo- 
 rests ; and these, by harbouring and nou- 
 rishing wild animals of every description, 
 particularly wild swine, afforded a principal 
 part of the food of man. With civilisation, 
 however, they gradually disappeared before 
 the increase of pasture or arable land. In 
 every country a large portion of the forests 
 belonged to the government, and formed a 
 main source of its revenue. This is still 
 the case in France and Germany, and, till 
 lately, it was also the case to a certain ex- 
 tent in Britain. Hence extensive tracts in 
 England still bear the name of forest, though 
 they are now in a state of cultivation, and 
 in a great measure without trees. M. Chap- 
 tal estimates the forests or woodlands of 
 France to occupy about 16,904,000 acres, 
 or about one seventh of the whole produc- 
 tive land of that kingdom. (Journal des 
 Forets, tome premier. Paris, 1829.) 
 
 According to M. Herbin de Halle, there 
 are of forest lands belonging to 
 
 Acres. 
 
 The State - - - 2,802,652 
 
 Crown - 164,565 
 Princes of the Royal Family - 479,348 
 Public bodies - - - 4,834,284 
 
 Private individuals - - 8,623,555 
 
FOREST. 
 
 The produce is estimated at 5,347,000/. 
 
 sterling, or about from 6s. 4d. to 7s. 4d, 
 per acre. The royal forests of Britain oc- 
 cupy about 125,000 acres of land (see the 
 annexed table) ; but of these the greater 
 portion are subject to claims of various 
 sorts for common of pasture, turbary, &c. 
 There are 32,768 acres of forest land in- 
 
 closed and planted, principally with oak, 
 and with other trees where the soil is not 
 adapted to oak. There are 6211 acres of 
 other freehold land belonging to the crown, 
 which are also appropriated to the growth 
 of timber, making in all 38,979 acres, the 
 whole of which have been inclosed and 
 planted within the last twenty years. 
 
 A Return, showing the Number of Acres in each of the Royal Fo?*ests, distinguishing the 
 open commonable Lands, and the Lands appropriated to the Growth of Timber in each 
 Forest; also the Number uf Acres of other Lands, the Property of the Crown, appro- 
 priated to the like Purpose. 
 
 Name of the Forest. 
 
 Open com- 
 monable 
 Lands. 
 
 New Forest, in the county of 
 Southampton - 
 
 Dean Forest, in the county of 
 Gloucestershire 
 
 Woolmer Forest, in the county 
 of Southampton 
 
 Waltham Forest, in the county 
 
 of Essex ... 
 Alice Holt Forest, in the county 
 
 Southampton - 
 Bere Forest, in the same county 
 Salcey Forest, Northampton 
 Windsor Forest, Berks 
 Delamere Forest, Chester 
 Parkhurst Forest, in the county 
 
 of Southampton 
 Whittlewood Forest, in the 
 
 county of Northampton 
 Whichwood Forest, Oxford 
 
 Other Lands appropriated to 
 the growth of Navy Timber* 
 
 Freehold lands in New Fo- 
 rest, Southampton 
 
 Ditto in and adjoining Dean 
 Forest - 
 
 Ditto ditto Woolmer Forest, 
 Southampton 
 
 Ditto ditto Bere Forest, 
 Southampton 
 
 Woodlands at Eltham, Gil- 
 lingham, &c, Kent - 
 
 Parcels of the Gour Estate at 
 Chopwell^ Durham 
 
 Uninclosed lands, arising 
 partly from inclosures 
 thrown open, and partly 
 from woods of spontaneous 
 growth, which are so stocked 
 with trees as to be reckoned 
 in the quantity of productive 
 timber, estimated at about 
 Lands now appropriated for 
 the growth of timber - 
 
 Acres. . 
 66,678 
 
 21,473 
 
 5,949 
 
 3,278 
 
 1,892 
 1,417 
 1,285 
 4,402 
 4,641 
 
 900 
 
 4,500 
 3,709 
 
 Acres. 
 60,678 
 
 10,473 
 
 4,249 
 
 3,278 
 
 1,122 
 1,808 
 
 Lands ap- 
 propriated 
 
 for the 
 growth of 
 Timber. 
 
 Acres. 
 6,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 1,700 
 
 1,892 
 1,417 
 1,285 
 4,402 
 4,641 
 
 900 
 
 3,378 
 1,841 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 974 
 
 3,708 
 
 183 
 
 132 
 
 1,000 
 
 896 
 
 7,500 
 
 Subject to rights of com- 
 mon ; the inclosed lands to be 
 thrown open when the trees 
 are past danger of deer or 
 cattle, when an equal quan- 
 tity of land may be inclosed 
 out of the waste in lieu of 
 what shall be restored to 
 common. 
 
 Subject to rights of common. 
 
 The property 
 Crown in fee. 
 
 of the 
 
 52,850 
 
 517 a. 3 r. 3lp./m Whittle- 
 icood Forest, the property of 
 the Crown in fee remainder, 
 subject to rights of common ; 
 the inclosed lands in this and 
 Whichwood Forest consist 
 partly of coppices, which are 
 by law thrown open to deer 
 and cattle at the end of 7 or 
 9 years from the time when 
 first inclosed, and at which 
 period the young trees are not 
 past danger of deer and cattle, 
 and are, in consequence, in 
 a great measure destroyed. 
 
 Whichwood Forest, Oxford, 
 — Subject to rights of com- 
 mon. 
 
 01 
 
 K K 3 
 
FORGET-ME-NOT. 
 
 FOWL. 
 
 In New and Dean Forests, Hainault Fo- 
 rest, Whittlewood Forest, and Wychwood 
 Forest, there are open woods or coppices of 
 considerable extent, containing trees of all 
 descriptions, from ship timber down to sap- 
 lings ; but the number of acres so covered, 
 or the number of trees occupying the sur- 
 face, appears to be unknown. Many an- 
 cient laws and customs are recorded in 
 books respecting the forests of the crown ; 
 but at present, as there are only three or 
 four government forests in Great Britain, 
 these laws and customs are of very little 
 consequence, excepting to those living in 
 their immediate neighbourhood. Many of 
 the spots which in England bear the name 
 of forests have no appearance of having 
 been covered with trees at any period since 
 Britain became inhabited. The English 
 forests (with the exception of the New 
 Forest, of which the history is well known) 
 are, however, so ancient that we possess no 
 record of their origin. Their number has 
 been reckoned at 68 : another enumeration 
 extends them to 76 ; but some of these are 
 probably only parts of the same forest with 
 different names. A forest is created by the 
 king by a commission issued out of the 
 Court of Chancery ; and when its laws and 
 ordinances have been framed, and officers 
 appointed, it becomes a forest by matter of 
 record. Forests are grantable to subjects ; 
 but Savernake Forest in Wiltshire, held by 
 the Marquis of Ailesbury, is, I believe, 
 at present the only instance. For an ac- 
 count of the existing forests of this country, 
 see " Statistics of the British Empire." 
 (Brit. Hush. vol. iii. article " Plantations," 
 pp. 83. 85. ; Brande's Diet, of Science.} 
 
 FORGET-ME-NOT. See Scorpion 
 Grass. 
 
 FORKS. There are several kinds of 
 forks in use for agricultural purposes, among 
 which are the large three-pronged fork used 
 for the lifting of dung into carts and the 
 like, and a smaller fork, chiefly for spread- 
 ing dung. Long and short two-pronged 
 forks are used for forking straw, sheaves of 
 corn, &c, into carts or waggons, or on to 
 stacks, &c, and for stable and other pur- 
 poses, &c. (Low's Elem. of Agr. p. 143.) 
 
 FORSYTH, WILLIAM, F.A.S. &c, 
 was born at Old Meldrum, Aberdeenshire, 
 in 1737- He came to England in 1763, 
 and was for some time a pupil of Philip 
 Miller at Chelsea Garden, whom he was 
 appointed in 1769 to succeed as curator of 
 the Botanic Garden at Chelsea. Forsyth 
 retained this situation until 1784, when he 
 was appointed royal gardener at Kensing- 
 ton and St. James's. For his improvements 
 in the cultivation of fruit trees, for his 
 mode of renovating those which were de- 
 502 
 
 cayed, and for the composition he applied 
 to their wounds, he received a pecuniary 
 grant from parliament, who considered it a 
 national improvement. He died in 1804. 
 His published writings are — 
 
 1. Observations on the Diseases, Defects, and Injuries 
 in all kinds of Fruit and Forest Trees ; with an account 
 of a particular Method ot Cure invented and practised by 
 the Author. London. 1791. 8vo. 2. A Treatise on the 
 Culture and Management of Fruit Trees, in which a new 
 Method of Training and Pruning is fully described. 
 Plates, London. 1802. 4to. The 4th edition is dated 18(W, 
 8vo.; the 7th, in 8vo., 1824. 
 
 FOSSE. A large ditch or moat ; also a 
 waterfall. 
 
 FOSTAL. A way leading from the 
 main road to a farm-house. 
 
 FOULMART. A term sometimes ap- 
 plied to the polecat. 
 
 FOWL. Cock and hen. (Phasianus gal- 
 lus.) Fowls were originally natives of Persia 
 and India. They are most valuable to the 
 farmer as yielding profit in eggs, broods, 
 and feathers. The varieties of the common 
 fowl in this country are very numerous, 
 and are distinguished from one another by 
 their size, colour, and fecundity. Fowls 
 should be kept very clean and dry in the 
 hen-house, and particular care must be 
 taken to furnish them with clean sweet 
 water; foul water produces that fatal dis- 
 order among chickens called roup, or gapes, 
 which is known by the chick gasping for 
 breath, and dying in a few hours. No re- 
 medy has yet been discovered for this 
 disorder ; therefore care and cleanliness 
 should prevent it. Foul water, and a 
 scarcity of water, are also causes of the pip 
 in hens, and originate all their diseases. 
 Poultry of all sorts should have clean sweet 
 houses to retire into during the night, and 
 in seasons of wet. Warmth is necessary to 
 the comfort and well-doing of poultry. If 
 hens are kept with care, and have clean 
 quiet places to deposit themselves in, they 
 will lay regularly, and repay all trouble. 
 One cock is sufficient for ten hens. He 
 should be chosen with care. A good cock 
 should be well-sized, carrying his head 
 high ; he should have a quick, animated 
 look, a strong shrill voice, the comb of a 
 fine red, broad breast, strong wings, legs 
 thick, and his bill thick and short. (Mains 
 Domestic Poultry, p. 230.) The vigour of 
 the cock lasts three years ; he must then 
 be superseded, and a fine spirited youthful 
 successor installed in his room. A cock is 
 at full age at three months old. Three 
 sorts of hen are useful. The common hen, 
 whose proper signs should be in having a 
 large head, bluish feet, sharp eyes, and pen- 
 dant comb. The tufted hen, for eating, as she 
 does not lay much, therefore fattenswell ; and 
 the large white Dorking breed, which always 
 fetches a higher price in the market. The 
 
FOWL. 
 
 FOWL, GUINEA. 
 
 Dorking fowls are distinguished by having 
 five claws on each foot. Equal to the 
 Dorking in estimation (says Professor Low) 
 are the Poland fowls. Their colour is black, 
 their heads flat, and surmounted with a 
 crown of feathers. They are a very useful 
 variety ; prolific of eggs, but less inclined 
 to sit than those of any other breed. All 
 others are kept more for show than for use. 
 The bantam is a little Indian breed, very 
 delicate to eat, but, from the smallness of 
 its size, not of any economical importance. 
 
 The Chitagong, or Malay fowl, is the 
 largest breed that has yet been brought to 
 this country, but the flesh is regarded as 
 inferior to that of the Dorking and Poland. 
 (El. Prac. Agr. p. 615.) Fowls should not 
 be allowed to wander much : they lay bet- 
 ter and more regularly when confined to 
 their own yard. Their food should be given 
 with great regularity at sun-rise and sun- 
 set, and they should be fed under cover 
 during rain or high winds. During har- 
 vest their portion of food is always dimi- 
 nished. All sorts of pot-herbs, boiled in 
 the washings of dishes, mixed with bran, 
 and then drained, is excellent ; the paste 
 warmed up as required, while sweet. Well 
 boiled mealy potatoes, buck-wheat, barley, 
 whole or ground, refuse of fruit, bread, 
 offal from the kitchen, &c, is taken greedily. 
 Let all their food be fresh of its kind. 
 
 The laying time begins about February. 
 A hen gives notice of her intention by being 
 busy and restless, and talking to herself for 
 some time, and her comb becomes very red. 
 Her cackling soon gives notice that the 
 deed is done. Let her have a dark quiet 
 box to lay in. The moidting season begins 
 in autumn, when the hen ceases to lay for 
 some time : the whole feathered tribe are 
 then drooping and dull, till the new feathers 
 have replaced the old ones. A hen is old 
 at four years of age : for three years she is 
 valuable, and in her fourth year she must 
 make way for younger birds. A hen sits 
 three weeks ; her disposition to sit is soon 
 discovered, by her placing herself upon any 
 eggs she can find, and remaining thereon 
 instead of roosting. She should be placed 
 upon fresh eggs, unless allowed to sit as 
 nature directs upon her own natural num- 
 ber, which rarely exceeds eighteen ; but if 
 one egg alone is allowed to remain in the nest 
 she will continue to lay many more before 
 she wishes to sit. If the brood is hatched 
 irregularly, the firstlings should be kept in 
 flannel near a fire all day, till the others 
 come forth, but they should be returned to 
 the mother at night. The hen and her 
 brood should be kept Avarm, and be cooped 
 out of doors only in dry fine weather. They 
 should be fed for some days on bread 
 503 
 
 crumbs, with some finely chopped leeks, 
 and be carefully supplied with clear clean 
 water daily. Boiled barley, and boiled rice, 
 &c. succeeds, till in about three weeks they 
 are sufficiently strong to be turned into the 
 poultry-yard. When the young chickens 
 get their head feathers, they are out of 
 danger of all infantine disorders. Nothing 
 is so requisite for all poultry as warmth, 
 cleanliness, and good water. Fowls fat- 
 tened for the table should be put into coops 
 for a fortnight or three weeks, and fed 
 upon good barley- meal, moistened with milk 
 or water, and lard. Give it four or five 
 times per day, sufficiently moist to require 
 no drink with the food. 
 
 Eggs are preserved any length of time, 
 by greasing them well over with butter or 
 lard, when warm from the nest. It keeps 
 out the air. Fresh laid eggs are easily 
 known by holding them up to the light of a 
 candle. If the inside appears transparent 
 and fluid, and the yolk in the centre, it is a 
 fresh egg. If it looks turbid, it is a stale 
 one. If, also, an egg held up against a can- 
 dle shows a small vacancy at the top of it 
 within, it will produce a male bird : if the 
 little vacancy is observed at the side of the 
 egg, it will prove a female. (Mains Dom. 
 Poultry, p. 253. ; See Eggs.) Every poul- 
 try yard should have a bed of ashes deposited 
 in a corner : the fowls delight in a dunghill 
 and an ash-hole ; the former produces seeds 
 and insects, and the latter calcareous mat- 
 ter, and destroys their vermin by its sharp- 
 ness, as they revel in its rough particles. 
 
 FOWL, GUINEA, or Pintado. (Nu- 
 mida meleagris.) These birds are very wild 
 and restless in their nature, owing to their 
 native habits. They are shy, and love to 
 make their nests in dark obscure places 
 far from home ; for which reason their eggs 
 are generally placed under a common hen 
 to be hatched and fostered. They give no 
 notice of laying or setting. A brood of 
 Guinea fowls is an excellent guard. They 
 love roosting in trees ; and at night, if any 
 footstep disturb them, their loud cries are 
 sure to give notice to the farmer that a 
 trespass is committing. The Guinea fowl 
 is delicate eating, and is in fine season 
 about Lent. The young chickens must be 
 treated in the same manner and with the 
 same food as young turkeys, and they must 
 be kept warm and dry. In fatting, they 
 should be shut up in a house for a fort- 
 night, and fed four or five times a day with 
 sweet barley-meal, moistened with milk or 
 good lard. They pine if confined any length 
 of time. The great drawbacks to the rear- 
 ing of Guinea fowls are the vigilance re- 
 quired to watch for their nest, and the 
 harsh screaming of their cry. 
 
 k k 4 1 
 
FOWL, PEA. 
 
 FOXGLOVE. 
 
 FOWL, PEA. (Phasianus Io.) Na- 
 tive of India, tender in infancy, but soon 
 inured to Our climate, as they become older. 
 From their native wild habits, they love to 
 lay their eggs in woods or coppices far 
 from home. As the hen covers ^ her eggs 
 over with dead leaves after laying them, 
 and generally deposits them under a bush, 
 without the ceremony of making a nest, 
 she must be closely watched, and each day 
 her fresh egg should be withdrawn, and 
 an egg cut in chalk substituted, and co- 
 vered over again with the leaves. The 
 eggs should be placed under a common hen 
 for safety, both on account of the fox, and 
 because the pea-hen would lead the young 
 ones to ramble as soon as they had escaped 
 from the shell. The best food for pea- 
 chicks is barley-meal made into a paste, 
 and mixed with sweet curd, and finely 
 chopped hard boiled eggs. They are also 
 exceedingly fond of the large horse ant and 
 its eggs, which are found in woods, de- 
 posited in little hillocks of small leaves and 
 twigs. The eggs form the centre of these 
 hillocks, and they should be dug out and 
 thrown upon a cloth to be twisted up, and 
 carried to the pea-fowl. All the tribes of 
 wild birds, such as pea-fowl, turkeys, phea- 
 sants, &c. love ants : it is their natural food. 
 Two or three handfuls of their eggs twice 
 a day, makes a good variety with their 
 usual food. Keep the young pea-fowls well 
 housed while under the mother's care : when 
 they grow up, they prefer roosting in trees 
 or on buildings. If a pea-hen is allowed to 
 brood her own chickens, she should be kept 
 under a coop for three weeks at least, to 
 prevent her rambling. Pea-fowl will feed 
 well on any kind of corn. They are exceed - 
 ingly destructive in a garden. Our ances- 
 tors considered them -very delicate eating. 
 
 FOWL'S DUNG.\ See Guano and 
 Pigeon's Dung. 
 
 FOX. (Canis vulpes.) The geographical 
 distribution of the fox is very general. He 
 is common throughout Europe, the cold 
 and temperate parts of Asia, as well as 
 some portions of Africa, where the heat is 
 not intense ; and he abounds in North 
 America. In each of these countries he 
 presents himself under somewhat different 
 aspects, but his principal diversities arise 
 from variety in colours and markings, and 
 in all he sleeps round like a dog. The 
 generic characters of this member of the 
 canine group have already been given in 
 our history of the dog. His specific cha- 
 racters are derived from his linear pupils, 
 his long bushy tail, and his mephitic odour. 
 The English ibx is accurately described by 
 Shaw, as having a broad head, sharp snout, 
 flat forehead, orbitary fossae oblique, giving 
 504 
 
 a visual aspect which differs from that of 
 the dog ; the tail is straight and bushy. His 
 colour is a yellowish-red, or yellow-brown, 
 mixed on the breast, belly, shoulders, and 
 back with a little white or ash-colour. Na- 
 turalists describe three varieties of the 
 British fox, — the greyhound fox, the mas- 
 tiff fox, and the cur fox. But it is very 
 probable that these vulpine anomalies are 
 rather the result of the external agencies 
 of locality, temperature, &c, than fixed 
 varieties. The food of the fox is various. 
 Though structurally carnivorous in a great 
 degree, yet he is able to subsist on fish, 
 reptiles of all kinds, fruit, and vegetables. 
 In some districts the fox is particularly 
 partial to grapes. His ravages are greatest 
 among game and domestic poultry. In 
 Scotland the fox, or tod (as he is there 
 called), is of great service by his destruc- 
 tion of the moor mouse, which sometimes is 
 bred in such immense multitudes as to 
 destroy the vegetation of the moors, to the 
 extreme loss of the shepherd. 
 
 The bitch fox breeds once a year, and 
 has from three to six cubs at a litter. 
 
 Fox hunting is one of the principal and 
 most manly of the field sports of this coun- 
 try, and it has been practised for many cen- 
 turies. It is not without its advantages; 
 among which are the improvement of the 
 breed of saddle-horses calculated for hunt- 
 ers, and the bringing together the different 
 ranks of society, who meet on an equal 
 footing in the chace. The expense of 
 maintaining a pack of foxhounds is very 
 great, amounting to several thousand pounds 
 annually; which is somewhat different to 
 the time of Edward L, when we are in- 
 formed the entire charge of a pack of hounds 
 only amounted to 231. 7 s. Id. (Blaine s 
 Encyclo. of Rural Sports.) 
 
 FOX-EVIL. A disease in which the hair 
 falls off. 
 
 FOXGLOVE, COMMON. (Digitalis 
 purpurea.) A very handsome biennial plant, 
 blowing purplish- crimson, or occasionally 
 white flowers, from June to September. It is 
 found wild in pastures and about hedges or 
 banks, on a gravelly, sandy, or chalky soiL In 
 gardens it is easily propagated by seed, and 
 managed like the Campanula. The leaves 
 are alternate, ovate-lanceolate, crcnate, 
 downy, veiny, and of a dark green colour. 
 The raceme is terminal, erect, with the 
 flowers pendulous on one side, and floral 
 leaves on the other. The flowers are spot- 
 ted, and hairy within. 
 
 The lesser yellow fox g\ov e(D.pa?*vifloi'a) 
 is a native of Italy, and perennial : grows 
 three feet high, blooming yellow flowers in 
 Juno and July. It may be propagated from 
 seed. 
 
FOXHOUND. 
 
 FRANCE, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 The large yellow foxglove (D. ambigua), 
 with larger flowers, is also a perennial 
 growing three feet high. 
 
 The medicinal qualities of the foxglove 
 are diuretic, powerfully emetic, and narco- 
 tic ; and under proper management it is a 
 most useful medicine. The leaves are inert 
 in the first year of the growth of the plant. 
 They are sometimes used externally as cata- 
 plasms for resolving scrofulous tumours. 
 As every part of the foxglove is poisonous, 
 children ought to be warned against chewing 
 it. No person not qualified to practise me- 
 dicine should venture to prescribe foxglove. 
 
 FOXHOUND. The modern foxhound 
 is a cultivated variety gained from the ori- 
 ginal hunting dogs of Great Britain. As it 
 is not our province in a work of this nature 
 to treat in full of the various sporting 
 agents, Ave would refer those desirous of 
 information as to the height, figure, qua- 
 lities, speed, &c. of the foxhound to that 
 excellent vade mecimi for the sportsman, 
 Blaine s Encyclopedia of Rural Sports, 
 where he will find the most detailed and 
 authentic information. 
 
 FOXTAIL GRASSES. See Ai.ops- 
 
 CURUS. 
 
 FRAMES. In horticulture, wooden en- 
 closures for the rearing and protection of 
 plants, flowers, vegetables, &c. Frames 
 vary in their proportions. When made in 
 the usual form, the back of the frame for 
 pine- apples should be at least 3£ feet high, 
 the front 15 inches; but greater heights 
 are allowed when this shelter is employed 
 for plants of taller growth. Those employed 
 for melons and common purposes are not 
 more than 15 inches high behind, sloping 
 to 7 in front. The breadth in every in- 
 stance about 5 feet ; the length according 
 to the number of lights, each of which is 
 usually 40 inches wide. They ought not 
 to be constructed for more than three lights ; 
 for, beyond that size, they become unwieldy. 
 If, however, they are constructed of a larger 
 size, or of an extraordinary height, they 
 should be made with moveable joints, so as 
 to take to pieces for the convenience of re- 
 moval. Mr. Knight has suggested an im- 
 portant improvement in the form of frames ; 
 Avhich is, to make the bed on an inclined 
 plane, and have the frame formed with sides 
 of equal depth, and so put together as to 
 continue perpendicular when on the bed. 
 
 There are several minor points in the 
 construction of frames that deserve atten- 
 tion. The strips of lead or wood that sus- 
 tain the panes of glass should run across 
 the frame, and not lengthways ; they then 
 neither obstruct so much the entrance of 
 light., nor the passing off of rain. The in- 
 side of the frame should be painted white, 
 505 
 
 since plants generally suffer in them for 
 want of light ; if the accumulation of heat 
 is required, the colour should be black. 
 
 There are one and two-light frames, 
 which are chiefly employed in raising seed- 
 lings, &c. Akin to these are hand-glasses, 
 quadrangular and bell-shaped; those with 
 cast-iron frames are beyond comparison 
 more durable than those of any other ma- 
 terial. Paper frames are often employed 
 in the place of matting, for shading and 
 sheltering hand-glass crops, with great ad- 
 vantage. If employed alone throughout 
 the growth of any forced crop, unremitted 
 attention is necessary, and is seldom re- 
 quited with good success. The best form 
 is that of the pitched roof of a house. The 
 wood-work should be firm and strong, but 
 as light as possible ; of varied size, but ge- 
 nerally about 10 feet long, 4 feet wide at 
 the bottom, and about 30 inches high to 
 the pitch. On each side two pannels should 
 open on hinges, within 2 feet of each end, 
 each pannel 18 inches wide, for the conve- 
 nience of admitting air, &c. A lattice-kind 
 of work, with wide intervals of packthread, 
 should be made over the frame, and fas- 
 tened firmly to its wood- work, for the sup- 
 port of the paper during violent winds. 
 The best sort of paper is a moderate kind 
 of white printers' paper. Whited- brown 
 paper is, however, generally employed ; but 
 whichever is used, it should be as stout as 
 possible. This being pasted smoothly over 
 the frame, and perfectly dry, must be treated 
 lightly with linseed oil that has been boiled. 
 These frames should be prepared a con- 
 siderable time before they are wanted, that 
 they may be completely dry, and free from 
 the oily odour, which is very obnoxious to 
 plants. (G. W. Johnsons Kitchen Garden.') 
 
 FRANCE, THE AGRICULTURE OF. 
 Although the two kingdoms of Britain and 
 France, are such near neighbours, and enjoy 
 a soil so similar, yet the agriculture of each 
 differs very materially. The chief features 
 in the farming system of France which strike 
 an Englishman are the almost total absence 
 of hedges, and the smallness of the farms 
 or plots ; the minute divisions of landed 
 property having been long encouraged by 
 the laws of France in every possible way. 
 The end has been attained; considerable 
 comfort has been diffused amidst the mass 
 of the people, but with injurious results to 
 agriculture. For in a country where the 
 farms generally do not comprise more than 
 from fifteen to twenty acres, all the common 
 evils of a land of small holdings are natu- 
 rally felt. The capital required for them 
 being limited, the competition to obtain them 
 is naturally considerable ; the charge for 
 the labour to cultivate them is also great ; 
 
FRANCE, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 the live stock kept on them inferior ; the 
 rotation of crops bad, and agricultural im- 
 provements of all kinds but slowly adopted. 
 The government of France, it is true, in 
 the absence of large landed proprietors, and 
 opulent, enterprising, and scientific farmers, 
 does all it can, by expensive state agricul- 
 tural institutions, to supply their place ; but 
 these are not attended with the general ad- 
 vantages which are derived in other coun- 
 tries from the exertions of private indivi- 
 duals. Of these small farms Mr. Denison 
 has given the following graphic descrip- 
 tion {Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 263.) : — 
 "In comparison with the English system of 
 enclosures, France may be called one vast 
 open field ; you may travel from Calais to 
 Paris, from Paris to the German frontier, 
 to the Alps, to the Pyrenees, and scarcely 
 see a hedge or a partition fence of any sort. 
 This vast open field (unlike the open dis- 
 tricts of England, where the operations of 
 farming are generally conducted on the 
 largest scale) is cut up into the smallest 
 conceivable plots of every variety of pro- 
 duce. As far as the eye can reach, over 
 vast plains bounded by sloping hills, you 
 see the surface varied by every description 
 of crop ; none, perhaps, above an acre or 
 two in size, the larger portion not more 
 than the fourth or the eighth of an acre. 
 Here a vineyard 100 yards by 20; there a 
 strip of wheat, lucerne, barley, oats, pota- 
 toes, clover, and vetches. Few roads inter- 
 sect this extensive garden, which, from the 
 nature of the cultivation, must be traversed 
 every day in all directions by the pro- 
 prietors and cultivators of the various lots. 
 The residences of these proprietors are 
 almost invariably congregated into villages 
 or towns, and lie, therefore, for the most 
 part, wide of their respective allotments." 
 The advocates of such a general system 
 of cultivation will hence see that this mode 
 of tillage is attended with sundry insuper- 
 able disadvantages. The public agricultural 
 establishments maintained entirely by the 
 French government are — 1 . Sheep farms ; 
 2. Model farms ; 3. Veterinary schools ; 
 4. Haras, or studs. And it assists, by its 
 patronage and with funds — 1. Public lec- 
 tures ; 2. Agricultural societies ; 3. Local 
 associations : 4. Departmental model farms. 
 
 There are three public sheep farms ; viz. 
 at Rambouillet, Perpignan, and La Haye- 
 vaux. At these sheep are bred, and experi- 
 ments in crossing tried. The chief breeds 
 are the merino, the naz, a race with small 
 frames and fine wool, and the English long- 
 wool led sheep. 
 
 Of the model farms, Grignon, founded 
 in 1829, : • containing 1100 acres of land 
 of different qualities, is the chief. It con- 
 506 
 
 sists of arable, pasture, meadow, water 
 meadow, and wood. Pupils are taken here, 
 who pay in the house from 30/. to 60/. per 
 annum, or, if they only attend the courses 
 of instruction, from 81. to 20/. : the shortest 
 course occupies two years ; and after at- 
 tending this period, and passing a public 
 examination, the pupil may receive a di- 
 ploma, taking rank as a sort of master of 
 arts of Grignon. 
 
 The chief veterinary schools are at Alfort, 
 near Paris, Toulouse, and Lyons. The 
 three chief haras, or breeding studs, are at 
 Dupin in Normandy (English blood horses), 
 at Rozieres (a mixed breed called the 
 " race ducale"), and at Pompadour (Arab 
 and Persian). These contain together about 
 1300 horses. Of thorough-bred stock, in 
 1840, they had 167 stallions, 98 mares, and 
 121 colts and fillies; for the use of the de- 
 partments 870 stallions are kept at differ- 
 ent stations. These are allowed the follow- 
 ing amount of forage at three different 
 stations : — 
 
 Abbeville 
 
 Angers 
 
 Aurillac 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Hay. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Pints. 
 16 
 14 
 14 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 6 11 
 11 0 
 11 0 
 
 lbs. oz. 
 17 10 
 13 4 
 15 7 
 
 These various public objects cost the 
 government 119,452/.; viz., sheep farms, 
 20,303/.; veterinary schools, 11,263/.; haras, 
 or studs, 70,526/. : other items of expense, 
 32,000/. ; department of government, 3,360/. 
 
 Sir Charles Lemon has given the result 
 of the returns of the agricultural survey of 
 21 out of the 84 departments of France, 
 comprehending the whole of the north- 
 eastern portion of the kingdom, or the whole 
 or the greater part of the old provinces of 
 Flanders, Artois, Picardie, Isle de France, 
 Champagne, Lorraine, and Alsace, equal to 
 a surface of 31,720,000 acres, or about the 
 area of all England. (Jour, of Roy. Ag. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 415.) 
 
 The following table shews the number of 
 English acres tilled with each sort of grain, 
 the produce, and the seed sown, in the 21 
 departments before alluded to : — 
 
 Total grown - 19,205,914 quarters 
 Seed - - 3,082,702 
 The average produce per acre of the 21 
 departments, is as follows : — 
 
 Wheat 
 Barley 
 Oats 
 
 Meteil (mixture of > 
 wheat and rye J 
 Rye 
 
 Potatoes . - 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Produce in 
 Uushels. 
 
 Amount of 
 Seed sown. 
 
 3.91:5.7*9 
 1,115,916 
 3,129,359 
 
 630,321 
 
 1,124,909 
 645,233 
 
 59,075,391 
 17.M2.S75 
 54, 179,336 
 
 9,526,777 
 13,332,935 
 93,649,112 
 
 9,458,471 
 2,734,799 
 8,^98,751 
 
 1,494,236 
 
 2,675.389 
 10,748,567 
 
FRANCE, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Highest 
 
 Lowest 
 
 
 
 Produce per 
 
 Depart- 
 
 Depart- 
 
 Seed. 
 
 
 Acre in 
 
 mental 
 
 mental 
 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Average. 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 Wheat 
 
 15 
 
 23 
 
 10-5 
 
 26 
 
 Barley 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 
 8 
 
 26 
 
 Oats 
 
 184 
 
 44i 
 
 11 
 
 2-8 
 
 Meteil 
 
 13A 
 
 22i 
 
 8 
 
 2-5 
 
 Rye 
 
 13 
 
 20i 
 
 8 
 
 2-6 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 127 
 
 257 
 
 67 
 
 
 In these departments were contained — 
 
 Cattle - - - 2,628,924 
 
 Sheep - - - 6,764,107 
 
 Pigs and Goats - 1,399,599 
 
 Horses - - - 974,918 
 
 Mules and Asses - - 99,660 
 
 The food of the small French farmers, 
 especially in Normandy, is very poor 
 ' ; Many (says a writer, in the Quart. Jour, 
 of Agr. vol. xii. p. 2.), like the common la- 
 bourers, live upon a few apples or pears, 
 and a bit of bread, without the formality of 
 sitting down to a table, and are content 
 with a drink of their own home-made miser- 
 able cider." The breed of sheep is very 
 inferior. Although many of the sheep are 
 kept in flocks, yet there is little or no free 
 range for them ; they are usually kept in 
 small lots of three or four, or half-a-dozen, 
 and generally tied together by the legs. The 
 average price of mutton is 2>\d. per pound. 
 — Of the cattle, th'e Alderney blood seems 
 to predominate. Bullocks are worked to 
 a considerable extent, both in the plough 
 and in the waggon. " Some centuries ago, 
 Normandy was the source whence our Hen- 
 ries, and Edwards, and the flower of Eu- 
 ropean chivalry, obtained their chargers ; 
 which were then a breed of large, powerful, 
 active horses, able to bear the weight of an 
 armed knight, with sufficient speed for the 
 purposes of war. That breed has long since 
 degenerated into an active and hardy horse, 
 but totally devoid of those qualifications as 
 to size and general appearance which we 
 should think essential in a charger even for 
 a common soldier : they seldom attain 15* 
 hands in height, and are very short-necked ; 
 they are rather large in the head, have good 
 fore legs, but are frequently imperfect in 
 the hind ones, being too long from the hock 
 to the hoof, and they are often diseased in 
 those limbs from curb or spavine, and de- 
 ficient in width and muscle in the thigh. 
 They have generally, however, good shoul- 
 ders, back, and loins, many of them possess- 
 sing very useful and short actions in the 
 trot ; and considered generally as a breed, 
 they are able to go faster, and do more 
 work, than their appearance at first indi- 
 cates : they are commonly worked at two 
 years of age." With regard to the rotation 
 of crops, there is little worthy of observation. 
 In Normandy, a very common rotation is a 
 507 
 
 three-shift of wheat — barley, clover, wheat; 
 in others, a four- shift of potatoes — bar- 
 ley, clover, wheat. Their agricultural im- 
 plements are few and defective. Dombasle's 
 plough, modelled from that of our Small's 
 plough, is the favourite plough in France ; it 
 has commonly, however, wheels added. — 
 The spade is employed to a considerable 
 extent in the field culture of this great 
 country, and the greatest portion of the 
 country partakes of the nature of garden 
 husbandry. The consumption of vegetables 
 of all kinds is much greater in France than 
 in this country ; and the same remark ap- 
 plies to bread, the price of which in Paris 
 is regulated by the public authorities. 
 
 The care which is taken in France, by 
 the government, to husband every particle of 
 organic manure, is well worthy of the con- 
 sideration of the public authorities in Eng- 
 land, for nowhere is there a greater waste 
 of the richest fertilising matters than from 
 the large cities and towns of England ; a 
 great and public loss, to which Dr. Gra- 
 noitte, in his report to the Thames Im- 
 provement Company, thus alludes : " In no 
 part of France, Wurtemberg, Bavaria, Bo- 
 hemia, Prussia, Saxony, the Confederated 
 States of Germany, Holland, and Belgium, 
 is there a city in which, as in London, the 
 general mass of filth, of every description, 
 created by a vast population, is first allowed 
 to enter the river which may happen to 
 traverse that city, and is then returned, 
 diluted with the water of that river, to the 
 houses of the inhabitants, to be used either 
 for domestic or culinary purposes : although, 
 by avoiding the latter disgusting alterna- 
 tive, foreign cities are less free from un- 
 pleasant smells than London is. In this 
 respect it may be truly said, that foreigners 
 smell the filth of their cities, but do not 
 swallow it ; whereas the Londoner swallows 
 it, but seldom smells it. 
 
 " In no large city of that part of Europe 
 which I have recently visited, possessing a 
 river, is any portion of the contents of 
 closets and cesspools suffered to find its 
 way or to be emptied into it; except at. 
 Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, Stuttgard, 
 and Leipzig ; and even there, only in a par- 
 tial manner. In Paris the Seine is conta- 
 minated by one large drain only, conveying 
 the urine from the large reservoirs of night- 
 soil at Montfaucon, and by two smaller ones 
 proceeding from cesspools. To convey ge- 
 nerally, or to empty, even partially, any 
 such matter into the river, is a practice 
 against which the laws have provided by 
 heavy fines and incarceration ; and such is 
 the present feeling of all the governments 
 on that subject, even in the great cities I 
 have just enumerated as exceptions, that 
 
FRITILLARY. 
 
 the authorities are seriously engaged in de- 
 vising plans for preventing, in future, every 
 possible infraction of those laws; not be- 
 cause it is desirable to preserve pure the 
 water of such rivers (since no domestic use 
 is made of it) ; but on account of the loss 
 of a material, deemed most valuable, which 
 such infractions must necessarily entail. 
 
 " In Paris, extensive improvements in re- 
 gard to drainage are now in progress, at the 
 conclusion of which, that capital will have 
 subterraneous drains and sewers in as com- 
 plete a state as those of London, and some- 
 thing better. More than two fifths of that 
 city are now so drained. When this great un- 
 dertaking was in agitation, it was suggested 
 that all the latrines, public as well as pri- 
 vate, should, as in London, communicate, 
 by proper drains, with the great sewers, 
 which are intended to be emptied into the 
 Seine. As the project of supplying pure 
 water, direct to the houses, is simultaneously 
 to be carried into effect, and as the water 
 for that purpose is to be derived from other 
 sources than the river, there could have 
 been no objection, on that score, to the 
 adoption of so general and so complete a 
 drainage. But when scientific men, agri- 
 culturists, and political economists were 
 consulted, it was agreed that by adopting 
 the London system the city would lose a 
 revenue of nearly 800,000 francs, and agri- 
 culture the means of producing four times 
 as much. The government, therefore, came 
 to the resolution of not suffering any por- 
 tion of the contents of the latrines to enter 
 the common sewers ; but, alive to the great 
 importance of saving them, enacted a police 
 regulation strictly enjoining that every 
 house should have its cesspool (whether 
 new or old, and within a given time) made 
 water-tight, in order that none of those con- 
 tents should be wasted. In consequence of 
 this regulation, all cesspools must be emptied 
 once in four years." 
 
 FRAXINELLA, or White Dittany. 
 (Dictamnus albus.) A perennial. Native 
 of the South of France. It grows two feet 
 high, blowing white or purple flowers in 
 June and July. It loves a good soil, and 
 should be covered in winter with a little 
 litter. It may be propagated by parting the 
 roots, or from seed, which should be sown 
 in pots as soon as it ripens. The flowers pro- 
 duced" by seed do not bloom well till the 
 fifth year. See Dittany. 
 
 FRENCH BEANS. See Beans. 
 
 FREE-MARTIN. A name given by 
 breeders to a twin cow calf born with a 
 bull calf, which generally proves an herma- 
 phrodite, and therefore barren; but in some 
 ca es, there not being this admixture of the 
 organs of different sexes, or those of the 
 508 
 
 female prevailing, she is capable of breed* 
 ing. (Youatt on Cattle, p. 539.) 
 
 FRET. In farriery, a name sometimes 
 applied to gripes or colic in horses or other 
 cattle. See Diseases of Cattle and Horses. 
 
 FRINGILLA. (Chaffinch tribe.) A 
 Linnaean genus of Passerine birds, charac- 
 terised by a broad-based, sharp-pointed, 
 strong conical bill ; now raised to the rank 
 of a family (Fringillida), including the 
 buntings, the crossbills, the grosbeaks, the 
 linnets, canary birds, finches, and many ex- 
 otic subgenera of hard-billed or seed and 
 grain eating conirostral birds. 
 
 FRITILLARY. {Fritillaria.) Miller 
 mentions nine species of this genus, namely, 
 the "early purple chequered tulip;" the 
 " chequered tulip with an obscure yellow 
 flower," the " black chequered tulip," the 
 " largest yellow Italian fritillary," the 
 " fritillary with flowers in umbels," the 
 " Persian lily," the " smaller Persian lily," 
 the " crown imperial," and the " royal 
 crown." These tuberous plants are pro- 
 pagated by seed, or by offsets from the old 
 root. The seed produces many varieties. 
 The seed of the best flowers should be 
 saved, and sown in August in shallow boxes, 
 punctured with holes to drain off the 
 moisture. The earth should be light and 
 fresh, and the seed sown broadcast, and 
 covered with fine sifted earth a quarter of 
 an inch thick. The seedlings show their 
 flowers in three years. There are, accord- 
 ing to Miller, twelve varieties of the crown 
 imperial, of which the sort with yellow 
 flowers, that bearing double flowers, and 
 the sort producing large flowers, are the 
 most valuable. The crown imperial seed- 
 ling does not flower for seven years, there- 
 fore it is more quickly multiplied by offsets 
 every third year from the parent root. The 
 roots should be taken up in July, and re- 
 planted in September. The offsets should 
 be immediately planted, as they will not 
 bear being long out of the ground. See 
 Crown Imperial. 
 
 FRITILLARY, COMMON. Chequered 
 Daffodil or Lily, or Snake's-head. (Fri- 
 tillaria meleagins.) This indigenous species 
 is found wild in moist meadows and pas- 
 tures, chiefly in the southern parts of Eng- 
 land. It blooms in April and May. An 
 inodorous flower, regularly chequered with 
 pale and dark purple ; sometimes white, but 
 still chequered. There are nearly twenty 
 varieties, with red, Avhite, purple, black, 
 striped double flowers. The stem is a foot 
 high or more, with linear leaves, and one 
 or more terminal pendulous flowers. The 
 root is furnished with a small solid tuber, 
 about the size of a nut. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p, 1 40. ; London 's Ency. of Gard. p. 843.) 
 
FROGBIT. 
 
 FROST. 
 
 FROGBIT. (Hydrocharis Marsus ranee.) 
 A very pretty native perennial aquatic, 
 found common in England floating on 
 the water, in ditches, ponds, and slow- 
 streams, but rare in Scotland. It derives 
 its Latin name from Jiydor water, and charts 
 grace. The root consists of many long 
 thread-shaped fibres. Leaves heart or kidney 
 shaped, purplish underneath, lloating, not 
 two inches abroad. Flowers numerous, 
 upright, very delicate, white, with a yellow 
 central stain. This little plant is one of 
 the prettiest ornaments of our still waters ; 
 it looks very pretty grown in a tub or cis- 
 tern of water, and is readily increased by 
 seeds, or floating runners, which root at the 
 joint. {Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 250. Pax- 
 tons Bot. Diet. p. 163.) 
 
 FROG OF A HORSE. In farriery, is 
 a triangular portion of horn projecting 
 from the sole almost on a level with the 
 crust, and defending a soft and elastic sub- 
 stance called the sensible frog. The sensible 
 frog occupies the whole of the back part of 
 the foot, above the horny frog and between 
 the cartilages. See Shoeing. 
 
 FROGS. {Bana Linn.) A genus of am- 
 phibious reptiles, consisting of seventeen 
 species, but two only require to be here 
 noticed : — 
 
 1. The Common Frog (B. temporaria), 
 which is too well known to need description. 
 Some of its properties are very singular, 
 particularly its powers of leaping and swim- 
 ming. Its body is naked, and without any 
 tail ; the fore limbs are very lightly made, 
 while the hind legs and thighs are remark- 
 ably long, and furnished with strong muscles. 
 As soon as the spawn is vivified, the future 
 frog becomes a tadpole, in which state it is 
 wholly a water animal, breathing by bronchia 
 or gills, like fish ; but as soon as it is changed 
 into a frog, and attains its proper shape, it 
 acquires lungs, by which it breathes, and 
 then immediately migrates to the shore. 
 
 2. The Gibbous, Green, or Edible frog 
 (B. esculenta), which differs from the for- 
 mer species only in having a high protu- 
 berance in the middle of the back, which 
 forms an acute angle. Its colours likewise 
 are more vivid, and its marks more distinct, 
 the ground colour being a pale or yellowish 
 green, marked with rows of black spots from 
 the head to the rump. The flesh of the 
 hind thighs is used as a restorative food. 
 The flesh of the Surinam frog (B. paradoxa) 
 is also used as food. Frogs are recom- 
 mended by Walton as bait for pike, but 
 frogs retaliate by feeding on the spawn and 
 young fry of fish in ponds and rivers. 
 
 FROND. A combination of stem and 
 leaf in one organ, as in ferns, Marchantia, 
 and such like plants. 
 509 
 
 FROST. In meteorology is the cause of 
 the congelation of water or the vapours of 
 the atmosphere. Water begins to freeze 
 when the temperature of the air is such that 
 Fahrenheit's thermometer stands at 32° 
 At this temperature ice begins to appear, 
 unless some circumstance, for example the 
 agitation of the water, prevents its form- 
 ation. As the cold increases the frost be- 
 comes more intense, and liquids which resist 
 the degree of cold required to congeal water 
 at length pass into the solid state. When 
 water remains at complete rest it may be 
 cooled down to 28° Fahrenheit without 
 freezing ; but the moment it is agitated, the 
 thermometer rises to 32° and the water 
 freezes. In this case the insensible heat of 
 the water is retained when the fluid is at 
 rest. No experiments have hitherto ascer- 
 tained to what depth frost will extend, 
 either in earth or water, but its effects will of 
 course vary according to the degree of cold- 
 ness in the air, the longer or shorter duration 
 of the frost, the texture of the earth, the 
 nature of the fluids with which the ground 
 is impregnated, &c. In England the frost 
 rarely extends in the ground below eighteen 
 inches from the surface. Frost is peculiarly 
 destructive to vegetation. During severe 
 frost almost all vegetables fall into a state 
 of decay, and even a moderate degree of 
 frost is sufficient to destroy many of the 
 more tender kinds. The injury which ve- 
 getables sustain from frost is greatest when 
 it is preceded by a thaw or copious rains ; 
 for the plants are then turgid with moisture, 
 which, expanding in bulk as it passes into 
 the solid state, produces the rupture of the 
 vegetable fibres. Therefore it is that a 
 sharp north wind, or any thing which dries 
 the sap or juices of vegetables previous to 
 frost, tends to their preservation. The 
 great power of frost on vegetables is well 
 known. Trees are sometimes destroyed by 
 it as if by fire, and split with a noise re- 
 sembling the explosion of artillery, since the 
 juices of the tree expand with great force, 
 as they are converted into ice. In winter, 
 however, trees generally have neither leaves 
 nor flowers, and their buds are so hard as to 
 withstand the effects of congelation ; but 
 hard frosts late in spring are often very in- 
 jurious, as the buds are then appearing. 
 Fruits are in like manner destroyed by frost. 
 Their watery portion being changed into 
 crystals of ice, occupying a greater space 
 than the fluid from which they were pro- 
 duced, burst the small vessels in which they 
 are formed ; hence the fruit is deprived of 
 its flavour, and when thawed putrefies. 
 
 The hoar-frost or white f7*ost, which ap- 
 pears in the mornings chiefl y in autumn and 
 spring, is merely frozen dew. It is gene- 
 
FROST. 
 
 FRUIT. 
 
 rally the consequence of a sudden clearing 
 up of the -weather after rain, when a consi- 
 derable degree of cold is produced by the 
 rapid evaporation. In our European cli- 
 mates, it usually happens that after a fall of 
 rain the wind shifts into a northern quarter, 
 and the atmosphere suddenly clears up. 
 When this takes place during the night, or 
 early in the morning, a strong radiation of 
 heat from the earth commences, the cooling 
 effect of which is increased by the copious 
 evaporation from the wet surfaces of the 
 plants and the grass. The influence of eva- 
 poration on the phenomenon is obvious from 
 this, that the moisture which appears in the 
 form of dew before sunrise is often changed 
 into rime, or hoar-frost, on the appearance of 
 that luminary. The reason is, that as the 
 atmosphere begins to be warmed by the 
 sun's rays, the evaporation is accelerated, 
 and consequently the cold at the wet sur- 
 face of the ground augmented ; hence, we 
 see one reason why frosty nights are so 
 much more prejudicial to the tender shoots 
 of plants when they are succeeded by very 
 bright mornings. Hence, also, hoar-frost is 
 found on grass or plants, when the thermo- 
 meter, placed a few feet above the ground, 
 indicates a temperature three or four de- 
 grees above the freezing point. 
 
 In late autumnal frost, the effect of eva- 
 poration by the heat of the sun is often ex- 
 emplified on the stems of potatoes. If a 
 hoar-frost be immediately succeeded by the 
 influence of the sun, the dew liquifies, and 
 by the process of evaporation the stalks lose 
 their vitality ; for although plants, as well as 
 animals, have an inherent power of resisting 
 cold, yet it is in the former only to a very 
 limited degree. If the hoar-frost be brushed 
 off (and this can easily be done by two men 
 moving along the beds or drills with a rope 
 between them, very early in the morning 
 before the evaporation takes place), the 
 stalks will sustain no injury. The destruc- 
 tive power of evaporation appears to be 
 proportioned to the degree of humidity in 
 the body on which it acts. 
 
 The following is recommended as a simple 
 and easy method of securing fruit trees from 
 the effects of frost : — 
 
 If a thick rope be intermixed among the 
 branches of a fruit tree in blossom, the end 
 of which is directed downwards so as to 
 terminate in a pail of water, should a slight 
 frost take place during the night, it will not 
 in the smallest degree affect the tree, while 
 the surface of the pail which receives the 
 rope will be covered with thin ice ; though 
 the water placed in another pail by the side 
 of it, !>y way of experiment, may not, from 
 the Bliehtness of the frost, have any ice on 
 it at all. In this case the rope aids the eva- 
 
 poration of the water, and thereby cools it 
 down to the freezing point. Frost is merely 
 the effect of cold, which itself is a negative 
 quality ;^ namely, the absence of heat. As 
 evaporation carries off heat and reduces 
 temperature, whatever aids this is favour- 
 able to freezing. (Quart. Journ. of Agr 
 vol. yiii. p. 421.) Early hoar-frost may, it 
 is said, be rendered harmless in its effects 
 by pouring fresh spring water on the trees 
 and vines thus covered before the sun rises. 
 Various other projects have been proposed 
 at different times to avert the disastrous ef- 
 fects of the morning frosts on vegetation in 
 spring ; but, unfortunately, it is only on a 
 very limited scale that any means can be 
 adopted for the purpose. Whatever pre- 
 vents the formation of dew will protect 
 plants ; hence a covering of net or thin 
 gauze will often preserve the blossoms of 
 wall-fruit. But the most effectual means 
 is to check the radiation, by screening the 
 plant from the chilling aspect of the clear 
 sky. (See Dew.) Every farmer knows 
 that frost in winter is serviceable to the soil, 
 by breaking down and pulverising land, 
 and that a failure of crops frequently takes 
 place after a winter of extreme mildness. 
 The principle is this : — in the process of con- 
 gelation, the water as it freezes expands, 
 and, therefore, necessarily separates the 
 particles of earth in which it is held : frost 
 thus operates better than any instrument 
 of human construction, for its action reaches 
 to the minutest particles, and thus renders 
 them friable. In dry earth it has little or 
 no effect in this way, but is beneficial in 
 destroying grubs and insects. On sand it 
 makes no impression. On ploughed clay- 
 land frost has the most beneficial effect. 
 Therefore, where the soil is close, stiff, or 
 of an obstinate clayey nature, it should be 
 turned up in ridges in the autumn or at the 
 beginning of winter, which tends greatly to 
 separate its particles, and render it more 
 fine and mellow. 
 
 Hard winters seldom injure corn in any 
 respect, especially where the land has been 
 thoroughly drained, and is covered much 
 with snow. By leaving the earth in a loose 
 and finely divided state, frost adapts it 
 better for the extension of the roots as the 
 warmth of spring approaches, and thereby 
 enables them to produce strong plants. 
 See December, Hail, January, and Snow. 
 (Brande's Diet, of Science ; Pract. Husb.) 
 
 FRUIT. (Fr. fruit; It.frutta; Span. 
 fruta ; Ltat.fructum.) In botany, compre- 
 hends many kinds of what are commonly 
 called seeds ; as those of corn, buck- w lira t, 
 caraway, parsley, &c, as well as the suc- 
 culent inflorescence of the pine-apple, 
 which is a mass of ovaria and envelopes in 
 
FRUNDELE. 
 
 FUEL. 
 
 a consolidated condition. But in horticul- 
 ture the term fruit is restricted to the pulpy 
 and juicy seeds of trees and shrubs, &c, as 
 the apple, the peach, the currant, &c. 
 
 The fruits of vegetables are equally 
 various with the seeds. They almost all 
 contain an acid ; and this acid is usually 
 either the tartaric, the oxalic, the citric, or 
 the malic, or a mixture of two or more of 
 them. Hardly any other, except perhaps 
 the acetic, has hitherto been found in fruits. 
 They usually contain likewise a portion of 
 saccharine gummy matter, sometimes starch ; 
 and the fleshy fruits contain also a fibrous 
 matter, not yet accurately examined. The 
 colouring matters of fruits, especially the 
 red, dissolve freely both in water and 
 alcohol, but very speedily decay when ex- 
 posed dry to the action of the sun and 
 weather. Hence they cannot be used as 
 dyes. (Thomsons Chem. vol. iv. p. 274.) 
 
 The diseases of fruit-trees are various, 
 and for these I must refer the reader to the 
 different heads of Blight, Canker, Mildew, 
 &c. As the culture and propagation of the 
 different fruits are also treated of in separate 
 articles, it will suffice in this place to enu- 
 merate a few of the principal works which 
 may be consulted with advantage for fuller 
 details than the limits of this work will 
 enable me to give ; among these are Phillips's 
 Hist of Fruits ; Rogers' s Fruit Cult. ; Hoare 
 on the Vine ; Abercrombie s Fruit Gard. ; 
 Lindleys Guide to the Orchard and Kitchen 
 Gard. ; Loudon's Encyc. of Gard. Src. ; 
 Bliss's Fruit Grower s Instructor. 
 
 FRUNDELE. A dry measure of two 
 pecks, or half a bushel. 
 
 FUCHSIA (named in honour of the 
 celebrated German botanist Leonard Fuchs, 
 author of Hist. Stirpiam in 1542). A most 
 beautiful and well-known genus of plants, 
 well worthy a place in every garden, espe- 
 cially F. fulgens, a recently introduced 
 species, and said to be " probably the most 
 beautiful plant of the temperate flora of 
 Mexico." The scarlet pendent flowers of 
 fuchsias form a rich ornament to a garden 
 or green-house. If carefully treated, cut 
 down in autumn, and covered up from frost 
 in winter, most of them will thrive out of 
 doors. A mixture of loam and peat suits 
 them well, but they will also thrive in any 
 light rich soil ; and young cuttings will root 
 freely in sand under a glass. (Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 FUDDER orFOTHER (from the Germ. 
 fudor a cart-load). In the North of Eng- 
 land implies a load, or large quantity. A 
 fother of lead is still a term for a certain 
 weight, about 8 pigs or 16 cwt., as much as 
 a cart would carry. 
 
 FUEL. (Norm. Yr.fuayle.) Any com- 
 511 
 
 bustible substance which is used for the 
 production of heat constitutes a species of 
 fuel ; but the term is more properly limited 
 to coal, coke, charcoal, wood, and a few 
 other substances. 
 
 In this country, coal, from its abundance 
 and cheapness, is the commonly employed 
 fuel ; but where wood is abundant, or where 
 its value is little more than that of felling 
 it, it is used either in its original state, or 
 in the form of charcoal. It is essential to 
 good and profitable fuel that it should be 
 free from moisture ; for unless it be dry, 
 much of the heat which it generates is con- 
 sumed in converting its moisture into 
 vapour ; hence the superior value of old 
 dense and dry wood, to that which is 
 porous and damp. A pound of dry wood 
 will, for instance, heat thirty-five pounds of 
 water from 32° to 212°, and a pound of the 
 same wood in a moist or fresh state will not 
 heat more than twenty-five pounds from the 
 same to the same temperature ; the value, 
 therefore, of different woods for fuel is nearly 
 inversely as their moisture, and this may be 
 roughly ascertained by finding how much 
 a given weight of their shavings loses by 
 drying them at 212°. 
 
 The following table exhibits at one view 
 the power of various species of wood in 
 producing heat. 
 
 The number indicates the quantity of 
 timber in pounds, required to raise the 
 temperature of a cubic foot of water from 
 52° to 212°. 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Oak chips 
 
 
 - 4-20 
 
 Elm 
 
 
 - .3-52 
 
 Fir 
 
 
 - 3-52 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 - 3-50 
 
 Hornbeam 
 
 
 - 3-37 
 
 Cherry-tree 
 
 
 - 3-20 
 
 Beech 
 
 
 - 3-16 
 
 Lime-tree 
 
 
 - 3-10 
 
 Poplar 
 
 
 - 3'10 
 
 Maple 
 
 
 - 3-00 
 
 Service-tree 
 
 
 - 3-00 
 
 The value of turf and peat, as fuel, is 
 liable to much variation, and depends partly 
 upon their density, and partly upon their 
 freedom from earthy impurities. A pound 
 of turf will heat about 26 pounds of water 
 from 32° to 212°, and a pound of dense 
 peat about 30 lbs. : by compressing and 
 drying peat its value as a fuel is greatly 
 increased. Dr. M'Culloch has divided peat 
 into five classes : — mountain peat, marsh 
 peat, lake peat, forest peat, and marine 
 peat; the names implying the locality of 
 their production. Of these the mountain 
 peat, from its loose spongy texture, is the least 
 productive of heat, although it soonest in- 
 flames. The reader is referred to an excel- 
 lent essay " on economising Fuel and Light- 
 
FULLER. 
 
 ing," &c, by the Rev. P. Bell, in the Trans, 
 of High Soc. vol. iv. p. 149. See Charcoal 
 and Peat. (Brande's Diet, of Science ; 
 WillicKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 FULLER. A scourer of cloth. The 
 branch of industry which gives origin to 
 this name is of early origin. The Romans, 
 who generally wore woollen dresses, often 
 required them to be purified: hence the 
 performance of this became a distinct 
 trade. Some paintings on the walls of a 
 fullonica at Pompeii have transmitted to us 
 the manner in which fulling was done. 
 The clothes were first washed, by being- 
 trodden upon in tubs by the feet of the 
 fullones, or fullers : alkali and urine were 
 used instead of. soap. After the clothes 
 were dried, the surface was carded, to raise 
 the nap, sometimes with the skin of a hedge- 
 hog, sometimes with the Dipsacus, or fuller's 
 thistle, which thus received its specific 
 name fullonum. After this the clothes were 
 spread on basket work, under which sul- 
 phur was burnt to whiten them, and at the 
 same time Cimolian earth was rubbed upon 
 them. This trade was so necessary to the 
 comfort of the ancients, that the Censors, 
 C. Flaminius and L. iEmillius, prescribed 
 the manner in which dresses were to be 
 washed (Pliny, H. N. xxxv. 57.) The 
 Greeks, also, employed fullers. In the 
 country the farmer may take advantage of 
 this ancient custom, and have woollen 
 clothes cleaned in the same manner, using 
 the fuller's earth instead of the Cimolian. 
 
 FULLER'S THISTLE (Dipsacus ful- 
 lonum.) A name sometimes applied to a 
 plant used by the makers of cloth. See 
 Teasel. 
 
 FULLER'S EARTH. A native sapona- 
 ceous mineral of the aluminous kind, found 
 in many parts, but the best comes from the 
 south of England and Saxony. It is much 
 used by fullers in cleaning and scouring 
 their cloth, from its property of absorbing 
 grease. It is of a very soft unctuous 
 nature, falls to pieces in water, and appears 
 to be capable of promoting the growth of 
 plants in a high degree ; consequently may 
 be used with advantage as manure, on some 
 of the lighter sorts of land. Its constituents, 
 according to Klaproth, are as follows : — 
 
 Specimen from Specimen from 
 
 
 Keigate, Surrey. 
 
 Nimptch in 
 Silesia. 
 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 53-0 
 
 48-5 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 10-0 
 
 15-5 
 
 Lime 
 
 - 0-5 
 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 1-25 
 
 1-5 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 975 
 
 7-0 
 
 Common salt 
 
 o-i 
 
 
 Water 
 
 - 24- 
 
 255 
 
 Loss 
 
 1-4 
 
 2 0 
 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 512 
 
 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 FUMITORY. (Fumaria, from fumus, 
 smoke, alluding to the disagreeable smell of 
 the plant. Our English word fumitory is 
 derived from the French name of the genus 
 Fumeterre.) There are six indigenous species 
 of fumitory. 
 
 1 . The solid bulbous Fumitory (F. solidd) 
 rather a doubtful native perennial, which 
 grows in groves and thickets, but not com- 
 mon. 
 
 2. The yellow Fumitory (F. lutea), a pe- 
 rennial, found on old walls, with a fibrous 
 root ; stem erect, a foot high, and, like the 
 footstalks, triangular, juicy, reddish, and 
 shining. Leaves thrice ternate, of a bright 
 rather glaucous green. Flowers in a solitary 
 terminal upright cluster, scentless, lemon- 
 coloured, with deep yellow lips. 
 
 3. White climbing Fumitory (F. clavicu- 
 lata), an annual growing in bushy and shady 
 hilly situations, on a gravelly, stony, or 
 sandy soil. Stems one or more, delicate 
 and tender, flattened on one side, branched, 
 leafy, from 1 to 4 ft. high, climbing upon 
 other plants by means of branched ten- 
 drils terminating the footstalks. It blooms 
 in June or July dense clusters of elegant 
 white flowers, variegated with blue or 
 grey. 
 
 4. Common Fumitory (F. officinalis), an 
 annual very common in cultivated ground 
 and about hedges ; root tapering, herb 
 glaucous, stem much branched, leaves 
 mostly alternate, twice or thrice pinnate. 
 Flowers in clusters, rose coloured or pale 
 red. The leaves are succulent, saline, and 
 bitter. The plant is eaten by cows and 
 sheep ; goats dislike it, except the young 
 shoots, and horses totally refuse it. 
 
 5. Small-flowered Fumitory (F. parvi- 
 flora), an annual blowing pale red, occa- 
 sionally white flowers ; herb altogether 
 smaller than the last. 
 
 6. Ramping Fumitory (F. capreolata). 
 This species is much like the common 
 fumitory, but larger in every part ; the 
 leaves less glaucous ; their tendrils twisting 
 round other plants, by which the branching 
 stem climbs to the height of 3 or 4 feet. 
 The flowers are on the whole paler, and the 
 plant also less common. 
 
 This species and the white climbing fumi- 
 tory are the only ones worthy of extensive 
 culture. They do best sown under a hedge, 
 to which they will attach themselves and 
 make a beautiful appearance. {Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 252 — 257. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 FUNGI. (Lat.) A large natural tribe 
 of plants of a very low organisation, con- 
 sist ing chiefly of cellular tissue, sometimes 
 intermixed with flocculcnt matter, and 
 very rarely furnished with spiral vessels. 
 They form, as it were, a link between the 
 
FUNGI. 
 
 FURROW. 
 
 animal and vegetable kingdoms. They in- j 
 habit dead and decaying organic bodies, and j 
 are also a common pest to living, plants, I 
 upon which they are parasites, and prey in j 
 the same manner as vermin and intestinal I 
 worms upon animals. A vast number of j 
 species are described by Avriters upon fungi, 
 and they are often of great importance to j 
 man, either for their use or their mischievous j 
 qualities. The common mushroom (Agaricus ! 
 campestris), the truffle (Tubercibarium), and 
 morel (Morchellaesculenta),(i,Qe these heads,) 
 are delicacies well known at table. Not less 
 than thirty-three species of fungi are eaten in 
 Russia. Ergot, one of the tribe, is valuable in 
 obstetric practice as a uterine stimulant; 
 very many of the species are dangerous 
 poisons. Blight, mildew, rust, &c. (see 
 these articles) are diseases caused by the ra- 
 vages of microscopic fungi ; and, finally, the 
 destructive effects of dry-rot are owing to 
 the attacks of Merulius lachryrnans, and 
 many other species. The best general work 
 on Fungi is Fries's Systema Micologicum. 
 Numerous species are figured in the works 
 of Greville, Bulliard, Sowerby, Corda, and 
 Nees von Esenbeck. (See Fairy Rings.) 
 Dr. Christison gives the following general 
 directions for distinguishing the esculent 
 from the poisonous varieties. " It appears 
 that most fungi which have a warty cap, 
 more especially fragments of membrane ad- 
 hering to their upper surface, are poisonous. 
 Heavy fungi, which have an unpleasant 
 odour, especially if they emerge from a vulva 
 or bag, are also generally hurtful. Those 
 which grow in woods and shady places are 
 rarely esculent, but most are unwholesome ; 
 and if they are moist on the surface they 
 should be avoided. All those which grow 
 in tufts or clusters from the trunks or 
 stumps of trees ought likewise to be shunned. 
 A sure test of a poisonous fungus is an 
 astringent styptic taste, and perhaps also a 
 disagreeable, but certainly a pungent odour. 
 Those the substance of which becomes blue, 
 soon after being cut, are invariably poisonous. 
 Agarics, of an orange or rose-red colour, 
 and boleti, which are coriaceous or corky in 
 texture, or which have a membranous collar 
 round the stem, are also unsafe. These rules 
 for knowing deleterious fungi seem to rest 
 on fact and experience ; but they will not 
 enable the collector to recognise every poi- 
 sonous species." The general rules laid down 
 for distinguishing wholesome fungi are not 
 so well founded, but the most simple and 
 easy mode of testing the quality of field 
 fungi is to introduce a silver spoon or piece 
 of coin of that metal, or an onion, into the 
 vessel in which mushrooms are seething : if 
 on taking either of them out, they assume a 
 bluish black, or dark discoloured appearance, 
 513 
 
 there are certainly some dangerous fungi 
 among them ; if, on the other hand, the 
 metal or onion on being withdrawn from 
 the liquor wears its natural appearance, the 
 fungi may be considered wholesome and in- 
 noxious. The symptoms indicating poison- 
 ing by fungi are nausea, vomiting, purging, 
 and colic, in general accompanied with great 
 depression of the pulse, cold extremities, 
 clammy sweats, stupor, delirium, convul- 
 sions, sometimes paralysis. In such cases 
 immediate means should be taken to clear 
 the stomach, and a medical practitioner sent 
 for, as the subsequent treatment must vary 
 according to the symptoms in each indi- 
 vidual instance. {Christison on Poisons; 
 Brandes Diet of Science ; WillicKs Dom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 FUNGUS. In farriery, a spongy ex- 
 crescence which arises in wounds and ulcers, 
 commonly known by the name of proud flesh. 
 It may be destroyed and removed by caustic 
 applications, such as nitrate of silver, or 
 sulphate of copper, blue vitriol, and the use 
 of tight bandages. 
 
 FURBER, ROBERT, was the founder 
 of the Kensington Nursery, now held by 
 Messrs. Malcolm. He published the two 
 following works : — 
 
 1. Fruits for every Month in the Year. 12 Plates. Fol. 
 1732. These are prints of the best kind of fruits then 
 grown in this country. 2. An Introduction to Garden- 
 ing, or a Guide to Gentlemen and Ladies in furnishing 
 their Gardens, being several useful Catalogues of Fruits 
 and Flowers. London. 1733. 8vo. 
 
 FURLONG. (Sax. ruplans.) An En- 
 glish measure of length containing forty 
 poles, the eighth part of a mile. 
 
 FURMENTY, or FRUMENTY. (From 
 frumentuw* corn.) A kind of country pot- 
 tage prepared of wheat, which is first wett ed, 
 and beaten to deprive it of its husks, and 
 afterwards boiled. When boiled up with 
 milk, sugar, and a little spice, it forms a 
 wholesome and agreeable food. This pre- 
 paration was well known to the Roman 
 farmers. Cato, the earliest of the agricul- 
 tural writers whose works have escaped to 
 us, gives (lib. lxxxvi.) the modern mode of 
 making it under the name of wheat frumentv. 
 
 FURRIER'S REFUSE, or CLIP- 
 PINGS ; are sometimes applied as a fer- 
 tiliser to light chalks and gravelly soils, 
 either ploughed in or laid upon the surface, 
 in the proportion of twenty-four to thirty 
 bushels to the acre. They are usually sold 
 by the quarter, which commonly contains 
 as much as two five-bushel sacks will hold 
 when closely pressed. The price is said to 
 be about 14s. to 16*. per quarter. (Brit 
 Husb. vol. i. p. 426.) 
 
 FURROW. (Sax. runh ; Ban. fur; Lat. 
 forus.) In agriculture, a term not very 
 properly defined, as it has three or four 
 
 L L 
 
FURROW-SLICE. 
 
 FURZE, COMMON. 
 
 distinct significations; viz. 1. The soil turned 
 up by the plough ; 2. The trench left by this 
 operation ; 3. The interval between two 
 ridges ; and 4. The cross drain which re- 
 ceives the rain water collected by these in- 
 tervals. Dr Johnson adds a fifth; but he 
 obviously mistakes furrow for drill. Ac- 
 cording to Mr. Marshall there are three ideas 
 which lay claim to the word furrow. 1. 
 The trench made by the plough, which may 
 be called aplough furrow ; 2. The collateral 
 drains, or an inter-furrow ; and 3. The trans- 
 verse drains, or the cross furrow. See 
 Ploughing and Furrow, Water. 
 
 FURROW-SLICE. The narrow slice 
 or slip of earth turned up by the plough. 
 By the Scotch writers on husbandry, it is 
 mostly termed fur-slice. 
 
 FURROW, AVATER-. That kind of deep 
 open furrow which is made by the plough 
 in tillage-lands, for the purpose of drawing 
 off and draining them, in order to favour the 
 healthy growth of the crops. Furrows of 
 this kind should always be drawn in such di- 
 rections as will the most readily take off the 
 water, and be kept open during the winter 
 months, especially on the wheat-grounds. 
 The making of these furrow-drains should be 
 performed immediately after the ploughing 
 and sowing have been finished ; and this is 
 particularly necessary on all the more stiff 
 and retentive kinds of soil. 
 
 FURS. The skins of different animals, 
 covered for the most part with thick fine 
 hair, the inner side being converted by a 
 peculiar process into a sort of leather. Bea- 
 ver fur, from its extensive use in the 
 hat manufacture, is a very important com- 
 mercial article. Hare's fur, as already men- 
 tioned, is one of the worst conductors of 
 heat yet known, consequently admirably 
 adapted for body clothing in winter. See 
 Hair and Wool. 
 
 FURZE, COMMON; GORSE, or 
 WHIN. (Ulex Europeans.) This hardy 
 evergreen shrub is indigenous to most 
 parts of Great Britain, and grows abun- 
 dantly on sandy or gravelly heaths and 
 commons ; and when viewed in the light of 
 a weed it is one of the most determined 
 growers, and most difficult to get rid of that 
 the agriculturist can meet with. The stem 
 of the furze varies from two to five feet 
 high ; but in Cornwall and Durham it 
 sometimes grows to the height of eight or 
 nine feet. It bears innumerable dense, 
 roughish, green, furrowed or ribbed branches 
 spinous at the ends, and beset with large 
 compound, striated, permanent thorns. The 
 Leaves are few, scattered, small, awl-shaped, 
 deciduous. Flowers large, solitary or in 
 pairs, of a bright golden yellow, with a very 
 peculiar oppressive scent. One of our poets 
 
 has well described the beautiful appearance 
 of this shrub in blossom — 
 
 " And what more noble than the vernal furze, 
 With golden baskets hung ? Approach it not, 
 For every blossom has a troop of swords 
 Drawn to defend it." 
 
 _ The legumes are downy, bursting elas- 
 tically in dry hot weather with a crackling 
 noise, and scattering their seeds extensively. 
 The wood of furze is very hard. Furze is 
 chiefly used for fences, as food for cattle, 
 and for fuel. Its preference for sterile soil 
 has caused it to be extensively employed for 
 fences in such land, and as a cover for game, 
 and shelter for young plantations. With 
 common care furze fences last for a very 
 long period, but they require peculiar ma- 
 nagement to prevent the roots becoming 
 exposed. Sowing in three tiers on a bank is 
 perhaps the best mode, as it allows of one 
 tier to be kept low by the shears or bill, the 
 second of higher growth, and the last to 
 attain its natural stature. 
 
 There are generally two objections ad- 
 vanced against the adoption of whin-fences. 
 The first is, that the wall or mound required 
 for raising the whin is of such dimensions as 
 to occasion a great waste of ground ; and 
 the second is, that the whins have a great 
 tendency to spread over and injure the ad- 
 joining grounds. But with a slight well- 
 trimmed wall-fence of furze these objections 
 may easily be obviated. 
 
 The formation and management of whin- 
 fences have been treated of by a number 
 of agricultural and botanical writers, as 
 Lord Karnes, Dr. Anderson, Marshall, Bil- 
 lington in his work On Planting, Dickson in 
 his Modern Husb., and others ; there is also 
 an essay on this subj ect in the Trans, of the 
 High. Soc. vol. v. p. 466., by Mr. W. Bell, 
 and it is noticed in a number of the County 
 Reports. 
 
 Furze has long been known as a plant 
 highly nutritious as food for horses, sheep, 
 and cattle, and has only been neglected 
 from the supposed difficulty of converting- 
 it into a state fit to be comfortably eaten by 
 domestic animals ; the process of cutting, 
 gathering, and bruising the young shoots, 
 when taken from the old stunted bushes, 
 being both laborious and expensive. These 
 difficulties are, however, comparatively 
 easily overcome when goree is allowed the 
 privilege of a cultivated spot, and the most 
 worthless part of the farm is good enough 
 for it to vegetate upon. 
 
 Respecting the merits of furze as a fodder, 
 a good deal has been written, as by Duhamel 
 in France, Evelyn in England, and Dr. An- 
 derson in Scotland; and it is now exten- 
 sively cultivated for this purpose by Mr. 
 Attwood of Birmingham, who has devoted 
 
FURZE. 
 
 GAD-FLY. 
 
 an hundred acres to French furze ; (U. pro- 
 vincialise which is nearly allied to the com- 
 mon furze), these are regularly mown with 
 a scythe for a corresponding number of 
 milch cows, and bruised in a mill : mixed 
 with chopped straw or hay, this constitutes 
 the entire food of his cows. Bruised furze 
 is also an excellent substitute for hay for 
 horses, and it is even asserted that they pre- 
 fer it to corn ; but they should at the same 
 time have oats and beans to counteract the 
 relaxing properties of the gorse. Dr. An- 
 derson says that when properly bruised, 
 cattle are very fond of it, and increase in 
 fatness as fast as on turnips. Cows yield as 
 much milk as when fed on grass, without 
 any bad taste, and the butter made on such 
 food is very superior. The small holder 
 bruises the furze for his solitary cow or 
 pair of horses, in a trough, with a wooden 
 pounder, furnished at the lower end with a 
 sharp piece of iron. The farmer on a large 
 scale should have a mill worked by horses 
 or by water-power. In 1802 and 1803, the 
 Duke of Richmond fed his deer, sheep, and 
 horses extensively on whins. In the Penin- 
 sular war the forage consumed by the horses 
 of the British army was principally furze. 
 Mr F. Tytler, in an account of experiments 
 which he made on feeding horses, between 
 the years 1812 and 1815 (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. v.), states, that one of the chief kinds 
 of food he used was furze. But the prin- 
 cipal use of furze is for the purpose of 
 fuel. In many parts of the kingdom it forms 
 the main dependence for the supply of 
 faggots for the poor man's hearth and the 
 baker's oven. The common furze generally 
 attains its full size in four years, and it 
 ought not to be cut more frequently. An 
 acre of land sown with the French furze 
 will yield between four and five thousand 
 faggots, which are chiefly consumed in the 
 heating of ovens. The fresh and dried 
 flowers of this plant afford in dyeing a fine 
 yellow colour. The medicinal qualities of 
 furze are attenuant, diuretic, determining 
 to the skin, and occasioning nausea. 
 
 Furze may be propagated by seed sown 
 from February to May. Young plants or 
 even slips planted in spring or October will 
 grow readily. It should be cut the year 
 after sowing, beginning in September or 
 October ; it will grow again until Christmas, 
 and be fit for use till March. Besides the 
 common furze there are two other species : 
 1. The dwarf whin or furze (U. nanus) 
 which is less common than the preceding, 
 and only grows to half the size. It blossoms 
 chiefly in autumn, has the leaves or spines 
 shorter and closer, and the branches decum- 
 bent, the flowering ones more cylindrical 
 and elongated ; and the flowers are paler. 
 515 
 
 These points of structure distinguish this 
 species from the others at first sight. Its 
 value is estimated in comparison to that 
 of the common, as two to one inferior. 
 
 2. The French or Provence furze (U. 
 provincialis) is a native of the South of 
 Europe. It closely resembles the common 
 furze. In Devonshire the common furze, 
 and in some other parts the dwarf furze, are 
 frequently called French furze. (Phillips's 
 Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 247.; Brit. Hush. 
 vol. iii., On Planting, p. 100. ; Eng. Flora, 
 vol. iii. p. 265. ; Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 731., vol. viii. p. 591.; WilUcKs Dom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 FUZZBULL. The local name for a kind 
 of fungus filled with a brown powder. 
 
 FUZZEN. A provincial term used 
 sometimes to signify the natural juice or 
 nourishment of a substance, or the strength 
 of it. It is sometimes written fuzen. 
 
 G. 
 
 GAD-FLY, or BREEZE. ((Estrus equi 
 et bovis, Liri.) Insects with spotted wings and 
 a yellow breast, which have a long proboscis, 
 with a sharp dart. These flies are particu- 
 larly troublesome to cattle by their sting or 
 dart. The horse-bot ((Estrus equi) deposits 
 its eggs on such parts of the horse as the 
 animal can reach with his tongue. They are 
 thus licked up, and introduced into the 
 stomach ; are there hatched- and form bots. 
 Another more tormenting fly of the same 
 genus is the fundament-bot (CE. hamor- 
 rhoidalis), which lays its eggs on the lips of 
 the horse, causing so much irritation to the 
 animal, as to induce him to gallop and seek 
 refuge in the water. In Sweden, the grooms 
 are accustomed to clean the mouths and 
 throats of the horses daily with a peculiar 
 kind of brush, which prevents the larvae of 
 this insect getting into the stomach of the 
 animal. The ox-warble (CE. bovis) deposits 
 its eggs on the back of oxen, causing great 
 torture to the animal, and much agitation to 
 the herd, if many are attacked at once. The 
 ovipositor of the insect pierces the skin on 
 the back of the ox, and there drops the eggs. 
 At the season when the gad-fly infests them, 
 the harness should be so managed as tc 
 allow the animals to be easily let loose. 
 The ovipositor of the (E. bovis is fur- 
 nished with teeth, and acts like an auger 
 or gimlet; and when this comes in con- 
 tact with a nerve of sensation, the oxen 
 seem to be driven almost to a state of mad- 
 ness; the tail is stretched out, and they 
 j gallop about the pasture, lowing and seeking 
 j for water, into which they instinctively 
 enter. Hence Virgil, describing this, says: — 
 i. l 2 
 
GALE. 
 
 GALLOWAY. 
 
 " The universal herds in terror fly, 
 
 Their lowings shake the woods, and shake the sky." 
 
 Humboldt mentions a species of (Estrus 
 which is found in the low regions of the 
 torrid zone, and has been named CEstrus 
 hominis, from its attacking man, and depo- 
 siting its eggs in his skin, causing there 
 painful tumours. (La Geog. des Plantes, 
 p. 186.) See Bots. 
 
 GALE. A term applied to a castrated 
 bull. 
 
 GALINGALE. See Cyperus. 
 
 GALLIC ACID. An acid obtained 
 from galls and several other vegetable as- 
 tringents, chiefly from the bark. The fol- 
 lowing table will serve to show the propor- 
 tions of this acid in different plants : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Willow trunk - - 9 
 
 Oak, cut in winter ^ 
 Willow (boughs) 
 Plum tree 
 
 Cherry tree 
 Sallow 
 
 Mountain ash 
 
 Poplar 
 
 Elm 
 
 Beech 
 
 Sycamore 
 
 Birch 
 
 Elder 
 
 - each 8 
 
 - - each 7 
 
 - each 4 
 
 (Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. p. 8.) But al- 
 though the above-named barks yield the 
 quantities of gallic acid mentioned, yet it is 
 uncertain whether th'ey actually contain 
 any ready formed. Gallic acid is procured 
 by exposing the decoctions of galls, or of any 
 astringent bark, to the air, until it becomes 
 mouldy, and the tannic acid attracts the 
 oxygen of the air, and is converted into the 
 gallic acid. In this state the acid forms 
 in crystals, mixed with crystals of another 
 acid, the ellagic, which are easily separated 
 from it, being insoluble in water. 
 
 Pure gallic acid has a weak, sour, astrin- 
 gent taste. It is soluble in 100 parts of 
 cold water, and forms an ink with solution 
 of green vitriol (sulphate of iron). It is 
 distinguished from tannic acid, which is 
 ready formed in astringent barks, by not 
 precipitating solution of glue. It is a 
 powerful astringent, and may be adminis- 
 tered in doses of two or three grains in in- 
 ternal bleedings. 
 
 GALLINACEOUS FOWLS. One of 
 the two divisions of domestic poultry reared 
 in Europe, comprehending, among others, 
 the common cock and hen, the turkey, the 
 guinea-fowl, the peacock, and the pigeon. 
 
 GALL N CJTS. ( Fr. gallis ; It. galle.) 
 Excrescences produced by the Cynics, or 
 Dmlolepm gallce. tiii<i<>ri<(>, a small insect 
 which deposits its eggs in the tender shoots 
 51G 
 
 of the Quercus infectoria, a species of oak 
 abundant in Asia Minor, &c. When the 
 maggot is hatched, it feeds on the morbid 
 excrescence formed by the irritation of the 
 deposited ovum on the surrounding parts, and 
 ultimately, when perfected as the fly, it eats 
 its way out of the nidus thus formed. Good 
 gall nuts are of a blueish green hue, heavy, 
 and break with a flinty fracture. When 
 they are white, light, with a hole in one 
 side, they are useless. Gall nuts are em- 
 ployed in dyeing, and in medicine. 
 
 GALLON. An English measure of ca- 
 pacity, containing four quarts. By act of 
 parliament the imperial gallon is to contain 
 10 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water weighed 
 at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit, 
 and the barometer standing at 30 inches. 
 This is equivalent to 277*274 cubic inches. 
 The old English gallon, wine measure, con- 
 tained 231 cubic inches, and held 8 lbs. 
 avoirdupois of pure water ; ale and beer 
 measure, 282 cubic inches, and held 10 lbs. 
 3i oz. avoirdupois of water ; and the gallon 
 for corn, meal, &c, 272 cubic inches, con- 
 taining 9 lbs. 13 oz. of pure water. Hence 
 the imperial gallon is about i larger than 
 the old wine gallon, and about ^ less than 
 the old ale gallon. See Weights and 
 Measures. 
 
 GALLOP. In horsemanship, a well- 
 known pace to which horses are trained, and 
 of which many kinds are enumerated, but 
 two only are worthy of regard, namely, the 
 hand gallop and the full gallop. And these 
 distinctions are founded on the different de- 
 grees of velocity in which the animal is im- 
 pelled, rather than on any peculiarity in the 
 pace itself. In the gallop the horse leads 
 with one fore-leg somewhat advanced, but 
 not so much beyond the other, as happens 
 in the canter ; and, when he is urged to his 
 utmost speed, his legs are almost equally 
 placed. The fleetest horses, when galloping, 
 carry their bodies perfectly in a horizontal 
 posture, and the fewer curves or successive 
 arches are described, the more rapid of 
 course is their progress. 
 
 In galloping the fore legs are thrown 
 forward nearly simultaneously, and the 
 hind legs brought up quickly and nearly 
 together ; it is, in fact, a succession of leaps, 
 by far the greatest interval of time elapsing 
 while the legs are extended after the leap 
 is taken. The canter is to the gallop very 
 much what the walk is to the trot, though 
 probably a more artificial pace. The ex- 
 ertion is much less, the spring less distant, 
 and the feet come to the ground in more 
 regular succession. (The Horse, p. 41. '5.) 
 
 GALLOWAY. The usual name tor a 
 poncy or saddle-horse, between thirteen or 
 fourteen hands in height. The original <ral- 
 
GALLOWAYS. 
 
 GAME. 
 
 loways are a pure breed of small elegant 
 horses from the south of Scotland, said to be 
 of Spanish extraction. See Horse. 
 
 GALLOWAYS. See Cattle. 
 
 GALLOWS OF A PLOUGH. A part 
 of the plough-head, so named by farmers, 
 from its resemblance to the common gallows. 
 It consists of three pieces of timber, of which 
 one is placed transversely over the heads of 
 the other two. See Plough. 
 
 GALLS. In farriery, a term signifying 
 an abrasion or rubbing off of the skin, by 
 the harness, saddle, &c. The little tumours 
 resulting from the pressure of the saddle 
 are called warbles, and when they ulcerate 
 they frequently become sit-fasts. For sad- 
 dle galls there is no better application than 
 strong salt and water, mixed with a fourth 
 part of tincture of myrrh. The saddle and 
 the collar, when they are found to rub or 
 gall, should be padded or chambered. {The 
 Horse, p. 169.) A mixture of white-lead 
 moistened with milk is stated {Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. ix. p. 299.) to be an excellent 
 liniment for galled backs in the early stages 
 of the wound. It is a common American 
 remedy. " For the information of other tra- 
 vellers, we may mention," says Mr. Keating, 
 " that, after having tried many applications 
 to the backs of horses, when galled, we have 
 found none that have succeeded so well as 
 white-lead moistened with milk. When 
 milk is not to be procured, oil may be sub- 
 stituted. Whenever the application was 
 made in the early stage of the wound, we 
 have found it to be very effectual, and it is 
 likewise a convenient one, as two ounces 
 of white-lead sufficed for the whole of our 
 party for more than a month." (Expedition 
 to St. Peters River, p. 190.) 
 
 GALLS. In agriculture, a term signi- 
 fying vacant or bare places in a crop. 
 
 GAME. A term generally applied to 
 such birds or animals as are preserved, in 
 order to be taken at particular seasons by 
 means of shooting, hunting, netting, &c, by 
 persons properly qualified, after taking out 
 a license for the purpose. By the 1 & 2 
 W. 4. c. 32. s. 2., game is stated to be 
 " hares, pheasants, partridges, grouse, heath 
 or moor game, black game, and btistards." 
 By some enactments which passed during 
 the administration of Mr. Perceval, snipes, 
 woodcocks, and rabbits were added to the 
 list of game, if they were killed by the gun ; 
 but if taken in nets or springes, they were 
 considered otherwise. Deer are also con- 
 sidered game ; and by some ancient statutes, 
 the heron, mallard, duck, teal, &c, were 
 included, but are not considered so at pre- 
 sent. 
 
 " The several birds and quadrupeds which 
 come under the denomination of game, are 
 517 
 
 usually objects of some importance to agri- 
 culturists, particularly to landed proprietors 
 who may be possessed of extensive covers. 
 There are, indeed, but few persons who do 
 not occasionally hunt, or shoot, on their own 
 estates ; and even when such is not the case, 
 ample compensation for any trouble or ex- 
 pense incurred in preserving the game, may 
 generally be obtained by letting the range 
 to some neighbouring gentleman or sports- 
 man." (Baxter s Lib. of Agr.) As I have 
 given all the important particulars relative 
 to the habits, economy, and preservation, 
 &c. of the different species of game, under 
 their several heads, it will only be necessary 
 here to notice the different points of law 
 which are likely to arise on the subject. 
 
 The persons who were formerly by law 
 entitled to kill game, were those who have, 
 in lands and tenements, an annual income 
 of 100/., either in their own right or in right 
 of their wives for at least the term of their 
 life ; or persons having leaseholds of at least 
 99 years, of the annual value of 150/. ; the 
 sons and heirs apparent of squires, and others 
 of superior degree ; and the owners and 
 keepers of parks, warrens, forests, and chases : 
 but now any certificated person may kill 
 game (1 & 2 W. 4. c. 32.). A qualified per- 
 son cannot protect an unqualified person 
 from the penalty imposed by the 5 Anne 
 c. 14., for keeping and using a gun to kill 
 game by going out with him (Ex-parte Sil- 
 vester, 9 B. & C. 61.) ; but he may go out 
 with a qualified owner of greyhounds to 
 course, and beat bushes, &c. (Lewis v. Tay- 
 lor, 16 East, 49.) : in this case Lord Ellen- 
 borough (c. 7.) said, — " This is not a soli- 
 tary amusement, and there is nothing to 
 prevent a qualified person from taking others 
 with him to aid him in the pursuit of the 
 game, and he is the person using the dogs; 
 the others have no other use of them than 
 as his servants, and contemplating with 
 them the pleasure of the chase. If, indeed, 
 an unqualified person used his own grey- 
 hound for the purpose of sporting, though 
 in the same company with a qualified per- 
 son, the case would admit of a different 
 consideration." So a servant of a qualified 
 person may catch game m traps. ( Walker v. 
 Mills, 4 Moore, 343.) If a stag runs into 
 a barn to escape from its pursuers, the 
 hunters have no right to enter the barn in 
 pursuit of him ; if they do, they commit a 
 trespass : neither can a person who starts 
 game on his own land, justify pursuing it 
 into the lands of another. (Deane v. Clayton, 
 7 Taunton, 489.) The owner of hounds is 
 liable for the trespasses of his servants and 
 friends, although he abstains from crossing 
 forbidden ground himself. (Baker v. Berke- 
 ley, 3 C. & P. 32.) It is a trespass, also, by 
 
GAME. 
 
 the 1 & 2 W. 4. c. 32. s. 30., to enter upon 
 the lands of another in search of game, 
 punishable by a magistrate with a fine of 21. 
 By s. 31., a person thus trespassing may be 
 desired to tell his name and place of abode, 
 by the owner or occupier, or servant of 
 either; and on refusal, may be arrested, taken 
 before two magistrates, and fined not exceed- 
 ing 51. But by s. 35., persons hunting or 
 coursing are not subject to such penalties. 
 
 It is illegal to place spring-guns or man- 
 traps "whereby the same may destroy or 
 inflict grievous bodily harm upon a trespasser 
 or other person coming in contact there- 
 with." (7 & 8 G. 4. c. 18. s. 1.) And the 
 Court of Common Pleas were divided in 
 opinion as to the right of the owner of a 
 cover to place spikes, whereby dogs might 
 be killed. (Dearie v. Clayton, 7 Taunt. 489.) 
 But it is certainly illegal to place baited 
 traps so near a highway or the premises of 
 another, that dogs may be attracted into 
 them. (Townsend v. Wathen, 9 East, 277.) 
 Neither must the sportsman fire so near to 
 a decoy pond, although on an open river or 
 creek, as to disturb them. (Carrington v. 
 Taylor, 11 East, 571. ; Keble v . Hickerin- 
 gill, 11 East, 574.) But, although an action 
 will lie in this case, it will not lie for dis- 
 turbing a rookery. (Hannow v. Mockett, 
 4D & R.518.) 
 
 By the statute 1 & 2 W. 4. c. 32., a pe- 
 nalty not exceeding 51. may be inflicted 
 by any two justices, for killing any game 
 on a Sunday or Christmas-day ; or any 
 partridge between February 1 . and Septem- 
 ber 1 . ; or any pheasant between February 1 . 
 and October 1 . ; or any black game (except 
 in Somerset, Devon, or the New Forest), 
 between December 10. and September 1. ; 
 or any grouse between December 10. and 
 August 12.; or any bustard between Marchl . 
 and September 1 . ; and a penalty of not 
 exceeding 10/. for laying poison to destroy 
 game. 
 
 Keeping Sporting Dogs. — A sporting dog 
 may be kept as a house dog. (Briarly v. 
 Apthorpe, 5 B. & A. 320. ; Read v. Phelps, 
 15 East, 271.) A magistrate may order 
 an unqualified person's dog to be destroyed. 
 (Ringsworth v. Bretton, 5 Taunton, 416.) 
 
 Landlord and Tenant. — A tenant has a 
 right to kill game on his land, in the absence 
 of an express covenant ; but he is liable to 
 a fine if he does so. In case the game has 
 been expressly reserved, and after such a 
 reservation, the landlord has the power of 
 entering himself, and giving leave to cer- 
 tificated persons to do so. (1 & 2 W. 4. c. 32. 
 BS. 7. 1 1. & 12.) 
 
 Sale of Game.— By the 1 & 2 W 4. c. 32. 
 s.4. certificated persons are allowed to sell 
 game to Licensed dealers. But the possession 
 018 
 
 of game is illegal, after ten days in dealers, 
 and forty days in other persons, from the 
 expiration of the season; and two magis- 
 trates can convict and fine one pound for 
 every head of game so found; and by s. 17. 
 of the same act, every dealer must be li- 
 censed by the justices in a special sessions 
 held for that purpose in October, must pay 
 21. for a certificate, and must not be keepers 
 of ale or beer shops, or owner, driver, or 
 guard of a mail coach, waggon, or other pub- 
 lic conveyance, or be a carrier or higgler. 
 
 Offences relating to Game. — " The 9 G. 4. 
 c. 69. s. 4. enacts, That the prosecution for 
 every offence punishable upon summary con- 
 viction, by virtue of this act, shall be com- 
 menced within six calendar months after the 
 commission of the offence ; and the prose- 
 cution for every offence punishable upon 
 indictment, or otherwise than upon sum- 
 mary conviction, by virtue of this act, shall 
 be commenced within twelve calendar 
 months after the commission of such offence. 
 
 " Sect. 8. enacts, That, on every conviction 
 under this act for the first or second offence, 
 the convicting justices shall return the same 
 to the next quarter sessions for the county, 
 riding, division, city, or place wherein such 
 offence shall have been committed ; and the 
 record of such conviction, or any copy 
 thereof, shall be evidence in any prosecution 
 to be instituted against the party thereby 
 convicted for a second or third offence ; and 
 the clerk of the peace shall, immediately on 
 such return, make, or cause to be made, a 
 memorandum of such conviction in a re- 
 gister to be kept by him of the names and 
 places of abode of the persons so convicted, 
 and shall state whether such conviction be 
 the first or second conviction of the offending 
 party. 
 
 " Sect. 12. provides and enacts, That, for 
 the purposes of this act, the night shall be 
 considered and is hereby declared to com- 
 mence at the expiration of the first hour 
 after sunset, and to conclude at the be- 
 ginning of the last hour before sunrise. 
 
 " Sect. 13. enacts, That, for the purpose 
 of this act, the word ' game' shall be 
 deemed to include hares, pheasants, par- 
 tridges, grouse, heath or moor game, black 
 game, and bustards." 
 
 Taking Game after two p?-evious Convic- 
 tions. — " The 9 G. 4. c. 69. s. 1. declin es, 
 That, if any person shall, by night, unlaw- 
 fully take or destroy any game or rabbits in 
 any land, whether open or enclosed, or shall 
 by night unlawfully enter or be in any land, 
 whether open or enclosed, with any gun, 
 net, engine, or other instrument, for the 
 purpose of taking or destroying game, such 
 offender shall, upon conviction thereof be- 
 fore two justices of the peace, be committed 
 
GAMEKEEPER. 
 
 GAMING. 
 
 for the first offence to the common gaol or 
 house of correction, for any period not ex- 
 ceeding three calendar months, there to be 
 kept to hard labour, and at the expiration 
 of such period shall find sureties by recog- 
 nizance, or in Scotland by bond of caution, 
 himself in ten pounds, and two sureties in 
 five pounds each, or one surety in ten 
 pounds, for his not so offending again for 
 the space of one year next following ; and 
 in case of not finding such sureties, shall be 
 further imprisoned and kept to hard labour 
 for the space of six calendar months, unless 
 such sureties are sooner found ; and in case 
 such person shall so offend a second time, 
 and shall be thereof convicted before two 
 justices of the peace, he shall be committed 
 to the common gaol or house of correction for 
 any period not exceeding six calendar months, 
 there to be kept to hard labour, and at the 
 expiration of such period shall find sureties, 
 by recognizance or bond, as aforesaid, 
 himself in twenty pounds, and two sureties 
 in ten pounds each, or one surety in twenty 
 pounds, for his not so offending again for 
 the space of two years next following ; and 
 in case of not finding such sureties, shall be 
 further imprisoned and kept to hard labour 
 for the space of one year, unless such sureties 
 are sooner found ; and in case such person 
 shall so offend a third time, he shall be 
 guilty of a misdemeanor, and, being con- 
 victed thereof, shall be liable, at the discre- 
 tion of the court, to be transported beyond 
 the seas for seven years, or to be imprisoned 
 and kept to hard labour in the common 
 gaol or house of correction for any term not 
 exceeding two years ; and in Scotland, if 
 any person shall so offend a first, second, 
 or third time, he shall be liable to be pun- 
 ished in like manner as is hereby provided 
 in each case." (ArchbolcT s Crim. Law.) 
 
 GAMEKEEPER. The well-appointed 
 gamekeeper ought to be a man of varied in- 
 formation and a general observer of nature. 
 But, to use the words of Mr. Daniel, " A 
 sportsman does not require that his keeper 
 should be the best shot in the district ; it is 
 not for the purposes of slaughter, but protec- 
 tion, that he employs him ; and to afford that 
 protection, he should be well versed in the 
 nature of every sort of vermin, with their 
 haunts, and their mode of preying upon the 
 game ; and not only know, but be inde- 
 fatigable in catching the most subtle and 
 wary of them. He should be able to kill 
 all vermin, from a mouse to an otter, and 
 from an eagle to a sparrow. If with this 
 art, he can shoot well enough to kill a dog 
 or a hawk, his master will have a greater 
 prospect of a stock of game, than if he could 
 hit eleven farthings out of twelve, thrown 
 at several times into the air." 
 519 
 
 By the 1 & 2 W. 4. c. 32. s. 13., lords of 
 manors are authorised to appoint game- 
 keepers, by writing, under hand and seal, 
 to keep and kill game within the limits of 
 their manor, and may further authorise 
 them to take and seize all dogs, nets, and 
 other engines and instruments for the 
 killing or taking of game, which shall be 
 used by unauthorised persons within their 
 limits. A gamekeeper may carry a gun 
 anywhere out of the manor. {Rogers v. 
 Carter, 2 Wilson, 387.) A lord of a hun- 
 dred or wapentake cannot grant a deputation 
 to a gamekeeper. {Ailesbury v. Pattes. 
 1 Douglas, 28.) 
 
 GAMING. This pernicious practice, 
 common alike to the most barbarous and 
 the most civilised nations, is in every way 
 discountenanced by the laws of England. 
 By the statute 16 Car. 2. c. 7. any person 
 who by fraud, shift, cozenage, circumvention, 
 deceit, or any unlawful device or ill practice 
 whatsoever, in playing at or with cards, 
 dice, racing, or any other game or pastime, 
 shall win any money, is to forfeit treble the 
 amount so gained, one moiety to the king, 
 and the other to the party grieved. And 
 by the 9 Anne, c. 14. s. 5. any person win- 
 ning by fraud above 10/. at one sitting (or 
 20/. within 24 hours, 18 G. 2. c. 34. s. 8.) 
 is to forfeit five times the value. And 
 by the 13 G. 2. c. 19. s. 2. horse races 
 are prohibited for less sums than 50/. ; or 
 matches {Bilmead v. Gale, 4 Burrows, 
 2432.) ; but a match for 25/. a-side is a 
 running for 50/. Wagers on horse races for 
 less than 50/. cannot be recovered by law 
 {Johnson v. Bann, 4 T. R. 1.) But they 
 can if the wager is under 10/. and the race 
 for 50/. {M'Allester v. Harden, 2 Campbell, 
 438.) But the courts will discountenance 
 all wagers on races, run otherwise than on a 
 proper race-course, such as on a high road 
 {Whaley v. Pajot, 2 B. & P. 51.), or as in 
 a post-chaise against time. {Ximenes v. 
 Jacques, 6 T. R. 499.) Neither will they try 
 actions on wagers, with regard to cock fights 
 {Squires v. Whishin, 3 Campbell, 140.), or 
 illegal games. {Brown v. Leeson, 2 H. 
 Black. 43.) And it is always in the discre- 
 tion of the judge whether he will try an 
 idle or frivolous cause on a wager. {Robin- 
 son v. Mearns, 6 D. &rR. 26.) A wager may 
 generally be considered as legal, unless it 
 be laid upon subjects tending to excite a 
 breach of the peace, or which are contra 
 bonos mores, or affect the interests or feelings 
 of third persons, or which expose a third 
 person to ridicule. {De Costa v. Jones, 
 Cowper, 729.) All bills or other securities 
 which originate in gambling transactions 
 are void between the "parties to them (5 & 6 
 W. 4. c. 41.) : and it will not avail the party 
 
GANTRY. 
 
 GARDENING, HISTORY OF. 
 
 to attempt to evade the law by sheltering 
 himself under the forms of even ordinary 
 business transactions, if in verity the trans- 
 action is of a gambling description ; for if, 
 as C. J. Mansfield observed in Kent v. Bird, 
 Cowper, 583., there is no interest in the case, 
 it is gaming and wagering. (Johnson on 
 Bills of Exchange, &c.) 
 
 GANTRY. A term applied to a beer- 
 stand or frame for placing liquor-casks 
 upon. 
 
 GARDENING, HISTORY OF. There 
 is not in the arts and sciences one link of 
 their circle so suitable for the occupation of 
 man in a state of innocence, as that which 
 embraces the cultivation of plants ; and it 
 is an instance of the beneficent providence 
 of the Deity, that he assigned a garden as 
 the dwelling of our first-created parents. 
 It is no consequence of the fall of Adam, 
 that plants require cultivation : he was 
 placed in Paradise to till and to keep it. 
 Then, the weed had not sprung up to ren- 
 der the tillage toilsome : fruit trees which 
 God had "planted" were the chief objects 
 of care, and it was an employment without 
 much labour, combining the preservation of 
 health with amusement, pure without insi- 
 pidity, constant without sameness. From 
 that period gardens have never ceased to 
 engage the attention of man ; and even 
 now that their labours are manifold, they 
 still afford "the purest of human plea- 
 sures." 
 
 Whether as a private individual man re- 
 gulates his garden, or with more extended 
 benefit cultivates his farm, still he partici- 
 pates in pleasure combined with utility : 
 whilst his time is agreeably employed, he 
 is benefiting mankind — " Nihil melius, nihil 
 uberius, nihil libero homine dignius." When 
 Alexander of Macedon inquired of Abdalo- 
 nimus, a Sidonian prince, who had been re- 
 duced to support himself from the produce of 
 a garden cultivated with his own hands, how 
 he had endured his poverty, Abdalonimus 
 answered, " May heaven assist me in bear- 
 ing my prosperity as well ! I then had no 
 cares, and my own hands supplied all my 
 wants." (Just. ii. c. 10.; Q. Curtius, 4. cl.j 
 Diodorus, 17.) 
 
 For many ages after the Creation, the 
 arts and sciences were chiefly confined to 
 the Eastern nations. In tracing the pro- 
 gress of the Agricolan arts in those early 
 periods, we must gather into one general 
 outline the scanty information afforded by 
 our oldest records of those times .and 
 countries. 
 
 Horticulture being the almost sole occu- 
 pation of our first, parents and their imme- 
 diate descendants, and their attention being 
 dire led to those few trees which afforded 
 520 
 
 them sustenance, and perhaps the still fewer 
 herbs that served them as medicaments, it 
 is reasonable to conclude that, in 4 the course 
 even of an ordinary life, one person might 
 obtain considerable skill in their cultivation : 
 but the practice of an existence protracted 
 to a period embracing eight or nine centu- 
 ries, and the experience of it participated 
 in by descendants long arrived at maturity 
 before its extinction, must of necessity have 
 carried forward the improvement of the 
 art, as much, nearly, as would now occur 
 in an equal number of generations. Expe- 
 rience would soon teach mankind what ve- 
 getables were salutary, and the same un- 
 erring guide would speedily disclose the 
 situations and circumstances in which those 
 were found in the greatest perfection. The 
 vine would be observed most vigorous in 
 warm climates, by the side of streams, and 
 thence man would learn to carry water to 
 those at a distance from its banks. He 
 would see those of its clusters first ripening 
 which were open to the sun, and he would 
 learn to expose them to its influence. He 
 would observe the rankness of vegetation 
 where animal exuviae were deposited, and 
 thence would be taught the use of manures. 
 Thus as necessity prompted an attention to 
 plants, so experience would give birth to 
 their culture. These suppositions are sup- 
 ported as probable by the knowledge we 
 possess of the different nations of the world, 
 and their various grades of improvement ; 
 they are strengthened by daily experience, 
 for this demonstrates that every art is com- 
 prised of the results of experiments, and 
 that is the most perfect, in illustration of 
 which the most have been obtained. Im- 
 mediately after the Flood, Noah planted a 
 vineyard, and became intoxicated with the 
 produce of its fruit. This slender inform- 
 ation substantiates the supposition of their 
 rapid improvement in the arts, for wine, 
 though discovered by chance, would require 
 lengthened attention and practice to manu- 
 facture, yet Noah was only the tenth de- 
 scendant from Adam. 
 
 That their attention was chiefly confined 
 to fruits is evident. In Jacob's time the 
 vine, the fig, and the almond, are frequently 
 but exclusively, mentioned as products of 
 the garden. As might be anticipated, con- 
 sidering the warmth of eastern climates, a 
 cistern or well of water, a fig tree, and 
 a vine appear to have accompanied every 
 habitation. Nuts and almonds were also 
 reckoned among the most choice product ions 
 of the country; for in thepresentwhich Israel 
 sent to the governor of Egypt (Genesis, 
 xliii. 11.), they are specified as "being of 
 the best fruits of the land." By this time 
 
 man had become habituated to a stationary 
 
 L. 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 life ; landed property became appreciable ; 
 cultivated lands were enclosed and trees 
 were grown in hedge-rows. (Ibid, xxiii.9.) 
 The laws issued on Mount Sinai extended 
 to the protection of vineyards. Olives, 
 leeks, onions, garlic, cucumbers, and melons, 
 were among the inhabitants of gardens. 
 (Numb. xi. 5.) The vineyards were so ex- 
 tensive, that Solomon had one which let 
 for one thousand pieces of silver per annum. 
 (Canticles, viii. 12.) 
 
 Of the style of laying out their most 
 splendid gardens, we have but two authentic 
 accounts, which describe that of Solomon, 
 and those of Babylon. (Solomons Song, 
 passim; Eccles. ii. 4.) 
 
 In ascertaining the state of the horticul- 
 tural practice of these early nations, we 
 have little to guide us. They appear to 
 have taken the most care of fruit trees, and 
 of these the vine was preferred. They 
 considered that it nourished best upon a 
 hill. (Ps. lxxx. 10. ; Isa. v.) Stones were 
 removed from the soil. (Ibid.) The mar- 
 gin of some water was preferred. They 
 appear to have raised varieties from seed, 
 " I had planted thee a noble vine, wholly a 
 right seed : how then art thou turned into 
 the degenerate plant of a strange vine unto 
 me?" (Jerem. ii. 21.) A reproach to the 
 Jews which would have been unintelligible 
 if they were not aware of the practice of 
 raising the vine from seed. That they were 
 aware of the effects of one flower being 
 impregnated by the pollen of another, ap- 
 pears in the following verse : " Thou shalt 
 not sow thy vineyard with divers seeds, lest 
 the fruit of thy seed which thou hast sown, 
 and the fruit of thy vineyard be defiled." 
 (Deut. xxii. 9.) We may likewise conclude 
 that they were aware that plants grow 
 chiefly during the night, from the distinction 
 which Moses made between the "fruits 
 brought forth by the sun," and those " put 
 forth (or, as it may be translated, thrust 
 forth) by the moon." (Deut. xxxiii. 14.) 
 
 This early period was not without its 
 literature relative to plants". Solomon wrote 
 of them, " from the lofty cedars of Leba- 
 non, down to the humble hyssop of the 
 wall." (1 Kings, iv. 22.) It is to a still 
 earlier period that many historians refer 
 Zoroaster, even identifying him with Ham, 
 Chuz, or Mizraim of the holy writings ; 
 others place him at a much later period : a 
 third set consider that there were several of 
 the same name. One of these two last opi- 
 nions is probably correct, since Pliny relates 
 that Zoroaster left a treatise upon garden- 
 ing ; a work scarcely credible as existing in 
 so early an age of the world. (Plin. b. vii. 
 c. 10. ; b. xxx. c. 1.) 
 
 About a century posterior to Solomon 
 521 
 
 ; flourished the poet, or poets, who composed 
 ! the poems attributed to Homer. If we are 
 to judge of the state of gardening among the 
 Greeks at that period, from Homer's writ- 
 ings, we may decide that their gardens were 
 not very extensive. As with the brilliant 
 fancy of a poet he has given to the garden 
 of Alcinous an eternal summer, and to his 
 palace silver pillars, we may reasonably 
 conclude with Walpole, that the size of the 
 garden was proportionably exaggerated. 
 This he states as being four acres, an en- 
 closure comprehending the orchard and 
 kitchen garden, which the Grecians probably 
 never witnessed. The apple, fig, pome- 
 granate, pear> olive, and various herbs 
 were its products. The vine was there in 
 regular rows ; the whole watered by two 
 fountains, and surrounded by a hedge. 
 
 That vegetables and their cultivation 
 were highly esteemed among the Grecians 
 in their earliest days is evident from their 
 mythology. Minerva, their personification 
 of Divine Wisdom, gave, as the greatest 
 blessing to mankind, the olive tree, and this 
 fable is as old as the foundation of Athens, 
 or about 1550 years b. c. ; whilst Ceres, 
 the sister of their King of Heaven, was in- 
 voked as the presiding deity of Agriculture, 
 and the original imparter of the art to man- 
 kind. It may serve as an illustration of the 
 same remark, that almost every deity had 
 some plant held as sacred to him or her. 
 The oak was sacred to Jupiter; the cy- 
 press to Narcissus, and the maidenhair to 
 Pluto ; the dittany and the lily to Juno ; the 
 poppy to Ceres ; the olive and dog's grass 
 to Minerva ; the myrtle, rose, and apple to 
 Venus, &c. It is also worthy of notice that 
 the most admired human favourites of the 
 gods were changed after death, or to avoid 
 calamities, into trees, or flowers. Many 
 other fables of their mythology are poetical 
 and beautiful. Flowers in general, they 
 declared, sprang from the tears of Aurora. 
 The tremblings of every leaf, the graceful 
 waving of the grass, were attributed to the 
 passing breath of Zephyrus ; as the curl of 
 the waters was said to arise from the sports 
 of the Naiades. 
 
 We are without any very clear inform- 
 ation of the skill of the Greeks in cultivating 
 their gardens, or of their taste in disposing 
 them, even during the splendour of their 
 republics. 
 
 The Academus at Athens, which was laid 
 out by Cimon the Athenian general, about 
 430 years before the Christian era, as well 
 as other gardens of which we have record, 
 consisted of walks shaded by plane-trees, 
 watered by streams, and enclosed by walls. 
 (Pausanias, b. i. 29.) The warlike manners 
 of the people made them delight in the ad- 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 dition of the gymnasium, where their exer- 
 cises were performed. Fruit trees were 
 planted in them, not caring for the produce 
 of which, we read that Cimon threw open 
 his gardens to the public. {Corn. Nepos in 
 vita Cimon.) Epicurus, the philosopher of 
 the garden, as he has been called, died at 
 the age of seventy-two, b. c. 270. His 
 gardens were celebrated as much for their 
 beauty as for the lectures he delivered in 
 them. The site of the one he possessed at 
 Athens cost him eighty minse, or about two 
 hundred and sixty pounds, no inconsiderable 
 sum in that age. He had it laid out around 
 his house, being the first of the kind intro- 
 duced into the city. {Pliny, b. xix. c. 4.) 
 Of their horticultural skill, the Geoponick 
 writers give us a favourable idea ; for how- 
 ever empirical, and accompanied by gross 
 superstitions, they were aware of practices 
 at present adopted and recommended. Thus 
 Anatolius says, that if you wish an apple 
 tree to bear much fruit, a piece of pipe 
 should be bound tight round the stem. 
 Sotian recommends the same, and to sever 
 some of the largest roots when the tree is 
 over luxuriant. They were aware of the 
 necessity of caprification, and hung wild 
 figs upon the branches of the cultivated 
 trees to prevent them casting their fruit ; 
 " wherefore," says Democritus, " some in- 
 sert a shoot on each tree that they may not 
 be obliged to do that every year." The 
 knowledge of grafting which this and other 
 passages intimate, was the acquirement of a 
 period coeval with the earliest age of which 
 we have any information. Of manures they 
 had a correct knowledge ; and when these 
 were deficient, they turned in green veget- 
 able matters, and even sowed beans, for the 
 purpose of ploughing them in, when grown up. 
 {Tfieophrastus, viii. c. 9.) They were very 
 fond of flowers, which were used as orna- 
 ments upon all occasions ; they cultivated 
 violets, roses, the narcissus, iris, &c. {Ibid. 
 vi. c. 5.), which were extensively sold at 
 Athens, in a market place appropriated to 
 their disposal. {Aristoplian. Acharn. v. 212.) 
 
 Hesiod is the most ancient author on the 
 cultivation of the earth, whose work has 
 descended to us. His history is obscure 
 and uncertain. 
 
 1 It* is to be admired both as a poet and 
 philosopher : we have here however only to 
 consider him as an agricultural writer. 
 1 lis poem entitled " The Works and Days," 
 Pliny considered as the first positively known 
 work that contained directions for cultivating 
 the ground. Hesiod wrote a treatise on herbs, 
 now lost ; and there is strong reason to be- 
 lieve. " TheWorks," is mutilated and imper- 
 fert, for Pliny (1>. 15.) adverts to Hesiod's 
 Opinion of the unprofitableness of the olive ; 
 522 
 
 and Manlius, in his Astronomicon, refers to 
 his treatise on grafting, and on the situations 
 suited to corn and vines, none of which pas- 
 sages occur in any of our copies. From 
 what remains, we can glean but small in- 
 formation as to the agricultural practices 
 of the age, the moral reflections and instruc- 
 tions being by far the most lengthy. On the 
 practices of horticulture he is still more 
 meagre. Timber was felled in autumn. 
 They ceased digging in the vineyard, when, 
 from the heat of the weather, about the 
 season of the Pleiades, the snails left the 
 ground for shelter upon the plants. The 
 vintage was in the course of November. In 
 common with all other heathens, he had a 
 superstitious regard to lucky and unlucky 
 days ; the thirteenth day of the moon he 
 considered favourable to planting, but not 
 to sowing; the sixteenth and ninth were 
 also propitious to planting. That the work 
 as known to us is not perfect, I think is 
 further proved by no mention being made 
 of the olive, or of manures, nor even of the 
 burning of stubble, which is, perhaps, the 
 most ancient mode of ameliorating the soil. 
 
 I have not followed historically the divi- 
 sions of the Eastern nations. The Egyp- 
 tians, the Chaldeans, the Medes, the Persians, 
 the Macedonians, the Greeks, &c, as they 
 successively rose into separate powers, were 
 only off-sets of the same or contiguous 
 people, and practised the same arts, their 
 manners and habits, modified, perhaps, by 
 a slight difference of climate, but otherwise 
 without change. 
 
 It is certain from the writings of Cato 
 and others, that the principal inhabitants of 
 Rome had their horti, or country farms, 
 where they grew all kinds of vegetables, in 
 some luxuriant part of the country near the 
 city, and from these obtained their supply. 
 Hence, in the first years of Rome, we read 
 but of one garden within its precincts, that 
 of Tarquin, which was evidently devoted to 
 flowers and ornament ; and even when the 
 walls of the city formed a circuit of fifty 
 miles under the Emperor Valerian {Vopis- 
 cus in Aurelianoi), it appears solely to have 
 been distended by buildings and pleasure 
 grounds. In the first ages after the foun- 
 dation of the city, the farms, which resembled 
 our market-gardens, were cultivated by the 
 chief men with their own hands, as must 
 occur in every new colony ; and hence the 
 Piso, the Fabii, the Cicero, the Lentuli, and 
 other celebrated families derived their patro- 
 nymics from ancestors distinguished for the 
 successful cultivation of the culinary a ege- 
 tables intimated by their respective names. 
 Even their dictators were summoned from 
 (he field, and dropped the plough-st&ff for 
 a more extended and arduous governorship. 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 Of the kitchen-garden, as might be ex- 
 pected, we have less information in the 
 writings that have survived to us than 
 of any of the other horticultural depart- 
 ments. Literature was confined to the higher 
 classes : these would not condescend to re- 
 cord the rules for planting cabbages, and 
 there were no practical, and therefore more 
 useful, authors in those days. Cato has 
 glanced over the subject, and Varro, Co- 
 lumella, and Palladius have done no more. 
 From the little information they do afford 
 us, and from casual lights that break in upon 
 us from the writings of other authors, we 
 learn enough to assure us that their culinary 
 vegetables were excellently cultivated, and 
 their fruits perhaps better. 
 
 About six centuries after the foundation 
 of Rome, or 150 years b. c, lived Cato. 
 From his writings we learn that it was con- 
 sidered a garden should have a southern 
 aspect, and be well supplied with water. 
 Palladius makes a similar statement ; a gar- 
 den, says this author, should be a level, 
 gently sloping piece of ground, divided by 
 a small current of water. (De Re Rustica, 
 b. i. 33.) Turnips, coleworts, radishes, basil, 
 beans, cabbages, garlic, and asparagus are 
 mentioned by Cato. Endive, parsley, cu- 
 cumbers, lettuces, beets, peas, kidney beans, 
 carrots, parsnips, mallows, onions, mustard, 
 fennel and mushrooms are noticed by the 
 later writers, Columella, Varro, Pliny, Virgil, 
 and Martial. 
 
 Asparagus is one of the very few plants 
 of which we have the full detail of the 
 mode of culture pursued by the Romans ; 
 and if we are justified in considering it a 
 fair standard by which to estimate their 
 proficiency in the art, we cannot but con- 
 clude that it was decidedly excellent. The 
 directions which are given by Cato, are an 
 epitome of those which occur in Abercrom- 
 bie, Miller, or any other standard work on 
 horticulture. It is certain they took great 
 delight in cultivating their grounds, and not 
 only improved under the best of masters — 
 Practice, but consulted the ancient writers 
 then extant upon the subject. When, as the 
 result of such attention and study, the 
 grounds of C. Furius Cresinus produced 
 larger crops than even the more extensive 
 ones of his less assiduous neighbours, he was 
 publicly accused of making use of magical 
 arts, Cresinus presented his tools before the 
 senate : " These, Quirites," he exclaimed, 
 " are my magic implements ; but I cannot 
 exhibit in this forum the cares, the toils, the 
 anxious thoughts, that employ me during 
 the day, and over my lamp." (Pliny, xviii. 
 c. 6.) In the time of the later emperors, 
 the Romans had become acquainted with 
 that most difficult branch of kitchen garden 
 523 
 
 practice — forcing ; a still further evidence 
 of their horticultural skill. Cucumbers were 
 the principal subjects of forcing. The em- 
 peror Tiberius was exceedingly fond of 
 them, and, by artificial means, had them in 
 perfection throughout the year. They were 
 grown in large baskets of dung covered with 
 earth, and were sheltered during cold days 
 by means of thin plates of lapis specularia, 
 which admitted the passage of light nearly as 
 well as glass, and were transported at night 
 to the shelter of some house. (Columella, 
 b.xi. c. 3.; Pliny,b.xix. c.23.) Whether they 
 ever employed the more transparent medium 
 of glass as a shelter, we are unable to de- 
 termine. It is certain that in the reign of 
 Aurelian, a. d. 273, the luxury of glass 
 windows was enjoyed. 
 
 In those early days, when the departments 
 were amalgamated, and when from the pot- 
 herbs and fruits produced by their joint 
 growth, the poorer Romans and the slaves 
 of proprietors derived their chief sustenance, 
 the garden was usually under the care of 
 the house-keeper or steward's wife, who was 
 lightly estimated, if it was not productive 
 and capable of sustaining the household. 
 (Pliny, xix. 4. s. 19.) The husbandman 
 used to deride its culture, and to designate it 
 a second dessert, and a flitch, of bacon, always 
 ready for cutting. (Cicero de Sen. 16.) 
 
 In accordance with the observation which 
 we made at the commencement of this ar- 
 ticle, that the cultivation of fruit appears 
 always to engage the first horticultural no- 
 tice of every nation, we find that the Ro- 
 mans were much more attentive to their 
 orchards than their kitchen gardens, as is 
 manifested by the greater number of species 
 and varieties cultivated. Cato, our earliest 
 informant, mentions seven varieties 'of the 
 olive, six good ones of the vine, more than 
 four of the apple, five of pears, pome- 
 granates, services, six varieties of fig, three 
 of nuts, quinces and plums. 
 
 The assiduity of the Romans in collecting 
 new species and varieties of fruit, may be 
 gathered from the writings of the elder 
 Pliny, who lived a. d. 23-79. There were 
 then cultivated in the vicinity of Rome, 
 nearly all the fruits with which we were 
 acquainted at the commencement of the 
 present century, the chief exceptions being 
 the orange and pine apple, the first of 
 which, however, they became possessed of 
 in the fourth century. Very few of their 
 cultivated fruits were indigenous, but were 
 introduced at great expense and trouble 
 from distant and different climes. The fig 
 and almond were brought from Syria ; the 
 citron from Media ; the apricot from Epirus 
 or Armenia ; the pomegranate from Africa ; 
 apples, pears, and plums, from Armenia, 
 
GARDENING, HISTORY OF. 
 
 Numidia, Greece, &c. ; the peach from 
 Persia ; and cherries from Cerasus in Pon- 
 tus, by Lucullus, about 73 b. c. Mr. Ver- 
 non found on the borders of the Black Sea 
 abundance of wild cherries, near Cheresium, 
 from whence the name probably arose, and 
 is identical with the Cerasus of Lucullus. 
 (Bradley s Gen. Treatise on Husb. vol. ii. 
 p. 130.) Strawberries, raspberries, and 
 others mentioned before by Cato, appear to 
 have been natural products. (Pliny, xv. 25. 
 xvi. 14.; Mercellin, xxii. 13.) The goose- 
 berry and currant are found wild in the 
 hills of Northern Italy. As the species 
 were increased in number, so were the va- 
 rieties. Pliny mentions 22 of apples, one 
 without kernels ; 8 cherries ; 6 chestnuts ; 
 figs, many black and white, large and small ; 
 medlars large and small ; large and small 
 black mulberries ; filberts and hazel-nuts ; 
 36 pears ; plums " ingens turba," black, 
 white, and parti- coloured ; 3 quinces ; 3 
 services ; grapes numerous ; 2 walnuts ; 
 almonds, bitter and sweet. (Trans. Lond. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 152.) 
 
 There is no doubt, supported as the 
 opinion is by Martial, Pliny and Columella, 
 that the Romans of their age forced fruit in 
 a kind of hot-house, protected from the ex- 
 terior cold, and heated artificially. (Mar- 
 tiaVs Epig. viii. Ep. 14. 68. ; Pliny, xix. 
 23. ; Columella, xi. 3.) 
 
 Pliny the younger was born, a. d. 62. 
 From his Avritings we acquire the most 
 complete description of the Roman gardens, 
 as regards their disposition, that is extant. 
 His Laurentine villa was one in which he 
 spent some of the colder months of the 
 year, when his professional duties allowed 
 his absence from the city. It is, therefore, 
 not surprising that the garden does not oc- 
 cupy any considerable part of the narration 
 in which he describes this estate. He 
 merely, in an epistle to his friend Gallus, 
 states that the Gestatio, or place for exercise, 
 surrounded his garden, — " This," he con- 
 tinues, " is encompassed with a box-tree 
 hedge, and where that is decayed, with rose- 
 mary ; between the garden and this Gestatio, 
 runs a shady walk of vines, which is so soft 
 that you may walk upon it barefoot without 
 injury. The garden is chiefly planted with 
 fig and mulberry trees, to which the soil is 
 as favourable as it is averse to all others." 
 
 His description of the gardens attached 
 to his Tuscan villa is more diffuse, yet par- 
 ticular. It is contained in a letter to his 
 friend Apollinaris (Ep. v. 6.), which is 
 elegantly translated by Melmoth. 
 
 At, the time Alaric invaded Rome, A. d. 
 408, there were in that city 1780 residences 
 of wealthy and honourable citizens (Nardini, 
 RomaAntica, p. 89. 480. 500.); the precincts 
 524 
 
 of each palace contained not only aviaries, 
 porticoes, and baths, but groves, fountains, 
 hippodromes, temples, and even markets. 
 (Claudian, Rutil. Mumatian. Itinerar. vol. 
 iii.) A moderate palace would have co- 
 vered the whole four-acre farm of Cincin- 
 natus. (Vol. Max. iv. 4.) So little space 
 was left for the houses of the plebeians that 
 they built them many stories high, each in- 
 habited by more than an equal number of 
 families. Wealth, and consequently landed 
 property, gradually accumulated in the 
 hands of the comparatively few noble 
 families. The estates of the same owner 
 stretched over a large space in Italy, as 
 well as distant provinces. Faustinus, a 
 Roman, as Gale conjectures, possessed an 
 estate near the modern Bury in Suffolk, 
 and a second in the vicinity of Naples. 
 (Antoninus, Itinerary in Britain, p. 92.) 
 
 We have thus followed the progress of 
 gardening among the Romans from their 
 first existence as .a colony, through their 
 rise as a people to the pinnacle of power, 
 and thence through their decay in effeminacy 
 and debauchery. 
 
 When the conquering arms of Rome 
 reached England, they found the barbarous 
 inhabitants existing chiefly upon the pro- 
 duce of their herds, and of the chase, 
 although not totally inattentive to the cul- 
 tivation of the soil. The inland inhabitants, 
 descended from the Cimbri, lived in straw 
 thatched cottages, and a fixed habitation is 
 an earnest of the existence of the Agricolan 
 arts among the settlers. That they were 
 practised in Britain at this early period is 
 certain ; for although Tacitus affirms that 
 the inhabitants were without corn, notwith- 
 standing the soil was favourable to its 
 growth ( Vita Agricol. c. 12.), yet this could 
 only have been partially the case. The 
 farms of some of their neighbours and pro- 
 genitors, the Gallic husbandmen, were large 
 (Pliny, Hist, xviii. c. 6. 28.) ; and as most 
 of the manners and habits of the Britons 
 were in accordance with theirs, we are jus- 
 tified in including this among the number 
 of their coincidences, more especially as in 
 some of the details of agriculture they were 
 even superior to the Gallic cultivators. 
 
 That the southern Britons actually had 
 gardens disposed around their houses is 
 stated by Strabo. (Strabd's Geography, 
 p. 306.) These, of course, were chiefly a com- 
 pound of our kitchen and orchard depart- 
 ments. There are many facts on record 
 besides those already mentioned, which 
 justify an inference that gardening was 
 pursued by the Britons with attention. 
 The carrot grows wild in Britain, as i< does 
 in Prance; from the latter, it was imported 
 into Ctaly, Icing only improved by cultir 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 vation. (Plin. "kix. c. 5.) Unless it had 
 been employed by the natives, we can 
 scarcely conceive so useless a weed, as it is 
 in a wild state, would have gained the at- 
 tention of the Roman legionaries. Turnips 
 were particularly abundant in Gaul ; so ex- 
 tensively, indeed, were they cultivated as 
 to be given to cattle. (Columella, De Re 
 Rustica. b. ii. c. 10.) The idea of a park, 
 and the accumulation of game, has been 
 fancifully traced, by a learned antiquary, to 
 the ancient Britons, who, particularly de- 
 lighting in the breeding of hares (as Caesar 
 informs us), usually kept many of those 
 animals about the courts of their chiefs. 
 ( Whittahei-s Hist, of Manchester, p. 235.) 
 
 That the apple was known and cultivated 
 by the Britons before the arrival of the Ro- 
 mans, we are warranted in believing by the 
 etymology of the name. In the Welsh, 
 Cornish, Armorican, and Irish languages or 
 dialects, it is denominated the Avail or 
 Aball. The Hoedui, who dwelt in the 
 modern Somersetshire, appear particularly 
 to have cultivated this fruit, and their 
 town which stood upon the site of the pre- 
 sent Glastonbury, was known when the Ro- 
 mans first visited it, by the name of Aval- 
 Ionia (apple orchard). {Richard's Chron. 
 p. 19.) 
 
 Another Avellana afterwards came into 
 notice in the north of England. Other 
 fruits, as the pear, damson, &c, being known 
 by names evidently derived from the Ro- 
 man appellations, we, on the other hand, 
 are induced to consider as being introduced 
 to the Britons from Italy. The same ob- 
 servation may apply to the rose, violet, and 
 other inhabitants of the flower garden, of 
 which there is little doubt the Britons were 
 ignorant before their introduction by the 
 Romans. The kitchen-garden is similarly 
 indebted for most, though not all, of its in- 
 habitants. The cabbage or kale tribe is an 
 example of the exceptions. 
 
 Tacitus informs us that all fruit trees 
 succeeded in Britain, but the olive and 
 vine, and such others as require a warmer 
 climate ; for although vegetables were quick 
 in shooting up, yet the moisture of the at- 
 mosphere rendered them slow in arriving 
 at maturity. (Vita Agric. c. 12.) It is evi- 
 dent from this cursory remark, that the 
 Romans began immediately their en- 
 deavours to improve the place of their set- 
 tlement, even before they had penetrated 
 into the southern milder districts of the 
 island ; or before its climate could be ame- 
 liorated by the removal of exuberant forests, 
 and accompanying marshes, the never fail- 
 ing deteriorators of the climate of the 
 country in which they abound. That they 
 did so is further proved by the testimony 
 525 
 
 of Pliny, who informs us that they intro- 
 duced cherries into our island, n. c. 42. 
 
 The art of cultivating the ground was a 
 principal object of improvement, and that 
 they extended the practice of this pursuit 
 is certain, since, during their possession of 
 the island, large quantities of corn were 
 annually exported from it. About a. d. 278, 
 the Roman settlers, finding that some parts 
 of the island were not unfit for vineyards, 
 obtained permission of the Emperor Probus 
 to plant vines and make wine of their pro- 
 duce ; a liberty which had been refused to 
 them by the narrow-minded policy of his 
 predecessor Domitian. ( Vospiscus.) Some 
 varieties of the apple, pears, figs, mul- 
 berries, and almonds were also introduced. 
 Before the third century, the apple had 
 become pretty generally an object of culti- 
 vation ; for, at that period, large plantations 
 of this fruit had been made as far north as 
 the Shetland Islands. (Solinus, c. xxii.) 
 
 Immediately after the departure of the 
 Romans, about a. d. 450, the Saxons formed 
 a settlement in our island, and a series of 
 civil wars succeeded until the inhabitants 
 pretty generally hailed Egbert, about a. d. 
 726, sole sovereign of the realm. During 
 this stormy period, in a. d. 507, Christianity 
 was introduced among the inhabitants, and 
 may be reckoned as an epoch in the Hor- 
 tulan annals of this country. Independent 
 of the tendency which Christianity had to 
 soften the manners of the people, and thus, 
 by rendering them more domestic, in an 
 equal ratio encouraging the progress of the 
 useful arts, to its ministers, in those days 
 especially, gardening was an art most con- 
 genial ; it helped innocently to beguile 
 otherwise unoccupied hours, and was the 
 means of affording luxuries to the palate, 
 which were by no means held in contempt 
 by the monks and other religieux of those 
 times. They were persons of education 
 when compared with the laity, and had an 
 intercourse with foreign countries, through 
 their brethren, which facilitated the com- 
 munication of improvements ; even their 
 fasting from animal food was of benefit to 
 horticulture, for it rendered them more 
 desirous of superior vegetables and condi- 
 ments arising from their tribes. Thus 
 Italy, Spain, Germany, France, countries 
 always abounding in the ministers of re- 
 ligion, became distinguished for their culi- 
 nary vegetables and fruits. It may be 
 added, as another truly valuable advantage 
 to horticulture secured to it by religious 
 establishments, that whilst the country at 
 large was devastated in war, their property 
 was usually held sacred, and, consequently, 
 many varieties of vegetables were pre- 
 served, which otherwise would soon have 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 become extinct if cultivated only in less 
 hallowed ground. 
 
 Gardens and orchards are mentioned as 
 being in the possession of the inhabitants 
 of monasteries and other religious esta- 
 blishments in the oldest chartularies. Of 
 orchards many traces still remain. One in 
 Icolmnkiln, or Columbkill, one of the He- 
 brides, is described by Dr. Walker (Essays, 
 vol. ii. p. 5.) as having existed there probably 
 from the sixth century. The monastery of 
 St. Columba was founded there, a. d. 566. 
 ( Gibbons Hist, of Rome, c. xxxvii.) Another, 
 which belonged to the cathedral at Elgin, 
 still remains. Camden and Leland also 
 mention various other instances in England. 
 The vine, we have seen, was introduced by 
 the Romans, and was particularly admired, 
 and attended to by the carousing population 
 of that age, if for no other of its qualities 
 than the liquor yielded by its fruit. Guin- 
 uydden, Guinbren, Guin-ien, or Fion-ras, 
 its names in the Welsh, Cornish, Armorican, 
 and Irish dialects, is, literally, the wine tree. 
 Vineyards were flourishing here at the com- 
 mencement of the eighth century, as is tes- 
 tified by Bede. (Eccles. Hist. b. i. c. 1.) 
 
 During these periods, marked by a con- 
 tinuous series of intestine broils, the con- 
 tinued invasions of the Danes, who finally 
 established their power in the island, a. d. 
 1017, and who in their turn were succeeded 
 by another conquering dynasty in 1066, in 
 the person of William I., horticulture con- 
 tinued unimpaired and silently to advance. 
 Nor is this a matter of surprise, for the 
 Saxons and Danes, when they won a better 
 home than they had left in their native 
 land, came as students in the arts of civili- 
 sation, which their successive sovereigns 
 (Alfred and Canute need alone be instanced) 
 used every means in their power to foster 
 and improve. They came not, as did the 
 Caliph Omar to Alexandria, to destroy those 
 acquirements as useless which he did not 
 already possess. 
 
 The Normans were about our equals in 
 civilisation, when William acquired the 
 throne of our island. At the time- of the 
 arrival of the Normans, gardens were ge- 
 nerally in the possession of the laity, as well 
 us of the ecclesiastics. Even gardens for the 
 growth of vegetables to supply the public 
 demand were then in existence. Eight 
 Cotarii and their gardens are enumerated in 
 the manor of Fulham, in Middlesex, a vil- 
 lage, it is worthy of remark, still celebrated 
 for its market gardens. Private houses 
 with their gardens are in like manner re- 
 corded. ( Domesday Hook, p. 127.) In fact, 
 there is no reason to doubt that at this period 
 every house, from the palace to the cottage, 
 was possessed of a garden of some size. 
 
 526 1 
 
 From the writings of William of Malms- 
 bury, who died in 1143, we learn that vine- 
 yards and orchards were possessed by the 
 barons as well as the monks. He remarks 
 that_ the grapes of the vale of Gloucester 
 furnished the best wine. Next in superiority 
 were those of the isle of Ely. Robert of 
 Gloucester also informs us that Worcester 
 was celebrated for its fruit, probably apples. 
 
 Brithnod, the first abbot of Ely, a.d. 
 1107, was celebrated for his skill in horti- 
 culture. " He performed another great 
 and useful work," says the historian of the 
 Monastery ; " being skilful in the art of 
 planting and gardening, he laid out very 
 extensive gardens and orchards, which he 
 filled with a great variety of herbs, shrubs, 
 and fruit trees. In a few years' these ap- 
 peared at a distance like a wood, loaded with 
 the most excellent fruits in great abundance, 
 adding much to the commodiousness and 
 beauty of the place." (Gale's Hist, of Ely, 
 vol. ii. c. 2.) At Edmonsbury, the modern 
 Bury in Suffolk, the monks of the monastery, 
 then flourishing there, planted a vineyard 
 for their own use in 1140. The products 
 of the garden at this period were by no 
 means so restricted as some authors have 
 estimated. Matthew Paris, in recording the 
 ungenial seasons of 1257, says, " Apples 
 were scarce, pears still scarcer ; but cherries, 
 plums, figs, and all kinds of fruits included 
 in shells (filberts, walnuts, &c), were almost 
 quite destroyed." (Henry s Hist, of Eng- 
 land, b. iv. c. 5. s. 1.) So numerous were the 
 various plants which engaged their horti- 
 cultural skill, that the different departments 
 occupied separate enclosures. We have seen 
 that the vineyard was independent of the 
 orchard, the latter was separated from the 
 kitchen garden, and the herbary, again, was 
 a distinct enclosure. The monks of Dun- 
 stable, it is recorded, were at much ex- 
 pense in 1294, in repairing the walls of their 
 gardens, and of their herbary. As early as 
 the eighth century, the list of cultivated 
 herbs was very numerous, as we learn 
 from the Capillar ium de Villis et Curtis, in 
 which Charlemagne details to his gardeners 
 such herbs as he requires them to cultivate. 
 
 As an art of design and taste, gardening 
 can scarcely be considered to have existed. 
 The gardens belonging to the castellated 
 dwellings of the gentry were confined within 
 the narrow space included by the glacis, 
 required for defence in those times of feudal 
 broils. In the orchards without the moats 
 of their castles, they, however, indulged 
 their taste for ornamental gardening, which 
 consisted, as it continued to a much later 
 age, in having plants cut into monstrous 
 figures, labyrinths, &c. Henry the First 
 formed at Woodstock, a.d. 1123, the first 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 park of which wS have any record. Spel- 
 man says he borrowed the idea from the 
 Easterns. It was probably chiefly designed 
 as a preserve for game — habitationem f era- 
 rum. {Henry of Huntingdon s Hist b. 7.) 
 It contained, however, a labyrinth, which 
 appears to have chiefly constituted ^ the 
 bower, so immortalised by the fate of the 
 unfortunate mistress of this monarch, fair 
 Rosamond. Labyrinths were so much in 
 unison with the taste of the age, that there 
 is scarcely a design for a gaiden given by 
 De Cerceau in his Architecture about a. d. 
 1250, in which there is not a round and a 
 square one. About a century before this 
 last-mentioned date, namely, in the reign of 
 Henry the Second (1154—1189), Fitz- 
 stevens describes the gardens around the 
 villas of the London citizens as " large, 
 beautiful, and planted with trees." 
 
 In the reign of Edward III. the first v/ork 
 written in this country on the cultivation of 
 the soil is supposed to have been composed. 
 The author was Walter de Henly ; it is 
 entitled De Yconomia, sive Housbrandia. 
 Bishop Tanner says the subject is treated 
 of well, according to the usage of the time. 
 (Pultneys Sketches of Botany, vol. i. p. 23.) 
 Nicholas Bollar, an Oxonian of skill in 
 natural philosophy, wrote three books, De 
 Arborum Plantatione ; and another work in 
 two books, De Generatione Arborum et Modo 
 Generandi et Plantandi, and some other 
 tracts still in MS. (Ibid. p. 24.) 
 
 A fondness for plants as an object of study, 
 was now awakened, and is an earnest that 
 the attention to their cultivation propor- 
 tionably increased ; for although plants were 
 sought after chiefly with a view to ascertain 
 their medicinal qualities, yet the spirit of 
 true botanical science was awakening, many 
 MSS. existing that were written at this 
 period, devoted entirely to a tracing of the 
 characteristics of plants, their synonyms, &c. 
 The first Royal Professor of Botany may 
 be said to have been appointed in this age, 
 in the person of John Bray, by Richard II. 
 (1377 — 1399), who allowed him an annual 
 pension for his knowledge and skill in botany 
 and physic. (Ibid. p. 22.) 
 
 We have seen in preceding observations 
 that the gardens of the age were extensive, 
 and from the slight mention we have of 
 some of their inhabitants, it is pretty certain 
 they were well stocked. We however have 
 no particular list of them until the time of 
 Tusser. That his catalogue would be a 
 correct one of our horticultural products at 
 a much earlier period, is certain. In the 
 reign of Edward III. cucumbers were cul- 
 tivated : it is a mistake, however, to consider 
 that melons were likewise, for the melons 
 of those and of later writers were the 
 527 
 
 pompions of our times. (See this in' Lytes 
 Herbal, a.d. 1619.) It is certain, however, 
 from concurrent testimonies, that the cul- 
 tivation of edible vegetables and fruits was 
 exceedingly neglected. A bushel of onions 
 in the reign of Richard II. usually cost 
 about 12s., estimating the charge according 
 to the value of our present currency. In 
 the reign of Henry VII. (1485—1509), it 
 appears in a MS. signed by the monarch 
 himself, preserved in the Remembrance 
 Office, that apples were from Is. to 2s. each, 
 a red one fetching the highest price. Pear- 
 main apples are as old as the days of King 
 John (1199—1216). (Rot. Fin. 6. John, 
 m. 13. Blount's Ant. Tenures, p. 69.) Yet 
 it was not because the varieties of our gar- 
 den products were few. Tusser enumerates 
 of "seedes and herbes for the kychen, 
 herbes and rootes for sallets and sawse, 
 herbes and rootes to boyle or to but- 
 ter, stewing herbes of all sortes, herbes, 
 branches, and flowers for windowes and 
 pots, herbes to still in summer, necessarie 
 herbes to grow in the garden for physik, 
 not reherst before," above one hundred and 
 fifty species. Of fruits, he mentions many 
 kinds of apples ; apricotes ; bar-berries ; 
 bullase, black and white ; cherries, red and 
 black; chestnuts ; cornel plums, ( ? cornelian 
 cherry) ; damisons, white and black ; fil- 
 berts, red and white ; gooseberries ; grapes, 
 white and red ; green or grass plums ; 
 hurtil-berries, (vaccinium vitis-idced) ; med- 
 lars or merles ; mulberries ; peaches, white, 
 red, and yellow fleshed; peres of many 
 kinds ; peer plums, black and yellow ; 
 quinces ; raspes ; reisons ( ? currants) ; hazel- 
 nuts ; strawberries, red and white ; services ; 
 wardens, white and red ; walnuts ; and 
 wheat plums. 
 
 The almond was introduced in this reign. 
 Some authors also affirm that the cherry, 
 having been lost during the turmoils of the 
 Saxon dynasty, was introduced again during 
 this reign by Rich. Haines, the king's 
 fruiterer ; but this is an error, for Warton 
 gives a quotation from Lidgate, a poet who 
 lived about 1415, which proves that cherries 
 were then so common as to be hawked about 
 the streets. Although the lemon was not 
 cultivated in this country until the reign of 
 James I., it is upon record that the Leather- 
 sellers' Company gave six silver pennies 
 for one, which was served up at a civic feast 
 given to Henry VIII. and Anne Bolevn, 
 in honour of the coronation of the latter. 
 Thus, as Apicius, the Roman epicure and 
 glutton, first taught his countrymen the 
 use of this fruit, so Henry, his peer in sen- 
 suality, first partook of it in this country. 
 
 To these may be added the fig, which we 
 have seen was cultivated here as early as 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 278, and makes up a list of fruits as com- 
 plete as that which comprises those now 
 cultivated by us, without the aid of glass 
 and artificial heat. Yet, notwithstanding 
 this, culinary vegetables were as scarce in 
 the concluding years of the reign of 
 Henry VIII. (1509—1546) as good apples 
 were in that of his father. Sugar was the 
 sauce usually eaten with every kind of flesh 
 meat. Neither was it because vegetables 
 were little estimated, for Catherine, his 
 last queen, was accustomed to send a mes- 
 senger to Holland, or Flanders, when she 
 required a salad. (Humes Hist, of Eng. 
 anno 1547.) The gardeners of London and 
 Kent were regular importers of these edi- 
 bles. In excuse for this inferiority of our 
 garden produce, it was a conclusive as- 
 sumption to assert, that our climate and 
 soil were unfavourable to their growth. 
 Against this unfounded opinion, Dr.Bulleyn 
 stood forward, the patriotic, and we may 
 add, the successful opponent : for, although 
 the error would naturally have a tendency 
 to correct itself, it is too much to consider 
 that the opinion of a man of his estimation 
 would be delivered without effect. From 
 this period our practical horticulture was 
 more attended to, and with its improve- 
 ment the embassies to Holland for a salad 
 ceased. 
 
 We have thus traced the progress of 
 Gardening in its several departments in 
 this country from the accession of our 
 Third Edward, to the conclusion of the 
 reign of Henry VIII., a period of more 
 than two centuries ; the first one hundred 
 and fifty years of which were characterised 
 by a still lingering taste for hunting, chi- 
 valry, and war ; by crusades to the Holy 
 Land, and as wild expeditions to the Con- 
 tinent ; and, above all, by the civil horrors 
 induced by the contest between the houses 
 of York and Lancaster. Notwithstanding 
 these circumstances, so hostile to domestic 
 improvement and the cultivation of the 
 social arts, we have seen that the art of 
 gardening in its various departments had 
 continued to advance, and in the concluding 
 years of the period had considerably im- 
 proved. 
 
 Previous to the reign of Elizabeth (1558 
 — 1602) horticultui-e was considered as 
 little more than a mechanical art; but 
 brighter days were now arrived to it. Bo- 
 tany, previous to this period, was almost 
 unknown as a science ; yet it must be ac- 
 knowledged that botany is a chief part of 
 the only foundation, upon which an en- 
 lightened practice of horticulture can be 
 raised. In this reign, England was en- 
 riched with the first, regular establishment 
 for the scientific cultivation of plants in the 
 528 
 
 physic garden of Gerarde* (1567). It was 
 not, however, in England alone that the 
 study and cultivation of plants became more 
 popular; there were many tributary streams 
 to this branch of the river of science ; our 
 ancestors were only followers of an ex- 
 ample that was set by many continental 
 powers, and which seems to have risen from 
 a desire for the improvement of a know- 
 ledge of plants, and their Culture, which 
 pervaded Europe simultaneously at this 
 period. Padua took the lead by establish- 
 ing a public botanic garden, whilst under 
 the Venetians, in 1533. Lucas Ghinus 
 at Bologna, who was the first public pro- 
 fessor of botany in Europe, was a strenuous 
 advocate of such institutions. By his in- 
 fluence a similar garden was established 
 at Bologna in 1547, where Dr. Turner, 
 whom we shall presently notice, first im- 
 bibed much of that knowledge which ren- 
 dered him eminent in this country. Among 
 the earliest private gardens of the same 
 kind was that of Enricus Cordus, at Bremen, 
 who died in 1538 ; and of Mordecius at 
 Cassel, who flourished about the same time. 
 Gesner constructed the first botanic garden 
 in Switzerland at Zurich in 1560; one was 
 established at Paris in 1570 ; atLeyden, in 
 1577; Leipsic, 1580; Montpelier, 1598; 
 Jena, 1628; Oxford, 1632. This last owes 
 its foundation to the munificence of Henry 
 Danvers, Earl of Danby, who for the pur- 
 pose gave five acres of ground on the banks 
 of the Charwel, to the south of St. Mary 
 Magdalene's. He built greenhouses and 
 stoves, inclosed it with stone walls fourteen 
 feet high, erected a house for the gardener, 
 and endowed the establishment. Sir Jacob 
 and Sir Andrew Balfour endowed one at 
 Edinburgh in 1680 ; and the Apothecaries' 
 Company founded that at Chelsea in 1673. 
 This last-named expensive establishment 
 was commenced at a time when the com- 
 pany was without any disposable funds, 
 and when, to enter upon the undertaking, as 
 well as to re-erect their hall, burnt down 
 in the great fire, they were obliged to have 
 recourse to the private resources of the 
 members : conduct which redounds to their 
 honour, for the outlay was without any pros- 
 pect of pecuniary advantage, but merely from 
 a desire to promote the objects of science. 
 
 An estimate of the greater attention now 
 paid to gardening for the public supply, 
 may be formed from a knowledge of the 
 cheapness of some articles. Early in au- 
 tumn, 1594, half a peck of filberts were to 
 1)0 had for sixpence. In September, 1619, 
 30 lettuces were to be bought for four- 
 pence ; 16 artichokes for three shillings and 
 fourpence ; but 2 cauliflowers cost one- 
 and-sixpence each. In the reign of James 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 I. (1602 — 1625) superior varieties of the 
 melon, a large pale gooseberry, the lemon 
 tree, several varieties of salad herbs and 
 cabbages were introduced. Melons appear 
 to have been especial favourites of this 
 monarch. 
 
 The taste for flowers, we have seen in 
 a previous section, was prevalent in this 
 country at a very early period ; a great 
 increase of information as to their culti- 
 vation, as well as new varieties, were intro- 
 duced by the Flemish worsted manufac- 
 turers, who were driven over to Norwich 
 during the persecutions in their country, 
 by Philip II. and by the Duke of Alva, 
 in 1567. They brought over with them 
 gilliflowers, Provence roses, and carnations. 
 This was in 1558 — 1602. Tulips, and the 
 damask and musk roses, appear to have 
 been introduced early in the reign of 
 Elizabeth. Gerarde says, in 1596, that a 
 principal collector and propagator of tulips 
 had been so for twenty years, and had an 
 immense variety. There is mention of a 
 florists' feast at Norwich so early as 1637, 
 at which a play, or pageant, termed " Rho- 
 don and Iris," was performed. (Linncean 
 Transac. ii. 296. Rays Catalogus Canta- 
 brigium.) 
 
 This fondness for flowers first manifested 
 itself in Holland, and in that country rose 
 to an extraordinary height, continuing until 
 the middle of the last century, at which 
 time two hundred pounds were given for 
 one hyacinth root ; and more than six hun- 
 dred pounds for the Semper Augustus tulip. 
 (Beckmans Hist, of Invert .) 
 
 Queen Elizabeth was a great delighter 
 in flowers ; nor were many of her subjects 
 less so. Johnson, in his " Mercurius Bo- 
 tanicus" (1634) gives a list of 117 exotics 
 cultivated by Mr. Gibbs, of Bath, many of 
 which he had brought, himself, from Vir- 
 ginia. Among other eminent patrons of 
 horticulture and botany were Sir Walter 
 Raleigh, Lord Zouch, and Lord Hunsden, 
 who all, during their travels, acquired and 
 introduced to this country many new plants. 
 Sir Nicholas Bacon, the Lord Keeper, was 
 a distinguished patron of gardening in this 
 reign. It was upon the gardens of his 
 beautiful mansion of Gormanbury that his 
 chief care and cost were bestowed. Several 
 apples were introduced in this reign by 
 Mascal. Fuller states that peas were 
 chiefly imported from Holland, as " dain- 
 ties for ladies." 
 
 James I. was an eminent patron of 
 horticulture. He is especially to be dis- 
 tinguished in the annals of the art, for 
 having in the third year of his reign formed 
 the gardeners of London, and those within 
 a circuit of six miles around it, into a cor- 
 529 
 
 porate body, consisting of a master, war- 
 dens, assistants, and commonalty. No one 
 was to practise as a gardener, within the 
 above limits, unless approved of by this 
 company. They were empowered to examine 
 all, and seize such seeds or other horticul- 
 tural products, as they might esteem 
 defective; also to impose fines, and the 
 offenders to be committed to prison by the 
 magistrates until they were paid. This 
 charter, as stated in its preamble, was 
 granted on account of the great disappoint- 
 ment caused to persons having defective 
 samples supplied to them. It was confirmed 
 in the 14th year of the same reign. 
 
 In the same reign an academy was 
 formed in Scotland for the improvement of 
 gardening, which, it would appear, was in 
 existence as late as 1724. It had pro- 
 fessors, who delivered lectures. {Bradley s 
 General Treat, on Husb. and Gard. vol. i. p. 
 134.) The same monarch appointed a royal 
 botanist in the person of Matthias de Lobel, 
 the first of whom we have mention since the 
 .time of Richard II. Lobel was under 
 the patronage of Lord Zouch, and cultivated 
 a garden at Hackney, of which his lordship 
 bore the expense. Lobel had a considerable 
 correspondence with foreign botanists, and 
 by that means was enabled to introduce 
 many new exotics into England. (Pultneys 
 Sketches of Bot. vol. i. p. 98.) 
 
 The succeeding monarch, Charles L, was 
 particularly fond of gardening. He created 
 the place of Royal Herbalist, and conferred 
 it on Parkinson. Orangeries were now 
 much in request, the queen had 42 trees 
 in hers, at Wimbledon, which were valued 
 at 10/. each. 
 
 During the Commonwealth, as it is very 
 erroneously termed, (1648 — 1660) Crom- 
 well was a great improver of agriculture 
 and the useful branches of gardening. He 
 allowed Hartlib an annuity of one hundred 
 pounds. 
 
 Charles I. (1660—1685) was a great 
 patron of our art in general. Regular 
 glazed edifices for the preservation of tender 
 plants appear to have been first erected 
 in this reign. Evelyn mentions Loader's 
 Orangery in 1662, and those of the Duke of 
 Lauderdale and Sir Henry Capel. The 
 last mentioned also had a Myrtilleum. The 
 green-house and hot-house in the Chelsea 
 garden are mentioned by the same author, 
 as well as by Ray in 1685. 
 
 For the encouragement of his gardeners, 
 and to insure their utmost exertions, as not 
 being liable to capricious removal, this 
 monarch gave them patents of their places 
 {Cook upon Forest and Fruit Trees, p. 62.). 
 
 Evelyn in his diary affords much inform- 
 ation on the history of horticulture. He 
 
 M M 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 says he saw the first pine apple presented 
 to the King in the banqueting house in 1 661, 
 and tasted of it. He speaks most highly of 
 Sir William Temple's gardens at East Sheen. 
 Sir William introduced some of our best 
 peaches, cherries, grapes, and apricots from 
 Holland. (Ibid., and his own Works.) 
 
 In the reign of James II. (1625 — 
 1689) Bishop Compton had enriched the 
 gardens and green-houses of Fulham Palace 
 to such an extent, that they were con- 
 sidered as containing a greater variety of 
 plants than any other in England. 
 
 To his taste for gardening was united a 
 knowledge of botany, a scientific attainment, 
 observes Dr. Pultney, not usual among the 
 great of those days. He was a great en- 
 courager of Mr. London ; was one of the first 
 to encourage the importation and raising of 
 ornamental exotics ; was very curious in col- 
 lecting them, as well as in cultivating kit- 
 chen garden plants, especially kidney beans. 
 (Switzers Prac. Kitchen Gard. p. 237.) In 
 his stoves and gardens he had above 1000 
 species of exotic plants, a larger number 
 than had been seen in any private English 
 collection. In his gardens he cultivated a 
 great many plants that had been previously 
 esteemed too tender to be exposed unpro- 
 tected to our climate. Every thing was 
 done under his own superintendence. (Swit- 
 zers Icnographia Rustica, vol. i. p. 70.) 
 
 Horticulture was now borne vigorously 
 forward in this country ; nor was it here 
 alone that it was fostered, and gathered 
 strength. W e had previously received an 
 impulse in this art from Holland; we had sur- 
 passed our teacher^ and we now strove for the 
 pre-eminence with France, who certainly 
 had been also in a great measure our tutor. 
 
 William III. (1689—1702) introduced 
 the Dutch style of laying out gardens. 
 He delighted in blanched vegetables, 
 and it was by his instrumentality that 
 forcing asparagus was introduced here, 
 being previously unknown. (Switzer's 
 Prac. Kitchen Gard. p. 173.) Mary his 
 queen delighted in the practice of gardening, 
 more than he did. She superintended in 
 person all improvements made during her 
 life. She was particularly fond of exotics, 
 and allowed Dr. Plukenet two hundred 
 pounds annually for assisting her in collecting 
 and cultivating them. Her fondness for 
 gardening is mentioned by Dr. Tillotson in 
 her funeral sermon. (Icnog. llust. vol. i. 
 P- 77.) 
 
 To be an efficient cultivator of plants, a 
 knowledge of botany, we have already ob- 
 served, is requisite. Whilst that science 
 remained the chaos of unarranged facts, and 
 ill-classified individuals, which it was until 
 the master mind of Linnieus reduced its con- 
 530 
 
 fusion and discord to harmony in 1737, it 
 required for its acquisition the devotion of 
 a life. Such acquisition the new system of 
 classification rendered comparatively easy 
 in a few months. That gardeners availed 
 themselves of the advantage needs no further 
 instance than Philip Miller, in whom the per- 
 fect botanist and horticulturist were com- 
 bined, and who was a correspondent of the 
 chief men of science then living. 
 
 For the working with full effect of the 
 spirit of the immortal Swede, our own Ray 
 had prepared the arena. Indefatigable, 
 enthusiastic in his pursuits, of clear and 
 comprehensive mind, he gave an impetus to 
 botany and its correlative arts, more effec- 
 tual to their advancement than they had 
 received during ages of years preceding. 
 For fifty years he most successfully laboured 
 to clear the path of this science and to in- 
 crease her stores. Nor does he enjoy his 
 fame only among his countrymen ; it is 
 afforded to him by all Europe. Haller says, 
 he was the improver and elevator of botany 
 into a science, and dates from his life a new 
 era in its history. In little more than twenty 
 years, Ray recorded an increase in the En- 
 glish Flora of 550 species. His Catalogus 
 Plantarum Anglice, in 1670, contains 1050 
 species: his Synopsis, in 1696, describes more 
 than 1600 species. A phalanx of botanists 
 were then contemporaries which previous 
 ages never equalled, nor succeeding ones sur- 
 passed. Ray, Tournefort, Plumier, Pluke- 
 net, Commelin, Rivinus, Bobart, Petivir, 
 Sherard, Boccone, Linnaeus, may be said to 
 have lived in the same age. 
 
 I will not pass unnoticed, as being of this 
 period, Abraham Cowley, the well-known 
 poet, physician, and author of The Four 
 Boohs of Plants. Although he deserves little 
 praise as a botanist or as a gardener, he 
 merits notice as assisting in their advance- 
 ment by winning to them and encouraging 
 the attention of the literary. Of the influ- 
 ence Avhich botanists possess over the for- 
 warding the interests of horticulture, I shall 
 quote but one more instance. Sir Arthur 
 Rawdon was so gratified with the magnifi- 
 cent collection of West Indian plants pos- 
 sessed by Sir Hans Sloane, that he dispatched 
 a skilful gardener, James Harlow, to Ja- 
 maica, who brought thence a vessel nearly 
 freighted with vegetating and dried plant.-, 
 the first of which Sir Arthur Rawdon culti- 
 vated in his own garden at Moira in Ireland, 
 or distributed amongst his friends, and some 
 of the continental gardens. His taste for 
 exotic plants was probably much encouraged 
 by his intimacy with Dr. William Sherard, 
 who, being one of the most munificent pa- 
 trons and cultivators of exotic botany during 
 that "golden age" of the science, appeared. 
 
GARDENING, HISTORY OF. 
 
 as Hasselquist observed, " the regent of the 
 botanic garden" at his house at Sedekio, near 
 Smyrna, where he was British consul ; for 
 here he cultivated a very rich garden, and 
 collected the most extensive herbarium that 
 was ever formed by the exertions of an in- 
 dividual. It contained 12,000 species. His 
 younger brother, Dr. James Sherard, also 
 cultivated at Eltham, in Kent, one of the 
 richest gardens England ever possessed. 
 (Pultnei/s Sketches of Bot. vol. ii. p. 150.) 
 
 But it was not only in the collecting and 
 arranging of plants that botany was adding 
 fresh stores and zest to gardening. Previous 
 to this period little was known of the struc- 
 ture of plants, and the uses of their several 
 parts. Grew, Malpighi, Linnaeus, Hales, 
 Bonnet, Du Hamel, Hedwig, Spallanzani, 
 &c. cleared away, in a great measure, the 
 ignorance which enveloped vegetable phy- 
 siology. Previous to their days the male 
 bearing plants of dioecious plants, as spinach, 
 and the male flowers of cucumbers, &c, were 
 recommended to be removed as useless ; 
 they taught the importance of -checking the 
 return of the sap ; the mode of raising va- 
 rieties : in short, all the phenomena of vege- 
 table life, which throw so much light upon 
 the practice of the gardener, were first noted 
 and explained by the labours of these phi- 
 losophers. Another class of philosophers 
 who contributed a gigantic aid to the ad- 
 vance of horticulture, were those chemists 
 who especially devoted themselves to the 
 vegetable world. Such men were Ingen- 
 houz, Van Helmont, Priestley, Sennebier, 
 Schraeder, Saussure, &c. To them we are 
 indebted for the most luminous researches 
 into the food of plants, the influence of air, 
 of heat, of light, and of soils. Previous to 
 their researches the immense importance of 
 the leaves of plants was unknown. Culti- 
 vators were unaware that by removing one 
 of them they were proportionably removing 
 the means of breathing and of nourishment 
 from the parent plant ; and mankind in ge- 
 neral were ignorant that it is by the gas 
 which plants throw off that the animal 
 creation is alone enabled to breathe. 
 
 The scientific institutions of previous years, 
 which had merely existed, were now in a 
 state of vigorous exertion. The Botanic 
 Garden at Chelsea was especially distin- 
 guished under its curator Philip Miller. 
 This garden, as previously stated, was 
 founded in 1673, though the inscription over 
 the gateway is dated 1686, until which year 
 it was not effectually arranged. It was 
 strengthened and rendered permanent by 
 Sir Hans Sloane, in 1721. He, having pur- 
 chased the manor, gave the site, which is a 
 freehold of four acres, to the company, on 
 condition that they should pay 51. per an- 
 531 
 
 num for it, and that the demonstrator of the 
 company, in their name, should deliver annu- 
 ally fifty new species of plants to the Royal 
 Society, until the number amounted to 2,000. 
 This presentation of plants commenced in 
 1722, and continued until 1773, at which 
 time they had presented 2550 species. 
 
 If old botanical institutions improved, so 
 also new ones were formed. The Kew 
 Gardens were commenced in 1760, by the 
 Princess Dowager ofWales, mother of George 
 III. The exotic department was established 
 chiefly through the influence of the Marquis 
 of Bute, a great patron of gardening. It was 
 placed under the care of Mr. W. Aiton, and 
 it has since become one of the most cele- 
 brated botanical institutions in the world. 
 
 The Cambridge Botanical Garden was 
 also founded in 1763, by Dr. Walker, vice- 
 master of Trinity College. He gave the 
 site, comprising nearly five acres, in trust to 
 the chancellor, masters, and scholars of the 
 university, for the purpose of establishing 
 the garden. Thomas Martyn, the titular 
 professor of botany, was appointed reader 
 on plants, and Charles, son of the celebrated 
 Philip Miller (who had aided Dr. Walker in 
 selecting the ground), was made first cu- 
 rator. (Loudon s JEncyc. of Gard. pp. 86. 
 1071, edit. 5.) 
 
 Previous to this period, the number of 
 exotics cultivated in tjys country probably 
 did not exceed 1000 species; during this 
 century above 5000 new ones were intro- 
 duced. Some tolerably correct idea may 
 be formed of the improvement arising to 
 horticulture, from this spirit of research 
 after plants, by a knowledge that in the 
 first edition of Miller s Dictionary, in 1724, 
 but twelve evergreens are mentioned. The 
 Christmas flower and aconite were rare, and 
 only to be purchased at Mr. Fairchild's 
 nursery at Hoxton. Only seven species of 
 geranium were then known. In the preface 
 to the eighth edition of the Dictionary, in 
 1768, the number of plants cultivated in 
 this country are stated to be more than 
 double those which were known in 1731. 
 The publication of the seventh edition of 
 that work, in 1759, was of the greatest be- 
 nefit to horticulture. In it was adopted the 
 classical system of Linnaeus. It gave a final 
 blow to the invidious line of distinction 
 which had existed between the gardener 
 and the botanist, and completed the erection 
 of the art of the former into a science, 
 which it had been long customary to esteem 
 as little more than a superior pursuit for a 
 rustic. From being merely practised by 
 servants, it became more extensively the 
 study and the delight of many of the most 
 scientific and noble individuals of this 
 country. Miller improved the cultivation 
 
 M M 2 
 
GARDENING, 
 
 HISTORY OF. 
 
 of the vine and the fig, and was otherwise 
 distinguished for his improvement of the 
 practice, as he had been of the science, of 
 gardening. Having thus decisively gained 
 the attention of men of science, the rapid 
 progress of horticulture from this era is no 
 longer astonishing. The botanist applied 
 his researches to the increase of the inha- 
 bitants of the garden, and the better ex- 
 planation of their habits. The vegetable 
 physiologist adapted his discoveries to prac- 
 tical purposes by pointing, out the organs 
 and functions which are of primary im- 
 portance ; and the chemist, by his analysis, 
 discovered their constituents, and was con- 
 sequently enabled to point out improve- 
 ments which practice could only have 
 stumbled on by chance, and perhaps during 
 a lapse of ages. 
 
 The general introduction of forcing 
 houses likewise gave to our science a new 
 feature. Green-houses, we have seen, were 
 in use in the 17th century; but no regular 
 structures, roofed with glass, and artificially 
 heated, existed until the early part of the 
 succeeding one. Though a pine- apple had 
 been presented by his gardener to Charles 
 II., it is certain that they were only suc- 
 cessfully cultivated here about 1723, by 
 Mr. Henry Talende, gardener to Sir Mat- 
 thew Decker at Richmond ; Mr. Loudon 
 gives the date as 1719. Mr. Bradley says, 
 that Mr. Talende having at length suc- 
 ceeded in ripening them, and rendered their 
 culture " easy and intelligible," he hopes 
 ananas may flourish for the future in many 
 of our English gardens. (Bradley s Gen. 
 Treatise on Husb. and Gard.) That forc- 
 ing was rare, and but of late introduc- 
 tion, is further proved by Mr. Lawrence, 
 who, in 1718, observes, that he had heard 
 that the Duke of Rutland, atBelvoir Castle 
 in Lincolnshire, hastened his grapes by 
 having fires burning from Lady-day to 
 Michaelmas behind his sloped walls, a re- 
 port to which he evidently does not give 
 implicit credence, but which " it is easy to 
 conceive." (Lawrence's Fruit Gard. Col. 
 p. 22.) That such, however, was the fact, 
 is confirmed by Switzer, who further adds, 
 in 1724, that they were covered with glass. 
 The walls were erected, he says, at the 
 suggestion of Mr. Facie, whom we have be- 
 fore mentioned. The walls failing in their 
 anticipated effect were covered with glass, 
 and thus led to the first erection of a re- 
 gular forcing structure of which we have 
 any account. (Switzer s Practical Fruit 
 Garden, p. 318.) Lady Wortley Mon- 
 tague, in 1716, mentions having partaken 
 of pine-apples at the table of the elector 
 of Hanover ; and speaks of them as being a 
 thing she bad never seen before, which," as 
 
 her ladyship moved in the highest English 
 circles, she must, had they been introduced 
 to table here. 
 
 Mr. Fowler, gardener to Sir Gould 
 at Stoke Newington, was the first to raise 
 cucumbers in autumn, for fruiting about 
 Christmas. He presented the king, George I., 
 with a brace of full-grown ones on new 
 year's day, 1721. (Bradley s General 
 Treatise on Husb. and Gard. vol. ii. p. 61.) 
 
 Even as late as the commencement of 
 the century we are tracing, every garden 
 vegetable, in a greater or less degree, was 
 obtained from Holland. The purveyors of 
 the royal family sent thither for fruits and 
 pot-herbs ; and the seedsmen obtained from 
 thence all their seeds. But in 1 727, Switzer 
 boasts of the improvements made in his art. 
 Cucumbers, that twenty-five years before 
 were never seen at table until the close of 
 May, were then always ready in the first 
 days of March, or earlier if tried for. Me- 
 lons were improved both in quality and 
 earliness. " The first, owing to the corre- 
 spondence that our nobility and gentry have 
 abroad, now equalling, if not excelling, the 
 French and Dutch in their curious col- 
 lections of seed ; but the second is owing to 
 the industry and skill of our kitchen gar- 
 deners." Melons were now cut at the end 
 of April, which before were rare in the 
 middle of June. The season of the cauli- 
 flower being in perfection was prolonged 
 from three or four, to six or seven months. 
 Kidney beans were now forced. The season 
 of peas and beans was extended to a period 
 from April until December, which previ- 
 ously only lasted two or three months, &c. 
 (Preface to Switzer s Pract. Fruit Gard.) 
 
 The early part of this century witnessed 
 the labours of Professor Bradley, who was 
 one of the first to treat of gardening and 
 agriculture as sciences. Although deficient 
 in discoveries, his works are not destitute 
 of information derived from contemporary 
 gardeners and other writers. He wrote 
 luminously on the buds of trees, on bulbs, 
 and especially on the mode of obtaining 
 variegated plants and double flowers. He 
 must be looked upon as a benefactor of 
 horticulture, for he at least made himself 
 acquainted with the discoveries of others, 
 and, recording them in his widely circulated 
 works, he spread such increased knowledge, 
 and diffused over the whole such philo- 
 sophic views, as the science of the age 
 afforded. 
 
 Some of our most celebrated nurserymen 
 flourished during this century. Fairchild, 
 Gordon, Lee, and Gray introduced many 
 plants during its first half. Hibbert of 
 Chalfont, and Thornton of Clapham, deserve 
 particular mention for their encouragement 
 
GARDENING, HISTORY. OF. 
 
 of exotic botany. The garden and hot- 
 house of the latter were among the best 
 stocked about London. 
 
 We have seen under what favourable 
 auspices and with what great improvements 
 gardening was on the advance at the close 
 of the 1 8th century ; but the present cen- 
 tury was ushered in with even greater 
 promise of success, for the light of science 
 was still more powerfully concentrated upon 
 its practice, and began to be felt and ap- 
 preciated. This especially applies to the 
 labours of the chemist and physiologist. 
 Such combination of horticultural art and 
 science was especially promoted by the 
 institution of the Horticultural Societies of 
 London and Edinburgh. The first of these 
 societies began to be formed in 1804, the 
 latter in 1809. Nothing can more con- 
 spicuously display the high estimation in 
 which gardening is held, nothing can af- 
 ford a greater guarantee for its improve- 
 ment, -than the lists of the fellows of the 
 above societies. In them are enrolled the 
 names of the most talented, the most noble, 
 and the most wealthy individuals of the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 The increase of the inhabitants of our 
 pleasure grounds within the last few years 
 places the taste and patronage which are 
 bestowed on gardening in a very conspicuous 
 point of view. Of stove plants we now 
 cultivate about 1800 species and varieties. 
 Of green-house plants, nearly 3000. Of 
 hardy trees and shrubs, nearly 4000. Of 
 hardy perennial flowers, nearly 3000. Of 
 biennial and annual flowers together, about 
 800. To particularise the different ge- 
 nera of these would exceed the limits I 
 have prescribed to this article. I have not 
 included the varieties of florist's flowers in 
 the above general list. They are more than 
 proportionably numerous. Of hyacinths 
 we have about 300 varieties, whereas in 
 1629 Parkinson mentions but 50. The 
 passion for this flower, however, has much 
 abated ; for Miller, in the early part of the 
 last century, says the Dutch gardeners had 
 2000 sorts. Of tulips we have nearly 700 
 varieties. The cultivation of this flower has 
 also declined of late years. It was at its 
 height both in this country and in Holland 
 towards the middle of the 17th century. In 
 Holland nearly 600?. was agreed to be given 
 for a single root. Of the ranunculus we 
 have nearly 500 varieties. Of the anemone, 
 about 200. Of dahlias, between 200 and 
 300 ; narcissi, 200 ; auriculas, more than 
 400 ; pinks, 300 ; carnations, about 350. 
 Of roses, included in the list we have 
 given of hardy trees and shrubs, there 
 are more than 1450. Another instance of 
 the progress made in increasing the num- 
 533 
 
 berof our cultivated plants is furnished by 
 the genus Erica. But five kinds of heath 
 were described by Miller, as known in 
 England about 60 years since ; we now cul- 
 tivate nearly 350. 
 
 Mr. Loudon makes the number of plants 
 cultivated by gardeners at present amount 
 to 13,140. Of these 1400 are natives of 
 Great Britain ; 47 were exotics introduced 
 previous to and during the reign of Henry 
 VIII. ; 7 during that of Edward VI. ; 533 
 during that of Elizabeth. In that of 
 James I., 20. Charles I., 331. During the 
 usurpation, 95. Charles II., 152. James II., 
 44. William and Mary, 298. Anne, 230. 
 George L, 182. George II., 1770. George 
 III., 6756. During the first 16 years of this 
 century, on an average, 156 plants were 
 annually introduced. The ardour of re- 
 search is not the least abated now. 
 
 The style in which our grounds are now 
 usually laid out may be characterised in 
 one sentence. Convenience is endeavoured 
 to be rendered as attractive as possible, by 
 combining it with the beautiful and appro- 
 priate. The convenience of the inmates of 
 the mansion is studied by having the kitchen 
 and fruit gardens near the house, fully ex- 
 tensive enough to supply all their wants, 
 and kept in the appropriate beauty of order 
 and neatness ; without any extravagant 
 attempt at ornament by the mingling of 
 useless trees, or planting its cabbages, &c. 
 in waving lines. In the flower garden which 
 immediately adjoins the house, dry walks — 
 shady ones for summer, and sheltered, sun- 
 gladdened ones for the more intemperate sea- 
 sons — are conveniently constructed. Their 
 accompanying borders and parterres, are in 
 forms, such as are most graceful, whilst 
 their inhabitants, distinguished for their 
 fragrance, are distributed in grateful abun- 
 dance ; and those noted for their elegant 
 shapes and beautiful tints are grouped and 
 blended as the taste of the painter and the 
 harmony of colours dictate. The lawn from 
 these glides insensibly into the more distant 
 ground occupied by the shrubberies and the 
 park. Here the genius of the place dictates 
 the arrangement of the levels and of the 
 masses of trees and water. Common sense 
 is followed in planting such trees only as 
 are suited to the soil. A knowledge of the 
 tints of their foliage guides the landscape 
 gardener in associating them, and aids the 
 laws of perspective in lengthening his dis- 
 tant sweeps. If gentle undulations mark 
 the surface, he leads water among their 
 subdued diversities, and blends his trees 
 in softened groups, so as to form light 
 glades to harmonise with the other parts. 
 If high and broken , ground has to be 
 adorned, the designer mingles waterfalls 
 m m 3 
 
GARGET. 
 
 GARLIC. 
 
 with broader masses of darker foliaged 
 trees, and acquires the beauty peculiar to 
 the abrupt and the grand, as in the former 
 he aimed at that which is secured by softer 
 features. 
 
 He is no philosopher who neglects a cer- 
 tain present good for fear that in some 
 future period it may be abused ; but in the 
 encouragement of gardening, whilst an im- 
 mediate good is obtained, there is no fear of 
 its perversion in after days. Its diffusion 
 among the poorer classes is an earnest or 
 means of more important benefits, even, than 
 the present increase of their comfort. The 
 labourer who possesses and delights in the 
 garden appended to his cottage is generally 
 among the most decent of his class ; he is 
 seldom a frequenter of the ale-house ; and 
 there are few among them so senseless as 
 not readily to engage in its cultivation when 
 convinced of the comforts and gain derivable 
 from it. Gardening is a pursuit adapted alike 
 to the gay and the recluse, the man of 
 pleasure and the lover of science. To both 
 it offers employment such as may suit their 
 taste ; all that can please by fragrance, by 
 flavour, or by beauty ; all that science may 
 illustrate ; employment for the chemist, the 
 botanist, the physiologist, and the meteor- 
 ologist. There is no taste so perverse as 
 that from it the garden can win no attention, 
 or to which it can afford no pleasure. He 
 who greatly benefited or promoted the hap- 
 piness of mankind in the days of paganism 
 was invoked after death and worshipped as 
 a deity : in these days we should be as 
 grateful as they were without being as ex- 
 travagant in its demonstration ; and if so, we 
 should indeed highly estimate those who 
 have been the improvers of our horticulture ; 
 for, as Socrates says, " it is the source of 
 health, strength, plenty, riches, and of a 
 thousand sober delights and honest plea- 
 sures. ' " It is the purest of human pleasures," 
 says our own Verulam. It is amid its scenes 
 and pursuits that "life flows pure, the heart 
 more calmly beats." (G. W. Johnson's 
 History of Gardening.') 
 
 GARDEN WARBLER. See Warbler. 
 
 GARGET. In farriery, a disease in the 
 udders of cows, arising from inflammation of 
 the lymphatic glands. It is also a distemper 
 incident to hogs ; and which is known by 
 their hanging down their heads, and carrying 
 them on one side, moist eyes, staggering, and 
 loss of appetite. 
 
 In order to remove the disease in cows, 
 where the inflammation is great, the cow 
 should be. bled, a dose of physic administered, 
 the udder well fomented, and the milk 
 drawn gently but completely off, at least 
 twice a day. (Youatt on Cattle, p. 553.) 
 When the disease happns to hogs, they 
 
 may also be bled, and should have warm 
 stimulating cordial drinks. 
 
 GARLIC. (Allium, from the Celt, all, hot 
 or burning.) Under this name Sir J. Smith, 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 133.) enumerates 
 seven native species ; viz. 
 
 1. The great round-headed garlic (A. 
 ampeloprasurn.) A rare plant, found occa- 
 sionally in open hilly places. The stem is two 
 or three feet high, and the herbage some- 
 what similar to that of the leek ; the white 
 globose bulbs or cloves increase rapidly in 
 a garden, by lateral offsets, till they compose 
 a mass as big as a man's head, resembling a 
 bunch of grapes. The scent of the whole 
 plant is strong, and of the most disagreeable 
 kind. 
 
 2. The sand garlic (A. arenarium), found 
 in mountainous woods and fields in the north, 
 on a sandy soil ; stem two or three feet high, 
 bulbs small, ovate, with many purplish 
 
 offsets. 
 
 3. The mountain garlic (A. carinatum) 
 which is nearly related to the next following 
 species, though differing in the flatter form 
 of its leaves. 
 
 4. The streaked field or wild garlic (A. 
 oleraceum) found in pastures, meadows, 
 corn fields, and their borders — producing 
 whitish green blossoms in J uly. The whole 
 plant has an unpleasant scent of garlic, and 
 is a very troublesome weed, difficult of ex- 
 tirpation, though not of common occurrence. 
 It is eaten by cattle, sheep, and hogs, and 
 the tender leaves, boiled in soups, or fried 
 with other herbs, form an wholesome article 
 of food. 
 
 5. The crow garlic (A. vineale) which grows 
 in dry pastures, corn fields, and waste ground 
 among ruins, especially on a chalky or 
 gravelly soil. The stem is slender, about 
 two feet high, bulb small, ovate, white, 
 flowers small, pale rose-coloured. 
 
 6: The broad-leaved garlic or ramsons 
 (A. ursinnm), which grows in moist woods, 
 hedges, and meadows, and produces large 
 white flowers, that blow in the months of 
 May and June. Every part of the plant, when 
 trodden upon, or otherwise bruised, exhales 
 the strong odour of its genus. This species 
 is eaten by cows ; but if they feed on it ever 
 so sparingly, it communicates its nauseous 
 flavour to the milk and butter to such a 
 degree as to render those articles offensive 
 during the spring. It should therefore be 
 carefully eradicated as an intolerable nui- 
 sance from all pastures. It affords an ex- 
 cellent remedy for driving away rats and 
 moles, and it is said the plant will not suffer 
 any other vegetable to thrive near it. 
 
 7. Chive garlic (A.schamoprasuni), which 
 is rare, but sometimes found in meadows 
 and pastures, and was formerly in great re- 
 
GARLIC. 
 
 GASES. 
 
 quest as an ingredient in salads, but has 
 been latterly neglected. See Chives. 
 
 The cultivated varieties are — Common 
 garlic (A. sativum), which is a hardy plant, 
 native of Sicily, capable of growing in 
 almost any soil. It is generally propa- 
 gated by the cloves obtained by parting 
 the root, but may be raised from the bulbs 
 produced on the stems. The planting 
 may be performed any time in February, 
 March, and early in April, but the middle 
 of the second is the usual time of insertion. 
 A single clove to be placed in each one of 
 holes made six inches apart and one and a 
 half deep, in straight lines, six inches dis- 
 tant from each other, care being taken to 
 set the root end downwards ; to do this 
 with the greatest facility, it is the best 
 practice to thrust the finger and thumb, 
 holding a clove between them, to the re- 
 quisite depth, without any previous hole 
 being made. 
 
 The only cultivation required is to keep 
 them clean of weeds, and in June the leaves 
 to be tied in knots, to prevent their running 
 to seed, which would greatly diminish the 
 size of the bulbs. A few roots may be 
 taken up as required in June and July, but 
 the whole must not be lifted until the leaves 
 wither, which occurs at the close of July, 
 or in the course of August. It is usual to 
 leave a part of the stalk attached, by which 
 they are tied into bundles, being previously 
 well dried by exposure to the sun and 
 air, for keeping during the winter. 
 
 Rochambole, or, as it is sometimes called, 
 Spanish garlic (A. scorodoprasum), has its 
 bulbs or cloves growing in a cluster, form- 
 ing a kind of compound root. The stem 
 bears many bulbs at its summit, which, as 
 well as those of the root, are often preferred 
 in cooking to garlic, being of much milder 
 flavour. It is best propagated by the root 
 bulbs ; those of the stem being slower in 
 production. The plantation may be made 
 either in February, March, or early part of 
 April, as well as throughout the autumn. 
 They may be inserted either in drills or by 
 the dibble, in rows six inches apart each 
 way, and usually two inches within the 
 ground, though this, as well as the preced- 
 ing variety, would thrive better if grown on 
 the surface. A very small bed is sufficient 
 for the supply of the largest family. See 
 Shalot and Leek. 
 
 Besides the above, there are large num- 
 bers of different foreign species, most of 
 which are pretty : they increase abundantly 
 from offsets. The onion, leek, garlic, sha- 
 lot, chives, &c, all agree in their stimulant, 
 diuretic, and expectorant effects, differing 
 in degree of activity. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Kitch. Gard. ; Smith's Engl. Flor. ; WillicVs 
 535 
 
 Dom. Ency. ; Loudon's Ency. of Gard. ; 
 Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 GARNER. A term used provincially to 
 signify a granary, or repository for corn ; 
 also a binn or a mill. See Granary. 
 
 GARTH. A country word, signifying a 
 small garden, yard, backside, or croft. 
 
 GAS, AMMOjSTIACAL. See Saline 
 Substances ; their uses to vegetation. 
 
 GASES, their uses to vegetation. It is 
 not, I think, necessary, in drawing the 
 cultivator's attention to the uses of that 
 great portion of the food of plants which 
 they imbibe in the state of gas, or of aque- 
 ous vapour, to enlarge upon the importance 
 of the question, since that is a truth which, 
 as illustrating the value of certain modes of 
 cultivation, I hope to render intelligible in 
 the following paper, as I examine in succes- 
 sion the advantages of the gases and vapour 
 of the atmosphere, as well as those emitted 
 during putrefaction, to the commonly cul- 
 tivated crops of the farmer. And even if 
 the accomplished farmer shall dissent from 
 some or all of my conclusions, he will yet 
 readily admit that all such observations, 
 with regard to the habits and food of plants, 
 and their ready absorption by the soil, can- 
 not be too generally understood and acted 
 upon by the cultivators of our island. 
 
 That the atmospheric air exerts an ex^ 
 tensive and very important influence upon 
 vegetation, is a fact which has been well 
 known from the earliest days of agriculture. 
 Too many circumstances combine to render 
 this truth apparent to the very meanest cul- 
 tivator for it long to escape observation. 
 The superior luxuriance of the borders of 
 all growing crops, from those of the field to 
 the outer circle of timber in a wood, natu- 
 rally pointed out that something was gained 
 by these, of which the inner sheltered por- 
 tions were partially deprived. And that 
 this something was the air of the atmo- 
 sphere, appears to have been the conclusion 
 of the early Italian cultivators, who, on all 
 occasions, were attentive to let their crops 
 enjoy as much of the breeze as possible, — 
 an object which they endeavoured to attain, 
 not only by an attentive consideration of 
 the natural and acquired habits of the plants 
 in transplanting them, but also by increas- 
 ing the access of air to their roots by deep 
 and regular periodical stirrings of the soil 
 around them. Thus Cato, the earliest of 
 their agricultural writers, whose works re- 
 main to us, when instructing the Roman 
 farmers as to the best mode of cultivating 
 the vine and the olive, advised them, if they 
 wished their vines and olive-trees to grow 
 luxuriantly, to stir the trenches around them 
 once a month, until they were three years 
 old ; and he adds, " bestow the same care 
 
 M M 4 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 upon other trees :" (lib. xliii.) And Virgil, 
 when commending the very doubtful plan of 
 paring and burning lands, alludes to the same 
 well-known advantage of a free and copious 
 supply of air to the roots of plants, when he 
 says, " the heat opens more ways and hid- 
 den rents for the air, through which the 
 dews penetrate to the embryo plants." 
 (Georg.i. 90,91.) They, in fact, consi- 
 dered, in common with the Greek philoso- 
 phers, that air was one of the four ele- 
 of which all substances were composed; but 
 then, as in those days, the air of the atmo- 
 sphere was considered to be a simple body, 
 we need not search in the works of the 
 early agricultural writers for any evidence 
 of very definite ideas of the mode of its 
 action. That the air they breathed was 
 highly serviceable to plants of all kinds was 
 the extent of their information ; they had 
 no knowledge of the existence of three dis- 
 tinct gases in the atmosphere. That was a 
 discovery reserved for modern ages — for 
 the days of Priestley, and the dawn of 
 pneumatic chemistry in England. When, 
 therefore, the early cultivators made the 
 observation, that the free supply of air to 
 the leaves and roots of plants materially 
 promoted their growth, they did what too 
 many modern agriculturists have since done, 
 merely noticed the effect without making 
 any very accurate inquiries as to the cause 
 of the benefit ; they were too often content, 
 in fact, with merely substituting words as 
 an explanation of facts. It is probable that 
 the early Greek and Italian philosophers 
 were farther led to this knowledge of the 
 advantages of air to vegetation, from no- 
 ticing the power which some eastern plants 
 possess, such as the Flos ceris and others, 
 of entirely supporting themselves upon the 
 nourishment they derive from the atmo- 
 sphere, even when suspended by a string 
 from the ceiling of a room, — many para- 
 sitical plants subsist upon hardly any thing 
 else; thus, some of the mosses of this 
 country cling to life, and even grow well, 
 in situations where hardly any thing except 
 air and moisture can nourish them : some 
 of the aloe tribe do the same. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas. — When, however, 
 later ages had acquired the knowledge that 
 it was only a portion of the air that main- 
 tained vegetable and animal life, or sup- 
 ported combustion, new views opened upon 
 the chemical philosopher. It became then 
 a question of considerable interest to ascer- 
 tain which portion of the atmosphere it was 
 that the plant absorbed; and it was speedily 
 ascertained by Dr. Priestley and other che- 
 mist s, that the portion of the atmosphere 
 which the leave? of all plants absorb in the 
 light is the carbonic acid gas or fixed air — 
 
 a gas composed of 27*27 parts carbon, and 
 72-73 parts oxygen, — and that this car- 
 bonic acid gas is always contained in the 
 atmosphere, in the proportion of about one 
 part in 500. The question thus became one 
 of some interest to ascertain, whether a 
 larger volume of carbonic acid gas would 
 promote, in a still greater degree, the growth 
 of plants, such as in an impure confined 
 portion of air spoiled by the breathing of 
 animals, or exhausted of its oxygen gas or 
 vital air by combustion, since both these 
 varieties of air contain a very considerably 
 increased proportion of carbonic acid gas. 
 Many very accurate experiments speedily 
 demonstrated that such foul air materially 
 increased the luxuriance of vegetables con- 
 fined in them, and that plants possessed 
 also the power of restoring to such ex- 
 hausted air the portion of oxygen which 
 either fire or the breathing of animals had 
 removed : thus, a confined portion of air, 
 in which a mouse had died in ten minutes 
 for want of air, having had a sprig of mint 
 introduced into it for some hours, was then 
 found to be so replenished with vital air, 
 that a second mouse being placed in it lived 
 as long as the former mouse ; and, by simi- 
 lar treatments, a lighted taper being merely 
 substituted for the mouse, the same effect 
 was produced — the exhausted air was again 
 replenished with oxygen gas. 
 
 These facts naturally opened new views. 
 It then became an interesting object to 
 ascertain the proportion of the carbonic 
 acid gas in the atmospheric air, which pos- 
 sessed the maximum advantage to vegeta- 
 tion ; and it was found, that, in pure 
 carbonic acid gas, plants would not vege- 
 tate at all, or in air containing 75 per cent, 
 of it, but that, when the proportion present 
 in common air was reduced to 50 per 
 cent., then the plants confined in it slowly 
 vegetated, and that they grew more freely 
 when the proportion was 25 per cent. ; still 
 better when it was 12£ per cent. ; and that 
 when it was reduced to only 9 per cent., 
 then they flourished much better than in 
 common atmospheric air. It was remarked, 
 however, that the increased presence of 
 carbonic acid gas was only beneficial to 
 plants when they were vegetating in the 
 light, but that, when this was excluded, the 
 carbonic acid gas was rather prejudicial to 
 their growth than otherwise ; that, in fact, 
 all plants, though they absorb it in the 
 light, yet in the dark emit this gas. It was 
 ascertained, however, that the presence of 
 it in their atmosphere was absolutely essen- 
 tial to all plants vegetating in the light ; 
 that they grew when it was present, and 
 that all vegetation was stopped by its with- 
 drawal. 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 These results naturally led to the addi- 
 tional inquiry, Whether the presence of 
 carbonic acid gas in water produced the 
 same results on plants, since it was well 
 known that, when plants were immersed in 
 water, and exposed to the sun's rays, they 
 emitted bubbles of oxygen gas, by decom- 
 posing the carbonic acid gas, and setting its 
 oxygen free. Various kinds of water were 
 tried, containing different proportions of 
 carbonic acid gas ; and the beneficial result 
 upon vegetation was found to be exactly 
 proportionate to the quantity of carbonic 
 acid gas which they contained. In pump- 
 water, they yielded the most oxygen ; from 
 river water a smaller quantity ; but from 
 boiled water, little or none. Now, by boil- 
 ing, all the gases are driven out of water ; 
 and this is the reason why such water is 
 flat and insipid. And yet it was found, 
 that when the boiled water was again im- 
 pregnated with carbonic acid gas, those 
 plants confined in it emitted as much oxygen 
 gas as they did before it was boiled ; and, 
 finally, that when the plants had exhausted 
 the water of carbonic acid gas, then they 
 ceased to emit oxygen. 
 
 The quantity of carbonic acid gas which is 
 emitted by plants, varies in different species. 
 Thus, M. Saussure found that the purple 
 loose-strife (Lythrum salicaria) absorbed in 
 twelve hours seven or eight times its bulk; 
 while the Cactus opuntia, in common with 
 other fleshy-leaved plants, did not absorb 
 above l-5th of that amount. In these ex- 
 periments, however, the atmosphere in which 
 the plants were confined, contained 7% per 
 cent, of this gas ; so that when they are 
 vegetating in the open atmosphere, in which 
 the proportion of this gas does not exceed 
 one part in a thousand, the quantity ab- 
 sorbed is considerably less. 
 
 This absorption of the carbonic acid gas, 
 the cultivator should clearly understand, in- 
 fluences in a great degree the composition 
 of the plant. All those vegetable carbona- 
 ceous nutritious substances which are found 
 in plants, such as gum and sugar, are in- 
 creased in quantity by its copious supply ; 
 for when this gas is no longer secreted by 
 the plant, its health becomes languid, and 
 its composition more watery. Thus, a Byssus 
 vegetating in the dark (when carbonic acid 
 gas is emitted by plants), was analysed by 
 M. Chaptal, and found to contain only l-89th 
 of its weight of carbonaceous matter ; but 
 when, after it had been allowed to vegetate 
 for thirty days in the light, it was again ex- 
 amined, it was found to contain I -24th of 
 its weight of carbonaceous matter. Similar 
 results were obtained by M. Sennebier, who 
 found that when plants were made to 
 vegetate in the dark they contained much 
 537 
 
 less oil than those vegetating in the light. — 
 their resinous matter being then as 2 to 5£, 
 compared with those vegetating in the light. 
 They had even less earthy matters by one 
 half; but then they had exactly double the 
 quantity of water that the light-growing 
 plants possessed. 
 
 Such, then, are the results of the free 
 access of the carbonic acid gas of the atmo- 
 sphere to the leaves of plants, — it promotes 
 their growth, increases their vigour, and 
 enriches their secretions. The ^application 
 of the same gas to their roots, although it 
 has not been examined with the same care 
 as its action upon their leaves, is yet evi- 
 dently attended with the highest advantage. 
 Thus, this gas is one of the constant pro- 
 ducts of putrefaction, wherever this is going 
 on ; as over stagnant drains, dung-heaps, 
 and other putrefying matters : there, vege- 
 tation is sure to be rankly luxuriant, and 
 that, too, in situations where the roots of 
 the plants are far removed from imme- 
 diate contact with the decomposing organic 
 matters. This may be easily shown by the 
 repetition of a very simple experiment, 
 which was first made by Davy. This great 
 chemist filled a glass retort, capable of con- 
 taining three pints, with the hot fermenting 
 dung and litter of cattle, and examined the 
 elastic fluids which were generated. In 
 35 cubic inches which were thus produced 
 in three days, he found 21 of carbonic acid 
 gas, the remainder being chiefly nitrogen ; 
 and after thus ascertaining the composition 
 of these gases, he introduced the beak of 
 another retort, filled in a similar manner, 
 in the soil under the roots of some grass 
 growing in the border of a garden. In less 
 than a week, a very remarkable effect was 
 produced on the grass exposed to the ac- 
 tion of these gaseous matters of putrefac- 
 tion ; their colour became deeper, and their 
 growth was much more luxuriant, than the 
 grass in any other part of the garden. And 
 hence, too, is derived one of the chief ad- 
 vantages of applying organic matters to the 
 soil, and that in as immediate contact with 
 the crop as possible, just as is effected when 
 manures are added to the soil by the drill ; 
 for the roots or leaves of the plants are, by 
 the adoption of this plan, immediately in 
 contact with the evolved carbonic acid, and 
 other gases of putrefaction : they are thus 
 readily absorbed as they are generated, and 
 nothing is lost by escaping into the at- 
 mosphere. The gas, in fact, is instantly, 
 yet gradually, transmuted from the putre- 
 fying products of the farm-yard into the 
 flour of the wheat, or the nutritive matters 
 of the grasses. And there is yet another 
 chemical reason why the manure-drill, or 
 any other machine, shoidd be adopted by 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 the farmer to bring, as closely as possible, 
 every plant into immediate contact with 
 the decomposing manure he applies to his 
 soil; and that is, the superior readiness 
 with which, in all cases of decomposition, 
 the disengaged substance enters into new 
 combinations at the very instant of its dis- 
 engagement, than it does after it has been 
 completely formed. Thus, to give an in- 
 stance, during the putrefactive fermenta- 
 tion of vegetable substances, a quantity of 
 nitrogen \% disengaged ; and if this takes 
 place under certain favourable circum- 
 stances, — such as the presence of calca- 
 reous matters, potash, and a dry warm 
 temperature at the moment it is formed, — 
 the nitrogen combines with oxygen, forms 
 nitric acid, which unites with the potash, and 
 thus nitrate of potash, or saltpetre, is formed ; 
 but if the nitrogen is once fairly disengaged, 
 almost every endeavour of the chemist has 
 failed in making it unite with oxygen, so as 
 to form the acid of saltpetre. 
 
 In every way, therefore, in which the 
 question of applying manures in immediate 
 contact with the roots of plants can be 
 viewed, the more advisable does the adop- 
 tion of the practice appear. 
 
 The important services of the carbonic 
 acid gas of the atmosphere to vegetation 
 have been illustrated in various ways by 
 more than one able chemist. That given 
 by Professor J. F. Johnston, in his able 
 Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry, p. 218., 
 is, perhaps, the most recent and the most 
 practical. He observes, " If we were to 
 examine the soil of a field on which we are 
 about to raise a crop of corn, and should 
 •find it to contain a certain per centage, say 
 10 per cent, of vegetable matter (or 5 per 
 cent, of carbon), and after the crop is raised 
 and reaped should, on a second examin- 
 ation, find it to contain exactly the same 
 weight of carbon as before, we could not 
 resist the conviction that, with the excep- 
 tion of what was originally in the seed, the 
 plant, during its growth, had drawn from 
 the air all the carbon it contained. The 
 soil having lost none, the air must have 
 yielded the whole supply. Such was the 
 principle on which Boussingault's experi- 
 ments were conducted. He determined the 
 per centage of carbon in the soil before the 
 experiment was begun ; the weight added 
 in the form of manure ; the quantity con- 
 tained in the series of crops raised during 
 an entire rotation or course of cropping, 
 until, in the mode of culture adopted, it was 
 usual to add manure again ; and, lastly, the 
 •roportion of carbon remaining in the soil, 
 iy this method he obtained the following 
 results, in pounds per English acre: — From 
 a course of, 1. Potatoes or red beet, with 
 538 
 
 manure ; 2. Wheat ; 3. Clover ; 4. Wheat ; 
 5. Oats. Carbon in the manure, &c, 25 13 lbs.; 
 carbon in the crops, 7544 lbs. ; difference, 
 or carbon derived from the air, 5031 lbs." 
 
 The result of this course indicates that 
 the land, remaining in equal condition at the 
 end of the four years as it was at the be- 
 ginning, the crops collected during these 
 years contained three times the quantity of 
 carbon present in the manure, and there- 
 fore the plants, during their growth, must, 
 on the whole, have derived two thirds of 
 their carbon from the air. 
 
 Oxygen. — Oxygen gas, or vital air, which 
 constitues 21 per cent, of the bulk of the 
 air we breathe, is absolutely essential to the 
 growth of plants. If this is withdrawn 
 from the atmosphere, they will no longer 
 vegetate, — their leaves can no longer per- 
 form their functions. But this use of oxygen 
 by the leaves of vegetables is confined to 
 the night ; it is only in the dark that they 
 absorb it. During this absorption, the 
 leaves of some plants — such as the Cactus 
 opuntia and the houseleek (Sempervivum 
 tectorum) — do not emit any portion of 
 carbonic acid gas ; but the common oak 
 (Quercus Robur), the yellow stone crop 
 (Sedum reflexum), and the great majority of 
 plants, emit a considerable portion, not equal, 
 however, in amount to the oxygen gas 
 which has been imbibed ; and this absorbed 
 oxygen enters, there is little doubt, into 
 immediate combination with other sub- 
 stances, and forms vegetable matters in other 
 shapes. A variety of experiments have, in 
 fact, been made to ascertain this. Thus, the 
 leaves of plants which have but recently 
 absorbed a portion of oxygen gas have been 
 exposed in the exhausted receiver of an 
 air-pump. Other leaves have been sub- 
 mitted to the greatest heat they could bear 
 without undergoing combustion, but in nei- 
 ther case was any oxygen gas extricated 
 from them. And it has been noted that 
 those plants which absorb the greatest pro- 
 portion of oxygen during the night, are 
 precisely those which evolve the most con- 
 siderable quantity of carbonic acid gas 
 during the day. 
 
 Plants of different kinds vary very much 
 in the quantity of oxygen which they ab- 
 sorb. Fleshy-leaved plants, which emit 
 little or no carbonic acid gas, absorb very 
 little oxygen ; and these plants, it may be 
 remarked (says Dr. Thomson), can vegetate 
 in elevated situations, where the air is very 
 rarefied. Next in order come the evergreen 
 trees, which, although they absorb more; 
 oxygen than the fleshy-leaved plants, yet 
 require much less than those which lose 
 their leaves during winter. Those plants 
 which flourish in marshy ground likewise 
 
 i 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 absorb but little oxygen. M. Saussure tried 
 a great number of experiments on this sub- 
 ject, with a variety of plants of different 
 kinds. The following are some of his re- 
 sults : in every case, the weight of the 
 leaves is supposed to be equal to 1*00, and 
 the bulk of oxygen is expressed in the table. 
 (Recherches, p. 99.) 
 
 Quantity of oxygen 
 absorbed. 
 
 Leaves of Evergreens. 
 Prunus lauro-cerasus - - May 3'20 
 
 Vinca minor (lesser periwinkle) - June T50 
 Pinus abies (the fir) - - Sept. 3-00 
 
 Juniperus Sabina - June 2'60 
 
 Leaves of Trees which lose them in Winter. 
 Quercus Robur (the oak) - - May 5'50 
 Populus alba (the abele) - - May 6 20 
 
 — — Sept. 4-36 
 Amygdalus Persica ... - June 6*60 
 
 — _ - Sept. 4-20 
 Rosa centifolia - June 5*40 
 
 Leaves of Herbaceous Plants. 
 Solanum tuberosum (the potato) Sept. 2*50 
 Brassica oleracea (the cabbage) 1 g g 2>4 ^ 
 
 — — young leaves J P ' 
 
 — — old leaves - Sept. 2-00 
 Viciafaba (the vetch), before flowering 3 70 
 
 — in flower - - 2*00 
 
 — after flowering - - 1*60 
 Brassica Rapa (the turnip), in flower 1 "25 
 Avena sativa (the oat) - - June 270 
 Triticum sestivum ... May 5*00 
 Pisum sativum (the pea) - - May 372 
 Ruta graveolens - Aug. 2-00 
 
 Leaves of Aquatic Plants. 
 Alisma Plantago - Aug. 070 
 
 Polygonum persicaria - - Sept., 2*00 
 Ly thrum salicaria - May 2*30 
 
 Carex acuta - May 2*25 
 
 Ranunculus reptans - Sept. 1-50 
 
 Leaves of the Fleshy Plants. 
 Cactus opuntia ... Aug. 1*00 
 
 Agave Americana ... Aug. 0*80 
 Seinpervivum tectorum - •• July 1*00 
 Stapelia variegata - July 0*63 
 
 Saussure continued his researches upon 
 the uses of oxygen gas to vegetation. He 
 found that it was essential to many of its 
 functions, — that it was absorbed not only 
 by the leaves, but by the roots of plants, — 
 that it then combined with carbon, and the 
 carbonic acid gas thus formed was thence 
 transmitted to the leaves to be decomposed : 
 the very stems and branches of plants ab- 
 sorb it, and its presence is essential to the 
 expansion of flowers ; in its absence, seeds 
 will not germinate, and hence the reason 
 why they will not vegetate when placed 
 beyond a certain depth in the soil. The 
 quantity of oxygen gas consumed during 
 their germination, by equal weights of dif- 
 ferent seeds, varies considerably. Wheat 
 and barley consume less oxygen than pease, 
 539 
 
 and pease less than common broad and kid- 
 ney-beans, — the latter consuming -7777th 
 part of their weight, while wheat and barley, 
 during their germination, only absorb from 
 — ' nTr t h to .^Vft th their weight of oxygen gas. 
 Recent experiments have shown, also, that 
 the more water is impregnated with oxygen 
 gas, the more excellent are its effects when 
 employed for the purpose of watering plants ; 
 and hence one of the causes of the supe- 
 riority of rain-water, every 100 cubic inches 
 of which contains 35 of oxygen gas. Some 
 recent experiments were made by Mr. Hill, 
 which clearly demonstrated these facts. 
 Hyacinths, melons, Indian corn, and other 
 plants, were watered for some time with 
 water impregnated with oxygen gas ; the 
 first grew with additional beauty and luxu- 
 riance, the melons were improved in flavour, 
 the Indian corn increased in bulk, so as " to 
 equal in size most of those imported from 
 North America," and all of them grew more 
 vigorously. 
 
 The uses, therefore, of oxygen gas to 
 plants are many and important, and accord 
 with the conclusions which naturally sug- 
 gest themselves from the results of the 
 analysis of vegetable substances, from whence 
 oxygen is never absent ; it must be there- 
 fore one of the necessary supporters of vege- 
 table life. 
 
 Nitrogen. — This is the last atmospheric 
 gas which exerts its influence upon vege- 
 tation, and enters in small proportions into 
 the composition of plants. Entering in the 
 large proportion of 79 per cent, into the 
 composition of the atmosphere, it is yet sup- 
 posed to exert but a slight influence upon 
 vegetation. It is found in much smaller 
 proportions in plants than either oxygen 
 gas or carbonic acid gas, although recent 
 researches have shown that it is much more 
 commonly present in vegetable substances 
 than was once supposed ; and, as I have 
 elsewhere observed, (Johnson on Fertilisers, 
 p. 338.) that it exerts a more sensible influ- 
 ence upon their growth than is commonly 
 believed, is very certain, and that the pro- 
 portion of it present in them varies with the 
 different states of their growth, has been 
 clearly shown by the experiments of Mr. 
 Robert Rigg, who found in 100 parts of 
 
 Parts of nitrogen. 
 The flour of -wheat unripe - - 2-9 
 
 The same nearly ripe - - 2*3 
 
 Leaves of wheat unripe - - 3 '3 
 
 — — nearly ripe - - 2*1 
 Stem of wheat unripe - . 3-5 
 
 — — nearly ripe - -1*3 
 Chaff of wheat unripe - - 1*8 
 
 — — nearly ripe - 1-3 
 Common grass, not growing freely - 4*4 
 
 — — growing freely - 5*6 
 Turnip, when attacked by the fly - 8-0 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 Parts of nitrogen . 
 
 Cabbage, not attacked by insects 
 
 - 8*1 
 
 — partly eaten by insects 
 
 - 5*7 
 
 The insects themselves 
 
 - 14*0 
 
 Red clover stems 
 
 - 2-5 
 
 Leaf of do. - 
 
 4*2 
 
 Flower of do. 
 
 - 3-6 
 
 if otato ltsen 
 
 2*9 
 
 — stem 
 
 - 3-1 
 
 — leaves 
 
 - 8-5 
 
 — apple - 
 
 - 3-9 
 
 — corolla 
 
 - 3-9 
 
 — pistils 
 
 - 4-6 
 
 It is also well worthy of the farmer's at- 
 tention, that Mr. Rigg found that when 
 barley was made to vegetate in the shade, 
 the increase in the quantity of its nitrogen 
 was nearly 50 per cent., but when vege- 
 tating exposed to the direct rays of the 
 sun, the increase was only 30 per cent. ; 
 and he also made the observation, that the 
 more rapidly the plants vegetate, the more 
 nitrogen they are found to contain. It is 
 also well known to the cultivator, that 
 plants growing in the shade have usually a 
 deep green colour, vegetating with much 
 luxuriance, and that certain animal ma- 
 nures applied to plants produce similar re- 
 sults in a remarkable degree, such as gelatin, 
 oils, urine, blood, fish, ammonia, &c. Now 
 these fertilisers all contain nitrogen, and 
 which gas must be evolved in some shape 
 or other during their decomposition in the 
 soil; — gelatin, containing 16 998 per cent., 
 albumen 15705, the fibrin of blood 19-934, 
 urea 46*66 per cent. ; and although nitrogen 
 usually exists in plants in very small pro- 
 portions, yet I am entirely disposed to agree 
 with Mr. Rigg in his conclusion, that more 
 attention should be paid than has hitherto 
 been done, in the examination of vegetable 
 substances, " to those products, which, though 
 so minute in quantity as to be with difficulty 
 detected in our balances, have nevertheless 
 been wisely assigned to discharge the most 
 important functions." (Phil. Trans. 1838, 
 p. 406.) 
 
 Such, then, are the essential and highly 
 important uses of the three gases of the at- 
 mosphere, nitrogen, oxygen, and carbonic 
 acid, 1 to all vegetation ; an attentive con- 
 sideration of which will explain to the 
 farmer the cause of many of the phenomena 
 he daily witnesses, and suggest to him un- 
 answerable arguments for the adoption of 
 those modes of cultivating his land, the re- 
 sults of careful and scientific investigations, 
 which such chemical researches suggest and 
 render intelligible. 
 
 Thus, the absolute necessity for all crops 
 receiving a regular supply of carbonic acid 
 gas, will explain to him why his crops al- 
 ways yield an inferior produce when they 
 are surrounded l>y thick plantations of tim- 
 540 
 
 ber trees ; and Avhy the portion of all kinds 
 of plantations growing on the side of the 
 field the most exposed to the winds is 
 almost always of the most luxuriant growth ; 
 it will explain to him the reason why many 
 skilful farmers drill their corn, so that the 
 most prevalent winds may, with the more 
 facility, circulate along the rows, instead of 
 across them ; and why all farmers find that 
 their crops prosper better in moderately 
 windy weather than in calms ; since in all 
 these instances, and in many other well- 
 known popular observations of the same 
 kind, the copious supply of the carbonic 
 acid and oxygen gases of the atmosphere is 
 naturally impeded by thick plantations of 
 other vegetable substances, and promoted 
 by the winds. 
 
 The consumption of oxygen gas by the 
 roots of plants, and their increase of growth 
 and vigour when their usually impeded 
 supply is increased, is equally fraught with 
 instruction to the cultivator; for it serves 
 to explain the reason why stirring the soil 
 around the roots of trees, according to the 
 fashion of the early vine and olive cultiva- 
 tors of Italy, or merely disturbing the earth 
 between the rows of cabbages and turnips, 
 as practised by the best English farmers, is 
 attended with decided advantage, since it 
 suffers the air to have more free access to 
 their roots. It renders apparent, too, one of 
 the chief reasons why mere subsoil-ploughing 
 adds so materially to the luxuriant produce 
 of even the poorest cultivated lands, since, 
 as the soil is deepened and pulverised, the 
 atmosphere more freely and more copiously 
 penetrates to the roots of the vegetation it 
 supports. The same facts explain the ad- 
 vantages of deep-ploughing, of sub-turf 
 ploughing, and of trenching ; why the indo- 
 lent farmer in vain tries to render productive 
 his shallow-ploughed lands ; and why, when 
 the industrious cottager encloses his garden 
 from the barren waste, too poor to suffi- 
 ciently manure it, he yet renders it produc- 
 tive of excellent crops, by merely trenching 
 it to the depth of eighteen or twenty inches. 
 
 And it is vain for the cultivator to urge 
 that this benefit is not to be mainly attri- 
 buted to the freer circulation in the soil of 
 the gases and watery vapour of the atmo- 
 sphere, but that it is owing to the mixture 
 of the surface-soil with the substratum. For 
 such a conclusion is not only opposed by the 
 fact, that many soils do not differ in com- 
 position from the substratum on which they 
 rest, and yet are materially benefited by 
 trenching or subsoiling, but is contradicted 
 by many agricultural facts with which every 
 cultivator is familiar; and if any other an- 
 swer were requisite, that would be amply 
 supplied by the recent experiments of Sir 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 Edward Stracey , with his new subturf plough, 
 which merely passes under the turf at a 
 depth of ten inches, and disturbs and loosens 
 very effectually the soil ; but when the plough 
 has passed under, every thing resumes its 
 former position, although every portion of 
 the superstratum has been thoroughly agi- 
 tated, and rendered more permeable to the 
 atmosphere. The soil is neither displaced 
 nor mixed, and yet this mere loosening is 
 productive of the highest advantage, the 
 produce of grass is extensively and perma- 
 nently improved. Sir Edward Stracey, after 
 describing the increased produce of the grass 
 as being very remarkable, tells us, that 
 there are no marks left by which it can be 
 known that the land has been so ploughed, 
 except from the lines of the coulter, at the 
 distance of about fourteen inches one from 
 another. In about three months from the 
 time of ploughing, these lines are totally 
 obliterated, and yet the quantity of after- 
 math, and the thickness of the bottom, have 
 been the subject of admiration of all his 
 neighbours. (Jour. Eng. Agri. Soc, vol. i. 
 p. 253.) 
 
 And then, with regard to the carbonic 
 acid and the carburetted and sulphuretted 
 hydrogen gases evolved during the putre- 
 faction of animal and vegetable manures, 
 the discoveries of the chemist are equally 
 instructive and confirmatory of the observ- 
 ations of the intelligent farmer; the one 
 finds that these gases, so grateful to the 
 farmer's crops, are the most copiously emit- 
 ted in the early stages of putrefaction ; 
 that these gradually decrease in volume as 
 the fermentation proceeds ; and finally, when 
 the mass is reduced to the state of vege- 
 table mould, cease altogether. Now the 
 farmer is well aware that the manure of the 
 farm-yard, in common with all organic de- 
 composing fertilisers, is by far the most ad- 
 vantageously applied, and produces the most 
 permanent good effect when it is used in the 
 freshest state that is at all compatible with 
 the destruction of the seeds of weeds, with 
 which such collections usually abound. He 
 is aware, that in all situations where the 
 gases of putrefaction are emitted, such as 
 near to stables, marsh-ditches, covered 
 drains, &c, that there vegetation of all kinds 
 indicates by its rank luxuriance that some 
 unusual supply of nutriment is afforded ; 
 the gardener in his best arranged hot-beds 
 notices that the gases which ascend from 
 his piles of litter through the earth (which 
 earth is not in immediate contact with the 
 dung) produce the same effects long after 
 all the warmth of putrefaction has subsided. 
 The growth of some of his plants is in this 
 way stimulated, he says, in an extraordinary 
 manner. These facts and observations are 
 541 
 
 entirely confirmed by those of the. chemist. 
 He notices that all the gases of putrefac- 
 tion are precisely those which are the most 
 nourishing to the growth of plants, — that 
 air which has been spoiled by the presence of 
 the gases evolved in putrefaction, or by the 
 breathing of animals, is exactly that which 
 is the most grateful to vegetation ; and that 
 where these gases are applied to the roots 
 of plants in the most skilful manner, so as 
 to ensure a regular steady supply, that then 
 the plant is enabled to vegetate in a most 
 vigorous and unusual manner. Thus, when 
 green manures, such as sea-weed, buck- 
 wheat, leaves of trees, fern, &c, the most 
 slowly decomposing of all vegetable manures, 
 are applied to the roots of plants, the effects, 
 according to chemical experiments, are ex- 
 cellent, and, as I have elsewhere observed ; 
 the farmer assures us that they are so. He 
 tells us that all green manures cannot be 
 employed in too fresh a state, — that the best 
 corn is grown where the richest turf has 
 preceded it, — and that where the roots, 
 stalks, and other remains of a good crop of 
 red clover have been ploughed in, that there 
 an excellent crop of wheat may be expect - 
 ed, and that when buck-wheat is ploughed 
 into the soil, this is most advantageously 
 done when the crop is coming into flower. 
 The chemist again explains this without any 
 difficulty. Davy and other chemists have 
 shown that when the flower is beginning to 
 appear, then the plant contains the largest 
 quantity of easily soluble and decomposable 
 matters ; and that when these green plants 
 are in this state buried in the soil, their fer- 
 mentation is checked and gradual, so that 
 their soluble or elastic matters are readily 
 absorbed by the succeeding crop, and every 
 portion of it becomes subservient to the de- 
 mands of other plants. No cultivator per- 
 haps ever examined this question more ac- 
 curately, or tried his experiments with more 
 neatness, than the late excellent President 
 of the London Horticultural Society, the 
 lamented Knight of Downton ; and these 
 were the more valuable, from being insti- 
 tuted to ascertain the state of decomposi- 
 tion in which decaying vegetable substances 
 could be employed most advantageously to 
 afford food to living plants. This he clearly 
 proved, however erroneous were his ex- 
 planations of his own observations and dis- 
 coveries. One of his experiments with a 
 seedling plum-tree was very remarkable. 
 He placed it in a garden pot, having pre- 
 viously filled the bottom of it with a mix- 
 ture of the living leaves and roots of various 
 grasses, covered over with a stratum of 
 mould. The plant appeared above the sur- 
 face of the ground in April, and, during its 
 growth in the summer, was three times re- 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 moved to larger pots in the green-house ; 
 in every case the bottom of them being 
 filled as at first with living grasses, covered 
 over with a layer of mould ; and by the end 
 of October its roots occupied a space of 
 about one third of a square foot, it having 
 then attained the extraordinary height of 
 nine feet seven inches. This experiment 
 was varied by Mr. Knight in several ways : 
 he drilled turnip-seed over rows manured 
 with green fern leaves, and compared the 
 produce with other rows of turnips by their 
 side, manured with rich vegetable mould ; 
 and in all cases those which grew over the 
 gradually fermenting green fern not only 
 grew more rapidly than those treated in 
 any other manner, but they were distin- 
 guished from all others in the same field by 
 their deep green colour. Now, when the 
 gases of putrefaction are mixed with the 
 roots of all growing crops, this is exactly 
 the effect produced. The most foul stink- 
 ing water, even when transparent, is ever 
 the most grateful to plants ; that from stag- 
 nant ditches, which has always a peculiar 
 taste from the carburetted hydrogen it con- 
 tains, is excellent. Every gardener prefers 
 that from ponds, however clear ; the purer 
 water from wells, he tells you, is very in- 
 ferior, it is too cold; but then he confesses, 
 that even warming it does not render it 
 equal to that from stagnant places in its 
 effects upon his plants ; so that, in which- 
 ever way the experiment is made, there is 
 no doubt of the value of these gases to the 
 cultivators crops, and he will readily there- 
 fore agree with Knight in the conclusion, 
 that any given quantity of vegetable matter 
 can generally be employed in its recent and 
 organised state, with much more advantage 
 than where it has been decomposed, " and 
 no inconsiderable portion of its component 
 parts have been dissipated and lost during 
 the progress of the putrefactive fermenta- 
 tion." (Trans. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 248.) 
 
 Aqueous Atmospheric Vapour. — The last 
 substance ever present in the atmosphere in 
 considerable proportions, and which bears a 
 very important relation to the prosperity of 
 the farmer's crop, is the aqueous vapour, 
 without whose unvaried presence no com- 
 monly cultivated plant could flourish, and 
 few exist at all. Providence, therefore, has 
 ordained that this should be ever ready to 
 meet the demands of vegetable life, and 
 that its quantity should vary with the tem- 
 perature, increase with the warmth when 
 its pressure is most needed by the plant, 
 and diminish in proportion as the air be- 
 comes cooler. Thus, at a temperature of 
 50°, supposing it to have a free communi- 
 cation with water, the atmosphere contains 
 about l-75th of its sreigkt of vapour; but 
 542 
 
 when its temperature is increased to 100°, 
 then its proportion of water is increased 
 to l-21st of its weight; and this beau- 
 tiful arrangement is the more important, 
 as Davy well observed, in the economy 
 of nature, because in very intense heats, 
 and when the soil is dry, the life of plants 
 is mainly, if not entirely, preserved by this 
 absorbent power of their leaves, and the 
 earth in which they grow, and happily this 
 watery vapour is most abundant in the at- 
 mosphere when it is most needed for the 
 purposes of life : when other sources of its 
 supply are cut off, this is most copious. 
 The amount, however, of the atmospheric 
 vapour varies with the kind of wind. Those 
 which have passed over warm seas contain 
 more than those which have traversed ex- 
 tensive dry countries ; that which crosses 
 the hot dry sands of Asia, and Northern 
 Africa, is so dry that it scorches as it were 
 all the adjoining countries, — it is the cause 
 of the sirocco of Malta being so noxious, 
 and why the English farmer finds that an 
 easterly wind, the driest of all our winds, 
 is the least propitious to vegetation. He 
 well knows, on the other hand, that the 
 westerly or south-western breezes, the most 
 watery of all winds, which come to his fields 
 surcharged with all the vapours of the At- 
 lantic, are precisely those which bring with 
 them luxuriance to his crops, and clothe 
 his woods with verdure. 
 
 The cultivator will derive many advan- 
 tages from a careful investigation of the 
 support yielded by the vapour of the at- 
 mosphere to his plants. He will perceive 
 that its unvaried presence affords an addi- 
 tional reason why the air should be allowed 
 to circulate freely through the well pul- 
 verised and loosened soil, to the roots of all 
 growing crops ; and let him, above all, 
 avoid the very common erroneous conclu- 
 sion, that the atmosphere is- ever dry, that 
 it no longer contains watery vapour ; for 
 the real fact is, he will find the very op- 
 posite to the common vulgar conclusion. 
 The chemist's laborious investigations have 
 clearly demonstrated, that though the 
 watery vapour varies in amount, yet it is 
 never absent from the atmosphere, but that 
 it happily always the more abounds where 
 the cultivator's crops need its assistance 
 most ; it is then the most able to furnish 
 the roots of his corn with all the moisture 
 they require; and if it is unable to pene- 
 trate to them, the fault is not in the wise eco- 
 nomy of Nature, but in the carelessness of 
 the cultivator, who is either too inattentive 
 to see the advantages which he might thus 
 freely derive, or too indolent to loosen the 
 case-hardened soil, which prevents the en- 
 trance of the requisite supply of moisture. 
 
GASES, THEIR USES TO VEGETATION. 
 
 One of the causes of the unproductiveness 
 of cold clayey adhesive soils, as Davy well 
 remarked, is, that the seed is coated with 
 matter impermeable to air. The farmer 
 can convince himself of these facts by the 
 simplest of all experiments. Let him merely 
 use his rake or his hoe, on a portion of a 
 bed of wheat, of turnips, or lettuces, or any 
 other kind of crop, and let him in the driest 
 weather merely keep this portion of soil 
 loose by this gentle stirring, and he will 
 find that, instead ot prejudicing his crop by 
 letting out the moisture, as is often igno- 
 rantly supposed, something is evidently let 
 into the soil ; for the portion thus tilled will 
 be soon visibly increased in luxuriance by 
 the mere manual labour thus bestowed ; 
 and in this experiment, which I have often 
 tried, I am supposing that both the portions 
 of the ground are equally free from weeds ; 
 that in every other respect the treatment 
 of both the tilled and undisturbed portions 
 of the experimental plot is exactly the same. 
 To a very great extent some of the best of 
 the English farmers have long found out 
 these facts, and have acted upon the dis- 
 covery. The horse-hoe of the east and 
 south of England, in the driest days of 
 summer, may be seen at work in the large 
 sandy turnip-fields of Norfolk and Suffolk 
 with unvaried regularity, not for the mere 
 destruction of weeds, for these are not the 
 abounding tenants of such skilful farmers' 
 lands, but for the chief and highly beneficial 
 purpose of increasing the circulation of the 
 gases and vapour of the air. " The longer 
 I keep stirring the soil between my turnip 
 drills," said Lord Leicester to me some 
 years since, " in dry weather, the better the 
 turnips grow." 
 
 The same uniform presence of aqueous 
 vapour which marks the atmosphere in all 
 times and seasons, in a still more remark- 
 able degree distinguishes its constituent 
 gases, for these never vary in amount in 
 any times, or seasons, or countries. The 
 atmospheric air has been analysed, when 
 obtained from the lowest valleys, and the 
 tops of the highest mountains, in crowded 
 cities, and in the open country, but its com- 
 position was always found to be the same, 
 viz. nearly 21 per cent, of oxygen, and 79 
 of nitrogen, and from 1 part in 500 to 1 
 part in 800 of carbonic acid gas. 
 
 Such, then, are the principal matters con- 
 tained in the atmosphere, or added to it by 
 putrefaction, which influence the progress 
 of vegetation. That there are other mat- 
 ters occasionally present in the air, which 
 are in all probability grateful to vegetation, 
 is very certain ; our very senses tell us that 
 there are clouds of smoke, which is a mix- 
 ture of carburetted and sulphuretted hy- 
 543 
 
 drogen, soot, and vapour, hourly hovering 
 over all large towns and cities, and which 
 huge mass the winds disperse over the 
 country. Of these the soot, and finely di- 
 vided earthy matters with which it is com- 
 bined, are very speedily deposited; it is 
 one reason why the lands near to populous 
 places are very commonly rich and fertile. 
 Ammonia has been detected in rain water. 
 That other substances also exist in the air 
 in minute yet active proportions is very 
 certain, though they are too subtle to allow 
 the chemist to detect them : thus, to such 
 finely divided matters the physician attri- 
 butes the progress of contagion — the che- 
 mical philosopher the aroma of flowers, and 
 of many other substances. Certain diseases 
 follow the course of particular winds ; and 
 the stones or fire-balls, and similar sub- 
 stances, which have in all ages been seen to 
 fall from the atmosphere, completely baffle 
 the scientific conjectures of the meteorolo- 
 gist. With such speculations, however, 
 the cultivator need not disturb himself : 
 resting contented with the knowledge he 
 possesses of the invaluable and essential 
 powers of the known gases and vapour of 
 the atmosphere to assist and sustain the 
 growth of his crops, and adopting in conse- 
 quence those improved modes of cultivation 
 which that knowledge suggests, he will pa- 
 tiently await the time when the future dis- 
 coveries of science shall still farther enlarge 
 his sphere of usefulness, by enabling him to 
 draw forth those latent powers of produc- 
 tion which, there is every reason to believe, 
 yet remain hidden in the soil. {Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 32.) 
 
 Some curious experiments upon the 
 gases hurtful to vegetation were made by M. 
 Macaire. Some plants of euphorbium, mer- 
 cury, groundsel, cabbage, and sowthistlc, 
 with their roots, were placed in the morning 
 in a large vase into which chloride of lime 
 had been introduced. The roots were then 
 separately soaked, and the quantity of 
 
 iorine disengaged was by no means suffi- 
 cient to destroy the vegetable tissue. At 
 night the plants had not suffered, and the 
 smell of the chlorine was unchanged. The 
 same plants placed in the same vase without 
 any addition of chlorine, were found quite 
 faded the next morning, with the excep- 
 tion of the cabbage. The odour of the 
 chlorine had entirely ceased, and had been 
 succeeded by a disagreeable acid smell. 
 The experiment being several times re- 
 peated, by rendering the extrication of 
 chlorine more considerable, produced the 
 same result, and the plants supported an 
 atmosphere strongly impregnated with chlo- 
 rine by day, while a much weaker dose 
 always destroyed them during- the night. 
 
GAS WORKS, THE REFUSE MATTERS OF, AS FERTILISERS. 
 
 Similar results were obtained when the 
 vapour of nitric acid was employed, nitrous 
 acid gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, and mu- 
 riatic acid gas ; and, as a general conclusion, 
 M. Macaire was of opinion, from these trials, 
 " that many of the gases are hurtful to ve- 
 getation ; but that they act on them only 
 during the absence of light." ( Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. v. p. 301.) 
 
 GAS-WORKS, the Refuse Matters of as 
 Fertilisers. It is only within these few years 
 that the attention of the farmer has been 
 attracted to the various matters produced 
 by the gas works now so common in all parts 
 of the kingdom. This attention, however, 
 is confined at present to only particular 
 localities : while in one district it is zeal- 
 ously used, and bought up with avidity, in 
 others it appears to be totally neglected. 
 In the vale of Kennet the farmers clear 
 away from the gas-works all the refuse 
 matters they can obtain, even at advanced 
 prices. Those of the valley of the Itchin, 
 in Hampshire, find it, in small proportions, 
 an excellent dressing for grass. 
 
 The refuse matters which are produced 
 during the distillation of pit coal in the gas- 
 works, consist of three substances ; the am- 
 moniacal liquor, the hydro-sulphuret of lime, 
 formed by passing the gas through lime to 
 deprive it of its sulphuretted hydrogen, 
 and the coal-tar ; these substances are 
 worthy of the cultivator's attention, for they 
 are all fertilisers of considerable value. Let 
 us examine them in the order in which I 
 have enumerated them. 
 
 1. The ammoniacal liquor obtained from 
 gas-works is an impure solution of the car- 
 bonate and acetate of ammonia ; and these 
 salts, there is little doubt, not only act as 
 stimulants to plants, but both the acids and 
 the ammonia, when decomposed, furnish 
 direct food to, or constitute parts of, vege- 
 tables. Carbonate of ammonia has been 
 detected in the stinking goose-foot (Cheno- 
 podium olidum,) by MM. Chevalier and Las- 
 saigne, and it probably exists in other plants 
 which are distinguished for their powerful 
 disagreeable odour. If the plants do not 
 contain ammonia, or its salts, it is the am- 
 monia either in the soil or the air which 
 ii (lords them the nitrogen which enters into 
 their composition. (Annals of Phil. vol. xii. 
 p. 23 1 .) Hy drochlorate of ammonia has been 
 found in wood by M. Chevreul. (Ann. de 
 Chim. 68. p. 284.) 
 
 There are many testimonials in favour of 
 the use, as fertilisers, of the salts of am- 
 monia, either in their pure state, or as found 
 in an impure combination with soot, or in 
 tlw liquor of gas works. " Soot," said Davy, 
 "owes part of its efficacy to the ammoniacal 
 salt it contains. The liquor produced by 
 544 
 
 the distillation of coal contains carbonate 
 and acetate of ammonia, and is said to be a 
 very good manure. In 1808, I observed 
 that the growth of wheat in a field at Roe- 
 hampton was greatly assisted by a very 
 weak solution of acetate of ammonia." 
 (Lectures, p. 342.) The experiments of 
 Mr. Robertson with soot clearly show the 
 fertilising effects of the soluble portion of it, 
 which is principally the salts of ammonia. 
 He mixed together, in order to form a liquid 
 manure, six quarts of soot in a hogshead of 
 water. " Asparagus, peas, and a variety of 
 other vegetables," says this intelligent hor- 
 ticulturist, " I have manured with this mix- 
 ture with as much effect as if I had used 
 solid dung ; but to plants in pots, particu- 
 larly pines, I have found it admirably 
 adapted ; when watered with it they assume 
 a dark healthy green, and grow strong and 
 luxuriant." (Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 18.) 
 Care must be taken in using this, and all 
 other liquid fertilisers, not to make the 
 solution too strong ; it is an error into which 
 all cultivators are apt to fall in their early 
 experiments. Davy was not an exception ; 
 from making his liquids too concentrated, he 
 obtained results which widely differed from 
 his later experiments. (Lectures, p. 170.) 
 There is no doubt but that the salts of am- 
 monia, and all the compound manures which 
 contain them, have a very considerable 
 forcing or stimulating effect upon vegeta- 
 tion. In the experiments of Dr. Belcher, 
 upon the common garden cress, by water- 
 ing them with a solution of phosphate of 
 ammonia, the plants were fifteen days for- 
 warder than other plants growing under si- 
 milar circumstances, but watered with plain 
 water ; and he also describes the experiment 
 of a Mr. Gregory, who by watering one 
 half of a grass field with urine (which 
 abounds with the salt of ammonia) nearly 
 doubled his crop of hay. (Com. to Board 
 of Agr. vol. iv. p. 416.) 
 
 " It is probable," says Mr. Handley, " that 
 the ammoniaca liquor which abounds in gas- 
 works, and which, when formerly allowed 
 to run waste into the Thames, was said to 
 destroy the fish and prejudice the quality 
 of the river water for human consumption, 
 and which is still thrown away throughout 
 the country, except at a few works where 
 they manufacture sal ammoniac, will, ere 
 long, be extensively used as a manure, 
 either through the intervention of the 
 water cart, or for the process of saturating 
 and decomposing soil or vegetable matter. 
 A very satisfactory illustration, on a small 
 scale, has recently been submitted by Mr- 
 Fain. He put into a vessel some leaves of 
 trees, saw-dust, chopped straw, and bran, to 
 which he applied ammonia, and closed it 
 
GAS-WORKS, THE REFUSE MATTERS OF, AS FERTILISERS. 
 
 up. In about three weeks the whole was 
 reduced to a slimy mass : he then stirred it, 
 and added a little more ammonia ; and 
 when submitted to the English Agricultural 
 Society, it was reduced to a black mass of 
 vegetable mould, strongly impregnated with 
 volatile salts, and in comminuted particles 
 similar to surface peat mould. When ap- 
 plied in its liquid form to grass, like salt, 
 it apparently destroys the plant ; but the 
 spot is distinguished by increased verdure 
 the succeeding year." (Eng. Agr. Soc. 
 Joum. vol. i. p. 46.) 
 
 Mr. Paynter, of Boskenna, in Cornwall, 
 has given the result of an experiment made 
 with "the water in which street gas had 
 been cleansed, on a piece of barley land. 
 A quarter of an acre was taken in the 
 middle of a field of rather close soil, in a 
 granite district. The land was of average 
 quality ; the gas water was distributed over 
 the quarter acre by a contrivance resem- 
 bling that of a common watering cart, and 
 at the rate of 400 gallons to the acre : about 
 a week before seed time, the rest of the 
 field was manured in the usual way. The 
 difference both in colour and vigour of the 
 barley plant was so strikingly in favour of 
 the part manured by the gas water, that 
 persons passing within view of the field 
 almost invariably came to inquire about the 
 cause. The yield also was superior, as well 
 as the after-pasture, the field having been 
 laid down with the barley." (Ibid. p. 45.) 
 
 The refuse Lime of Gas- Works. — This 
 powder is produced by passing the gas 
 through dry lime, in which operation the 
 earth combines Avith a quantity of sulphur- 
 retted hydrogen, from which the coal gas 
 needs purifying, and is partly converted 
 into hydro-sulphuret of lime : in the state 
 that the powder is usually vended by the 
 gas manufacturers, it contains a consider- 
 able portion of uncombined lime. The 
 hydro-sulphuret of lime has a bitter and 
 acrid taste ; it is soluble in water, and has 
 the peculiarly disagreeable smell of sulphu- 
 retted hydrogen. When mixed with or 
 spread upon the soil, it gradually decom- 
 poses, a portion of hydrogen separates from 
 it, and it is converted into sulphuret of 
 lime, which by absorbing oxygen from the 
 atmosphere, finally becomes sulphate of 
 lime. There is no reason, therefore, to doubt 
 the fertilising properties of this manure ; but 
 it is too powerful in its effects upon vegeta- 
 tion,to be used in the large proportions in 
 which it has been sometimes employed ; and 
 it should not, for these reasons, be added 
 to the soil immediately in contact with the 
 seed. It is generally to be obtained at a 
 very moderate rate, and by its gradual con- 
 version to sulphate of lime (gypsum), it 
 545 
 
 must be a very excellent addition to those 
 soils which are described by the farmer as 
 having become " tired of clover." 
 
 "In many parts of the country," says 
 Mr. Handley, " where gas-works are esta- 
 blished, the refuse has become an object of 
 interest to the agriculturist, as containing 
 many of the essentials of the most effective 
 manures. The refuse lime which was for- 
 merly an inconvenience to the manufac- 
 turers, and was carted away as valueless 
 rubbish, is now contracted for by the neigh- 
 bouring farmers (in an instance within my 
 own knowledge at 7*. 6d. per chaldron), 
 and applied either in compost, or in a direct 
 form, to the land, where, in addition to the 
 usual operation of lime, it is said to furnish 
 a protection against many of the noxious 
 grubs and insects." (Ibid.) 
 
 Gas Tar. — This substance being pro- 
 duced in smaller quantities, and employed 
 very commonly as a paint, has not been 
 used as a manure to any extent ; but where- 
 ever it can be obtained (as I am aware it 
 can in some places, almost for the expense 
 of carriage), it is an article every way 
 worthy of the farmer's notice. It is com- 
 posed entirely of substances which enter 
 into the composition of all plants, is gra- 
 dually decomposed in the soil, is powerful 
 in its effects, and still more so, from its 
 containing a considerable portion of the 
 carbonate and acetate of ammonia; hence 
 it is best applied mixed with earth, so as to 
 be easily and evenly spread over the ground. 
 These facts will explain some of the pheno- 
 mena witnessed in the recent experiments 
 of Mr. Bowley with gas refuse, at Sidington, 
 Gloucestershire. He says (Farm. Mag. 
 vol. ix. p. 197.), " I have long used the re- 
 fuse of the gas-house as a manure ; my usual 
 practice is to form out my compost-heap 
 with long clung about three feet deep, pour 
 the coal tar regularly over it, then put 
 another layer of dung or turf, throw up the 
 lime on the top, allow it to remain in this 
 state two or three months before it is turned. 
 The lime should not be under the tar in the 
 first instance as the tar will find its way 
 through the dung, and unite with the lime 
 into a hard cement, in which state, even if, 
 with considerable labour, it is broken into 
 small particles, I believe it to be of little 
 service on the land. 
 
 " After pursuing the above system for 
 some time, I resolved to try some experi- 
 ments with each in its unsophisticated state. 
 I accordingly commenced with the tar, 
 which I had poured out of a watering-pot, 
 in a small stream, regularly over about half 
 an acre in a field of rye-grass ; this was done 
 in February, 1838. Soon afterwards, the 
 seeds presented the rather singular appear- 
 
GATES. 
 
 ance of having been burnt in stripes with a 
 hot iron, for the tar had completely de- 
 stroyed all it touched, and I was told I had 
 poisoned the land, and it would never re- 
 cover itself; however, in June, T noticed 
 that the grass between the streams of tar 
 looked more luxuriant, and the sheep fed 
 on it in preference to the other parts of the 
 field. In the autumn the whole was ploughed, 
 and sown with wheat, which looked much 
 more nourishing on the half- acre dressed 
 with tar than any where else ; the difference 
 was so conspicuous from the first, that the 
 most casual observer could not pass with- 
 out remarking it ; and at the present time 
 (August, 1839), there is a heavy crop on it 
 ready for the sickle, while the rest of the 
 field is light, and will not be ripe for a 
 week or ten days. I put some tar in the 
 same way on a piece of land, a month before 
 it was ploughed for spring vetches ; the 
 vetches Avere sown two weeks after the 
 plough, and many of them were destroyed ; 
 but the crop of wheat which succeeded was 
 benefited equally with the one in the other 
 experiment. I have tried the lime with 
 great advantage, putting from twelve to 
 fifteen cart-loads to the acre, but I find it 
 is better to remain a time before it is 
 ploughed in. All these experiments were 
 tried on a cold sandy clay, worth about 10s. 
 per acre." In these experiments, the quan- 
 tity applied per acre was too large, and the 
 manure in a state much too powerful. It 
 was only where it had become diffused 
 through the soil by time, that its fertilising 
 powers were apparent. 
 
 Coal tar is much improved in effect, 
 when employed as a coating for palings, by 
 mixing it with a small portion, say one 
 fortieth of its weight of grease; this is easily 
 united by heating the tar. 
 
 GATES. Good gates, (say the Messrs. 
 Itansome and Mr. Arthur Biddell, to whom 
 I am indebted for this article,) are no less 
 essential to the respectable appearance of an 
 estate, than they are necessary for the con- 
 venience of an occupier. There are few 
 outgoings that cost so much and are so little 
 thought of, as the repairing and renewing 
 gates upon enclosed stock farms. These 
 considerations induced us to seek informa- 
 tion to enable us to point out defects in the 
 common construction of farm-gates, and to 
 give a better plan. The usual defects are, 
 
 1st. Not sufficient height, so that horses 
 and large cattle, when pushing against the 
 gate, break it, however strong it is, as the 
 back thereof comes in contact with that part 
 of the chest of a horse where the collar 
 goes, Mud without inconvenience he leans 
 his weight against the opposing bar, which, 
 if a few inches higher, presses against his 
 546 
 
 neck and windpipe, and he makes no im- 
 pression upon it. 
 
 2d. They are generally hinge-bound, so 
 that in attempting to lift up the head, which 
 is often required to be done, the ledges and 
 braces are either pulled from the back head 
 or broken therein ; the person lifting the 
 head having a nine-feet leverage, which 
 enables him to do this mischief. 
 
 3d. The places of contact between the 
 brace and the uprights and the ledges are 
 broad, and it being impossible to keep those 
 places of contact dry, the parts become pre- 
 maturely decayed. 
 
 We have lately inspected gates made and 
 used many years by Mr. A Biddell, on exten- 
 sive farms near Ipswich, which obviate these 
 defects, and are found in the end cheaper 
 than any other gates, although rather expen- 
 sive in the first cost. Instead of braces, sus- 
 pending irons are used to prevent the gates 
 from dropping at the head. These irons are 
 shown in the annexed plan : they are made 
 in one piece, go on both sides of the gate, 
 are rivetted through the back and ledges 
 with thick lead or zinc collars between the 
 iron and the wood ; clasp round the back 
 head to form the upper hanging iron with- 
 out being welded into a close eye, by which 
 the gate would be confined, and at the lower 
 ledge turn up to form one of the pairs of 
 iron uprights. The second pair of uprights 
 are also rivetted through the ledges with 
 thick small lead collars to prevent the iron 
 from injuring the wood ; and with a thin 
 piece of zinc for the same reason, between 
 the iron and the back of the gates. The 
 whole of the irons and rivets weigh thirty- 
 one pounds for a gate. A gate made with 
 sawn young fir-trees, and having the ad- 
 vantage of such irons, will last a great many 
 years. If cut out of good timber, three-inch 
 planks nine feet long, there is not an inch 
 of stuff wasted. The eye for the hook in 
 the lower iron is made oblong, to give the 
 gate room to rise. The only fastening used 
 are chains, eighteen inches long, from near 
 the top of the post to a hook near the mid- 
 dle of the fore head, which takes the whole 
 weight of that end of the gate, and allows of 
 its giving a little way outward. 
 
 Having summed up in brief the general 
 imperfections of gates, and given a cut of 
 an improved one, combining the two great 
 objects, strength and lightness, I can add 
 very little further practical information ; for 
 the construction of gates must necessarily 
 depend, in a great measure, upon the pur- 
 poses to which they are to be applied, the 
 locality, the materials at hand, and the 
 means of the farmer. Much has been w ri ! Icu 
 on the subject, and I may refer to a short 
 article on gates in the Quar. Journ. Agr. 
 
GATHERING. 
 
 GELATIN". 
 
 vol. i. p. 727. ; and to another in the Trans, 
 of the High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 260., where a self- 
 acting gate, suited for the entrances to parks 
 or the approaches to mansion houses, is 
 figured and described. There is also a use- 
 ful essay 44 On the Construction of Gates 
 for the common purposes of a Farm, the 
 causes of their Decay, and the manner cf 
 improving them," in the Commun. to Board 
 of Agr. vol. vii. p. 144. 
 
 GATHERING. Provincially, rolling 
 corn-swaths into cocks or bundles. 
 
 GAVELKIND. An ancient custom or 
 tenure annexed to all lands in the county 
 of Kent (not specially exempted), and some 
 other parts of England, and which exten- 
 sively prevails in Ireland, by which the land 
 of the father is equally divided at his death 
 among all his sons, or the land of the bro- 
 ther among all his brethren if he have no 
 issue of his own. Tenure in gavelkind is 
 considered by Blackstone to have been in 
 the nature of free socage. In most places 
 the gavelkind tenant had the power of de- 
 vising by will before the statute of wills. 
 The same custom seems to have been pre- 
 valent in Wales, where all gavelkind lands 
 were made descendible to the heir at com- 
 mon law by stat. 34 & 35 H. 8. c. 36. In 
 Kent the lands have for the most part been 
 disgavelled, or deprived of their customary 
 descendible quality by particular statutes ; 
 but lands in Kent are presumed to be gavel- 
 kind unless the contrary be shown. Mr. 
 Ross, in his Survey of Londonderry, gives 
 an interesting account of this custom and 
 its pernicious effects. This notion of the 
 equal and unalienable right of all the chil- 
 dren to the inheritance of their father's 
 property, whether land or goods, which is 
 so general in Ireland, is one great obstacle 
 to improvement. However just and rea- 
 sonable the opinion may be in theory, it is 
 ruinous in practice. In spite of every ar- 
 547 
 
 gument (says Mr. Ross) the smaller Irish 
 landholders continue to divide their farms 
 among their children, and these divide on 
 until d vision is no longer practicable ; and, 
 in the course of two or three generations 
 the most thriving family must necessarily 
 go to ruin. 
 
 GEERING. A term provincially applied 
 to the ladders and side-rails of a waggon. 
 
 GEERS. A country phrase for the har- 
 ness of draught or team horses. 
 
 GELATIN. In chemistry the name 
 given to an abundant proximate principle 
 in animals. It is confined to the solid parts 
 of the body, such as tendons, ligaments, 
 cartilages, and bones, and exists nearly 
 pure in the skin ; but it is not contained in 
 any healthy animal fluid. Its leading cha- 
 racter is the formation of a tremulous jelly, 
 when its solution in boiling water cools ; 
 and it may be repeatedly liquefied and again 
 gelatinised by the alternate application of 
 heat and cold. Isinglass, glue, and size are 
 various forms of gelatin, the first being this 
 substance in a very pure state, obtained by 
 washing and drying the swimming bladder 
 of the sturgeon {Acipenser Huso) and some 
 other fish. Its most distinctive chemical cha- 
 racter is the formation of a dense white pre- 
 cipitate when its solution in warm water is 
 poured into an infusion of galls, or that of 
 any other astringent vegetable ; the sub- 
 stance formed in such cases is a tannate of 
 gelatin, by the union of the tannic acid with 
 the gelatin. Gelatin is semi-transparent 
 and colourless when pure. Its consistency 
 and hardness vary considerably. The best 
 kinds are very hard, brittle, and break with 
 a glassy fracture. Its taste is insipid, and 
 it has no odour. A solution of one part of 
 gelatin in 5000 of water is rendered slightly 
 turbid by the addition of a strong infusion 
 of galls. Gelatin, as an article of food, is 
 not so nutritious as is generally supposed. 
 
 N N 2 
 
GELDING. 
 
 GENTIANELLA. 
 
 The ultimate components of gelatin are — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - - 47*8 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 7 '9 
 
 Nitrogen - 16*9 
 Oxygen - - - 27 '4 
 
 100-0 
 
 100 lbs. of bones yield about 25 or 27 lbs. 
 of gelatin. It is used for making carpenters 
 glue, as the fat in the bones gives it a bad 
 taste, and renders it unfit for soup. See 
 Glue. (Srandes Diet, of Science ; Thom- 
 sons Chem. vol. iv. p. 390. ; Grays Supple- 
 ment, p. 145.) 
 
 GELDING. In farriery, a castrated ani- 
 mal; and also the act of castrating. In 
 performing this operation, attention should 
 be paid to the age, and also the season of 
 the year. The most proper seasons are 
 either the early spring months, or those of 
 the autumn. 
 
 GELT-GIMMER. A provincial term 
 implying a barren ewe. 
 
 GENTIAN. (Gentiana.) This is an 
 extremely beautiful genus of plants ; the 
 roots of which form one of the principal 
 bitters of European growth. The stems 
 and roots of most of the species, especially 
 the autumnal gentian (G. amarella), the 
 field gentian (G. campestris), and some of 
 the foreign species are tonic, stomachic, 
 and febrifuge. That which is principally 
 used in medicine is the root of the great 
 yellow gentian (G. luted), which is imported 
 from Germany. The generic name was 
 given to them after Gentius, King of Illyria, 
 who is reported to have first experienced 
 the virtues of the plant. The indigenous 
 species of gentian, according to Sir J. E. 
 Smith, are six in number. 
 
 1 . The Marsh Gentian or Calathian violet. 
 (G. pneumonanthe.) A perennial herb, found 
 on moist turfy heaths, blooming in August 
 and September. The root is formed of long 
 tapering fibres : the stem rises four to ten 
 inches high. The leaves are sessile, one 
 inch in length, single-ribbed, linear, obtuse ; 
 the flowers are large, handsome, of a deep 
 vivid blue, terminal and axillary ; the 
 corolla bell-shaped, and the limb divided 
 into five segments ; the anthers pale yellow, 
 combined ; the germen two- celled, with re- 
 curved styles. 
 
 2. The Dwarf Gentian. (G.acaulis.) A 
 perennial, but very doubtful native, found 
 on mountains. The stems generally very 
 short, rising from the centre of tufts of 
 leaves, single-flowered. The flower, which 
 blows in June or July, is large, often two 
 inches Long, exquisitely beautiful, of a rich 
 blue in the limb, paler in the tube, which is 
 
 dotted internally with black. Root fleshy 
 and branching. 
 
 3. The Spring Gentian. (G.verna.) A 
 perennial, growing in barren mountainous 
 situations, but rare, flowering in April. Root 
 slender, branched, and creeping. Leaves 
 crowded, ovate, acute, half an inch long. 
 The stem short, angular, and bearing a so- 
 litary blue flower ; the calyx short, toothed ; 
 corolla tube white, limb horizontal, seg- 
 ments waved or notched ; anthers within 
 the tube. This gentian is more difficult of 
 culture than the last. 
 
 4. Small Alpine gentian. (G. nivalis.) 
 An annual found on the loftiest mountains 
 of Scotland. Root\sjmpIe, slender; stem 
 erect, more or less branched, bearing from 
 two to ten or twelve flowers ; calyx with 
 five straight, acute, purplish angles ; limb 
 bright blue, with inversely heart-shaped seg- 
 ments ; styles united. 
 
 5. The Autumnal Gentian. (G. amarella.) 
 An annual plant, growing frequent in lime- 
 stone and chalky pastures, flowering in 
 August and September. Root tapering, 
 twisted, yellowish ; whole plant intensely 
 bitter ; stem square, purplish, six to twelve 
 inches high, with opposite-, axillary, many- 
 flowered, leafy, but rather short branches, 
 rendering the whole plant panicled, and 
 nearly cylindrical. Leaves dark green, 
 mostly acute ; flowers erect, with a white 
 cylindrical tube and purplish blue limb, the 
 segments of which are never fully ex- 
 panded. 
 
 6. The Field Gentian. (G. campestris.) 
 An annual flowering in September or Oc- 
 tober, growing on elevated pastures, or 
 upon green hills towards the sea-coast, 
 where the soil is chalky or gravelly. Herb 
 rather paler than the last, and of more 
 humble growth, the flowers are somewhat 
 larger and paler. The roots are very bitter 
 and tonic. It is sometimes known as yellow 
 centaury and blue gentian. 
 
 Most of the herbaceous kinds of gentian 
 grow well in a rich light soil, but some re- 
 quire to be grown in peat ; indeed all M ill 
 grow much stronger in it. Several of the 
 species should be grown in pots, placed 
 among alpine plants and protected in 
 winter. Some of them may be increased 
 by divisions. The annual and biennial kinds 
 may be sown in a dry sandy situation in 
 the open border ; but they must be sown as 
 soon as the seeds are ripe, because, if left 
 till spring before they are sown, they will 
 not, very probably, come up till the second 
 year. {Eng. Flora, vol. ii. pp. 27 — 32. ; 
 Paxtons Dot. Diet.) 
 
 GENTIAN, BLACK. See Mountai 
 Pabsley. 
 
 GEN TIANEL LA. ( Exacumjiliforme. 
 
GENTLES. 
 
 GEOLOGY. 
 
 A pretty little indigenous annual, found on 
 sandy or turfy bogs, bearing small yellow 
 flowers in July, on a stem three or four 
 inches high. The herbage is intensely 
 bitter. It derives its generic name from a 
 property these plants are said to possess, of 
 expelling poison. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 21 1.) 
 
 GENTLES. In angling, a name given 
 to the maggots or apodal larvae of the fiesh- 
 fly (Musca carnaria), and other diptera. 
 Isaac Walton, in his Complete Angler, tells 
 us of sundry ways to keep gentles for bait 
 all the winter, such as hanging a piece of 
 liver over a barrel of clay, into which the 
 gentles, will drop ; burying a dead cat, &c. 
 which has been fly-blown, in soft moist 
 earth, and so on. 
 
 GEOLOGY, (y/j, the earth; \oyog, a 
 discourse.) The use of this science to the 
 cultivator is considerable. The farmer is, 
 in fact, obliged to vary his modes of tillage 
 with the different strata which he tenants, 
 and hence he is often following in practice 
 the very rules, and observing the laws which 
 the science of geology would prescribe, with- 
 out being aware of the scientific reasons by 
 which his labours are guided. It is a science 
 he will find closely connected with the best 
 modes of cultivating the soil, the drainage 
 of land, the mixture of earths, and other 
 agricultural improvements. From geolo- 
 gical observations, the farmer learns the 
 process by which the soils he cultivates were 
 originally formed, their connection with the 
 substratum, and the readiest mode of im- 
 proving their constituents ; thus, as it is 
 well observed by Mr. Morton, in his valu- 
 able little work on Soils, p. 3. — " If we can 
 show an identity of the materials which 
 form the soil with those of the subsoil upon 
 which it rests, we shall obtain a key to a 
 more correct and satisfactory classification 
 of soils than at present exists ; their nature 
 and properties, the kind of crops which they 
 are best calculated to produce, and the 
 materials necessary for their permanent im- 
 provement will also be more evident." That 
 such scientific observances of the order of 
 nature cannot but be attended with benefit, 
 is a remark which we cannot too often make 
 to the farmer : it was an observation which 
 Davy long since made (Lectures, p. 204.) ; 
 he told the farmers of his day, that " the best 
 natural soils are those of which the materials 
 have been derived from different strata 
 which have been minutely divided by air 
 and water, and are intimately blended to- 
 gether ; and in improving soils artificially, 
 the farmer cannot do better than imitate 
 the processes of nature ; — the materials ne- 
 cessary for the purpose are seldom far dis- 
 tant — coarse sand is often found imme- 
 diately on chalk, and beds of sand and gravel 
 549 
 
 are common below clay. The labour of im- 
 proving the texture or constitution of the 
 soil is repaid by a great permanent ad- 
 vantage — less manure is required, and its 
 fertility ensured, and capital laid out in this 
 way secures for ever the productiveness, 
 and consequently the value, of the land ;" 
 and again, Dr. Paris, when addressing the 
 Penwith Agricultural Society, remarked, 
 " The composition and arrangement of the 
 different rocks of which a country consists, 
 is always an object of important interest to 
 the liberal and well-informed farmer, for it 
 will generally be found more or less con- 
 nected with its agricultural economy, and 
 is frequently capable of explaining peculiari- 
 ties and anomalies which are otherwise quite 
 unintelligible. At the same time a know- 
 ledge of them will suggest the best method 
 of improving a soil by exhibiting the nature 
 of its texture and constitution, and the 
 various causes of its sterility." That geo- 
 logical surveys of even particular estates 
 have been attended with considerable benefit, 
 we have the valuable testimony, amongst 
 many others, of Sir J. V. Johnstone, who 
 says (Journ. of Eng. Agric. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 273.), " The geological survey and map 
 of my estate has not only explained the rea- 
 son of the discrepancy between the soil and 
 productiveness of neighbouring fields — a 
 matter of great interest, and tending to de- 
 velope the true conditions of vegetable life 
 — but the following positive practical re- 
 sults have been also derived from it : — 1st, 
 The knowledge of applying lime to advan- 
 tage over the property ; 2d, Laying down 
 fields to advantage to grass, and where and 
 how to plant wheat; 3d, What trees to plant 
 upon each stratum ;" and as, he very cor- 
 rectly adds, " Certain soils are so obviously 
 connected with their bases, that we need 
 scarcely ask how geology and agriculture 
 are mixed together ;" and to use Dr. Smith's 
 own words, " The strata succeed each other 
 in a certain order, and being delineated, a 
 knowledge of the strata becomes the natural 
 and safe foundation of improvement ; and 
 if agricultural chemistry be ever successfully 
 applied to the practical purposes of agricul- 
 ture, it must be by proceeding with the che- 
 mical analysis of soils along the range of each 
 stratum." {Farmer s Almanac.) 
 
 And it is quite true, as Mi*. Macgillivray 
 remarks (Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, 
 vol. iii. p. 209.), that " an experienced agri- 
 culturist may judge correctly of the general 
 capabilities of a district from a superficial 
 inspection, and may perceive its adaptation 
 to the cultivation of certain plants, or to 
 the rearing of certain species of animals, in 
 consequence of a single glance of his eye ; 
 but how much more precise will be the 
 n x 3 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 estimate of hhn, who examines the slopes of 
 the declivities ; the depth and quality of the 
 soil ; the nature of the subsoil ; the distri- 
 bution of rills, pools, and springs ; the kind 
 and disposition of the mineral strata ; the 
 existence of limestone beds ; the elevation 
 above the level of the sea ; the exposure to 
 particular winds ; the prevalent atmospheric 
 currents ; the frequency of rains and frosts ; 
 and all the other physical phenomena which 
 influence a country. Even the nature of 
 the rock itself, independently of other cir- 
 cumstances, discloses the capabilities of the 
 soil, in a degree which could scarcely be 
 imagined by one totally unacquainted with 
 the influence which it possesses." See also 
 Ibid. p. 417., and Mr. Martin " On the Geo- 
 logy of Moray hire," {Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. iii. p. 417.) 
 
 As my observations on geology in this 
 work will be chiefly confined to its connec- 
 tion with practical agriculture, I shall not 
 detain the farmer with any of the valuable 
 geological researches which extend far be- 
 neath the earth's surface. Indeed, as Pro- 
 fessor Brande remarks in his Outlines of Ge- 
 ology, p. 32. when speaking of geology, " Its 
 first and leading object is to become prac- 
 tically acquainted with the present state of 
 the earth's external structure, for excepting 
 of its crust or rind, we know nothing ; and 
 all that has been suggested either by theory 
 or experiment, relating to its internal com- 
 position, its density, and the constitution 
 of the entire mass, is mere surmise and guess 
 work, — deductions hastily drawn from su- 
 perficial observation or unwarranted in- 
 ferences from imperfect researches." To 
 the student who wishes to make himself 
 practically master of the science, I commend 
 these lectures of Professor Brande, as well 
 as the Outlines of the Geology of England 
 and Wales, by Conybeare and Phillips. To 
 the practical intelligent farmer the work On 
 Soils, by Mr. John Morton, will also be very 
 valuable. To this excellent little book I 
 gratefully acknowledge my obligations in 
 this and many other articles. 
 
 The best popular description, perhaps, of 
 the position in which the various strata of 
 the earth are placed is that long since given 
 by Mitchell. " This very ingenious writer," 
 says Brande (Outlines, p. 13.), " describes 
 the general appearance of the strata, points 
 out their analogies and differences, adverts 
 to their inclination and disturbance in moun- 
 tainous districts, and to their horizontality 
 in flat countries; and having explained with 
 much minute and practical perspicuity the 
 arrangement of the strata in England, he 
 exemplified its universal application to the 
 general structure of the globe, and inge- 
 niously represents it in the following man- 
 
 ner : — ' Let a number of leaves of paper,' 
 he says, ' of several different colours be 
 pasted one on another, then bending them 
 up together into a ridge in the middle, con- 
 ceive them to be reduced again to a level 
 surface by a plane so passing through them 
 as to cut off all the part that had been 
 raised ; let the middle now be again raised 
 a little, and this would be a good general 
 representation of most, if not all, large tracts 
 of mountainous countries, together with the 
 parts adjacent throughout the whole world. 
 From this formation of the earth it will 
 follow, that we ought to meet with the same 
 kinds of earths, stones, and minerals, ap- 
 pearing on the surface in long narrow slips, 
 and lying parallel to the greatest rise of any 
 large ridge of mountains, and so, in fact, we 
 find them.' " (Phil. Trans. 1760.) 
 
 And this system of layers or strata not 
 only marks the arrangement of the great 
 masses of which our earth is composed, but 
 it is that of the very rocks themselves. It 
 is to us attended with many advantages, such 
 as the formation of springs, — the constitu- 
 tion of soils, — which last is that alluded to by 
 Dr. Paris, On the Soils of Cornwall. " The 
 phenomenon of stratification, which is so 
 well characterised in clay slate, I have often 
 regarded as a wise provision of nature to 
 facilitate its decomposition, and to admit 
 the descent of the roots of trees : and this 
 idea is further strengthened when we dis- 
 cover that this structure is almost entirely 
 confined to secondary rocks, whose situation 
 and nature render them capable of cultiva- 
 tion : they are all, for instance, resolved into 
 gently undulating hills, and by farther de- 
 composition they form rich and fertile soils. 
 Primitive formations, on the contrary, which 
 possess no such structure, disintegrate into 
 rugged piles, whose declivities are too steep 
 to admit the accumulations of soil, and can- 
 not, therefore, ever constitute the habitable 
 parts of the globe ; and, as far as our geo- 
 logical knowledge will allow us to gene- 
 ralise, it would appear that primitive rocks 
 are accumulated towards the poles, whereas 
 the great mass of secondary formations is 
 found to occupy the middle and southern 
 latitudes, principally between the 20th and 
 55th degrees, which constitute a portion of 
 the globe eminently calculated for the abode 
 of man, and the animals which are subser- 
 vient to his wants and comforts." " 
 
 The farmer must not imagine as he pur- 
 sues his researches in this very interesting 
 science, that he will find a great variety of 
 earthy substances in the different often 
 varying strata of the earth ; " for," as Mr. 
 Brande says very truly, " siliceous, calca- 
 reous, and argillaceous substances, either 
 pure or nearly so, or in a state of mixture, 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 or loosely and indefinitely blended rather 
 than in strict chemical combination, consti- 
 tute a very large relative proportion of 
 those rocky masses, or scattered or com- 
 minuted substances, which form, or have 
 formed, the most exterior constituents of 
 our planet, and of these, considered in the 
 abstract, the chemical and mineralogical 
 history is soon told." Of that brief his- 
 tory, however, it will be well for the farmer 
 to have a general knowledge. Davy de- 
 scribed them with a vievv to assist the 
 farmer in his tillage operations long since. 
 He saw very clearly # the importance of the 
 science to practical agriculture, and what 
 he has done so well it is useless for me to 
 attempt to describe in different language. 
 
 " Rocks," said that sagacious philosopher, 
 " are generally divided by geologists into 
 two grand divisions, distinguished by the 
 names of primary and secondary. The 
 primary rocks are composed of pure crys- 
 talline matter, and contain no fragments of 
 other rocks. The secondary rocks, or strata, 
 consist only partly of crystalline matter; 
 contain fragments of other rocks or strata ; 
 often abound in the remains of vegetables 
 and marine animals ; and sometimes con- 
 tain the remains of land animals. The 
 number of primary rocks which are com- 
 monly observed in nature are eight : — 1 . 
 Granite, composed of quartz, felspar, and 
 mica ; when these are arranged in regular 
 layers in the rock it is called Gneiss. 2. 
 Micaceous schist, composed of quartz and 
 mica. 3. Sienite, which consists of horn- 
 blende and feldspar. 4. Serpentine, com- 
 posed of felspar and resplendent horn- 
 blende. 5. Porphyry, which consists of 
 felspar. 6. Granular marble or pure car- 
 bonate of lime. 7. Chlorite schist, a green 
 or grey substance somewhat analogous to 
 mica and felspar. 8. Quartzose rock, com- 
 posed of quartz. The secondary rocks are 
 more numerous than the primary ; but 12 
 varieties include all that are usually found 
 in these islands: — 1. Grauwacke, which 
 consists of fragments of quartz or chlorite 
 schist embedded in a cement principally 
 composed of felspar. 2. Siliceous sand- 
 stone, which is composed of fine quartz, 
 or sand united by a siliceous cement. 3. 
 Limestone, or carbonate of lime, more com- 
 pact in its texture than in the granular 
 marble, and often abounding in marine 
 exuvia. 4. Aluminous schist, or shale, con- 
 sisting of the decomposed materials of dif- 
 ferent rocks, cemented by a small quantity 
 of ferruginous or silicious matter, and often 
 containing the impressions of vegetables. 
 5. Calcareous sandstone, which is calcareous 
 sand cemented by calcareous matter. 6. 
 Ironstone, formed of nearly the same mate- 
 551 
 
 rials as aluminous schist or shale, but con- 
 taining a much larger quantity of oxide of 
 iron. 7. Basalt, or whinstone, which consists 
 of felspar and hornblende. 8. Bituminous, 
 or common coal. 9. Gypsum, or sulphate 
 of lime. 10. Rock salt. 11. Chalk, which 
 usually abounds in remains of marine ani- 
 mals, and contains horizontal layers of 
 flints. 12. Plum-pudding stone, consisting 
 of pebbles cemented by ferruginous or sili- 
 cious cement." {Elem.Agr. Chem. p. 192.) 
 
 " The highest mountains in these islands, 
 and indeed in the whole of the old Con- 
 tinent," adds Davy, "are constituted by 
 granite ; and this rock has likewise been 
 found at the greatest depths to which the 
 industry of man has yet been able to pe- 
 netrate ; micaceous schist is often found 
 immediately upon granite, serpentine or 
 marble upon micaceous schist; but the order 
 in which the primary rocks are grouped to- 
 gether is various. Marble and serpentine 
 are usually found uppermost ; but granite, 
 though it seems to form the foundation of 
 the rocky strata of the globe, is yet some- 
 times discovered above micaceous schist. 
 The secondary rocks are always incumbent 
 on the primary: the lowest of them is 
 usually grauwacke ; upon this limestone or 
 sandstone is- often found. Coal generally 
 occurs between sandstone and shale : basalt 
 often exists above sandstone and limestone ; 
 rock salt almost always occurs associated 
 with red sandstone and gypsum. Coal, 
 basalt, sandstone, and limestone are often 
 arranged in different alternate layers, of no 
 considerable thickness, so as to form a great 
 extent of country." {Ibid. p. 195.) 
 
 The formation of a soil from the different 
 strata by natural causes is well described by 
 the same great chemist. "It is easy," he 
 says, "to form an idea of the manner in 
 which rocks are converted into soils by re- 
 ferring to the instance of soft granite or 
 porcelain granite. This substance consists 
 of three ingredients, quartz, feldspar, and 
 mica. The quartz is almost pure siliceous 
 earth, in a crystalline form. The feldspar 
 and mica are compound substances : both 
 contain silica, alumina, and oxide of iron ; 
 in the feldspar there is usually lime and 
 potassa; in the mica, lime and magnesia. 
 
 " When a granitic rock of this kind has 
 been long exposed to the influence of air 
 and water, the lime and the potassa con- 
 tained in its constituent parts are acted 
 upon by water or carbonic acid; and the 
 oxide of iron, which is almost always in its 
 least oxidised state, tends to combine with 
 more oxygen ; the consequence is, the feld- 
 spar decomposes, and likewise the mica, 
 but the first the more rapidly. The feld- 
 spar, which is, at it were, the cement of the 
 
 N N 4 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 stone, forms a fine clay. The mica par- 
 tially decomposes, mixes with it as sand, and 
 the undecomposed quartz appear as gravel 
 or sand of different degrees of fineness. 
 
 " As soon as the smallest layer of earth 
 is formed on the surface of a rock, the seed 
 of lichens, mosses, and other imperfect ve- 
 getables which are constantly floating in 
 the atmosphere, and which have made it 
 their resting-place, begin to vegetate. Their 
 death, decomposition, and decay afford a 
 certain quantity of organisable matter, 
 which mixes with the earthy materials of 
 the rock ; in this improved soil more per- 
 fect plants are capable of subsisting ; these, 
 in their turn, absorb nourishment from 
 water and the atmosphere, and, after perish- 
 ing, afford new materials to those already 
 provided. The decomposition of the rock 
 still continues, and at length, by such slow 
 and gradual processes, a soil is formed in 
 which even forest trees can fix their roots, 
 and which is fitted to reward the labour of 
 the cultivator." {Ibid. p. 189.) 
 
 That the geological formation of the soil in- 
 fluences to a considerable degree its relations 
 to a fertilising supply of moisture, was thus 
 noticed by Dr. Paris when addressing a 
 Cornish Agricultural Society : — " There is 
 a popular adage well known to all the mem- 
 bers of this society, that ' the land of Corn- 
 wall will bear a shower every week-day, 
 and two upon a Sunday,' — the fact is, that [ 
 the shallowness of the soil, and the nature 
 of its rocky substratum, render a constant 
 supply of moisture indispensable ; and here 
 we cannot avoid admiring the beautiful con- 
 trivance of nature in connecting the wants 
 and necessities of the different parts of the 
 creation with the power and means of sup- 
 plying them ; thus, in rocky countries like 
 Cornwall, where the soil is necessarily greedy 
 of moisture, the very cause which creates 
 this want is of itself capable of supplying 
 it ; for the rocks elevated above the surface 
 solicit a tribute from every passing shower, 
 while in alluvial and champaign countries, 
 where the soil is deep and rich, and conse- 
 quently requires less moisture, the clouds 
 float undisturbed over the plains, and the 
 country frequently enjoys that long and 
 uninterrupted series of dry weather which 
 is so congenial to it. As a general rule it 
 may be stated, that to obtain the greatest 
 fertility the proportion of siliceous sand in 
 a soil ought to increase in proportion to the 
 quantity of rain that falls, or rather perhaps 
 to the frequency of its recurrence ; for one 
 of the effects of silex is to diminish in the 
 soil its power of absorbing moisture : we 
 accordingly find that in the rainy climate of 
 Turin the most prolific soil has from 77 to 
 80 per cent, of siliceous earth, and from 
 552 
 
 9 to 14 of calcareous, whereas, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Paris, where there is much less 
 rain, the silex bears only the proportion of 
 from 26 to 50 per cent, in the most fertile 
 parts ; and I have found some of the most 
 productive corn lands in the parish of St. 
 Burian to contain as much as 70 per cent, 
 of that earth." See Earths, their Use to 
 Vegetation. 
 
 It will perhaps considerably assist the 
 cultivator in his examination of the differ- 
 ent geological formations to which he may 
 have to direct his attention, if, before we 
 commence a rapid examination of the dif- 
 ferent strata of which our island is com- 
 posed, we first examine the chemical com- 
 position of a few of the stones and other 
 substances of which the rocks of those strata 
 are chiefly formed. 
 
 Common Mica. — This stone is composed, 
 according to the analysis of M. Klaproth, 
 of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 47* 
 
 Alumina - 20* 
 Oxide of iron - - - 15 5 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 1*75 
 
 Potash - - - 14-5 
 
 Loss - - 1*25 
 
 100- 
 
 Common felspar, according to M. Vau- 
 lelin, is composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 62-83 
 
 Alumina - - - 17 02 
 
 Lime - - - 3- 
 
 Oxide of iron - 1* 
 
 Potash - - - 13- 
 
 Loss - 3*15 
 
 100- 
 
 The decomposing felspar of Cornwall is 
 composed, according to Mr. Wedgwood, 
 of— 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Alumina - - - 60 
 
 Silex - - - - 20 
 
 Moisture and loss - - 20 
 
 100 
 
 Brande found in a specimen of pale flesh- 
 coloured felspar from the Alps — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silex - - - 68- 
 
 Alumina - - - 20- 
 
 Potash - - 8-30 
 
 Lime - - 2* 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 0*50 
 
 Loss - - 1*20 
 
 100- 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 Common hornblende was found by M. 
 
 Klaproth to contain — 
 
 1 Parts. 
 
 Silica . - - 42- 
 
 Alumina - - - 12* 
 
 Lime - - -11" 
 
 Magnesia - - - 2-25 
 
 Oxide of Iron - - 30* 
 
 Oxide of Manganese - 0*25 
 
 Water - - - 075 
 
 Loss - - - 1*75 
 
 100* 
 
 Common serpentine contains, according 
 to M. Vauquelin — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 44* 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 - 44" 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 2' 
 
 Oxide of Chromium 
 
 2- 
 
 Oxide of Iron 
 
 - 7'3 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 100-8 
 
 Another specimen examined by Dr. J ohn 
 was found to contain — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 31-50 
 
 Magnesia - - - 47*25 
 
 Alumina - - -3* 
 
 Lime - - - 0-50 
 
 Iron - - - 5-50 
 
 Oxide of Manganese - 1 - 50 
 
 Water - - - 10-50 
 
 99-75 
 
 Chalk contains — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lime - 56-5 
 
 Carbonic acid - 43* 
 Water ... -5 
 
 100* 
 
 Common compact limestone contains — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lime 
 
 - 53* 
 
 Carbonic acid 
 
 - 42-5 
 
 Water 
 
 1-63 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 1-12 
 
 Alumina 
 
 V 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 0-75 
 
 100* 
 
 Magnesian limestone, from Sunderland, 
 contains, according to Dr. Thomson (Sys- 
 tem of Chem. vol. iii. p. 396.) — 
 
 V Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 56*8 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia - 40*84 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 0 36 
 
 Clay, water, &c. - 2 • 
 
 100- 
 
 5J3 
 
 Quartz, according to the analysis of M. 
 Bucholz, is composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 97-75 
 
 Alumina - 0*50 
 Water - - 1* 
 
 Loss - 0*75 
 
 100* 
 
 Porcelain earth was analysed by Mr. 
 Rose (Jameson's Min. vol. i. p. 298.) : he 
 found in it — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 52. 
 
 Alumina - - 47* 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 0*33 
 
 Loss - 0*67 
 
 100* 
 
 Potter's clay, according to M. Vauquelin, 
 contains — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - 43*5 
 
 Alumina - 33*2 
 Lime - - 3 5 
 
 Oxide of iron - 1* 
 
 Water - - 18* 
 
 Loss - - - 0-8 
 
 100* 
 
 Clay slate is composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 48*6 
 
 Alumina - 23-5 
 
 Magnesia - - -1*6 
 
 Peroxide of iron - 1 1 -3 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 0*5 
 Potash - - 4*7 
 
 Carbon - - - 0*3 
 
 Sulphur - - - 0-1 
 
 Water and volatile matter - 7*6 
 Loss - - 1-8 
 
 100* 
 
 Common clay is merely a mixture of alu- 
 mina with silica, in endless proportions. 
 The alumina is in the form of a very im- 
 palpable powder ; but the silica, says Dr. 
 Thomson, is almost always in small grains, 
 large enough to be distinguished by the eye. 
 Clay, therefore, exhibits the characters of 
 alumina, and not of silica, even when this 
 last ingredient predominates. Besides alu- 
 mina and silica, clay often contains car- 
 bonate of lime (chalk), carbonate of mag- 
 nesia, carbonate of baryta, oxide of iron, 
 &c. (Chem. vol. iii. p. 341.) 
 
 Loam may be regarded as a very impure 
 potter's clay united with iron, ochre, and 
 mica. 
 
 Basalt is composed, according to Mr. 
 Kennedy (Edin. T?*a?is. vol. v. p. 89.) of — 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica 
 
 48 
 
 Alumina 
 
 lo 
 
 Lime - - 
 
 - y 
 
 Soda - 
 
 - 4 
 
 Oxide of iron - 
 
 - 16 
 
 Muriatic acid - 
 
 i 
 
 Water 
 
 - 5 
 
 Loss - - - 
 
 1 
 
 
 100 
 
 Chlorite earth is composed of — 
 
 Silica 
 
 Alumina 
 
 Lime 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 Potash 
 
 Parts. 
 50- 
 26* 
 1-5 
 5- 
 17-5 
 
 100- 
 
 Gypsum, of which there are several va- 
 rieties, is composed of — 
 
 Sulphate of lime 
 Water 
 
 Parts. 
 
 - 79-32 
 
 - 20-68 
 
 100- 
 
 The cultivator, therefore, must take it as 
 an axiom in his geological observations, that 
 the earthy composition of the surface soil 
 almost always partakes of the nature of the 
 rock or subsoil on which it immediately 
 rests, and from which, in fact, it has been 
 generally thus formed, in the progress of 
 time, by various external agencies. 
 
 Alluvial soils, perhaps, are the most ex- 
 tensive exceptions to this remark, for they 
 are formed commonly of the materials of 
 different strata, brought from various dis- 
 tances by the flood waters, and mingled 
 together, often in very confused, yet most 
 commonly in very fertile proportions. (See 
 Alluvium.) Of this description of soil there 
 are in our island many valuable tracts, such 
 as that extending from Lynn, through Lin- 
 colnshire to the Humber, and- thence to 
 Bridlington. Both sides of the valley of 
 the Thames, about Sandwich in Kent, Rom- 
 ney Marsh, between Bristol and Bridge- 
 water, and Liverpool and Lancaster, and 
 on the banks of the rivers Forth and Tay in 
 Scotland. " This kind of soil," says Mr. 
 Morton, " is always fertile, free in its na- 
 ture, and easily cultivated ; is fitted for the 
 production of every variety of crop, which 
 it brings to the highest perfection, and pro- 
 duces in the greatest abundance. This 
 formation is perfectly dry. About one half 
 of all the alluvial accumulations may be in 
 tillage, and the remaining half in meadow 
 and pasture land." (On Soils, p. 10.) 
 654 
 
 Diluvium is the geological name for those 
 masses of soil, composed of sand, gravel, 
 &c, which are found to a considerable ex- 
 tent in most parts of our island, covering 
 some of the older formations. It is of va- 
 rious composition : when it is found resting 
 on the tertiary and chalk formations, it is 
 usually composed of red clay and rounded 
 flints. In Dorsetshire the diluvium is com- 
 monly composed of a mixture of sand and 
 gravelly flints. In Kent, Berkshire, Hamp- 
 shire, Sussex, Surrey, and other places, the 
 rolled flints are mixed with a tenacious red 
 clay. " Most of this soil," says Mr. Mor- 
 ton, " is in arable culture, and produces 
 turnips, barley, oats, wheat, clover; and, 
 when under proper management, it becomes 
 a useful soil. The tenacious clay gravel is 
 expensive in the cultivation, as it is most 
 difficult to work, except between wet and 
 dry. The greatest improvement which has 
 been made in this soil is by the application 
 of chalk." The larger portion of Suffolk 
 and Norfolk is composed of a diluvium 
 sand, resting on chalk or marl. This dis- 
 trict is very level : it extends from Sudbury 
 to Bungay and Cromer, from Southwold to 
 Shelford, and from Swaffham to Yar- 
 mouth. Resting as it does on a calcareous 
 substratum, the excellent cultivators of this 
 district have gradually and permanently 
 improved the soil by bringing the chalk or 
 marl to the surface, and spreading it over 
 the land at the rate of about 100 cubic 
 yards per acre : in this way mere rabbit 
 warrens of blowing sands have been im- 
 proved so as to yield excellent crops of 
 corn, and rentals have been in this way 
 raised from a few pence to 20s. per acre. 
 
 Peat Soils. — These abound in many por- 
 tions of the United Kingdom. In the coun- 
 ties of Lincoln, Huntingdon, Northampton, 
 Cambridge, Norfolk, Somerset, Lancaster, 
 Yorkshire, and the more northern counties. 
 Their best mode of improvement is, usually, 
 by mixing them with the earths. See Peat 
 Soils. 
 
 The London Clay Formation. — " This 
 formation extends with little interruption 
 from Orford in Suffolk to Manningtree, 
 Colchester, Maldon, London, Richmond, 
 Staines, Oakingham, Strathfieldsaye, and 
 Rotherwick. There is also a consider- 
 able extent of this formation in what is 
 called the Isle of Wight Basin, from Christ- 
 church to Ringwood and Southampton, and 
 thence through Tichfield and Portsmouth 
 to near Worthing. There are no springs 
 in this formation. It is so close and compact, 
 as to be completely impervious to water ; it 
 therefore prevents the water which is in the 
 plastic clay below from coming up through 
 it. It is of a black or bluish colour when 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 wet, and brown or grey near the surface 
 when dry. The whole is very tough and 
 tenacious, the upper stratum in dry weather 
 opens into perpendicular cracks for a con- 
 siderable depth, and at a certain depth be- 
 low there are horizontal layers of nodules 
 of a ferruginous clay limestone, called sep- 
 taria. These layers are repeated at inter- 
 vals of several feet. This is the substance 
 from which Parker s or the Roman cement 
 is made." {On Soils, p. 22.) 
 
 This soil is materially improved by the 
 addition of chalk, sand, or marl. In the 
 neighbourhood of London it is enriched by 
 the city manure. 
 
 Plastic Clay. — " This formation," observes 
 Mr. Morton, "occupies the space between the 
 London clay and the upper chalk,and is com- 
 posed of an indefinite number of beds of clay 
 and sand of every variety of colour, — white 
 black, blue, purple, bright yellow, orange, 
 and red. The sand alternates with partings 
 of clay, both of which are sometimes as thin 
 as a pasteboard ; although in some places the 
 beds both of the sand and of the clay are 
 several feet in thickness." Composed chiefly 
 of silex, and clay coloured with iron, it has 
 occasionally in it veins of white clay capable 
 of being made into tobacco-pipes. It fol- 
 lows the outline of the London clay. It 
 extends at a breadth of about ten miles 
 from near Horsham to Braintree and Wal- 
 tham Cross : hence, but in a diminished 
 width, to Hatfield, Watford, Salthill, Read- 
 ing, and Hungerford, Odiham, Guilford, 
 Croydon, and Dartford. It is found again 
 in a connected chain near Dorchester, Poole, 
 Wimborne, Fareham, Chichester, and Arun- 
 del. " Every variety of soil," adds Mr. 
 Morton, " may be met with in a short dis- 
 tance over the whole of this formation, 
 which is owing to the rapid succession of 
 sand and clay, and the other materials of 
 which it consists." 
 
 The best mode of improving the soil of 
 the plastic clay is by drainage and the mix- 
 ture of other soils, as very commonly fol- 
 lowed by the Norfolk and Suffolk farmers. 
 Of the plastic clay sand, where it rests on 
 clay or chalk, by chalking or claying it at 
 the rate of 100 cubic yards per acre once in 
 about eight years ; or where it rests, as in 
 Berkshire, on the chalk, by dressing it with 
 about 2900 bushels of chalk per acre, at an 
 expense of about 42s., either by carting it 
 from a pit, or by sinking a dry well, some- 
 times to the depth of thirty or forty yards, 
 through the subsoil, raising it in baskets by 
 a rope and windlass, and then barrowing it 
 over the field. By this treatment even the 
 barren heath lands of Hounslow and Bag- 
 shot arc made to yield excellent crops of 
 corn. 
 
 555 
 
 The Chalk Formation. — This is divided 
 by geologists into two divisions, the upper 
 and the lower chalk : the upper abounds 
 with flints, which are absent from the lower 
 formation. Chalk is chiefly carbonate of 
 lime, with some small portions of alumina, 
 iron, and silica. This formation extends 
 from Bridport to Salisbury, Hungerford, 
 High Wycombe, Stevenage, Saffron Wal- 
 den, Thetford, SwafFham, and to Dorking ; 
 to Burgh in Lincolnshire, and thence to 
 Barton, Hull, and Beverley ; and again 
 from Dover to Chatham, Guildford, Farn- 
 ham, Winchester, and Salisbury. " The 
 water which comes from below the lower 
 chalk," says Mr. Morton, " is pure and lim- 
 pid, and delicious to drink. It contains 
 carbonate of lime, and is of the best quality 
 for watering meadows : hence the best water 
 meadows are in the chalk valleys." The 
 soil of the chalk formation is composed of 
 chalk and flint in various proportions. 
 These soils are materially improved by a 
 mixture with those of the green sandstone 
 formation, and by enclosing into much 
 smaller fields than those into which they 
 are at present generally divided. 
 
 Green Sand Formation. — This formation 
 is found under the chalk. It is formed of 
 a variety of beds : the upper beds near the 
 chalk have a green or greyish colour, the 
 lower beds, which are commonly much 
 thicker, vary in colour from yellow to brown 
 and red. It is composed of silicious sand, 
 mixed with mica and chlorite. " The means 
 of permanently improving this soil," says 
 Mr. Morton, " after it is drained and en- 
 closed (if for pasture), are so immediately 
 within the reach of the farmer, that he can 
 at little comparative expense improve its 
 texture, and permanently increase its pro- 
 ductiveness, by chalk or chalk marl, on the 
 one hand, and the oak or clunch clay, on 
 the other ; but even without the appli- 
 cation of these substances, deep or double 
 ploughing or trenching has the effect of 
 deepening the soil, and increasing its capa- 
 bility. When mixed with the chalk marl 
 above it, it has the power of receiving and 
 transmitting moisture more freely, and is 
 neither so easily injured by wet weather 
 nor by excessive droughts as other soils 
 are." (On Soils, p. 43.) 
 
 Gault has commonly a bluish or grey 
 aspect, and its geological position is in the 
 centre of the green sand formation : the 
 two greatest deposits of it are in the Yale 
 of White Horse in Berkshire, and in the 
 counties of Cambridge and Huntingdon. 
 It is found at South Marston in Wiltshire, 
 at Wantage, Thame, through Bedfordshire 
 to Caxton and St. Ives. 
 
 The Weald or Oak Clay is the clay of 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 svhich the wealds of Sussex, Surrey, and 
 Kent are chiefly composed. " It is formed," 
 says Mr. Morton, " of various layers of a 
 whitish, yellowish, fawn, or buff-coloured 
 clay. These beds are sometimes of a thin 
 slaty nature, and some of them have the 
 appearance of tile or shale in their compo- 
 sition. They are composed of very minute 
 particles of clay and sand, in an impalpable 
 state of division, but in close mechanical 
 contact : so minute, indeed, are the parts, 
 that no particle can be perceived by the 
 touch, and there are neither stones, gravel, 
 nor calcareous matter in any of the beds of 
 this formation. It extends from Bonning- 
 ton, in Kent, by Tunbridge, Crawley, Has- 
 lemere, Petworth, and Hailsham, to the 
 beach in Sussex : when ploughed, it cuts 
 like a piece of soap, and the furrow turns 
 over unbroken. The peculiarity of this soil 
 is the minute division of its parts, the sili- 
 cious matter bein^ so very fine, and the 
 clayey particles being equally minute, they 
 form a close firm paste, which dries into a 
 substance almost as hard as brick, and 
 which the roots of vegetables are unable to 
 penetrate. From the great expense in cul- 
 tivating this soil, a considerable portion of 
 it is in woods, some in poor wet pasture, 
 and the remainder under the plough. The 
 sources of improvement are drainage, the 
 subsoil plough, chalk, or lime." {Morton on 
 Soils, p. 49.) 
 
 Iron Sand, or Hastings Sand. — A very 
 fine white, yellow, or red sand with clay. 
 The largest formation of this sand is from 
 Hastings in Sussex to the river Arun, with 
 a breadth of about twelve miles. Deep 
 ploughing, and the addition of calcareous 
 matters, are amongst the chief sources of 
 improvement for the soils of this form- 
 ation. 
 
 Coral Rag. — Aylesbury and Portland- 
 stone. There are several varieties of these, 
 all calcareous. This formation is found near 
 Devizes, and thence extends to Farringdon 
 and Abingdon. 
 
 The Oxford Chinch, or Fen-clay, is com- 
 posed of clay of a blue colour, mixed with 
 bituminous shale and septaria. " It forms," 
 says Mr. Morton, "the foundation of the 
 hills which are capped by the coral rag. The 
 extent of this formation is considerable ; 
 from near Crewkerne it passes to Mere, 
 Oxford, Fenny Stratford, Bedford, Kim- 
 bolton, to Peterborough. It then disappears 
 under the fen-land, but is found every 
 where under the peat at the distance of a 
 few feet. At Bourn it again comes to the 
 Burface, and cont inues its course to Folking- 
 ham, Lincoln, Barton, &c. : no springs are 
 found in it. The richest and most produc- 
 tive pastures arc on the soil of this form- 
 55G 
 
 ation, but there is every shade of quality." 
 {On Soils, p. 56.) 
 
 Oolite Formation. — " This is composed," 
 adds Mr. Morton, "of various members ; the 
 shelly oolite (sometimes called forest-mar- 
 ble), cornbrash, stonebrash, a bluish rubbly 
 limestone, weatherstone, or shelly lime- 
 stone, and the great oolite, or Bath-stone. 
 This formation has a very extensive range, 
 from Crewkerne to Bath, Cirencester, Bur- 
 ford, Buckingham, Olney, Stamford, Slea- 
 ford, and Lincoln. The River Thames 
 takes its rise in this formation, near to Ciren- 
 cester. The soil over the whole series is 
 chiefly arable, and produces wheat, barley, 
 oats, turnips, and clover ; and, when stony, 
 it is most productive of sainfoin. It is 
 almost wholly enclosed with stone walls, 
 and the enclosures are large." {Ibid. p. 59.) 
 
 Inferior Oolite. — This, resting on the 
 blue lias, is the lowest of the oolite form- 
 ation. It is chiefly composed of sand and 
 mica, sometimes, as in Oxfordshire, mixed 
 with calcareous matter. It generally ac- 
 companies the great oolite. It is found from 
 Bridport to Yeovil, Cheltenham, Stamford, 
 to the Humber. The soils of this formation 
 are generally very productive. 
 
 Blue Lias. — This formation is composed 
 of blue clay, mixed with thin beds of lime- 
 stone, and with alumina. It is found at 
 broken intervals in almost a continued 
 chain from Lyme Regis to Whitby in York- 
 shire. The greater portion of the dairy 
 districts of the counties of Gloucester, War- 
 wick, Somerset, and Leicester is resting on 
 this productive formation. 
 
 New Bed Sandstone. — " This," says Mr. 
 Morton, "is a reddish sandstone or clay 
 marl, tolerably compact, but more fre- 
 quently of a friable texture, or conglome- 
 rate. The sandstone is silicious, and is 
 frequently so indurated as to be fit for build- 
 ing, as at Wellington in Somersetshire, 
 Warwick, Nottingham, &c. ; but it is some- 
 times a loose red or yellow sandstone. 
 
 " The clay beds of this formation are ge- 
 nerally marly, or clay of a red colour, inter- 
 mixed with blue, white, and green spots or 
 stripes. This is the most extensive form- 
 ation to be found in England : it begins at 
 Torbay, and passes through Exeter, Honiton, 
 Taunton, Bridgewater, Gloucester, Wor- 
 cester, Birmingham, Nottingham, York, to 
 the mouth of the Tees ; and from Birming- 
 ham to Liverpool, Preston, and Lancaster. 
 This district, although it may be said to be 
 dry, has many springs in it; and, in the 
 centre of the kingdom, the Severn, Trent, 
 Mersey, and their tributaries rise in this 
 formation." {Ibid. p. 72.) This is a very 
 fertile formation ; the only earthy manure 
 which it seems to need is lime, which is 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 applied to it in considerable quantities, and 
 with very considerable success, in many por- 
 tions of this great extent of land. 
 
 Magnesian Limestone. — This formation 
 is supposed to rest upon coal, and is found 
 under the new red sandstone. It extends 
 from near Nottingham to Mansfield, Don- 
 caster, Boroughbridge, Darlington, and 
 Sunderland, at an average breadth of five 
 miles. 'The soils resting on this formation 
 are in general fertile. A comparison is 
 sometimes attempted to be drawn between 
 the prejudicial effects upon vegetation of 
 copious dressings of lime made from the 
 magnesian limestone, and the same stone in 
 its uncalcined form, or in the state of car- 
 bonate. (See Lime.) These, however, as 
 will be seen under that head, have very dif- 
 ferent chemical properties. 
 
 The Coal Formation. — The coal fields 
 are found in detatched masses in various 
 counties, resting under strata of a varying 
 composition. If these are argillaceous, or 
 composed of shale, the soil (and this is most 
 commonly the case) is of a yellowish clayey 
 character, " wet, poor, and cold," producing 
 a poor herbage, which is readily improved 
 by dressing it with lime. In Somerset and 
 Gloucestershire, however, the soil over the 
 coal fields are formed of the red sandstone, 
 and, in consequence, the surface soil is fri- 
 able, mixed with small fragments of rock. 
 Over some of the coal fields, however, of the 
 midland counties, the soil is sometimes a 
 strong clay loam, at others a poor, barren, 
 sandy clay on ironstone, or a hungry, inert, 
 yellow clay, resting on clay. 
 
 Millstone Grit. — This rock is silicious 
 sand, cemented with clay. This is the lowest 
 member of the coal formation. It is of con- 
 siderable extent. It reaches from Alnwick 
 to Wolsingham, Barnard Castle, Middle- 
 ham, Otley, and Halifax, and from Penis- 
 tone to Ughill ; is found also from Chester- 
 field to Ashover, and from near Macclesfield 
 and Congleton to Cheadle ; and in Lanca- 
 shire from Clithero to Preston andlngleton. 
 The character of this formation is that of an 
 elevated, poor, cold, peaty district : for the 
 mode of improving which see Peat Soils. 
 
 Mountain Limestone, or Carboniferous 
 Limestone. — The soils resting on this form- 
 ation (which is a hard limestone rock) are 
 usually thin, dry, and loose. They yield, 
 however, a short sweet grass, and are com- 
 monly kept in pasturage. This is a very ex- 
 tensive formation — especially in the north- 
 ern counties — extending from Brough in 
 Yorkshire, to Sedburgh, and by Settle to 
 Clithero in Lancashire, and through the 
 counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, 
 and Derby. Smaller fields are found also 
 in the counties of Gloucester, Somerset, 
 557 
 
 Glamorgan, Monmouth, Brecon, and Car* 
 marthen. 
 
 The Old Red Sandstone. — This formation 
 is found below the mountain limestone and 
 over the greywacke. It varies in compo- 
 sition : in Monmouth and Herefordshire it 
 is found as reddish sandstone, composed of 
 mica and siliceous sand. The soil resting 
 upon it is usually a loose red sand, which, 
 when marled or clayed, forms a very fertile 
 soil. That variety called the dunstone is 
 excellent for hops ; but that which is more 
 of a red clayey description produces the 
 best crops of wheat. From the loose nature 
 of the subsoil, the roots of trees readily 
 penetrate into it ; hence one reason why the 
 county of Hereford, which is composed 
 principally of this formation, is so well 
 adapted to the growth of orchards. The 
 soils resting upon it are, perhaps, amongst 
 the most fertile in the kingdom, yielding 
 not only the finest wheat, barley, and hops, 
 but fruit of all kinds, and excellent pas- 
 turage. 
 
 Greywacke and Clay Slate. — These are 
 classed together by Mr. Morton, from the 
 similarity of their composition, and of the 
 soils which rest upon them. Clay slate is 
 composed of clay and iron : mica slate con- 
 tains also mica, quartz, or felspar. " Some 
 varieties," he observes (p. 93.), " have car- 
 bon in their composition : that which passes 
 into mica slate, or greywacke slate, has mica 
 in very thin plates." It is a very extensive 
 Welsh formation, reaching from Aberga- 
 venny to St. David's Head in Pembroke- 
 shire, and from Aberystwith to Ludlow ; in 
 fact, comprehending two thirds of the prin- 
 cipality. It extends also from Bridgewater 
 to the Land's End in Cornwall, and from 
 Penrith to Morecombe Bay. The soil which 
 forms the surface of this formation " is 
 almost universally of a thin shelloty nature, 
 formed of loose fragments lying between 
 the solid rock and the soil, which are every 
 where imbedded in a reddish or grey shivery 
 kind of substance, formed by the decom- 
 position of those fragments, which compose 
 the basis of the soil." {Ibid. 95.) Being 
 of a mountainous nature, this formation is 
 principally in pasturage. 
 
 The Granitic Formation. — This is a still 
 more mountainous formation than the last. 
 The structure of granite is close and crys- 
 talline, composed chiefly of felspar, quartz, 
 and mica, with veins interspersed of por- 
 phyry, felspar, and quartz. Where it 
 abouiras in felspar, as in some parts of 
 Cornwall, the atmosphere, by its action on • 
 the potash which felspar contains, reduces 
 it to a white clay, which, with the quartz 
 of the granite, forms a good soil, easily 
 fertilised by being mixed with the cal- 
 
GEOLOGY. 
 
 GERARDE. 
 
 careous sea sand of Devon and Cornwall. 
 On the more elevated ridges of the granite 
 formation, however, the soil is thin, and, in 
 the west, being usually enveloped in a very 
 humid atmosphere, the improvement of the 
 soil is attended with many difficulties. It 
 is, however, readily and profitably planted 
 with larch and other trees. 
 
 " The highest mountains in Britain," says 
 Mr. Brande, " are composed of granite and 
 its associates; but these are mere trifling 
 protuberances upon the earth's face, when 
 compared with the exceeding height of the 
 Alpine chain, or the more elevated moun- 
 tains of South America and of the Asiatic 
 continent, which consist of the same mate- 
 rials. Ben Nevis, the loftiest of the British 
 mountains, is situated in the south of In- 
 verness-shire, and is 4370 feet high. Cairn- 
 gorm, in the same county, is 4050 feet high. 
 Mont Blanc, in Switzerland, has its peak 
 elevated 15,600 feet above the level of the 
 sea : it is the highest mountain in Europe. 
 Chimborazo, the highest summit of the 
 Andes, is 20,280 feet above the sea's level. 
 The highest mountains in the world are 
 those of Thibet, constituting the Himalayan 
 chain. Of this, the highest peak, covered 
 with eternal snow, is called Dwawalagiri, 
 or White Mountain : it is called the Mont 
 Blanc of the Indian Alps, and rises to the 
 astonishing altitude of 26,862 feet above the 
 level of the ocean. This is about 6000 feet 
 higher than Chimborazo, 11,000 feet higher 
 than Mont Blanc, and 22,000 feet higher 
 than the most elevated peak of the British 
 dominions. (Outlines of Geography, p. 127.) 
 
 Basaltic Rocks. — These abound all over 
 Scotland, but only in small beds in Cum- 
 berland, Northumberland, Derby, a few of 
 the western counties, and in Wales. The soil 
 resting on basalt forms in Fifeshire and the 
 Lothians, observes Mr. Morton, " produces 
 the richest and most abundant crops. It is 
 composed of the elements of the rock on 
 which it rests ; it is therefore of a reddish, 
 brownish, or greyish-coloured cast, with 
 fragments of the rock, Scotch pebbles, topaz, 
 agate, and chalcedony mixed in it. It is 
 friable, and, if well drained, may be easily 
 kept, by manure and good culture, in a 
 state which would gradually increase its 
 productiveness." (On Soils, p. 101.) 
 
 From such facts as these the farmer will 
 readily perceive that the science of geology 
 is not without its material and extensive 
 value to the tiller of the earth. It enables 
 him at least to cultivate his soils on solid 
 data, to avoid the adoption of idle and fruit- 
 less modes of cultivation, to pursue that 
 which t he situation of the strata he tenants 
 determines to be the best. It is no reason 
 for the neglect (»C its assistance that other 
 558 
 
 sciences can perhaps do more for the farmer : 
 and even the objection, though very com- 
 mon, amounts, in fact, to an admission that 
 geology is a science capable of rendering 
 services to agriculture. (Brande' s Lect. on 
 Geology; Morton on Soils; Davys JElem. 
 Ag. Chem.; Paris on the Soils of Corn- 
 wall; J. F. Johnston's Lec. Chem. and 
 Geol.) 
 
 GERANIUM. (Pelargonium.) A genus 
 of beautiful plants, indigenous to the 
 south of Africa. The varieties cultivated 
 in England are very numerous, but all 
 are tender. The common scarlet geranium 
 is the hardiest shrub, and the handsomest. 
 It looks beautiful planted in lawns and 
 gardens, and grows extremely bushy and 
 handsome in a fine light soil. Cuttings 
 strike so readily, that the old shrub may 
 die every fall, and be renewed every sum- 
 mer from the frame. The best plants come 
 from seed sown in July : the seedlings 
 must be kept warm, but not forced. The 
 scarlet geranium thrives well through the 
 winter, if placed in the house, free from 
 damp and from stagnant air. It is the most 
 ornamental of shrubs during summer and 
 autumn. 
 
 Sweefs Geraniace&, and other works on 
 the subject, may be consulted with advan- 
 tage by those desirous of further information 
 as to the best varieties of geranium, &c. 
 
 GERANIUM, STRIPED. (Geranium 
 striatum.) A hardy plant without stalk, 
 blooming its flowers in May and June. Its 
 petals are striped with red veins, and the 
 corners of its leaves are spotted with pur- 
 plish brown. It loves a loamy soil and 
 shade. Propagate by parting the roots. 
 
 GERARDE, JOHN, was born at Nant- 
 wich in Cheshire, in 1545. He was educated 
 a surgeon, and practised in London, where 
 he attained considerable eminence in his 
 profession. He was patronised by Lord 
 Burleigh, who was a great admirer of plants, 
 having a better collection at that time than 
 any nobleman in the kingdom. Gerarde 
 was superintendent of his lordship's garden 
 for twenty years. He lived in Holborn, 
 where he had a physic garden of his own, 
 probably exceeding, in the number and 
 variety of its products, any then in Eng- 
 land. It contained nearly 1100 sorts of 
 plants, exotic and indigenous. In his ca- 
 talogue he describes 1033 species. This 
 catalogue was his first publication, and 
 appeared in 1596, entitled, " Catalogus Ar- 
 borum, Fruticum, et Plantarum, &c. in 
 horto Johannis Gerardi," 4to. Another edi- 
 tion was published in 1599. In 1597, was 
 published his " Herbal, or General History 
 of Plants," folio; and another edition seems 
 to have appeared in 1599. This was founded 
 
GERARDE, HERB. 
 
 GERMANY. 
 
 on the works of Dodoens, though even the 
 originality of translation is denied him, and 
 given to Dr. Priest and Lobel. Gerarde 
 divides the work into three books : 1 . 
 Grasses, grain, rushes, reeds, flags, and bul- 
 bous-rooted plants. 2. Herbs used for 
 food, medicine, or ornament. 3. Trees, 
 shrubs, fruit-bearing plants, resins, gums, 
 roses, heaths, mosses, mushrooms, and sea 
 plants. The whole divided into 800 chap- 
 ters. In each chapter the several species 
 are described ; then follow the habitat, time 
 of flowering, names and qualities. From 
 various causes, but especially from being in 
 English, and obtaining so learned an editor, 
 in 1636, as Johnson, it remained the stand- 
 ard botanical work for more than a century. 
 Gerarde was certainly as good a practical 
 botanist as the age afforded. He died in 
 1607. Of his " Catalogue" scarcely a copy 
 remains, except one in the British Museum, 
 and another in the Bodleian Library. (G. 
 W. Johnson's Hist, of Gardening.) 
 
 GERARDE, HERB. See Gout-Weed. 
 
 GERMANDER. (Teucrium.) Of this 
 genus of perennial plants there are three 
 wild species common to our island. 1. The 
 wood germander, or wood sage (T. scoro- 
 donia), which is found growing very pro- 
 fusely in heathy bushy places and woods, 
 on a sandy soil, and flowers in the month 
 of July. The root is creeping; the stem 
 reaches to two feet high, is leafy, hairy, 
 acutely quadrangular. The leaves are deep 
 green, wrinkled, hairy, copiously serrated ; 
 the flowers are pale yellow, in clusters, ter- 
 minal, and axillary ; corolla pale yellow, 
 middle lobe concave and hairy. The whole 
 plant is glutinous, and has a bitter taste, 
 with an agreeable aromatic scent, much re- 
 sembling that of hops, for which it is said 
 to be no bad substitute in making beer. It 
 is used in the island of Jersey in brewing. 
 
 2. The water germander (T. scordium) 
 is less common, and grows in low wet mea- 
 dows and damp marshy situations, and pro- 
 duces purplish flowers in July and August. 
 The herb is downy ; the leaves are very 
 bitter, and somewhat pungent, with a strong 
 garlic-like odour. The root is creeping ; 
 the stem recumbent, branching, with obtuse, 
 horny, scarcely serrated sessile leaves, an 
 inch long. Flowers two, from axilla of each 
 leaf. Corolla pale dull purple ; middle lobe 
 flattish, with two spots. It is eaten by 
 sheep and goats, but refused by horses, 
 hogs, and cows, though the latter will eat it 
 when impelled by hunger ; but it spoils the 
 flavour of their milk. 
 
 3. The common wall germander (T. cha- 
 mcedrys) is found on the borders of corn- 
 fields that are remote from houses, or old 
 ruined buildings and stony banks : it pro- 
 
 559 
 
 duces crimson or reddish purple flowers, 
 which blow in the month of June or July. 
 Root creeping ; stems erect, bushy, leafy, 
 hairy ; angles rounded ; leaves dark green, 
 tapering, fringed, entire at the base. Flow- 
 ers have the central lobe rounded, a little 
 concave; the lateral lobes and the tube 
 hairy. The whole herb is very bitter, with 
 a weak aromatic flavour, and was formerly 
 used to remove obstructed secretions, to 
 promote expectoration, perspiration, &c. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 69.) 
 
 GERMANDER CHICKWEED. See 
 Chickweed. 
 
 GERMANDER, The SHINING. {Teu- 
 crium lucidum.) A native of Provence, 
 blowing reddish-purple flowers in June and 
 July. It grows two feet high, and is indif- 
 ferent as to soil. Propagated by separating 
 the roots in autumn, and by seed sown in 
 warm borders, or on a hotbed. 
 
 GERMANY. The agriculture of a dis- 
 trict so extensive as that of Germany na- 
 turally varies with the nature of the climate 
 and the degree of knowledge possessed by 
 the inhabitants of the numerous and axten- 
 sive provinces of which the empire is com- 
 posed. In the Mecklenburgs, or that por- 
 tion of Germany bounded by the Baltic on 
 the north, according to Mr. J. S. Carr, 
 " from north to south there is a ridge of 
 elevated sandy land (the same which may 
 be traced from the Bannat in Hungary to 
 Jutland in Denmark) varying from ten to 
 twenty miles in breadth, affording miserable 
 crops of corn, and worse pasture ; but the soil 
 improves on both sides towards the Elbe and 
 the Baltic, where fine districts of rich loams 
 and clays are managed with considerable 
 plodding industry." The farms in northern 
 Germany vary in size from fifty to sixty acres, 
 cultivated by peasants, to 300 and even 2000 
 in the hands of the farmers and proprietors. 
 The number of cows kept by the farmers 
 are often 300 and 400, and they are sen- 
 sibly alive to the advantages of sheltering 
 stock in winter. Their sheep-houses are 
 commonly made large enough to hold 5000 
 head. They usually harvest all their corn 
 in barns. Their agricultural implements 
 are defective : for instance, they use gene- 
 rally, instead of a plough, an instrument 
 called a haken, which is exactly similar to 
 one used by the Roman farmers. Their 
 harrows have commonly wooden teeth, and 
 are worked with five horses, in a very 
 bungling manner. They often break up 
 their pastures with this clumsy instrument 
 in summer, expose it to the frosts of the 
 following winter, spread over it their dung, 
 and in the following July sow broadcast 
 rape seed. This they dress with 100 lbs. of 
 gypsum dust per acre, in the following 
 
GERMANY. 
 
 GERMINATION. 
 
 spring, and in July the seed is ripe, which 
 is then trodden out by horses on large can- 
 vas sheets in the field. " The oil of this 
 seed, when purified, is without smell, gives 
 a brilliant clear-burning flame, and is uni- 
 versally used all over Germany, in the 
 saloon and the cottage." If this crop escapes 
 the manifold contingencies of slugs, cater- 
 pillars, turnip fly, and beetles, it is a very 
 remunerative one, worth from 10/. to 201. 
 per acre. The improved rotations now 
 commonly followed in Germany are, 1. 
 Fallow, well dunged. 2. Rape. 3. Wheat. 
 4. Barley. 5. Peas (with light dunging). 
 6. Rye. 7. Oats, sown down with rye or 
 Timothy grass, and red clover, " which, as 
 well as the peas, is gypsumed with great 
 effect before the dew has left the plant of 
 a May morning." The clover, after being 
 twice mown, is left two years longer for 
 pasture. Marl, at the rate of 164 cubic 
 feet per acre, is much used, and is the be- 
 ginning, in many places, of all improve- 
 ments. The haken is worked by oxen. 
 The merino breed of sheep is now exten- 
 sively cultivated in the Mecklenburghs and 
 in Saxony. There is little else to be no- 
 ticed in their live stock. The farm servants 
 are commonly lodged and fed in the house, 
 and are paid from 51. to 61. per annum. 
 The married labourers have a free house 
 and firing, the keep of a cow, and about one 
 rood of garden, and twice as much potato 
 land. The average rent of wheat and 
 barley lands is about 185. per acre. Ma- 
 nures of all kinds are preserved with much 
 care ; and they show a wisdom in the col- 
 lection of night-soil and that of the sewer- 
 age of their towns, which it would be well 
 to imitate in England. These manures 
 are extensively used for their vineyards in 
 several parts of Germany. The following 
 account of them is taken from a paper by 
 Dr. Granville : — 
 
 " In most of the cities of the second order, 
 and the smaller capitals, night-soil is a 
 source of profit, first to the householder, 
 next to a middleman, and thirdly to the 
 farmer, who is the last purchaser, and em- 
 ploys it. In all the towns of the Grand 
 Duchy of Baden, of the kingdom of Wiir- 
 temburg, of Bavaria (except Munich and 
 Wurtzburg), of the province of Salzburg, 
 of Bohemia (except Prague), of Saxony 
 (except Dresden), in some of the minor 
 cities of Prussia, in all the confederated 
 principalities, in all the cities on both banks 
 of the Rhine, particularly Strasburg, May- 
 ence, Coblentz, Bonn, Cologne, Dusseldorf, 
 Nimeguen, &c, the householder disposes of 
 the coni cuts of his cesspool for a certain 
 gum of money, besides getting the operation 
 of emptying it performed gratuitously, By 
 500 
 
 comparing the returns of the different prices 
 paid in those cities for the commodity in 
 question, one year with another, and equal- 
 izing them by an average price, founded on 
 positive data, which I possess ; the inhabit- 
 ants appear to be benefited to the amount 
 of 4 francs a head yearly, and the middle- 
 man to at least 40 per cent, more on the 
 sum he pays to the original seller. I will 
 cite Strasburg as an example, since most of 
 the other cities of the same extent (on the 
 Rhine, and in many parts of Germany), 
 and a few cities even larger, presented the 
 strongest analogy to the case I have se- 
 lected. At Strasburg a company of mid- 
 dlemen engage to empty the cesspools, of 
 which every house has at least two (built 
 air and water tight), once a year for no- 
 thing, and pays, moreover, 6 francs per 
 charette, containing 96 baquets, of the ca- 
 pacity of 4 gallons each. This quantity the 
 company sells afterwards to the farmers for 
 ten francs. (The capacity of the charette 
 being to that of a ton, as 28,772 ounces are 
 to 35,840, it follows that the price of a ton 
 at Strasburg would be 10s.) Now, as there 
 are 14,000 houses in Strasburg, 10,000 of 
 which have cesspools affording the soil in 
 question (which is always semi-liquid), sup- 
 posing the latter to be emptied only once a 
 year, and to furnish each 3 charettes only, at 
 six francs, we have 10,000x6x3 = 180,000 
 francs, which the company pays yearly to 
 the inhabitants of a town having a popula- 
 tion of 70,000 souls. But as the company 
 re- sells to the farmer the said soil for ma- 
 nuring purposes, at ten francs per charette, 
 it follows that this article of traffic produces 
 yearly at Strasburg 300,000 francs, or just 
 about 4i francs for each inhabitant. The 
 average sum, therefore, for each inhabitant 
 of a city, where the mixed contents of cess- 
 pools are sold for their benefit, which I have 
 assumed, may be adopted with safety, as 
 founded on fact. (Jonrn. Roy. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 124 — 371.; Rep. Thames Improv. 
 17.) 
 
 GERMEN. (Lat. a hud.) In botany, 
 the organ commonly called the ovarium. 
 
 GERMINATION. (Lat. germen.) The 
 process by which a plant is produced from a 
 seed. It is in truth the springing into life 
 of a new individual. The phenomena of 
 germination are best observed in dicotyle- 
 donous seeds ; such, for instance, as the bean, 
 pea, lupin, &c. These seeds consist of two 
 lobes or cotyledons, enveloped in a common 
 membrane; when this is removed a small 
 projecting body is seen, which is that part of 
 the germ which subsequently becomes the 
 root, and is termed the radicle ; the other 
 portion of the germ is seen on carefully se- 
 parating the cotyledons, and is termed the 
 
GERMINATION. 
 
 plumida ; it afterwards forms the stem and 
 leaves. When the ripe seed is removed from 
 the parent plant it gradually dries, and may 
 be kept often for an indefinite period, with- 
 out undergoing any change ; but if placed 
 under circumstances favourable to its ger- 
 mination, it soon begins to grow : these re- 
 quisite circumstances are a due temperature, 
 moisture, and the presence of air. The 
 most favourable temperature is between 60° 
 and 80° ; at the freezing point none of the 
 most perfect seeds vegetate, and at tem- 
 peratures above 100°, the young germ is 
 usually injured. No seed will grow without 
 moisture : water is at first absorbed by the 
 pores of the external covering, and decom- 
 posed ; the seed gradually swells, its mem- 
 branes burst, and the germ expands. The 
 root is at first most rapidly developed, the 
 materials for its growth being derived from 
 the cotyledons ; and when it shoots out its 
 fibres or rootlets, these absorb nourishment 
 from the soil, and the plumula is developed, 
 rising upwards in a contrary direction to the 
 root, and expanding into stem and leaves. 
 For this growth the presence of air is re- 
 quisite ; if it be carefully excluded, though 
 there be heat and moisture, yet the seed will 
 not vegetate. Hence it is that seeds buried 
 very deep in the earth or in a stiff clay, re- 
 main inert ; but on admission of air by turn- 
 ing up the soil, begin to vegetate. From 
 experiments which have been made upon 
 the germination of seeds in confined at- 
 mospheres, it appears that the oxygen set 
 free by the decomposition of water, combines 
 with a portion of the carbon of the seed, 
 and carries it off in the form of carbonic 
 acid, and that the consequence of this is the 
 conversion of part of the albumen and starch 
 of the cotyledons into gum and sugar ; so 
 that most seeds, as we see in the conversion 
 of barley into malt, become sweet during 
 germination. Light is injurious to the 
 growth of the seed. It is, therefore, ob- 
 vious that the different requisites for ger- 
 mination are attained by placing a seed 
 under the surface of the soil, where warmed 
 by the sun's rays, and moistened by the 
 humidity of the atmosphere, it is excluded 
 from light, but the air has access to it. 
 
 Oxygen is an essential agent in the pro- 
 cess of germination, and without it seed will 
 not germinate, a fact which has been de- 
 monstrated by placing seeds in vacuo, and 
 in nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. 
 But, as in animal life, too much oxygen is 
 hurtful : it abstracts the carbon too rapidly, 
 oYerstimulates, and causes feebleness of 
 growth to the infant plant. 
 
 When the young plant is perfected, the 
 cotyledons, if not converted into leaves, rot 
 away, and the process of nutrition is carried 
 561 
 
 on by the root and leaves : the principal 
 nourishment is taken up from the soil by 
 the root, and chiefly by its small and ex- 
 treme fibres ; so that when these are injured 
 or torn, as by careless transplantation, the 
 plant or tree generally dies. The matters 
 absorbed, consisting of water holding small 
 portions of saline substances, and of organic 
 matter in solution, become the sap of the 
 plant ; and this is propelled upwards in the 
 vessels of the stem, or of the outer layer of 
 the wood, into the leaves ; here it is exposed 
 to the agency of air and of light; moisture, 
 and occasionally carbonic acid, is transpired. 
 But the leaves also at times absorb moisture, 
 and during the influence of light they de- 
 compose the carbonic acid, and retaining 
 the carbon, evolve oxygen ; the sap thus 
 becomes modified in its composition, and 
 the characteristic proximate principles of 
 the vegetable are formed. These return in 
 appropriate vessels from the leaves chiefly 
 to the inner bark, where we accordingly find 
 the accumulation of the peculiar product 
 of the plant ; they also enable it annually 
 to form a new layer of wood. Hence it is 
 that the transverse section of the wood ex- 
 hibits as many distinct zones as the tree is 
 years old. W r e are ignorant of the causes 
 of this ascent of the sap ; but that it does 
 follow the cause which has been stated is 
 proved by the operation which gardeners 
 call ringing, and which they sometimes re- 
 sort to, to make a barren branch bear flowers 
 and fruit. It consists in cutting out and 
 removing a circular ring of bark, so as to 
 prevent the return of the sap by the de- 
 scending vessels, which at first ooze co- 
 piously, but afterwards the wound heals, 
 and the juices are accumulated in all parts 
 above the extirpated ring, producing tume- 
 faction in the limb, and often inducing a 
 crop of flowers and fruit, or causing those 
 to appear earlier than on the uncut 
 branches. 
 
 If a tree be wounded so as to cut into the 
 central portions of the wood, or the outer 
 layer of new wood, the flow of ascending sap 
 is then seen to take place upon the lower sec- 
 tion, where the vessels are that carry it up 
 to the leaves ; and the flow of descending 
 proper juice is principally confined to the 
 upper section of the inner bark, from which, 
 after a time, new bark is produced, and the 
 parts are again united. To return to the 
 process of germination, every part of the 
 seed is not essential, nor the whole of the 
 parts. Kidney beans will germinate with 
 only one cotyledon ; and oaks, also, ger- 
 minate in the same state : gourds have been 
 robbed of the radicle and also the plumule, 
 as they shoot forth, and yet germination 
 has proceeded; but the plants produced in 
 o o 
 
GESTATION. 
 
 all these cases were small, delicate, and never 
 came to perfection. 
 
 GESTATION. The gestatory term in 
 quadrupeds is much regulated by their bulk. 
 In the elephant it is about twenty months, 
 in the camel between eleven and twelve, in 
 the mare and ass the same. According to 
 the observations of M. Teissier of Paris, in 
 582 mares, which copulated but once, the 
 shortest period was 287 days, and the longest 
 419; making the extraordinary difference 
 of 32 days, and of 89 days beyond the usual 
 term of 1 1 months. The cow usually brings 
 forth in about 9 months, and the sheep in 
 5. Swine usually farrow between the 120th i 
 and 140th day, being liable to variations, 
 influenced apparently by their size and their 
 particular breeds. In the bitch, on the con- 
 
 | trary, be she as diminutive as a kitten, or 
 as large as the boarhound, pupping occurs 
 on or about the 63d day. The cat produces 
 either on the 55th or 56th day. The true 
 I causes which abridge or prolong more or less 
 the period of gestation in the females of 
 quadrupeds, and of the incubation of birds, 
 are yet unknown to us. Many persons are 
 also unacquainted with the proper age for 
 reproduction, the duration of the power of 
 reproduction, and other conditions even of 
 the domesticated animals. It cannot, there- 
 fore, but be interesting to find in the fol- 
 lowing table the results of observations 
 made on this subject by the best ancient 
 and modern naturalists. (Aeconomische neu- 
 gikund Verhandl.) 
 
 Kinds of Animals. 
 
 Proper Age 
 for Repro- 
 duction. 
 
 Period of 
 the Power 
 of Repro- 
 duction. 
 
 Number of 
 Females for 
 one Male. 
 
 The most 
 Favourable 
 
 Period of Gestation and 
 Incubation. 
 
 Season for 
 Copulation. 
 
 Shortest 
 Period. 
 
 Mean 
 Period. 
 
 Longest 
 Period. 
 
 Mare 
 
 
 
 Years. 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 
 Days. 
 
 Days. 
 
 
 4 years 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 _ 
 
 May 
 
 322 
 
 347 
 
 419 
 
 Stallion 
 
 
 5 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 20 to 30 
 
 
 
 
 Cow 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 July 
 
 240 
 
 283 
 
 321 
 
 Bull 
 
 
 Q 
 O 
 
 0 
 
 QO +r> in 
 OU lO tO 
 
 
 
 
 Ewe 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 146 
 
 154 
 
 161 
 
 Tup 
 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 40 to 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sow 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 March 
 
 109 
 
 115 
 
 143 
 
 Boar 
 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 6 to 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 She-Goat 
 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 150 
 
 156 
 
 163 
 
 He-Goat - 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 20 to 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 She-Ass 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 to 12 
 
 
 May 
 
 365 
 
 380 
 
 391 
 
 He-Ass 
 
 
 5 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 She-Buffalo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 281 
 
 308 
 
 335 
 
 Bitch 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 
 Feb. 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 63 
 
 Dog 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 to 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 She- Cat - 
 
 
 1 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 
 
 48 
 
 50 
 
 56 
 
 He-Cat 
 
 
 1 
 
 9 to 10 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 Doe -Rabbit 
 
 
 6 months 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 
 Nov. 
 
 20 
 
 28 
 
 35 
 
 Buck- Rabbit 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cock 
 
 
 6 
 
 5 to 6 
 
 12 to 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey, sitting ~) 
 
 Hen f 
 
 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 24 
 
 28 
 
 on the eggs 
 
 Duck \ 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 of the J 
 
 Turkey (. 
 
 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 Hen sitting on 
 
 1 Duck / 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 30 
 
 34 
 
 the eggs of the 
 
 J Hen \ 
 
 
 3 to 5 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 24 
 
 Duck 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 32 
 
 Goose 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 27 
 
 30 
 
 33 
 
 Pigeon 
 
 
 
 
 - - 
 
 
 16 
 
 18 
 
 20 
 
 Some of these results do not altogether 
 coincide with the practice of this country. 
 For the season of copulation for the cow, 
 for instance, July is considered too late. 
 That period would produce late calves in 
 the following year. November is stated to 
 be the best season for the ewe ; for the 
 black-faced ewe it is, but for the Leicester, 
 and, in many situations, for the Cheviot 
 ewe, it is ;i month too late. The duration 
 of the power oC reproduction accords with 
 5f>2 
 
 our experience as respects the mare and 
 stallion ; but thirteen years of age for the 
 cow, and eight years for the bull, is too young 
 a period for old age in them, fine animals 
 of both sexes, of a valuable breed, having 
 been kept in a useful state to a much greater 
 age. I have seen a short-horn bull in use at 
 thirteen years, and a cow of the same breed 
 bearing calves at eighteen ; but if the agei 
 of eight and thirteen respectively refer to 
 the usual time bulls and cows arc kept for 
 
GILL. 
 
 GLANDERS. 
 
 use, the statement is not far from the 
 truth. 
 
 From some carefully collected and very 
 extensive notes made by Lord Spencer on 
 the periods of gestation of 764 cows, it re- 
 sulted that the shortest period of gestation 
 when a live calf was produced was 220 
 days, and the longest 313 days, but he was 
 not able to rear any calf produced at an 
 earlier period than 242 days. From the 
 result of his experiments it appears that 
 314 cows calved before the 284th day, and 
 310 calved after the 285th; so that the 
 probable period of gestation ought to be 
 considered 284 or 285 days. The expe- 
 riments of M. Teissier on the gestation of 
 cows, are recorded to have given the follow- 
 ing results : — 
 
 21 calved between the 240th ft 270th day, the mean time being 259i 
 544 — 270th & 29'Jth — 282 
 
 10 _ 299th & 321st — 303 
 
 In most cases, therefore, between nine 
 and ten months may be assumed as the usual 
 period ; though, with a bull-calf, the cow 
 has been generally observed to go about 41 
 weeks, and a few days less with a female. 
 Any calf produced at an earlier period than 
 260 days must be considered decidedly pre- 
 mature, and any period of gestation ex- 
 ceeding 300 days must also be considered 
 irregular; but in this latter case, the health 
 of the produce is not affected. I will con- 
 clude this article with the remarks of Mr. 
 C. Hillyard, of Northampton, who states 
 that the period of gestation of a cow is 284 
 days, or, as it is said, 9 calendar months 
 and 9 days ; the ewe 20 weeks ; the sow 16 
 weeks ; the mare 1 1 months. The well- 
 bred cattle of the present time appear to 
 me to bring forth twins more frequently 
 than the cattle did fifty years ago. The 
 males of all animals, hares excepted, are 
 larger than the females. Castrated male 
 cattle become larger beasts than entire 
 males. {Blaine s Encyclo. pp.205. 281.; 
 Quar. Joum. of Agr. vol. x. p. 287. ; Joum. 
 of Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 165. ; Brit. 
 Husb. vol. ii. p. 438. ; Hilly aruVs Pract. 
 Farm, and Grazing, p. 83.) 
 
 GILL, or ALEHOOF. One of the com- 
 mon names of Ground-ivy. See Alehoof. 
 
 GILL. A small valley, connected with 
 a stream and some woodiness. Also a rivu- 
 let, or small brook. It is likewise a pro- 
 vincial name in some districts for a pair of 
 timber wheels. 
 
 GILLIFLOWER, THE SEA. See 
 Common Thrift. 
 
 GILTS. A provincial term applied to 
 young female pigs, whether open or spayed. 
 
 GIMMER. A young female sheep : 
 thus, gimmer-hog is a ewe of the first 
 year ; and gimmer-lamb, a ewe-lamb. 
 
 GILPIN, WILLIAM, one of the re- 
 563 
 
 formers of the old style of ornamental gar- 
 dening, was a native of Carlisle. He pur- 
 sued his university studies at Queen's 
 College, Oxford, where he took his degree 
 of Master of Arts in 1748. He was for 
 many years a schoolmaster at Cheam in 
 Surrey. Subsequently he obtained the vi- 
 carage of Boldre in Hampshire, and a pre- 
 bendary stall in Salisbury Cathedral. He 
 died in 1804, at the advanced age of eighty. 
 He bequeathed the profits of his numerous 
 publications for the endowment of a school 
 at Boldre. His religious works are many, 
 but we must here confine our attention to 
 those relating to rural affairs. 
 
 1. Observations on the River Wye, and several Parts 
 of South Wales, &c. relative chiefly to Picturesque 
 Beauty, made in the Summer of 1770. London. 1783. 
 8vo. 2. Observations relative chiefly to Picturesque 
 Beauty, made in the year 1772 on several parts of Eng- 
 land ;particul arly the Mountains and Lakes of Cumber, 
 land and Westmoreland. London 1787. 2 vols. 8vo. 
 3. Observations chiefly relative to Picturesque Beauty, 
 made in the year 1776 in several parts of Great Britain, 
 particularly the Highlands of Scotland. London. 1788. 
 
 2 vols. 8vo. 4. Remarks on Forest Scenery, and other 
 Woodland Views, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty. 
 Illustrated by Scenes in the New Forest, Hants. In 
 
 3 books. London. 1791. 2 vols. 8vo. 5. Three Essays, 
 On Picturesque Beauty ; on Picturesque Travel ; on 
 Sketching Landscape ; to which is added a Poem on 
 Landscape Painting. London. 1792. 8vo. 6. Observ- 
 ations on the Western Parts of England relative chiefly 
 to Picturesque Beauty. To which are added a few re- 
 marks on the Picturesque Beauties of the Isle of Wight, 
 18 Plates. London. 1798. 8vo. 7. Observations on the 
 Coasts of Hampshire, Sussex, and Kent, relative chiefly 
 to Picturesque Beauty, made in the Summer of 1774. 
 London. 1804. 8vo. 8. Observations on several parts of 
 the Counties of Cambridge, Norfolk, Sussex, and Essex ; 
 also several parts of North Wales relative chiefly to Pic- 
 turesque Beauty. Made in two Tours, the former in the 
 year 1769, and the latter in 1773. London. 1809. 8vo. 
 
 It may be observed here that his powers 
 of describing scenery were most peculiar 
 and effective ; or, as Dallaway expresses it, 
 " he had the happy faculty to paint with 
 words." No one, though reading for mere 
 amusement, can fail of being delighted with 
 his elegant descriptions and tasteful ob- 
 servations. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, oj 
 Gardening.) 
 
 GIPSE Y-WORT, or WATER HORE- 
 HOUND. (Lycopus Burop&us.) An 
 herbaceous perennial plant, growing on the 
 banks of clear ditches, pools, and rivers, on 
 a sandy or gravelly soil, flowering in July 
 or August. The root is creeping, stem two 
 feet high, leaves numerous, oblong, acute, 
 deeply serrated, often deeply pinnatifid. 
 Flowers white, with purple dots. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 33.) 
 
 GIPSIES. See Gypsies. 
 
 GLADDON. A provincial name ap- 
 plied to the large and small cat's- tail grass 
 
 GLADWYN, or GLAD DON. See 
 Iris. 
 
 GLANDERS. A disease in horses, at- 
 tended with a copious discharge of mucus 
 from the nose. It is needless to endeavour 
 to describe the various attempts which have 
 been made to cure this almost invariably 
 o o 2 
 
GLASSWORT, JOINTED. 
 
 GLOBE-FLOWER, MOUNTAIN. 
 
 fatal disorder. But the farmer must avoid 
 a common error of confounding ulceration 
 of the membrane of the nose with glanders, 
 for the symptoms are very similar. Blue 
 vitriol (sulphate of copper) in thin gruel 
 (one drachm doses) has been given in re- 
 cent cases with occasional success. The 
 nostrils may be washed with a solution of 
 chloride of lime. The farmer will do well, 
 as soon as he finds a horse attacked with 
 this disease, to place him by himself, give 
 him green food, and thoroughly whitewash 
 the stable from which he is taken, for it is a 
 most contagious disease. 
 
 GLASSWORT, JOINTED. {Salicor- 
 nia ; from sal, salt, and cornu, a horn.) Of 
 this genus of plants there are four indi- 
 genous species, which are found very com- 
 mon in salt marshes and muddy sea-shores 
 that are frequently overflowed by the tide. 
 
 1. The common jointed glasswort, sea 
 grass, or marsh samphire {S. herbacea), is 
 an annual plant, with a small fibrous root, 
 a bushy green stem a foot high, with oppo- 
 site branches ; woody centre very tough. 
 Flowers on numerous short-jointed spikes. 
 The whole plant has a saline taste, abound- 
 ing in salt juices, and is therefore devoured 
 with avidity by all kinds of cattle ; and it 
 is a very wholesome food, especially for 
 sheep. It is often pickled, as a substitute 
 for the very different strongly aromatic 
 rock samphire (Crithmum maritimum), to 
 which it is for this purpose very little in- 
 ferior. 
 
 2. Procumbent jointed glasswort {S. pro- 
 cumbens), also an annual, flowering in Au- 
 gust, a span long, branched from the base, 
 with the interstices obtusely quadrangular. 
 
 3. Creeping jointed glasswort {S. radi- 
 cans). This is a perennial, which has the 
 lower part of the stem woody (hence it is 
 sometimes called the woody jointed glass- 
 wort), slender, throwing out fibrous roots ; 
 upper part erect, six or eight inches high, 
 with opposite crossing branches, sometimes 
 purplish, whose interstices are contracted 
 just below the summit, and more slender 
 than either of the foregoing. The flowers 
 are on tumid spikes, with short joints. 
 
 4. The shrubby jointed glasswort {S. 
 fruticosd), very rare ; possibly a variety of 
 the last. It has a woody stem, with nume- 
 rous branches, more slender and cylindrical 
 throughout. The spikes are small, short, 
 and dense. The style of the flower is per- 
 manent, and elongates after flowering. 
 Soda is yielded in large quantities by the 
 ashes of the different species of Salicornia ; 
 and is in great request for manufacturing 
 BOap Rnd glass: the best is imported from 
 Spain, under the name of Barilla (see 
 SODA). These plants will grow in any 
 
 common soil, and are readily increased by 
 divisions. Being natives of the sea-shore, 
 the plants will thrive better if a little salt 
 be occasionally sprinkled on the surface of 
 the soil. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 2. ; Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet. ; WillicKs Bom. Encyclo.) 
 
 GLEANING (Fr. glaner), or LEAS- 
 j ING, as it is called in some counties, is the 
 | gathering or picking up those ears of corn 
 which are left after the field has been reaped 
 and the crop carried home. It is a custom 
 of great antiquity; for we are told that 
 Ruth went to glean in the fields of Boaz : 
 she u gleaned in the field after the reapers." 
 {The Book of Ruth, chap, ii.) In some 
 parts of the Continent the farmers allow 
 this privilege only upon condition that the 
 gleaners contribute their labour for one or 
 two hours towards the housing of the crop. 
 Such regulation is occasionally beneficial to 
 both parties, especially to the farmer on the 
 approach of rain. In consideration of their 
 services, these voluntary labourers are per- 
 mitted to glean for one or two hours, more 
 or less, according to the time they have as- 
 sisted, before others are suffered to enter 
 the field indiscriminately. 
 
 There has usually existed much miscon- 
 ception in England with regard to the right 
 of poor persons to glean ; no such right 
 exists at common law. No person has a 
 right to glean in a harvest field without the 
 consent of the owner, neither have the 
 poor of the parish legally settled (as such) 
 any right of the kind. {Steel v. Houghton, 
 1 H. Blackstone, 51. ; Worledge v. Manning, 
 Ibid. 53.) And even when exercised in 
 particular places by any custom, it must be 
 exercised under proper circumstances and 
 restrictions {Rex v. Price, 4 Burroughs, 
 1925.) ; for, as Lord Mansfield remarked in 
 this case, " stealing under the colour of 
 leasing or gleaning is not to be justified." 
 Whatever may be the right of poor per- 
 sons to glean in the farmers' fields, the 
 true spirit of charity which has ever ac- 
 tuated the British farmer, in common with 
 those of a very early age, has readily al- 
 lowed this boon to the cultivator's poorer 
 neighbours — a spirit which seems in some 
 measure derived from the Levitical law. 
 {Levit. xix. 9. xxiii. 22. Deut xxiv. 19. 
 &c. &c.) It seems, also, from the story 
 of Ruth before alluded to, that it was usual 
 in those days to glean barley. ( Ruth, ii. 1 7.) 
 Judge Gould, in Steel v. Houghton, 1 II. 
 Blackstone, 51., delivered a learned judg- 
 ment in favour of the right of the poor to 
 glean ; but the other three judges were 
 against him. 
 
 GLOBE-FLOWER, MOTJ N TAIN. 
 {Trollius Europams.) A hardy perennial, 
 native of Britain. It grows a foot or more 
 
GLOBE-THISTLES, 
 
 GLUTEN". 
 
 in height; and its bright yellow globose 
 flowers bloom in May and June. It loves 
 moisture, but not much shade. The root 
 is fibrous and tufted, the leaves in many 
 deep spreading pinnatifid cut lobes. The 
 country people of Westmoreland, Scotland, 
 and Sweden consider this a sort of festival 
 flower, going in parties to gather it for the 
 decoration of their doors and apartments, 
 as well as their persons. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 56.) 
 
 GLOBE-THISTLES. (Echinops, in al- 
 lusion to the hedgehog-like heads of flowers 
 in this genus of plants.) The Echinops 
 Ritro is not uncommon in our gardens. It 
 is distinguished by its globular capitate 
 flowers, and pinnatifid leaves, smooth above 
 and woolly below. The whole genus is 
 formed of coarse plants, but nevertheless of 
 considerable beauty, attaining from one to 
 five feet high. They are well adapted for 
 borders on account of their stiff growth ; 
 any common soil suits them, and young 
 plants are obtained by division of the roots. 
 In Spain they use the down of the flower 
 of one of the species (E.strigosus) for tinder. 
 (Paxtoiis Bot. Diet.) 
 
 GLOBULARIA, WEDGE-LEAVED. 
 (Globularia cordifolia.) A perennial plant, 
 belonging to a very handsome genus, na- 
 tive of Germany, which blooms a blue flower 
 at the end of April. It likes a light soil, 
 and is increased freely by cuttings, by di- 
 viding the roots in autumn, or by seed 
 sown in pots or a hot-bed. 
 
 The blue daisy (G. vulgaris) is a peren- 
 nial frame plant, five inches high, which 
 blows a blue flower in June and July. It 
 thrives best in peat. 
 
 The green-house species of Globularia 
 thrive well in a mixture of loam and peat : 
 the hardy kinds do well in sandy light soil. 
 
 GLOW-WORM. (Lampyris noctiluca.) 
 This insect is remarkable for the light it 
 emits during the night. This luminous ap- 
 pearance depends upon a phosphorescent 
 fluid found at the lower extremity of the 
 insect ; which, by unfolding or contracting 
 itself, it can withdraw at pleasure ; a power 
 of consequence to the insect, as it is thus 
 secured from the attacks of nocturnal birds. 
 The light arises from a sac, which is dia- 
 phanous, and contains a secreted fluid con- 
 sisting of albumen and phosphorus. Glow- 
 worms are sometimes called St. John's 
 worms, from appearing first as a common 
 occurrence about the Feast of St. John the 
 Baptist. One or two worms may be seen 
 as early as the 1st of June : the glow-worm 
 is the perfect female of a winged beetle ; 
 the males fly about chiefly in autumn, and 
 frequent the grassy plantations of juniper 
 trees. 
 
 565 
 
 GLUE (Lat. gluten) is prepared from 
 the chippings of hides, hoofs, &c. These 
 are first soaked two or three weeks in lime- 
 water, and afterwards boiled and skimmed ; 
 the solution is then strained through baskets, 
 and gently evaporated to a due consistency ; 
 then cooled in wooden moulds, cut into 
 slices and dried upon nets. The chemical 
 properties of glue are those of an impure 
 gelatin. Good cake glue is semi-transparent, 
 deep brown, and free from spots and clouds. 
 Glue will not harden in a freezing temper- 
 ature, the stiffening depending upon the 
 evaporation of its superfluous water. There 
 are several kinds of glue ; among others, 
 Flemish or Dutch glue, French glue. 
 Hatmaker's glue is obtained from the ten- 
 dons of the legs of neat cattle and horses ; 
 bone glue, from gelatin bent (see Gelatin) ; 
 fish glue, from various membranous and solid 
 parts of cetaceous animals. Size is made 
 mostly from rabbits' skins, old gloves, parch- 
 ment, and gelatin, but in the same manner 
 as glue. The refuse matter of the glue- 
 makers, according to Mr. Miles, is an ex- 
 cellent manure for turnips. (Journ. Roy. 
 Ag. Soc. v. ii. p. 266. ; Liebig's Veg. Chem. ; 
 Brandes Diet. ; Grays Supp.) 
 
 GLUTEN. (Lat.) The viscid elastic 
 substance which remains when wheat flour 
 is wrapt in a coarse cloth, and washed under 
 a stream of water, so as to carry off the 
 starch and soluble matters. Gluten, when 
 pure, is inodorous, insipid, tenacious, ad- 
 hesive, and elastic. It is insoluble in water, 
 but soluble in hot alcohol. It is also soluble 
 in a dilute solution of potash. When kept 
 moist and warm, it ferments. Gluten exists 
 in grains, and occasionally in other parts 
 of vegetables ; but it is a characteristic 
 ingredient in wheat, giving wheat flour 
 its peculiar toughness and tenacity, which 
 particularly fits it for the manufacture of 
 bread, and for viscid pastes, such as macaroni 
 and vermicelli. There is generally more 
 gluten in the wheat of warm climates than of 
 cold : hence the excellence of that grown in 
 the south of Europe for the manufactures 
 just mentioned. Gluten seems also to con- 
 stitute the essential part of yeast. Its uses as 
 a varnish, a ground for paint, &c, pointed 
 out by Cadet, likewise deserve attention. 
 Gluten was discovered in 1742, by Beccaria, 
 an Italian philosopher, to whom we are in- 
 debted for the first analysis of wheat flour. 
 The number of plants containing gluten is 
 very considerable. Proust found it in acorns, 
 chestnuts, rice, barley, rye, peas and beans, 
 and in apples and quinces. He found it also 
 in the leaves of the cabbage, cress, hemlock, 
 borage, saffron, &c, and in the sedums ; in the 
 berries of the elder, the grape, &c. ; in the 
 petals of the rose, &c. (Joarn. de Phys. vol. i. 
 o o 3 
 
GNATS. 
 
 GOAT'S. 
 
 p. 97.) Gluten has been shown to resemble 
 albumen so closely, that they can hardly be 
 considered as distinct principles. Gluten 
 contains nitrogen, and has consequently been 
 called the vegeto- animal principle on this 
 account. It yields ammonia, when sub- 
 jected to destructive distillation; and the 
 vegetables which contain it give out a pe- 
 culiarly disagreeable odour during their 
 putrefaction. M. Magendie, after feeding 
 animals upon different kinds of food, states, 
 that gelatine, fibrin, albumen, when takeu 
 singly, do not possess the power of nourishing 
 animals for any length of time ; they always 
 die. The reverse is the case, however, with 
 gluten, upon which animals thrive well and 
 long. (Brandes Diet, of Science ; Thom- 
 son's Chemistry.) See Manure. 
 
 GNATS. (Culex, Linn.) A genus of in- 
 sects comprising several species, which are 
 well known by the severe punctures they 
 inflict. The gnat most common is the 
 C. pipiens, so named from the sound which 
 it emits in its flight. The sting con- 
 sists of five pieces and a sheath; some of 
 the pieces are simple lancets ; others are 
 barbed, and act both as piercers and as 
 siphons, to extract the blood from the 
 * wounds which they make. Gnats deposit 
 their eggs to the number of 200, by each 
 female, on stagnant waters, where they are 
 hatched into small grubs, in the course of 
 two or three days. On the sides are four 
 small fins, by the aid of which the insect 
 swims about, and swiftly dives to the bot- 
 tom. The larva retains its form a fort- 
 night or three weeks, when it is con- 
 verted into the chrysalis, in which state it 
 continues three or four days, floating on the 
 surface of the water, till it assumes the form 
 of the gnat. The most efficacious reme- 
 dies for their sting are olive oil, unsalted 
 butter, or fresh hog's lard, timely rubbed 
 in. {WillicKs Dom. Encyclo.) Gnats have 
 occasionally appeared in such numbers as 
 to form a cloud, almost darkening the air, 
 as was the case in August, 1766, near Ox- 
 ford. Spencer describes a similar llight of 
 them in Ireland — 
 
 " As when a swarme of gnats at eventide, 
 Out of the fennes of Allan doe arise, 
 Their murmuring small trumpets sownden wide, 
 Whiles in the air their clust'ring army flies, 
 That as a cloud doth seem to dim the skies." 
 
 Faery Queen. 
 
 The mosquito of tropical climates is a 
 species of the same genus as the gnat ; and 
 the latter is not less troublesome in some of 
 our marshy districts than the mosquito in the 
 West I in lie's. In the marsh land of Norfolk, 
 the better classes are forced to have gauze 
 curtains to keep them off during the night. 
 
 ( Kirby and Spence's Tnfrod. to Entomology, 
 vol. i. p. 143.) 
 566 
 
 GOATS. (Capra.) There are three 
 species of this genus enumerated by natu- 
 ralists — 1. The wild goat (C cegagrus) ; 2. 
 The ibex (C. ibex) ; 3. The Caucasian ibex 
 (C. Caucasia) : of these, the first is believed 
 to be the original of the many varieties of 
 the domestic goat. 
 
 The goat appears (says Prof. Low) to form 
 the connecting link between the sheep on 
 the one hand, and the antelope tribes on the 
 other. Being the natural inhabitant of 
 mountainous regions, it is, therefore, in wild 
 rocky countries that the goat is chiefly 
 reared. Goats are stronger, more nimble, 
 and less timid than sheep, and are more 
 easily supported than any other animals, 
 for there are few herbs which they do not 
 relish : they will browse on heaths, shrubs, 
 and plants, which are rejected by other 
 animals ; and it is well known they can eat 
 with safety herbs (such as the hemlock, 
 henbane, &c.) which would prove destruc- 
 tive to sheep and other animals. Goats 
 are more hardy, and not liable to so many 
 diseases as sheep. The goat is not well 
 adapted to a country of enclosures, because 
 it feeds upon the twigs of hedges, and 
 escapes over the barriers intended to confine 
 it. But where there are no young trees to 
 be injured, they may browse at large on 
 the mountain brakes without expense, and 
 in winter, when housed, they are easily sup- 
 ported on whins or furze, cabbage leaves, 
 potato-peelings, and such worthless food. 
 
 Goats emit at all times a strong and dis- 
 agreeable odour, named hircine, which, how- 
 ever, is not without its use, for if one of 
 these animals be kept in a stable, it is af- 
 firmed that it will be an effectual preven- 
 tive of the staggers, a nervous disorder 
 which is often very fatal to horses. In this 
 island, the cultivation of the goat is limited 
 and partial. It is chiefly confined to the 
 mountainous parts of Wales, the Highlands 
 of Scotland, and to the little farms of the 
 poorer peasants of Ireland, whose scanty 
 possessions will not support a cow. The 
 great objection to the rearing of the goat in 
 this country is the want of demand for its 
 flesh, which is hard, and almost indigestible. 
 Even the kid, whose flesh is known to be 
 very delicate and nourishing, is in no es- 
 timation amongst us : hence all the other 
 properties of the goat are insufficient to 
 render it an object of profitable production. 
 But the goat, although it never can be so 
 valuable here as in the dry and rocky coun- 
 tries of the south of Europe, does not desert e 
 that entire neglect with which it is treated. 
 It arrives early at maturity, and is very pro- 
 lific, bearing two and sometimes three kids 
 at a birth. The period of gestation is five 
 
 months. The female hears For six or seven 
 
GOATS-BANE. 
 
 GODWIT. 
 
 years ; the male should not be kept longer 
 than five. In Portugal and some other coun- 
 tries, the goat is used as a beast of draught 
 for light burdens. The hair of the goat may 
 be shorn, as it is of some value, making 
 good lindsey ; that of the Welch he-goat is 
 in great request for making white wigs. 
 Ropes are sometimes made from goats' hair, 
 and are said to last much longer, when used 
 in the water, than those made of hemp. 
 Candles are manufactured from their fat, 
 which, in whiteness and quality, are stated 
 to be superior to those of wax ; their horns 
 afford excellent handles for knives and 
 forks ; and the skin, especially that of the 
 kid, is in demand for gloves and other pur- 
 poses. Goats' milk is sweet, nutritive, and 
 medicinal, and less apt to cifrdle on the 
 stomach than that of the cow : it forms an 
 excellent substitute for that of asses. When 
 yielding milk, the goat will give, for several 
 months, at the average of two quarts per 
 day. Mr. Pringle, of Kent, in his Essay 
 " on Cottage Management" (Gard. Mag. 
 vol. v.), informs us that two milch goats 
 are equivalent to one small Shetland cow. 
 Cheese prepared from goat's milk is much 
 esteemed in mountainous countries, after it 
 has been kept a proper age. (Low's Pract. 
 Agr. and Breeds of Dom. Animals ; Wil- 
 UcKs Dom. Encyc.) 
 
 GOATS-BANE. One of the names of 
 a species of aconitum (A. tragoctonum), a 
 native of Switzerland. 
 
 GOATS-BEARD. (Spiraa aruncus.) 
 A plant, native of Siberia, belonging to an 
 extensive genus of very handsome plants, 
 which blow, for the most part, white flowers. 
 
 GOATS-BEARD. (Tragopogon.) Of 
 this common pasture-weed there are two 
 species. 1. The yellow goat's-beard (T.pra- 
 tensis), a biennial, growing in grassy pas- 
 tures and meadows, on a loamy or clayey 
 damp soil. The root is tapering, flowering in 
 0 une ; the whole herb very smooth, abound- 
 ing with milky juice, rather bitter, but not 
 acrid. Stems several, round, leafy, often 
 purplish, one and a half to two feet high. 
 Leaves long and taper-pointed, often flaccid, 
 or curling at the extremity. Flowers large, 
 two inches wide, bright yellow, opening very 
 early in the morning, and closing before 
 noon, except in very cloudy weather. The 
 roots and young shoots have been eaten as 
 pot-herbs. 
 
 2. The purple goat's-beard (T. porrifo- 
 lius), also biennial, grows in moist meadows, 
 near great rivers ; herb smooth, three or four 
 feet high, glaucous. The dull purple flowers, 
 like the preceding species, close at mid- 
 day ; thence it is called in the country Go- 
 to-bed-at-noon. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 337.) 
 
 567 
 
 GOATS-RUE. (Galega, from gala, milk ; 
 the plants are said to increase the milk of 
 such animals as eat of them.) A genus of 
 tall ornamental plants, well-suited for flower 
 borders, provided they have plenty of room, 
 blowing blue or white flowers in July. 
 They are readily increased by dividing their 
 roots or by seeds. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 GOAT MILKER, and GOAT SUCK- 
 ER. Local names for the fern owl. 
 
 GOATS-THORN. (Astragalus traga- 
 cantha.) A handsome evergreen shrub, 
 native of Syria, blowing pale yellow flowers 
 in July. 
 
 GO ATS'- WHEAT. (Tragopy rum, from, 
 tragos, a goat, and pyros, wheat.) A genus 
 of ornamental dwarf shrubs, thriving in a 
 mixture of peat and sandy loam, and in- 
 creased by layers in spring. 
 
 GOAT- WEED. (Capraria biflora.) An 
 uninteresting species of plants, of easy cul- 
 ture. The leaves of this genus are liked by 
 goats ; hence the common and generic names. 
 
 GODWIT. (Scolopax, Penn and Bewick, 
 Limosa of Selby and Gould.) Godwits, of 
 which in Britain there are two species, 
 appear to have been more common formerly 
 than they are at present. Though con- 
 siderably larger than the ruff, they are not 
 in such high estimation as an article for the 
 table. The black-tailed godwit (L. mela- 
 nurd) is most frequently seen in spring and 
 autumn. It is called provincially "shrieker ; " 
 but its note, though loud, is far from inhar- 
 monious. The black-tailed godwits com- 
 mence laying their eggs early in May. The 
 nest is composed of dry grass and other ve- 
 getables, and is concealed among the coarse 
 herbage of swamps and low meadows : the 
 eggs are four in number, of a light olive 
 brown, blotched, and spotted with darker 
 brown, 2 inches 2 linos long, by 1 inch 
 6 lines broad. The food of these birds con- 
 sists of insects and their larva?, worms, and 
 almost any other soft-bodied animals. In 
 its winter plumage the godwit has the head, 
 neck, and back ash-brown ; chin, breast, 
 and belly light greyish ash; claws black. 
 The whole length of a male bird is 16 
 inches ; the beak alone being 3£ inches. 
 The length of the female is about 17 inches. 
 The bar-tailed godwit (L. rufa) is, in its 
 habits in this country, very similar to the 
 black-tailed godwit last described, with 
 two exceptions : the bar-tailed godwit very 
 rarely, if ever, remains to breed, and more 
 frequently stops with us through the winter. 
 The plumage is of a browner shade ; breast 
 and belly white ; and the tail feathers are 
 barred throughout their whole length witli 
 dark broAvn and greyish white, in nearly 
 equal breadth. (Yaj-relVs Brit. Birds, vol. 
 ii. p. 563—572.) 
 
 o o 4 
 
GOGGLES. 
 
 GOLDFINCH. 
 
 GOGGLES. See Sheep, Diseases 
 
 OF. 
 
 GOLD and SILVER FISH. These 
 beautiful creatures were first introduced 
 into England from China about the close 
 of the 17th century. The first are of an 
 orange colour, with very shining scales, and 
 finely variegated with black and dark brown. 
 The silver fish are of the colour of silver 
 tissue, with scarlet fins, with which colour 
 they are curiously marked in several parts 
 of the body. These fish are usually kept 
 in ponds, basons, and small reservoirs of 
 water, to Avhich they are a very great or- 
 nament. It is also a very common practice 
 to keep them in large globular glass vessels, 
 frequently changing the water and feeding 
 them with bread and gentles. (Walton s 
 Angler, p. 213.) 
 
 GOLDEN CRESTED REGULUS. See 
 Regulus. 
 
 GOLDEN EAGLE. See Eagee. 
 
 GOLDEN ORIOLE. See Orioee. 
 
 GOLDEN OAT GRASS. See A vena. 
 
 GOLDEN-ROD. (Solidago, from soli- 
 dare, to unite, on account of the supposed vul- 
 nerary qualities of the plants.) This is an 
 extensive genus of coarse flowering plants 
 suitable for the back of flower borders. 
 Any common soil suits them, and they are 
 readily increased by division of the roots. 
 The common golden-rod, or wound-wort 
 (S. virgaurea) is a native of Britain, grow- 
 ing in woods, hedges, heaths, and copses ; 
 and on mountains at every degree of ele- 
 vation. It is a perennial, and flowers from 
 July to September. It is a very variable 
 plant in magnitude, number, and size of 
 flowers, and serrature of the leaves : nor do 
 these varieties altogether depend on situ- 
 ation, except that in alpine specimens the 
 flowers are larger and fewer. The root is 
 woody, with long stout simple fibres ; the 
 stem usually from one to three feet high, 
 never quite straight, purple below, most 
 downy in the upper part, where it terminates 
 in a leafy cluster, either simple or compound, 
 of bright yellow flowers. When bruised, 
 the whole herb smells like wild carrot. Its 
 qualities are diuretic, astringent, and per- 
 haps tonic ; and it has been recommended 
 as a vulnerary both externally and inter- 
 nally, but it is now never used in me- 
 dicine It may, with greater advantage, 
 be employed as a dyeing drug, for both the 
 leaves and flowers impart a beautiful yellow 
 colour, which, according to Bechstein,is even 
 superior to that obtained from woad. The 
 Canada golden-rod (S. Canadensis) is fre- 
 quently used for this purpose. (Eng. Flora, 
 vol. iii. p. 438.) 
 
 GOLDEN-SAXIFRAX IE. ( Chryso- 
 splenium, from chnjsos, gold, and splai, the 
 6T>8 
 
 spleen, in reference to the deep yellow 
 colour of the flowers, and the supposed 
 medicinal virtues of the plant.) This is a 
 curious and rather pretty genus. It requires 
 a moist situation, and may be increased 
 by dividing the roots. Our native species 
 are found in the greatest perfection upon the 
 shady banks of small rivulets. They are 
 two in number, both perennials, flowering 
 in May. — The alternate-leaved golden-saxi- 
 frage (Ch. alternifolium) has the root fibrous 
 and creeping ; stems angular, decumbent, 
 branched at the top only ; leaves alternate, 
 reniform, rough on both sides the notches, 
 but the under disk pale and polished,- 
 radical leaves on long stalks, those of the 
 summit crowded and sessile ; flowers in a 
 corymb, de£p yellow. The opposite-leaved 
 golden-saxifrage (Ch. oppositifoliuni) re- 
 sembles the preceding, but is paler; the 
 leaves smaller and the flowers of a pale 
 lemon yellow. (Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 259. ; 
 Paxtons Sot. Diet.) 
 
 GOLDFINCH. (Carduelis elegans.) 
 This well-known bird is peculiarly beau- 
 tiful in its colour, of an elegant form, and 
 strikes melodious notes, which, added to a 
 disposition to become attached to those 
 who feed it, are such strong recommend- 
 ations, that the goldfinch has been, and will 
 probably long continue to be, one of the 
 most general cage favourites. It is a native 
 of Europe, and is sometimes also found in 
 Africa and America. The goldfinch con- 
 structs a very neat and compact nest with 
 moss, dried grass and roots, which is lined 
 with wool, hair, the down of thistles, and 
 other soft substances. The female lays four 
 or five eggs, of a pale bluish white, with a 
 few spots and lines of pale purple and 
 brown at the larger end ; size, 8^ lines 
 long, by 6 lines broad. The young birds 
 are fed for a time with caterpillars and 
 insects ; and when able to follow their 
 parents they rove together in small flocks 
 over commons and other uncultivated lands 
 to feed on the ripened seed of the thistle, 
 burdock, or dandelion, with chick weed, 
 groundsel, or plantain ; thus performing 
 good service to the agriculturist by con- 
 suming the prolific source of many a noxious 
 weed. Their tendency to sing and call make 
 goldfinches valuable as brace-birds, decoy- 
 birds, and call-birds, to be used by the 
 bird-catcher with his ground nets. The 
 bill of the goldfinch is a whitish brown 
 colour, tipped with black, and its forehead 
 and chin of a rich scarlet tint, divided by a 
 line passing from each corner of the bill to 
 the eyes, which are dusky brown. The 
 greater wing coverts and portions of each 
 primary are a brilliant gamboge yellow. 
 Upper surface, of the body wood-brown; 
 
GOLDILOCKS. 
 
 GOOSE. 
 
 lower portions, dull white. (YarreWs Brit 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 490.) 
 
 GOLDILOCKS. One of the names of 
 the sweet wood crowfoot {Ranunculus au- 
 ricomus'). A perennial which grows in dry 
 groves, and bushy shady places. The root 
 is fibrous, stem about a foot high, bearing 
 many bright golden yellow flowers with a 
 coloured calyx. It blossoms in April or 
 May. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 47.) See 
 Crowfoot. 
 
 GOLD OF PLEASURE. {Camelina 
 sativa.) This is rather a dwarf plant grow- 
 ing from one to two feet high, which is found 
 in cultivated fields, chiefly among flax, with 
 whose seeds it is often introduced from 
 abroad; but it does not long propagate 
 itself with us spontaneously. It is an an- 
 nual, blowing small, pale-yellow flowers in 
 June. It is cultivated in some parts of 
 Europe for the sake of the oil, which is 
 obtained from the seeds. The species of 
 the genus to which it belongs have but 
 little beauty, and require to be sown in the 
 open border. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 164. ; 
 Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 GOLDYLOCKS, FLAX-LEAYED. 
 {Chrysocoma linosyris.) A native perennial, 
 growing from twelve to eighteen inches high, 
 and blowing bright yellow flowers in co- 
 rymbose tufts in September and October. 
 It loves a light soil and sunny situation, 
 propagates by seed sown in a hotbed, and 
 may be transplanted when sufficiently ad- 
 vanced in size. 
 
 GOODYERA, CREEPING. {Goody era 
 repens.) A rare perennial herb, found in 
 mossy alpine woods in Scotland, with a 
 long, woolly, branched, knotty root, creep- 
 ing extensively among moss and rotten 
 leaves ; each shoot terminating in a solitary 
 tuft of six or eight broad-stalked, ovate, 
 smooth leaves, an inch long, somewhat 
 speckled with brown. The flowers, which 
 bloom in July, are small, white, and sweet- 
 scented, about ten or fifteen in each spike. 
 This herb has been named after one of the 
 most deserving of our early English bota- 
 nists, Mr. John Goody er, of Hampshire 
 commemorated by Johnson in his preface 
 to the second edition of Gerarde's Herbal, 
 and whose very accurate and intelligent 
 communications enrich many parts of that 
 work. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 34.) 
 
 GOOGE, BARNABY. See Heresbacii. 
 
 GOOSE. A well known large web- 
 footed bird, belonging to the order Nata- 
 tores, or swimmers. These are remarkable 
 for their powers of swimming and diving ; 
 they are commonly called water-fowl, and, 
 as an order, have frequently been desig- 
 nated Palmipedes, in reference to their 
 webbed feet. From the geographical po- 
 569 
 
 sition, extent, and varied character of the 
 British islands, the species of this order are 
 very numerous, comprehending nearly one 
 third of the whole number of our British 
 birds. The first family of this order, the 
 Anatidce, is also extensive ; including the 
 geese, swans, ducks, and mergansers. The 
 first three portions were formerly con- 
 sidered as belonging to but one genus, Anas; 
 and hence the family name, Anatidce. Mo- 
 dern systematic authors have found it more 
 convenient, as well as desirable, to divide 
 them into smaller groups, which are known 
 to be distinct in their characters and habits. 
 Many of the species are of great interest 
 and value. In the present article I must 
 necessarily confine myself to the geese pro- 
 perly so called. 
 
 Under the term wild geese, four or five 
 species are frequently included, viz. 1. The 
 grey lay-goose, or grey-legged goose {Anser 
 ferus), which is considered to be the true 
 reading. This species of goose is said to have 
 been formerly very common in the fens of 
 this country, residing there the whole year, 
 breeding there, and bringing out eight or 
 nine young; but the general system of 
 draining pursued in Cambridgeshire, Nor- 
 folk, and Lincolnshire has been the means 
 of driving them away. The eggs of this 
 species are of a dull yellowish ivory white, 
 smooth and shining ; three inches one line 
 long, by two inches and one line broad. 
 The beak of this goose is of a pale flesh- 
 colour ; the head, back of the neck, and 
 upper part of the body, ash brown ; under 
 surface of the body, white ; sides, flanks, 
 and thighs, barred with ash-colour and 
 greyish- white ; legs, toes, and membranes, 
 dull flesh-colour. Whole length of an adult 
 male, thirty-five inches ; of an adult female, 
 thirty inches. 
 
 2. The bean goose {A. segetum). See 
 Bean Goose. 
 
 3. The pink-footed goose {A. brachyrhyn- 
 chus). This is a new species, first noticed 
 and described by M. Baillon of Abbeville, 
 which is considerably smaller in size than 
 the bean goose, but otherwise so like it in 
 general appearance that there is little doubt 
 it has frequently been mistaken for the 
 young bird of that species ; but, on com- 
 parative examination, it is at once distin- 
 guished by the smaller and shorter beak, 
 and the pink colour of the legs and feet. 
 Little is known of the particular habits of 
 this new species in a wild state. The 
 whole length of the bird is about twenty- 
 eight inches. 
 
 4. The white-fronted, or laughing goose 
 {A. albifrons). This species may be con- 
 sidered a regular winter visiter to this 
 country; not usually so numerous as the 
 
GOOSE. 
 
 bean goose, but occasionally appearing in 
 very large flocks, and in some proportion 
 to the severity of the weather. They fre- 
 quent marshes and morasses rather than 
 corn fields. The egg of this bird is white, 
 tinged with buff, and measures two inches 
 ten lines in length, by one inch and eleven 
 lines in breadth. The upper part of the 
 body is a brownish ash-colour ; breast and 
 belly, pale brownish- white ; legs, toes, and 
 membranes, orange. Whole length of bird, 
 twenty-seven inches. 
 
 5. The bernicle or barnacle goose (A. leu- 
 copsis), like the bean goose, is a common 
 winter visiter to these islands. It is very 
 prettily marked ; has the neck and top of 
 the head black; breast and belly greyish- 
 white ; flanks and thighs tinged with grey 
 in bars ; legs, toes, membranes, and claws, 
 black. Whole length of bird, twenty-five 
 inches. 
 
 6. The brent goose (A. oernicla). Of the 
 various species of geese that visit the 
 British islands, this is the smallest, as well 
 as the most numerous, and possesses, also, 
 for us the agreeable advantage of being a 
 good bird for the table. It is a regular 
 winter visiter to the shores of most of our 
 maritime counties, and remains with us 
 through all the cold months of the year. In 
 Shetland it is called Horra goose, from the 
 numbers that frequent Horra Sound. The 
 upper part of the breast, head, and neck are 
 black, except a small patch of white on 
 each side of the neck. The lower portion 
 of the breast and the belly slate grey ; legs, 
 toes, &c, black. The whole length of the 
 bird, twenty-one inches. 
 
 7. The red-breasted goose (A. ruficollis). 
 But little is known of the habits of this 
 beautiful species, which appears to be very 
 rare, except in the extreme northern parts 
 of Asia and Siberia. 
 
 8. The Egyptian goose {A. Egyptiaca). 
 It is only lately that the Egyptian goose 
 has been admitted into the histories and 
 catalogues of our British birds ; and even 
 now exceptions are occasionally made to it, 
 on the ground that the specimens, though 
 killed at large, or apparently in a wild state, 
 had probably escaped from the waters of 
 parks or pleasure-grounds, where they had 
 been bred and fostered on account of the 
 beauty of their plumage. The cheeks and 
 aides of the neck of this bird are pal* rufous 
 white ; remainder of the head and back of 
 the neck, rich reddish brown. The neck, 
 breast, and upper part of the belly, pale 
 brown ; legs and feet, pink. Whole length 
 of bird, about twenty-six inches. 
 
 J). The spur-winged, or Gambo goose (A. 
 Oamberms). The general colour of the 
 plumage of this African goose is black, 
 
 resplendently bronzed, and glossed with 
 brilliant green. The edges of the wings are 
 white. This beautiful bird is nearly of the 
 bulk of the wild goose; but its legs and 
 toes are somewhat longer, and of a red or 
 orange yellow. 
 
 10. The Canada, or cravat goose {A. Ca- 
 nadensis). In this species, the beak, head, 
 and nearly all the neck, is black ; the chin 
 and throat white, extending upwards, and 
 ending in a point behind the ear coverts. 
 This white patch, from its similarity in colour 
 and position to a neckcloth, has given origin 
 to one of the names of this species, the 
 cravat goose. The back, breast, and belly, 
 pale brown, the lower part of the neck al- 
 most white. The whole length of an adult 
 bird is forty-one or forty-two inches. From 
 the swan-like length of neck, and the large 
 size of this species, some authors have in- 
 cluded it in the genus Cygnus. {YarrelVs 
 Brit Birds, vol. iii. p. 53-96.) 
 
 The domestic goose. Two varieties are 
 indigenous to Great Britain, the grey and 
 white goose, and the pure white, which is of 
 a larger size. The first is our most plentiful 
 breed : the second are bad breeders, seldom 
 producing more than three goslings at a 
 brood, and that only every alternate year. 
 There is, also, the Chinese breed, which is 
 naturalised among us, valuable for their 
 early breeding, and quick fattening. The 
 Chinese goose lays about the end of No- 
 vember, if the weather is not severe, and 
 produces her goslings in January. These 
 goslings, if kept dry and warm, are fit for 
 the table in April or May. This goose is, 
 however, smaller, less delicate eating, and 
 more noisy than the common grey goose. 
 The common goose begins to lay towards 
 Candlemas, and after laying from nine to 
 eleven eggs, she sits thirty days, and then 
 brings out her little flock. If, however, she 
 shews a wish to sit when she has only laid 
 two or three eggs, she must be driven from 
 the nest, or be shut up for a day or two. 
 She will then take to lay again. One gander 
 and five geese are the regular stock to begin 
 with : they will produce fifty goslings in a 
 season. Geese are grazing birds : they love 
 a common, but horses do not like their com- 
 pany in a field, as they object to feed after 
 them. The herb called goose-grass they 
 are immoderately fond of, and it is plentiful 
 always under hedges during the gosling 
 season. Water is important to geese, but 
 they succeed in situations where there is no 
 pond : a large shallow pan filled with water, 
 sufficiently capacious to admit of their 
 washing in it, has often answered the inn - 
 pose; but a pool is most desirable. The 
 goose-hovel should be low, well thatched, 
 and no I, facing into t lie farm-yard, otherwise 
 
GOOSEBERRY. 
 
 GOOSEFOOT. 
 
 pigs will get through the goose aperture. 
 It should have a door, also, for the poultry- 
 woman to enter. The nests should be com- 
 posed of straw, lined with hay, and the 
 birds should be fed near their home, to allure 
 them to it. If some of the goslings are 
 hatched before the others, they should be 
 removed from the mother, kept warm in 
 flannel before the fire, and returned to her 
 when the whole brood are hatched. Thin 
 barley meal and water is excellent food for 
 goslings, with chopped goose-grass ; they 
 soon learn to eat oats, and feed themselves. 
 Mow down hemlock, if any grows near the 
 poultry-yard : it is pernicious in its effects 
 upon poultry. Fatten geese in small parties, 
 as they love society. They should be cooped 
 a month, fed plentifully with sweet oats and 
 clean pure water in a narrow wooden trough. 
 An experiment has lately been tried of 
 feeding geese with turnips, cut up very fine, 
 and put into a trough with water. The 
 effect was, that six geese, weighing only nine 
 pounds each when shut up, actually weighed 
 twenty pounds each, after about three 
 weeks' feeding with this food alone. Half- 
 grown or green geese are delicate eating in 
 June and July ; but they need not be cooped, 
 they must only be well fed. Goose feathers 
 are valuable, and their dung is employed as 
 a manure by agriculturists. See Guano. 
 
 GOOSEBERRY. (Ribes grossularia.) 
 The gooseberry is well known as a most 
 wholesome fruit, chiefly confined to cold or 
 temperate climates, neglected in Switzerland, 
 and with difficulty raised in Italy. As it 
 grew in the woods and hedges in Cam- 
 bridgeshire, Norfolk, and other counties in 
 the wild state, Phillips and others consider it 
 to have been indigenous to this country ; but 
 Dr. Smith and Miller both entertained 
 doubts of its being truly so. In Cheshire, 
 Lancashire, and Yorkshire, it is known under 
 the name of fea-berry. It appears to have 
 taken the name of gooseberry from its being 
 used as sauce for young or green geese. 
 From a small berry in the wild state, the 
 gooseberry, like the apple, has been mul- 
 tiplied in its variety, and brought to its 
 present size and flavour by the art and in- 
 dustry of the English and Dutch gardeners ; 
 and it is now deemed one of our most valu- 
 able fruits, being easily propagated, and 
 regular in its production ; furnishing our 
 tables with a wholesome and agreeable diet. 
 The gooseberry is the earliest, as well as 
 one of the best, fruits for spring tarts. It 
 is also good preserved in the green state, 
 makes an excellent jam, a delicious and or- 
 namental sweetmeat, and a most luscious 
 wine, very little inferior, Avhen properly 
 made, to champagne. 
 
 The varieties of the gooseberry are ex- 
 571 
 
 tremely numerous ; Lindley enumerates 
 nearly 800, but the following selection for 
 a small garden is recommended : Reds. — 
 Old rough red, Melling's crown bob, Far- 
 mer's roaring lion, Knight's Marquis of 
 Stafford, Champagne and Capper's top saw- 
 yer ; one of the best of the red gooseberries 
 is the Scotch ironmonger : it is hairy, and 
 thin-skinned. Yellows. — Hardcastle's gun- 
 ner, Hills's golden gourd, Prophet's rock- 
 wood, Hamlet's kilton, Dixon's golden yel- 
 low, Gordon's viper. Greens. — Edwards's 
 jolly tar, Massey's heart of oak, Nixon's 
 green myrtle, early green hairy, Parkin- 
 son's laurel, Wainwright's ocean. Whites. 
 — Coleworth's white lion, Moore's white 
 bear, Crompton's Sheba queen, Saunders's 
 Cheshire lass, Wellington's glory, Wood- 
 ward's whitesmith. 
 
 The gooseberry will succeed in almost 
 any soil, where the ground is soft and 
 moist, and situated on a dry subsoil. The 
 tree may be raised from cuttings, from 
 suckers, or from seeds : the former is gene- 
 rally resorted to as being the more expedi- 
 tious ; and seeds are only sown to raise new 
 varieties. The propagation and general 
 management is precisely similar to the cur- 
 rant. The mode of training and managing 
 the gooseberry for prize exhibition is given by 
 Mr. Saul of Lancaster. (Gard. Mag. vol. x.) 
 
 No simple effectual remedy has yet been 
 discovered for the destruction of the cater- 
 pillars which infest gooseberry bushes. Fu- 
 migation, dusting with lime, and other 
 methods, have been recommended, but they 
 do not always answer the purpose. 
 
 GOOSE-CORN. A local name for the 
 moss rush (Juncus squarrosus). See Rush. 
 
 GOOSEFOOT, (Chenopodium.) An ex- 
 tensive genus of plants, of which thirteen 
 native species are enumerated by Sir J. E. 
 Smith, viz. 1. Mercury goosefoot (C. bonus 
 Henricus), growing in waste ground and by 
 road sides frequent, and occasionally in pas- 
 tures. The root is branching and fleshy ; 
 the herb dark green, nearly smooth ; stem 
 a foot high, terminating in a compound 
 crowded cluster, or spike, of numerous green 
 flowers ; their stalks sometimes unctuous 
 and mealy. This, our only perennial Cheno- 
 podium, may be eaten, when young, like 
 spinach, and is cultivated for the table in 
 some parts of Lincolnshire. It is insipid 
 and mucilaginous, rather mawkish, and soon 
 becomes tough and fibrous. Neither goats 
 nor sheep relish this plant, which is also re- 
 fused by cattle and hogs ; 2. The upright 
 goosefoot (C. urbicum), and 3., The red 
 goosefoot, also occur commonly on waste 
 ground ; the former sometimes on dunghills, 
 and the latter in low muddy situations. In 
 exposed situations the whole herb of C. ru- 
 
GOOSE-GRASS. 
 
 GOURD. 
 
 brum assumes a red colour. This species 
 and its allies are said to be poisonous to 
 swine ; 4. The many spiked goosefoot (C 
 botryoides) ; 5. The nettle-leaved goosefoot, 
 6. The maple-leaved goosefoot, call for no 
 observation. The whole plant of the two 
 last species is fetid ; 7. White goosefoot, or 
 common wild orache (C. album), is found in 
 cultivated as well as waste ground, every- 
 where. The herb is mealy, with a silvery 
 unctuous pubescence, which, by age, becomes 
 dry and chaffy. The young plant is re- 
 ported to be eatable when boiled, and is 
 known by the name of fat-hen in some parts 
 of Norfolk. It is eaten by cattle, sheep, and 
 hogs, which last devour it with avidity. 8. 
 The fig-leaved goosefoot (C. Jicifolium) 
 flourishes most on dunghills, especially about 
 London; 9. The oak-leaved goosefoot (C. 
 glaucum) varies in height from two inches 
 to two feet, and grows for the most part on 
 a sandy soil; 10. Standing goosefoot (C. 
 olidum). This species is found very com- 
 monly among sand or rubbish near the sea. 
 The whole herb is of a dull greyish-green, 
 covered with a greasy mealiness, which, when 
 touched, exhales a strong, permanent, nau- 
 seous odour, like stale salt fish. It is, never- 
 theless, eaten by cattle, horses, goats, and 
 sheep, but refused by swine ; 1 1 . The round- 
 leaved, or all-seed goosefoot, or upright blite 
 (C. polyspermum), 12. The sharp entire- 
 leaved goosefoot (C. acutifolium), are two 
 other species, which are less common. The 
 former is a curious plant, whose numerous 
 black shining seeds might perhaps be ad- 
 vantageously employed in fattening poultry ; 
 13. The sea goosefoot, small glasswort, or 
 sea blite (C. maritimum) : this species abounds 
 on the sea shore, and grows also in sandy as 
 well as muddy places, flowering in July and 
 August. Stem thick and juicy, leaves 
 smooth, about an inch long, salt to the taste, 
 of a light bright green. Dr. Withering men- 
 tions this as an excellent pot-herb. In Si- 
 beria and Astracan the inhabitants obtain 
 from this plant their potash, which probably 
 partakes more of the nature of soda. The 
 alkaline salt contained in this herb renders 
 it serviceable in making glass, though it is 
 inferior to some kinds of salsola found in 
 the south of Europe. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. pp. 9. 16.) 
 
 GOOSE-GRASS. See Hariff. 
 
 GORDONIA. This is a genus of elegant 
 plants, well deserving of extensive culti- 
 vation on account of their large and beau- 
 tiful (lowers. The plants are hardy enough 
 i<> si and our British winters in the open air, 
 yet t lie young shoots often get injured, 
 owing to the shortness of our summer not 
 Buffering them to ripen the wood, or even 
 to flower in perfection: they should there- 
 
 fore be treated as greenhouse plants. The 
 best soil for them is peat, mixed with a 
 little loam : they are readily increased by 
 layers, or cuttings in sand, under a glass. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) Cobbet describes the 
 large white flowers of G.pubescens, which 
 grows from ten to twenty feet high, as mag- 
 nificent. 
 
 GOSHAWK. (Aster palumbarius.) The 
 goshawk was formerly in esteem among fal- 
 coners, and was flown at hares, rabbits, 
 pheasants, grouse, and partridges. Inferior 
 in powers to the falcons, though equal in 
 size to the largest of them, the goshawk is 
 yet the best of the short-winged hawks. 
 This is a rare species in the south of Eng- 
 land, and the few that are used for hawking 
 are obtained from the Continent. A full- 
 grown female measures from twenty three to 
 twenty-four inches in length ; the males one 
 fourth, and sometimes one third less. The 
 general colour of the plumage is greyish 
 brown ; the throat, breast, belly, and thighs 
 nearly white, with spots, transverse bars, 
 and undulating lines of dull black ; legs and 
 toes, yellow. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 57.) 
 
 GOSS. A term provincially applied to 
 the whin. It is sometimes written gorse. 
 See Furze. 
 
 GOUANIA. (So named in honour of 
 Anthony Gouan, once Professor of Botany 
 at Montpelier, and author of the Hortus 
 Montpeliensis.) A genus of interesting 
 evergreen climbers, growing about ten feet 
 high, and succeeding well in a mixture of 
 peat and loom ; cuttings root freely in sand 
 under a glass. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 GOUD AND GOWLANS. Provincial 
 names for the common marigold. 
 
 GOURD. (Cucurbita.) A genus of ex- 
 otic plants comprising nine species, of which 
 the following are the principal : — 1 . the pom- 
 pion or pumpkin (C. Pepo), which is a native 
 of both the Indies. It is chiefly employed 
 in the making of pies, &c. There .are nu- 
 merous varieties of" it, varying in the shape 
 and colour of their fruit ; as, the glo- 
 bular, oval, pear-shaped, green, striped, 
 marbled, yellow, &c. One variety, of a 
 pale buff or salmon colour, and globular 
 form, grows to the weight of 110 lbs. and 
 upwards ; it is known in France as the 
 potiron jaune, and used in soups, but in par- 
 ticular from being mashed and eaten as po- 
 tatoes or turnips, being of a very pleasant 
 and peculiar flavour. (Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Loud. vol. iii. p. 364.) 
 
 The bottle-shaped gourd (C. lagenaria) is 
 of little use for culinary purposes, but is re- 
 markable as being of the form of a Florence, 
 or oil-flask. In the wild state it is poisonous. 
 2. The s(ju;ish (C. melopepo). 3. The \ - 
 
GOUTWEED, COMMON. 
 
 GRAFTING. 
 
 getable marrow (C. succada). Both these 
 are cultivated for the fruit, which, being 
 gathered when of the size of a goose's egg, 
 is boiled whole in salt and water, laid upon 
 toast, and eaten as asparagus. Of the 
 squash, there are almost as many varieties 
 as of the pompion, and similarly charac- 
 terised. The young fruit is much used in 
 pickles. 
 
 They are propagated by seed, which may 
 be sown in a hotbed of moderate strength, 
 under a frame or hand-glasses, at the end 
 of March or early in April. In May they 
 may be sown in the open ground beneath a 
 south fence to remain, or in a hotbed if at 
 its commencement, to forward the plants 
 for transplanting at its close, or early in 
 June. 
 
 The plants are fit for transplanting when 
 they have got four rough leaves, or when of 
 about a month's growth. They must be 
 planted without any shelter on dunghills, or 
 in holes prepared as directed for the open- 
 ground crop of cucumbers. Some may be 
 inserted beneath pales, walls, or hedges, to 
 be trained regularly over them, on account 
 of their ornamental appearance. They may 
 be treated in every respect like the cucum- 
 ber, only they do not want so much care. 
 They require abundance of water in dry 
 weather. When the runners have extended 
 three feet, they may be pegged down and 
 covered with earth at a joint; this will 
 cause the production of roots, and the longer 
 continuance of the plant in vigour. The 
 fruit for seed should be selected and treated 
 as directed for the cucumber. It is ripe in 
 the course of September or October. (G. 
 W. Johnsons Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 GOUTWEED, COMMON, or HERB 
 GERARDE, ASH-WEED, or GROUND 
 ASH. (2Egopodium podagraria.) An her- 
 baceous indigenous perennial plant, growing 
 in orchards, gardens, pastures, and hedges, 
 and flowering in May or June. Its creep- 
 ing roots reach to a great extent, and are 
 very difficult of extirpation. The stems 
 are one to two feet in height, bearing- 
 umbels of crowded pure white flowers. The 
 root is pungently aromatic, with some acri- 
 mony, of which flavours the herb also par- 
 takes. The root has been used as a cata- 
 plasm in the gout, whence the specific name. 
 The leaves are very tender, and may be 
 eaten early in the spring among other pot- 
 herbs, being nutritive rather than medicinal 
 in their qualities. Cattle, sheep, and goats 
 are remarkably fond of this weed, but horses 
 refuse it. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 77.) 
 
 GRiEFFER, JOHN, a native of Ger- 
 many, came to this country in the middle of 
 the last century, being for some time a pupil 
 of Philip Miller. He afterwards received 
 573 
 
 the appointment of gardener to the King 
 of Naples at Caserta, through the interest 
 of Sir J. Banks. He continued gardener at 
 Caserta during the usurpation of Murat, 
 but was murdered near his own house in 
 1816. He published 
 
 A Descriptive Catalogue of upwards of 1100 Species 
 and Varieties of Herbaceous or Perennial Plants, divided 
 into six columns ; exhibiting, at one view, their Names, 
 Magnitude, Height, and Situation ; time of flowering, 
 Colour of their Flowers, and the native country of each 
 species. With a list of hardy Ferns for the Decoration 
 of the Northern Borders, and the most Ornamental An- 
 nuals. London. 1789. 8vo. 
 
 GRAFTING. In horticulture, the opera- 
 tion of affixing one portion of a plant to 
 another in such a manner as that a vital union 
 may take place between them. Grafting 
 has been practised from the most remote 
 antiquity ; but its origin and invention are 
 differently related by naturalists. Grafting 
 may be performed both with herbaceous and 
 ligneous plants ; but, in practice, it is chiefly 
 confined to the latter, and more especially to 
 the propagation of esteemed varieties of fruit- 
 trees. A grafted plant consists of two parts : 
 the stock or stem, which is a rooted plant 
 fixed in the ground, and the scion, sometimes, 
 but erroneously, termed the graft, which is 
 a detached portion of another plant to be 
 affixed to it. The operation of grafting can 
 only be performed within certain physio- 
 logical limits ; but what these are, science 
 has not yet absolutely determined. In 
 general, all the species of one genus may 
 be grafted on another reciprocally ; but this 
 is not universally the case, because the apple 
 cannot be grafted on the pear, at least not 
 for any useful purpose. In general, it may 
 be presumed that all the species of a natural 
 order, or at least of a tribe, may be grafted 
 on one another ; but this does not hold good 
 universally. The reverse of this doctrine, 
 however, viz. that the species belonging to 
 different natural orders cannot be grafted 
 on one another, holds almost universally 
 true; and, therefore, a safe practical con- 
 clusion is, that in choosing a -stock, the 
 nearer in affinity the species to which that 
 stock belongs is to the scion, the more 
 certain will be the success. 
 
 Grafting is one of the most important 
 operations in horticulture, as affording the 
 most eligible means of multiplying and per- 
 petuating all our best varieties of fruit- 
 trees, and many kinds of trees and shrubs 
 not so conveniently propagated by other 
 means. Varieties of fruits are originallv 
 procured by selection from plants raised 
 from seed, but they can only be perpetu- 
 ated by some mode which continues the in- 
 dividual ; and though this may be done by . 
 cuttings and layers, yet by far the most 
 eligible mode is by grafting, as it produces 
 stronger plants in a shorter time than any 
 
GRAFTING. 
 
 GRAIN. 
 
 other methods. Grafting is performed in a 
 great many different ways ; but the most 
 eligible for ordinary purposes is what is com- 
 monly called splice-grafting, whip-grafting, 
 or tongue-grafting. In executing this mode, 
 both the scion and the stock are pared down 
 in a slanting direction ; afterwards applied 
 together, and made fast with strands of bass 
 matting, in the same manner as two pieces j 
 of rod are spliced together to form a whip- 
 handle. , To insure success, it is essentially 
 necessary that the alburnum, or inner bark of 
 the scion, should coincide accurately with 
 the inner bark of the stock; because the 
 vital union is effected by the sap of the 
 stock rising up through the soft wood of 
 the scion. After the scion is tied to the 
 stock, the graft is said to be made ; and it 
 only remains to cover the part tied with a 
 mass of tempered clay, or any convenient 
 composition that will exclude the air. Some 
 of the other modes practised are termed 
 cleft, or slit-grafting, crown-grafting, cheek- 
 grafting, side-grafting, and grafting by ap- 
 proach, or inarching. 
 
 The season for performing the operation 
 is, for all deciduous trees and shrubs, the 
 spring, immediately before the movement of 
 the sap. The spring is also the most fa- 
 vourable period for evergreens : but the sap 
 in this class of plants being more in motion 
 during winter than that of deciduous plants, 
 grafting, if thought necessary, might be per- 
 formed at that season. 
 
 Grafting Timber Trees— -The oak, ash, 
 hornbeam, and hazel, may be grafted, but 
 there is a little difficulty in grafting some of 
 the hard-wood trees. On the oak may be 
 worked its striped-leaved variety of pedun- 
 cidata, and the varieties of sessiliflora. The 
 Lucombe, and other oaks of that kind, re- 
 quire to have the Turkey oak for a stock ; 
 and the evergreen, or Ilex oaks, must have 
 their own species. The common ash will 
 take with the omus, and any of the hardy 
 varieties of true ashes, such as the Chinese 
 and entire-leaved. The hornbeam may be 
 used as a stock for Carpinus orientalis, and 
 the cut-leaved sort ; but the scions must be 
 from two years old wood. The purple- 
 leaved hazel may be grafted on the hazel 
 stocks. 
 
 Grafting by approach, or inarching, is a 
 mode of grafting, in which, to make sure of 
 success, the scion is not separated from the 
 parent plant till it has become united with 
 the stock. Inarching is chiefly practised 
 with oranges, myrtles, jasmines, walnuts, 
 firs, &c, which do not flourish by the com- 
 mon mode of grafting. 
 
 Grafting herbaceous plants differs in 
 nothing from grafting such as are of a woody 
 nature, excepting that this operation bper- 
 574 
 
 ! formed when both stock and scion are in a 
 j state of vigorous growth. The only useful 
 j purpose to which this mode has been hitherto 
 | applied is, that of grafting the finer kinds of 
 I dahlias on tubers of the more common and 
 I vigourous-growing sorts. In the Paris gar- 
 ! dens, the tomato is sometimes grafted on 
 the potato, the cauliflower on the bore- 
 cole, and one gourd on another, as matter 
 of curiosity. 
 
 Grafting the herbaceous shoots of woody 
 plants is scarcely known among English 
 gardeners ; but it has been extensively em- 
 ployed by French nurserymen, and even in 
 some of the royal forests of France. The 
 scions are formed of the points of growing 
 shoots ; and the stocks are also the points of 
 growing shoots, cut or broken over an inch 
 or two below the point, where the shoot is 
 as brittle as asparagus. The operation is 
 performed in the cleft manner ; that is, by 
 cutting the lower end of the scion in the 
 form of a wedge, and inserting it in a cleft 
 or slit made down the middle of the stock. 
 The finer kinds of azaleas, pines, and firs, 
 are propagated in this way in the French 
 nurseries; and thousands of Pinus Larix 
 have been so grafted on Pinus sylvestris in 
 the forest of Fontainebleau. At Hopetoun 
 House, near Edinburgh, this mode of 
 grafting has been successfully practised with 
 Abies Smithiana, the stock being the com- 
 mon spruce fir. (Brandes Diet, of Science.) 
 
 GRAIN. (French, graine ; Ital. gran; 
 Norv. grion, corn.) The general name for 
 all kinds of corn. See Wheat, Oats, Bab- 
 eey, Corn-Laws, &c. It means, in another 
 sense, the seed of any fruit, the direction 
 of the fibres of wood, &c. ; the form of , 
 the surface, with regard to roughness or 
 smoothness ; or a minute particle. In this 
 article I have only to insert those facts with 
 regard to grain that could not be well in- 
 cluded under other heads. It has been cal- 
 culated that the total consumption of wheat 
 and other grain in the United Kingdom is, in 
 a year — of wheat 12,000,000 quarters, and of 
 other grain 40,000,000 quarters, equal to 
 52,000,000 quarters, or per day 154,762 
 quarters. (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 
 1063.) Of this about 25,000,000 bushels of 
 barley are consumed in malt by the brew- 
 eries and distilleries. 
 
 Dr. Colquhoun has calculated that the 
 annual consumption of grain in England by 
 each person is as follows : — 
 
 Species of Grain etch^Safn. 
 
 Wheat - - - 1 quarter. 
 
 Barley - - - 1± 
 
 Oats - - - U 
 Rye H 
 
 Beanfl and Peas - - 1 
 
GRANARY. 
 
 GRAINS, BREWERS'. 
 
 The second Fiar Prices of Grain per imperial 
 Quarter for the County of Haddington from 
 1647 (at Intervals of fen Years) to 1829. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 1647 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 4 5 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 04 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 
 1G50 
 
 
 4 
 
 8f 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 Of 
 2| 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 1660 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 of 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 if 
 
 1670 
 
 
 18 
 
 104 
 
 0 
 
 1! 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 1680 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 ft 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 11* 
 
 llf 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 1690 
 
 
 8 
 
 8 I 
 
 0 
 
 IS 
 
 0 
 
 1 2 
 
 9f 
 
 1700 
 
 
 10 
 
 01 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 ,? 
 
 1710 
 
 
 5 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 17 
 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 
 1720 
 
 
 2 
 
 »4 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 24 
 54 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 9f 
 64 
 
 1730 
 
 
 4 
 
 *| 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 1740 
 
 
 0 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 lOf 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 
 17*0 
 
 
 5 
 
 .3 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 10| 
 
 1760 
 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 1 1770 
 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 
 
 IS 
 
 64 
 
 1 1780 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 t 
 
 0 
 
 15 
 
 94 
 
 1 1790 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 0 
 
 1!) 
 
 Gf 
 llf 
 
 1 1800 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 1810 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 3f 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1 1820 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 Average Price of Grain per Quarter in Eng- 
 land and Wales, for Twenty Years, ending 
 1840. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley. 
 
 Oats. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 *. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 1821 
 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 26 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 6 
 
 30 
 
 11 
 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 1822 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 21 
 
 11 
 
 IS 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 6 
 
 26 
 
 5 
 
 1823 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 7 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 0 
 
 1824 
 
 64 
 
 0 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 40 
 
 8 
 
 1825 
 
 68 
 
 7 
 
 40 
 
 1 
 
 25 
 
 8 
 
 42 
 
 10 
 
 45 
 
 5 
 
 1826 
 
 58 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 5 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 44 
 
 3 
 
 47 
 
 8 
 
 1827 
 
 56 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 6 
 
 27 
 
 4 
 
 47 
 
 7 
 
 47 
 
 7 
 
 1828 
 
 60 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 10 1 22 
 
 6 
 
 38 
 
 4 
 
 40 
 
 6 
 
 1829 
 
 66 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 6 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 1830 
 
 64 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 7 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 1 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 1831 
 
 66 
 
 4 
 
 38 
 
 0 
 
 25 
 
 4 
 
 39 
 
 10 
 
 41 
 
 11 
 
 1832 
 
 58 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 1833 
 
 52 
 
 11 
 
 27 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 5 
 
 35 
 
 1 
 
 37 
 
 0 
 
 1834 
 
 46 
 
 2 
 
 29 
 
 0 
 
 20 
 
 11 
 
 36 
 
 7 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 1835 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 29 
 
 11 
 
 22 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 0 
 
 30 
 
 3 
 
 1836 
 
 48 
 
 9 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 3 
 
 1837 
 
 55 
 
 10 
 
 30 
 
 4 
 
 23 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 7 
 
 37 
 
 9 
 
 1838 
 
 64 
 
 4 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 5 
 
 37 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 8 
 
 1839 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 39 
 
 1 
 
 26 
 
 6 
 
 41 
 
 3 
 
 41 
 
 1 
 
 1840 
 
 66 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 6 
 
 42 
 
 5 
 
 GRANARY. A place where corn is 
 stored. These have of necessity been con- 
 structed in all ages of the world, and of dif- 
 ferent materials, according to the facilities 
 afforded for their construction by the neigh- 
 bourhood in which they are placed ; in 
 England they are commonly, for farming 
 purposes, made of wood or brick. In Sicily 
 the public granaries are in some places hol- 
 lowed out of the solid rock. According to a 
 modern authority (Brit. Hush. vol. i. p. 94.), 
 " The best situation for a granary is over the 
 thrashing floor. It may be easily secured 
 from vermin; and requiring only six feet in 
 height, it will not interfere materially with 
 the bays of the barn, especially if they be 
 loaded through the gables. A trap-door in 
 the floor, with a roof and pulley, raises and 
 lowers the load in the most easy manner, 
 besides securing it more effectually from de- 
 predators, and strong wired windows at each 
 end ventilate it sufficiently . The most general 
 mode, however, of forming granaries, is to 
 575 
 
 erect them of timber, and place them upon 
 pillars of stone or wood. It has been sug- 
 gested that corn kept in granaries would be 
 effectually protected from the ravages of the 
 weevil, by mixing with it a small quantity 
 of comnon salt. See Corn-Moth, Weevjel, 
 and Corn. 
 
 GRAINS, BREWERS', are very exten- 
 sively used in the feeding of live stock. They 
 consist chiefly of the husk, and other inso- 
 luble matters of the corn employed in the 
 operation of brewing. When speaking of 
 the large dairies of the metropolis, Mr. 
 Youatt remarks, " The principal food of 
 the cows in all these is grains ; and as the 
 brewing seasons are chiefly in autumn and 
 spring, a stock of grains is generally laid in 
 at those seasons for the rest of the year. 
 The grains are laid up in pits lined with 
 brick-work, set in cement, from ten to 
 twenty feet deep, and of any convenient 
 size. They are firmly trodden down, and 
 covered with a layer of moist earth eight or 
 nine inches thick, to keep out the rain and 
 frost in winter, and the heat in summer. A 
 cow consumes about a bushel of these grains 
 daily, the cost of which is from fourpence 
 to fivepence, exclusive of carriage and pre- 
 servation. The grains are, if possible, thrown 
 into the pit while warm and in a state of 
 fermentation, and they soon turn sour ; but 
 they are not liked the worse by cattle on 
 that account : and the air being perfectly 
 excluded, the fermentation cannot run on 
 to putrefaction. The dairy-men say that 
 the slow and slight degree of fermentation 
 which goes on tends to the greater devel- 
 opment of the saccharine and nutritive prin- 
 ciple, and they will have as large a stock on 
 hand as they can afford, and not open the 
 pits till they are compelled. It is not un- 
 common for two years to pass before a pit 
 of grains is touched ; and it is said that some 
 have lain nine years, and been perfectly 
 good at the expiration of that period. The 
 grains from a large ale brewery are the most 
 nourishing ; those from the porter brewers, 
 not so good ; and those from the little ale 
 brewers hardly worth having. It is found 
 by the distillers, that rough clover chaff, 
 mixed with grains and wash, will fatten to 
 any extent." (On Cattle, pp. 255—264.) 
 Grains fresh from the mash-tub, either alone 
 or mixed with oats or chaff, or both, may be 
 occasionally given to horses of slow work : 
 they would, however, afford very insufficient 
 nourishment for horses of quicker or harder 
 work. Grains, in common with most vege- 
 table substances, are an excellent dressing 
 for grass lands, an application which is thus 
 described in a recent communication to the 
 editor of the Mark Lane Express, by Mr. 
 W. H. Buckland of Glamorganshire. 
 
GRAND JURY. 
 
 GRASS. 
 
 " Having observed the remarkable luxu- 
 riance of the grass on a small portion of 
 land upon which some brewers' grains had 
 been scattered, I was induced to manure 
 several meadows with grains mixed with 
 stable-dung, and a few acres with grains 
 only. The crop of hay is an extraordinary 
 one off the land manured with grains and 
 stable-dung together ; but from the land 
 manured with grains alone, the crop is pro- 
 digious. On one part of a steep declivity, 
 where the ordinary produce has been about 
 10 or 12 cwt. of hay to the acre, and the 
 quality very coarse, a good sprinkling of 
 grains was strewed, leaving the other part 
 of the same ground untouched. Where the 
 grains were spread, there is more than two 
 tons of hay to the acre, and the grass is of 
 the finest quality ; where no grains were 
 applied, the crop is as usual, both as to 
 quantity and quality. 
 
 In addition to the abundance of the crop, 
 is the advantage of its earliness. On the 
 29th of May I mowed a field manured with 
 grains. The grass was over-ripe, and might 
 have been cut a week sooner. The neigh- 
 bouring fields, not so manured, were full 
 three weeks later. This is a matter of no 
 little importance in this part of the country, 
 where the weather is generally dry about 
 the end of May and beginning of June, when 
 there is no grass fit to cut ; and almost in- 
 variably wet about the end of June and be- 
 ginning of July, when all the farmers are 
 busy hay-making." 
 
 GRAND JURY. The number of grand 
 jurymen sworn at the sessions is usually 
 twenty-three, who are taken either from the 
 list of jurymen returned by the sheriff at 
 the quarter sessions, or from the list of county 
 magistrates at the assizes, the clerk of the 
 peace calling them according to their senio- 
 rity ; and when they have chosen their fore- 
 man, he administers to him the following 
 oath : — 
 
 " You, as foreman of this inquest, shall 
 diligently enquire, and true presentment 
 make, of all such matters and things as shall 
 be given you in charge. The queen's council, 
 your fellows', and your own, you shall keep 
 secret. You shall present no man for envy, 
 hatred, or malice, neither shall you leave 
 any man unpresented for fear, favour, or 
 affection, or hope of reward, but you shall 
 present all things truly, as they come to 
 yourknowledge, according to the best of your 
 understanding." 
 
 The grand jury are then sworn, generally 
 three at a lime, to observe and keep the 
 same oath as their foreman. 
 
 The duty of a grand jury is not, as is 
 sometimes erroneously concluded, to try the 
 prisoner, but to consider, from the evidence 
 57G 
 
 brought before them, whether there is such 
 a fair and reasonable case, as should induce 
 them to call upon the prisoner to answer the 
 accusation. From a mistaken sense of their 
 duty, in this respect, much valuable time is 
 commonly wasted both at the sessions and 
 the assizes. 
 
 Persons who have been returned by the 
 sheriff as jurors, who claim an exemption 
 must attend before the court, and claim 
 their privilege ; the sheriff has no power, 
 whatever may be the case, to allow any 
 such claim (2 Inst. 448.) ; and in default of 
 their appearing when their names are called, 
 it will be a contempt towards the court, 
 who have full power, after the offending party 
 has been duly summoned, to fine and imprison, 
 (6 G. 4. c. 50. s. 38. Rex. v. Clement, 4 B. 
 and Aid. 223.) See also Jury. 
 
 GRAPE VINE. See Vine. 
 
 GRASS. (Goth, gras ; Icel. graes, from 
 gro, to germinate, to sprout.) The common 
 herbage of the field, on which cattle feed. 
 
 The grasses, it has been often and well 
 said, " are nature's care." There is, perhaps, 
 no class of the vegetable world so little un- 
 derstood as this. " Grass," says Professor 
 Martyn, . " vulgarly forms one single idea, 
 and a husbandman, when he is looking over 
 his enclosure, does not dream that there are 
 upwards of three hundred species of grass, 
 of which thirty or forty may be at present 
 under his eye. They have scarcely had a 
 name besides the general one till within 
 these twenty years ; and the few particular 
 names which have been given them are far 
 from having obtained general use, so that 
 we may fairly assert that the knowledge of 
 this most common and useful tribe of plants 
 is yet in its infancy." {Letters on Botany, 
 xiii.) It is certain, however, that since Pro- 
 fessor Martyn wrote, much has been done 
 to add to our knoAvledge of the grasses. 
 
 The botanist has shown that there are 
 more than 130 distinct native species and 
 varieties of grass in Great Britain, all pos- 
 sessing distinct properties, and varying in 
 their degrees of value to the farmer, from 
 the most worthless, to those on which his 
 successful farming chiefly depends. The 
 researches, too, commenced by the late Duke 
 of Bedford, and carried on during a series of 
 years in the grass garden at Woburn, have 
 added very materially to our stock of know- 
 ledge concerning these plants; for, instituted 
 with a public object, and under the careful 
 and skilful management of one of my ear- 
 liest correspondents, the late Mr George 
 Sinclair, the results were given by him to 
 the public in the Hortus Gramineus Wo- 
 hurnensis, a valuable and elaborate work, to 
 which I am chiefly indebted for the matter 
 of this, and other articles upon t in 1 grasses. 
 
GRASS. 
 
 The systematical arrangement of grasses is 
 a difficult and unsatisfactory task, and has 
 occupied the attention of many botanists. 
 The most recent work upon the subject is 
 Kwith's Agrostographia, published at Berlin 
 in 1836. 
 
 In choosing the mixture of grass seeds 
 most valuable for the farmers soil, many 
 considerations must be taken into the cal- 
 culation ; not only the nature of the soil, 
 and the supply of water to which its habits 
 are the best adapted, but also the objects 
 which the fai'mer has in view. Thus, the 
 meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), 
 although an early, nutritive, and productive 
 grass, requires more than two years to arrive 
 at perfection : it is therefore better adapted 
 for permanent pasture than for the alternate 
 husbandry. And then, again, the meadow 
 cat's tail (Phleum pratense), although re- 
 markable for producing the most nutritious 
 culms, of all the grasses, and that, too, in 
 a considerable bulk, yields aftermath of 
 very little value. Valuable, therefore, as it 
 is for hay, it is of little consideration for 
 feeding purposes, if sown by itself ; it 
 must therefore be combined with other 
 grasses. So, the cock's-foot (Dactylis glome- 
 rata), which soon arrives at perfection, and 
 yields early and late a profusion of leaves, 
 which are highly nutritive, has culms or 
 stalks of little value : it is a grass, there- 
 fore, most profitable for feeding purposes. 
 " Under these different relations, therefore," 
 says Mr. G. Sinclair, " a grass should be 
 considered, before it is absolutely rejected, 
 or indiscriminately recommended." 
 
 The knowledge of the relative nutritive 
 matters contained in different grasses will, 
 also, not only be a highly important object 
 of research as connected with their feeding 
 properties, but as throAving considerable light 
 on the powers of the different grasses to 
 exhaust or impoverish the soil, a question 
 which I shall examine more at length under 
 the head "Rotation of Crops." A more in- 
 timate and extensive knowledge, with regard 
 to the composition of plants, may be derived 
 from even an examination of their external 
 appearance than many persons would deem 
 possible. The following are some of the 
 general results of the observations of Sin- 
 clair : — 
 
 1 . Grasses which have culms with swollen 
 joints, leaves thick and succulent, and flowers 
 with downy husks, contain greater propor- 
 tions of sugar and mucilage, than those of a 
 less succulent nature. 
 
 2. When this structure is of a light glau- 
 cous colour, the sugar is generally in excess. 
 
 3. Grasses which have culms with small 
 joints; flowers pointed, collected into a spike 
 or spike-like panicle; leaves thin, flat, rough, 
 
 and of a light green colour, contain a greater 
 proportion of extractive matter than others. 
 
 4. Grasses which have culms furnished 
 with numerous joints ; leaves smooth and 
 succulent ; flowers in a spike or close pani- 
 cle ; florets blunt and large, contain most 
 gluten and mucilage. 
 
 5. When this structure is of a glaucous 
 colour, and the florets woolly, sugar is in 
 the next proportion to mucilage. 
 
 6. Grasses which have their flowers in a 
 panicle, florets pointed or awned, points of 
 the culm smooth and succulent, contain 
 most mucilage and extractive. 
 
 7. Grasses with flowers in a panicle ; 
 florets thinly scattered, pointed, or furnished 
 with long awns ; culms lofty, with leaves 
 flat and rough, contain a greater proportion 
 of saline matter and bitter extractive. 
 
 8. Grasses with strong creeping roots; 
 culms few ; leaves flat and rough ; flower in 
 a spike, contain a greater proportion of bitter 
 extract with mucilage." (Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. p. 42.) 
 
 In the first part of April 1920 grains of 
 the leaves of the following grasses, &c. afford, 
 according to Mr. G. Sinclair, the following 
 proportions of nutritive matter : — 
 
 Meadow foxtail-grass 
 
 Grs. 
 - 96 
 
 Tall oat-like soft-grass 
 
 - 120 
 
 Sweet-scented vernal - 
 
 - 52 
 
 Round-panicled cock's-foot 
 
 - 80 
 
 Perennial rye-grass 
 
 - 70 
 
 Tall fescue 
 
 - 94 
 
 Meadow fescue 
 
 - 96 
 
 Crested dog's-tail 
 
 - 88 
 
 Woolly soft-grass 
 
 - 80 
 
 Creeping soft-grass 
 
 - 90 
 
 Meadow cat's-tail 
 
 - 80 
 
 Fertile meadow-grass - 
 
 - 70 
 
 Nerved meadow-grass - 
 
 - 76 
 
 Smooth awnless brome-grass 
 
 - 84 
 
 Wood meadow-grass 
 
 - 68 
 
 Smooth fescue 
 
 - 70 
 
 Long-awned sheeps' fescue 
 
 - 102 
 
 Darnel-like fescue 
 
 - 110 
 
 Creeping bent, or florin 
 
 - 42 
 
 Wood fiorin 
 
 - 62 
 
 Yellow vetchling 
 
 - 40 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow-grass 
 
 - 80 
 
 Broad-leaved red clover 
 
 - 80 
 
 White or Dutch clover 
 
 - 64 
 
 Common quaking grass 
 
 - 54 
 
 Greater bird's-foot trefoil 
 
 - 60 
 
 Long-rooted clover 
 
 - 76 
 
 Lucern 
 
 - 90 
 
 Bunias 
 
 - 100 
 
 Burnet 
 
 - 100 
 
 Cow parsnip - 
 
 - 90 
 
 (Ibid, p. 239.) 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to the culti- 
 vator to learn of what these nutritive mat- 
 ters consist : the following is the result of 
 Mr. Sinclair's examinations : — 
 p p 
 
GRASS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Bitter Kx- 
 
 100 grains of the Nutri- 
 tive Matter of the 
 
 Mucilage, 
 or 
 Starch. 
 
 Sacch. 
 Matter, or 
 Sugar. 
 
 Gluten. 
 
 tractive 
 
 and 
 Saline 
 Matters. 
 
 Meadow foxtail con- 
 
 
 
 
 
 sist-of 
 
 64 
 
 8 
 
 - 
 
 28 
 
 Meadow fescue 
 
 59 
 
 20 
 
 - 
 
 20 
 
 Rye-grass - 
 Meadow cat's-tail - 
 
 65 
 74 
 
 7 
 10 
 
 - 
 - 
 
 28 
 16 
 
 Cock's-foot - 
 
 59 
 
 11 
 
 
 30 
 
 Meadow-oat 
 
 80 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 White clover (in 
 
 
 
 
 
 flower) 
 
 77 
 
 2 
 
 7 
 
 14 
 
 Red clover (ditto) - 
 
 79 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Tares 
 
 63 
 
 25 
 
 
 7 
 
 Fiorin (Agrostis sto- 
 
 
 
 
 
 lonifera) - 
 
 55 
 
 5 
 
 
 40 
 
 3000 grains of the Green 
 Herbage of 
 
 Woody, or 
 Indigestible 
 Fibre. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Tares consist of - 
 
 557 
 
 2250 
 
 193 
 
 White clover 
 
 470 
 
 2430 
 
 100 
 
 Cock's-foot grass - 
 
 1135 
 
 1740 
 
 125 
 
 Meadow-fescue 
 
 1260 
 
 1590 
 
 150 
 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 240, 241.) 
 
 The chemical composition of the grasses 
 varies very materially in the progress of 
 their growth, a fact well worthy of the far- 
 mer's serious attention in more ways than 
 one. " I found," says Davy, " in all the 
 trials I made, the largest quantity of truly 
 nutritive matter when the seed was ripe, 
 and least bitter extract and saline matter ; 
 most extract and saline matter in the au- 
 tumnal crop, and most saccharine matter in 
 proportion to the other ingredients in the 
 crop cut at the time of flowering. I shall 
 give one instance : 
 
 100 parts of the soluble matter obtained 
 from the round panicled cock's-foot grass 
 (Dactylis glomerata), cut in flower, afforded, 
 
 Of Parts. 
 
 Sugar - - - 18 
 
 Mucilage - - - 67 
 
 Extract, saline matters, &c. - 15 
 
 100 
 
 100 parts of the soluble matter from the 
 seed crop afforded — 
 
 Sugar - - - 9 
 
 Mucilage - - - 85 
 
 Extract, &c. - - - 6 
 
 100 
 
 1 00 parts of soluble matter from the 
 aftermath crop gave, of 
 
 Sugar - - - 11 
 
 Mucilage - •• - 59 
 
 Extract - - - 30 
 
 100 
 
 (hllrm. ofAgr. Chern, 477.) 
 
 The seeds of the Grasses. — The ripening 
 of the seeds of the essential grasses (says 
 Sinclair) takes place at three different pe- 
 578 
 
 riods of the season, or, if they -are classed 
 according to the time about which each 
 species ripens its seed, they will form three 
 divisions or groups ; the first, consisting of 
 the earliest species, perfect their seed about 
 the end of June — such as the sweet-scented 
 vernal-grass and the narrow-leaved meadow- 
 grass : the second, consisting of the sheep's 
 fescue grass, and others, about the end of 
 J uly ; and the third, such as the fiorin grass, 
 and others, about the first or second week in 
 September, as may be seen from the fol- 
 lowing 
 
 Table of the average Periods at which dif- 
 ferent Species of Grasses ripen their Seed, 
 drawn up by the late Mr. G. Sinclair from 
 the Details of Ten Years' practical Obser- 
 vation and Experiment. 
 
 Annual meadow-grass (Poa annua) from April 10 to 
 
 winter frosts 
 June 
 
 Sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odo- 
 
 ralum) - - - - 10 to 20 
 
 Soft annual brome-grass (Bromus mollis) - 12 — 20 
 Silver-hair, hair-grass (Aira caryophylla) - 15 — 20 
 Bitter vernal grass (Anthoxanthum amarum) - 15 — 20 
 Sheathed cotton-grass (Eriophorum vaginatum) 18 — 20 
 Narrow-leaved cotton-grass (E. angustifolium) 20 — 30 
 One-flowered melic-grass (Melica uniflora) - 18 — 24 
 Spring millet-grass (Milium vernale) - -18 — 25 
 Alpine meadow-grass (Poa alpina) - -18 — 24 
 Narrow-leaved meadow-grass (P. angustifolia) 18 — 24 
 Blue meadow-grass (Sesleria coerulea) - - 18 — 24 
 Meadow foxtail- grass (Alopecurus pratensis) - 30 
 Sweet-scented soft-grass (abortive generally) 
 (Holcus odoratus repens) - - 20 
 
 July 
 0 — 20 
 July 
 
 Small-flowered oat-grass (Avena parviflora) 
 Long-flowered (Bromus longiflorus) 
 Glaucous fescue (Festuca glauca) 
 Hungarian (Festuca pannonica) 
 Hard wheat-grass ( Triticum nardus) 
 Smooth meadow-grass (Poa pratensis) 
 Woolly soft-grass (Holcus lanatus) 
 Creeping soft-grass (Holcus mollis) 
 Field or meadow brome-grass (Bromus arvensis) 
 Jointed foxtail (Alopecurus geniculatus) 
 Bulbous meadow-grass (Poa bulbosus) - 
 Yellow oat-grass (Avena pubescens) 
 Blue meadow-grass (Poa ccerulea) - - 16 
 Nodding panicled bent-grass (Bromus lecto- 
 
 rum) - - - - 16 
 
 Crested dog's-tail (Cynosurus cristatus) - 16 — 30 
 
 Horn of plenty ( Cornucopia cucullatum) 16 
 Round-headed cock's-foot grass (D acty lis glome- 
 
 rata) - - - - 19 — 30 
 
 Glaucous cock's-foot grass (D. glauccscens) - 20 
 Striped cock's-foot grass (D. variegata) - 20 
 
 Striped American variety (D. Americana var.) 22 
 Wood fescue (Festuca dumetorum) 
 Perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne) 
 Russell-grass ( Lolium Bussellianum) 
 Reflexed meadow-grass (Poa distans) 
 Rigid meadow-grass (P. rigida) 
 Rough-stalked meadow-grass (P. trivialis) 
 Smooth-leaved tesci\e-gvass( Festuca glabra var.) 12 
 Creeping fescue-grass (Festuca rubra) - 12 
 
 Common quaking grass (Briza media) - - 12 — 
 Melilot clover (Trifolium Melilotus officinalis) 14 
 Upright brome-grass (Bromus erectus) 
 Bush vetch ( Vicia sepium) 
 Sheep's fescue-grass (Festuca ovina) 
 Early hair-grass (Airwpr&cox) 
 Water hair-grass (A. aquatica) 
 Crested hair-grass (A. cristata) 
 Gigantic brome-grass (Bromus giganteus) 
 Slender oat-grass (Avena Jragilis) 
 Eastern oat-grass (A. orientalis) 
 Meadow oat-grass ( A. pratensis) 
 Two-rowed brome-grass (Bromus distachyos) - 30 
 Wall brome-grass (B. diandrus) - - 21 
 
 Tongue-formed brome-grass (/?. ligusticus) - 30 
 
 Barley-like fescue (Festuca ovina hordeiformis) - 
 
 • 4 to 10 
 
 - 4 — 13 
 
 - 4 — 24 
 
 - 4—17 
 
 - 4—17 
 
 - 10 — 17 
 
 - 12 — 24 
 
 14 — 26 
 7 
 
 7 — 26 
 11 
 
 15 — 25 
 
 19 
 15 
 
 - 20 
 
 - 16 
 
 - 16 
 16 
 
 - 20 
 
 -24 — 20 
 
 - 28 
 
 - 27 
 
 - 26 
 
 - 29 
 
 - 24 
 
 - 24 
 
 - 25 — 30 
 
 - 24 
 
GRASS. 
 
 July. 
 
 Large-panided brome-grass (Bromus maximus) 21 
 Flat-spiked brome-grass (B. unioloides) - - 21 
 Wood millet-grass (Milium effusion) - -21 
 Brome-like fescue-grass ( Festuca bromoides) - '21 
 Hard fescue-grass (F. duriuscula) - 30 
 
 Crested brome-grass (Bromus crisiatus) - 30 
 
 Slender fescue-grass (Festuca gracilis) - -30 
 Slender sheep's fescue ( F. ovina tenuis) - - 30 
 Meadow fescue-grass (F. pratensis) - 30 
 
 Slender. leaved fescue (F. tenuifolia) - -30 
 Viviparous fescue (F. vivipara) - - 30 
 
 Sand canary-grass (Phalaris arcnaria) - 30 
 
 Ciliated melic-grass (Melica ciliata) - -27 — 31 
 Nerved meadow-grass (Poa nervata) - -30 
 Rye-grass-like fescue (Festuca lolia.ea) - 21 
 
 Lesser meadow cat's tail (Phleum pratense mi- 
 nus) - - - "25 
 Linear-spiked (Cynosurus eruasformis) 21 
 Meadow cat's- tail (Phleum pratense) - -25 
 Wood meadow-grass (Poa nemoralis) - - 30 
 Bulbous-jointed cat's-tail grass (Phleum nodo- 
 sum) - - - - 30 
 Fertile meadow-grass (Poa fertilis) - -30 
 Larger bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus major) - - 30 
 Smaller bird's-foot trefoil (L. minor) - - 30 
 Capon's tail fescue (Festuca Myurus) - - 29 
 Sea-green meadow-grass (Poa cccsia) ■ - 27 
 Way-bennet, wall-barley (Hordcum murinum) 30 
 Thouin's vetch (Vicia Thouinii) - - 30 
 Welch fescue-grass (Festuca Cambrica) - 20 — 30 
 Upright vetch ( Vicia stricta) - - - 20 — 30 
 
 August 
 
 Crested hair-grass (Aira cristata) - - 2 
 Giant lyme-grass (Elymus giganteus) - - 2 
 Decumbent meadow-grass (Poa decumbens) - 3 
 Spelt wheat-grass ( Triticum spelta) - - 3 
 Slender wheat-grass (Triticum tenue) - 4 
 
 Bearded wheat-grass (Triticum caninum) - 4 
 Awnless wheat-grass ( Triticum caninum var.) 4 
 Common bent-grass (Agrostis vulgaris) - 4 
 
 Upright mat-grass (Nardus stricta) - -5 
 Small spurious tare (Ervum Ervilia) - - 4 
 Broad-leaved oat-grass ( Arena planiculmis) - 6 
 Hairy tare (Ervum hirsutum) - - 6 
 
 Four-seeded tare (Ervum tetraspermum) - 6 
 Glaucous meadow-grass (Poa glauca) - - 6 
 Procumbent meadow-grass (Poa procumbens) - 6 
 Long-rooted clover ( Tr (folium macrorhixum) - G 
 Wood bent-grass (Agrostis sylvaticus) - - 6 
 Tall fertile fescue-grass (Festuca elatior fertilis) 6 
 Many-flowering brome-grass (Bromus multifio- 
 
 rus) - - - 5 
 
 Philadelphian lyme-grass (Elymus Philadelphi- 
 
 cus) - - - - 6-20 
 
 Sordid vetch ( Vicia sordida) - - - G — 20 
 
 Slender-leaved vetch ( Vicia tenuifolia) - - 6 
 Beardless tall oat- grass (Holcus avenaceus mu- 
 
 ticus) - - - - 7 
 
 Red brome-grass (Bromus rubens) - - 9 
 
 Bauhin's melic-grass (M elica Bauhini) - 9 
 
 Foxtail-like fescue (Festuca alopecuroides) - 10 — 23 
 Hedgehog lyme-grass (Elymus hystrix) - 10 
 
 Barren brome-grass (Bromus sterilis) - -10 
 Jointed lyme-grass (Elymus geniculatus) - 10 
 Golden oat (Avenaflavescens) - - "20 
 
 Fine-panicled (Arundo Calamagrostis) - - 21 — 30 
 Meadow barley-grass (Hordeum pratense) - 21 
 Narrow-leaved brome (Bro?nus angustifolius) - 24 
 Slender rye-grass (Loliutn tenue) - -24 
 Spear-panicled brome-grass (Bromus lanceola- 
 
 tus) - ... - 24 
 
 Sainfoin (Onobrychis saliva) - -24 
 
 Sept. 
 
 Winged brome-grass (Bromus pinnatus) -28 — 5 
 Brown bent-grass (Agrostis canina) - -29 — 30 
 Bundled-leaved bent (A. vulgaris fascicularis) 29 
 Couch grass ( Triticum repens) - - 30 
 
 Wood vetch ( Vicia sylvalica) - - 30 
 
 September 
 
 Tufted vetch ( Vicia cracca) - - - 4—12 
 Foxtail oat-grass (Avena alopecuroides) - 5 — 12 
 
 Awnless brown bent (Agrostis canina var. mu- 
 
 tica) - ..... 5 
 
 Couch bent-grass (Agrostis alba) - - 6 — 15 
 Fiorin grass (A. stolonifera) - - 8 
 
 And many others. October 
 
 Common reed- grass (Arundo phragmites) - 10 — 15 
 
 American cock's-foot (Dactylis cynosuroides) - 10 
 
 Stiff wheat-grass (Triticum rigidum) - -12—13 
 
 And five or six others (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. p. 35.) 
 
 579 
 
 Agrostis canina 
 Agrostis stolonifera. 
 Alopecurus pratensis. 
 thoxa 
 
 Of these grasses the chief and most useful 
 species and varieties are always kept on 
 sale by Messrs. T. Gibbs & Co., the corner 
 of Half Moon Street, Piccadilly : these are 
 comprehended in the following list : — 
 
 Festuca rubra. 
 Festuca sylvatica. 
 Festuca tenuifolia. 
 
 Anthoxanthum odoratum. Holcus avenaceus. 
 
 Avena flavescens. Holcus lanatus. 
 
 Avena pratensis. Hordeum pratensis. 
 
 Briza media. Lolium perenne. 
 
 Bromus arvensis. Phleum pratensis. 
 
 Cow grass, or perennial Poa annua. 
 
 red clover. Poa ca;rulea. 
 
 Cynosurus cristatus. Poa fertilis. 
 
 Dactylis glomerata. Poa nemoralis. 
 
 Festuca cambrica. Poa nervata. 
 
 Festuca duriuscula. Poa pratensis. 
 
 Festuca fluitans. Poa trivialis. 
 
 Festuca glabra. Red suckling. 
 
 Festuca heterophylla. Rib-grass. 
 
 Festuca hordeiformis. Trefoil. 
 
 Festuca ovina. White or Dutch clover. 
 
 Festuca pratensis. Yarrow. 
 
 From some experiments, given in the 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 250., by Messrs, 
 Lawson & Co., it would seem that the 
 raising of the seeds of the artificial grasses 
 is attended with considerable profit. 
 
 The late Mr. Blakie suggested a very ex- 
 cellent plan for saving the seeds of down 
 grasses, or of those grasses which are pe- 
 culiarly adapted for elevated dry soils 
 (Farmer s Journ. March 17. 1823.) ; viz. 
 to fence off a sufficient portion of these 
 pastures, choosing such portions as have the 
 best kind of grasses ; and to mow these en- 
 closures for seed in succession, at three, 
 four, or more different periods of the 
 season. " By these means," said Mr. G. 
 Sinclair, "the seeds of the early, mid- 
 summer and late vegetating grasses will 
 be obtained, and which could not, it is 
 evident, be obtained by one mowing in 
 one season. This is," he adds, " a highly 
 valuable mode of obtaining the seeds of 
 those grasses adapted for downs ; which, to 
 cultivate separately for the seed, would be a 
 fruitless undertaking. Fence the selected 
 turf well, and early in the season, and pre- 
 pare for mowing by picking the stones or 
 rubbish from the surface, and by rolling. 
 As the seeds ripen, employ a careful bird- 
 watcher. Mow in dry favourable weather. If 
 the swaths are heavy, they should be turned 
 with great caution, so as not to shake out 
 the ripe seeds. As soon as the mowing is 
 dry, the seed should be immediately thrashed 
 out on a close woven cloth in the field, and 
 on a dry day ; and when a certain portion 
 of the later grasses ripen their seed, another 
 mowing should be effected, and so on, until 
 all the grasses in the enclosure have perfected 
 their seed. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 39. 40.) As 
 every different soil," continues Sinclair, in 
 another portion of his invaluable work, 
 " produces grasses peculiar to itself, and as 
 no other kinds can be established or culti- 
 
GRASS. 
 
 vated upon it without first changing its na- 
 ture to resemble that which produced the 
 kind of grasses we wish to introduce ; it 
 becomes a point of the first importance in 
 making experiments on different species of 
 this numerous family of plants, and in 
 stating the results, to determine with suffi- 
 cient accuracy the nature of the soil or dif- 
 ferent soils employed. The basis of every 
 improvement in the cultivation of grasses is 
 to sow the seeds of those species only which 
 are adapted to the soil, or to change the 
 nature of unsuitable soils to that which is 
 fitted for the growth of grasses most desira- 
 ble to be cultivated ; and unless this im- 
 portant point is in the first place attended 
 to, disappointment, rather than success, may 
 be expected to follow the labours of the 
 farmer." 
 
 1 . Of the grasses of rich natural pastures. — 
 Every farmer is aware that peculiar grasses 
 are the productive tenants of his rich na- 
 tural pastures, and that if these are ploughed 
 up, and a course of grain crops taken 
 from the soil, a considerable period elapses 
 before the turf with which it was formerly 
 covered can be restored. George Sinclair 
 carefully noted this fact, and examined not 
 altogether unsuccessfully its cause. He 
 observed that " the different grasses and 
 other plants which compose the produce of 
 the richest natural pastures are in number 
 twenty-six, and that from the spring to the 
 end of autumn there is not a month that 
 does not constitute the particular season of 
 luxuriance of one or more of these grasses ; 
 hence proceeds the constant supply of rich 
 succulent herbage throughout the whole of 
 the season, a circumstance which but sel- 
 dom or never happens in artificial pastures, 
 where the herbage consists of two or three 
 plants only. The plants which usually 
 tenant the best natural pastures are the 
 meadow foxtail, round cock's-foot, meadow 
 fescue, meadow cat's-tail, sweet-scented 
 vernal grass, tall oat-like soft-grass, creeping 
 vetch, rye-grass, field brome-grass, annual 
 meadow or Suffolk grass, meadow oat-grass : 
 these yield the principal grass in the 
 spring, and a chief portion of that of the 
 summer. Then, again, we find the yellow oat- 
 grass, meadow barley, crested dog's-tail, 
 hard fescue, rough-stalked meadow-grass, 
 smooth-stalked meadow-grass, woolly soft- 
 grass, perennial red clover, white or Dutch 
 clover, yellow vetch or meadow lathyrus,and 
 the smooth fescue, which yield the principal 
 portion of the summer and autumn produce. 
 Lastly, we find the yarrow, creeping bent 
 or fiorin, marsh bent-grass, and creeping 
 wheat-grass or couch, vegetating most 
 vigorously in the autumn. Besides these," 
 continues Sinclair, " in the richest natural 
 580 
 
 pastures are invariably found the butter- 
 cups (Ranunculus acris), rib-grass or rib- 
 wort plantain (Plantago lanceolata), and 
 sorrel dock (Rumex acetosa)" Of these 
 however, except in cases of necessity, live 
 stock will only eat the rib-grass. 
 
 To examine the nature of the change 
 produced on rich pasture land by a course 
 of grain crops, Mr. Sinclair made the fol- 
 lowing valuable experiments : — 
 
 " A space of 2 square yards of rich an- 
 cient pasture land was dug to the depth of 
 8 inches ; 400 grains of this soil, freed from 
 moisture and the green vegetable fibres, 
 contained — 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Calcareous and silicious sand - - 102 
 Decomposing vegetable matter, and par- 
 ticles of roots - - 55 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - -160 
 Silica (flint) - ... 50 
 Alumina (clay) - - - 25 
 Oxide of iron - - - - 4 
 Soluble vegetable matter, and sulphate of 
 lime (gypsum) - - - 4 
 
 ~400 
 
 " This soil was then cropped for five sea- 
 sons alternately with, 1 . oats ; 2. potatoes ; 
 3. wheat ; 4. carrots ; 5. wheat. It was 
 then examined, to ascertain what change it 
 had undergone by bearing these crops. It 
 appeared to consist of — 
 
 Grs. 
 
 Calcareous and silicious sand - 100 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter - 48 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - - 159 
 
 Silica (flint) - - - 57 
 
 Alumina (clay) - - 26 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 5 
 
 Soluble vegetable and saline matter - 3 
 
 398 
 
 Loss - - - - - 2 
 
 ~400 
 
 " Thus, the earthy portion of the soil had 
 undergone but little change, but it had sus- 
 tained a very considerable diminution of its 
 decomposing vegetable and animal matters, 
 particularly when it is considered that the 
 turf also was incorporated with the soil. 
 Manure was now for the first time applied, 
 and, with the wheat stubble, dug in to the 
 depth of six inches. The surface was then 
 madd fine with a rake, and sown with a 
 mixture of the following grass seeds, at the 
 rate of five bushels to the acre : — Meadow 
 fescue, meadow foxtail, round cock's-foot, 
 tall oat-like soft-grass, creeping vetch, rye- 
 grass, meadow cat's-tail, crested dog's-tail, 
 yellow oat, meadow oat, hard fescue, smooth- 
 stalked meadow-grass, fertile meadow-grass', 
 nerved meadow-grass, cow clover (Tri- 
 folium medium), Dutch, or white clover, 
 and fiorin, marsh-bent. These were sown on 
 
GRASS. 
 
 the 28th of August 1813. They all vege- 
 tated before the first week of October ex- 
 cept the creeping vetch (Vicia sepium), 
 which did not germinate till the autumn of 
 
 1814. Before the frost set in they had a 
 top-dressing with a compost of rotten dung, 
 lime, and vegetable mould, laid on in a fine 
 and dry state, and rolled, and again rolled 
 in February. The plants sprang earlier 
 than those of the old pasture (a circum- 
 stance common to young plants in general). 
 In the first week of July, the produce was 
 cut and weighed : it amounted to one eighth 
 more than the produce of the ground in its 
 original state. The aftermath, however, of 
 the seedling grasses weighed one fifth less 
 than that of the natural pasture. But, in 
 
 1815, upon cutting and weighing the grass 
 in the first weeks of June and August, and 
 again in the middle of September, the total 
 weight of these three crops exceeded that 
 of the old turf exactly in the proportion of 
 nine to eight." (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 131.) 
 
 2. The grasses which are the natural tenants 
 of dry sandy, and elevated sods. — These, 
 according to Sinclair, are the sheep's fescue, 
 viviparous fescue, purple fescue, pubescent 
 fescue, glaucous fescue, wall fescue, wall 
 barley, fine bent, brown bent, lobed bent, 
 rock bent, snowy bent, purple bent, tufted - 
 leaved bent, waved hair-grass, feather-grass, 
 slender foxtail, hairy oat-grass, blue melic 
 grass, upright mat-grass, blood-coloured 
 panic-grass, green panic-grass, barrenbrome- 
 grass, crested brome-grass, upright annual 
 brome-grass, nodding brome-grass, Alpine 
 meadow-grass, Alpine foxtail-grass, blue 
 moor-grass, crested hair-grass, panicled 
 cat's-tail grass, reflexed meadow-grass, flat- 
 stalked meadow-grass, meadowbarley, bird's- 
 foot clover, larger bird's-foot clover, trefoil 
 or nonsuch, sainfoin, soft brome-grass, creep- 
 ing soft-grass, and white, or Dutch clover. 
 (Ibid. p. 256.) 
 
 " When these sandy upland soils are im- 
 proved by the application of clay or marl, 
 they are then capable of supporting a very 
 superior description of grasses to these, and 
 the following varieties," says Sinclair, " should 
 be sown, for experience will prove that, un- 
 der such circumstances, they are the best for 
 
 this purpose" (Ibid. p. 337.) : — 
 
 
 Barley-like sheep's feseue 
 Cock's-foot grass 
 
 - 3 pecks. 
 
 • 3 — 
 
 Crested dog's-tail grass 
 
 - 1 — 
 
 Yellow oat-grass 
 
 - 2 — 
 
 Rye-grass - 
 
 - I — 
 
 Flat-stalked meadow-grass 
 
 
 Various-leaved fescue 
 
 H- 
 
 Hard fescue 
 
 - 2 — 
 
 Lesser bird's-foot trefoil - 
 
 - 1 lb. 
 
 White clover 
 
 
 581 
 
 3. The grasses of bogs, or other very moist 
 soils. — These are commonly of the most 
 worthless description to the cultivator : 
 they are chiefly the marsh bent, awnless 
 brown bent, awned creeping bent, smaller- 
 leaved creeping bent, creeping-rooted bent, 
 white bent, flote fescue, tall fescue, turfy 
 hair-grass, knee-jointed foxtail-grass, water 
 hair-grass, water meadow-grass, long-leaved 
 cotton-grass, and the sheathed cotton-grass. 
 (Hort. Wob. p. 340.) 
 
 4. The grasses of water meadows. — " All 
 the superior perennial grasses," observes 
 Sinclair, " thrive under irrigation when the 
 meadow is properly formed ; the following 
 species of grass I have invariably found to 
 constitute the produce of the best water mea- 
 dows : — Meadow foxtail, round-panicled 
 cock's-foot, field brome-grass, meadow 
 fescue : these occupied the crowns and sides 
 of the ridges. The furrows were stocked 
 with the creeping bent, marsh bent, hard 
 fescue, lesser variety of meadow cat's-tail, 
 woolly soft-grass, rough-stalked meadow- 
 grass, meadow fescue. A small admixture 
 of other species were thinly scattered 
 over every part of the ridge ; these were 
 meadow barley, yellow or golden oat, 
 crested dog's-tail, rye-grass, sweet-scented 
 vernal-grass, tufted vetch, with a larger 
 proportion of the tall oat-like soft-grass. 
 The soil of the water meadows which pro- 
 duced the above grasses was either a deep 
 active peat, incumbent on a silicious sand, or 
 a sandy loam, on a chalky or gravelly subsoil. 
 In some irrigated meadows, where the ridges 
 were formed nearly flat, and the soil consisted 
 of a sandy loam on a retentive clayey sub- 
 soil, the following grasses constituted the 
 chief produce : — Crested dog's-tail, creeping- 
 rooted soft-grass, rye-grass, meadow barley, 
 tall oat-like soft-grass, sweet-scented vernal, 
 and soft brome-grass." (Ibid. p. 383 ) 
 
 The grasses best adapted for the al- 
 ternate husbandry also attracted the at- 
 tention of George Sinclair ; but he saw 
 the difficulty of laying down any system- 
 atic rules which should be adapted for all 
 soils and situations, and the demands for 
 animal food; he hardly, therefore, made 
 any very practical general observations. 
 He gives us, however, among other valu- 
 able statements, the following little table of 
 the relative value of three of the crops he 
 had examined on similar soil : — 
 
 lbs. per 
 Produce. acre, 
 f herbage - 49,005 
 
 Broad-leaved red clover < hay - . 12,251 
 t nutritive matter 1,904 
 r grass - - 70,785 
 
 Lucern - - -jhay - - 28,314 
 
 C nutritive matter 1.G59 
 ("herbage - 8,848 
 
 Sainfoin - - i hay - - 3,539 
 
 C nutritive matter 345 
 
 p p 3 
 
GRASS. 
 
 There are also some practical directions by- 
 Mr. P. Shirreff in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. ii. p. 242., but they are only local in 
 their nature ; and some valuable remarks 
 by Mr. W.S.Taunton {Ibid. vol. iii. p. 406.) 
 upon the grasses of the Hampshire chalk 
 formation, and by Mr. Gorrie (vol. v. p. 515. 
 of the same excellent periodical) upon the 
 supposed coarse quality of certain grasses. 
 
 5. On the grasses best adapted for pasture 
 during the winter. — In the fourth volume 
 of the Trans, of the High . Soc. p. 31. is an 
 essay on this subject by the late Mr. George 
 Sinclair. The following are the grasses he 
 recommends as being productive of the 
 most considerable quantity of winter's grass ; 
 and the proportion of seeds which he advises 
 to be sown to produce such a pasture : — 
 
 Cock' s-foot (Dactylis glomerata) - - 4 pecks. 
 Meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis) - - 3 — 
 
 Tall fertile meadow-grass {Festuca clatior var. 
 
 fertilis), only in very heavy soils constantly 
 
 depastured with cattle. 
 Meadow eat's-tail, or true Timothy grass {Phle- 
 
 u?n pratense major) - - f — 
 
 Broad-leaved bent, or florin (Agrostis stolo- 
 
 nifera) - - - - 1 — 
 
 Tall oat-like soft-grass (Holcus avenaceus) - 2 — 
 Woolly soft-grass {Holcus lanatus), only in 
 
 cases of considerable elevation and poverty 
 
 of soil. 
 
 Pacey's perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne) 3 — 
 Burnet {Poterium Sanguisorba) - - 2 — 
 Cow-grass, or perennial red clover ( Trijolium 
 
 pratense perenne) - - - 6 lbs. 
 
 White clover ( Trifolium repens) - - 8 — 
 
 The quantity of the grass seeds employed 
 per acre, for permanent ordinary pasture, 
 necessarily varies with the nature of the 
 soil. A practical farmer gives the following 
 as an excellent mixture {Mark Lane Exp. 
 April 5. 1841) ; and a similar mixture has 
 been also recommended by the Messrs. 
 Gibbs and son, corner of Half- Moon Street, 
 Piccadilly, who have taken more pains, I 
 believe, in the selection and growth of the 
 grass seeds than any other persons. 
 
 
 On Light 
 
 On Heavy 
 
 
 Soils. 
 
 Soils. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Clover, red - 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 — white ... 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 — red, perennial (cow-grass) 
 Rye-grass, perennial 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 — Italian 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Meadow foxtail - 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Cock's-foot - 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 Fescue, meadow 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 — , hard - 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Rough-stalked meadow-grass 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Smooth-stalked meadow-grass 
 Wood meadow-grass (Hudson's Bay 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 grass) ... 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 Sweet-scented vernal-grass 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Timothy grass - 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 
 38 
 
 47 
 
 6. Transplantation, or inoculation of turf. — 
 This plan, which is one, in certain situations, 
 offering considerable advantages, is de- 
 scribed in the Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 523., and 
 by G-. Sinclair, Hort. Gram. Wob. p.415. The 
 mode of returning tillage land to permanent 
 582 
 
 pasture, called transplanting, was originally 
 invented by Mr. Whitworth of Acre House, 
 Lincolnshire ; and it was first practised to any 
 extent by Mr. John Blomfield of Warham, 
 Norfolk. In laying down land to per- 
 manent pasture by this mode, it is essential 
 that the soil should be free from the seeds 
 and roots of weeds, and made perfectly clean 
 by a summer fallow. The autumn is the 
 best time for transplanting turf, and that 
 as soon as the autumn rains have sufficiently 
 moistened the turf to fit it for paring off 
 clean : the roots of the grasses thus get 
 established before the commencement of 
 warm weather in the spring. It is also 
 essential that the turf should be selected or 
 taken from the very best pasture, for other- 
 wise weeds and inferior grasses will be pro- 
 pagated. If the field, from which the turf 
 is to be taken to make the new pasture, is 
 intended to be broken up for a course of 
 tillage crops, then the whole of the turf 
 may be taken off and employed in forming 
 the new pasture to the required extent. 
 But should the field be required to remain 
 in permanent pasture, a portion only of the 
 turf must be taken from the field, and a 
 sufficiency of the sward, or grass plant left 
 standing for that purpose. In the first of 
 these cases, Mr. Blakie directs a paring- 
 plough to be used; but if that cannot be 
 conveniently obtained, a common plough, 
 with the coulter and share made very sharp, 
 will answer the purpose : a wheel plough is 
 preferable, adds Sinclair, to a swing plough 
 for paring turfs, because it goes steadier, 
 and cuts the turf more regularly. The 
 turf should be cut about two inches and a 
 half thick, and seven, eight, or nine inches 
 wide, according to the nature of the turf- 
 gage of the plough, and the width of the 
 wing of the share : it is sometimes cross 
 cut into short lengths, previous to the 
 operation of paring ; but this can only be 
 effected when the turf is moist and free 
 from stones. The cross cutting is done by 
 a scarifier, with cimeter tines, the convex 
 edges made very sharp, and faced to the 
 work, and the implement heavily weighted, 
 so as to press the tines a proper depth into 
 the turf : but it is best in large flags. The 
 turf is then carried in broad-wheeled carts 
 to the field, at the rate of fifty cart-loads 
 to an acre, placed in heaps, and then chopped 
 into small pieces of about three inches 
 square : the ground is then levelled with a 
 scarifier, and the turf spread with shovels 
 over the field ; the pieces of turf are then 
 placed or planted by women and children, 
 and pressed into the soil by the foot or a 
 wooden rammer. One acre of turf divided 
 into pieces will plant nine acres — eneli piece 
 of turf standing nine inches apart. The ex- 
 
GRASSHOPPER. 
 
 GRAVEL. 
 
 pense per acre of this mode of converting 
 arable land into pasture is as follows : say 
 
 A. R. p. 
 
 Extent of grass land clean pared off -1 2 18 
 
 Extent of arable land transplanted with the 
 
 above - - - - - 11 0 15 
 
 Expense. £ s. d. 
 
 To ploughing or paring la. 2r. 18 p., at 10s. 
 
 per acre - - - - - 0 16 1 J 
 To carriage of 600 loads of turf, fifty days* 
 
 work for one horse, at 3s. per day - - 7 10 0 
 To boys driving carts - - 0 19 8 
 
 To scarifying 11 acres or 15 poles of ground 
 
 when covered with turf cut in pieces, at 2s. 
 
 6rf. per acre - - - - 1 7 8£ 
 
 To labourers, at 30s. per acre - - 16 12 
 
 Or 21. 9s. 2frf. per acre. 27 6 4 
 
 A plan of improving old worn-out pasture 
 lands (by dibbling peas and vetches, with a 
 mixture of eighteen pounds of Dutch clover, 
 and two bushels per acre of Bay grass) is 
 described by Mr. Salter, Com. to Board of 
 Agr. vol. vi. p. 357. On the advantages of 
 deep ploughing, fallowing, and liming land 
 intended to be again laid down to perma- 
 nent pasture, with an experiment on seven- 
 teen acres at Jedburgh, there is a paper by 
 Mr. Bell, Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. i. p. 570., 
 and another by Mr. Sinclair {ibid, p. 65.). 
 To this gentleman's excellent work (Hort. 
 Gram. Wob.), I would especially commend 
 my readers, as it abounds with information 
 on the grasses. There is also a paper on the 
 economical improvement of grass lands in 
 Scotland ( Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. vii. p. 547.) ; 
 and in all improvements of this kind, the 
 use of the sub-turf plough should not be 
 forgotten by the farmer. See Irrigation. 
 GRASSHOPPER. See Locust. 
 GRASSHOPPER WARBLER. See 
 "Warblers 
 
 GRASS-POLY. One of the names of 
 the hyssop-leaved purple loose-strife {Ly- 
 thrum hyssopi folium.) See Loose-Strife. 
 
 GRASS WRACK, COMMON. {Zostera 
 marina, from zoster, a riband to which the 
 leaves bear a resemblance.) A very pretty 
 aquatic perennial plant, found in creeks and 
 ditches of salt water, or about the mouths 
 of large rivers. It is variable in size ; the 
 leaves are long, slender, flaccid, and obtuse, 
 growing for the most part under water, of a 
 light green colour, and bleaching very white 
 on the shore. The plant is used for package, 
 and in poor countries for thatching and 
 stuffing mattresses, being more soft and 
 durable than hay or straw. Horses and 
 swine will eat the plant ; but it is not re- 
 lished by cows, unless mixed with hay. The 
 ashes of grass wrack are advantageously 
 employed by the Germans in the manufac- 
 ture of glass. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 5.) 
 
 GRATTEN. A term provincially ap- 
 plied to arable lands in a commonable state. 
 But it is used in Cornwall to imply the 
 583 
 
 mowing of grass the first year after the 
 land has been manured with sea-sand ; and 
 this operation they call " mowing in grat- 
 ten." 
 
 GRAUWACKE. A German miner's 
 term, implying grey rock ; adopted in 
 geology to designate some of the lowest 
 secondary strata, which form the chief part 
 of the transition rocks of several geologists. 
 See Geology. 
 
 GRAVEL. A term applied to a well- 
 known material, consisting of small stones, 
 which vary in size from that of a pea to that 
 of a walnut, or something larger. It is 
 often intermixed with other substances, 
 such as sand, clay, loam, flints, iron ores, &c, 
 from each of which it derives a distinctive 
 appellation. See Geology. 
 
 The best kinds of manure for this sort of 
 land are marl, or any stiff clay, cow-dung, 
 chalk, mud, and composts formed of rotten 
 straw from the dung-hill. 
 
 " Gravels," says Professor Low, in his 
 remarks on soils {El. of Agr. p. 8.), " like 
 sands, have all the gradations of quality 
 from fertility to barrenness. The loose 
 soils of this nature, in which the unde- 
 composed material is great, and the inter- 
 vening soil silicious, are held to be the 
 worst of their kind. These are, in some 
 places, termed hungry gravels, not only to 
 denote their poverty, but their tendency to 
 devour, as it were, manure, without any 
 corresponding nourishment to themselves. 
 
 " The rich gravels will produce all the 
 cultivated kinds of grain. Their loose tex- 
 ture renders them less suited than the clays 
 to the growth of wheat and beans ; but they 
 are admirably adapted to the growth of 
 barley and oats. They are quick in their 
 powers of producing vegetation ; and from 
 this quality, they are, in some places, termed 
 sharp or quick soils. 
 
 " Gravels, like sands, are suited to the 
 culture of the different kinds of plants 
 raised for the sake of their roots and tubers ; 
 and they are in so peculiar a degree suited 
 to the growth of turnips, that in some parts 
 they receive the distinguishing appellation 
 of turnip soils." 
 
 Gravel, if mixed with stiff loam, makes, 
 excellent and durable gravel walks for 
 gardens, &c. The kind generally preferred 
 for this purpose is the red gravel. Previous 
 to laying it down, a solid substratum of 
 lime, rubbish, large flints, or broken earthen 
 pots, or any other hard substance, should 
 be formed to the depth of sixteen or eighteen 
 inches, in order to keep the path dry, and 
 prevent weeds from shooting through to the 
 surface. The permanent or earthy manures, 
 adapted to the gravels, are marl, clay, and 
 chalk. See Mixture or Soils. 
 
 p p 4 
 
GRAVES. 
 
 GRAYLING 
 
 GRAVES, or GREAVES. The waste 
 and refuse of tallow-chandlers after the can- 
 dles have been made, which is sometimes 
 used as a manure. It consists of the sedi- 
 ment of melted tallow, and is composed of 
 the membranous, vascular, nervous, and 
 muscular matters blended with the fat, 
 and which, not being fusible, are easily se- 
 parated from it by straining ; the graves 
 are made up into hard cakes, and are chiefly 
 used as a coarse food for large house-dogs. 
 
 GRAVITY. SeeVEGETABLEPHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 GRAZIER. A person engaged in the 
 art or business of pasturing or feeding and 
 fattening different kinds of live stock on 
 grass-land. In order to be capable of ma- 
 naging this business to the greatest advan- 
 tage, he should have a perfect knowledge of 
 the nature and value of all kinds of live 
 stock, as well as of the land on which they 
 are to be fed, and of properly suiting them 
 to each other. Upon these being well un- 
 derstood and attended to, his success must 
 depend. According to Mr. Hillyard, a 
 practical grazier, and the well known Pre- 
 sident of the Northampton Farming and 
 Grazing Society, " the knowledge requi- 
 site to carry on grazing to the most advan- 
 tage is not easily obtained. A man should 
 know how beasts ought to be formed ; 
 should have a quick eye for selecting those 
 with a frame that is likely to produce 
 weight; and a hand that should feel the 
 known indications of the probability of soon 
 becoming fat." 
 
 The business of grazing is more general 
 in some of the counties of England than in 
 others ; it is for the most part carried on in 
 Somersetshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, 
 and the midland counties. It is a system 
 of husbandry that can only be profitably 
 practised in districts where the extent of 
 pasture is considerable, or the value of the 
 produce of grass-lands small in comparison 
 with- that of animals. 
 
 It is well observed, by an author of the 
 last century, that the stocking of land with 
 proper cattle is one of the nicest parts of 
 the science of farming. Where nature is 
 left to herself, she always produces animals 
 suitable to her vegetation, from the smallest 
 sheep on the Welsh mountains to the largest 
 sort in the Lincolnshire marshes ; from the 
 little hardy bullock in the northern High- 
 lands to the noble ox in the rich pastures of 
 Somersetshire. But good husbandry ad- 
 mits of our increasing the value of the one 
 in proportion to that of the other. Land 
 improved enables us to keep a better sort of 
 Htock. The true wisdom of the occupier is 
 best shown in preserving a due equilibrium 
 between this improvement of his land and 
 Ktock. They go haud in hand, and if he 
 584 
 
 neglect the one he cannot avail himself of 
 the other. It should, therefore, be first 
 considered what kind of cattle or other 
 stock will answer the purpose best, on the 
 particular description of land upon which 
 they are to be grazed. 
 
 In stocking the ground, as the proportion 
 of cattle must depend upon the nature of 
 the soil, it will perhaps be generally found 
 that local habit, as being usually the result 
 of experience, is the surest guide. In the 
 opinion, however, of the most intelligent 
 graziers, in stocking inclosures, the cattle 
 should be divided in the following manner : — 
 Supposing four fields, each containing a 
 nearly equal quantity of land, one of them 
 should be kept entirely free from stock 
 until the grass is got up to its full growth, 
 when the prime or fatting cattle should be 
 put into it, that they may get the best of 
 the food ; the second best should then fol- 
 low ; and after them either the working or 
 store stock, with lean sheep to eat the pas- 
 tures close down ; thus making the whole of 
 the stock feed over the four enclosures in 
 this succession : — 
 
 No. 1. Clear of stock, and reserved for 
 the fattening beasts. 
 
 No. 2. For the fattening beasts until sent 
 to No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. For the second best cattle, until 
 forwarded successively to Nos. 2. and 1. 
 
 No. 4. For stores and sheep to follow the 
 other cattle ; then to be shut up until the 
 grass is again ready, as at No. L, for the fat- 
 tening beasts. 
 
 By this expedient the fattening cattle 
 will cull the choicest parts of the grass, and 
 will advance rapidly toward a state of ma- 
 turity, for they should always have a full 
 bite of short and sweet grass ; and with 
 such cattle, the greatest care should be 
 taken not to over- stock the inclosures. It 
 is also advisable to divide the fattening inclo- 
 sure by hurdles, so as to confine the beasts 
 within one half of it at a time, and to allow 
 them the other half at the other, so that 
 they may continually have fresh pasture. 
 
 Shade and pure water are essentially ne- 
 cessary ; and where there are no trees, 
 rubbing-posts should be set up to prevent 
 the cattle from making that use of the gates 
 and fences. In marsh land, which is chiefly 
 divided by dykes, this, indeed, should never 
 be neglected, as it is materially conducive 
 to their comfort. (Comp. Grazier, 6th 
 edit. p. 74. ; Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 482., vol. ii. 
 p. 368.; Hillyard 1 s Farm, and Graz. p. 117.) 
 
 GRAYLING. (Salmo thymallus, Linn.) 
 This is a fish of a very elegant form ; the 
 body less deep than that of the trout, the 
 head small and dusky, the back of a dusky 
 green, inclining to biue ; the sides of a fine 
 
GREASE. 
 
 GREEN FOOD. 
 
 silvery gray (whence it derives the name), 
 yet when first taken they seem to glitter 
 with spangles of gold, and are marked with 
 black spots irregularly placed. In length 
 the grayling seldom exceeds sixteen inches. 
 Graylings are in great esteem, and their 
 flesh is white and palatable all the year ; 
 they are in season from September to Ja- 
 nuary. During the summer they will take 
 all the flies that trout are fond of. {Blaine s 
 Rural Sports, p. 1085.) 
 
 GREASE. In farriery, a disease inci- 
 dent to horses or other cattle, consisting of 
 a swelling and inflammation of the legs. 
 
 It is sometimes confined to the neighbour- 
 hood of the fetlocks ; at other times spread- 
 ing considerably further up the legs, and 
 secreting an oily matter, to which the 
 disease is probably indebted for its name. 
 
 It is brought on by sudden changes from 
 a cold to a hot temperature : such as re- 
 moving horses from grass into hot stables ; 
 from hastily substituting a generous after 
 an impoverishing diet ; from the negligence 
 of grooms in leaving the heels wet and full 
 of sand ; and from constitutional debility. 
 
 The farmer's horse is not so subject to 
 grease as many others, because he is not 
 usually exposed so much to sudden and ex- 
 treme changes of temperature, and the heels 
 particularly are not thus exposed. In many 
 instances he lives almost entirely out of 
 doors, or if he is stabled, the stables of the 
 small farmers are not always air-tight. The 
 wind finds its way through many a cranny, 
 instead of entering at the door alone, and 
 blowing upon the heels. On the first ap- 
 pearance of grease, the heels should be well 
 washed with soap and water, and an oint- 
 ment of sugar of lead and lard applied. In 
 the more advanced stage, when cracks begin 
 to appear, if they are but slight, a lotion of 
 blue vitriol (sulphate of copper), alum, and 
 water will suffice to dry and close them up ; 
 but if they are deep with an ichorous dis- 
 charge, and the lameness considerable, it will 
 be necessary to poultice the heel with linseed 
 meal, or carrots boiled soft and mashed. 
 When the inflammation and pain have sub- 
 sided, the cracks may be dressed with an 
 ointment composed of resin 1 part, lard 3 
 parts, melted together, and 1 part of cala- 
 mine afterwards added. ( The Horse, p. 277.) 
 
 GREASE, for Wheels and Machinery. 
 M. d'Arcet, the celebrated French chemist 
 and Master of the Mint, recommends the 
 following as the best grease for wheels and 
 machinery ; viz. 80 parts of grease and 
 20 parts of plumbago (black lead), re- 
 duced to very fine powder, and most in- 
 timately and completely mixed together. 
 A very small quantity suffices. (Journ. des 
 Con. Vsuelles et Prat. vol. ii. p. 237.) 
 585 
 
 GREAT GREY SHRIKE. See Shrike. 
 
 GREAT TIT. See Tits. 
 
 GREEN CROPS. Crops which are con- 
 sumed on the farm in their unripe state.) See 
 Cabiiages, Tares, Turnips, Carrots, Ro- 
 tation or Crops, &c.) One of the many great 
 improvements in modern farming, has been 
 the general introduction of green crops, a 
 practice which I think will yet be materially 
 extended ; and to this end, for the heavy 
 land farmers, the use of the white or Bel- 
 gian carrot promises to be very serviceable. 
 Green crops are either fed off, soiled, or 
 ploughed in for manure. (See Green Ma- 
 nures.) When fed off, the fertilising ef- 
 fects of the sheep pastured upon them are 
 very materially promoted by the addition to 
 their food of oil-cake, or of corn, and, as a 
 condiment, common salt, 
 
 GREENFINCH. (Coccothraustes chlo- 
 ris. The greenfinch, or green grosbeak, as 
 it is very commonly called, from the great 
 size of its beak, is one of our most common 
 birds, and remains in this country throughout 
 the year, changing its ground occasionally 
 only to obtain a sheltered situation in severe 
 weather. It frequents gardens, orchards, 
 shrubberies, small woods, and cultivated 
 lands, where these birds may be seen ac- 
 tively employed sometimes on the ground, 
 at other times in tall hedges, or among the 
 branches of trees, searching for grain, seeds, 
 or insects, to satisfy their appetite. The 
 greenfinch makes its nest in low bushes or 
 hedges, and sometimes in trees ; it is com- 
 posed on the outside of coarse fibrous roots, 
 with bits of wool and green moss inter- 
 woven, lined with finer roots, horse-hair, and 
 feathers. Eggs four to six, white tinged with 
 blue, and spotted at the larger end with 
 purplish grey and dark brown ; nine lines and 
 a half long by six and a half broad. 
 
 The young birds are fed for a time with 
 insects and soft vegetable substances, and as 
 the season advances, these little families 
 unite, and flock with buntings and finches. 
 They feed in corn fields and stubble lands, 
 till winter and its privations oblige them to 
 resort to the farmer's barn-door and stack- 
 yard. This charming little bird has a strong 
 tinge of olive green diffused over its whole 
 body ; the wings and tail are black, but va- 
 riegated with gamboge yellow. The whole 
 length of an adult male bird is from six inches 
 to six inches and a quarter. (Ya?-relFs Brit 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 479.) 
 
 GREEN FALLOW. Such land as is 
 rendered clean by means of green crops, 
 without having recourse to naked fallowing. 
 It is a great improvement in modern farm- 
 ing. See Fallowing. 
 
 GREEN FOOD. Such food as is made 
 use of in its green succulent state, in the 
 
GREEN-HOUSE. 
 
 GREEN MANURES. 
 
 feeding and support of different sorts of live 
 stock. This kind of food has lately been 
 much more extensively employed than for- 
 merly; but its advantages are not, probably, 
 yet so fully understood by farmers in general 
 as they ought. A few trials will, however, 
 show their importance and great utility, 
 when properly made. See Soiling. 
 
 GREEN-HOUSE. In gardening, a house 
 with a roof and one or more sides of glass, 
 for the purpose of containing plants in pots 
 which are too tender to endure the open air 
 the greater part of the year. The green- 
 house, being a structure of luxury, ought to 
 be for the most part situated near the house, 
 in order to be enjoyed by the family in in- 
 clement weather ; and if possible it should 
 be connected with the flower garden, as being 
 of the same character, with reference to use. 
 Its length and breadth may be varied at 
 pleasure, but its height should never be less 
 than that of the loftiest apartment of the 
 house to which it belongs. The best aspect 
 is to the south or south-east ; but any aspect 
 may be chosen, provided the roof is entirely 
 of glass, and abundant heat is supplied by 
 art. Of late years green-house roofs have 
 been made of either cast iron or of zinc, and 
 sometimes in the form of a dome. Both 
 metals are preferable to wood. In green- 
 houses facing to the north, however, the more 
 tender plants will not thrive so well in 
 winter : more artificial heat will be required 
 at that season ; and the plants should be 
 chiefly evergreens, and other plants that 
 come into flower in the summer season, and 
 grow or flower but little during winter. In 
 most green-houses the plants are kept in pots 
 or boxes, and set on stages or shelves, in order 
 that they may be near the roof, so as to re- 
 ceive the direct influence of the rays of light 
 immediately on their passing through the 
 glass. An orangery differs from a green- 
 house in having an opaque roof, and in being 
 chiefly devoted to plants which produce 
 their shoots and flowers in the summer season 
 in the open air ; and they are set in the 
 orangery merely to preserve them through 
 the winter. Such a structure might with 
 more propriety be termed a conservatory ; 
 but custom in the present day has applied 
 this term to structures having glass roofs, in 
 which the plants are not kept in pots, but 
 planted in the free soil, and in which a part 
 of them are encouraged to grow and flower 
 in the winter months. There are some in- 
 teresting papers on the subject of green- 
 house plants by Mr. Towers, author of the 
 Domestic Gardener 's Manual, in the Quart. 
 Joum. of Agr. vol. v. p. 65., vol. vi. p. 48. 
 (Brande's Diet, of Science and Art.) See 
 Conbbbtatobt and Orangery. 
 
 ( rRE E N MANURES. The use of green 
 586 
 
 manures early attracted the attention of the 
 cultivator. Xenophon recommended green 
 plants to be ploughed into the soil, and even 
 that crops should be raised for that purpose ; 
 for these, he says, " enrich the soil as much 
 as dung." And the lupin is named as an 
 excellent manure by very early agricultural 
 writers. The white lupin is even now grown 
 in Italy for the purpose of being ploughed 
 into the soil, an operation generally per- 
 formed in October. 
 
 The white lupin, which is extensively em- 
 ployed for this purpose in Tuscany, is the 
 leguminous annual plant, well known in our 
 gardens, growing in sandy and loamy soil to 
 the height of two or three feet, with a stem 
 of equal strength with the bean, and having 
 somewhat similar blossoms and pods, but the 
 produce is so bitter, that it is unfit for the 
 nourishment of either man or beast. It ar- 
 rives to a considerable size in the month 
 of October, when it is ploughed into the 
 soil ; it abounds with gluten, to which, in 
 fact, its fertilising effects have been chiefly 
 attributed. 
 
 Green manures, although in some measure 
 rendered subservient to the enriching of the 
 soil, as soon as man began to till the earth, 
 and dig in the weeds of his land and the 
 remnants of former crops, have never been 
 systematically employed by the farmer. He 
 has ever been more desirous of employing, 
 as food for his stock, the vegetable produce 
 of his land, than to bury it in the earth to 
 promote the future productiveness of the 
 soil. Yet, whenever green succulent sub- 
 stances, such as weeds, river collections, sea- 
 weed, &c, have been used, the result has 
 always been most satisfactory. The putre- 
 faction of the vegetables, and the gases in 
 that case emitted, appear to be on all oc- 
 casions highly invigorating and nourishing 
 to the succeeding crop. During this opera- 
 tion, the presence of water is essentially ne- 
 cessary, and is most probably decomposed. 
 The gases produced vary in different plants ; 
 those which contain gluten emit ammonia ; 
 onions, and a few others, evolve phosphorus : 
 hydrogen, carbonic acid gas, and carburetted 
 hydrogen gas, with various vegetable matters, 
 are almost always abundantly formed. All 
 these gases, when mixed with the soil, are 
 very nourishing to the plants growing upon 
 it. The observations of the farmer assure 
 us that they are so. He tells us, that all 
 green manures cannot be employed in too 
 fresh a state ; that the best corn is grown 
 where the richest turf has preceded it ; and 
 that where there is a good produce of red 
 clover, there will assuredly follow an ex- 
 cellent crop of wheat: he finds also, that 
 when he ploughs in his crop of buck-whe4t 
 to enrich his land, that this is most ad van- 
 
GREEN MANURES. 
 
 tageously done when the plant is coming into 
 flower. The chemical explanation of these 
 practical observations is not difficult. " All 
 green succulent plants," said Davy, " contain 
 saccharine or mucilaginous matter, with 
 woody fibre, and readily ferment; they 
 cannot, therefore, if intended for manure, 
 be used too soon after their death. When 
 green crops are to be employed for enriching 
 a soil, they should be ploughed in, if it be 
 possible, when in flower, ov at the time the 
 flower is beginning to appear; for it is at 
 this period that they contain the largest 
 quantity of easily soluble substances, and 
 that their leaves are most active in forming 
 nutritive matter. Green crops, pond weeds, 
 the parings of hedges or ditches, or any kind 
 of fresh vegetable matter, require no pre- 
 paration to fit them for manure. The de- 
 composition slowly proceeds beneath the soil, 
 the soluble matters are gradually dissolved, 
 and the slight fermentation that goes on, 
 checked by the want of a free communication 
 of air, tends to render the woody fibre soluble 
 without occasioning the rapid dissipation of 
 elastic matter. When old pastures are 
 broken up and made arable, not only has 
 the soil been enriched by the death and slow 
 decay of the plants which have left soluble 
 matters in the soil, but the roots and leaves 
 of the grasses living at the time, and oc- 
 cupying so large a part of the surface, af- 
 ford saccharine, mucilaginous, and extractive 
 matters, which become immediately the food 
 of the crop, and the gradual decomposition 
 affords a supply for successive years." (Agr. 
 Chem. p. 280.) Nothing will aid the prac- 
 tical farmer so much in understanding the 
 value of green manure, as a knowledge of 
 the constituent elements of plants. Woody 
 fibre, starch, sugar, gum, are compounds of 
 carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ; the fixed 
 and the volatile oils, wax and resin, are con- 
 stituted of carbon, with the elements of 
 water, and an excess of hydrogen ; vegetable 
 albumen and gluten contain nitrogen as an 
 element; and it is never altogether absent in 
 plants, either in their solid or fluid contents. 
 Now, reflecting upon these facts, it follows 
 that the development of a plant requires 
 the presence of substances containing carbon 
 and nitrogen, and capable of yielding these 
 elements to the growing organism ; secondly, 
 of water and its elements; and, lastly, of iron, 
 lime, and other inorganic matters essential 
 to vegetable life. (Liebig's Organic Chem.) 
 It is always refreshing to find the sagacious 
 conclusions of the philosopher supported by 
 the practical farmer's observations. " In 
 October, 1819," said the late Dr. Browne, 
 of Gorlstone, in Suffolk, in a letter which he 
 sent to me, " a violent gale of wind drove to 
 this part of the coast an unprecedented 
 587 
 
 quantity of sea-weeds ; these were eagerly 
 scrambled for, and from my greater vicinity 
 to the beach, I collected twenty-seven cart 
 loads, each as much as four horses could draw ; 
 and although other persons deposited their 
 collections in their farm-yards to rot among 
 their other manure, yet I spread mine, fresh 
 and wet, upon little more than an acre of 
 bean stubble, instantly ploughed it in, and 
 dibbled wheat upon it. On the 6th of October, 
 I then salted the adjoining land with three 
 bushels per acre, manured it with fifteen 
 loads of farm-yard dung per acre, and dibbled 
 it with wheat on the 15th of November. The 
 result was, that the sea-weeded portion gave 
 three times the produce of any equal part 
 of the field." {My Essay on Salt, p. 48.) 
 
 No one more perseveringly advocated the 
 employment of green manures than the late 
 Mr. Knight. In his paper on the question, 
 he supported his views by some ingenious 
 experiments, and used every argument that 
 could fairly be employed in their favour. 
 " Writers upon agriculture, " he observed, 
 " both in ancient and modern times, have 
 dwelt much upon the advantages of collecting 
 large quantities of vegetable matter to form 
 manures ; whilst scarcely any thing has been 
 written upon the state of decomposition in 
 which decaying vegetable substances can be 
 employed most advantageously to afford 
 food to living plants. Both the farmer and 
 gardener, till lately, thought that such ma- 
 nures ought not to be deposited in the soil 
 until putrefaction had nearly destroyed all 
 organic texture, and this opinion is, perhaps, 
 still entertained by the majority of gar- 
 deners ; it is however, wholly unfounded. 
 Carnivorous animals, it is well known, re- 
 ceive most nutriment from the flesh of other 
 animals when they obtain it most nearly 
 in the state in which it exists as part of a 
 living body ; and the experiments I shall 
 proceed to state, afford evidence of consi- 
 derable weight, that many vegetable sub- 
 stances are best calculated to reassume an 
 organic living state when they are least 
 changed and decomposed by putrefaction." 
 The allusion to carnivorous animals is mis- 
 placed ; as green food must be soluble, and 
 in a decomposing state, before it can be 
 taken up by plants : but this does not 
 weaken the argument in favour of its uti- 
 lity. " I had," continues Mr. Knight, " been 
 engaged in the year 1810 in some experi- 
 ments from which I hoped to obtain new 
 varieties of the plum, but only one of the 
 blossoms upon which I had operated escaped 
 the severity of the frost in the spring. The 
 seed which this afforded, having been pre- 
 served in mould during the winter, was in 
 March placed in a small garden pot, which 
 was nearly filled with the living leaves and 
 
GREEN MANURES. 
 
 roots of grasses mixed with a small quantity 
 of earth, and this was sufficiently covered 
 with a layer of mould which contained the 
 roots only of grasses, to prevent, in a great 
 measure, the growth of the plants which 
 were buried. The pot, which contained 
 about one sixteenth of a square foot of 
 mould and living vegetable matter, was 
 placed under glass, but without artificial 
 heat, and the plant appeared above the soil 
 in the end of April. It was three times 
 during the summer removed into a larger 
 pot, and each time supplied with the same 
 matter to feed upon, and in the end of Oc- 
 tober its roots occupied about the space of 
 one third of a square foot. Its height 
 above the surface of the mould being then 
 nine feet seven inches. In the beginning of 
 June, a small piece of ground was planted 
 with potatoes of an early variety, and in 
 some rows green fern, and in others nettles, 
 were employed instead of other manure ; 
 and subsequently, as the early potatoes were 
 taken up for use, their tops were buried in 
 rows in the same manner, and potatoes of the 
 preceding year were placed upon them, and 
 buried in the usual way. The days being 
 then long, the ground warm, and the de- 
 composing green leaves and stems affording 
 an abundant moisture, the plants acquired 
 their full growth in an unusually short time, 
 and afforded an abundant produce, and the 
 remaining part of the summer proved more 
 than sufficient to mature potatoes of any 
 early variety. The market gardener may 
 probably employ the tops of his early po- 
 tatoes and other green vegetable substances 
 in this way with much advantage. 
 
 "In the preceding experiments the plum 
 stone was placed to vegetate in the turf of 
 the alluvial soil of a meadow, and the po- 
 tatoes grew in ground which, though not 
 rich, was not poor, and therefore some ob- 
 jections may be made to the conclusions I 
 am disposed to draw in favour of recent 
 vegetable substances as manures. The fol- 
 lowing experiment is, I think, decisive. I 
 received from a neighbouring farmer a field 
 naturally barren, and so much exhausted 
 by ill management, that the two preceding 
 crops had not returned a quantity of corn 
 equal to that which had been sown upon 
 it. An adjoining plantation afforded me a 
 large quantity of fern, which I proposed to 
 employ as a manure for a crop of turnips : 
 this was cut between the 10th and 20th of 
 June, but as the small cotyledons of the 
 turnip-seed afford little to feed the young 
 plant, and as the soil, owing to its extreme 
 poverty, could not afford much nutriment, 
 I thought it necessary to place the fern a 
 few days in aheap to ferment sufficiently to 
 4e6fcroy life in it, and to produce an cxuda- 
 588 
 
 tion of its juices, and it was then committed 
 in rows to the soil, and the turnip-seed de- 
 posited with a drilling machine over it. 
 
 " Some adjoining rows were manured 
 with the black vegetable mould obtained 
 from the site of an old wood pile, mixed 
 with the slender branches of trees in every 
 stage of decomposition ; the quantity placed 
 in each row appearing to me to exceed more 
 than four times the amount the vegetable 
 mould, if equally decomposed, would have 
 yielded. The crop succeeded in both cases, 
 but the plants upon the green fern grew 
 with more rapidity than the others, and 
 even than those which had been manured 
 with the produce of my fold and stable- 
 yard, and were distinguishable in the au- 
 tumn from the plants in every other part of 
 the field by the deeper shade of their fo- 
 liage. I had made, in preceding years, many 
 similar experiments with small trees (parti- 
 cularly those of the mulberry when bearing 
 fruit in pots) with similar results ; but I 
 think it unnecessary to trespass on the time 
 of the society by stating these experiments, 
 and conceiving those I have stated to be 
 sufficient to show that any given quantity 
 of vegetable matter can generally be em- 
 ployed in its recent and organised state 
 with much more advantage than when it 
 has been decomposed, and no inconsiderable 
 part of its component parts have been dis- 
 sipated and lost during the progress of the 
 putrefactive fermentation." (Trans. Hort. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 248.) In an article upon this 
 subject, M. Knoles of Secheim writes thus : 
 " My vineyard has been manured for eight 
 years on the branches cut from the vines, 
 without receiving any other manure, and 
 yet more beautiful and richly laden vines 
 could scarcely be pointed out. The 
 branches are pruned from the vine in 
 August whilst still fresh and moist ; and 
 are traced into the soil, after being cut into 
 small pieces. At the end of four weeks 
 not the smallest trace of them can be 
 found." (Zeitschrift. fur die landwirthshaft- 
 lichen Venime des Groshersoythums Hessen. 
 July 9. 1840.) 
 
 When green vegetable substances are 
 buried in the soil they first lose their green 
 colour, speedily wither, and then putre- 
 faction soon commences. It is requisite, 
 however, for this purpose, that moisture 
 should be present, and that the temperature 
 of the soil should not be less than about 45°. 
 If the atmosphere has access to the vege- 
 table matter the putrefaction proceeds with 
 more rapidity, but its presence is not es- 
 sential. Putrefaction cannot, however, 
 proceed if water is absent, and hence it has 
 been concluded that water is decomposed 
 during the process. The smell which pro? 
 
GREENSHANK. 
 
 GREEN-WEED. 
 
 ceeds from the gases emitted varies ac- 
 cording to the vegetable substance which is 
 putrefying. Thus, as I have before re- 
 marked, those which contain gluten emit 
 ammonia ; others, such as the onion, evolve 
 phosphuretted hydrogen. Almost all emit 
 carbonic acid gas and hydrogen gas, which, 
 combined with various vegetable matters, 
 are commonly produced in very copious 
 volumes. When wood decomposes, a portion 
 of oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere, 
 carbonic acid gas is emitted, and the whole 
 mass is gradually reduced to a dark vege- 
 table mould. This black substance is an 
 excellent fertiliser ; plants grow in it with 
 great luxuriance. The soils of some of the 
 famed newly inclosed American lands owe 
 all their fertility to the abundance of this 
 vegetable mould which they contain. These 
 are the American soils from which we are 
 told twenty successive good crops of wheat 
 have been obtained. There are some lands 
 in the Hundreds of Essex, in Kent, and 
 other places, whose luxuriant unfailing pro- 
 duce is hardly credible ; alternate crops of 
 wheat and beans have been obtained from 
 them from time immemorial. (Johnson, On 
 Fertilisers, p. 168.) Vegetable mould, as 
 obtained from the trunks of oak trees, has 
 been examined by MM. Saussure and 
 Einhoff ; by distilling it they obtained from 
 200 grains (Rec. sur la Veg. p. 162.) — 
 
 Cubic inches. 
 Carburetted hydrogen - -124 
 Carbonic acid gas - - - 3t 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Water containing acetate of ammonia 53 
 Empyreumatic oil - - - 10 
 Charcoal - - - - 51 
 
 Ashes - - - - - 8 
 
 By the effects of cultivation, exposure to 
 the action of the atmosphere, and the roots 
 of plants, this mould becomes gradually 
 exhausted in the soil, and the land is of 
 course sensibly impoverished. On this 
 mould the alkalies operate very powerfully, 
 almost entirely dissolving it, and hence one 
 great lise of soda and potash as fertilisers. 
 
 It is also a continued source of carbonic 
 acid, which it emits slowly; hence it might be 
 asserted that in a good fertile soil there is 
 an atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is 
 the most nutritive food of the young plants 
 raised in it ; for when a plant is fully ma- 
 tured, and is fitted to obtain most of its 
 nourishment from the air, the carbonic acid 
 of the soil is no longer required. It is on 
 that account that vegetable mould is so 
 fertile ; not by being itself assimilated into 
 the substance of the plant, but by furnish- 
 ing a slow but lasting supply of carbonic acid. 
 
 GREENSHANK. (Totanus glottis.) 
 The greenshank is not very numerous as a 
 589 
 
 species, and, like the green sandpiper, the 
 wood sandpiper, and the summer snipe, may 
 be considered rather as a summer visitor, 
 but is most frequently seen and obtained 
 about the periods of their vernal and au- 
 tumnal migrations, on their passage to and 
 from those northern localities in which they 
 pass their breeding season. In the Hebrides 
 it resorts to the shores of the sea, frequent- 
 ing pools of brackish water, at the head of 
 the sandfords, and the shallow margins of 
 bays and creeks. Its habits are very similar 
 to those of the redshank, with which it as- 
 sociates in autumn. It is extremely shy and 
 vigilant, insomuch that one can very seldom 
 shoot it, unless after it has deposited its 
 eggs. The eggs are of a pale yellowish 
 green colour, marked and blotched with 
 dark brown and light purplish grey, 2 
 inches long, by If inch broad. These birds 
 feed on small fish, worms, insects, besides 
 crustaceous and molluscous animals. The 
 beak of the greenshank is about two inches 
 long, nearly black. The general colour of 
 the plumage of the upper surface of the 
 body is ash brown ; tail feathers, front of 
 the neck, breast, and belly, white ; legs and 
 toes, olive green. The whole length of the 
 adult bird is about twelve inches. ( YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 549.) 
 
 GREEN- WEED. (Genista, from the 
 Celtic gen, a small bush.) Of this genus of 
 shrubs there are three native species com- 
 mon to Britain, which are free flowering, 
 exceedingly ornamental plants ; and well 
 adapted, from their low growth, for the 
 front of shrubberies. 1. The dyer's green- 
 weed, or wood-waxen (G. tinetoria), which 
 grows in pastures, thickets, and the dry bor- 
 ders of fields, flowering in J uly or August ; 
 blossoms of a uniform bright yellow. It 
 has lanceolate, smooth, deep shining green 
 leaves ; round striated branches, erect, 
 without thorns. The woody root is exten- 
 sively creeping. The whole plant affords 
 the dyer a good yellow colour, and, with 
 woad, a good green. Ray says the milk of 
 cows feeding upon this green-weed is ren- 
 dered bitter, and that this flavour is com- 
 municated to the butter and cheese. 
 
 2. Hairy green-weed. (G. pilosa.) This 
 shrub is of more diminutive stature than 
 the last. It grows on dry, elevated, sandy 
 downs or heaths. It puts forth its small 
 bright yellow flowers in May, and again in 
 September; these are crowded about the 
 tops of the branches, each on a silky stalk. 
 The leaves and young branches are also 
 somewhat silky, but they are generally so 
 buried among grass and other plants, that 
 when out of flower, the shrub is not easily 
 found. 
 
 3. Needle green-weed, or petty whin. (G. 
 
GREYHOUND. 
 
 GROMWELL. 
 
 anglica.) This shrub grows very frequently 
 on moist boggy heaths, and has stems of 
 about a foot high, bearing sharp, prominent 
 awl-shaped thorns, almost always perfectly 
 simple. The numerous leaves are small, 
 entire, rather glaucous, deciduous. The 
 small flowers are of a bright lemon colour. 
 {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 262.) 
 
 GREYHOUND. This is one of the 
 principal coursing agents, being a dog re- 
 markable for his swiftness, strength, and 
 sagacity in pursuing game. 
 
 There are several varieties, such as the 
 Italian, the Oriental, and the Highland 
 greyhound ; the last of which is now be- 
 come exceedingly scarce. A good grey- 
 hound ought to have - a long and rather 
 large body, a neat pointed head, sparkling 
 eyes, a long mouth, with sharp teeth, small 
 ears, formed of a thin cartilage ; a broad 
 and strong chest ; his fore legs straight and 
 short, his hind legs long and limber ; broad 
 shoulders, round ribs, muscular buttocks, 
 but not fat, and a long tail, strong and full 
 of sinews. (Treatise on Greyhounds.) As 
 it is out of our province, in a work of this 
 nature, to treat at large of coursing and 
 its agents, we must refer the sportsman who 
 wishes for detailed information on the points 
 of a good greyhound, and on breeding, 
 feeding, &c, to that excellent manual of 
 reference for all matters relating to the 
 chase, Blaine's Encyclopedia of Rural 
 Sports, a very learned and carefully ar- 
 ranged work, digested and compiled by a 
 master hand. 
 
 GREY MILL, or GREY MILLET. 
 Local names for the common gromwell. 
 GREY WAGTAIL. See Wagtail. 
 GRIFF. A provincial word signifying 
 a narrow valley, with a rocky fissure-like 
 opening at the bottom ; a sort of dingle. 
 
 GRIP. A small gutter, or ditch, cut 
 across a field, to drain it. When cut for 
 draining, it is mostly called a water or 
 draining furrow. 
 
 A good method of draining meadow or 
 sward-land, by grips, is that of cutting out 
 the pieces in a somewhat wedge-like form, 
 taking off the bottom part, and then re- 
 placing them, by which means, a hollow is 
 left below, for permitting the water to 
 flow off. 
 
 Grip is also provincially used to signify 
 the hollow or cavity behind the cattle, in 
 cow-houses or cattle-sheds, into which the 
 (Imig and urine is discharged. These ca- 
 vities should always be sunk about eight, 
 ten, or twelve inches below the surfaces on 
 which the cattle stand. 
 
 GRIPE. A name in some parts of the 
 country, and in Scotland, for a dung-fork 
 or prong. 
 
 590 
 
 GRIPES, or COLIC. We have found 
 that, in the absence of a veterinary surgeon 
 in this dangerous complaint, the follow- 
 ing is the best remedy for a horse : — 
 1£ pints of linseed oil, 1£ ounces of lau- 
 danum, given in a little warm gruel. Some 
 persons assist the operation of the above 
 with a glyster composed of i lb. of Epsom 
 salts, i lb. of treacle, dissolved in three 
 quarts of warm water. See Cattle, and 
 Sheep, Diseases of. 
 
 GRIT. Hard sandstone, employed for 
 millstones and grindstones, pavement, &c. 
 
 GRITS. See Groats. 
 
 GROATS. In agriculture, are the small 
 grains formed from oats after having the 
 husks or shells taken off the grain. When 
 crushed, they are called Embden groats. 
 Gruel made from groats is a mild, little 
 nutritive, easily digested food, well adapted 
 for cases of fever and inflammation. An 
 ounce of groats should make a quart of 
 gruel ; the mixture should be constantly 
 stirred during the boiling ; and when cold, 
 the clear liquor poured off from the sedi- 
 ment. Sugar or lemon juice may be added 
 if circumstances admit of such additions. 
 
 GROMWELL ; GREY MILLET. (Li- 
 thospermum, from lithos a stone, and sperma 
 a seed. The little nuts or seeds being ex- 
 tremely hard, and having a surface as smooth 
 as a polished pebble.) Of this herbaceous 
 perennial plant there are four indigenous 
 species. 
 
 1. The common gromwell (Z. officinale), 
 gromill, grey-mill, or grey millet, for it 
 has various local names, which grows in 
 dry, gravelly, or chalky soils, and frequently 
 amongst rubbish and ruins, blowing pale 
 buff flowers, in May and June. The root 
 is tapering, strong, and whitish. The whole 
 herb rough with minute, close, callous bris- - 
 ties. The seem is annual, nearly two feet 
 high, branched and leafy. The leaves are 
 sessile, alternate, greyish green, ovate or 
 lanceolate. The seeds are grey, with a kind 
 of porcelain polish, and a stony hardness ; 
 whence they have been falsely reported to 
 contain calcareous earths, effervescing with 
 acids. These seeds afford excellent flour, 
 which might in times of scarcity be con- 
 verted into bread. 
 
 2. Corn gromwell. See Bastard Al- 
 
 KANET. 
 
 3. Creeping or purple gromwell. (Z. 
 purpuro caruleum.) A rare plant, found 
 occasionally in thickets on a chalky soil. 
 
 4. Sea gromwell (Z. maritimum), growing 
 in many parts of the coasts of Scotland and 
 the north of England on the sea shore among 
 sand or loose stones. The whole herb is 
 remarkable for its beautiful glaucous hue. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 254.) 
 
GROOM. 
 
 GROUSE. 
 
 GROOM. (Flem. grom, a boy.) A name 
 now usually applied to servants who are 
 employed about horses. The chief requisites 
 in a groom are, a mild disposition, and a 
 fondness for the animals of which he has the 
 care. Great attention is also necessary to 
 the feeding, dressing, littering, and keeping 
 horses clean. These different operations 
 should be daily executed with regularity and 
 exactness. The stable, as well as the various 
 articles that belong to it, should also always 
 be kept clean and in perfect order. 
 
 GROSBEAK, GREEN. See Green- 
 finch. 
 
 GROSBEAK, THE PINE. (Loxia enu- 
 cleator.) The pine grosbeak, or pine bull- 
 finch, as it is frequently called, closely re- 
 sembles the common bull-finch in the form 
 of its beak, and in other generic characters, 
 while it agrees with the crossbills in many 
 of its habits, as well as in the general co- 
 louring and changes of its plumage. It is a 
 very rare bird in this country, and but few 
 instances of its having been obtained are 
 either known or recorded. The food of this 
 species is seeds and berries ; it frequents 
 pine forests, builds a nest of small sticks, 
 with a lining of feathers, and usually places 
 it on a branch of a tree, a few feet only 
 above the ground. It lays four or five white 
 eggs, about an inch long, by ten lines in 
 breadth. The whole length of the bird is 
 eight inches. The general colour of the 
 plumage vermillion red, the belly French 
 grey. {YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 8.) 
 
 GROUND. Provincially, a grass-land 
 inclosure lying out of the way of floods ; and 
 a term often used in contradistinction to 
 meadow. 
 
 GROUND IVY. See Alehoof. 
 
 GROUNDSEL, or RAGWORT. (Se- 
 necio.) An extensive genus of plants many 
 of the species of which are very ornamental. 
 Of this genus Sir J. Smith includes ten 
 species as indigenous, four only of which, 
 however, come properly under the head 
 groundsel. The remainder I have sent over 
 to Ragwort, by which name they are gene- 
 rally known. 
 
 Common groundsel, or Simson (S. vul- 
 garis), grows almost every where in cul- 
 tivated or waste grounds, in rubbish, dry 
 banks, the tops of walls, &c. ; it flowers al- 
 most all the year. It is too well known to 
 need description. Cage birds (particularly 
 goldfinches and linnets) are fed with the 
 young buds, seeds, and leaves, which are 
 cooling, and have a saltish herbaceous flavour. 
 Cows do not relish this plant ; it is however 
 eaten by goats and swine, but refused by 
 horses and sheep. A weak infusion of 
 groundsel is a common purge ; a strong in- 
 fusion or juice is used as an emetic, and 
 591 
 
 sometimes given to horses to free them from 
 bots. 
 
 Stinking groundsel (S. viscosus) grows 
 chiefly on waste ground, on a chalky or 
 sandy soil. The whole herb is larger in all 
 its parts than the common groundsel, downy 
 and soft, and glutinous to the touch, with 
 a strong disagreeable smell. The stem is 
 spreading ; the leaves deeply pinnatifid; 
 flowers terminal, bright yellow, all the flo- 
 rets fertile ; the seed down rough. 
 
 Green-scaled groundsel (S. lividus). This 
 is a common weed on barren heaths, and 
 newly enclosed moor land in the north. In 
 habit it is taller than either of the foregoing 
 species, closely resembling the next species, 
 mountain groundsel. All the groundsels 
 are annual ; this species flowers in Sep- 
 tember and October. Root of several stout 
 fibres. The herb is downy, rather glutinous, 
 with a slightly aromatic odour, partaking of 
 the scent of fennel. 
 
 Mountain groundsel. (S. sylvaticus.) This 
 species grows in bushy, heathy places, on 
 a gravelly or sandy soil, flowering in July. 
 The root and herbage are so like those of 
 the last, which is perhaps equally common, 
 that the two species have by most botanists 
 been confounded. They are both downy, 
 unpleasantly scented, and agree in their 
 upright, wand-like, furrowed stem, clothed 
 with numerous leaves, beset with small, 
 short, axillary branches, panicled, corymbose, 
 and many flowered at the summit, three or 
 four feet in height. The calyx scales are 
 fringed, black and withered at the tips, the 
 outer ones broad, blunt and short. (Eng. 
 Flora, vol. iii. p. 427.) 
 
 GROUSE. By the word grouse we in 
 general language are most apt to associate 
 our ideas with the common muir fowl ; but 
 in the technical terms of ornithology the 
 generic name of grouse (Tetrao) is restricted 
 to those bearing the form of the European 
 wood grouse, dusky grouse of America, 
 &c. It is a large family of birds, of a very 
 round powerful form, which frequent heathy 
 forests in preference to the wild and open 
 muirs, perch and often roost on trees, where 
 young shoots and tender bark also supply 
 them with food, and although the legs are 
 plumed with soft feathers, the toes are 
 naked. The tail is composed of broad 
 feathers, and is proportionably long and 
 rounded. They are mostly polygamous, and 
 the females and young differ considerably 
 from the males ; the plumage of the former 
 being a shade of brown and tawny, with 
 black bars and markings ; the colour of the 
 latter distributed in broad masses of black, 
 glossy green, or steel blue, and deep brown. 
 They inhabit North America and Europe, 
 these of the latter extending into northern 
 
GROUSE. 
 
 GUANO. 
 
 Asia. Grouse are found in great numbers 
 on the mountains of Northumberland and 
 Cumberland, some few in the New Forests 
 in Hampshire, and some in Wales. In the 
 vicinity of the Grampian mountains and the 
 Highlands of Scotland, they are so plentiful 
 that a tolerable shot may kill from twenty 
 to thirty brace a day for the first three 
 weeks of the season, provided the weather is 
 favourable. An excursion, therefore, to 
 that country in the grouse season, affords 
 the keen sportsman a noble entertainment. 
 In many places it is well known that several 
 have killed fifty brace of birds with a single- 
 barrelled gun between sunrise and sunset. 
 (Sportsman for August, 1841.) 
 
 The black grouse (Tetrao tetrix), inha- 
 biting in small numbers a few particularly 
 wild localities in some of the southern coun- 
 ties of England, is much more numerous 
 in the north; and from Northumberland 
 throughout the greater part of Scotland, is 
 found in considerable quantities where well 
 wooded and mountainous districts afford 
 shelter and winter food. The females make 
 a slight nest on the ground, frequently 
 under shelter of some low thick bush, in 
 which they deposit from six to eight eggs ; 
 these are yellowish white, spotted and 
 speckled with orange brown ; two inches 
 in length, by one inch five lines in breadth. 
 In the summer, these birds live upon seeds, 
 the tender shoots of heath, leaves, and 
 some insects. In autumn they feed on ber- 
 ries of various sorts, occasionally visiting 
 corn-fields and stubbles ; in winter they 
 will feed on the tender shoots of pines and 
 firs. The adult male has a semilunar patch 
 of naked skin over the eye, of bright scarlet. 
 The general colour of the plumage is black. 
 The tail consists of eighteen black feathers, 
 of which four or five of those on the outside 
 are elongated and curve outwards. The 
 whole length of the bird is twenty-two inches. 
 The female of the black grouse, usually 
 called the grey hen, is seventeen to eighteen 
 inches in length. The general colour of the 
 plumage is pale chestnut brown, barred and 
 freckled with black ; the dark bars and 
 spots being larger and most conspicuous on 
 the breast, back, and wings. 
 
 The red grouse. (Lagopus Scoticus.) This 
 handsome species is confined to the British 
 islands, and inhabits wild and extensive 
 moors. The nest of the red grouse is formed 
 of the stems of ling and grass, with occa- 
 sionally a very few*reathers, and these ma- 
 terials are slightly? arranged in a depression 
 on the ground, under shelter of a tuft of 
 heather.- The eggs are from eight to fifteen 
 in number, of a reddish white ground colour, 
 nearly covered with blotches and spots of 
 amber brown; one inch nine lines long, by 
 
 one inch six lines broad. The extreme 
 ends of the common ling, and fine-leaved 
 heather, with the leaves and berries of the 
 black and red whortleberry and crowberry, 
 and occasionally oats, when grown on the 
 moor side, form their general food. The whole 
 length of the male bird is sixteen inches. 
 It has the same crescentic patch of vermillion 
 over the eye ; the plumage of the head and 
 neck is reddish brown, the back and wings 
 chestnut brown. 
 
 The ptarmigan (Lagopus mutus) is the 
 smallest in size of the British grouse, being 
 about fifteen inches and a quarter long. In 
 the British islands it now only inhabits the 
 highest ranges of hills, Northumberland, 
 Westmoreland, and the central and northern 
 parts of Scotland. The ptarmigan pairs early 
 in spring, and lays eight or ten eggs, fre- 
 quently on the bare ground, among stones. 
 The eggs are yellowish white, sparingly 
 blotched and spotted with dark brown ; one 
 inch eight lines long, by one inch two lines 
 broad. The food of these birds is the va- 
 rious sorts of alpine berries, seeds, and the 
 tender shoots of alpine plants. The male 
 in winter has almost all the plumage pure 
 white, which changes to a greyish black ; 
 over the eye is a patch of naked red skin. 
 {YarreWs Brit Birds, vol. ii. pp. 304—332.) 
 See Capercaelie. 
 
 GRUB. The common name for worms 
 or maggots, hatched from the eggs of bee- 
 tles. Under the name of gentles, grubs are 
 a principal bait to the angler for many kinds 
 of fish. The grub produces the beetle, and 
 is by some called the rook-worm, because 
 rooks are particularly fond of At. Land 
 newly brought into cultivation is generally 
 most subject to the grub. The best way of 
 destroying it is by good and frequent 
 ploughings, and the application of lime in 
 pretty large proportions in its caustic or 
 most active state, or common salt. Irri- 
 gation is also very beneficial, as tending to 
 destroy grubs. See Insects. 
 
 GRUBBER, or CULTIVATOR. See 
 Harrow and Scarifier. 
 
 GUANO. The name of a manure re- 
 cently imported for the first time into this 
 country, which has long been extensively 
 employed by the cultivators of Peru to fer- 
 tilise their sterile sandy places — lands, on 
 which occasionally there is a total absence 
 of rain for many months. This manure is 
 the excrements of sea birds, and, like that 
 produced by all animals feeding on animal 
 food, is of a very powerful description. It 
 exists, according to M. Humboldt (Davys 
 Elcm. of Agr. Chem. 296.), in the- great est 
 abundance in some of the small rocky 
 islands of the Pacific Ocean, as at Chinche, 
 Ilo, Iza, and Arica. Even when Humboldt 
 
GUANO. 
 
 wrote, some twenty years since, fifty vessels 
 were annually loaded with the guano at 
 Chinche alone, each trader carrying from 
 1500 to 2000 cubic feet. The guano 
 is found, according to Liebig (Organic 
 Chem. 81.) on the surface of these islands, 
 in strata of several feet in thickness, and is, 
 in fact, the putrefying excrements of in- 
 numerable sea-fowl that remain on them 
 during the breeding season. It is used by 
 the farmers of Peru chiefly as a manure for 
 the maize or Indian corn, and it is said 
 sometimes in the small proportion of about 
 1 cwt. per acre. " The date of the disco- 
 very of the guano and of its introduction 
 as a manure," says Mr. Winterfeldt (Brit. 
 Farm. Mag. vol. vi. p. 411.), " is unknown, 
 although no doubt exists of its great anti- 
 quity. In many parts of America, where 
 the soil is volcanic or sandy, no produce 
 would be obtained without the guano. It 
 has been calculated that from 12,000 to 
 14,000 cwts. are annually sold in the port of 
 Mollendo for the use of the country round 
 the city of Arequipa. In the province of 
 Taracapa and in the vallies of Tambo "end 
 Victor the consumption should be something 
 more, as wheat, all kinds of fruit, trees and 
 plants, with the single exception of the su- 
 gar cane, are manured with the guano ; 
 which is not the case with the district of 
 Arequipa, where maize and the potato 
 alone require it. In the district of Arequipa 
 3 cwts. of guano is spread over an extent of 
 5000 square yards (about an English acre) ; 
 but in Taracapa and the vallies of Tambo 
 and Victor, 5 cwts. are required. The land 
 thus manured in Arequipa produces 45 
 for 1 of potatoes, and 35 for 1 of maize, 
 where wheat manured with horse-dung pro- 
 duces only 18." 
 
 There are, it seems, three varieties of 
 guano, which bear on the coast of Peru dif- 
 ferent prices. " The white guano is consi- 
 dered the most valuable, as being fresher and 
 purer. It is found on nearly all the islands 
 along the coast. The red and dark grey are 
 worth 2s. 3d. the cwt. ; a higher price is 
 given for the white on account of its greater 
 scarcity ; it is sold at the port of Mollendo 
 at Ss. 6d. per cwt., and at times, as during 
 the war, it has obtained as high a price 
 as 12s. 
 
 It appears, in the state in which it has 
 been lately introduced into this country, to 
 be a fine brown or fawn-coloured powder, 
 emitting a strong marine smell : it blackens 
 when heated, and gives off strong .am- 
 moniacal fumes. When nitric acid is mixed 
 with it, uric or lithic acid is produced. It 
 has been analysed by various chemists. In 
 1806 an analysis of a very elaborate descrip- 
 tion was published by MM. Fourcroy and 
 593 
 
 Vauquelin ; they found in it a fourth of its 
 weight of uric acid, partly saturated with 
 ammonia and partly with potash. Some 
 phosphate of lime and ammonia, and small 
 quantities of sulphate and muriate of potash, 
 a little fatty matter, and a portion of sand. 
 It has been more recently analysed by Mr. 
 Hennell of Apothecaries' Hall, who found in 
 guano — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Bone earth - 30 5 
 
 Sulphates and muriates - - 3 
 
 Uric or lithic acid - - - * 15 
 
 Carbonate of ammonia - - 3 
 
 Matters volatile at 212°, consisting 
 chiefly of water and carbonate of am- 
 monia - -. - - 12 
 Other organic matters - - 36*5 
 
 100 
 
 It has also been analysed by Mr. Brett of 
 Liverpool, who found in 100 parts — 
 
 Parts- 
 
 Earthy insoluble salts, chiefly phosphate 
 
 of lime - 29*2 
 
 Soluble salts, fixed alkaline, sulphate, 
 
 and muriate - - - 2 - 5 
 
 Organic matter - 68 '3 
 
 The organic matter consists of 
 Lithic acid - - - 16*1 
 
 Ammonia - - - 87 
 
 Other organic matter and moisture - 43-5 
 
 *68-3 
 
 The composition of guano varies, how- 
 ever, considerably. According to the ana- 
 lyses of MM. Voelckel and Klaproth, the 
 varieties which they examined contained — 
 
 Voelckel. Klaproth. 
 
 Parts. Parts. 
 
 Urate of ammonia - 9 LG 
 
 Oxalate of ammonia - - 10 6 0-0 
 
 Oxalate of lime - -7 12 75 
 
 Phosphate of ammonia - 6 0 0 
 
 — ammonia, and magnesia 2-6 0-0 
 Sulphate of potass - - 5-5 0 0 
 
 — soda - - - 3-3 0-0 
 Chloride of sodium (common salt) - 0 0 0-5 
 
 — ammonia - - 4*2 00 
 Phosphate of lime - - 14 3 10 
 Clay and sand - - - 4-7 32 
 Undetermined organic substances, of 
 
 which about 12 per cent, is soluble 
 in water, a small quantity of soluble 
 
 salt of iron, water - - 32-53 2875 
 
 In a few words, it may be regarded as a 
 compound of urate of ammonia and other 
 salts. There is no doubt but that it is a 
 very powerful manure ; the very compo- 
 sition of its salts would indicate this fact. 
 Thus, uric or lithic irokl, which is a fine 
 white powder, nearly insoluble in water 
 (1720 parts of water only dissolving 1 part 
 of uric acid), is composed, according to 
 
 * For these I am indebted to Mr. M'Donald, of St. 
 Mildred's Court, London, a considerable importer of the 
 guano. 
 
 Q Q 
 
GUANO. 
 
 Dr.Prout (Thomson's Chem. vol. ii. p. 187.), 
 of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 0*125 
 Carbon - - - 2 250 
 
 Nitrogen or azote - - 1*750 
 Oxygen - - - 1'500 
 
 5*625 
 
 Urate of ammonia and urate of potash 
 are fine white powders, also very insoluble 
 in water : of the phosphate of lime, of the 
 guano, the earthy salt, and most valuable 
 portions of bones, it is unnecessary to com- 
 ment ; I have, in my work " On the Ferti- 
 lisers, p. 136," endeavoured to show how 
 essentially valuable this salt is to all the 
 farmer's commonly cultivated crops. The 
 use of the dung of birds is not a modern im- 
 provement, for that of poultry has been 
 adopted as a manure from a very early 
 period. M. P. Cato, the earliest of the agri- 
 cultural writers, in his work, (lib. lxxxvi.) 
 commends the use of pigeons' dung for mea- 
 dows, corn lands, or gardens. And John 
 Worlidge, in 1669, was warm in the praise 
 of the diing of fowls. " Pigeons' or hens' 
 dung," he says (Myst. of Agr. 71.), " is in- 
 comparable : one load is worth ten loads 
 of other dung, and is therefore usually sown 
 on wheat or barley that lieth far off and is 
 not easy to be helped." And he says, in 
 another place, " A flock of wild geese had 
 pitched upon a parcel of green wheat, and 
 had eaten it up clean, and sat thereon, and 
 dunged it several nights ; that the owner 
 despaired of having any crop that year ; but 
 the contrary happened, for he had a far 
 richer stock of wheat there than any of his 
 neighbours had." 
 
 In some experiments made by Mr. Skir- 
 ving of Walton near Liverpool in 1841, 
 the guano was tried at the rate of two or 
 three cwts. per acre, as a manure for Swe- 
 dish turnips and Italian rye-grass, with very 
 considerable success ; it appeared to be 
 equally, or rather more, efficacious than 
 twenty cubic yards per acre of farm-yard 
 manure. 
 
 The most elaborate set of experiments 
 upon the guano with which I am acquainted 
 were made, in 1810, for potatoes and man- 
 gel wurzel, at the Island of St. Helena, by 
 the late General Beatson ; and they are the 
 more valuable from being comparative. 
 The soil on which these experiments were 
 made was rather stiff, being composed of 
 blackish mould, intermixed with friable fat 
 clay. The following table gives the results 
 of every experiment : 35 loads of horse 
 dung litter per acre were used, 35 of 
 hogs dung litter, and 35 bushels per acre 
 of t he guano. 
 
 594 
 
 1. With potato seed the size of walnuts, 
 planted whole — 
 
 Six inches deep. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Guano - - - 554 
 
 Horse dung - - 583 
 
 Pigs' dung - 447 
 Soil simple - - - 395 
 
 Three inches deep. 
 
 Guano - - - 531 
 
 Horse dung - 479 
 
 Pigs' dung - - - 414 
 
 Soil simple - - - 311 
 
 2. Large potatoes, cut in pieces. 
 
 Six inches deep. 
 
 Guano - 589 
 
 Horse dung - - - 531 
 
 Pigs' dung - - . 466 
 
 Soil simple - - 408 
 
 Three inches deep. 
 
 Guano - 557 
 
 Horse dung - - - 511 
 
 Pigs' dung - - - 375 
 
 Soil simple - - - 414 
 
 3. From middle eye of potato seed seooped 
 out. 
 
 Six inches deep. 
 
 Guano - 576 
 
 Horse dung - 563 
 
 Pigs' dung ... 485 
 
 Soil simple - - - 337 
 
 Three inches deep. 
 
 Guano - 453 
 
 Horse dung - 382 
 
 Pigs' dung - - - 485 
 
 Soil simple - 343 
 
 4. With small potatoes, planted whole. 
 
 Six inches deep. 
 
 Guano - - - 628 
 
 Horse dung - 583 
 Pigs' dung - 544 
 
 Soil simple - - - 570 
 
 Three inches deep. 
 
 Guano - - - 557 
 
 Horse dung - - - 414 
 
 Pigs' dung - 440 
 
 Soil simple - - - 440 
 
 The total comparative produce in lbs. of 
 potatoes from these manures was there- 
 fore — 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Guano, or sea-fowl dung, at 35 bushels 
 
 per acre - - - 6'39 
 
 Horse dung, 35 cart loads per acre - 626 
 Hogs' dung, 35 cart loads per acre - 534 
 Soil simple - 446 
 
 With mangel wurzel the produce per 
 acre on a similar soil was as follows : — 
 
GUANO. 
 
 Leaves. Roots, 
 
 tons. tons. 
 
 Soil simple ... . 38 IS) 
 
 Hogs' duDg and ashes, 360 bushels per 
 
 acre .... .131 6G| 
 
 Guano, 35 bushels per acre - - 153a 77f 
 
 The guano, or sea-fowl dung, adds Gene- 
 ral Beatson, which is found in considerable 
 quantities upon Egg Islands,, was first re- 
 commended to my notice by Sir Joseph 
 Banks, President of the Royal Society. 
 " It furnishes," says he, " the loading of an 
 immense number of vessels that are con- 
 stantly employed in bringing it from small 
 islands to the main land on the western 
 coast of South America, where it is sold 
 and distributed for the purpose of manure, 
 for which it answers in a degree infinitely 
 superior to any other article we have the 
 knowledge of. A handful is considered as 
 sufficient for several square yards of land, 
 the produce of which is exuberant, in con- 
 sequence of the force of this application." 
 
 The accuracy of this valuable communi- 
 cation has been most amply confirmed by 
 my experiments in the culture of potatoes, 
 as well as upon grass lands. Thirty-five 
 bushels of the guano, or three cart-loads, 
 per acre, appear to me equivalent in effect 
 to seventy loads of good rotten dung. I 
 should imagine that abundance of this most 
 valuable manure might be had from many of 
 the rocks and islands on the coast of Scot- 
 land. The effect of the guano upon grass 
 lands is comparatively greater than in the 
 potato experiment. From what cause this 
 proceeds it may be difficult to explain ; but 
 as Dr. Priestley found, by experiment, that 
 vegetables throve best when they were 
 made to grow in air made putrid by the 
 decomposition of animal and vegetable 
 substances, it may be inferred that the very 
 strong effluvia which issue from the sea- 
 fowl dung or guano, together with its being 
 readily washed among the roots of vege- 
 tables by the first falls of rain, are circum- 
 stances that may possibly render its effects 
 as a top-dressing greatly superior to those 
 it produces when it is mixed with the soil. 
 On the 29th July, 1808, I marked out a 
 space on the lawn in front of Plantation 
 House, which measured one rod in breadth 
 and twelve rods in length ; this was divided 
 into twelve equal parts, or square rods, and 
 numbered progressively from 1 to 12. The 
 guano was reduced to a powder and sifted, 
 and upon No. 1. a quart of this powder was 
 evenly strewed by the hand : this is at the 
 rate of five Winchester bushels per acre — 
 because 160 square rods, or an acre, would 
 have required that number of quarts, or 
 exactly five bushels. In the same manner, 
 No. 2. had two quarts, No. 3. three quarts, 
 and so on to No. 12., which had 12 quarts, 
 or at the rate of 60 bushels per acre. From 
 595 
 
 the 29th of July there were daily drizzling 
 rains until the 5th of August, when the 
 effect of this invaluable manure began to 
 appear. On the following day the whole 
 extent of the twelve rods became highly 
 verdant, and exhibited such a contrast to 
 the unmanured part of the lawn, that it 
 had the appearance of having been newly 
 turfed with a finer kind of sod. The effect 
 gradually increased, and in the first week 
 of October, that is, in a little more than 
 two months, the higher numbers fro^n 6. 
 to 12. having from thirty to sixty bushels 
 per acre, excited the surprise of every person 
 who saw them, being covered with the most 
 exuberant grass that can be imagined, and 
 having more the resemblance of a crop of 
 young wheat very thickly sown, than of any 
 grass I ever beheld. This is more remark- 
 able, as at that time the copious rains which 
 fell in August and the spring season had 
 made no visible effect on the adjoining part 
 of the lawn. It was from a frequent and 
 careful inspection of the above experiments 
 that I have estimated thirty-five bushels of 
 guano per acre to be equivalent in effect upon 
 grass Lands to seventy loads of well rotted 
 dung. I have been informed that guano is 
 sold' at Lima, and at other towns on the 
 coast of Peru, for a dollar a bag of fifty 
 pounds weight, and that it is much in use 
 there for manuring fruit trees and gardens. 
 It is certainly one of the most powerful of 
 manures, and therefore it is necessary to be 
 cautious in using it. I have observed, when 
 too much is laid on grass, that it burns and 
 destroys it. I would therefore recommend 
 to those who may try it on fruit trees, to 
 begin with not more than three quarters of 
 a pint to each tree, and to trench it about a 
 foot deep all round the roots. If the first 
 application be found insufficient, a second 
 or third may be given at intervals of two or 
 three months ; or a better mode, perhaps, of 
 determining the quantity of guano proper 
 for each fruit tree would be to select about 
 a dozen trees of the same kind and size, and 
 to vary the quantities by an easy progression, 
 from three quarters of a pint to one or two 
 quarts or more to each tree. — (Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 225 — 240. 
 
 The guano is entirely a new fertiliser to 
 this country. About twenty casks were im- 
 ported, in 1840, by Mr. Myers of Liverpool ; 
 and this year (1841) one or two cargoes 
 have arrived from the Pacific. The en- 
 terprise which has thus led him to bring so 
 many thousands of miles this long-employed 
 manure of South America, is certainly 
 highly to the credit of an English merchant. 
 That it may succeed in adding fertility to 
 the soils of our country will be the ardent 
 wish of every true Englishman ; that it pro- 
 
GUARDIANS. 
 
 GUINEA PIG. 
 
 mises well, no one will doubt who attends 
 carefully to its chemical composition ; and 
 it is more than probable that by avoiding 
 the application of it in quantities too small, 
 and by the use of the drill, a valuable fer- 
 tiliser will be added to the manures already 
 in the English farmer's possession. But I 
 would warn my agricultural friends not to 
 be led away by idle assertions respecting its 
 powers, such as that a single cwt. is suffi- 
 cient for an acre of ground ; from two to 
 four^wt. is the smallest quantity that should 
 be applied by the drill. Let them beware, 
 too, of adulterations : the price has already 
 tempted the small dealers to mix it with 
 other substances. 
 
 From some recent notices of it in the 
 Farmers' Magazine for December, 1841, I 
 find that Mr. Smith of Gunton Park, Nor- 
 folk, applied 200 lbs. to an acre, and on the 
 same field, on an equal space of land, fifteen 
 bushels of bone-dust. Both were drilled 
 into the ground with seed wheat. The 
 bone-dust gave four and a half quarters of 
 wheat, the guano six quarters two bushels 
 one and a half pecks. 
 
 Mr. Love of Shoreham, Sevenoaks, ob- 
 serves, " I mixed 14 lbs. in the first instance 
 with two bushels of ashes, and although the 
 weather was very dry, I could perceive a 
 marked difference in the growth of the 
 plants a few days after they made their ap- 
 pearance. Encouraged by my success, I 
 then mixed 28 lbs. with fifteen bushels of 
 ashes, and applied it for turnips by sowing 
 broadcast on the land, and harrowing it in 
 lightly. As we had frequent showers at 
 the time, the seed soon vegetated, and the 
 plants grew away from those manured with 
 dung and mould. In each case I applied it 
 at the rate of 2 cwt. to the acre." 
 
 Mr. John Crane Nott of Hallow, Wor- 
 cestershire, remarks, " I applied it to my 
 hop-grounds, and, in order to give it a fair 
 trial, I put about a pint to every alternate 
 hill in each row. The effect was most ex- 
 traordinary : those hills on which the guano 
 was applied were most luxuriant, while the 
 adjoining ones, not so manured, were sickly 
 and weak. 
 
 GUARDIANS of the Poor are appointed 
 under the 4 & 5 W. 4. c. 76. : they are 
 elected by the rate-payers and owners of 
 property in the parish. Their number, 
 qualification, and duties are regulated by 
 the Poor-Law Commissioners. They are to 
 continue in office from the 25th of March to 
 the 25th of March following, or until others 
 are appointed in their stead. Every acting 
 justice of the peace residing in the parish is 
 ex officio guardian of the union in which 
 the parish is situated. Guardians of the 
 pom- may be re-elected. In the election, 
 
 owners as well as occupiers may vote by 
 proxy, in writing, in such manner as the 
 commissioners shall direct ; but no rate- 
 payer can vote unless he has been rated one 
 year. Joint stock companies must vote by 
 their appointed officer. The qualification 
 of a guardian of the poor is to be settled 
 by the commissioners, but they are directed, 
 by sec. 37, not to require a qualification 
 exceeding the annual rental of forty pounds. 
 
 GUDGEON. (Cyprinus gobio.) This 
 is a small but highly prized fish. It is 
 pretty universally distributed throughout 
 Europe, and is very common in our rivers, 
 and most of our still waters ; more parti- 
 cularly such as have any run through them. 
 The most tempting bait for a gudgeon is a 
 worm ; next to that, a gentle or cad bait ; 
 and after that, pastes. The gudgeon is a 
 valuable live bait, probably the most useful 
 in all the list of living fish-baits. (Blaine's 
 Encyclo. p. 1019, 1042.) 
 
 GUELDER-ROSE, COMMON or 
 WATER ELDER. (Viburnum opulus.) 
 A hardy, beautiful, and well-known shrub, 
 almost a tree in some soils, blowing its 
 large round white flowers, like snowballs, 
 in June and July, whence it is frequently 
 called the •' snowball tree." It is commonly 
 planted in shrubberies, along with the lilac 
 and laburnum, grouping elegantly Avith the 
 various purple hues of the former, and the 
 " golden " chain of the latter ; but they are 
 all mere summer beauties. The guelder rose 
 thrives in every kind of soil ; but, of course, 
 it prefers a good strong one. It may be 
 propagated by layers or suckers. 
 
 The Mealy Guelder-rose, or Way-faring 
 Tree (V. lantana), grows wild in woods and 
 hedges, on a chalky or limestone soil, and 
 sometimes to the height of eighteen or twenty 
 feet ; the branches have leaves with foot- 
 stalks and flower- stalks clothed with a starry 
 mealy pubescence. The compressed berries 
 are in an early state red on the outer side, 
 yellow on the inner, finally black, with a 
 little mealy astringent pulp. The berries 
 attract birds. The leaves turn of a dark 
 red in autumn. This shrub is scarcely 
 worth cultivating for ornament, nor is it of 
 any particular use except that the bark of 
 the root serves to make birdlime ; but that 
 of holly is much better, The young branches 
 and rind of the trunk may be employed for 
 bands and cords, being very supple and 
 pliant. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 107.) 
 
 GUINEA FOWL. See Fowls. 
 
 GUINEA PIG. (Cavia cobaya.) This 
 curious little animal is not a native of 
 Guinea, but of Brazil, whence it 1ms been 
 imported into Europe. It is about seven 
 inches in length, and its white body is va- 
 riegated with irregular black and orange 
 
GULLION. 
 
 GYPSIES, THE. 
 
 coloured spots. In their wild state these 
 animals multiply prodigiously, and would 
 become innumerable, if they were capable 
 of sustaining eohi and moisture. The fe- 
 male breeds at two months old, and brings 
 forth ten, twelve, or fourteen young ones, 
 several times in the course of the year, 
 after a gestation of three weeks. Guinea 
 pigs feed on all kinds of herbs, but are par- 
 ticularly fond of parsley, as also of apples 
 and other fruits. 
 
 GULLION. A provincial name for 
 gripes in horses. See Gripes. 
 
 GUN. In military art, a weapon of de- 
 fence. Under this general term, most of 
 the species of fire-arms are included, the 
 pistol and mortar being almost the only ex- 
 ceptions. To the sportsman a good fowling- 
 piece is a weapon of much consequence. The 
 sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had 
 almost elapsed ere the use of fire-arms- was 
 sufficiently perfected to be extended to the 
 chase, and ere the long-bow and the cross- 
 bow were completely superseded. There 
 are various kinds of guns, including the 
 rifle, the single and double barrelled gun, 
 the duck gun, &c. ; but as the form and 
 character of guns and their appurtenances 
 are matters rather beyond our province, we 
 must refer those who wish for information 
 to the various works on the subject, and 
 particularly to that excellent work Blaine s 
 Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports. SfC. 
 
 GYPSIES, THE — or Egyptians, as they 
 call themselves, — are described pretty cor- 
 rectly by Blackstone as being a strange kind 
 of wandering impostors and jugglers who 
 were first taken notice of about the beginning 
 of the fifteenth century. Munster and 
 Spelman (Glossary, p. 193.) fix the time of 
 their first appearance to be the year 1417, 
 under passports, real or pretended, from the 
 Emperor Sigismund, king of Hungary. 
 Having first appeared in Bohemia, they were 
 called Bohemians by the French; the Dutch 
 called them Heydens, heathens ; in Portugal 
 and Spain, Gitanns was the appellation by 
 which they were known ; in Italy, Hungary, 
 and Germany, they were Tziganyo ; and in 
 Turkey Ckinganeh. Pope Pius II., who 
 died in 1464, mentions them in his history, 
 as thieves and vagabonds then wandering 
 with their families over Europe under the 
 name of Zigari, and whom he supposes to 
 have wandered from the country of the 
 Zigri or modern Circassia. In the course 
 of a few years they gained such a number 
 of proselytes, who imitated their language 
 and complexion, and betook themselves to 
 the same arts of chiromancy, begging, and 
 pilfering, that they became troublesome and 
 even formidable to most of the states of 
 Europe. Hence they were expelled from 
 » 597 
 
 France in the year 1560, and from Spain in 
 1591. In England, in 1530, by the statute 
 22 Henry 2. c. 10., they are described as 
 " outlandish people," who pretended " that 
 they by palmestry could tell men and 
 women's fortunes;" wherefore they are di- 
 rected by the act to avoid the realm ; and by 
 the 1 P & M c. 4., and the 5 Eliz. c. 20., it was 
 declared to be felony for them to remain in 
 England ; and according- to Sir Matthew Hale, 
 under these now repealed brutal statutes, 
 thirteen gypsies were executed at one Suffolk 
 assizes, a few years before the Restoration. 
 (Black. Com. vol. iv. p. 195.) They may 
 yet be punished by a magistrate, under tin; 
 statute 5 Geo. 4. c. 83. as idle or disorderly 
 persons. An anonymous author, who wrote 
 an account of the gypsies in Great Britain 
 in 1612, speaks of them as having a leader, 
 " Giles Hathe?', who was termed their king; 
 and a woman of the name of Calot was 
 called queen. These, riding through the 
 country on horseback, and in strange attire, 
 had a prettie train after them." In the reign 
 of Henry VIII., gypsies, who had previously 
 been encouraged to visit this country, became 
 very troublesome, and many of them were 
 re-shipped to France at the public expense. 
 In Scotland they were more tolerated. In 
 1553-4, we find a writ in favour of their 
 leader, John Faw, who is styled Lord and 
 Earl of Upper Egypt, pardoning him for 
 the murder of Norman Small ; and forty 
 years afterwards, a writ of Privy Council 
 was issued supporting the same individual 
 in the execution of justice upon his company 
 of folk according to the laws of Egypt, in 
 punishing certain persons who had rebelled 
 against hun. Both in England and in Scot- 
 land the number of gypsies lias greatly 
 diminished, and their habits and modes of 
 living are much altered. They are ex- 
 tremely illiterate, very few being able to 
 read ; and are almost as ignorant of re- 
 ligion. They marry by merely pledging to 
 each other without any ceremonial, and 
 in general their young females are most 
 abandoned and dissolute. This is not, how- 
 ever, remarkable, when we consider that 
 they associate only with their own tribe, 
 that they have been always oppressed, are 
 outcasts, brought up to idleness, and have 
 had no opportunity of knowing the distinc- 
 tion between good and evil. Many plans 
 have been suggested to improve and ame- 
 liorate the condition of the gypsies: nothing 
 is so likely to effect this good work as 
 giving the parents the means of education 
 and religious instruction for their children, 
 and enticing them to send them to the pa- 
 rochial schools, where they should be re- 
 ceived. In the language of Mr. Borrow, 
 whose work I have recommended below, I 
 q q 3 
 
GYPSUM. 
 
 may add, " Education, however slight, never 
 yet made an individual reckless, but has 
 sobered many. Instead of persecuting them 
 as thieves and vagabonds, the farmers would 
 be greatly benefited could they induce the 
 gypsies to settle in villages, and would 
 they find employment for them." Such an 
 idea is not visionary. " The Wallachian 
 gypsies," says Dr. Clarke in his Travels, 
 published in 1816, " are not an idle race. 
 The^ might be described as a laborious peo- 
 ple ; and the greater part of them honestly 
 endeavour to earn a livelihood." To those 
 who are curious to inquire into the history 
 of this singular race, I recommend Hoy- 
 land's Historical Survey of the Customs, 
 Habits, Sfc, of the Gypsies, York, 1816.; 
 and Sorrow's Zincali, or Account of the 
 Gypsies of Spain, 2 vols. London, 1841. 
 The Rev. G. Crabb, of Southampton, is one 
 of their warmest advocates, and has pub- 
 lished some interesting accounts concerning 
 their habits, &c. 
 
 GYPSUM, as a Manure. It is useless 
 to search in the works of the early agri- 
 cultural writers for any notice of the em- 
 ployment of gypsum as a manure. It is 
 true that Virgil speaks of the value of a 
 very impure variety of it, when he is com- 
 mending the use of ashes to the Roman 
 farmers. The early inhabitants of Britain 
 thus used it ; the farmers of Lombardy did 
 the same : but ages elapsed before even 
 chemists were able to distinguish this salt 
 from limestone, or other calcareous matter. 
 Its uses, in its simple state as a manure, 
 were first noticed, according to Kirwan, 
 about the middle of the eighteenth century, 
 by a very able German clergyman of the 
 name of Meyer, who tried with success va- 
 rious experiments with a mineral substance 
 found in his neighbourhood, which was long 
 afterwards shown to be an impure sulphate 
 of lime. The name of plaster of Paris, by 
 which this substance is commonly known, 
 arose from its abounding in the neighbour- 
 hood of that capital, where it is burnt into 
 a powder, and used as a stucco. The com- 
 position of sulphate of lime, when pure, is — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Sulphuric acid .- - 43 
 
 Lime * - - 33 
 
 Water - - -24 
 
 100 
 
 But -the gypsum of commerce is usually 
 united with a portion of silica and carbonate 
 of Lime. It is thus combined in its native 
 state. According to Chaptal andBuchholz, 
 gypsum consists of — 
 
 Tarts. 
 
 Sulphuric acid - - 32 or 43 
 Lime - - 30 or 33 
 
 Water - - - 38 or 24 
 
 508 
 
 There is perhaps no artificial manure so 
 decided in its effects upon some soils, so 
 readily obtainable by the farmer, and so 
 plentiful in this country, as gypsum. Its 
 mode of action, too, is easily understood, 
 for it acts as a direct food for some plants, 
 is not what is sometimes called a stimulant 
 to vegetation, and has a very slight attrac- 
 tion for the moisture of the atmosphere ; it 
 neither promotes the decomposition of the 
 organic matters of the soil, nor, like those 
 decomposing substances, does it furnish the 
 gases of putrefaction for the surface of the 
 plant. There are, in fact, only five com- 
 monly cultivated crops which contain gyp- 
 sum in any sensible proportions, and to 
 which, in consequence, it is a direct food, 
 viz., lucern, sainfoin, red clover, rye-grass, 
 and turnips. Now these are precisely the 
 crops to which the farmer finds, on most 
 soils, gypsum to be a fertilising top-dressing. 
 Wheat, barley, oats, beans, and peas do not 
 contain a trace of this salt ; and the farmer 
 tells you that gypsum is of no service to 
 these crops, however the application may 
 be varied, I have little doubt, therefore, 
 whatever other imaginary powers this ma- 
 nure has been asserted to possess, that 
 gypsum only operates as a direct food or 
 constituent of plants. That it cannot operate 
 by its attraction for atmospheric moisture, 
 I some time since determined by my own 
 experiments ; for 1000 parts, previously 
 dried, when exposed to air saturated with 
 moisture for three hours, only gained 9 
 parts ; while, under the same circumstances, 
 a good arable soil, worth two guineas per 
 acre, gained 14 parts ; and when compared 
 with other manures, the disproportion is 
 still greater : thus, soot gained 36 parts, 
 and horse-dung 145 parts. That it is not 
 a promoter of putrefaction, I have ascer- 
 tained by mixing this salt with various ani- 
 mal and vegetable substances ; it seemed, 
 in every case, rather to retard than promote 
 the spontaneous decomposition of them all. 
 The housewives consider hard water, which 
 commonly owes its properties to the pre- 
 sence of this salt, to be a greater sweet- 
 ener of tainted food than soft water. Davy, 
 also, in some experiments with minced veal, 
 thought that the addition of the gypsum 
 rather retarded putrefaction. 
 
 There is no reason to believe but that the 
 proportion of sulphate of lime, found in 
 certain plants, is as essential to their growth 
 as the presence of the other earthy salts and 
 pure earths. Thus, those plants which yield 
 this salt never grow well on lands which <lo 
 not contain it; those in which carbonate of 
 lime is found never flourish in soils from 
 which this salt is absent. Plants which 
 abound with nitrate of potash (saltpetre), 
 
GYPSUM. 
 
 such as the sun-flower and the nettle, always 
 languish in soils free from that salt ; but 
 when watered with a weak solution of it, 
 their growth is very materially promoted ; 
 and the saltpetre is then found in them r as 
 shown upon analysis, in very sensible pro- 
 portions. The same remarks apply to the 
 growth of those plants which contain com- 
 mon salt, or phosphate of lime : the effect 
 is the same, the result invariable. 
 
 Liebig contends that the nature of gypsum 
 consists in its giving a fixed constitution to 
 the nitrogen, or ammonia, which is brought 
 into the soil, and is indispensable for the 
 nutrition of plants. He says that 100 lbs. of 
 gypsum gives as much ammonia as 6250 lbs. 
 of horse's urine would yield to it. 4 lbs. of 
 gypsum, he affirms, increases the produce of 
 the meadow 100 lbs. The decomposition of 
 gypsum is slow, which, he says, explains the 
 reason why the action of gypsum lasts for 
 several years. (Organic Chemistry, p. 57.) 
 
 But this appears to me to be a very un- 
 satisfactory explanation of the phenomena ; 
 for, granting that ammonia is as ever present 
 in rain water &c. as M. Liebig believes (of 
 which I have very considerable doubts), 
 and allowing that the ammonia does decom- 
 pose the gypsum in the soil, and form sul- 
 phate of ammonia, (of which there is no 
 evidence), even then this mode of explaining 
 the fertilising effects of gypsum will not be 
 satisfactory; for sulphate of ammonia, which 
 M. Liebig supposes to be thus formed by 
 the union of the ammonia with the sulphuric 
 acid of the gypsum, is a manure to several 
 other crops besides the grasses, crops to 
 which the application of gypsum is, as every 
 farmer well knows, utterly useless. It is 
 not, therefore, by the formation of sulphate 
 of ammonia, I think, that gypsum operates 
 as a fertiliser. 
 
 I have noticed, in applying gypsum to 
 grasses, that the weather at the time of 
 spreading it has a very material influence 
 upon the result of the experiment. Its 
 effects are never soon apparent when it is 
 sown in dry weather ; but if the season is 
 damp, so that the white powdered gypsum 
 adheres to the leaves and stalks of the young 
 grass, the good effect is then immediate. 
 This observation was made, many years since, 
 by Arthur Young, by Mr. Smith, and by 
 the American farmers : it is a well-known 
 fact with the sainfoin growers, of the Berk- 
 shire and Hampshire chalk formation ; the 
 clover cultivators of the gravels and loams 
 of Surrey and Kent ; and on the lucern 
 grounds of the alluvial soils of Essex and 
 Middlesex. The farmers of the United 
 States, when dressing their turnips with 
 gypsum, always ftmnd it answer best when 
 spread in rainy weather 
 599 
 
 The result of the analysis of the clover 
 and sainfoin grasses shows that an ordinary 
 crop of these usually contains from 1^ cwt. 
 to 2 cwt. per acre of sulphate of lime. Now 
 this is precisely the proportion of gypsum 
 which the best cultivators find to be at- 
 tended with the maximum benefit ; those 
 of Kent and Hampshire find it useless to 
 apply more ; but then they all agree that 
 the annual repetition of the dressing, as 
 long as the grass is suffered to remain on 
 the ground, is attended with renewed bene- 
 fit. It is here again that the experiments 
 of the chemist and the farmer mutually 
 confirm and illustrate each other ; the very 
 quantity of sulphate of lime which the 
 first shows to be carried off the land in the 
 clover, is precisely that which the latter 
 returns to it in his dressings with gypsum. 
 
 One of the chief reasons why gypsum has 
 not been universally employed by all cul- 
 tivators of the artificial grasses arises per- 
 haps from the fact that many good soils 
 naturally contain sulphate of lime in suffi- 
 cient abundance for the service of the 
 plant ; and, in consequence, to such lands 
 the application of gypsum is useless — it 
 is an attempt to supply a deficiency which 
 does not exist. I have invariably found in 
 those soils to which gypsum is not a manure 
 an abundance of this salt. It is not, how- 
 ever, necessary for the farmer to have his 
 soil analysed to determine the probable 
 advantages of applying gypsum to his 
 clover and other grasses ; there are several 
 easy observations which will readily indi- 
 cate to him the nature of the case. Thus, 
 when he finds that those fields which once 
 produced luxuriant crops of red clover 
 or sainfoin will no longer yield them in 
 abundance ; if he notices that the young 
 plants spring up very numerously, but die 
 away as the summer advances ; if he finds 
 that his fields will only grow clover success- 
 fully once in eight or twelve years, and that 
 his neighbours tell him his land is tired of 
 clover, or " clover-sick ; " if he notices that 
 even the application of farm-yard compost 
 hardly adds to the luxuriance of his grasses ; 
 he may then safely conclude that his crops 
 have gradually exhausted his land of sul- 
 phate of lime ; and he may, with every 
 confidence of success > apply a dressing of 
 gypsum, at the rate of 2 cwt. per acre, 
 taking care to choose a wet morning for the 
 application ; and this may be done at any 
 season of the year, but it is best either in 
 April or the first days of May. These facts 
 I can attest from the results of my own 
 observations and experience. In an old 
 grass paddock, of about 70 acres, in the 
 vale of Kennett, in Berkshire, the grass had 
 for many years gradually become "less and 
 Q Q 4 
 
GYPSUM. 
 
 less productive, and this in spite of all kinds 
 of applications ; the earths (such as clay and 
 chalk), farm-yard compost, &c, had been 
 liberally and repeatedly spread, without 
 producing any thing like a luxuriant crop : 
 but it was found at last that the peat ashes 
 of the banks of the Kennett, when spread 
 at the rate of about 40 bushels per acre, 
 produced the very best results — an ex- 
 cellent crop, both in weight and in colour ; 
 certainly more than a ton of hay per acre 
 beyond what the soil yielded before. The 
 fact was now evident that it was gypsum 
 that the soil needed ; for as these peat ashes 
 contain about 12£ per cent, of sulphate of 
 lime, more than 2 cwt. of gypsum was con- 
 veyed into the land in them ; it constitutes, 
 in fact, by far the chief fertilising ingredient 
 in these peat ashes, the remainder being 
 about 40 per cent, of sand, and the rest 
 chalk, red oxide of iron, and a small quan- 
 tity of common salt. 
 
 If this conclusion, therefore, was correct 
 as to the gypsum being the only valuable 
 portion of the peat ashes, it was certain 
 that an application of 2 cwt. per acre of 
 gypsum to the same land would produce 
 similar beneficial results ; and, upon a trial, 
 it was found that benefits fully equal to 
 any yielded by the application of the peat 
 ashes resulted. Two cwt. per acre of 
 gypsum, in fine powder, was spread on a 
 portion of the grass, with the most excellent 
 effect : the grass not only grew with greatly 
 increased vigour, but a quantity of white 
 clover and other grasses made their appear- 
 ance on the portion dressed, in so marked a 
 manner as to attract the attention of the 
 tenant to the fact. The soil on which these 
 experiments were tried consists of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Organic matter, chiefly vegetable *■ 3'5 
 Soluble matters - - - 3 
 
 Carbonates of lime and magnesia - 19 
 Oxide of iron - - -275 
 
 Alumina - - - - 8*5 
 
 Sand and gravel .- - - 62 
 
 98-75 
 
 This is about 10 inches deep, and it rests 
 on a thin stratum of gravel, and then chalk. 
 
 There is another fact which clearly sup- 
 ports these conclusions ; viz. the great use 
 of common coal ashes as a top-dressing to 
 clover, sainfoin, and lucern ; there is no 
 manure universally in the possession of the 
 farmer, in fact, equal to them for immediate 
 effect upon those grasses. Now, coal ashes 
 usually contain about 10 per cent, of sul- 
 phate of lime ; and therefore a dressing with 
 60 bushels of coal ashes per acre is equal 
 to an application of about 5 bushels of 
 gyj »sum | the remaining portion of the ashes 
 600 
 
 consists principally of about 10 per cent, of 
 lime and sand, and a small portion of red 
 oxide of iron and alumina: so that the 
 gypsum is here again evidently the active 
 ingredient — the other constituent parts 
 being nearly inert substances. My own 
 experiments and observations have been 
 confirmed by many others within the last 
 two years ; for gypsum is evidently creeping 
 gradually into use as a manure for the 
 grasses. Mr. James Barnard, an excellent 
 and extensive farmer of Little Bordean, in 
 Hampshire, in a recent communication thus 
 describes to me his experience with gyp- 
 sum (December, 1S39.) : — 
 
 " The soil of my farm is of a clayey na- 
 ture, and would be very stiff but for the 
 number of stones there are in it. I have 
 sown gypsum six or seven years, and never 
 on clover or sainfoin without satisfactory 
 proof of its efficacy, having usually grown 
 half a ton more of hay per acre by its use. 
 But the effect in 1838 was wonderful. I 
 put on a bag (2£ cwt.) per acre, on a two- 
 year old piece of sainfoin, on the 1st of 
 May, with the plants very forward, just 
 leaving the ground and coming to stalk : 
 the gypsum had so increased the growth of 
 the grass by the 9th of the same month, 
 that when crossing the land with a friend 
 we observed the difference from one of the 
 fields to the other ; and at harvest time the 
 extra produce of hay was quite one ton per 
 acre. I then laid the field up, and cut it 
 again in October; when the effect of the 
 gypsum was still more apparent, there being 
 1£ ton of hay per acre from the so dressed 
 portion of the field, and scarcely any on 
 the remainder of the land. Cutting the 
 sainfoin twice in one year, and the enor- 
 mous difference in the produce, brought a 
 great many persons to look at the field, who 
 all declared they had never seen the like 
 before. On the same piece, this year (1839), 
 I did not use gypsum, thinking it would be 
 good enough without, and the difference 
 was quite as great. I mowed twice the 
 gypsumed portion, but there was nothing 
 to cut on that which had not the gypsum. 
 I can even see the effect where, three years 
 ago, the gypsum was spread. I always leave 
 a strip or two in every field to prove the 
 effect. There is one thing more I wish to 
 observe, that I never put on gypsum before 
 the last week in April, or the first in May ; 
 and choose, if possible, a moist morning. I 
 have not found much good effect from its 
 application on either chalk or cold clay 
 soils." 
 
 The expense of the application of the 
 gypsum is about 7s. per acre ; this substance 
 being usually sold in London for about 
 21. 10s. per ton, at Reading and South; 
 
HACK. 
 
 HAIL. 
 
 anipton at Is. 9d. per bushel. In the mid- 
 land counties it may be had at a still more 
 reasonable rate ; thus, in Derbyshire, it is 
 so plentiful that the farmers' cheese-room 
 floors are commonly formed with it ; it 
 abounds, too, in the north of England. The 
 comparative produce of the gypsumed over 
 not gypsumed land is very great, — it of 
 course varies in amount. I have seen it 
 double the produce of clover hay, and give 
 an equally copious crop of lucern ; but this 
 last I invariably cut green for soiling. 
 
 Mr. Smith, of Highstead, found still 
 greater benefit from the use of gypsum to 
 his clover leys; for where the simple soil 
 produced 1 ton only per acre of hay, the 
 portion of the same soil to which 5 bushels 
 per acre of gypsum had been applied yielded 
 3 tons ; the first yielding only 20 lbs. of 
 seed, while the latter produced 105 lbs. 
 Mr. Smith, too, first noticed — what my own 
 observations have confirmed — that cattle, 
 horses, &c. always prefer the grass growing 
 on the gypsumed portion of the field to any 
 other. The same remark is made by those 
 who spread coal ashes on their grass leys : 
 the peat ashes of Berkshire produce the 
 same effect. 
 
 The general introduction, then, of gyp- 
 sum, as a top-dressing for the artificial 
 grasses which I have mentioned, is certainly 
 an object of no mean interest to the farmer, 
 especially if he cultivates the poor inland 
 soils of England, where artificial manures 
 are scarce, and the carriage of even the 
 most portable is expensive ; for gypsum 
 possesses, in this respect, two advantages 
 combined, which do not belong to any 
 other, even of the saline manures : its first 
 cost is trifling ; and its carriage light, since 
 a waggon will convey sufficient g ypsum to 
 dress thirty acres of grass. It is a manure, 
 too, that abounds in all parts of England, — 
 hardly a county is destitute of it in some 
 form or other ; and there is no extensive 
 district to be found in which large breadths 
 of land are not benefited by its judicious 
 application." (Jonrn. Roy. Ag. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 106. ; Mr. Smith's Essay, Com. Board of 
 Ag. vol. vi. p. 262. ; and Dr. Fothergill, ibid. 
 p. 370.) 
 
 GYR-FALCON. See Falcon. 
 
 H. 
 
 HACK, or HACKNEY. In horseman- 
 ship, a general term for a road horse, which 
 does not always convey any sense of inferi- 
 ority, or refer to horses let out for hire. It 
 is, however, often used in that sense. 
 
 HACKLE. A board set with sharp iron 
 spikes for combing or pulling out hemp. 
 601 
 
 Also the name of an artificial fly used by 
 anglers. 
 
 HiEMANTHUS. (From haima, blood, 
 andanthos, a flower, some of the flowers being 
 of a blood colour.) A genus of fine bulbous 
 plants. All the species succeed well in sandy 
 loam, mixed with a little peat. They may 
 be increased by offsets. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 HAGSNARE. A provincial word sig- 
 nifying a stool or stub, off which coppice- 
 wood has been cut. 
 
 HAIL. (Germ. 7iagel.) A well known 
 meteor which occurs chiefly in spring and 
 summer, not unfrequently accompanied with 
 thunder. It is formed of rain or atmos- 
 pheric vapours, congealed by cold in the 
 upper regions of the atmosphere, and falling 
 to the ground in small roundish masses, or 
 hailstones. On examining attentively the 
 interior structure of hailstones, they are 
 usually found to contain an opaque nucleus 
 of a spongy or porous texture, resembling 
 hardened snow, surrounded by a layer of 
 ice of greater or less transparency. Some- 
 times several transparent layers are dis- 
 tinguishable, and sometimes the layers are 
 alternately transparent and opaque. Hail- 
 stones have also been observed having a ra- 
 diated structure. Their form is exceedingly 
 various ; in general it is roundish, but some- 
 times pyramidal, angular, or even thin and 
 flat, with irregular surfaces. The usual 
 size of hailstones is about a quarter of an 
 inch in diameter ; but they are frequently 
 of much greater magnitude, and instances 
 are on record in which the dimensions would 
 appear incredible, if they were not attested 
 by observers of known veracity. Halley 
 relates that, on the 9th of April 1697, there 
 fell in Flintshire hailstones which weighed 
 5 oz. On the 4th of May 1697, Robert 
 Taylor, in Hertfordshire, observed hail- 
 stones which measured 14 inches in circum- 
 ference ; that is, nearly 4 inches in diameter. 
 Parent, on the 15th of May 1703, found 
 them at Iliers as large as his fist. On the 
 11th of July 1753, at Toul, some were col- 
 lected by Montignot measuring 3 inches in 
 diameter. Volta affirms that on the night 
 of the 19th August 1787, in a hail-storm 
 which ravaged the city of Como and its en- 
 virons, some of the stones were found to 
 weigh 9 oz. In the hail-storm which tra- 
 versed the whole of France and the Nether- 
 lands on the 13th of July 1788, M. Tessier 
 relates that hailstones were picked up which 
 weighed 8 oz. And Dr. Noggerath informs 
 us that, on the 7th of May 1822, hailstones 
 fell at Bonn, weighing from 12 to 13 oz. 
 From these relations, we may form some 
 idea of the destruction occasioned by a 
 severe hail-storm in a cultivated country. 
 
 Of the different circumstances accompa- 
 
HAIR. 
 
 nying a fall of hail, the following are the 
 most remarkable : — Hail usually precedes 
 storms of rain, sometimes accompanies them, 
 but never, or very rarely follows them, es- 
 pecially if the rain is of any duration. The 
 time of its continuance is always very short, 
 generally only a few minutes, and very 
 seldom so long as a quarter of an hour. 
 The quantity of ice which falls from the 
 clouds in so short a time is prodigious, the 
 ground being sometimes covered with it to 
 the depth of several inches. The clouds 
 from which hail is precipitated appear to be 
 of very considerable extent and depth, in 
 as much as they produce a great obscurity. 
 It has been remarked that they have a pe- 
 culiar grey or reddish colour, and that their 
 lower surfaces present enormous protube- 
 rances, while their edges exhibit deep and 
 numerous indentations. Hail is always ac- 
 companied with electric phenomena. Va- 
 rious hypothesis have been proposed to ex- 
 plain the physical cause of hail, and the 
 phenomena by which it is accompanied. 
 The theory requires the solution of two 
 questions ; first, how the cold which causes 
 the congelation of the aqueous particles is 
 produced ? And, secondly, how a hailstone, 
 after attaining a sufficient size to fall through 
 the air by its own weight, remains suspended 
 a sufficient length of time to acquire a 
 volume of twelve or fifteen inches in cir- 
 cumference ? And both these questions are 
 attended with very considerable difficulty ; 
 and after all that has been written on the 
 subject, the theory of hail is still involved 
 in great obscurity. 
 
 Certain districts of England are peculi- 
 arly subject to the ravages of hail-storms ; 
 of this kind is the district between Dunmow, 
 in Essex, and the hills of Hertfordshire. 
 The devastation and ruin caused to the 
 farmer by these storms has caused the es- 
 tablishment by the Farmers' Insurance So- 
 ciety of a branch for the insurance against 
 hail-storms. (Brande's Diet, of Science ; 
 Pouillefs Elemens de Physique, t. ii.) 
 
 HAIR. (Germ, haare.) The charac- 
 teristic covering of the mammiferous class 
 of animals. It consists of slender, more or 
 less elongated, horny filaments, secreted by 
 a matrix, consisting of a conical gland or 
 bulb, and a capsule, which is situated in 
 the meshwork of the corium or true skin. 
 The hairs pass out through canals in the 
 corium, which are lined by a thin layer of 
 cuticle adherent to the base of the hair: the 
 straightness or curl of the hair depends on 
 i he Conn of the canal through which it passes. 
 The hair is formed in an elongated sheath 
 or sack, to the bottom of which the bulb or 
 10ft part of the hair is fixed. The structure 
 of hairs differ: thus, in the bristle of the hog 
 602 
 
 there is an internal cellular part, and an ex- 
 ternal or cortical fibrous part; and this is 
 also the structure of the hair of the roe deer. 
 The hair of the bat is knotted, and that of 
 the mouse is mottled with black and white. 
 Hair is usually distinguished into various 
 kinds, according to its size and appearance. 
 The strongest and stiffest of all is called 
 bristle : of this kind is the hair on the backs 
 of hogs. When remarkably fine, soft, and 
 pliable, it is called wool; and the finest of all 
 is known by the name of down. Spines, 
 bristles, fur, and wool (see those heads) are 
 therefore all modifications of hair, having 
 the same chemical composition, mode of 
 formation, and general structure. 
 
 In the spine of the porcupine, the bulb 
 secretes a fluted pith, and the capsule invests 
 it with a horny sheath, the transparency of 
 which allows the ridges of the central part 
 to be seen. In the spine-like whiskers of 
 the walrus, as well as the bristles of the hog, 
 the twofold structure of the hair is very 
 conspicuous ; but in the finer kind of hair, 
 as of the human head and beard, the central 
 pith can only be demonstrated in fine trans- 
 verse sections, viewed with a microscope. 
 Some kinds of hair, as of the human head, 
 the mane and tail of the horse, are perennial, 
 and grow continuously by a persistent ac- 
 tivity of the fonnative capsule and pulp : 
 other kinds, as the ordinary hair of the horse, 
 cow, and deer, are annual, and the coat is 
 shed at particular seasons. In the deer, the 
 horns are shed contemporaneously with the 
 deciduous hair. 
 
 Many quadrupeds, especially those of cold 
 climates, have two kinds of hair : a long and 
 coarse kind, forming their visible external 
 covering ; and a shorter, finer, and more 
 abundant kind, which lies close to the skin, 
 and called " fur." With respect to structure, 
 Eberle has proved that the sheath of the hair 
 is vascular, and the substance of the hair is 
 formed by the secretion of horny matter on 
 the surface of the vascular pulp. 
 
 The organisation of the hair is such as to 
 allow of its undergoing certain changes 
 when once formed, according to the state of 
 health and general condition of the rest of 
 the frame, and even to be affected by loss 
 of colour in consequence of violent mental 
 emotions in the human subject. Some of 
 the lower animals, as the Alpine hare, are 
 subject to periodical changes of colour of 
 their fur, by which it is made to harmonise 
 with the prevailing hue of the ground which 
 they habitually traverse. The chemical pro- 
 perties of hair were first pointed out by 
 M v. I [atchett, in his paper in the Phil. Trans. 
 for 1800. It chiefly consists of an indurated 
 albumen, and when boiled with water, it 
 yields a portion of gelatin. Soft flexible 
 
HAIROUGH. 
 
 HANBURY (REV. WILLIAM). 
 
 hair, wliich easily loses its curl, is that which 
 is most gelatinous. Vauquelin discovered 
 two kinds of oil in hair : the one colourless, 
 in all hair; the other coloured, and imparting 
 the peculiar tint to hair. Black hair also con- 
 tains iron and sulphur. The following is his 
 analysis : — 1. An animal matter, constituting 
 the greatest part. 2. A white solid oil, small 
 in quantity. 3. A greyish-green oil, more 
 abundant. 4. Iron; state unknown. 5. 
 Oxide of manganese. 6. Phosphate of lime. 
 7. Carbonate of lime, very scanty. 8. Silica. 
 9. Sulphur. Leuwenhoeck {Phil. Trans.) 
 and Hooke (Micrographia, p. 156.) have 
 published their microscopical observations 
 on hair. 
 
 Human hair makes a very considerable 
 article in commerce, for wigs, &c. The hair 
 of horses is extensively used in the manufac- 
 ture of chairs, sofas, saddles, &c. ; while 
 the hair or wool of beavers, hares, and 
 rabbits, &c, is much employed in the ma- 
 nufacture of hats, &c. The refuse hair of 
 different animals, particularly the short hair 
 from hides, and that of hogs, when it can be 
 procured in sufficient quantity, will be found 
 useful as a fertiliser; a fact that might 
 readily be imagined when it is known that its 
 chemical properties closely approximate to 
 those of horn. (Brandes Diet, of Science 
 M'CullocKs Com. Diet; Thomsons Syst. of 
 Chem. p. 480.) 
 
 HAIR GRASS. See Aira. 
 
 HAIROUGH. A local name for goose- 
 grass or cleavers. See Hariff. 
 
 HAKES. A word provincially applied 
 to the copse or draught-irons of a plough. 
 See Ploughs. 
 
 HALTER. A rope so formed as to be 
 put on the heads of horses or other animals, 
 in order to lead or tie them up. It likewise 
 signifies a head-st all of leather, mounted with 
 one and sometimes two straps, with a second 
 throat-band, if the horse is apt to slip his 
 halter. 
 
 HAM. (Dutch, hammen ; Fr. jambon.) 
 In commerce denotes the thigh of a hog or 
 bear salted and dried, so as to preserve it 
 in a state possessing a pungent and agree- 
 able flavour. York, Hants, Wilts, and 
 Cumberland in England, and Dumfries and 
 Galloway in Scotland, are the counties most 
 famous for producing fine hams. Those of 
 Ireland are comparatively coarse, and with- 
 out flavour. (See Bacon.) The hams of 
 Portugal, Westphalia, and Virginia are ex- 
 quisitely flavoured, and are in high estima- 
 tion. The method of curing hams in the 
 most celebrated districts, is to rub them 
 very hard with bay or other salt ; then leave 
 them on a stone bench, in order that the 
 brine may discharge itself. In a few days 
 the rubbing process is repeated ; about half 
 603 
 
 an ounce of saltpetre (nitrate of potassa) 
 being added to each ham. When they have 
 continued about a week longer on the bench, 
 or in the salting-tub, among the brine, they 
 are commonly hung up to dry in the sides 
 of large open chimneys ; some have them 
 exposed to the smoke of wood, peats, coals, 
 or other sorts of fuel, while others carefully 
 avoid having them smoked. And when 
 not sold sooner, they are continued in these 
 situations till the approach of warm wea- 
 ther, when they are packed up in casks 
 with straw, or the seeds of oatmeal, and 
 consigned for sale. Hams lose about 20 
 per cent, of their weight in drying. 
 
 Hams may be cured in order to resemble, 
 in taste, those of Westphalia, by the follow- 
 ing process : — Cover a young ham of pork 
 with dry salt ; let it be for twenty-four hours 
 to draw off the blood ; then wipe it perfectly 
 dry, and take one pound of brown sugar, a 
 quarter of a pound of saltpetre, half a pint 
 of bay salt, and three pints of salt ; incor- 
 porate these ingredients in an iron pan over 
 the fire, and stir them continually till they 
 acquire a moderate degree of heat. In this 
 pickle the ham must be suffered to remain 
 for three weeks, frequently turning it, when 
 it should be suspended in a chimney for 
 drying by means of smoke from no other 
 but a wood fire. The smoke from oak saw- 
 dust or shavings is the best for imparting 
 a fine flavour. This smoke contains im- 
 perfectly formed pyroligneous acid, which 
 is the agent that communicates the flavour 
 to the Westphalia hams. In Dumfriesshire 
 the pickle for hams is sometimes made with 
 one half ale, which renders the hams shorter, 
 and adds greatly to the richness of their 
 flavour. The imports of bacon and hams, 
 principally the latter, amount to 1350 cwt. 
 a year. The duty is very heavy, being no 
 less than 285. a cwt. (M i Cidloctis Com. 
 Diet.) See Swine. 
 
 HAMES. The iron or wooden harness 
 by which draught-horses are attached to the 
 
 Ccll*fcs 
 
 HANBURY (RE V.WILLI AM) . Rector 
 of Church Langton, Leicestershire. He 
 died in 1778. He was exceedingly fond of 
 planting. He planted fifty acres of nursery 
 ground, the produce of which he dedicated 
 to the improvement of the church and 
 parish. It was instituted, however, in the 
 first instance, for the encouragement and 
 improvement of the art of planting. He 
 wrote, 
 
 1. An Essay on Planting, and a Scheme to make it 
 conducive to the Glory of God, and the Advantage of 
 Society. London. 1758. An 8vo. pamphlet. 2. The 
 Gardener's New Calendar. London. 1758. 8vo. 3. A 
 complete Body of Planting and Gardening, containing 
 the Natural History, Culture, and Management of De- 
 ciduous anil Evergreen Forest Trees, with practical Di- 
 rections for raising and improving Woods. As well as 
 
HAND. 
 
 HARE'S EAR. 
 
 a general System of the present Practice of the Flower, 
 Fruit, and Kitchen Gardens. (G.W. Johnson's Hist, of 
 Gardening.) 
 
 HAND. The measure of the fist when 
 clenched ; it is equal to four inches. The 
 height of horses is computed in this way. 
 A horse fifteen hands high stands five feet 
 at the shoulders. 
 
 HAND -HOEING. See Hoeing. 
 
 HAND-WEEDING. See Weeding. 
 
 HARD -FERN, NORTHERN. (Blech- 
 nam boreale.) An indigenous fern, growing 
 in rough, heathy, or stony ground, and 
 sometimes in moist, shady hedge-bottoms. 
 The black and scaly root is tufted with 
 many stout fibres. The numerous fronds 
 are also tufted, stalked, erect, straight, 
 lanceolate, smooth, deep green ; a foot or 
 more in height ; the leaflets are linear, 
 entire, and scarcely dilated at the base. 
 Some of the species belonging to this genus 
 are very interesting ferns, which delight to 
 grow in the openings of rock-work, in 
 sandy loam and peat mixed : they divide 
 readily at the roots, and may also be raised 
 from seeds. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 316. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 HARD-GRASS. (Rottboellia, named 
 by Linnseus in honour of C. F. Rottboell, a 
 Danish botanist.) This is the Ophiurus of 
 some botanists, but I adopt the classifica- 
 tion of Smith. Curious annual grasses, 
 growing in any common garden soil. The 
 sea hard-grass (R. incurvatci) is found 
 growing in various places on our sea coasts, 
 particularly in salt marshes. It is an an- 
 nual, and flowers in August. The root is 
 fibrous and downy ; the stems numerous, 
 a span long, spreading, round, partly pro- 
 cumbent, leafy, smooth, jointed, and bent. 
 Leaves of a deep glaucous green, narrow, 
 acute, striated, rough on the upper side and 
 at the edges. The spikes are terminal, so- 
 litary, incurved, cylindrical, very smooth. 
 All the glumes are destitute of awns. (Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 175.) 
 
 HARE. (Lepus timidus.) The hare is 
 naturally a timid animal, and extremely 
 swift in motion when pursued by dogs. 
 Hares are dispersed over almost every cli- 
 mate, and consequently the varieties are 
 extremely numerous ; and the sizes, forms, 
 and habits, adapted to the physical wants of 
 the family, greatly multiplies their diver- 
 sities. Although hunted in all countries, 
 being prolific in the extreme, their species 
 does not apparently diminish in number. 
 They begin to breed in the first year, and 
 tin? female generally produces four or five 
 leverets', after a gestation of about thirty - 
 one or thirty-two days; and she is supposed 
 to breed lour or live times in the year. 
 Unlike dogs, the eyes of these animals are 
 
 open at their birth ; and after being suckled 
 for about three weeks they are abandoned 
 to their fate. Hares in a state of nature 
 are believed to live from nine to twelve 
 years. The hare is known to have been a 
 favourite object of the chace more than two 
 thousand years ago. 
 
 Taking or killing hares or conies in war- 
 rens, SfC, in the night-time. — It is, by the 
 7 & 8 Geo. 4. c. 29. s. 30. enacted, that if any 
 person shall, in the night-time, take or kill 
 any hare or coney in any warren or ground 
 lawfully used for the breeding or keeping 
 of hares or conies, whether enclosed or not, 
 every such offender shall be guilty of a 
 misdemeanour ; and if any person shall un- 
 lawfully and wilfully in the day-time take 
 or kill any hare or coney in any such war- 
 ren or ground, or shall at any time set or 
 use therein any snare or engine for the 
 taking of hares or conies, every such of- 
 fender being convicted thereof before a 
 justice of the peace, shall forfeit and pay 
 such sum of money, not exceeding five 
 pounds, as to the justice shall seem meet ; 
 provided always, that nothing herein con- 
 tained shall aflect any person taking or kil- 
 ling in the day-time any conies on any sea- 
 bank or river bank in the county of Lincoln, 
 so far as the tide shall extend, or within 
 one furlong of such bank. 
 
 HAREBELL SQUILL, or WILD HY- 
 ACINTH. See Squiel. 
 
 HARE'S TAIL GRASS. (Lagurus 
 ovatus.) A mere annual weed, growing in 
 any soil and situation, but particularly in 
 open sandy fields near the sea ; flowering 
 in June. The root consists of several woolly 
 fibres; stem round, from four to twelve inches 
 in height, with four or five joints, naked, 
 striated, and smooth at the top ; leaves lan- 
 ceolate, acute, many-ribbed, downy on both 
 sides, wavy on the edges, sometimes acute 
 near the base ; sheaths inflated, ribbed, 
 downy ; stipules oblong, embracing, downy ; 
 spikes many-flowered, and woolly from the 
 abundant soft hairs of the calyx. This 
 grass serves, like the Stipa pennata, to de- 
 corate flower-pots in winter ; to which the 
 foreign Briza maxima is a welcome addition. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 167.) 
 
 HARE'S EAR. (Bupleurum.) A very 
 natural and remarkable genus, on account 
 of the leaves being for the most part quite 
 entire. The species indigenous to our 
 islands are all annuals : they are slightly 
 aromatic, and acrid. 1. Common hare's-ear, 
 or thorow-wax (B. rotundifoliuni), flour- 
 ishing in corn-fields, especially on a chalky 
 soil ; flowering in July. The root is small 
 and tapering; the stem erect, round, It aly, 
 branched alternately in the upper part, and 
 somewhat corymbose. Leaves all per- 
 
HARE'S EAR (SHRUBBY). 
 
 HARRIERS. 
 
 foliate, alternate, broadly ovate, scarcely 
 pointed, often purplish, and the margin 
 rather glaucous. Umbels of yellow flowers 
 terminal and compound. The partial bracteas 
 are thrice as long as the flowers, ovate, 
 ribbed, yellowish- green, and bristle-pointed. 
 2. Narrow-leaved hare's-ear (B. odontites). 
 Found on the rocks of the Devonshire coast ; 
 root tapering ; stem wiry, from one to five 
 inches in height; leaves linear lanceolate, 
 sessile, from one to two inches long, lower- 
 most stalked, somewhat spathulate ; flowers 
 cream-coloured, with a tinge of red. Like 
 the rest of its genus, this herb is astringent, 
 with some bitterness. 3. Slender hare's-ear 
 (B. tenuissimum). Grows in muddy salt 
 marshes. Root zigzag ; stem slender, erect, 
 wiry, smooth, from three to twelve inches 
 high ; leaves linear lanceolate, glaucous ; 
 umbels solitary, of about three small yel- 
 loAvish flowers, which blow in August and 
 September. The annual species of hare's- 
 ear merely require sowing in the open 
 border early in spring ; the perennial kinds 
 may be increased by offsets or seeds. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 92 — 95.; Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 HARE'S EAR (SHRUBBY). (Buplea- 
 rum fruticosum.) An evergreen, native of 
 the south of France, growing five or six 
 feet high, and bearing a yellow flower in 
 July and August, which is well suited as 
 an ornamental plant for shrubberies. It 
 may be propagated by cuttings under a 
 glass, or from seed. 
 
 HA RIFF, Goose-Grass, Cliders, 
 Cleavers, or Catchweed. (Galium aparine.) 
 This is an annual plant, with a fibrous root, 
 growing in hedges almost every where. It 
 is found wild even in Nepal. The flowers are 
 small, pale, and buff- coloured, few together, 
 on lateral leafy stalks, and blowing from 
 May to August. The root is fibrous. The 
 stem branched, brittle, supporting itself upon 
 other plants ; often three or four feet long ; 
 the four angles beset with hooked prickles, 
 which are also abundant on the edges and 
 keels of the leaves, by all which the herb 
 sticks to the hands and clothes of those 
 who touch it, as well as to the coats of ani- 
 mals, as do likewise the seeds. The fruit is a 
 double globe, beset with minute, short hooks. 
 The expressed juice of the herb is reckoned 
 anti-scorbutic ; but this is doubtful, as Avell 
 as some imaginary virtues in cancer which 
 have been attributed to it. The roasted 
 seeds are said to be no bad substitute for 
 coffee, to which they are botanically re- 
 lated. 
 
 Three-flowered goose-grass is one of the 
 D a mes of the rough-fruited common bed straw 
 (G. tricorne). (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 pp. 205—210.) 
 
 HARRIERS. A breed of dogs kep 
 
 principally for hunting the hare. There are 
 three prominent varieties of the harrier, — 
 the old southern hound, the modern harrier, 
 and the beagle. Subordinate divisions 
 occur, and a cross breed is used in hunting 
 the otter. The modern harrier is little more 
 than a dwarf fox-hound. The size and form 
 of the harrier, like those of the fox -hound, 
 should be adapted to the nature of the 
 country hunted over. Some sportsmen have 
 a penchant for packs of undersized harriers ; 
 and a gentleman of the name of Harding 
 used to hunt the open grounds about Dor- 
 chester with about seventeen couple, which 
 were not more than sixteen or seventeen 
 inches high. (Blaine's Rural Sports, p. 404.) 
 
 HARRIERS. (Circus.) A kind of 
 hawk, of which two British species may be 
 described. 
 
 1. The marsh harrier (C. rufus), though 
 frequently called a buzzard, is, in conjunc- 
 tion with the species next to be described, 
 immediately distinguished from the true 
 buzzards by the more elongated and slender 
 form of the body, the lengthened, taper, and 
 naked legs, the still greater softness of the 
 plumage, and by the circular disk of short 
 feathers which surrounds the face. 
 
 The marsh harrier, as its name imports, is 
 generally found on low and level lands, or 
 uncultivated heaths and moors. Its flight, 
 though slow, is smooth, performed with ease, 
 but near the ground ; and from the regular 
 manner in which the species of this genus 
 traverse the surface, looking for prey like a 
 dog hunting for game, they have probably 
 acquired the name of harriers. The marsh 
 harrier is said to roost on the ground ; and 
 may be seen sitting on a stone or low bush, 
 seldom on a tree, looking out for objects for 
 food, which it strikes when on the ground ; 
 and is not very particular in its choice, 
 feeding on young rabbits or other small 
 mammalia, birds, preferring water birds, 
 reptiles, and, according to some authors, oc- 
 casionally taking perch and other kinds of 
 fish. The nest is formed on the ground, of 
 small sticks, rushes, or long grass. The eggs 
 are three or four ; white, two inches one line 
 long by one inch six lines broad. 
 
 The whole length of a marsh harrier is 
 from twenty-one to twenty-three inches, 
 depending on the sex of the bird. 
 
 Duck hawk, harpy, and white-headed 
 harpy, are names occasionally bestowed on 
 the marsh harrier. The general colour of 
 the plumage is reddish-brown ; the head 
 and nape of the neck being yellowish-white, 
 tinged with rufous brown. 
 
 2. The hen harrier (C. cyaneus). In this 
 species the old male, from his almost uniform 
 ash-grey colour, is called provincially the 
 dove hawk, or blue hawk, and, on account 
 
HARROW. 
 
 of a supposed partiality to some part of the 
 produce of the farm-yard, by the more ge- 
 neral name of hen harrier. The female, 
 called a ringtail, is brown. See Hawks, 
 Kites, and Buzzards. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 90—94.) 
 
 HARROW. For the chief portion of 
 the following article, I am indebted to the 
 Messrs. Ransome, the celebrated agricul- 
 tural implement makers of Ipswich; than 
 whom no persons can be better acquainted 
 with the construction and uses of different 
 machines and implements for agricultural 
 purposes. This instrument succeeds to the 
 plough in the natural order of description, 
 and in the uses to which it is applicable. Its 
 purpose is to pulverize the ground which 
 has been moved by the plough, to disen- 
 gage from it the weeds and roots which 
 it may contain, or to cover the seeds of the 
 cultivated plants, when sown. The form of 
 the plough has been very different in dif- 
 ferent ages and countries, and there is little 
 resemblance between the rude machines of 
 the ancients and some of those which are 
 now employed ; but the harrow seems to 
 have been nearly of the same form from the 
 earliest times to which we are able to trace 
 it on sculptures, medals, and other remains 
 of antiquity. It is a much more simple 
 machine than the plough, and may even be 
 held to be imperfect in any form in which 
 it can be made ; yet it is an instrument of 
 great utility in tillage, and no other has yet 
 been devised to supersede its use, or to 
 equal it, for many of the purposes to which 
 it is applicable. {Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. i. p. 503.) 
 
 There were various stages in the gradual 
 introduction of the modern harrow. The first 
 implement used by men, for the purpose of 
 covering seed, is generally the branch of a 
 tree ; to these soon succeed more desirable 
 substances, such as beams of wood; and then, 
 again, two or more beams are fastened to- 
 gether : spikes, or teeth, are a much later 
 improvement. Even now, in India (and there 
 the natives but rarely alter their modes of 
 culture or their implements), an instrument 
 is used whieh is intended to produce the 
 combined effects of the roller and the har- 
 row. This, according to Mr. G. W. Johnson, 
 " is nothing more in form than an English 
 liidder made of bamboo, about eighteen feet 
 long, drawn by four bullocks and guided 
 by two men, who, to increase its power, 
 stand upon it, as they direct and urge on 
 the cattle : again and again has it to pass 
 over the same surface, and thus it causes a 
 great waste of time and labour." 
 
 Important as is the operation of harrow - 
 ing, and second only to that of ploughing, 
 it has often appeared to us that these im- 
 GOG 
 
 plements have scarcely obtained the atten- 
 tion which is their due. We here speak 
 less Avith reference to the improvements 
 which have been carried into effect, than to 
 the selection which appears generally to 
 have been made. The operation is in many 
 neighbourhoods so performed as to exhibit 
 a prominent defect, either in the manage- 
 ment of the farm, or in the construction of 
 the implement : perhaps the blame may be 
 fairly shared. It is admitted by all ac- 
 quainted with the subject that harrowing, 
 especially on heavy soils, is the most laborious 
 operation on the farm, — not so much, per- 
 haps, on account of the quantum of power 
 requisite for the draught (though this is 
 sometimes considerable), as for the speed 
 with which the operation is, or ought to be, 
 accompanied ; and yet it is frequently left 
 to the charge of mere boys, and sometimes 
 performed by the worst horses on the farm. 
 If we examine a field, one half of which has 
 been harrowed by weak inefficient horses, 
 and whose pace was consequently sluggish, 
 the other half by an adequate strength and 
 swiftness of animal power, we shall find the 
 former will be rough and unfinished ; the lat- 
 ter, comparatively firm and level, and com- 
 pleted in what would be called a husbandry- 
 like manner. Scarcely any thing in farming 
 is more unsightly than the wavy serpentine 
 traces of inefficient harrowing. The gene- 
 rality of harrows appear to us too heavy 
 and clumsy to admit of that dispatch with- 
 out which the work cannot be well done ; 
 and though it is evident that different soils 
 demand different implements, of propor- 
 tionate weight and power, yet, for the most 
 part, harrows have been rather over than 
 under weighted, particularly when em- 
 ployed after a drill, or to bury seeds of any 
 kind. Harrowing has been so long re- 
 garded as an operation which must be at- 
 tended with considerable horse-labour, that 
 our attention has been turned to the en- 
 quiry, whether this labour might not be 
 greatly reduced by lightening the harrows. 
 Many, we think, would be surprised at the 
 amount of reduction of which seed-harrows, 
 at least, are capable, and where land is clear, 
 to see how effective a gang of very light 
 small-toothed harrows maybe made. Having 
 noticed the perfect manner in which seed 
 corn is covered by a common rake with 
 wooden teeth, in some parts of Norfolk, a 
 friend of ours constructed a gang of harrows 
 on the following plan, and he states that 
 they proved the most popular and useful 
 implement of the kind on the farm. 
 
 The frames are of ash, and as light as 
 possible, the teeth (of iron) being but three 
 inches long, exclusive of the part which 
 enters the wood-work. They screw into 
 
HARROW. 
 
 1 1 1 1 f 1 1 1 
 
 » !!!'!; 
 
 ; jiijiii 
 
 i j 1 1 ! • j 
 
 iiiiMll 
 
 ' i ' ! i .' 1 
 ' ! ! ' 1 1 ! 
 
 '■Mil' 
 
 
 ! j ill 
 r ■ iii 
 
 
 i rt*- 
 
 i 1 1 
 
 i i | i 
 
 ; j 
 
 
 L 1 
 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 I i ! I ( M I j ; ! 
 
 GANG OF HARROWS. 
 
 Scale half an inch to a foot.] 
 
 the balks in the manner shown in the an- 
 nexed figure. 
 
 It will be observed that the above four 
 harrows are amply sufficient to cover a 
 twelve-furrow stetch or ridge of 108 inches, 
 but three will be wide enough for a three- 
 furrow stetch of 90 inches, exclusive of a 
 small portion of the furrows. If for some 
 purposes the teeth be found too thick, every 
 other tooth may be taken out; but for 
 general purposes this will hardly be ne- 
 cessary. The two horses require, on this 
 plan, to be kept quite level ; for if one is 
 suffered to go in advance of the other, a 
 diagonal line is produced, by which the 
 teeth will be made to follow each other, 
 instead of cutting fresh ground. We are 
 
 aware that, by the usual construction of 
 harrows, a diagonal line of draught is re- 
 quired, in order to throw the teeth into a 
 proper working position ; but we are 
 strongly inclined to the opinion, that the 
 due execution of the implement ought to 
 depend on its construction, and not on any 
 particular mode of working it. Besides, the 
 system of keeping one horse in advance of 
 his partner is bad in principle ; it is an 
 unequal division of labour, the fore-horse 
 being compelled to do more than his share 
 of the work, which, under any circum- 
 stances, is always heavy enough. We have 
 stated that the above set of harrows are of 
 wood. Their extraordinary lightness ren- 
 ders this necessary ; but, for general pur- 
 poses, we prefer those made of iron, the 
 weight of which can be increased to any 
 reasonable degree without adding much to 
 their substance. This is important in 
 working tenacious clays, which, by ad- 
 hering to the clumsy wooden balks, con- 
 siderably increase the labour, and at the 
 same time impede the proper execution. 
 
 IRON HARROWS. 
 
 G07 
 
HARROW. 
 
 In an experiment made between a pair 
 of wooden harrows and a pair of iron ones, 
 constructed on the same plan, having the 
 same number, and precisely the same dis- 
 position of the teeth and bulks, although 
 the iron were found to be 20 lbs. lighter 
 than the wooden ones, yet they worked 
 decidedly better and steadier than the 
 latter ; in fact they cut into the land, while 
 the wooden ones rode, or rather danced, on 
 the surface. 
 
 We will now take up the consideration 
 of the length and position of harrow teeth. 
 The common plan is to set them spring- 
 ing a little forward, and gradually in- 
 creasing in length from the fore to the 
 hind row. We think there is no advan- 
 tage in this, but the contrary ; for, if the 
 action of harrows so constructed be care- 
 fully examined, it will be found the re- 
 verse of what it ought to be, — the hind 
 part will be thrown up, and the fore teeth, 
 short as they are, will have to do all the 
 work. In some experiments made with 
 harrows, the fallacy of the idea, that an 
 inequality in the length of the teeth was 
 essential to the proper working of har- 
 rows, was made evident. For this purpose, 
 a harrow was constructed on the old- 
 fashioned plan of unequal and springing 
 teeth in front ; the whole of the teeth 
 pointing backwards instead of forwards. 
 Nothing could work better : there were 
 no chucks and snatches, but all went on 
 smoothly and steadily. We do not, from 
 this circumstance, recommend harrows to 
 be so constructed, but we have no doubt 
 that each harrow should have all its teeth 
 
 of equal length, and should stand perpen- 
 dicularly from the balk. 
 
 Armstrong s Harrows. — These instruments 
 differ from others in the form of their balks 
 or framing, which are of iron, and of a zig- 
 zag shape, so arranged that the tooth or 
 tine shall be fixed at each angle, in such 
 manner that the lines formed by them shall 
 be equidistant over the breadth of the land 
 they are intended to cover. They can be 
 adapted either for heavy or light work. 
 
 We now proceed to give a brief descrip- 
 tion of some other implements intended for 
 the same operation, but of a more elaborate 
 character. 
 
 Mortoris Revolving Brake- Harrow. — This 
 is an ingenious, and, on light sandy soils, a 
 very effective implement. The principle is 
 somewhat similar to that of the haymaking 
 machine ; except that in place of the surface, 
 it goes to the very bottom of the furrows, 
 bringing up a far greater quantity of weeds 
 than any fixed harrow could be expected 
 to accomplish. One of these implements was 
 some years ago in use on Lord Leicester's 
 estate, at Holkham, and many were struck 
 with its singular capabilities for clearing 
 and pulverizing the soil. It seemed to us 
 admirably calculated for its intended pur- 
 pose ; and we have no doubt, that the quan- 
 tity of rubbish it brings un to the surface 
 must supersede the necessity of an extra 
 ploughing ; still, with all its merits, it does 
 not appear to have made much way in En- 
 gland, for, with the above exception, we do 
 not remember to have seen one at work. 
 
 Vaux's patent Revolving Harrow for agri- 
 cultural Purposes. — Of this implement we 
 
 BOTTOM OF FURROW 
 
 008 
 
 VAUX 9 REVOLVING HARROW. 
 
HARTE (WALTER). 
 
 subjoin a sketch, taken from the specification 
 of his patent obtained in 1836, by which its 
 construction and mode of working will be 
 clearly seen. It has this important feature, 
 that one part of the apparatus, by its rotatory 
 motion, serves to clear the other part. 
 
 BiddelTs Extirpating Harrow. — This is a 
 new implement, somewhat on the principle 
 of Biddell's scarifier, and invented by Arthur 
 Biddell of Playford. It is intended for 
 breaking up land when it is too hard for the 
 heaviest harrows, and for bringing winter 
 fallows into a state of fine tillage. In work- 
 ing summer lands, by the shape of its teeth, 
 it is calculated to bring to the surface all 
 
 HARTLIB (SAMUEL). 
 
 grass and rubbish ; it will also be found ge- 
 nerally useful for accomplishing fine tillage. 
 The tines may be either used with points 
 or with steel hoes ; and with the latter the 
 skimming, or, as it is frequently called, the 
 " broad-share " process, may be quickly ac- 
 complished. The weight is not found to be 
 a disadvantage, but the contrary ; and being 
 borne on high wheels, it does not require so 
 much horse-labour as might be supposed. 
 It is at present but in limited operation, al- 
 though highly valued by those who have 
 made use of it. The following is a sketch 
 of this harrow obtained from one in use. 
 
 biddell's extirpating harrow. 
 
 Mr. Amos, in an essay on agricultural 
 implements in the Com. to Board of Agr. 
 vol. v ". p. 461., describes a new set of harrows 
 for harrowing moist land without the horses 
 treading it ; but their construction does not 
 appear of sufficient merit to entitle them to 
 notice in the present day. 
 
 HARTE (WALTER), was born at Kent- 
 bury in Buckinghamshire, about 1697, and 
 died in 1768. He was educated at Marl- 
 borough School and at St. Mary's Hall, Ox- 
 ford, where, in 1 720, he took his Master's de- 
 gree : he became Vice-Principal of the Hall, 
 and a canon of Windsor. He was also 
 vicar of St. Austle and St. Blaze, Cornwall. 
 He published " A History of Gustavus 
 Adolphus," several poems, &c, but is re- 
 corded here as being author of " Essays on 
 Husbandry, and a Treatise on Lucern. 
 By W. H., Canon of Windsor. Plates. 1764 
 and 1770." 
 
 Every reader must agree with Dr. John- 
 son in considering these essays " good." 
 (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Gard.) 
 HARTLIB (SAMUEL), came to England 
 609 
 
 about 1630, though Warton places his ar- 
 rival ten years later, which is certainly an 
 error, as he is known to have been intimate 
 with Archbishop Usher and Joseph Mede, 
 long previous to that year. He was the son 
 of a Poland merchant, settled at Elbing ir 
 Prussia. He carried on an extensive agency 
 business, and assisted in establishing the 
 embryo of the Royal Society. He wrote se- 
 veral theological tracts ; and was intimate 
 with Milton, who dedicated to him his 
 " Tractate on Education," on which topic 
 likewise Sir William Petty corresponded 
 with him. Towards the close of his days 
 he became poor, and applied to the par- 
 liament for relief. Cromwell allowed him 
 an annuity of 100/. The time of his death 
 is not recorded. He was the esteemed as- 
 sociate of the talented men of his time. 
 He deserves our attention from being a 
 great promoter of the art of cultivating the 
 earth. He wrote, 
 
 1. A Legacy ; or an Enlargement of the Discourse of 
 Husbandry used in Brabant and Flanders. 1650, 1C51, 
 and 1C55. 4to. He also edited a work, the MS. of which 
 was given to him by the Hon. Colonel John Barkstead, 
 R R 
 
HART'S TONGUE. 
 
 HARVESTING. 
 
 Lieutenant of the Tower, the author of which was an 
 old clergyman, at Loving-land, near Yarmouth ; it is 
 entitled, 2. A De6igne for Plentie, by an universall Plant- 
 ing of Fruit Trees ; tendered by some Wel-wishers to 
 the rublic. 4to. No date. 3. Concerning the Defects 
 and Remedies of English Husbandry, in a Letter to Dr. 
 Beati. London- 1C51- 4to. An edition in 1659 is en- 
 titled " The Compleat Husbandman ; or a Discourse of 
 the whole Art of Husbandry," &c. 
 
 " The famous work," says Weston, " attri- 
 buted to Hartlib, and called 4 The Legacy,' 
 was only drawn up at his request, being 
 corrected and revised by him. It consists 
 of one general answer to the query — What 
 are the actual defects and omissions, as also 
 the possible improvements, in English hus- 
 bandry ? The real author was R. Child ; 
 it contains the contributions of most of 
 the persons eminent for agricultural skill at 
 that period. (G. W. Johnsons Hist, of 
 Gard. ; Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. xii. p. 312.) 
 
 HART'S TONGUE. (Scolopendrium, 
 from scolopendra, a centipede, in allusion to 
 the appearance of the underside of the fronds.) 
 Of this fern there are two indigenous species, 
 both perennials. 
 
 The common hart's tongue (S. vulgare), 
 which grows frequent on moist rocks, shady 
 banks, old walls, the insides of wells, deserted 
 mines, or other caverns, where there is a 
 current of cold damp air. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in July. The root is tufted or 
 slightly creeping, the fronds are numerous, 
 tufted, erect, twelve or eighteen inches high, 
 stalked, lanceolate, acute, of a full grass 
 green. When bruised, the whole plant has 
 a nauseous scent : to the taste it is mucila- 
 ginous and acrid. Although formerly used 
 in medicine, yet it possesses no medicinal 
 powers. 
 
 The scaly hart's-tongue, or rough spleen- 
 wort (S. ceterach), is less common, and 
 grows on limestone rocks or old walls. The 
 root is fibrous, black, and tufted. The 
 fronds are from three to six inches high, of 
 a deep, slightly glaucous, opaque green. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 314.) 
 
 HART- WORT. (Tordylium.) Of this 
 genus there are two native species, both 
 uninteresting annuals. 
 
 1. The small hart-wort (T. officinale) is 
 met with sometimes in cultivated fields, but 
 very rarely in England ; being generally 
 confounded with the greater hart-wort. The 
 root is small and tapering, the stem generally 
 branched, a little spreading, from ten to 
 fourteen inches high, clothed with soft de- 
 flexed hairs. The leaves rough and hairy, 
 simply pinnate. The stalks are surmounted 
 by dense umbels of crowded white flowers. 
 
 2. The great hart-wort (T. maximum), 
 is found growing occasionally on banks and 
 waste grounds. It is larger in habit than 
 the preceding ; the stem rising three or 
 four feet high, blowing reddish flowers. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 103.) 
 
 HARVEST. (Germ, herbst.) In agri- 
 culture, the period at which any crop is 
 reaped. The term is more commonly ap- 
 plied to the crops of corn or hay, though 
 it might, with propriety, be applied to the 
 potato crops, or to hops and other field 
 products. 
 
 HARVEST-HOME. A sort of feast 
 given by the farmer, after harvest, to the 
 labourers and others that have assisted in 
 cutting and securing the crops. The term 
 is sometimes also applied to the song made 
 use of on the occasion. 
 
 HARVESTING. The operation of pul- 
 ling, cutting, rooting up, or gathering field 
 crops, and drying, or otherwise preparing 
 them for being stored up for winter use. 
 The first harvest which occurs in Britain and 
 similar climates is that of the forage grasses, 
 or other plants made into hay ; the next is 
 the harvest of cereal grasses, or of corn 
 crops ; and the third, the potato harvest, 
 or harvest of root crops, such as potatoes, 
 carrots, turnips, mangel-wurzel, &c. There 
 is also the harvest of occasional crops ; such 
 as that of rape-seed, turnip-seed, dyer's- 
 woad, hemp, flax, and various other articles. 
 The commencement of harvest is necessarily 
 regulated by the state of the weather, and 
 varies in different seasons, even when the 
 weather is favourable, from the middle of 
 July to the end of August ; while, in some 
 years, and in exposed situations, it is still 
 later. It is, therefore, an object of import- 
 ance to the farmer to ascertain the exact 
 time when it may be begun, for he must 
 employ extra hands to perform the work ; 
 and as it only lasts during a comparatively 
 short period, they receive high wages, and 
 are maintained at heavy cost. It is also 
 attended with the most anxious solicitude, 
 for it is a business which cannot be for a 
 moment neglected ; and the man who wishes 
 to get it rightly managed, must superintend 
 it, without intermission, from the dawn of the 
 day until its final close. He should previ- 
 ously get rid of all other work, and make 
 every preparation for the due performance 
 of this ; the barns should be thoroughly 
 swept out, both roof, walls, and floors ; the 
 stack-frames repaired, and every tool should 
 be in complete condition. The straw-bands 
 should be in readiness for tying the sheaves, 
 as well as the ropes for securing the stacks ; 
 and arrangements should be made in the 
 house for the regular supply of whatever is 
 to be furnished to the labourers, so that 
 every unnecessary delay may be avoided. 
 The strictest order should also be main- 
 tained ; but the work will never be well 
 performed, unless it be conducted with per- 
 fect good temper. Fortunately, the crops 
 do not usually ripen at the same precise 
 
HARVEST-MOON. 
 
 HATTOCK. 
 
 Period ; that of rye being the earliest, and 
 wheat about a fortnight later ; some of the 
 early species of oats and barley come in be- 
 tween the rye and wheat ; but barley more 
 generally comes afterwards, followed by 
 some of the later kinds of oats. Grain, if 
 not reaped until the straw is wholly yellow, 
 will be more than ripe ; as the ear generally, 
 except in late seasons, ripens before the en- 
 tire of the straw, and it is observable that 
 the first reaped usually affords the heaviest 
 and the fairest sample. 
 
 The indications of ripeness in corn are 
 few and simple. When the straw exhibits 
 a bright golden colour from the bottom of 
 the stem nearly to the ear, or when the 
 ear begins to bend gently, the corn may 
 be cut. But, — as the whole crop will not 
 be equally ripe at the same time, — if, on 
 walking through the field, and selecting the 
 greenest heads, the kernels can be separated 
 from the chaff when rubbed through the 
 hands, it is a sure sign that the grain is then 
 out of its milky state, and may be reaped 
 with safety ; for although the straw may be 
 green to some distance downwards from the 
 ear, yet if it be quite yellow from the bot- 
 tom upwards, the grain then wants no fur- 
 ther nourishment from the earth, and, if 
 properly harvested, it will not shrink. These 
 tokens will be found to sufficiently indicate 
 the ripeness of wheat, barley, and oats ; but 
 that of rye arises from the straw losing some 
 of its golden hue, and becoming paler. 
 
 The usual practice in England is to cut 
 down all corn before it is quite ripe, and to 
 leave it in shocks, or, in the case of barley, 
 on the ledge, until the grain is perfectly 
 matured and hardened ; and the same prac- 
 tice prevails in Scotland. Experience, how- 
 ever, has occasioned a remarkable distinction 
 in the mode of harvesting barley in the two 
 portions of Great Britain, just mentioned. 
 In England, barley is usually cut with the 
 scythe, treated like hay in the saving, and 
 put loose into the rick or mow. In Scotland 
 it is cut, as in Ireland, generally with the 
 reaping-hook, and when sufficiently dry, 
 bound up and stacked. The cause of this 
 different treatment is, the difference of cli- 
 mate. There is an article by Mr. Geo. 
 Stephens, Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. 
 p. 636., on the method of preserving corn 
 as practised in Sweden, which may be con- 
 sulted with advantage by the farmer. The 
 custom alluded to is that of fixing fifteen or 
 sixt een sheaves of corn on high stakes placed 
 in the ground, which is said to dry the corn 
 and benefit the grass. (Brandes Diet, of 
 Science; Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 186. ; Bract. 
 Husb.) See Barley, Reaping, Wheat, &c. 
 
 HARVEST-MOON. That lunation 
 about harvest time, when the moon at full 
 611 
 
 rises nearly at the same hour for several 
 nights. 
 
 HARVEST MOUSE. (Mus messorius.) 
 The smallest of British quadrupeds is sup- 
 posed to be the harvest mouse, hitherto found 
 only in Hampshire, and which is so dimi- 
 nutive, that two of them put into a scale 
 just weighed down one copper halfpenny. 
 One of the nests of these little animals was 
 procured by Mr. White. It was most arti- 
 ficially platted, and composed of wheat 
 blades, and perfectly round, about the size 
 of a cricket ball. It was so compact and 
 well filled, that it would roll across a 
 table without being discomposed, though it 
 contained eight young ones. This won- 
 derful cradle was found in a wheat field 
 suspended in the head of a thistle. See 
 Field vole. 
 
 HASEL, HAZEL, or STOCK NUT. 
 (Corylus avellana.) This small bushy tree is 
 common every where in our hedges and 
 copses, and also grows wild in most parts 
 of Eiirope. The leaves are two inches 
 wide, doubly serrated, light green, downy, 
 especially beneath. The catkins are barren, 
 clustered, or panicled, greyish, long, and 
 pendulous, opening in the early spring, be- 
 fore the leaves appear, and, indeed, formed 
 during the preceding autumn. The ovate 
 scaly buds, containing the fertile flowers, 
 become conspicuous at the same time by 
 their tufts of crimson stigmas. The nuts, 
 two or three from each bud, are sessile, 
 roundish- ovate, half covered by the jagged 
 outer calyx of their respective flowers, 
 greatly enlarged, and permanent. The 
 wood of the hasel-tree is used for making- 
 hoops, for casks, hurdles, crates, springles to 
 fasten down thatch, fishing-rods, &c. It is 
 also reported to make excellent charcoal for 
 drawing, of the preparation of which, and of 
 the whole history of this plant, Dr. Hooker 
 gives a full account, annexed to an admir- 
 able figure. It was formerly much used for 
 making gunpowder. {Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 157.) See Filbert. 
 
 In the country where yeast is scarce, 
 they twist the slender branches of hasel 
 together, and steep them in ale yeast during 
 its fermentation ; they are then hung up to 
 dry, and at the next brewing are put into 
 the wort instead of yeast. The chips of this 
 wood are used to fine wines. (Fhillipss 
 Fruits.) 
 
 HATCHING. See Incubation. 
 
 HATTOCK. A shock of corn, consisting 
 of six, eight, ten, or twelve sheaves, so set 
 together that they may be protected from 
 the effects of the weather. This is gene- 
 rally accomplished by two of the sheaves, 
 which are termed hooders, being opened 
 in the middle, and placed over the others 
 r r 2 
 
HAUGH. 
 
 HAWKBIT. 
 
 and together, when they are, as it were, 
 thatched. 
 
 HAUGH, or HAW. A term used in 
 the northern parts of the kingdom to sig- 
 nify the low flat-lying tracts of land on the 
 sides of rivers, which are often liable to be 
 covered with water. 
 
 HAULM. A name given to the stalks 
 of beans and pease. When well harvested 
 these form a very hearty species of fodder. 
 The stalk of the beans is indeed tough, and 
 somewhat woody, and is therefore com- 
 monly thrown out as farm-yard litter; 
 but the coving chaff is very good manger- 
 meat ; and even the stalk, if bruised 
 and cut, and then steamed, would be found 
 useful in a farm-stable. 
 
 Pea haulm is very generally given as 
 rack meat to cart-horses, instead of hay, 
 for which purpose it is well adapted, being 
 succulent and nutritious, and nearly as 
 much relished as hay ; although it may not 
 go quite so far, yet there is great saving in 
 its use. But both these and all other kinds 
 of straw haulm should be given as fresh 
 as possible from the flail, for they grow 
 brittle, and lose a portion of whatever sap 
 they possess, by exposure to the air ; if 
 long kept, they grow musty, and in that 
 state neither are wholesome nor will be 
 eaten by horses. Pea haulm should be given 
 cautiously, as it is flatulent, and apt to occa- 
 sion colic : it is also said to be productive of 
 bots ; but that, if true, is not so peculiar a 
 property as to prevent its use. Sheep are 
 extremely fond of haulm ; so much so, 
 indeed, that it is by no means uncommon 
 for farmers who keep large flocks to grow 
 pease chiefly with a view to it as winter 
 food in pinching seasons; the seed being, 
 in that case, generally sown broadcast, both 
 to preserve the succulence of the haulm, 
 and to save the trouble of the drill culture. 
 {Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 133. ; vol. ii. pp.219. 
 463.) See Pease and Beans. 
 
 HAVER. A name given to oats (par- 
 ticularly to wild oats) in some parts of the 
 kingdom ; hence, haver meal is meal made 
 from oats by grinding and sifting through 
 a proper sieve for the purpose. In some 
 parts of Scotland, a thick oat cake is used, 
 and called a haver meal bannock. 
 
 HAWFINCH. (Coccothraustes t vul- 
 garis.} This bird was formerly considered 
 to be an accidental visiter, appearing only 
 in winter; but it is now ascertained to 
 exist in very considerable numbers, in 
 many different localities, and to be resident 
 there the whole of the year. Their prin- 
 cipal food appears to be the seed of the 
 horn-bean; and they also feed on the 
 kernels of the haws, plum-stones, laurel 
 1 tcri ies, &c, and in summer make great 
 612 
 
 havoc amongst green peas in gardens. The 
 hawfinch builds its nest in branches of trees, 
 from twenty-five to thirty feet from the 
 ground ; the nest is composed of dead twigs 
 of oak, honeysuckle, &c. intermixed with 
 pieces of grey lichen, fine roots, and a little 
 hair. The eggs vary in number from four 
 to six, and are of a pale olive green, spotted 
 with black, and singularly streaked with 
 dusky grey, 11 lines long by 8^ lines in 
 breadth. The beak of the hawfinch is blue, 
 upper part of head and neck fawn colour, 
 chin and throat velvet black; back rich 
 chestnut brown ; sides of the neck, breast, 
 and belly, pale nutmeg brown. The whole 
 length of the bird is full seven inches. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 483.) 
 
 HAWKBIT. {Apargia.) A genus of 
 herbaceous plants of easy culture. The 
 indigenous species, are as follows : — 
 
 1. Rough hawkbit {A. hispida), growing 
 plentifully in pastures, especially on chalk 
 or lime-stone, flowering in July. Root 
 tapering, long and slender, externally black- 
 ish. Leaves lanceolate, oblong, reversely, 
 irregularly dentated, clothed on both 
 sides with prominent hairs. The flowers 
 drooping in the bud, erect when expanded, 
 bright yellow, smaller than the common 
 dandelion. Down sessile, feathery rays 
 unequal. 
 
 2. Deficient hawkbit (A. hirta), perennial, 
 flowering in July and August. Smaller 
 than the last, growing on gravelly heaths 
 and commons. The root abrupt, and not 
 tapering ; leaves slightly dentated ; flowers 
 small, yellow, but red underneath. 
 
 3. Dandelion hawkbit (A. taraxaci). This 
 species is mostly confined to the Highlands 
 of Scotland and Wales, where it grows in 
 moist situations, flowering in August. The 
 stalks, one or more, are erect, ascending from 
 three to six inches high, swelling, and very 
 hairy at the top. 
 
 4. Autumnal hawkbit (A. autumnalis). 
 This species is a very common and trouble- 
 some weed in all meadows and pastures. It 
 varies very much in luxuriance, and is often 
 found thriving in extremely poor land 
 newly turned up. The root is abrupt, with 
 very long simple, lateral fibres. Leaves 
 several, almost entirely radical, lanceolate, 
 deeply and unequally toothed or pinnatifid. 
 The stalks are several, ascending or spread- 
 ing, branched, from six to eighteen inches 
 high. Each stalk is hollow internally, con- 
 taining a loose white cottony tuft. The 
 flowers are bright yellow, not large, often 
 reddish underneath. As these are all per- 
 ennial weeds and encumber the ground, 
 they should be rooted up in spring. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 350.) 
 
 11AWKLUNG. See IIawkweed. 
 
HAWKS. 
 
 HAWK'S BEARD. 
 
 HAWK OWL. See Owl. 
 
 HAWKS. The following are the prin- 
 cipal hawks met with in the British Islands. 
 The kestrel or kestril (F. tinnunculus), is 
 one of the most common species of the Bri- 
 tish Falconidae, and from its peculiar habits 
 which place it very often in view, it is also 
 one of the best known. It is handsome in 
 shape, attractive in colour, and graceful in 
 its motions in the air. It is best known, 
 and that, too, at any moderate distance, by 
 its habit of sustaining itself in the air in the 
 same place, by means of a short but rapid 
 motion of the wings, while its powerful eyes 
 search the surface beneath for mice of dif- 
 ferent species, which form by far the most 
 considerable part of its food. It has ac- 
 quired the name of windhover from this 
 habit of remaining with outspread tail sus- 
 pended in the air, the head on these occa- 
 sions always pointing to windward ; and it 
 is also called stone-gall, which Mr. Mudie 
 suggests should be written stand-gale from 
 the same habit. It is sometimes known as 
 the stannel hawk. Besides mice, it occasion- 
 ally feeds on small birds, and coleopterous 
 insects, their larvae, and earthworms. In 
 spring, the kestril frequently takes posses- 
 sion of the nest of a crow or magpie, or else 
 builds in high rocks, or on old towers and 
 ruins, laying four or five eggs of a dark 
 reddish brown, about one inch seven lines 
 long, by one inch three lines across. The 
 whole length of the kestril is from thirteen 
 to fifteen inches, depending on the sex. The 
 general colour of the plumage is reddish 
 fawn colour, the beak blue, the legs and toes 
 yellow. 
 
 The merlin (jP. oesalon) is the smallest of 
 the hawks, but it is also one of the most ac- 
 tive and beautiful. Although little larger 
 than a blackbird, such is its power and de- 
 termination, that it can kill a partridge at a 
 single pounce. The more common food of 
 this species is small birds. 
 
 The merlin occasionally builds on rocks, 
 but most commonly makes its nest on the 
 ground, laying four or five eggs, mottled 
 with reddish brown, and measuring one inch 
 seven lines in length, by one inch three lines 
 in breadth. The merlin measures from ten 
 to twelve inches in length. In North Wales 
 and several other countries, this bird is 
 known by the name of stone falcon. The 
 wings of this hawk reach nearly to the tip of 
 the tail, which is marked with alternate 
 dusky and pale bars. The upper part of 
 the body is tinged with a dark bluish grey : 
 the lower parts are of a light reddish colour. 
 
 The goshawk (F. pcdumbarius) is the 
 only common species of this country. In- 
 ferior in powers to the falcons, though equal 
 in size to the largest of them, the goshawk 
 613 
 
 is yet the best of the short-winged hawks. 
 As it flies low and takes its prey near the 
 ground,the females pounce frequently at hares 
 and rabbits, and the males, which are much 
 smaller, at partridges. A full-grown female 
 measures from twenty-three to twenty-four 
 inches in length ; the males one fourth, and 
 sometimes one third, less. The general co- 
 lour of the plumage is dark greyish brown. 
 
 The sparrow-hawk (Accipiter fringilla- 
 rius) has been aptly termed a goshawk in 
 miniature. In most of the wooded districts 
 the sparrow-hawk is a common and well 
 known species ; bold, active, vigilant, and 
 destructive, a dangerous enemy to small 
 quadrupeds and young birds, upon which 
 they subsist, and are so daring during the 
 season in which their own nestlings require 
 to be provided with food, as frequently to 
 venture among the outbuildings of the farm 
 houses, where they have been observed to 
 fly low, skim over the poultry yard, snatch 
 up a chick, and get off with it in an instant. 
 The sparrow-hawk lays four or five eggs, 
 generally in the old or deserted nest of 
 some other bird. The eggs are about one 
 inch seven lines long, by one inch four lines 
 broad, pale bluish white, blotched, and spotted 
 with dark red brown. The adult male mea- 
 sures about twelve inches in length ; the fe- 
 male is usually three inches longer than the 
 male. The general colour of the plumage 
 is a rich dark brown ; the breast, belly, and 
 throat, lighter, striped with dark transverse 
 bars. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 48 — 
 65.) See Buzzards, Falcons, Harriers, 
 
 HAWK'S BEARD. (Crepis.) The in- 
 digenous species of this genus are : — 
 
 1. Stinking hawk's-beard, (C.fcetida). A 
 rare biennial plant, found on dry chalky 
 ground. The root is tapering, the herb 
 light green, moderately hairy all over, very 
 milky with a strong smell of bitter almonds ; 
 stems several, spreading, a foot or more in 
 height. The flowers, which are pale yellow, 
 of a delicate red underneath, droop in the 
 bud, and, after expansion, close very early in 
 the day. 
 
 2. Small flowered hawk's-beard (C. pul- 
 chra.) This is also a rare species, found oc- 
 casionally on rocky hills in Scotland. The 
 herbage is finely downy, milky, varying 
 much in luxuriance. Stem from one to two 
 feet high, panicled above. Flower solitary 
 at the extremities of the branches, small 
 yellow, closing about noon. 
 
 3. Smooth or succory hawk's-beard. (C. 
 tectorum.) A very common annual species 
 found growing almost everywhere, parti- 
 cularly in dry pastures, meadows, and waste 
 ground, as also on cottage roofs, old walls, 
 and banks. The root is tapering, and milky 
 
 r r 3 
 
HAWK WEED . 
 
 HAY. 
 
 like the rest of the plant. The stem from 
 one to two feet high, branched and furrowed. 
 The bright yellow flower is much smaller 
 than those of any other common plant of 
 this tribe. The herb is very variable in 
 shape, luxuriance, and smoothness, but is, 
 for the most part, of a deep shining green, 
 nearly smooth. 
 
 4. Rough hawk's beard. (C. biennis.) 
 This species is biennial, and grows in chalky 
 pastures. The root is spindle-shaped, stem 
 three or four feet high, erect, stout, hollow, 
 leafy, corymbose, very strongly furrowed. 
 The large flowers are lemon-coloured, red- 
 dish underneath. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. 
 iii. p. 370.) 
 
 HAWKWEED. (Hieracium, from hierax, 
 a hawk, being supposed to sharpen the sight 
 of birds of prey.) A very numerous per- 
 ennial genus, generally inhabiting moun- 
 tainous or woody situations. They are, for 
 the most part, pretty flowering plants, with 
 yellow blossoms, but a great number are 
 mere weeds. The herbage, in general, is 
 milky, and more or less bitter ; but these 
 qualities are, in some instances, hardly per- 
 ceptible. The dwarf herbaceous kinds are 
 remarkably adapted for rock work, or the 
 front of .flower borders, the taller kinds at 
 the back : they may be increased by seeds, 
 or divisions. The annual species need only 
 be sown in the open border. 
 
 Sir J. E. Smith describes no less than 
 eighteen distinct indigenous species, which 
 it would carry me too far into detail to 
 particularise. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 354 — 
 370. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 HAWKWEED, SMOOTH SUCCORY. 
 See Hawk's-beard. 
 
 HAWTHORN, WHITETHORN, or 
 MAY. (Mespilus oxyacantha.) A common 
 small tree, or shrub, but beautiful in its ap- 
 pearance, and fragrant in odour. The haw- 
 thorn grows almost every where in thickets, 
 copses, hedges, and high open fields. The 
 wood is very hard, with a smooth, blackish 
 bark, and, like the whitebeam hawthorn, 
 (Pyrus aria), is converted into axle trees and 
 handles of tools. The branches have lateral 
 sharp awl-shaped thorns. The leaves are 
 alternate, deciduous, on longish slender 
 stalks ; smooth, deep green, veiny, an inch 
 or two long, tapering at the base, or wedge- 
 shaped, and more or less deeply three-lobed, 
 with crescent-shaped stipules. The flowers 
 arc corymbose, terminal, white, occasionally 
 pink or almost scarlet. The fruit (called 
 haws) is mealy, insipid, dark red, occasion- 
 ally yellow, furrowed externally, and very 
 hard. Birds are fed with the fruit all the 
 winter long; but the haws may be more 
 usefully employed in fattening hogs. In 
 Kamschatka they are eaten by the peasants, 
 614 
 
 and fermented into wine. The common haw- 
 thorn blows in May, and can be propagated 
 from seed, which must be kept in sand 
 through the winter, and sown in spring. 
 The young plants will be fit to place out in 
 two years. There are several varieties of 
 this species, among others the celebrated 
 Glastonbury thorn, which blossoms some- 
 times as early as Christmas. The double 
 blossomed hawthorn is one of the greatest 
 ornaments of our pleasure-grounds, whether 
 it be kept as a shrub, or trained as a tree. 
 
 The yellow-berried hawthorn, which was 
 originally brought from Virginia, has a dou- 
 ble recommendation to the shrubbery, for 
 its buds are of a fine yellow in the spring, 
 and its fruit, which is of the colour of pure 
 gold, hang on the branches nearly the whole 
 of the winter, giving great variety to the 
 plantation. Evergreens should never be 
 planted without a few of these shrubs being 
 intermixed, to enliven them in the winter 
 months. The hawthorn is peculiarly adapted 
 for small lawns or paddocks, where larger 
 trees cannot be admitted. When standing 
 singly, the hawthorn often reaches to the 
 height of twenty-five or thirty feet, with a 
 trunk from four to eight feet in circumfe- 
 rence. 
 
 In husbandry, these shrubs are called 
 quicksets ; and when kept well cut, they 
 form hedges, scarcely less impregnable than 
 those composed of holly. The clipping of 
 hedges and trimming of trees is certainly 
 advantageous to the farmer, although it 
 adds nothing to the beauty of rural scenery. 
 Hawthorn hedges appear to have come into 
 use about the time of Charles II. ; as Evelyn 
 observes in his Sylva, " I have been told of 
 a gentleman who has considerably improved 
 his revenue, by sowing haws only and rais- 
 ing nurseries of quicksets, which he sells by 
 the hundred, far and near. This is a com- 
 mendable industry, and any neglected cor- 
 ner of ground will fit this plantation. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 359. ; Phil- 
 lips's Sylva Flor. vol. i. p. 260.) 
 
 HAY. (Germ, hew, Du. hovi.) Any 
 kind of grass cut and dried as fodder for 
 cattle. Hay constitutes the chief depen- 
 dence of the farmer and others as winter 
 food for their horses and cattle. The sale * 
 of hay within the bills of mortality, and 
 thirty miles round the cities of London 
 and Westminster, is regulated by the act 
 36 Geo. 3. c. 88. It enacts, that all J m y 
 shall be sold by the load of 36 trusses, each 
 truss weighing 56 lbs., except new hay, 
 which is to weigh 60 lbs. till the 4th of Sep- 
 tember, and afterwards 56 lbs. only ; so that 
 till the 4th of September, a load of hay 
 weighs exactly a ton, but thereafter only 
 18 cwt. There are three public markets in 
 
HAY. 
 
 HAY-MAKING. 
 
 the metropolis for the sale of hay and straw, 
 Whitechapel, Smithfield, and the Hay- 
 market. (M'-CullocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 When horses are fed on hay, it is a matter 
 of dispute whether the light and apparently 
 acrid grass of uplands, or that of more fertile 
 natural meadow ground, or the rich produce 
 of the artificial grasses, is to be preferred. 
 This must, however, depend on the quantity 
 of corn with which they are supplied. When 
 that is abundantly furnished there can be 
 no doubt that the former will be found 
 better for their general health, and espe- 
 cially for their wind ; but as farm horses 
 are usually limited in their consumption of 
 grain, and the slowness of their movements 
 renders the clearness of their wind a matter 
 of comparatively little moment, the other 
 kinds will be found the best adapted to sup- 
 port their strength. In gentlemen's sta- 
 bles no other than meadow hay is generally 
 admitted ; and it is in all respects the best. 
 But farmers find more profitable uses for it 
 in. the feeding of fatting stock and cows ; 
 and clover, either alone or with rye-grass, 
 sainfoin, or tare hay, though coarser, an- 
 swers every necessary purpose for farm 
 horses, more especially when cut into chaff, 
 and used along with straw. Sainfoin is 
 commonly esteemed the first, and clover the 
 next, in quality, but tare hay, if well made, 
 is very hearty food. Old hay, as having 
 longer undergone that slow process of fer- 
 mentation by which the sugar that it con- 
 tains is developed, is far more nutritive and 
 wholesome than new hay. Mow burnt hay 
 is more injurious to horses than to any other 
 of the domestic animals, and is a fruitful 
 source of disease. (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. 
 p. 136. 148. ; The Horse, p. 357.) 
 
 It is an excellent plan, especially when 
 hay has been exposed to continued wet wea- 
 ther, to add to it a portion of common salt. 
 It not only induces live stock to consume it 
 with avidity, but it prevents mouldiness or 
 mow burning ; it is usual to put about half 
 a bushel of salt to every load of hay ; it may 
 be spread by hand, or through a sieve. Mr. 
 Woods, of Ingatestone, in Essex, has em- 
 ployed it for thirty years ; his plain unvar- 
 nished statement need not be supported by 
 any other. He says, " I use about a quarter 
 of a peck at each laying, thinly spread, which 
 I find is about four bushels to a stack of 
 twenty loads. I am fully satisfied that 
 double the quantity would be much better. 
 In a particularly wet season, a few years 
 since, I used twelve bushels to a stack of 
 forty loads, the whole of which was con- 
 sumed by my own horses, and I never had 
 them in better condition. I am so fully 
 convinced of the benefit of salt to hay, that 
 while it is allowed duty free, I shall use it 
 615 
 
 in all seasons." (Johnson on Salt, p. 100.) 
 The avidity with which animals consume 
 salted hay, is not so generally known as it 
 ought to be ; I will give, therefore, a fact re- 
 lated to me a short time since by Mr. Law, 
 of Reading. Mr. Green, of Wargrave, in 
 Berkshire, had, in the season of 1824, a 
 parcel of sour rushy hay from a meadow on 
 the banks of the Thames, which both he 
 and his men despaired of rendering of the 
 least value ; it was, therefore, stacked by 
 itself, and well salted ; the quantity sup- 
 plied was large, but Mr. Law did not know 
 the exact proportion. When the period 
 arrived that his sheep wanted a supply of 
 hay, Mr. Green directed his shepherd to use 
 the salted inferior hay first, and, to his sur- 
 prise, the sheep consumed it with the greatest 
 avidity. The stack being finished, the shep- - 
 herd was directed to supply them now with 
 the best hay he could find of other stacks of 
 fine meadow hay. He came, however, the 
 next morning to bis master, and made the 
 following remark : — " We, sir, must have 
 made a great mistake, and forgotten which 
 stack we salted, for our sheep will not eat 
 the hay which we think the best." 
 
 HAY-BIRD. See Wii^ow-wren. 
 
 HAY-BOTE. A term applied to a kind 
 of feudal right, by which a tenant for life 
 or a term of years has a liberty of taking 
 bushes, wood, &c, for repairing fences, 
 gates, and the like. It also signifies the li- 
 berty of cutting wood for rakes and fork- 
 handles, used in making hay, &c. 
 
 HAY-MAKING. The operation of cut- 
 ting down, drying, and preparing grasses 
 and other forage plants for being stacked for 
 winter use. The plants are mown down at 
 the time when they are supposed to contain, 
 diffused throughout the whole plant, a maxi- 
 mum of nutritious juices ; viz. when they 
 are in full flower. Too often this period is 
 exceeded, and the nutritive property of the 
 plant suffers ; for it is a well-known fact that 
 the saccharine juices of a plant disappear in 
 the progress of the ripening of the seed. 
 Dry weather, and, if possible, that in which 
 sunshine prevails, is chosen for this opera- 
 tion ; and the mown material is spread out, 
 and turned over two or three times in the 
 course of the same day in Avhich it is cut. 
 In the evening it is put into small heaps. 
 In the morning of the second day, these 
 heaps are spread out, and turned over two 
 or three times ; and in the evening they are 
 formed into heaps, somewhat larger than 
 they were the day before. If the weather 
 has been remarkably warm and dry, these 
 heaps, in the course of the third day, are 
 carted away and made into a stack ; but if 
 the weather has been indifferent, the process 
 of opening out the heaps and exposing them 
 r it 4 
 
HAY-MAKING. 
 
 to the sun is repeated on the third day, and 
 stack-making is not commenced till the 
 fourth. The grand object in making hay 
 is to preserve the colour and natural juices 
 of the herbage, which is best done by con- 
 tinually turning it, so as never to expose 
 the same surface for any length of time to 
 the direct influence of the sun. In stacking 
 the hay, the object is to preserve the green 
 colour and at the same time induce a 
 slight degree of fermentation, which has 
 the effect of rendering the fibres* of the 
 plants, which compose the hay, more tender, 
 and changing a part of the parenchymous 
 matter into sugar, on the same principle as 
 is effected by malting barley. This sweet 
 taste renders the hay more palatable to 
 horses. The best general directions for 
 • haymaking will be found in the following 
 extract from M ; ddletor£ s Agricultural Survey 
 of Middlesex, although the various kinds of 
 hay, and different soils and situations with 
 which the farmer is connected, are so very 
 numerous, that such directions can, of ne- 
 cessity, have only a very general application. 
 Some articles, which may be consulted with 
 advantage, will also be found in the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol.ix. p. 35., by Mr. Towers. 
 " On an improved Method of making Clover 
 Hay," in Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 55. ; 
 Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 487.; and Com. to Board 
 of Agr. vol. vii. p. 93. 
 
 Mr. Middleton observes, when speaking, 
 be it remembered, of haymaking, in Mid- 
 dlesex, " In order that the subject may be 
 more clearly understood, I shall relate the 
 particular operations of each day, during 
 the whole process, from the moment in 
 which the mower first applies his scythe, to 
 that in which the hay is secured, either in 
 the barn or in the stack : 
 
 " First day. All the grass mown before 
 nine o'clock in the morning, is tedded (or 
 spread), and great care taken to shake and 
 strew it evenly over all the ground. Soon af- 
 terwards it is turned, with the same degree 
 of care and attention ; and if, from the num- 
 ber of hands, they are able to turn the whole 
 again, they do so, or at least as much of it 
 as they can, till twelve or one o'clock, at 
 which time they dine. The first thing to 
 be done after dinner is, to rake it into what 
 are called single windrows, that is, they all 
 rake in such a manner, as that each person 
 makes a row, which rows are three or four 
 feet apart ; and the last operation of this 
 day is to put it into grass-cocks. 
 
 " Second Day. — The business of this day 
 commences with tedding all the grass that 
 was mown the first day after nine o'clock, 
 all that was mown this day before nine 
 o'clock. Next, the grass-cocks are to be 
 well shaken out into staddles (or separate 
 GIG 
 
 plats), of five or six yards diameter. If the 
 crop should be so thin and light as to leave 
 the spaces between these staddles rather 
 large, such spaces must be immediately 
 raked clean, and the rakings mixed with 
 the other hay, in order to its all drying of a 
 uniform colour. The next business is to 
 turn the staddles, and, after that, to turn 
 the grass, that was tedded in the first part 
 of the morning, once or twice, in the manner 
 described for the first day. This should all 
 be done before twelve or one o'clock, so 
 that the whole may lie to dry, while the 
 workpeople are at dinner. After dinner, the 
 first thing to be done is, to rake the staddles 
 into double windrows ; in doing which, every 
 two persons rake the hay in opposite direc- 
 tions, or towards each other, and by that 
 means form a row between them of double 
 the size of a single windrow. Each of these 
 double windrows are about six or eight 
 feet distant from each other ; next, to rake 
 the grass into single windrows ; then the 
 double windrows are put into bastard-cocks ; 
 and, lastly, the single windrows are put into 
 grass-cocks. This completes the work of 
 the second day. 
 
 " Third Day. — The grass mown and not 
 spread on the second day, and also that mown 
 in the early part of this day, is first to be 
 tedded in the morning ; and then the grass- 
 cocks are to be spread into staddles, as be- 
 fore, and the bastard- cocks into staddles of 
 less extent. These lesser staddles, though 
 last spread, are first turned, then those which 
 were in grass-cocks ; and next, the grass is 
 turned once or twice before twelve or one 
 o'clock, when the people go to dinner as 
 usual. If the weather has proved sunny and 
 fine, the hay which was last night in bastard- 
 cocks will this afternoon be in proper state to 
 be carried. It seldom happens, in dry wea- 
 ther, but that it may be carried on the third 
 day. But if the weather should, on the con- 
 trary, have been cool and cloudy, no part of 
 it probably will be fit to carry. In that case, 
 the first thing set about after dinner is, to 
 rake that which was in grass-cocks last 
 night into double windrows ; then the grass 
 which was this morning spread from the 
 swarths, into single windrows. After this, 
 the hay which was last night in bastard- 
 cocks is made up into full-sized cocks, and 
 care taken to rake the hay up clean, and 
 also to put the rakings upon the top of 
 each cock. Next, the double windrows 
 are put into bastard-cocks, and the single 
 windrows into grass- cocks, as on the preced- 
 ing days. 
 
 " Fourth Day. — On this day the great 
 cocks, just mentioned, are usually carried 
 before dinner. The other operations of the 
 day are such, and in the same order, as 
 
HAY-RAKE. 
 
 HEATH. 
 
 before described, and are continued daily 
 until the hay-harvest is completed. 
 
 " In the course of hay-making, the grass 
 should, as much as possible, be protected, 
 both night and day, against rain and dew, 
 by cocking. Care should also be taken to 
 proportion the number of hay-makers to 
 that of the mowers, so that there may not 
 be more grass in hand, at one time, than can 
 be managed according to the foregoing pro- 
 cess. This proportion is about twenty hay- 
 makers (of which number twelve may be 
 women) to four mowers : the latter are 
 sometimes taken half a day, to assist the 
 former. But in hot, windy, or very dry 
 weather, a greater proportion of hay- 
 makers will be required, than when the 
 weather is cloudy and cool. 
 
 " It is particularly necessary to guard 
 against spreading more hay than the number 
 of hands can get into cock the same day, 
 or before rain. In showery and uncertain 
 weather, the grass may sometimes be suf- 
 fered to lie three, four, or even five days in 
 swath. But, before it has lain long enough 
 to become yellow (which, if suffered to lie 
 long, would be the case), particular care 
 should be taken to turn the swaths with the 
 heads of the rakes. In this state it will cure 
 so much in about two days, as only to re- 
 quire being tedded a few hours, when the 
 weather is fine, previous to its being put 
 together and carried. In this manner, hay 
 may be made and stacked at a small ex- 
 pense, and of a good colour ; but the tops 
 and bottoms of the grass are insufficiently 
 separated by it." 
 
 HAY-RAKE, or HAY- SWEEP. An 
 implement contrived for the purpose of 
 collecting and conveying hay to the stack 
 in an easy and expeditious manner after it 
 has been put into rows. See Rakes. 
 
 HAY-KNIFE. A sharp instrument em- 
 ployed for cutting hay out of the stack. 
 
 HAY-RICK. Mr. Chambers {Com. to 
 Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 374.) describes 
 an improved hay-rick which admits very 
 freely the cool air to check the ferment- 
 ation. A channel or gutter, a foot wide 
 and deep, is cut through ground marked 
 out for the rick, and two across, which is 
 thirteen yards by nine. Two chimneys are 
 introduced, like the common hay funnels, 
 only these go full home to the earth, which 
 being drawn up as the rick is forming, and 
 the channels previously covered with fag- 
 gots, except where the chimneys are placed, 
 leave them open at all points ; and let the 
 wind blow from what quarter it may, the 
 current is uninterrupted. 
 
 HAYWARD. (Fr. hate, hedge.) An 
 officer anciently appointed in the lord's 
 court to take care of the cattle of a manor, 
 617 
 
 and prevent them from injuring the hedges 
 or fences. 
 
 HAZEL. See Hasel. 
 
 HEAD-LAND. A term applied to the 
 lands or ridges in fields, on which the 
 plough turns in cultivating them. As much 
 soil is continually accumulating on them, 
 by means of the frequent ploughing of the 
 field, it is a common plan to form them into 
 composts with lime or other manures. 
 
 HEART'S EASE. See Violet. 
 
 HEAT. In horsemanship, a term used 
 on the turf, to denote a certain distance 
 which a horse runs on the course. A race 
 may consist of one or more heats, and " the 
 best of three heats " are common at most 
 races ; but there is never more than one heat 
 for a race at Newmarket. See Tempera- 
 ture. 
 
 HEATH. In a general sense the term 
 heath is applied to waste land in which 
 the prevailing plants consist of one or more 
 of the common species of heath. 
 
 HEATH, HEATHER, or LING. 
 {Calluna and Erica.) A very large and 
 varied genus of plants. The following are 
 the species indigenous to Great Britain : — 
 
 1. Common heath {Calluna vulgaris, Sal. 
 The Erica communis of Linnaeus). This 
 plant covers many hundreds of acres in the 
 Highlands of Scotland, in Ireland, and in 
 similar climates on the Continent. It attains 
 in many places the height of three or four 
 feet ; and is much used for thatching houses, 
 making besoms, and for a variety of other 
 purposes. The tender tops form a sub- 
 stitute for mattresses in Highland cottages ; 
 and they are are also eaten green and in a 
 dried state by horses, cattle, and sheep, in 
 countries where the grasses and clover do 
 not begin to grow till late in the spring. The 
 tender tops also furnish food for grouse. 
 
 Sir J. E. Smith describes three other 
 species of heath indigenous to these islands : 
 
 1. Cross-leaved heath. {Erica tetralix.) 
 In this shrub the roots are creeping, stems 
 erect, from four to six or eight inches high. 
 Leaves crowded, spreading four in a whorl, 
 revolute, downy, glaucous beneath. Flowers 
 remarkable for their delicate wax-like hue 
 of every shade of rose-colour, sometimes 
 snow-white, on hairy cottony stalks col- 
 lected into a dense, round, terminal cluster, 
 all elegantly pendulous to one side. It is 
 wonderful that this most elegant and not 
 uncommon plant is scarcely delineated at 
 all by the old authors, nor by any of them 
 correctly. 
 
 2. Fine-leaved heath {E. cinerea), found 
 plentifully on dry turfy heaths every where. 
 It grows on a stem a foot high, or more, 
 with numerous upright, round, hoary, 
 flowery, and leafy branches. The flowers 
 
HEATH GRASS. 
 
 HEDGE. 
 
 are crimson, everlasting, with a tinge of 
 blue or grey, occasionally pure white. 
 
 3. Cornish heath (E. vagans), growing 
 abundantly in Cornwall : stem woody, two 
 feet high, copiously and determinately 
 branched, with a smooth pale deciduous 
 bark ; leaves evergreen, smooth. 
 
 Mr. Hogg {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vi. 
 p. 42. ; and vol. viii. p. 496.) contributes 
 some observations on the uses and manage- 
 ment of heath ; but these articles being 
 somewhat diffuse, and confined in a great 
 measure to the use of heath as a protection 
 for moor fowl and other game, I can here 
 do no more than merely refer to them. 
 Mr. J. Hall {Com. Board of Agr. vol. vi. 
 p. 381.) speaks favourably of the advan- 
 tages to be derived from heath in the 
 feeding of stock, and also asserts that an 
 infusion of the finer parts of heath, when 
 cut young and in bloom, is preferable to tea. 
 
 HEATH GRASS. (Triodia decumbent.) 
 The genus to which this species belongs 
 consists of hard, rigid, perennial grasses, 
 with leafy stems. Inflorescence variously 
 panicled. The decumbent heath grass grows 
 frequent in spongy bogs, and on barren, 
 sandy, mountainous ground. The root is 
 very slightly creeping, with strong fibres. 
 The whole plant is harsh and rigid, lying close 
 to the ground, except when in flower. The 
 stem is from four to twelve inches long, joint- 
 ed, bent, leafy, and very smooth. The leaves 
 are linear, striated, rather glaucous, smooth, 
 except towards the points, where the rib 
 and edges are very rough. (Smitlis Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. -p. 131.) 
 
 HEATH, SEA. (Franhenia.) Of this 
 maritime decumbent genus of plants there 
 are two species, natives of these islands. 
 
 1. The smooth sea» heath (F. lavis) is a 
 perennial, flowering in July, found common 
 on muddy salt-marshes, chiefly on the 
 eastern shores of England. It has a woody 
 root ; the stems are quite prostrate, forked, 
 slightly downy, with leafy, partly ascending 
 branches. The leaves are somewhat glau- 
 cous, about a quarter of an inch long, 
 revolute, fringed at the base, convex, and 
 smooth above. The flowers spring from 
 the forks of the stem, partly terminal, 
 sessile, solitary, and flesh-coloured. 
 
 2. Powdery sea-heath. {F. pulverulenta.) 
 This is a very rare species, much resem- 
 bling the last, but annual, and flowering 
 in July. The root and steins the same as 
 the former : the leaves, which are smooth 
 and green above, are hoary, as if powdery, 
 beneath; opposite or four together, single 
 ribbed, and revolute. The flowers are pale 
 red. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 186.) 
 
 HEATHY LAND. Ground which is 
 covered with heath. In many districts of 
 618 
 
 the kingdom there are immense tracts of this 
 kind of land, that, in their present state, are 
 of little value, except for the support of a 
 few sheep ; but which, by proper cultivation, 
 might afford useful crops. They, however, 
 differ much in the nature of the soil. The 
 best mode of reclaiming these lands is by 
 draining, deep trenching, or ploughing, and 
 spreading upon them any calcareous matter, 
 such as lime, chalk, or marl. And it is very 
 desirable, in many instances, to provide them 
 shelter by plantations of timber trees. See 
 Plantations. 
 
 HEDGE. A living wall formed of woody 
 plants, sown or planted in a line, and cut or 
 clipped in such a manner as to form a com- 
 pact mass of any degree of width or height 
 that may be required, either for the purpose 
 of shelter, separation, or defence. The 
 fences most generally used in agriculture 
 are made of the whitethorn, because it has 
 spiny branches, and forms a strong defence 
 against cattle. Fences for the purposes of 
 shelter and separation are chiefly used in 
 gardening, and for the most part are formed 
 of evergreen shrubs, such as the holly, yew, 
 box, &c. ; or sub-evergreens, such as the 
 privet; of flowering shrubs, such as the Cy- 
 donia japonica ; or of deciduous shrubs or 
 trees, with persistent leaves, such as the 
 hornbeam and beech. 
 
 In the management of hedges of every de- 
 scription, an important point is to keep them 
 thick, and impervious to wind or animals, 
 near the ground ; for which purpose the 
 section of the hedge requires to be made 
 broader at the base than at the top, in order 
 that the exterior leaves in every part of the 
 hedge may enjoy in an equal degree the in- 
 fluence of light, air, and perpendicular rains. 
 Mr. Stephens (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. i. 
 p. 574 ) gives some very detailed instruc- 
 tions " On the Planting and Management of 
 Thorn Hedges ; " but as these extend over 
 upwards of fifty pages, we can only recom- 
 mend the farmer, who needs information 
 as to the formation of quickset hedges, 
 to consult the above article : Mr. Blakie's 
 little work On Hedges; and some essays 
 on raising and managing hedges in the 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 353. to 378., by 
 Messrs. Montgomery, Grigor, and Man- 
 son. In the same volume, p. 336., there is 
 an essay on the cultivation of the common 
 elder (Sambucus nigra) for hedges. Sir 
 John Sinclair also recommends the tala plant 
 as a substitute for thorn in hedges. (Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol ii. p. 408.) It is a small 
 prickly shrub, groAving wild in various parts 
 of South America, and which has been ex- 
 tensively used for fences by the Scotch 
 farmers who have settled near Buenos A vies. 
 An "Old Hedger," in the Quart. Journ. of 
 
HEDGE. 
 
 Agr. vol. v. p. 505., also gives the result of 
 his experience and practice in hedge-making. 
 The late Francis JBlakie of Holkham saw the 
 importance of the farmer paying more at- 
 tention than is customary with him to the 
 plantation of fences, and the management of 
 hedgerow timber ; and in his excellent little 
 work on this subject, he told him (and his ex- 
 perience was of perhaps the most difficult of 
 all soils upon which to rear good hedgerows), 
 " There may be some difference in opinion 
 as to the best method of planting and rearing 
 quickset (whitethorn) hedges, but I think 
 there can be none in respect to the propriety 
 of thoroughly cleaning and preparing the 
 ground in the first instance ; and all ex- 
 perienced men will agree, that it is not ad- 
 visable to plant a new hedge upon the same 
 spot where an old one had been recently 
 grubbed up, unless under unavoidable cir- 
 cumstances, such as boundary fences, &c. ; 
 in that case the ground should be well 
 loosened, fallowed for a year or two, and 
 have fresh earth or compost added. The 
 better the ground is prepared, the sooner 
 will the hedge arrive at maturity, and the 
 longer will be its duration. The practice 
 in this county (Norfolk), even on our light- 
 est soils, is to put the quicksets (here called 
 layers) horizontally into the side of the 
 bank, raised from a four or five feet wide 
 ditch, of a proportionate depth ; and I have 
 never seen whitethorn hedges raised quicker 
 or better than in this county, and all upon 
 that principle. I must, however, acknow- 
 ledge, that although the Norfolk farmers 
 very generally excel in raising hedges, they 
 but too frequently err in the future manage- 
 ment of them : youth is succeeded by in- 
 firmities ; there is no prime of life." 
 
 There is another error which frequently 
 occurs where quicksets are planted on the 
 sides of banks ; that is, in not varying the 
 height of the line of quick in the bank, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the sides. On the 
 management of hedgerow timber, the di- 
 rections of Blakie are equally excellent : he 
 says, " It is not necessary for me to parti- 
 cularise all the varieties of forest trees 
 usually planted in hedgerows. It is suffi- 
 cient, in exemplification, to say, beech, ash, 
 and firs are not only ruinous to fences, but 
 are also otherwise injurious to farmers ; 
 while oaks, narrow-leaved elm, and black 
 Italian poplars do comparatively little in- 
 jury : and as to the age of plants, it surely 
 must be obvious, that a thrifty transplanted 
 nursery tree of three years' growth is more 
 likely to succeed, when properly planted in 
 a hedgerow, than a puny yearling, drawn 
 out of a seed-bed, with its root like a piece 
 of whipcord ; or a tender sapling of six or 
 seven years' growth, drawn out of a thick 
 619 
 
 wood, whence it had not been previously 
 transplanted. 
 
 " In planting, the usual practice is, to lay 
 the roots of the forest tree plants horizon- 
 tally into the bank along with the white- 
 thorns, and to cut their heads or tops off 
 close to the ground, in the same manner as 
 the thorns : a moment's reflection will show 
 the absurdity of this practice. A surface- 
 rooted plant, like the whitethorn, will 
 thrive if laid into the bank horizontally, or 
 nearly so ; but a deep-rooted plant, such as 
 the oak, is not likely to thrive if treated in 
 that manner. The roots of oaks strike deep 
 into the ground ; consequently the plants 
 should be set perpendicular, and their heads 
 or tops should on no account be cut off at 
 the time of planting. But suppose that an 
 oak plant, when laid into the bank horizon- 
 tally along with the quicksets, does grow, 
 and even prospers for a time, which it may 
 do, when the extremities of the roots are 
 bent downwards by the pressure of the 
 earth in the bank above, and the plant, in 
 consequence, finds nourishment and support 
 from the earth below ; the top of the plant 
 will then grow up among the row of thorns, 
 and be protected by them until the hedge 
 is cut (which, in process of time, it must 
 be) : the oak plant will then be left exposed, 
 and as the stem will have bent upwards, at 
 a sharp angle from the face of the bank, the 
 top of the tree (when agitated by the wind) 
 will act as a powerful leverage, and have the 
 effect of twisting and breaking the crooked 
 roots of the plant in the bank. 
 
 " These remarks are, in some degree, ap- 
 plicable to all forest trees planted in hedge- 
 rows, but more particularly to deep-rooted 
 ones. The method which I recommend for 
 planting forest trees generally in hedge- 
 rows, but more particularly oaks, is as fol- 
 lows : let the quicksets be laid in, and the 
 bank finished in the usual way ; then select 
 good transplanted trees of two or three 
 years' growth, fresh drawn from the nursery. 
 The broken roots and tips of the long fibres 
 may be cut off ; then push the spade down 
 perpendicularly into the bank between the 
 roots of the quicksets ; press the spade from 
 side to side, so as to make a cleft opening, 
 into which put the root of the plant as deep 
 as it had before stood in the nursery ; tread 
 the earth firm to the root, and face the 
 bank up, as before ; leave the tops of forest- 
 tree plants uncut at the time of planting, 
 unless when they are bushy-headed, and 
 without leaders or top-shoots ; in that case, 
 a few of the larger side shoots may be cut in, 
 that is, the extremities of the branches 
 shortened. It is a most pernicious practice 
 to cut the tops of young forest trees at the 
 time of planting, and should only be adopted 
 
HEDGE. 
 
 in particular cases. " The time most proper 
 for planting hedgerow trees and quicksets 
 is autumn, or early in spring ; and the work 
 should never be delayed till late in spring, if 
 it can be avoided. But when (from neces- 
 sity) trees are planted late in spring, and the 
 ground dry at the time, the roots of the 
 plants should not only be kept moist before 
 planting, but they should also be dipped 
 into some earthy sludge at the time they are 
 planted. 
 
 " Training of hedgerow trees is seldom or 
 never thought of ; and I will now add, when 
 pruning is practised, it is generally performed 
 in a very injudicious manner. Young hedge- 
 row trees seldom require much attention in 
 training until the hedge is cut the first 
 time ; the trees should then be examined ; 
 if they appear crooked, stunted, and un- 
 thrifty, they should be cut off close to the 
 face of the bank, in the same manner as the 
 thorn plants are. The oak stubs may be 
 expected to throw up several strong shoots 
 from each plant in the following season ; 
 and in a year or two afterwards, the best 
 young shoot on such stub should be selected 
 to remain, and all the others be slipped, or 
 cut off close to the stub ; the reserved 
 shoots, or (as they may be called) regene- 
 rated plants, may then be expected to be- 
 come timber trees. 
 
 " When an unthrifty young tree is to be 
 cut off, as here recommended, particular at- 
 tention should be paid to the method of cut- 
 ting. The stroke from the workman's bill- 
 hook or hatchet should always be upwards, 
 or from the stub, and never downwards, or 
 to the stub ; whenever the latter practice is 
 followed, the stub is left shattered, the wet 
 penetrates through the clefts into the stool, 
 or crown of the roots, canker is produced, 
 and the tree rots. No good timber can be 
 expected to grow from diseased roots. 
 
 " There may be said to be four different 
 sorts or methods of. pruning now in practice ; 
 these I designate under the styles or titles 
 of — first, natural pruning ; second, close 
 pruning ; third, snag pruning : and fourth, 
 cutting in, or foreshortening. The three 
 latter more immediately apply to hedgerow 
 trees ; but I will review the four, and in 
 this review I wish fir trees to be understood 
 as excepted. 
 
 " The best of all pruning is what I call na- 
 tural. This is effected in woods and plantings, 
 where trees stand thick : there the tops of 
 the trees unite ; they draw one another up ; 
 light and air is excluded from the lower 
 branches, and those consequently dwindle 
 away ; the stems of the trees grow up 
 straight and tall ; and they gather propor- 
 tionate strength, from the top branches ex- 
 lending, when the planting is thinned out 
 620 
 
 gradually (as all plantations of trees ought 
 to be). This remark is also applicable to 
 hedgerow trees, in their infant state, when 
 they are drawn up,* and nourished by the 
 thorn bushes. But when trees stand singly, 
 they throw out strong side branches, and 
 their boles, or stems, seldom rise to much 
 height, or attain to much cubic measure, 
 unless the side branches are either cropped 
 by cattle (which is a species of pruning), or 
 are cut off by the hand of man. Hence 
 arises the diversity of opinion with respect 
 to the most proper method of obtaining the 
 desired object, by the assistance of art, when 
 nature ceases to operate in the manner 
 wished for. 
 
 " Close pruning answers to a certain ex- 
 tent. The operation is performed by cutting 
 the side branches off close to the bole of the 
 tree, when it is expected that the bark and 
 the timber will heal over the wound, and 
 become united. If this operation is com- 
 pleted when the branches are young, or 
 mere saplings, the tree in a vigorous growing 
 state, and a few only of the branches cut off 
 in one season, the object will be obtained, 
 without injuring the growth of the tree. 
 But the system, from having been misun- 
 derstood, has been misapplied, and carried 
 to an alarming extent, doing incalculable 
 injury, not only to individuals, but to the 
 country at large. Immense numbers of 
 large boughs have been amputated from the 
 trunks of trees, in the vain hope of the tim- 
 ber growing over the wounds, and uniting 
 with the stumps of the boughs left in the 
 body of the tree ; the bark and sap-wood 
 does indeed sometimes grow over such 
 wounds, but the stumps of the branches en- 
 closed go to decay, become a canker in the 
 bole of the tree, and the result is calamitous. 
 It is the ready extension of the bark over 
 the wounds in trees which has been the 
 means of misleading so many people ; be- 
 cause, as they see that the bark unites, they 
 take it for granted that the woody fibre does 
 so also ; and so, in fact, the growing part of 
 the tree will do, but the stump of the am- 
 putated arm becomes a dead substance, and 
 cannot unite with a living one. On the 
 whole, it is a dangerous practice to cut large 
 boughs close to the stems of trees, particu- 
 larly old and unthrifty trees. Young thri- 
 ving trees will succeed, if close pruned to a 
 certain extent ; but old, stunted, or full 
 grown trees, never. 
 
 " Snag pruning is a very pernicious prac- 
 tice ; it is performed by cutting the boughs 
 off several inches from the bole or stem of 
 the tree. In old trees, those stumps act as 
 conductors for wet into the body of the 
 tree ; in young trees, the bark of the stubs 
 throw out young shoots, which flourish for 
 
HEDGE 
 
 l-BIRDS. 
 
 a time, but the heart-wood of those stumps 
 decays, and has a similar effect to the stumps 
 of boughs in old trees, which do not throw 
 out young shoots. 
 
 " Foreshortening, or cutting in, is an ap- 
 proved method of pruning, and is admirably 
 adapted to training hedgerow trees, to 
 benefit the landlord, without doing much 
 injury to the tenant. This operation is 
 performed by shortening the over-luxuriant 
 side branches, but not to out them to a 
 stump, as in snag pruning ; on the con- 
 trary, the top only of the branch should be 
 cut off, and the amputation effected imme- 
 diately above where an axillary (side shoot) 
 springs from the branch on which the oper- 
 ation is to be performed : this may be at 
 the distance of two, four, or any other 
 number of feet from the stem of the tree ; 
 and suppose the axillary branch which is 
 left (when the top of the branch is cut off) 
 is also over-luxuriant, or looks unsightly, it 
 should also be shortened at its sub-axillary 
 branch, in the same manner as before de- 
 scribed. 
 
 " The branches of trees pruned in this 
 manner are always kept within due bounds ; 
 they do not extend over the adjoining land 
 to the injury of the occupier, at least, not 
 until the stem of the tree rises to a height 
 (out of the reach of pruning), when the top 
 branches can do comparatively little injury 
 to the land. By adopting this system of 
 pruning, the bad effects of close and snag 
 pruning will be avoided ; the country will 
 be ornamented ; and the community at large, 
 as well as individuals, benefited." (Blakie, 
 On Hedges and Hedgerow Timber.} See 
 Fences and Hawthorn. 
 
 HEDGE-BIRDS. I have treated, in 
 the course of this work, in separate articles, 
 of the different British birds ; but it may not 
 be out of place to bring together, under one 
 head, a short review of the popular opinions 
 entertained as to the benefits or injuries de- 
 rived from the more common hedge-birds. 
 And, for this purpose, I shall avail myself 
 of the arrangement adopted in a series of 
 excellent articles in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. vii. pp. 42. 184. 284. As the subject 
 naturally divides itself into three parts, in- 
 asmuch as birds are decidedly destructive, 
 partially destructive, or not destructive at 
 all, though alleged to be so, it will be con- 
 venient to treat of the three kinds in this 
 order, beginning with the last, of whose 
 habits and food gardeners and farmers (it is 
 presumed) know much less than they do of 
 the two first. 
 
 I. NoN-DESTRUCTIVE HeDGE-BIRDS. 
 
 At the outset, it is necessary to remark, 
 that many birds, not in the least destructive 
 621 
 
 to the ordinary crops of a farm, often com- 
 mit considerable depredations in orchards 
 and gardens ; nay, the latter, so far from 
 being injurious to agricultural crops, may 
 prove of no little service, as we shall after- 
 wards see. 
 
 1. Insectiverous Hedge-birds, which do not 
 eat Fruits or Seeds. — The hedge-birds 
 which live exclusively on insects and never 
 touch fruits, much less seeds of any kind, 
 are but few in number, and, like the larger 
 carnivorous animals, are thinly scattered, 
 with rare exceptions, live solitary, and do 
 not assemble in flocks. One of the most 
 exclusively insect-eating birds, not uncom- 
 mon in most parts of the empire, is the 
 gold-crested wren (Regulus cristatus, Ray), 
 the smallest of the birds of Europe. No 
 farmer, I should think, would be apt to 
 accuse the gold-crested wren of injuring 
 his crops ; but when a gardener, unac- 
 quainted with its habits and food, sees it 
 flitting about among his espaliers, his wall- 
 trees, or his rose-bushes, he will be apt to 
 think it is busy eating the blossom-buds, as 
 some other birds are well known to do ; 
 while, on the contrary, it is doing him es- 
 sential benefit, by picking up every strag- 
 gling plant-louse (Aphis), and bud-weevil 
 which they can meet with. 
 
 The species which come nearest to the 
 gold-crest, in appearance and habits, are 
 the wood-wren (Sylvia sybilatrix, Bechstein) 
 and the willow-wren, or hay-bird (S. Jitis, 
 Bechstein). The chiff-chaff (S. loquax, 
 Herbert) also ranks with these, as an in- 
 sect-eating bird, but is less common. The 
 wood- wren is most frequently found among 
 " hedgerow elms," as Milton calls them, 
 and other tall trees in hedges. The hay- 
 bird, again, delights in small copsewoocl, 
 and in what may well be termed copsewood 
 hedges, so common in England. The chief 
 food of these three species consists of small 
 flies or caterpillars, such as roll up the 
 leaves of trees and shrubs, particularly 
 the rose-leaf roller (Lozotamia rosaria), or 
 " worm i' the bud," together with the most 
 destructive species of plant-lice (Aphides). 
 When the birds are plentiful, accordingly, 
 they may prove of no little service to the 
 farmer in thinning, on their first appearance, 
 wheat-flies, the blue-dolphins, the hop-flies, 
 and the turnip, or the pea-plant lice. This 
 is of great importance, for one of these in- 
 sects, killed early, will prevent the breeding 
 of several thousands. After the breeding 
 has proceeded to the second and third gene- 
 rations, our little birds are too few in "num- 
 ber, even with their voracious appetites, to 
 keep them down. The nightingale (Philo- 
 mela luscinia) does considerable service to 
 the cultivator, by devouring numbers of 
 
HEDGE-BIRDS. 
 
 HEDGEHOG. 
 
 caterpillars and grubs, as well as the moths, 
 butterflies, and beetles from which they 
 are produced. The whin-chat (Saxicola 
 rubetra), the stone-chat ($. rubicola), and 
 the wheat- ear (S. cenanthe), may, in some 
 sense, be ranked as insectiverous hedge- 
 birds ; the stone chat particularly, which is 
 fond of hedgerows. The whin-chat fre- 
 quents cabbage-gardens and turnip-fields 
 after the breeding season ; and ought to be 
 protected, because it not only eats insects, 
 but small shell-snails, while it never touches 
 fruits or seeds. The wheat-ear is equally 
 beneficial in clearing the corn-crops from 
 insects, without levying any contribution 
 for its services. The wagtails, particularly 
 the yellow one (Motacilla flava), feed wholly 
 on insects, particularly gnats, midges, and 
 other flies that tease cattle. They will also 
 follow the plough to feed upon the worms 
 and grubs turned up in the furrows ; and 
 in this way, no doubt, thousands of wire- 
 worms, and other destructive vermin, are 
 effectually destroyed. The tree-pipet, or 
 titlark (Anthus arboreus), and the meadow- 
 pipit (A. praiensis), are common hedge- 
 birds, which search busily after the autum- 
 nal hatches of caterpillars and grubs, or the 
 smaller flies and beetles which they find 
 among the herbage. The cuckoo, the com- 
 mon fly-catcher, and the flusher, or lesser 
 butcher-bird, may be classed among the 
 insectivorous feeding birds. To these, many 
 other hedge-birds might be added, such as 
 the night-jar, the sedge-bird, the wry-neck, 
 the creeper, and the bottle-tit, none of which 
 are in the least destructive ; while, from their 
 feeding exclusively, or nearly so, on insects, 
 they are of much service in diminishing the 
 numbers of such as are injurious to field and 
 garden crops. 
 
 2. Insectivorous Hedge-birds which par- 
 tially eat Fruits or Seeds. — Under this di- 
 vision may be arranged the common wren, 
 the hedge-sparrow, or dunnock, the red- 
 breast, the redstart, the torn tit, the cole- 
 tit, the marsh-tit, and the greater- tit. The 
 weeds and insects which these birds destroy, 
 will, however, certainly more than com- 
 pensate for the few heads of grain, the 
 flower seeds, or small fruit, which they may 
 occasionally pilfer. 
 
 II. Partially destructive Hedge-birds. 
 
 It may not be inconvenient to begin this 
 division, as the preceding, with some of the 
 smaller birds which do partial injury in 
 gardens and orchards, &c. 
 
 1 . Fructivorous Birds which also feed on 
 f ii.srct.s-. — In this list must be classed the 
 black-cap, babillard (Curruca gamda, Bris- 
 Bon), the garden-warbler, and the white- 
 throat. 2. The birds which come next to be 
 622 
 
 noticed are more destructive than the pre- 
 ceding species, inasmuch as they are con- 
 siderably larger in size, and consequently 
 require a much greater quantity of food. 
 They are not, however, very numerous in 
 most districts, and they do not always come 
 into gardens. I refer to the thrushes, black- 
 birds, and starlings, most of which are very 
 well known. A bare enumeration will there- 
 fore suffice. They are the missel-thrush, the 
 song-thrush, the blackbird, and the starling. 
 
 III. Decidedly destructive Hedge-birds. 
 
 Amongst the birds which fall to be con- 
 sidered under this division, some are so wild 
 and wary as rarely to approach gardens ; but 
 all of them do more or less injury to crops 
 in the open fields. The greater portion of 
 those to be enumerated are exclusively 
 grain-eaters, and make no return for their 
 depredations by destroying insects, though 
 they, no doubt, contribute to keep down the 
 diffusion of weeds by the quantity of their 
 seeds which they devour. They are as fol- 
 lows : — the goldfinch, the yellow-hammer, 
 the cirl-bunting, the reed-bunting, the corn- 
 bunting, the sky-lark, the wood-lark, the lin- 
 nets, the chaffinch, the mountain-finch, the 
 bull-finch, the house-sparrow, and the tree- 
 sparrow. Besides the above, there are 
 several other birds which commit depreda- 
 tions on field and garden crops, but do not 
 well come under the designation which stands 
 at the head of this article. Partridges, for 
 example, and other game birds, never settle 
 on hedges, and cannot be termed hedge- 
 birds ; and the magpie, though partially a 
 hedge-bird, does little injury to crops, 
 though it is otherwise destructive. The raven 
 and the rook also merit especial notice ; but 
 these must be remarked upon in other places. 
 (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vii.) 
 
 HEDGEHOG. (Hystrix erinaceus.) A 
 well-known and unmeritedly persecuted 
 quadruped, against which many absurd pre- 
 judices are often entertained, such as that 
 he sucks cows, steals chickens, game, and 
 eggs, and perpetrates sundry other enor- 
 mities of which he is entirely innocent : he 
 lives chiefly on insects, snails, worms, frogs, 
 sometimes rats and mice, and on what fruit 
 he can find on the ground in the night, 
 and hybernates during the winter. It is also 
 said that it attacks snakes when confined, 
 but it does not eat them in a state of nature. 
 Length nine to ten inches ; body oblong, 
 covered with sharp quills ; goes with young 
 seven weeks ; produces two to four young 
 ones in the summer, of a whitish colour. 
 They are blind, and covered with soft and 
 flexible spines. The hedgehog possesses 
 several remarkable and useful properties, 
 and should never be destroyed. 
 
HEDGE MUSTARD. 
 
 HEDGE PARSLEY. 
 
 One of the most interesting facts in the 
 natural history of the hedgehog is that an- 
 nounced in 1831, by M. Lenz, and which is 
 now confirmed by Professor Buckland. 
 This is, that the most violent animal poisons 
 have no effect upon it ; a fact which renders 
 it of peculiar value in forests, where it ap- 
 pears to destroy a great number of noxious 
 reptiles. M. Lenz says, that he had in his 
 house a female hedgehog, which he kept in 
 a large box, and which soon became very 
 mild and familiar. He often put into the 
 box some adders, which it attacked with 
 avidity, seizing them indifferently by the 
 head, the body, or the tail, and did not 
 appear alarmed or embarrassed when they 
 coiled themselves around its body. On one 
 occasion M. Lenz witnessed a fight between 
 the hedgehog and a viper. When the 
 hedgehog came near and smelled the snake, 
 for with these animals the sense of sight is 
 very obtuse, she seized it by the head, and 
 held it fast between her teeth, but without 
 appearing to do it much harm ; for, having 
 disengaged its head, it assumed a furious 
 and menacing attitude, and, hissing vehe- 
 mently, inflicted several severe bites on the 
 hedgehog The little animal, however, did 
 not recoil from the bites of the viper, or 
 indeed seemed to care much about them. At 
 last, when the reptile was fatigued by its 
 efforts, she again seized it by the head, 
 which she ground between her teeth, com- 
 pressing the fangs and glands of poison ; 
 and then devouring every part of the body. 
 M. Lenz says, that battles of this sort often 
 occurred in the presence of many persons ; 
 and sometimes the hedgehog has received 
 eight or ten wounds on the ears, the snout, 
 and even on the tongue, without appearing 
 to experience any of the ordinary symptoms 
 produced by the venom of the viper. 
 Neither herself nor the young that she was 
 then suckling seemed to suffer from it. 
 This observation agrees with that of Pallas, 
 who assures us that the hedgehog can eat 
 about a hundred cantharides, without ex- 
 periencing any of the effects which this in- 
 sect taken inwardly produces on men, dogs, 
 and cats. A German physician who made 
 the hedgehog a particular object of study, 
 gave it a strong dose of prussic acid, of ar- 
 senic, of opium, and of corrosive sublimate, 
 none of which, it is said, did it. any harm. 
 (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 553.; Farmer s Mag.; 
 Brandes Diet, of Science.) 
 
 HEDGE MUSTARD. (Sisymhrium.) 
 A genus composed for the most part of 
 worthless annual and biennial plants, flou- 
 rishing in the open ground in any soil. The 
 indigenous species are three, all annuals. 
 
 1 . The common hedge mustard (S. offici- 
 nale), growing in waste ground, by road- 
 623 
 
 sides, and on banks ; very common ; flower- 
 ing in June and July. According to Haller, 
 hedge mustard springs up wherever houses 
 have been burnt. The herb is of a dull 
 green, minutely hairy or downy ; the stem 
 solitary, two feet high, erect, with numerous 
 horizontal branches, leafy, round, clothed 
 with fine deflexed bristles. Leaves hyrate, 
 their lobes runcinate, unequally toothed ; 
 the upper ones narrowest. The flowers are 
 pale yellow, small, in little corymbose 
 heads, soon becoming very long, straight, 
 close clusters of erect tapering pods, finely 
 downy, rather more than half an inch long, 
 on very short stalks. Seeds not numerous, 
 about six in each cell. This species was 
 once used as a stimulating expectorant, but 
 it is now deservedly out of favour. 
 
 2. The broad hedge mustard, or London 
 rocket (S. Irio), grows chiefly about Lon- 
 don, and in habit is somewhat like the pre- 
 ceding species ; but the herbage is of a 
 lighter green, and entirely smooth. The 
 leaves are pinnatifid, runcinate, acute, the 
 upper lanceolate, with hastate base ; the 
 seed-pod is two inches long, rugged when 
 ripe ; the seeds are very abundant. It is 
 sometimes used as a heating pot-herb. 
 
 3. Fine-leaved hedge mustard, or flixweed. 
 (S. Sophia.) In this species the root is 
 small and tapering, and the whole plant of 
 a slender delicate structure ; stem branched, 
 bushy, erect ; flowers small, greenish-yel- 
 low. Pods an inch long, numerous, erect, 
 bearded. (Smith's Eng.Flor. vol. iii. p. 196.) 
 
 This is one of the plants which defeats 
 the opinion that popular names are never 
 imposed without good reason. The plant 
 was formerly supposed to be a cure for 
 fractured limbs, hence its name, Sophia 
 chirurgorum; an opinion only demonstrative 
 of the contemptible state of surgery at the 
 period when the name originated. Its me- 
 dicinal powers as an antidysenteric rest on 
 equally mistaken observations. 
 
 HEDGE-KNIFE. Of this implement, 
 for trimming hedges, there are two sizes, 
 to be used either with one or both hands. 
 The smaller one is a common and well- 
 known implement. The larger- sized knife 
 should have the blade twenty inches long 
 by two and a half broad, and the handle 
 three feet. It is slightly curved at the point. 
 
 HEDGE PARSLEY. (Torilis.) Of this 
 useless weed there are three common species ; 
 the upright hedge parsley ( T. aiJJiriscus), 
 the spreading hedge parsley (T infesta), 
 and the knotted hedge parsley (T. nodosa). 
 They are anmial plants, growing by way- 
 sides and the borders of fields ; varying in 
 height from six inches to three feet. The 
 flowers are small, white or flesh-coloured, 
 blowing in June; the umbels lateral and 
 
HEDGE-SPARROW. 
 
 HELLEBORINE. 
 
 terminal; the rays from seven to ten, rough, 
 little spreading. Fruit small, purplish at 
 the summit, furnished with incurved bristles. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 42.) 
 
 HEDGE-SPARROW. See Sparrow. 
 
 HELIOTROPE. (Heliotropum ; from 
 helios, the sun, and trope, twining. The 
 flowers are said to turn towards the sun.) 
 Some of the plants of this genus are highly 
 valued for the fragrant perfume of their 
 flowers, and are therefore to be met with in 
 most gardens. They succeed freely in any 
 rich light soil ; and cuttings of the shrubby 
 kinds, taken off when young, readily strike in 
 the same kind of soil. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 HELLEBORE. (Helleborus; fromhelein, 
 to cause death, and borus, food ; the poi- 
 sonous qualities of this genus being well 
 known). These plants thrive well in any 
 common soil, growing best under the shade 
 of trees, and are readily increased by divi- 
 sions or seeds. There are but two species 
 found wild in England. 
 
 1 . The green hellebore (H. viridis), which 
 grows in woods and thickets on a chalky 
 soil, blowing drooping green flowers in 
 April and May. The root is fleshy, black, 
 with numerous long stout fibres, very acrid 
 and purgative. The stem is erect, round, 
 and forked, a foot and a half high ; the 
 smooth herbage is altogether annual, of a 
 deep but bright green. The flowers are few, 
 terminal, and axillary, stalked, drooping, and 
 consisting of green expanded petals, which 
 blow in April and May. The fruit consists 
 of three to four short wrinkled capsules. 
 
 2. The stinking hellebore (H. fcetidus), 
 also known under the various names of 
 bear's-foot, bitter-wort, ox-heel, &c, like 
 the last species, grows in meadows, shady 
 places, and hedges, particularly on a chalky 
 soil ; producing numerous, green, panicled 
 flowers, somewhat tinged with purple at the 
 edges, which blow from February to April. 
 The flowers stand each upon a single bare 
 stalk. The whole plant is taller and more 
 branched than the foregoing; the herbage 
 is perennial, and of a more lurid green. 
 The leaves are large, pedate, each rising 
 singly from the root, on a footstalk of six 
 inches in length ; and they are divided into 
 seven or nine lanceolate serrated leaflets, or 
 divisions. A decoction of it is, by coun- 
 try people, employed as a cathartic, but 
 it is so powerful in its effects that one or 
 two drachms are fully sufficient for the pur- 
 pose. The dried leaves of the stinking helle- 
 bore are sometimes given to children as 
 a vermifuge ; but as they are dangerously 
 active, and a large dose might easily prove 
 fatal, this virulent plant ought to be em- 
 ployed only by farriers. 
 
 Besides immediate vomiting, the most 
 624 
 
 proper antidotes to every species of the hel- 
 lebore are mucilaginous drinks in v ;ry 
 large quantities'; such as the decoction; of 
 oatmeal, pearl-barley, linseed, marsh-mal- 
 lows, or milk and water, and topical bleed- 
 ing over the stomach, when the tenderness 
 is great ; after which, the poisonous matter 
 will be most effectually counteracted by 
 diluted vinegar, juice of lemons, or other 
 vegetable acids. Mixed with meal or flour, 
 hellebore is employed to kill rats and mice. 
 
 The root of the black hellebore (H. niger), 
 called also Melampodium, is a drastic purge 
 and emetic, and is used as an excretory in 
 cattle, to keep open issues ; it produces 
 plenty of swelling, and rarely or never runs 
 on to gangrene : the root of the white hel- 
 lebore (Veratrum album) is similar, but 
 more active in its operation. Black helle- 
 bore was formerly used in the cure of gout, 
 and in some maniacal cases where no effect 
 is produced except by very powerful 
 means ; but these remedies have now fallen 
 into disuse. White hellebore contains an 
 alkali very closely resembling colchicum, 
 namely veratria, which is a powerful pur- 
 gative. The white hellebore is also used 
 as a sternutatory, and in itch ointment. 
 Barbarous nations use the juice to poison 
 their weapons for war or hunting. The 
 caustic powdered capsules and grains of the 
 American hellebore (V. viride) are em- 
 ployed by the monks to kill fleas and lice. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 57. ; WillicKs Dom. 
 Encycl. ; Brande's Diet, of Science.) 
 
 HELLEBORINE. (Epipactis, from 
 epipegnus, to coagulate ; alluding to its sup- 
 posed effect on milk.) These are pretty 
 plants, thriving well in the flower-border or 
 in pots, in a mixture of peat and loam, very 
 sparingly watered when in a torpid state. 
 They are increased by divisions of the roots. 
 Six native species are enumerated, all pe- 
 rennials ; none of them are very common. 
 
 1. Broad-leaved helleborine (E.latifolia), 
 growing in shady mountainous woods and 
 thickets. Root moderately creeping, with 
 simple downy radicles ; stems several, about 
 two feet high, round, copiously leafy ; leaves 
 broadly ovate, acute, bright green, smooth, 
 ribbed and plaited longitudinally, clasping 
 the stem ; cluster of many alternate, drooping, 
 purple flowers, on short partial stalks, with 
 linear lanceolate, floral leaves. The germen 
 is obovate and downy. 
 
 2. Purple-leaved helleborine. (E. purpn- 
 rata.) The root of this species is parasitical, 
 the whole plant, when fresh, glowing with a 
 beautiful red lilac colour; flowers in droop- 
 ing clusters. The stem is about a foot high. 
 The leaves are ovate lanceolate, flat, not 
 plaited, about two inches long, their ribs and 
 margins minutely rough. 
 
HEMLOCK. 
 
 3. Marsh helleborine (E.palnstris), grow- 
 ing in watery places or swampy meadows, 
 especially on a chalky or gravelly soil. In 
 habit like the first species, but the stem not 
 above twelve or fifteen inches high ; the 
 leaves narrower and not plaited, the lower- 
 most only inclining to ovate ; the rest lan- 
 ceolate, tapering to a point. Flowers fewer, 
 larger, and very handsome, being white, ele- 
 gantly striped, and variegated with crimson. 
 
 4. Large white helleborine (E. grandi- 
 jlord). In this species the root is creeping; 
 stem about a foot high,, smooth like the rest 
 of the herb ; leaves rather elliptical than 
 lanceolate, clasping, acute, many-ribbed, not 
 plaited, of a fine green ; the flowers are 
 upright, large, and handsome, of a pure 
 milk-white, but perfectly inodorous at all 
 times. 
 
 5. Narrow-leaved white helleborine (E. 
 ensifolia) is found in mountainous woods, 
 but rarely. The root is rather clustered 
 than creeping, with oblong or somewhat cy- 
 lindrical fleshy knobs ; stem above a foot 
 high, leafy from top to bottom ; leaves lan- 
 ceolate, pointed, twice the length of the 
 preceding species, yet scarcely half so 
 broad. Flowers scentless, pure white, except 
 a yellow protuberance on the tip. 
 
 6. Purple helleborine (E. rubra).. This 
 species is very rare, but found occasionally 
 in stony mountainous woods. The root is 
 horizontal, fleshy, gradually creeping, with 
 numerous fibres ; stem above a foot high, 
 sheathed with a few scales at the bottom, 
 and bearing higher up several lanceolate ta- 
 pering, ribbed leaves, above which the stem 
 is more or less downy. The flowers are of 
 a uniform rose colour, and very handsome. 
 {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. pp. 40-46. ; 
 Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 HEMLOCK. (Coniummaculatum.) This 
 herbaceous biennial plant is very common 
 in hedges, orchards, and waste ground, espe- 
 cially near towns and villages. The root is 
 tap-shaped, whitish, and fleshy ; from six to 
 twelve inches long, not unlike a young pars- 
 nip. Its stalk grows from three to five feet 
 high, sometimes an inch thick, round, hollow, 
 striated, glaucous, polished, copiously spotted 
 with purple, remaining long bleaching in the 
 hedges through the autumnal months. The 
 leaves are large, and repeatedly compound, 
 tripinnate, with lanceolate, pinnatifid leaflets, 
 very fetid when bruised. The umbels are ter- 
 minal, and very numerous, with the general 
 involucre consisting of three to seven leaf- 
 lets; the partial one of only three lateral leaf- 
 lets, the umbelule bearing many small white 
 flowers. The fruit is ovate, compressed on j 
 each side ; each mericarp (half fruit) having S 
 five primary, but no secondary ridges ; it has 
 an unpleasant taste, but scarcely any odour. | 
 
 The idea that it resembles aniseed is a mis- 
 take. At all periods of its growth, hemlock 
 is sufficiently crisped, and shows maculae on 
 some part or other of the stem, and smells like 
 cat's urine when bruised ; but climate seems 
 to have considerable influence on this plant, 
 for in the south of Europe it is a dangerous 
 poison, while in Russia and the Crimea it is 
 innocuous and eatable. 
 
 The whole plant is poisonous, but it is a 
 very useful medicine when duly prepared, and 
 cautiously administered. Dr. Christison, in 
 an elaborate essay {Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. 
 vol. xiii.), has endeavoured to prove that 
 this plant was not the state poison of the 
 ancients, nor that with which Phocion was 
 poisoned. But, as the plant grows abun- 
 dantly near Athens, and the symptoms de- 
 scribed resembled those of conium, where 
 it operates as a poison, we must regard the 
 evidence against the common opinion as 
 incomplete. As the common hemlock, how- 
 ever, is one of the most deleterious vege- 
 tables of this climate, I advise the reader to 
 refrain from meddling with it. medicinally, 
 and to entrust its preparation to professional 
 hands. If inadvertently faken, it requires 
 similar antidotes and treatment with the 
 hellebore, which is spoken of in a pre- 
 ceding article. 
 
 For medical purposes, the leaves should 
 be collected when the plant flowers ; if in- 
 tended for powder, they should be care- 
 fully dried at a temperature not exceeding 
 212°; if for extract, the juice should be 
 squeezed out by moderate pressure, and 
 evaporated in a water or steam bath, to a 
 proper consistency. The expressed juice of 
 hemlock inspissated without heat, is perhaps 
 the best preparation ; but, as its activity is lia- 
 ble to vary, it should be given with caution. 
 The virtues and activity of hemlock depend 
 on a peculiar volatile alkali, named co?iia, in 
 combination with an acid. The quantity of 
 this secretion, it may be readily supposed, 
 will vary with soil and climate. An average 
 dose of the dried leaves is five grains ; an 
 over-dose produces giddiness, wandering of 
 the mind, dilated pupil, convulsive motions 
 of the muscles of the face, and the other 
 symptoms of the narcotic class of poisons. 
 
 Hemlock is a powerful narcotic, and often 
 serviceable as a substitute for, or accompani- 
 ment to, opium. In allaying morbid irritability 
 of the system, attended by any local or general 
 excess of vascular action, as in certain stages 
 of phthisis, in the coughs that are apt to 
 hang about patients who have suffered from 
 pulmonic inflammation, in glandular tu- 
 mours, and unhealthy sores, hemlock is often 
 preferable to opium. It has also been 
 found very useful in chronic rheumatism, 
 and occasionally in the treatment of whoop- 
 s s 
 
HEMP. 
 
 ing cough A poultice composed of a mix- 
 ture of finely powdered fresh hemlock, with 
 bread and water, or the extract of hemlock, 
 is applied to allay the pain of irritable ulcers 
 and cancerous sores ; it is sometimes sin- 
 gularly effectual, at others it seems inert, 
 and occasionally appears to increase irri- 
 tation. These remarks are not intended to 
 lead the non -medical reader to use hemlock 
 medicinally, for much risk attends its em- 
 ployments, unless the symptoms are closely 
 watched. Haller has collected every thing 
 that has been said as to the external as 
 well as internal application of hemlock. 
 ( Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 65.; Brande's 
 Diet, of Science ; WillicKs Dom. Encyclo.} 
 HEMLOCK, THE LESSER. See Fool's 
 
 HEMLOCK, THE WATER. See Cow- 
 bane. 
 
 HEMP. (Dan. Jiamp. Cannabis sativa.) 
 A very valuable plant of the nettle tribe, 
 Urticacece, which came, it is believed, origin- 
 ally from India, but has long since been 
 naturalised in various parts of Europe. The 
 chief cultivation is now, for the most part, 
 confined to the Russian empire, where it is 
 grovra by the peasants in small plots. It 
 there forms an article of export of very 
 considerable commercial importance. Of 
 530,820 cwts. of undressed hemp, imported 
 into this country in 1831, 506,803 came 
 from Russia, 9,472 from the East Indies, 
 7,405 from Italy, 2,262 from the Philippine 
 Islands, 2,248 from the United States. 
 (Af-Culloch.) As Great Britain is princi- 
 pally dependent on other countries for a 
 supply of hemp, it follows as a natural con- 
 sequence, that, in periods of war, its price is 
 very considerably increased. (Com. Board 
 Agr. vol. iv. p. 187.) The hemp plant is 
 grown in some parts of Lincolnshire, Suf- 
 folk, and Norfolk, and in Ireland (where it 
 reaches a height of six or seven feet) ; but 
 it is not nearly so much cultivated in the 
 British islands as formerly, and it is be- 
 lieved by some of the best of the English 
 farmers to be a crop that cannot be profit- 
 ably grown in this country, although the 
 quality of the best British hemp is much 
 superior to that of Russia. In Oriental 
 countries it sometimes attains a height of 
 sixteen to eighteen feet. The hemp-plant 
 requires for its growth a fair, highly ma- 
 nured soil, but it is not particular as to the 
 quality. Old deep meadow-lands, all rich 
 alluvial, and even peaty soils, are adapted to 
 its growth. (M. Doyle s Prac. Husb. p. 238.) 
 Its li'avcs are strongly narcotic, and in the 
 eastern climates are used like opium, and 
 smoked like tobacco. From its seeds (which 
 are greedily devoured by birds) is extracted 
 an oil, generally employed by painters. The 
 
 Russians and Poles, even of the higher 
 classes, bruise or roast the seeds, mix them 
 with salt, and eat them on bread. The 
 hemp-plant is fine and graceful ; its tough 
 and elastic fibres are adapted, above those of 
 every other plant, for the making of cordage, 
 canvass, netting, and various cloths, used 
 in domestic economy, such as towels, and 
 coarse table-cloths. Besides the strong 
 cloth and other articles made from it, hemp 
 is of considerable utility for other purposes. 
 The refuse, called " hemp sheaves," affords 
 an excellent fuel ; and the fine oil, obtained 
 from the seed, is peculiarly adapted for 
 burning in chambers, as it is perfectly lim- 
 pid, and possesses no smell. Another valu- 
 able property of hemp is, that it effectually 
 expels vermin from plantations of cabbages ; 
 if it be sown on the borders of fields, &c, 
 planted with that vegetable, no caterpillar 
 will infest it. ( WillicKs Dom. Encyclo.) It 
 possesses the anomalous property of grow- 
 ing, without degenerating, for a series of 
 years, on the same ground, provided the 
 land is well manured. It is what is called 
 a smothering-crop, for its copious foliage 
 kills every thing that is attempted to be 
 sown with it. It may be grown in the fol- 
 lowing rotation, as suggested by Professor 
 Low: — 1. Fallow; 2. Wheat; 3. Grasses; 
 4. Hemp ; 5. Oats. The land intended for 
 hemp should be brought, by repeated 
 ploughings, into a fine tilth. The seed 
 may be sown in April or May, from two 
 to three bushels per acre, either broad- 
 cast, and hoeing out the plants to a distance 
 of sixteen or seventeen inches, or by the 
 drill, at a distance of thirty inches. In the 
 autumn, the plants are pulled, the male 
 plants first, and the female plants six or 
 seven weeks afterwards, when they have 
 ripened their seed. Thus there are two 
 harvests of the hemp crop. The male plants 
 are readily known by their faded flowers, 
 and yellowish colour. They are then tied 
 in small bundles and carried to the pool, 
 where they are to be steeped. Hemp, like 
 flax, poisons the water in which it is steeped. 
 The same process is followed when the fe- 
 male plants are pulled; only these, before 
 they are steeped, have their seeds beaten 
 out. 
 
 The process of steeping commonly lasts 
 four or five days, and is continued until the 
 outside coat of the hemp readily separates. 
 It is then carefully and evenly spread on 
 some grass turf, where it remains for three 
 or four weeks, being turned over about 
 twice every week, by which the decompo 
 sition of the woody part of the stem is 
 materially accelerated. It is next carried 
 to the barn, where it is bruised by the 
 break, a machine constructed for the pur- 
 
HEMP AGRIMONY. 
 
 HENBANE. 
 
 nose ; it is then bound up into bundles, and 
 carried to market. {Low's Prac. Agr. 
 p. 348.) There is a paper on a species of 
 African hemp by Mr. A. Hunter {Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. iii. p. 87.) ; others on the cul- 
 tivation of hemp in America, by Mr. W. 
 Tonge {Ann. of Agr. vol. xxiii. p. 1.) ; in 
 Italy {ibid. vol. xvi. p. 439., and vol. ii. 
 p. 216.), and in Catalonia. {Ibid. vol. viii. 
 p. 243.) It seems that 100 parts of Indian 
 hempseed yield 20 to 25 per cent, of oil. 
 {Com. Agr. Asiat. Soc. 1838, p. 69.) (See 
 Flax.) 
 
 Hemp being an article of extensive uti- 
 lity, various plants have been tried as sub- 
 stitutes ; among which are the Canada 
 golden-rod {Solidago Canadensis), a peren- 
 nial plant that might easily be cultivated in 
 Britain ; its stalks are numerous, straight, 
 and grow above five feet in height; they 
 afford very strong fibres, if treated in the 
 same manner as hemp. The sun-flower 
 {Helianthus) also affords single filaments or 
 fibres, which are said to be as thick, and in 
 all respects as strong, as small pack-thread. 
 The fibrous stalk of the common nettle 
 {Urtica dioiea) has been advantageously 
 manufactured into cloth. Others of the 
 nettle tribe, such as the Chinese, or white- 
 leaved nettle {U. nivea), and the Siberian, 
 or hemp-leaved nettle {U. cannabi?ia), yield 
 tough and durable fibres ; and the Syrian 
 swallow-wort {Asclepias Syriaca) is another 
 of the textile plants ; but no conclusively 
 satisfactory experiments of their culture 
 appear to have been made. 
 
 " Various common plants," says Professor 
 Low {El. of Prac. Agr. p. 351.), "yield 
 fibres of sufficient toughness to be made 
 into thread ; as the Esparto-rush {Stipa te- 
 nacissima), which is used in Spain for ob- 
 taining coarse thread ; the common broom 
 {Cytisus scoparia) ; the Spanish broom 
 {Spartiumjunceum) ; different species of aloe, 
 and several plants of the lily tribe. The 
 warmer regions of the world abound in 
 plants possessing a fibrous structure of the 
 bark, which renders them capable of being 
 employed in making ropes, thread, and 
 cloth." 
 
 HEMP AGRIMONY. {Eupatorium 
 cannabinum.) A rough perennial herb, 
 growing in watery, boggy places, especially 
 about the banks of rivers, with a tufted, 
 somewhat creeping root, with many long 
 fibres. Stems several, two or three feet 
 high, branched, downy, often brown or 
 purplish, filled with pith. - Leaves on short 
 stalks, deep green, downy, but rather rough 
 to the touch. The flowers form dense, pale, 
 purplish corymbose tufts, at the top of the 
 stem and upper branches. The whole herb 
 is slightly aromatic. Some species of agri- 
 627 
 
 mony are used in gargles, and as tea. See 
 Agrimony. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 400.) 
 
 HEMP-NETTLE. {Galeopsis.) A 
 genus of annual weeds common in corn 
 fields, flowering in July, August, and Sep- 
 tember. Dr. Smith describes four native 
 species. 
 
 1. Red hemp-nettle. {G. ladanum.) The 
 root is twisted, or zig-zag with many fibres ; 
 the stem a foot high, with several opposite 
 branches, crossing each other in pairs, leafy, 
 red, roughish with deflexed hairs ; the 
 leaves spreading, lanceolate, sometimes al- 
 most linear, furrowed on the upper disk 
 with veins, which are prominent on the 
 under. The. flowers are in dense whorls, 
 and rose-coloured, variegated with crimson 
 and white. This species is very variable in 
 the foliage. 
 
 2. Downy hemp-nettle. {G. villosa.) 
 This plant is larger and paler than the fore- 
 going, and the leaves are clothed with a 
 soft velvet-like downiness, which distin- 
 guishes this species from every other. The 
 flowers are large, of an elegant pale sul- 
 phur colour, with a yellow palate, and 
 bluish upper lip, which is cloven, and 
 sharply notched. 
 
 3. Common hemp-nettle. {G. tetrahit.) 
 This species is met with very frequently in 
 cultivated ground, the stem rising from one 
 and a half to two feet high, rough with 
 copious, deflexed, very sharp prickly 
 bristles. The leaves are ovate, large, dark 
 green, coarsely serrated, closely hairy on 
 both sides, strongly scented when bruised, 
 but not aromatic. The numerous flowers 
 in dense whorls are white, variegated with 
 purple and dark lines. The flowers vary 
 somewhat in size and colour, being occa- 
 sionally quite white. 
 
 4. Large-flowered hemp-nettle. Bee 
 nettle. {G. versicolor.) This species is like 
 the last in general habit, but with paler and 
 broader leaves. The flowers are much 
 larger, yellow, with red or orange marks 
 on the palate. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 92.) 
 
 HENBANE. {Hyoscyamus niger.) This 
 annual herb abounds about villages, road- 
 sides, and among rubbish, and flowers in 
 July. The root is spindle-shaped, the stem 
 bushy ; the leaves sessile, soft, and pliant, 
 sharply lobed, downy, and viscid, exhaling 
 the powerful and oppressive odour, which 
 is emitted by all the rest of the plant. The 
 flowers are numerous, of an elegant straw 
 colour, pencilled with dark purple veins. 
 They are all on one side of the spike, each 
 accompanied with two floral leaves. The 
 seeds are numerous, in a two-celled capsule, 
 seated in the persistent calyx, which has a 
 s s 2 
 
HENBIT, THE GREAT. 
 
 HERB CHRISTOPHER. 
 
 cover like that of a box, and which drops 
 off when the seeds are ripe. The capsules 
 and seeds of henbane, smoked like tobacco, 
 are a rustic remedy for the tooth- ache ; but 
 convulsions and temporary delirium are 
 said to be sometimes the consequences of 
 their use. Neither horses, cattle, swine, nor 
 sheep, will touch this plant, and it is not 
 relished by goats. The whole plant is fatal 
 to poultry, whence its common name ; it 
 intoxicates hogs; but cows, horses, dogs, and 
 goals are able to bear a tolerable proportion 
 before they are affected. The leaves are 
 active only in the second year of the plant : 
 if scattered about buildings, they are said to 
 drive away mice and rats. If more than a 
 small portion of the leaves should have been 
 accidentally swallowed, brisk emetics ought 
 instantly to be taken ; and after discharging 
 the contents of the stomach, it will be ne- 
 cessary to administer emollient and oily 
 clysters, to repeat them as often as they are 
 ejected, and to drink as large portions of 
 vinegar, or lemon juice diluted with water, 
 as the stomach is able to support. 
 
 Henbane owes its medicinal properties to 
 an alkali, hyoscyamia, which can be obtained 
 in a separate state. It is crystallisable. 
 Besides this alkali, the plant yields by de- 
 structive distillation an empyreumatic oil, 
 which is a powerful narcotic poison. Not- 
 withstanding these virulent properties, hen- 
 bane has been professionally administered 
 with considerable success in many obstinate 
 diseases. The expressed juice of the leaves, 
 evaporated to the consistency of extract, 
 has long been used as a narcotic, an anti- 
 spasmodic, and a soporific. It has a nau- 
 seous, bitterish taste. From two to five 
 grains of the extract of henbane are often 
 found equivalent to about one grain of 
 opium, and where the latter disagrees it 
 often produces quiet ; in many cases hen- 
 bane and various forms of opium may be 
 combined. Henbane is apt to produce 
 giddiness ; but it does not constipate the 
 bowels, and it has a diuretic tendency. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 314. ; Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.} 
 
 HENBIT, THE GREAT, or Henbit 
 Dead Nettle. See Dead Nettle. Hen- 
 bit is also one of the common names of the 
 fetid black horehound (Ballota nigra). 
 
 HENBIT, SMALL. See Speedwell. 
 
 HEN HARRIER. See Harriers. 
 
 HEPATICA, or LIVERWORT. (Ane- 
 mone hepatica.) Miller mentions five sorts : 
 the single blue (nobilis), the double blue 
 (plena), the single white (alba), the single 
 red (vulgaris) i and the double red (rubra). 
 These beautiful and early perennials pro- 
 duce their flowers in February and March, 
 before any leaf appears. The double sorts 
 G28 
 
 remain longer in flower than the single 
 ones. The single flowers produce seed every 
 year ; the seed should be sown in pots or boxes 
 of light earth in August, to receive only the 
 morning sun till October, when the plants 
 must be placed in as sunny a spot as pos- 
 sible through the winter. The seedlings 
 may be transplanted the following August 
 into the borders, and left there undisturbed. 
 Hepaticas do not bear transplanting well ; 
 and the roots should only be parted once in 
 three or four years. The hepatica loves an 
 eastern aspect, and a loamy soil. They are 
 three years before they flower handsomely. 
 See Liverwort. 
 
 HERBACEOUS. (Lat. herba.) In de- 
 scribing the texture of bodies, denotes their 
 being green and cellular, as the tissue of 
 membranous leaves. It is also applied to 
 such perennial plants as lose their stems an- 
 nually, while their roots remain permanent 
 in the ground. 
 
 HERBAL. (Lat. herbarium.) A col- 
 lection of dried plants, such as the old bo- 
 tanists termed a hortus siccus or dry garden. 
 It is also applied to books which contain a 
 methodical arrangement of the classes, ge- 
 nera, species, and varieties of plants, together 
 with an account of their properties. Dry 
 herbals are formed by glueing to sheets of 
 paper twigs and other parts of plants pressed 
 fiat, and dried in bibulous paper or other- 
 wise. If well prepared, they are as useful 
 to the botanist as living plants ; but it is 
 necessary to have some practical skill to be 
 able to employ them advantageously. The 
 best method of making a hortus siccus or 
 herbal, is to place the plant to be dried be- 
 tween paper of a soft and spongy, unglazed 
 texture, under a light pressure. On the 
 following day the plant should be spread, in 
 as natural a form as possible, between folds 
 of fresh, dry, blotting paper ; and a pressure 
 greater than before employed. In a week 
 it will be sufficiently dry for pasting on a 
 half sheet of white paper ; t o which t he name 
 of the plant, its habitat, and the natural order, 
 with the date, may be appended. The largest 
 public herbaria are those of the museum at 
 Paris, the imperial collection at Vienna, 
 the royal of Berlin, and that of the British 
 museum, London, formerly Sir Joseph 
 Banks's. Nothing certain is known of the 
 extent of these collections, but they probably 
 contain in some cases as many as 60,000 
 species. The herbarium is not an attractive 
 part of public museums ; but a very im- 
 portant one for numerous purposes of 
 science, both practical and speculative. 
 (Br ancle's Diet, of Science.) 
 
 1 1 ERB BENNET. See Avens. 
 
 HERB CHRISTOPHER. See Bane- 
 Berries. 
 
HERB GERARDE. 
 
 HERON". 
 
 HERB GERARDE. Sec Goutweed. 
 HERB IMPIOUS. See Cudweed. 
 HERB PARIS. See Paris Herb. 
 HERB ROBERT. See Crane's Blll. 
 HERB TWO-PENCE. See Loose- 
 Strife. 
 
 HERD. (Sax. hynb.) A number of beasts 
 congregated together. It is particularly ap- 
 plied to black" cattle. Herd or herdsman 
 also anciently signified a keeper of cattle, 
 and in the north of England it is still used. 
 
 HERESBACH, CONRAD, was born in 
 1508 ; became counsellor to the Duke of 
 Cleve, and died in 1576. He wrote several 
 theological works as well as " Rei Rusticee 
 Libri Quatuor," which was published in 1570, 
 and " Legum Rusticarum et Operarum per 
 singulos menses Digesta," in 1595. He 
 would not command our attention in this 
 work if his " Rei Rustica;," had not been 
 translated by Barnaby Googe. Googe was 
 a poet, born in Lincolnshire, educated at 
 Christ's College, Cambridge, studied at Sta- 
 ples Inn, London, and, through the influence 
 of his relative Sir William Cecil, became 
 gentleman pensioner to the queen. In 
 1563, appeared his " Eglogs, Epitaphs, and 
 Sonnets," which is a very rare book. In 
 1565, he translated and published " the 
 Zodiake of Life," from the Italian, by Pa- 
 lingenius. His translation of Heresbach 
 was printed in 1578, though the preface is 
 dated 1557 : it is entitled " Foure Bookes 
 of Husbandrie, containing the whole Art 
 and Trade of Husbandrie, Gardening, Graf- 
 feing and Planting, with the Antiquitie and 
 Commendation thereof." It was reprinted 
 in 1614, by Gervase Markham, with addi- 
 tions. See Markham. 
 
 The work is in dialogue. — The first book 
 relates to husbandry or farming, and gives 
 a lively sketch of the buildings, practice, 
 and manners of the country gentlemen of 
 the age ; and that it applied to those of this 
 country appears evident from the few inter- 
 polations which may be detected as inserted 
 by Googe. Book the second is a dialogue 
 between Thrasybulus and Marius, of gar- 
 dens, orchards and woods, opening with a 
 declaration of the antiquity of horticulture. 
 Book the third is " of feeding, breeding, 
 and curing cattle ;" the fourth, " of poultry, 
 fowl, fish, and bees." Upon the whole, the 
 work is certainly, as he makes one of the 
 characters say in the dialogue, on a subject 
 " not thoroughly entreated of by others," 
 and therefore by implication more perfectly 
 by himself. It is a book replete with just 
 observations, and though short and imperfect, 
 still better than any work that had preceded 
 it, and in fact is superior in the details of 
 cultivation to Parkinson's Pai'adisus, that 
 appeared more than half a century subse- 
 629 
 
 quently. Too much however is taken from 
 Greek and Latin authors, rather than from 
 contemporary practitioners. Theophnist us, 
 Cato, Columella, Pliny, &c. are continually 
 quoted as authorities, and, in unison with 
 them, absurd practices, and superstitions 
 the most gross, are given with all the ear- 
 nestness of truth. (G. W. Johnsons Hist, 
 of Eng. Gard. ; Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. 
 xii. p. 204.) 
 
 HERON. (Fr. heron ; Lat. ardea.) In 
 ornithology, a genus of wading birds, cha- 
 racterised by a straight, sharp, long, sub- 
 compressed bill, with a furrow extending on 
 each side from the nostrils to the apex of 
 the bill. The Ardea have been latterly 
 subdivided into Ardea, or herons proper, 
 Nycticoraces, or night herons, and Botauri, 
 or bitterns. The bitterns have been already 
 treated of under their respective head. 
 Mr. Yarrell, in his British Birds, describes 
 six species of heron, besides the little egret, 
 which has been noticed in its alphabetical 
 order. 
 
 1. The common heron {A. cinerea) is one 
 of the most mimerous, as well as the best 
 known, of the group of birds now under 
 consideration ; and formerly in the palmy 
 days of falconry, the places where they 
 bred were almost held sacred : the bird was 
 considered royal game, and penal statutes 
 were enacted for its preservation. Now, 
 however, the heron is disregarded, and left 
 to depend on its own sagacity for its safety. 
 The heron generally builds its nest upon 
 large oaks or tall firs, sometimes on preci- 
 pitous rocks near the coast, and occasionally 
 on the ground among reeds and rushes. 
 The nest is of large size, having much the 
 appearance of that of the rook, but rather 
 broader ; it is formed of sticks, and lined 
 with wool. The female lays four or five 
 eggs of a uniform sea-green colour, two 
 inches three lines in length, by one inch nine 
 lines in breadth, and incubation lasts about 
 twenty-eight days. The fobd of the heron 
 consists offish, reptiles, and small mammalia. 
 The heron is said to be very long-lived, and 
 was formerly in considerable estimation as 
 an article of food. The male heron is a 
 very elegant bird ; its forehead, crown, and 
 upper part of the neck are white ; the head 
 is adorned with a pendent crest or plume of 
 dark slate-blue feathers ; beneath the cover 
 of the wings it has a fine black plumage ; 
 the upper surface of the body and wings 
 are delicate French grey ; under surface of 
 the body greyish white, streaked with black ; 
 beak, legs, and toes greenish yellow. The 
 whole length of the bird, from the point of 
 the beak to the end of the tail, is about 
 three feet. 
 
 2. The purple heron (A purpurea) has 
 
 s s 3 
 
HERRING. 
 
 HIDES. 
 
 much darker plumage, being of a bluish 
 black ; the thighs, legs, and toes are reddish 
 buff and brown. It is smaller than the 
 common heron, being about twenty-nine 
 inches in length. This species is found 
 principally in the temperate and warmer 
 parts of Europe. 
 
 3. The great white heron (A. alba) is a 
 beautiful species, and merely an accidental 
 visitor to this country. The whole plumage 
 is pure white, and the extreme length of the 
 bird exceeds three feet. 
 
 4. The buff-backed heron (adult). The 
 little white heron (young) (A. russatd). In 
 the adult bird the plumage of the head, 
 cheeks, neck, and breast is orange-coloured ; 
 the rest of the body white ; the beak and 
 legs are yellow. In the young bird the 
 whole plumage is snowy white. Although 
 classed among the British birds, this species 
 is very seldom seen in our islands. The 
 length of the bird is about twenty inches. 
 
 5. The squacco heron. (A. comata.) This 
 beautiful species has been taken in many of 
 .our English counties. The beak is greenish 
 brown, the feathers on the head are greenish 
 brown ; the sides, front of the neck, and 
 back are a rich buff colour ; the other 
 parts of the body pure white, legs yellowish 
 brown. Whole length of bird about nine- 
 teen inches. 
 
 6. The night heron (Nycticorus Euro- 
 pmis) has also been killed in many of the 
 English counties, and in Scotland. The 
 adult bird has the top of the head and back 
 of the neck black, the plume white ; other 
 parts of the body nearly white, shaded with 
 ash grey, legs and toes green. The whole 
 length of the bird, from the point of the 
 beak to the end of the tail, is about twenty- 
 three inches. (YarrelTs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 445—485.) 
 
 HERRING. (Clupea harengus.) This 
 well-known fish is found in great abundance 
 from the highest northern latitudes down 
 to the northern coast of France. Large 
 shoals of them frequent the coasts of the 
 British Islands, and give employment to a 
 considerable number of boats and men, 
 forming a principal article of commerce. 
 A very elaborate treatise on the natural 
 history and the different modes of fishing and 
 curing the herring, by Mr. John Mitchell, 
 was published in the Edin. Quart Jonrn. of 
 Agr. vol. x. p. 1. 
 
 The scales and other refuse of the her- 
 ring fishery of the Suffolk coast are used 
 with great success, as a manure by the 
 farmers in the neighbourhood of Lowestoff. 
 There is no doubt that this fish is a power- 
 iul manure. The cake produced in Swe- 
 den by the herring oil makers, is considered 
 by the farmers of that cold country to be 
 630 
 
 the most powerful of fertilisers. And I 
 have in another place given the result of an 
 experiment with some spoiled dried herrings 
 on a Kentish hop plantation. (Essay on 
 Salt, p. 101.; Trans. High. Soc. vol. v. 
 p. 404.) See Fish, as a Manure. 
 
 HIDE-BOUND. In farriery, applied to 
 a certain disease of cows and horses, in which 
 the skin adheres to their sides. Want of 
 proper care, spare diet, and bad food, such 
 as rank long grass in swampy situations, 
 and musty hay or oats are the most probable 
 causes of this affection. Hide-bound is 
 rarely a primary disease : it is a symptom 
 of unhealthiness, and often of disease, of 
 the digestive organs. It is sometimes an 
 accompaniment of chronic cough, grease, 
 farcy, and founder. A few mashes, and 
 a mild dose of physic, often have a very 
 beneficial effect. If the horse cannot be 
 spared for physic, the following alterative, 
 which is in common use, may be given every 
 night for some time in a mash, or in the 
 form of a ball : — levigated antimony, 2 
 drachms ; nitre, 3 drachms ; sulphur, 4 
 drachms. For the cow eight ounces of sul- 
 phur, with half an ounce of ginger, and a few 
 mashes should be given. (Lib. of Use. Know. ; 
 The Horse, p. 371. ; Cattle, p. 571.) 
 
 HIDE OF LAND. (Sax. Hyde lands.) 
 Was considered to be such a quantity of 
 land, as one plough, and its team, could 
 plough in a year. It was hence called a 
 ploughland. It was about 100, 120, or 
 150 acres. Bede calls it a familiar e, and 
 says it is as much as will maintain a family. 
 Crompton, in Jurisdiction, f. 222., says that a 
 hide of land contained 100 acres, and that 
 8 hides made a knight's fee. But according 
 to Sir Edward Coke, a knight's fee, a hide, 
 or ploughland, a yardland, or an ox gang 
 of land, did not contain any certain quantity 
 of acres (On Lit. f. 69.), but was determined 
 by the value of 20/. per annum. And a 
 ploughland may contain a messuage, wood, 
 meadow, and pasture ; and every ploughland 
 of ancient time was of the yearly value of five 
 nobles ; and this was the living of a plough- 
 man or yeoman. The distribution of Eng- 
 land into hides of land is very ancient, for 
 they are mentioned in the laws of King Ina. 
 
 HIDES. (Sax. hybe; Germ, haute; 
 Dutch, hidden.) Generally speaking, this 
 term is applied to the skins of most beasts, 
 but in commerce it is limited to the strong 
 and thick skin of the horse, ox, and other 
 large animals. Hides are raw or green ; 
 that is, in the state in which they arc taken 
 oil* the carcase, or dressed with salt, alum, 
 and saltpetre to prevent them from putre- 
 fying; or they arc cured or tanned. The 
 hides of South America are in the highest 
 repute, and vast quantities of them arc an- 
 
HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND. 
 
 finally imported into Great Britain Large 
 quantities are also received from various 
 parts of the continent ; and from Morocco, 
 the Cape of Good Hope, &c. About 200,000 
 cwt. of untanned hides are annually imported, 
 and about 120,000 cwt. of other hides, ex- 
 clusive of Russia hides, which form a large 
 proportion of the imports. The rate of 
 duty charged on hides is — untanned, dry, 
 per cwt. 4s. Sd. ; wet, 2*. 4d. ditto ; pieces 
 of hide, or hides tawed, curried, or dressed, 
 9d. per lb. ; cut or trimmed, Is. 2d. per lb. 
 Those imported from British colonies are 
 only liable to half this rate of duty. The 
 amount of duty received on foreign and co- 
 lonial hides in the seven years ending with 
 1832, is in round numbers as follows : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Untanned 
 Hides. 
 
 Tanned Hides. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1826 
 
 24,491 
 
 1,747 
 
 1827 
 
 26,319 
 
 2,219 
 
 1828 
 
 34,841 
 
 2,512 
 
 1829 
 
 37,379 
 
 2,388 
 
 1830 
 
 42,538 
 
 1,337 
 
 1831 
 
 32,814 
 
 1,037 
 
 1832 
 
 24,242 
 
 1,170 
 
 (M'Culloclis Com. Diet.) 
 
 HIGHLAND AND AGRICULTURAL 
 SOCIETY OF SCOTLAND, THE. Was 
 instituted 1784. The society's hall is in 
 Albyn Place ; its museum on George IV. r s 
 Bridge, Edinburgh. The general meetings 
 of this society are held, according to the di- 
 rections of its charter, on the second Tuesday 
 in January, and at such other place, in 
 June or July, as the society shall appoint. 
 
 The society has, besides, a great annual 
 show in September, or in the beginning of 
 October. — The competition for the prizes 
 is open to stock from any part of the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 New members are admitted at either of 
 the general meetings, by ballot. — These 
 pay in advance, 1/. 3s. 6d. per annum, or 
 a life subscription of twelve guineas. (Far- 
 mers Almanac.) 
 
 HIGHWAYS received their name from 
 the Roman method of elevating the road 
 upon causeways, or by raised earth. In 
 law highways are roads common to all the 
 Queens subjects, which the parish are liable 
 to repair. All ways either for foot pas- 
 sengers, or carriages and horses, are pro- 
 perly highways (Co. Litt. 56.). If a road 
 is dedicated to the public for twenty-five 
 years, it becomes a highway, which the 
 parish are bound to repair, although they 
 have not acquiesced in the dedication of the 
 road (R. v. Leake, 5 B. & A. 469.). And 
 if a road has been freely used by the public 
 631 
 
 for four or five years, a jury is warranted 
 in presuming that the owners of the soil 
 consented to its being thus used (Jarvis v. 
 Dean, 3 Bing. 448.). Bridges in highways 
 become public by whomsoever built, but 
 not raised causeways furnished with cul- 
 verts over meadows, if more than 300 feet 
 from the bridge (R. v. Oxfordshire, 1 B. & 
 A. 289.). And a bridge only used by the 
 public in periods of floods, is merely a 
 public bridge during that period (R. v. 
 Northampton, 2 M. & S. 262.). By the 
 common law, the obligation to repair the 
 roads lies upon the parish ; the bridges are 
 to be repaired by the county, and not only 
 the bridge, but since the 22 Henry VIII. 
 c. 5. s. 9., the road or approaches for 300 
 feet " from any of the ends of it." Sur- 
 veyors of the highways are now annually 
 elected by the parishioners on or within 
 fourteen days of the 25th of March (5 & 6 
 W. IV. c. 50. s. 6.) ; and the surveyor may 
 be, by sect. 6. of this act, re-elected, who must 
 serve, under a penalty of 20Z. : he is en- 
 titled however to a salary ; by s. 20. he is 
 liable to a penalty of 51. for neglect of 
 duty. The surveyor, by s. 25., is authorised 
 to use adjoining grounds as a temporary 
 highway whilst the old road is repairing and 
 widening ; and, by s. 27., he is empowered 
 to make a rate on the inhabitants, which 
 must however be allowed by the justices. 
 By s. 47., any person taking road scrapings 
 or other materials from the sides of roads 
 is liable to a penalty of 101. By s. 51., 
 the surveyor is empowered to dig for road 
 materials within his own, or any other parish, 
 and to gather stones free from charge, on 
 any land within his parish, but he must pay 
 for any damage done to the land during 
 their _ removal ; and, by s. 54., after obtain- 
 ing licence from the justices in special ses- 
 sions, he may enter upon and dig for road 
 materials, making however satisfaction to 
 the owners ; and he must fill up the holes 
 he makes, or have them filled up and sloped 
 down. By s. 64., no tree shall be allowed 
 to be planted within fifteen feet of the 
 centre of the highway; and, by s. 65-, with 
 the authority of a justice of the peace (after 
 duly summoning the owner to show cause), 
 the surveyor may order hedges and trees, 
 which shade or otherwise injure highways, 
 to be cut and plashed. By s. 80., cartways 
 must be twenty feet, horseways eight, and 
 footways three feet wide. 
 
 A surveyor of highways is not personally 
 liable to the labourers ; they must look to 
 the commissioners or their treasurer (Pe- 
 chin v. Pawley, 1 W. Black. 670.). A way 
 warden may charge law expenses incurred 
 in the discharge of his duty (Rex v. Fowler, 
 3 N. & M. 826.) 
 
 s s 4 
 
HIGHWAYS. 
 
 HILL (SIR JOHN). 
 
 Repairing roads. — The advantages of 
 keeping roads in repair, if only regarded by 
 the former as lessening the draught of his 
 horses, may be estimated from the following 
 table of the average force required to draw 
 a light four-wheeled cart, weighing with its 
 load 1000 lbs. 
 
 Description of Road. 
 
 Force of Trac- 
 ture required 
 to move the 
 Carriage. 
 
 - 30^ lbs. 
 
 - 39 
 
 - 53 
 
 - 106 
 
 - 143 
 
 - 204 
 
 Turnpike road — hard dry 
 Turnpike road — dirty 
 Hard, compact loam 
 Ordinary bye-road 
 Turnpike road, newly gravelled 
 Loose sandy road 
 
 The annual expense of repairing the 
 roads throughout England, according to a 
 report of a committee of the House of 
 Commons in 1814, amounted to 1,500,000Z., 
 which Mr. Penfold, in his Treatise on Road- 
 making, divides into 
 
 Materials, tradesmen, and officers - £500,000 
 Manual labour ... 250,000 
 Cartage - 750,000 
 
 The chief points to be attended to in 
 road making are, — 1 . the foundation ; 2. the 
 drainage ; 3. the choice of the materials ; 
 4. the preparation of them ; and 5. the size 
 of them. In repairing, 1 . the scraping ; 2. 
 the removal of shading trees, &c. ; 3. the 
 watering. A careful attention to which 
 points will well repay the parish for the 
 care bestowed upon them. There is a 
 paper by Mr. Whyte upon a machine for 
 scraping and cleansing highways (Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 349.), and on roads, 
 and the excessive weights carried On them 
 in narrow-wheeled waggons by Mr. Whetly 
 (Com. to Board ofAgr. vol.vi. p. 182.) ; and 
 there is a work on road-making by Sir C. 
 M'Adam, which every road-surveyor should 
 possess. Sir Henry Parnell has also pub- 
 lished a valuable treatise on road-making. 
 Of the materials best adapted to road- 
 making, Mr. Penfold remarks, "The trap- 
 pean and basaltic rocks are those best 
 suited for the construction of roads. No 
 material has ever been used superior to the 
 tough basalts, which are brought as ballast 
 in ships from China and Bombay, and which 
 have been partially used in the macadamised 
 streets of London. The whinstones of 
 Northumberland, and the dark basalt of 
 the Clee Hill in Shropshire, are almost 
 perfect as roadstones. Amongst the gra- 
 nites, the Aberdeen, the Guernsey, and 
 Dartmoor, are preferable to that of Corn- 
 wall. Indeed, the darkest in colour are in- 
 variably the best, as containing a greater 
 proportion of hornblende, which is tougher 
 than is found in those of a lighter colour, 
 G32 
 
 where the brittle substances of felspar, 
 quartz, and mica, are the chief ingredients. 
 Limestones in many respects afford an ex- 
 cellent material. The more unyielding 
 the material, the smaller is the size to which 
 it ought to be broken. Limestones have in 
 general a peculiar quality of making smooth 
 roads, even if not broken to a small size. Pit 
 gravel, especially that belonging to the new 
 red sandstone formation, is in general not to 
 be depended upon, as containing stones of 
 different sorts, and consequently of different 
 degrees of strength. The gravel of the chalks 
 and other soils of the south of England, 
 consists almost entirely of flint, which is too 
 brittle to form a good road stone. (Pract. 
 Treat, on Roads, p. 13.) In laying on flint 
 stones, they should be previously broken 
 with a hammer, so that no stone exceeds in 
 size two inches. " It is one of the greatest 
 mistakes in road-making to lay on thick 
 coats of materials. If there be substance 
 enough already in the road, and which in- 
 deed should always be carefully kept up, it 
 will never be right to put on more than a 
 stone's thickness at a time." (Ibid. p. 15.) 
 It is more than probable that in many situa- 
 tions where timber plantations are abundant, 
 and road materials expensive, wooden blocks 
 may be economically employed. 
 
 HILL, HYLL or HYLE, THOMAS. 
 He resided in London, and, besides having 
 published numerous works on dreams, 
 physiognomy, mysteries, astronomy, arith- 
 metic, and an almanack, he wrote also — 
 
 " The profitable Arte of Gardening ; to which is added 
 much necessarie matter, and a number of secrets, with 
 the Physicke helps belonging to each Hearbe, and that 
 easily prepared." To this is annexed two proper Treat- 
 ises, the one entituled " The marvailous Government, 
 Propertie, and Benefit of Bees, with the rare Secretes of 
 the Honnie and Waxe." And the other " The yerely 
 Conjectures mete for Husbandmen." To these is like- 
 wise added " A Treatise of the Arte of Grafting and 
 planting of Trees." Gathered by Thomas Hyll, citizen of 
 London. London, 15G3, 16mo. The same, London, 1568, 
 12mo., 1574 and 1579, 4to. Other editions were published 
 in 1586, without the author's name, in 1593, in 1608, 4to. 
 1594, 16mo. All in black letter. He died early in the 
 sixteenth century. (Cf. W. Johnson's Hist. ofGarcf.) 
 
 HILL, SIR JOHN, was the son of a 
 clergyman, and born about 1716. He was 
 apprenticed to an apothecary at West- 
 minster, and there being led to the study of 
 botany, obtained, from his proficiency in 
 that science, the patronage of the Duke of 
 Richmond and Lord Petrc, who employed 
 him in their gardens. Having obtained t he 
 patronage of the Earl of Bute, he published 
 under his auspices "a System of Botany," 
 in twenty-six volumes folio ; for which 
 pompous work he was created a knight el' 
 (lie Order of Vasa, by the King of Sweden. 
 He wrote several novels and farces. He 
 died November 22d, 1775. 
 
 He had a dispute with Garrick, having published a 
 pamphlet in 1751), entitled, •« To David Garrick, Esq., 
 
HIPPOPATHOLOGY. 
 
 HOEING BY HAND. 
 
 the petition of I, in behalf of herself and sister," In 
 which he charged that actor with pronouncing many 
 words spelt with I as if the vowel U was made use of. 
 The pamphlet is sunk into oblivion, but the Epigram 
 with which Garrick replied to him is one of the best in 
 the English language. 
 
 If 'tis true, as you say, that I 've injured a letter, 
 I '11 change my notes soon, and I hope for the better ; 
 May the just rights of letters, as well as of men, 
 Hereafter be fixed by the tongue and the pen ! 
 Most devoutly I wish that they botli have their due, 
 And that I may be never mistaken for U. 
 Hill also became embroiled in a contest with Wood- 
 ward the comedian, who answered him in a pamphlet 
 with this motto, " I do remember an Apothecary, culling 
 of simples." alluding to a story that Hill was forbidden 
 the entrance to some nobleman's gardens, for having 
 purloined several valuable plants. 
 
 The following are his chief works relating to agriculture 
 and gardening: — 1. A Method of raising Trees from the 
 Leaves. Under the assumed name of Thomas Barnes. 
 London. 1758. 8vo. 2. Eden ; or a Complete Body of Gar- 
 dening. Sixty coloured Plates. London. Folio. 3. Com- 
 plete Body of Husbandry, with Plates. Folio. 4. The Gar- 
 dener's new Kalender, with Plates. London. 5. An Idea of 
 a Botanical Gardenin England. 1758. 6. Account of a 
 Stone which, upon being watered, produces mushrooms. 
 2 Plates London. 1758. 8vo. 7. Method of producing 
 Double Flowers from Single, by a regular Course of cul- 
 ture, illustrated with 7 Plates. London. 1758. 8. The 
 Origin and Production of Proliferous Flowers, with the 
 Culture at large for raising Double from Single, and Proli- 
 ferous from Double. 7 Plates. London. 1759. 8vo. 9. 
 The Practice of Gardening, by T. Perfect, a Pupil of Dr. 
 Hill. London. 1759. 8vo. 10. Botanical Tracts. Lon- 
 don. 17G2. A Collection of previously published Pamph- 
 lets. 11. The Construction of Timber explained by Means 
 of the Microscope. London. 1770. 8vo. 12. The Vege- 
 table System, or Experiments on the Structure and Lhe 
 of Plants. 1759. The Gardener's Pocket Book, or Coun- 
 try Gentleman's Recreation ; being the Kitchen, Fruit, 
 and Flower Garden, displayed in Alphabetical Order, 
 by R.S. Gent. 1754. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Gar d.) 
 
 HILL-SHELTER. See Shelter. 
 
 HINDOSTAN, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 See India. 
 
 HIPPOPATHOLOGY. The science 
 of veterinary medicine which comprehends 
 the diseases of the horse. Among the 
 writers on this subject, within the last cen- 
 tury, may be enumerated Gibson, Clater, 
 Blaine, Lowson, White, Rydge, Coleman, 
 Dick, Sewell, Percivall, White, Rydge, 
 Stewart, Youatt, and many others ; and, 
 although a few of their works may now be 
 obsolete, the greater portion, particularly 
 the valuable work of Mr. Youatt, contain a 
 vast fund of practical and useful information. 
 
 HITT, THOMAS, appears to have been 
 a native of Aberdeenshire. He served his 
 apprenticeship under the gardener of John, 
 the third Duke of Rutland, at Bel voir 
 Castle, in Lincolnshire, who was, like his 
 father, a great delighter in gardening, es- 
 pecially the culture of fruit trees. During 
 almost all the period he was a serving gar- 
 dener, he lived with one branch or other of 
 the Rutland family. In 1755. he lived with 
 Lord Robert Manners, at Bloxholm, in 
 Lincolnshire. He eventually became a 
 nurseryman, a designer of gardens, &c. in 
 Kent. He died about 1710. He wrote 
 upon husbandry in general, and upon the 
 improvement of waste land in Aberdeen- 
 shire, but his chief work is — 
 
 1 . A Treatise of Fruit Trees. London. 1755. A second 
 edition appeared in 1757. Third edit. Dublin. 1758. 
 
 6J3 
 
 Miller mentions a third edition, 17G8. London. It is the 
 result of long experience, and is decidedly one of our 
 best practical works upon the art of training trees. The 
 characteristic of his plan is to check the rise of the sap 
 by making the stem take a tortuous course. At his 
 death his MSS. came into the possession of James 
 Meader, then gardener to the Duke of Northumberland, 
 from which he published " The Modern Gardener." 
 2. A Treatise of Husbandry. London. 8vo. 1760. 
 
 HOAR FROST. To the authorities 
 quoted in the article Frost I would add 
 that of the Rev. J. Farquharson. He 
 draws from his observations the conclu- 
 sions that these frosts occur when the ther- 
 mometer is at ten feet from the ground, 
 of varying degrees of temperature, some- 
 times as high as 41° ; 2dly, that they take 
 place at the time of a high daily mean tem- 
 perature only during a calm ; 3dly, that 
 the air is always, or nearly all of it, un- 
 clouded ; 4thly, that they most frequently 
 take place when the mercury of the baro- 
 meter is high and rising, and when the 
 hygrometer for the season indicates com- 
 parative dryness. 5thly. In general, low 
 and flat lands in the bottoms of valleys, and 
 grounds that are in land-locked hollows, 
 suffer from these frosts, while all sloping 
 lands and open uplands escape injury. 
 This he accounts for, by supposing, that on 
 sloping grounds there are always currents 
 of air which mix the upper and warmer 
 strata of air with that which rests imme- 
 diately on the ground, and which it would 
 seem, from some experiments of Dr. Wells, 
 is not unfrequently much colder than that 
 only four feet from the surface. He found, 
 on the 19th of August, 1813 {Trans. High. 
 Soc. ix. 250.): — 
 
 Time. 
 
 On the ground. 
 
 Four feet from 
 the ground. 
 
 6 h. 45 m. - 
 
 53° 
 
 60|° 
 
 7 h. - 
 
 51 
 
 60^ 
 
 7 h. 20 m. - 
 
 49^ 
 
 59 
 
 7 h. 40 m. - 
 
 49 
 
 58 
 
 8 h. 45 m. - 
 
 42 
 
 54 
 
 HOBBY, THE. See Falcon. 
 
 HOGS. See Swine. 
 
 HOGWEED (Heracleum sphondylium). 
 This plant comes into flower about the 
 middle of May ; its nutritive powers appear 
 to be considerable when compared to those 
 of lucern and some other plants. Sinclair 
 found that 64 drs. of the herbage afforded 
 of nutritive matter 90 grs., lucern an equal 
 proportion, the same weight of burnet and 
 of Bunias orientalis 100 grs. each, of the 
 broad-leaved cultivated clover 80 grs. See 
 Cow-Parsnip. (Hort. Gram. Web. p. 411.) 
 
 HOEING BY HAND. The hand hoe is 
 an instrument too well known to need any 
 description. The operation of hoeing is 
 beneficial, not only as being destructive of 
 weeds, but as loosening the surface of the 
 
HOLDICH, BENJAMIN. 
 
 HOLCUS. 
 
 soil, and rendering it more permeable to the 
 gases and aqueous vapour of the atmosphere. 
 Hoeing, therefore, not only protects the 
 farmer's crops from being weakened by 
 weeds, but it renders the soil itself more 
 fertile, as more capable of supplying the 
 plants with their food. Jethro Tull was 
 the first who warmly and ably inculcated 
 the advantages of hoeing cultivated soils. 
 He correctly enough told the farmers of his 
 time that as fine hoed ground is not so long 
 soaked by rain, so the dews never suffer it 
 to become perfectly dry. This appears by 
 the plants, which flourish in this ; whilst 
 those in the hard ground are starved : in 
 the driest weather good hoeing procures 
 moisture to the roots of plants, though the 
 ignorant and incurious fancy it lets in the 
 drought. 
 
 HOLDICH, BENJAMIN, an agricul- 
 tural writer, and farmer of Thorney in 
 Lincolnshire, was born in November, 1770, 
 and died in 1824. He was long the editor 
 of the Old Farmer s Journal, published by 
 Evans and Ruffy. After his decease some 
 of the valuable materials he accumulated 
 were published by his friend George Sin- 
 clair, in a fragment of a work by him, " on 
 the Weeds of Agriculture." " I offer," says 
 Mr. S. Taylor, when speaking of Holdich, 
 " no apology for this brief episode, conceiv- 
 ing as I do, that it is well calculated to 
 exhibit to every farmer, and indeed to 
 every person, the power of the mind to 
 overcome great natural obstacles to im- 
 provement ; and what greater obstacle can 
 there be than the want of early education ? 
 Yet Mr. Holdich did completely master 
 the difficulties, formidable as they were, 
 under which he laboured ; for at the age 
 when most boys finish their education, he 
 began his ; and the ease and correctness of 
 his compositions sufficiently evince the 
 succ ;ss of his unaided individual exertions." 
 (Preface to Weeds of Agr.; Brit. Farm. Mag. 
 vol. v. p. 374.) 
 
 HOLCUS. The soft-grass. A genus of 
 grasses, of which Smith in his Eng. Flor. 
 (vol. i. p. 107.) describes three species, but 
 which Sinclair, in his Hortus Gramineus, has 
 extended to five species and varieties, inclu- 
 ding the northern holy-grass (Hierochloe 
 borealis), which Smith very properly refers 
 to another class. 
 
 IIolcus avenaceus. Tall oat-like soft- 
 grass. In this species the calyx is smooth, 
 fche barren floret lowest, with a sharply 
 bent prominent awn ; fertile one bent, 
 Blightly elevated, scarcely awned; leaves 
 rawer harsh; root knobbed, or with tuber- 
 ous joints, and downy fibres. In dry or 
 fluctuating soils the roots become largely 
 bullous, and then constitute a troublesome 
 634 
 
 weed. In the works of. Linnaeus^ Curtis* 
 and Host, this grass is found under the 
 name of Avena elatior ; it has since been 
 thought to agree better with holcus in 
 structure; but it appears to belong to 
 neither of these justly, serving rather to 
 form the connecting link between the 
 avena, hold, and aira. This grass grows 
 common in pastures, hedges, thickets, and 
 by road sides. The stem rises to three feet 
 high, is smooth, simple, and jointed; the 
 joints sometimes downy ; the leaves are 
 deep green, rough-edged, and rather harsh 
 to the touch, with long striated sheaths, 
 and abrupt stipules. The flowering panicle 
 is erect, lateral The seeds are nearly cy- 
 lindrical, and coated with the hardened 
 corolla. This grass sends forth flowering 
 culms during the whole of the season. The 
 entire plant is subject to rust after the 
 period of flowering ; hence the crop should 
 be cut as soon as the grass is in flower. 
 This grass is eaten by all sorts of cattle ; 
 and is always present in the composition of 
 the best natural pastures ; but it does not 
 constitute a large proportion of the herbage. 
 It perishes rapidly after being cropped; 
 and though later in flowering (end of June) 
 than many other species, produces an early 
 and plentiful supply of herbage in the 
 spring. These properties would entitle it 
 to rank high as a grass adapted for the 
 alternate husbandry, but with respect to 
 its nutritive properties, it contains too 
 large a proportion of bitter extractive and 
 saline matters to warrant its cultivation 
 without a considerable admixture of dif- 
 ferent grasses ; and the same objection ex- 
 tends to its culture for permanent pasture. 
 
 Holcus avenaceus, var. muticus. Awnless, 
 tall, oat-like soft-grass. In this variety, 
 which is smaller in every respect than the 
 preceding, the leaves are very short, the 
 root slightly tuberous, the panicle much 
 contracted, the flowers without awns ; 
 glumes pencilled at the apex with purple. 
 It flowers a week later than the awned va- 
 riety ; in all other respects it is the same. 
 It seldom perfects any good seed, and ap- 
 pears to be much inferior in point of produce. 
 Hares give a decided preference to the awn- 
 less variety. 
 
 Holcus lanatus. Woolly or meadow soft- 
 grass. The root in this species is fibrous ; the 
 stem simple, one and a half to two feet high, 
 smooth above, hairy below, with hairy 
 sheaths, and short blunt stipules. The pani- 
 cle is thrice compound, erect, and spreading* 
 The calyx of the flower is woolly, lower 
 floret perfect, awnless; upper with an arched 
 awn ; leaves downy on both sides. This is 
 a very troublesome grass, which is difficult 
 to get rid of ; it grows abundant in meadows 
 
HOLCUS. 
 
 HOLLYHOCK. 
 
 and pastures on all soils, from the richest to 
 the poorest. Cattle prefer almost any other 
 grass to this ; hence it is seen in pastures, 
 with full-grown perfect leaves, while the 
 grasses that surround it are cropped to the 
 roots. Sir Humphrey Davy has shown that 
 its nutritive matter consists entirely of mu- 
 cilage and sugar ; while the same property 
 in the grasses most relished by cattle has 
 either a sub-acid or saline taste. This grass 
 might probably be rendered more palatable 
 to cattle by being sprinkled over with salt. 
 
 Hard stocking, and never suffering it to 
 run to seed, will at least prevent this grass 
 from spreading ; but ploughing up the pas- 
 ture, and taking not less than a five years' 
 course of crops and then returning the land 
 to other grasses, will be found the best 
 means of getting rid of it. It flowers and 
 rij^ens the seed in July. 
 
 Holcus mollis. Creeping soft-grass. Couch- 
 grass. The specific character of this species 
 is, root creeping, calyx partly naked, lower 
 floret perfect, awnless, upper with a sharply 
 bent prominent awn ; leaves slightly downy. 
 The distinctions between this grass and the 
 woolly or meadow soft-grass, H. lanatus, are 
 the creeping root, and the whole plant being 
 more slender and less downy. The leaves 
 are also narrower and more soft than those 
 of the H. lanatus, and grow more distinct 
 from each other : on the contrary, those of 
 the H. lanatus are in dense tufts. The pa- 
 nicle is more loose and smoother, with con- 
 spicuous awns, which, in drying, bend at a 
 right angle, and extend beyond the calyx. 
 The panicle of the H. lanatus is generally of a 
 reddish purple colour tinged with green, or, 
 when growing under the shade of trees, of a 
 whitish green colour. The panicle of the 
 H. mollis is always of the latter colour. This 
 grass would rank as one of the superior 
 grasses, if it did not usually tenant a light 
 barren sandy soil ; but it produces little 
 herbage in the spring, and the aftermath is 
 next to nothing. Pigs are very fond of the 
 roots, which contain a very considerable 
 quantity of nutritive matter, having the 
 flavour of new-made meal. The herbage is 
 apparently more disliked by cattle than that 
 of the H. lanatus : it is extremely soft, dry, 
 and tasteless. The roots, when once in pos- 
 session of the soil, can hardly again be ex- 
 pelled without great labour and expense. 
 It is the time couch grass of light sandy soils, 
 for its roots frequently attain in a few months 
 to four or five feet in length. The best 
 mode of banishing this impoverishing and 
 troublesome weed from light arable lands 
 that are infested with it, is to collect the 
 roots with the fork after the plough ; and 
 when thus in some measure lessened to apply 
 yearly dressings of clay, perhaps fifty load 
 635 
 
 per acre, till the texture of the soil is 
 changed to a sandy loam ; this grass will 
 then be easily overcome, and the fertility of 
 the soil permanently increased. See Couch. 
 
 Holcus odoratus (rcpens). Sweet-scented 
 soft-grass or northern holy-grass. See Holy- 
 Grass. 
 
 I have placed together in a tabular form 
 the comparative yield of produce by these 
 grasses. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 HOLLY (Ilex aquifolium). A handsome 
 evergreen tree, of slow growth, with a 
 smooth grey bark, which, abounding in 
 mucilage, makes bird-lime by maceration in 
 water. The wood is hard, close-grained, 
 and covered with the above smooth grey 
 bark. The leaves are alternate, stalked, 
 rigid, shining, waxy, with spinous divaricated 
 lobes ; the upper ones on old trees entire, 
 with only a terminal prickle. The flowers 
 are copious, white, tinged externally with 
 purple, the earlier ones least perfect. The 
 berries are scarlet, casually yellow. The 
 holly grows in hedges and bushy places 
 upon dry hills. Numerous variegated 
 varieties are kept in gardens, and one whose 
 leaves are prickly on the disk. Darwin 
 suggested the idea, that the points on the 
 lower leaves of the holly was a provision of_ 
 nature to prevent them from being eaten by 
 cattle ; hence, when the tree grows beyond 
 the reach of cattle, the leaves lose the spines, 
 that species of armature being no longer 
 necessary. The tree bears clipping well ; 
 but it is not so fashionable for cut hedges 
 as formerly. The branches, laden with 
 berries, are stuck about rustic kitchens and 
 churches at Christmas, and remain till 
 Candlemas Day. In Norfolk and some 
 other counties the misseltoe accompanies 
 them, and sometimes branches of the 
 spindle tree or prickwood (Evany mm Eu- 
 ropam) (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 227. ; Phillips's 
 Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 280.) 
 
 HOLLYHOCK (Althcea, from altheo, to 
 cure ; some of the species having medicinal 
 qualities.) A genus of tall, free, flowering 
 
 
 Produce per Acre in Pounds. 
 
 
 Green. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Nut. Mat. 
 
 Holcus avenaccus, soil clayey 
 
 
 
 
 loam in flower 
 
 17,015 
 
 6,380 
 
 664 
 
 Holcus avenaccus, seed ripe - 
 
 16,335 
 
 5,717 
 
 255 
 
 — latter-math 
 
 13,612 
 
 
 265 
 
 H. avcnaceus, var. muticus, 
 
 
 
 
 soil rich clayey loam, in 
 
 
 
 
 flower -" - 
 
 12,251 
 
 4,287 
 
 669 
 
 — latter-math - 
 
 3,453 
 
 
 53 
 
 H. lanatus, clayey loam, in 
 
 
 
 flower - - 
 
 19,057 
 
 6,193 
 
 1191 
 
 H. mollis, sandy loam, in 
 
 
 flower - - - 
 
 34,031 
 
 13,612 
 
 2392 
 
 — seed ripe - 
 
 21,099 
 
 8,439 
 
 1153 
 
 H. odoratus (repens), in 
 
 
 
 
 flower - - - 
 
 9,528 
 
 2,441 
 
 632 
 
 — — seed 
 
 
 ripe 
 
 27,225 
 
 9,528 
 
 2233 
 
HOLM. 
 
 HONEY 
 
 plants. The biennial and annual kinds 
 should be sown in the open border in 
 spring and transplanted when sufficiently 
 strong. The herbaceous kinds may be 
 increased by dividing the roots, or from seeds. 
 {Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 The hollyhock with angular sinuated 
 leaves {A. rosea), the parent of the many 
 beautiful varieties of hollyhock, yields a 
 blue colouring matter equal to indigo. 
 
 Hollyhock, with hand-shaped leaves. (A. 
 Jicifolia.) Miller says these two are distinct 
 species, always preserving their peculiar 
 formed leaf. They are biennials, natives 
 of a warm latitude, but sufficiently hardy 
 to bear our climate. Their handsome 
 flowers are of various colours, white, deep 
 red, pale red, dark red, yellow, purple, al- 
 most black, and flesh colour. The holly- 
 hock likes a good substantial mould, in a 
 sunny situation, where it will grow from 
 ten to twelve feet high. The seed should 
 be saved from the most double flowers, and 
 preserved in their capsules till the spring. 
 In April, sow the seed either in drills or 
 broadcast, in a bed of light earth. When 
 the plants have thrown ont six or eight 
 leaves, they may be transplanted a foot 
 apart, into a nursery bed, where they 
 should be left till October, when they must 
 be planted where they are intended to re- 
 main. Hollyhocks should be well propped to 
 prevent their being affected by high winds. 
 
 HOLM. (Sax. and Danish.) An island 
 or fenny place surrounded by water. 
 
 HOLM OAK, or HOLLY OAK. See 
 Oak. 
 
 HOLT. (Sax. a wood; Germ, holz.) The 
 termination of many names of places in 
 England, derived from their ancient 
 situation in a wood. 
 
 HOLY- GRASS, NORTHERN. {Hie- 
 rochloe borealis.) The sweet-scented soft- 
 grass, Holcus odoratus (repens) of some 
 botanists. In this grass the panicle is 
 somewhat unilateral, with smooth flower- 
 stalks ; the perfect floret awnless, the bar- 
 ren ones slightly awned ; the leaves rather 
 broad, flat, naked, root creeping extensively ; 
 stems a foot and a half high. The nutritive 
 qualities of this grass are greater than in 
 most of the early spring grasses. The stem 
 rises twelve or eighteen inches, is erect, 
 leafy, and smooth; the leaves are broad, flat, 
 naked, rough on the edges ; the stipules 
 short, broad, and acute. The panicle is 
 erect, with slender wavy branches, lateral, 
 and the flowers erect; awn not prominent. 
 The powerful creeping roots of this grass, 
 its tender nature, and the great deficiency 
 of loliage in the spring, are, however, de- 
 merits which discourage the idea of recom- 
 mending it further to the notice of the 
 636 
 
 agriculturist. It comes into flower about 
 the end of April, and perfects hardly any 
 seed; but few grasses propagate more 
 quickly by the roots. This grass is said to 
 be used at high festivals, for strewing the 
 churches in Prussia, as Acorus Calamus 
 has time out of mind been employed in the 
 cathedral and streets of Norwich on the 
 mayor's day. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 110.; 
 Hort. Gram. Wob.^ 167.) 
 
 HOMESTEAD, or FARM STEADING. 
 A collection of farm buildings and offices 
 arranged in a convenient form. 
 
 HONEWORT, {Sison^ from the Celtic 
 sisum, a running stream, in which some of 
 the plants formerly in this genus were 
 found.) These annual or biennial herbs 
 are found generally growing on a chalky 
 soil. The native species are : — 1 . Hedge 
 honewort, or bastard stone-parsley {S. 
 amomum). It may be seen growing under 
 hedges in rather moist, marly, or chalky 
 ground. The root is tapering, with many 
 lateral fibres ; stem tough, erect, about a 
 yard high, with numerous alternate, rigid, 
 wiry branches ; leaves dark green, smooth, 
 pinnate : the odd leaflet lobed. Umbels 
 numerous, terminal, solitary, consisting of 
 four unequal rays ; the partial umbels 
 also few, and unequal rays. Bracteas two 
 to four, lanceolate, small, slender. The 
 flowers cream-coloured. The dry seeds 
 are pungent and aromatic ; but in an early 
 state, they have, like the whole herb, a 
 peculiar nauseous scent when bruised, re- 
 sembling that of bugs. 
 
 2. Corn honewort {S. segetum). This 
 species grows in rather moist fields on a 
 calcareous soil. The root is tapering, small, 
 and very tough ; the steins spread in every 
 direction, and are about twelve or eighteen 
 inches high, branched, round, striated, rushy, 
 and somewhat leafy. The leaves are chiefly 
 radical, long and narrow, on long footstalks, 
 of a pale greyish green. The umbels of small 
 flowers are flesh-coloured or white. The 
 whole herb is slightly aromatic, the seeds 
 more pungent. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 60.) 
 
 HONEY. (German, honig.) A well- 
 known vegetable substance collected by 
 bees. " Its flavour (says Dr. A.T. Thomp- 
 son) varies according to the nature of the 
 flowers from which it is collected. Thus, 
 the honeys of Minorca, Narbonne, and 
 England are known by their flavours. It 
 is separated from the comb by dripping, 
 and by expression ; the first method affords 
 the purest sort, the second separates a less 
 pure honey, and a still inferior kind is ob- 
 tained by heating the comb before it is 
 pressed. When obtained from young hives 
 which have not swarmed, it is denominated 
 virgin honey. It is sometimes adulterated 
 
HONEYSUCKLE. 
 
 with flour, which is detected by mixing it 
 with tepid water ; the honey dissolves while 
 the flour remains nearly unaltered." {London 
 Dispensatory.} Honey is easily soluble in 
 water, and, like sugar, readily undergoes 
 the vinous fermentation ; in this way, in 
 fact, mead is made, an intoxicating beverage, 
 once much more extensively prepared in 
 England than now. The adulteration of 
 honey and wax is a practice of long-stand- 
 ing, it seems, in England ; for by the statute 
 23Eliz. c. 8. certain penalties are directed 
 for those who shall adulterate honey : and al- 
 though the annual importation of honey into 
 this country is now very considerable, yet 
 that England was once a considerable ex- , 
 porter of honey is proved by the preamble 
 to this act, which declares that "the land 
 doth yield great plenty of honey and wax, as 
 not only doth suffice the use of the queen's 
 majesty and her subjects, but also a great 
 quantity to be transported to other realms." 
 It then expresses that persons have lately 
 " not only used to put the honey in casks of 
 deceitful assize, but have used, also, deceit- 
 ful mixtures of the same." It then enforces 
 upon such adulterators a penalty of five 
 shillings per gallon, and directs the forfei- 
 ture of the honey. See Bees. 
 
 HONEY BUZZARD. See Buzzard. 
 
 HONEY DEW. See Extravasated 
 Sap. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE. (Lonicera, named 
 after Adam Lonicera, a German botanist, 
 who died in 1586.) This is a genus of very 
 ornamental shrubs, closely allied to the 
 genus caprifolium. The species grow in any 
 common soil, and are readily increased by 
 cuttings taken off in autumn and planted in 
 a sheltered situation. (Paxtons Dot. Diet.) 
 
 In the English Flora, by Dr. Smith, 
 three indigenous species are described. 
 
 1. The pale perfoliate honeysuckle. (Z. 
 caprifolium.) This shrub grows in woods 
 and thickets, but not common; the stem is 
 woody, round, smooth, somewhat branched, 
 twining from left to right, and climbing, 
 where it meets with support, to a consider- 
 able height. The leaves are obovate, entire, 
 smooth, and glaucous beneath. The flowers, 
 in one or more axillary whorls, and six in each 
 whorl, are highly fragrant, two inches long, 
 yellowish, with a bluish-coloured tube. The 
 berries are elliptical, of a tawny orange. The 
 leaves are sometimes used in detersivegargles. 
 
 2. Common honeysuckle, or woodbine. 
 (Z. periclymenum?) This is a common shrub 
 in almost all our hedges, groves, and thickets, 
 flowering from June to October. The stem 
 is twinhig and climbing, as in the foregoing, 
 with opposite branches. The leaves are of 
 a darker green, all distinct, sometimes 
 downy, glaucous beneath, by the sea-side 
 
 637 
 
 occasionally more glaucous, and rather suc- 
 culent. The blossom is externally deep 
 red, or, in the earlier flowering varieties, 
 all over buff- coloured ; in the maritime 
 plant, smaller and greenish. The berries 
 are nearly globular, deep red, bitter, and 
 nauseous, often roughish. This is a fa- 
 vourite plant in gardens and shrubberies ; 
 and is the true woodbine of poets ; 
 though Milton has mistaken it for the 
 eglantine, and speaks of " the twisted eglan- 
 tine:" our great Shakspeare, speaking of 
 it, says — 
 
 So doth the woodbine, the sweet honeysuckle, 
 Gently entwist the maple. 
 
 Goats are extremely fond of the leaves 
 of the woodbine ; hence the French have 
 named this plant chevre-feuille, goats' leaf. 
 
 3. Upright fly honeysuckle. (Z. xylos- 
 teum.) This species flourishes in thickets 
 and rocky places, and grows to five feet 
 high. The leaves are deciduous, ovate, 
 acute, dull green ; the flowers small, cream- 
 coloured or reddish, scentless ; the ber- 
 ries scarlet, oval. It is a shrub of little 
 beauty, and no known utility, though 
 common in plantations. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 324.) " The nurserymen of this country 
 (says Phillips, 1823,) now offer vis eighteen 
 distinct species of the Lonicera, besides 
 many varieties of the common woodbine." 
 (Syiva Flor. p. 297.) 
 
 There are five hardy sorts of honeysuckle 
 mentioned by Miller, namely, the Virginian 
 trumpet honeysuckle (Z. sempervirens), the 
 German honeysuckle, the Italian honey- 
 suckle, the English honeysuckle or wood- 
 bine (Z. periclymenuni), and the evergreen 
 honeysuckle. He names also three other 
 sorts which are too tender to raise without 
 artificial heat. 
 
 There are two varieties of the trumpet 
 honeysuckle ; one is a native of Virginia, 
 and the other is from Carolina. The Vir- 
 ginia trumpet honeysuckle is hardier, its 
 leaves are of a darker green, and its flowers 
 are a deeper red than the Carolina. These 
 plants are weak and trailing ; they should 
 therefore be placed against walls and trellis 
 work. 
 
 The German or Dutch honeysuckle is a 
 hardy shrub, which can be formed into a 
 good round head : the flowers are reddish 
 outside, and yellowish within, blooming in 
 June, July, and August. Miller mentions 
 two varieties of this honeysuckle, the " long 
 blowing," and the " late red." 
 
 The Italian honeysuckle has two varieties, 
 the " early white," which is fr%rant, but of 
 short duration, blooming in May ; and the 
 " yellow," which bears yellowish flowers, 
 and is succeeded by red berries. 
 
 The American or evergreen honeysuckle 
 
HONEYSUCKLE, FRENCH. 
 
 HOP. 
 
 is the most valuable, for it flowers from June 
 till the frost nips its blooms. It has strong 
 branches bearing evergreen leaves and 
 fragrant flowers, which are bright red out- 
 side, and yellow within. 
 
 All the sorts are propagated by layers or 
 by cuttings. The plants produced from 
 cuttings are the best rooted, and should be 
 done in September. Each cutting should 
 have four joints, and only one joint should 
 be left above ground. The honeysuckle loves 
 almost any soil, provided it be not too dry. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE, FRENCH. (Hedy- 
 sarum.) Almost all the species of this genus 
 are very handsome flowering plants, pro- 
 ducing racemes of very beautiful pea 
 flowers, particularly adapted for borders or 
 rock work. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) Miller 
 mentions nineteen sorts. The greater num- 
 ber are perennials. The most general spe- 
 cies in English gardens is the H. coronarium, 
 which blooms bright red flowers, and a va- 
 riety of it, which blooms white flowers, both 
 flowering in June and July. They are pro- 
 pagated by sowing seed in the spring, in 
 light garden mould, and transplanting the 
 young plants into their destined places, in 
 autumn. The herbaceous kinds are in- 
 creased by dividing the roots. 
 
 HONEYSUCKLE TREFOIL. See 
 Trefoil. 
 
 HOOF. . The horny part which covers 
 the feet of many valuable quadrupeds. It 
 is either cloven, as in cattle, or entire, as in 
 the horse. In the horse it is that portion of 
 the foot which is composed of the crust or 
 wall, the bars, the sole, and the horny frog. 
 There is no frog in the foot of cattle, nor 
 are there the provisions for the expansion 
 and elasticity of the foot which we admire 
 in the horse. There is a laminated con- 
 nection between the hoof of the ox, and the 
 sensible parts beneath, as in the horse ; but 
 the horny plates of the hoof, and the fleshy 
 ones of the substance which covers the 
 coffin bone, are not so wide and deep, and 
 therefore the attachment between the hoof 
 and foot is not so strong. The hoofs of 
 cattle are used for making starch and Prus- 
 sian blue, as they will not make glue or 
 soap like the heels. (Cattle, p. 568. ; The 
 Horse, p. 281.) 
 
 HOOPOOE, THE. (Upupa epops.) So 
 remarkable is the appearance of the hoopoe 
 (as is justly observed by Mr. Yarrell), that 
 once having seen a specimen of the bird, it 
 is not likely to be forgotten. It most com- 
 monly visits this country in autumn, after 
 the breeding season, and can scarcely be 
 considered a very rare bird, since hardly a 
 season passes but one or more examples are 
 obtained, and it, has been killed in almost 
 every county on our southern and eastern 
 638 
 
 coasts. The hoopoe builds constantly in 
 hollow trees, collecting a few grass bents 
 and feathers, upon which from four to six 
 or seven eggs are deposited : these are of a 
 uniform, pale, lavender grey, one inch and 
 half a line long, by eight lines in breadth. 
 Their food consists principally of coleop- 
 terous and other insects. In the adult male 
 the length of the beak from the point of the 
 angle of the gape is two inches and a quarter; 
 from the forehead over the top of the head 
 to the occiput, are two parallel rows of 
 elongated feathers, arranged with their sur- 
 faces outwards, towards the side, forming a 
 crest ; the longest feathers, which are those 
 _ about the middle, have the base of a rich 
 buff colour ; and towards the end of the 
 feather, is a patch of white tipped with 
 velvet black. Across the back there are 
 alternate half circular bands of white and 
 black, and the tail feathers are also barred 
 with white and black. The general plumage 
 is white and black, mixed with some brown. 
 The chin, throat, belly, and breast are pale 
 buff ; legs and toes brown. The whole 
 length of the bird is twelve inches and a 
 half. (Yarrell 's Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 167.) 
 
 HOOSE. See Cattle, Diseases of. 
 
 HOP. (Humulus lupulus.) This is a well 
 known climber supposed to be indigenous 
 to this country, plants of it being found in 
 hedgerows and waste places. The an- 
 cients were not unacquainted with the hop. 
 It is mentioned by the Arabian physician 
 Mesue, who lived about 845 ; and it was 
 used for beer in Flanders in 1500. The 
 female flowers, indeed, have been long used 
 in many parts of Europe for the purpose of 
 imparting a flavour to beer. It was not, 
 however, cultivated in England for this 
 purpose until about the year 1525 ; and as 
 the Reformation was then in progress, the 
 introduction of the hop is perpetuated by 
 the following doggerel : — 
 
 Hops, heresy, pickerel, and beer, 
 
 Were brought into England in one year. 
 
 In 1528 the parliament was requested to 
 prohibit its use, as an unwholesome weed 
 that would spoil the taste of beer. It is 
 mentioned for the first time in 1552 in the 
 statute book, in the 5 Edward VI. c. 5. (re- 
 pealed 5 Eliz. c. 2.) ; an act directing that 
 land formerly in tillage should again be so 
 cultivated, but excepting amongst other 
 ground "land set with saffron or hops;" 
 and down to the year 1693 hops were im- 
 ported from Flanders in considerable 1 quan- 
 tities. In 1578 Reynold Scott published a 
 curious little work on the cultivation of the 
 hop, which is now rare; it was entitled 
 "A Perfite Platforme of a Hoppe Garden" 
 in which the directions for the cultivation 
 of the hop are given with considerable care. 
 
HOP. 
 
 The chief counties in which the hop is now 
 cultivated, are those of Kent, Sussex, Sur- 
 rey, Worcester, and Essex ; but the hop gar- 
 dens of these counties are only situated in par- 
 ticular portions. " If a foreigner," says Mr. 
 Lance, in his Hop Farmer, " was to land at 
 the isle of Thanet to view the agriculture of 
 the south-east of England and to take the 
 following route, he would give a very differ- 
 ent account to one who would pass through 
 another part of the country. Of the first we 
 would take him from the isle of Thanet up 
 the Stour river to Canterbury ; following 
 the course of that river over the tenacious 
 alluvial loams resting on the chalk form- 
 ation, through the gorge of the chalk es- 
 carpment to Ashford, across the green sand 
 and Kent rockstone hills to Tenterden, 
 Smarden, Cranbrook, Hawkhurst, and to 
 Tonbridge, on the clayey and iron sand 
 weald ; viewing the Ragstone Hills to Maid- 
 stone, Mailing, Wrotham, Sevenoaks, and 
 Westerham, leaving the winding vale of 
 Holmesdale to the north (being the site of 
 the gault clay) ; thence passing into Surrey 
 near Oxted to Riegate, Dorking, Guilford, 
 and Farnham to Alton and Hampshire, 
 thence to Petersfield and Portsmouth. This 
 person would leave the country impressed 
 with the idea, that every part abounded in 
 hop and fruit enclosures. This traveller 
 would call the country rich beyond any 
 measure to be found on the Continent, 
 having some land which would let for 20/. 
 per acre per annum, the valleys abounding 
 in valuable timber, the inhabitants well 
 employed, and enjoying the blessings of 
 peace and plenty, in the midst of garden 
 farms, and those exceeding in beauty and 
 abundance the gay vineyards of the south. 
 The other traveller we will suppose to land 
 at Dover, passing over Barham chalk downs, 
 and following the course of the north downs 
 in Kent, a very few miles north of the line 
 we have before traced, passing into Surrey 
 on the chalk downs near Warlingham, 
 taking the direction of the downs, and on 
 to the Bagshot sand district near Woking, 
 passing into Hampshire two miles north of 
 Farnham, at Aklershot, to Basingstoke, 
 over Salisbury plain, and thence through 
 the New Forest, to Lymington on the 
 coast. This person would describe the 
 aspect of the country as nearly a barren 
 waste, fit only for rearing sheep on the 
 chalk downs ; the timber growing on it 
 being that of a poor single mineral soil; the 
 district thinly inhabited, the villages far 
 distant from each other, would give to a 
 stranger a very bad opinion of the riches of 
 English agriculture, and the resources of 
 the country. And these views would be 
 the effect of a superficial examination of 
 639 
 
 the south-eastern part of England, the 
 party not taking into his estimation the 
 geological arrangement of the earth." 
 
 The hop plant delights in a rich loam, 
 or calcareous sand, and when these are 
 situated on a calcareous bed, the plants 
 will continue to flourish for many years, 
 but otherwise ten or twelve years is about 
 the limit of their continuance in perfection. 
 Under favourable circumstances, as on the 
 Kentish ragstone, the roots of the hop plant 
 extend in some instances to a depth of eight 
 or ten feet. The hop plant is usually raised 
 from cuttings in the spring. " In the early 
 part of the spring," says Mr. Lance, " the 
 old root begins to bud or shoot from the old 
 stump of the last year's bine, which will have 
 two or more buds, the crown of the root is 
 then cleared, and these old stumps are cut 
 off, or most part of them, the hole covered 
 up, and the crown of the root throws up 
 additional shoots to be tied up the poles. 
 The plant is therefore said to have an annual 
 stem, but a perennial root. The cuttings, 
 or old stumps, are bedded for a season, to 
 make roots the best way they can from the 
 edge of the cutting : the plant being ex- 
 ceedingly tenacious of life, every portion of 
 the crown cutting that has a bud will grow 
 and throw out roots from the extremity of 
 the woody cutting ; they will make a circle 
 of roots when healthy, and throw up bine 
 from the eyes or buds at the surface of the 
 ground, and other j*oots will issue from 
 under the eyes. The shoots of the former 
 year that may have become covered with 
 earth will make plants as layers, throwing 
 out many fibrous roots before they are cut 
 off from the stump or crown ; this is often 
 the most successful method of obtaining 
 plants, although it may in some measure 
 weaken the old root, but the layer gets the 
 plants a year forwarder, as the roots are 
 already formed when the plant is taken 
 from the old stock; but if all the super- 
 numerary shoots are cut off after the prin- 
 cipal ones are well up the pole, then there 
 can be no suckling plants formed. There 
 are several varieties of the hop," adds Mr. 
 Lance, " named according to the colour of 
 the bine, the hanging of the fruit, or local 
 circumstances. The grape hop takes its 
 name from the hanging of the strobiles ; 
 the cluster being close together like a bunch 
 of grapes. Those named from the bine are 
 the green, the white, the red. Others are 
 named from places, as the Canterbury 
 grape, the Farnham bell, the Mayfield 
 grape ; and some few are named from the 
 persons who have raised them from seed, as 
 Williams's white bine, at Farnham, being 
 first raised by a gentleman of that name at 
 Badshot Place, about the year 1780. This 
 
HOP. 
 
 is the variety now principally cultivated at 
 Farnham, and may be said to be one of the 
 causes which make that place so, famed for 
 hops, they being purchased with avidity by 
 the brewers of the west of England." 
 
 The qualities of the hop regarded by the 
 dealers are the colour, scent, seed, and glu- 
 tinous touch. The colour, which should be 
 a light green, is attained either by a very 
 careful and early picking, or by exposing 
 the hops when they are drying to the action 
 of fumes of sulphur. By exposure to the 
 air, however, the natural brown colour of 
 the hops thus treated returns; and hence 
 the Farnham hops are often preferred by 
 the brewers of pale ale, because the colour 
 is not apt to alter. 
 
 About 60 to 100 bushels of the picked 
 hops are required for a cwt. of dried hops 
 in the bag ; but this varies with circum- 
 stances. When there is an abundance of 
 plump, well-formed seed, from 40 to 70 
 bushels will form a cwt. A bag of hops 
 will weigh about 2£ cwts., and a Kent 
 pocket about 1£ cwt. The produce of an 
 acre of hops will sometimes amount to 24 
 cwt., but the average is about 10 cwt. 
 The hop plant is subject to many diseases, 
 and to a variety of atmospherical influences, 
 which renders it ever the sport of the 
 weather, and occasions the proverbial un- 
 certainty of the crop. The wire-worm 
 attacks its roots ; the bob or flea, the fly, 
 and lice, the honeydew, the ladybird, the 
 earwig, and the mould or mildew, the leaves. 
 
 In the culture of the hop, a deep soil is 
 preferable. The plants are usually placed 
 on hills at the distance of five or six feet, 
 and this is usually done early in the spring, 
 about the end of March. The first year's 
 poles may be about six feet in length, but 
 twelve feet poles are afterwards needed : 
 two or three of these are commonly placed 
 on a hill ; they are generally set in the 
 ground in the end of April. About 500 
 fresh poles are annually required per acre, 
 to keep up the stock of poles and supply 
 the place of those broken, or otherwise 
 destroyed. 
 
 The ground in hop gardens can hardly 
 be too much stirred over. The drying of 
 the hops is effected soon after they are 
 picked : for the dispatch of drying a thickness 
 of from one to two feet of hops are placed 
 on the kiln floor, and a fire of culm or Welch 
 coal, coke, charcoal, or other material that 
 gives out no smoke, is made in an open fire- 
 place, with only a perforated hood over it ; 
 or if the kiln fire-place is enclosed and the 
 sin<>ke flue is made to pass round thebuilding, 
 any firing may be used ; but the neatest 
 and cleanest method is by passing hot-water 
 through pipes, close beneath the drying 
 (Mo 
 
 floor. About 100 to 200 bushels are com- 
 monly dried at once in the ordinary sized 
 hop-kilns : considerable quantities of sul- 
 phur are usually added to the fire, sometimes 
 as much as a cwt. to a ton of hops. About 
 98 to 112 degrees of heat is that commonly 
 employed in the drying, and the cost of the 
 process is about 14s per cwt. 
 
 In bagging the hops, great care is re- 
 quisite to tread them as close as possible, 
 for the more completely the air is excluded 
 the better the hops will keep. 
 
 The dried hop has been analysed and 
 found to contain lupuline, a bitter principle, 
 opism, a fatty astringent matter, gum, chlo- 
 rophylle, and lignin. In the grains of the 
 lupuline, a volatile oil is deposited. The 
 salts of iron, gelatin, chloride of barium, 
 and oxalate of ammonia cause precipitates 
 in the decoction of the hop. As a medicinal 
 agent hops display tonic and narcotic pro- 
 perties. A pillow of hops is supposed to be 
 a good soporific ; and was obtained for George 
 III. when a lunatic. The extract has been 
 found to allay pain ; but after all it is a better 
 adjunct to beer than as a medicine. 
 
 The expense of one cw|. of hops if pur- 
 chased on the poles (says Mr. Lance), may 
 be thus stated : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 The duty - - - 0 18 8 
 
 Picking - - 0 10 0 
 
 Bags - - - - 0 1 4 
 
 Drying - - - - 0 5 0 
 
 Bagging - - 0 0 9 
 
 Cartage - - _ - 0 2 0 
 
 Sale - - - 0 1 0 
 
 1 18 9 
 
 The following are the expenses and pro- 
 duce of four acres of hop ground in mid- 
 Kent in 1 836 : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Rent and taxes on four acres, at 
 
 405. - - - -800 
 
 Culture labour, at 50s. - - 10 0 0 
 
 Repair of poles - - - 4 0 0 
 
 Dunging, at 40s. - - 8 0 0 
 
 Picking 4,332 bushels, at 7 for Is. 23 15 0 
 Drying, labour only - - 3 12 0 
 
 S9 pockets, making, marking, sift- 
 ing, and treading, at Is. 2d. - 2 5 6 
 Pole pullers, measurer, and ex- 
 penses - - 4 16 0 
 Pocket cloth - - 4 0 0 
 Charcoal - - G 10 6 
 Sulphur and lime - 0 17 6 
 Rent of kiln - - 4 0 0 
 Interest on first years' expenditure 4 0 0 
 Duty on 64 cwts., at 18s. 8d. - 59 14 6 
 Tithe - - ~ -400 
 
 147 10 6 
 
 The produce, 64 cwt., at 6/. 10*. 41G/. 
 
HOP. 
 
 The following table of the average produce 
 of hops from 1807 to 1836, is taken from 
 the work of Mr. Lance on the hop : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 1807 
 1808 
 1809 
 1810 
 1811 
 1812 
 1813 
 1814 
 1815 
 1816 
 1817 
 1818 
 1819 
 1820 
 1821 
 1822 
 1823 
 1824 
 1825 
 1826 
 1827 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 
 Cwts. per Acre. Cwts. per Acre. 
 Average. Average of seven 
 Years. 
 
 4 88'100"1 
 12 20 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 53 
 
 7 62 
 
 1 47 
 
 20 
 44 
 47 
 95 
 68 
 65 
 8 64 
 
 5 14 
 
 6 31 
 8 71 
 1 17 
 6 38 
 0 97 
 
 94 
 30 
 62 
 55 
 51 
 91 
 49 
 94 
 89 
 14 
 74 
 
 )> 5 58-100 
 
 > 5 48 
 
 }■ 5 62 
 
 > 5 31 
 
 The hop duties were first enforced in 
 1834. 
 
 When the duty was Id. per lb. 
 Three per cent, added 
 
 1802 new duty \\d. fa per lb. 
 1805 duty reduced \ lb. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 0 9 4 
 0 1 43 
 
 1 3 4 
 0 4 8 
 
 Present duty per cwt. - 1 18 8 
 (Lance's Hop Farmer.) 
 Number of Acres of Hops, in Cultivation. 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of 
 Acres esti- 
 mated in 
 England. 
 
 No. of 
 Acres in 
 the Clays. 
 
 A verage 
 price of 
 
 the 
 country. 
 
 Average 
 price of 
 the Clays. 
 
 Presumed ac- 
 tual value in 
 eluding the 
 duty. 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 £ 
 
 s. 
 
 £ 
 
 1820 
 
 50,148 
 
 694 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 753,110 
 
 1821 
 
 45,662 
 
 691 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 1822 
 
 43,554 
 
 672 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1,221,985 
 
 1823 
 
 41,458 
 
 671 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 12 
 
 0 
 
 446,038 
 
 1824 
 
 43,449 
 
 670 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 1,847.960 
 
 1825 
 
 46,718 
 
 709 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 805,874 
 
 1826 
 
 50,471 
 
 715 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 2,010,590 
 
 1827 
 
 49,485 
 
 715 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,360,835 
 
 1828 
 
 48,365 
 
 7U 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 0 
 
 1,813,680 
 
 1829 
 
 46.135 
 
 702 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 656,125 
 
 1830 
 
 46,726 
 
 704 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 1 ,509,560 
 
 1831 
 
 47,129 
 
 712 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1,767,324 
 
 1832 
 
 47,101 
 
 714 
 
 9 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 0 
 
 2,114,545 
 
 1833 
 
 49,187 
 
 720 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1,841,610 
 
 1834 
 
 51,273 
 
 726 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 1,974,010 
 
 1835 
 
 53,816 
 
 734 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 2,406,640 
 
 1836 
 
 55,422 
 
 757 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 3,155,832 
 
 1837 
 
 56,323 
 
 759 
 
 4 
 
 re 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 1,647,396 
 
 1838 
 
 56,104 
 
 749 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 6 
 
 0 
 
 1,753,120 
 
 1839 
 
 52,365 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 1,241,252 
 
 Table of the Amount of the Duties upon Hops, from 1820 — 41. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Farnham 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 Grand 
 Total. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Kent. 
 
 Sussex. 
 
 Worcester. 
 
 and 
 
 Essex. 
 
 Clays. 
 
 King. 
 
 old 
 
 new 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hants. 
 
 
 
 
 Duty. 
 
 Duty. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 £ 
 
 1820 
 
 59,619 
 
 42,600 
 
 27,027 
 
 5,111 
 
 1,859 
 
 1,285 
 
 826 
 
 138,333 
 
 102,264 
 
 240,574 
 
 1821 
 
 85,436 
 
 39,716 
 
 22,404 
 
 3,522 
 
 1,554 
 
 1,327 
 
 646 
 
 154,609 
 
 114,276 
 
 268,886 
 
 1822 
 
 114,116 
 
 48,864 
 
 23,225 
 
 10,211 
 
 3,108 
 
 3,162 
 
 1,035 
 
 203,724 
 
 159,579 
 
 354,203 
 
 1823 
 
 14,677 
 
 10,562 
 
 4 
 
 667 
 
 71 
 
 7 
 
 66 
 
 26,057 
 
 19,251 
 
 45,317 
 
 1824 
 
 87,149 
 
 39,193 
 
 12,104 
 
 7,123 
 
 1,498 
 
 1,331 
 
 430 
 
 148,832 
 
 110,006 
 
 258,838 
 
 1825 
 
 7,631 
 
 2,040 
 
 11,911 
 
 1,289 
 
 78 
 
 1,341 
 
 24 
 
 24,317 
 
 17,976 
 
 42,290 
 
 1826 
 
 151,539 
 
 64,416 
 
 30,649 
 
 14,650 
 
 3,868 
 
 3,570 
 
 635 
 
 269,331 
 
 199,070 
 
 468,410 
 
 1827 
 
 72,763 
 
 41,077 
 
 18,856 
 
 5,512 
 
 2,217 
 
 191 
 
 228 
 
 140,848 
 
 104,105 
 
 244,953 
 
 1828 
 
 95,003 
 
 43,364 
 
 22,118 
 
 7,074 
 
 1,740 
 
 2,428 
 
 297 
 
 172,027 
 
 127,150 
 
 299,178 
 
 1829 
 
 31,168 
 
 5,732 
 
 1,292 
 
 1,138 
 
 210 
 
 276 
 
 49 
 
 38,398 
 
 28,381 
 
 66,780 
 
 1830 
 
 51,607 
 
 26,932 
 
 2,102 
 
 4,555 
 
 1,126 
 
 1,540 
 
 182 
 
 88,047 
 
 64,078 
 
 153,125 
 
 1831 
 
 92,897 
 
 42,076 
 
 26,364 
 
 8,534 
 
 1,939 
 
 2,710 
 
 841 
 
 174,864 
 
 129,247 
 
 304,112 
 
 1832 
 
 71,617 
 
 49,683 
 
 9,405 
 
 6,121 
 
 783 
 
 1,234 
 
 171 
 
 139,118 
 
 103,753 
 
 241,770 
 
 1833 
 
 84,952 
 
 46,456 
 
 17,862 
 
 5,256 
 
 1,035 
 
 1,126 
 
 215 
 
 156,905 
 
 115,973 
 
 272,878 
 
 1834 
 
 100,944 
 
 59,191 
 
 14,668 
 
 9,236 
 
 1,708 
 
 1,584 
 
 380 
 
 189,713 
 
 140,223 
 
 329,936 
 
 1835 
 
 140,102 
 
 73,288 
 
 15,751 
 
 3,941 
 
 1,696 
 
 220 
 
 205 
 
 235,207 
 
 173,848 
 
 409,055 
 
 1836 
 
 105,515 
 
 60,786 
 
 19,853 
 
 9,715 
 
 1,561 
 
 2,209 
 
 690 
 
 200,332 
 
 148,071 
 
 348,404 
 
 1837 
 
 82,335 
 
 46,508 
 
 35,731 
 
 8,340 
 
 1,465 
 
 3,336 
 
 861 
 
 178,578 
 
 131,992 
 
 310,570 
 
 1838 
 
 102,556 
 
 56,205 
 
 4,085 
 
 7,048 
 
 616 
 
 571 
 
 373 
 
 171,556 
 
 126,802 
 
 298,359 
 
 1839 
 
 111,452 
 
 65,027 
 
 16,640 
 
 7,730 
 
 1,624 
 
 2.006 
 
 1,058 
 
 205,537 
 
 151,919 
 
 357,456 
 
 1840 
 
 102,556 
 
 56,305 
 
 4,080 
 
 8,734 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 266,898 
 
 1841 
 
 156,040 
 
 69,549 
 
 4,969 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 641 
 
 T T 
 
HORDEIN. 
 
 HOREHOUND, WHITE. 
 
 The number of acres devoted to the cul- 
 tivation of the hop has long been steadily on 
 the increase since 1693 ; when they were 
 first successfully cultivated in Kent ; in 1807, 
 it was found that the hop grounds through- 
 out England amounted to 38,218 acres: 
 these had increased to 46,293 acres in 1817, 
 to 49,485 in 1827, and to 56,323 acres in 
 1837 ; they had decreased however in 1839 
 to 52,365. 
 
 The hop is also well known as a garden 
 plant. It blows its flowers from June till 
 August, and is propagated by seed and by di- 
 viding the roots. It likes a deep loamy soil, 
 and is valuable as an ornamental climber 
 over temporary arbours, trellis, &c. in sum- 
 mer, as its leaves are very large, and make 
 a fine shade. The " white bind " and the 
 " grey bind " are the best sorts for this 
 purpose ; they succeed each other. 
 
 The young shoots of the hop are eaten as a 
 depurative ; the flowers, besides their bitter 
 narcotic qualities, are diuretic and sedative. 
 
 HORDEIN. A modification of starch, 
 which, according to Proust, constitutes 
 about 55 per cent, of barley-meal. 
 
 HORDEUM. The barley-grasses. Be- 
 sides the species of cultivated, barley enu- 
 merated in the article under that head, 
 there are three indigenous species which 
 grow wild in this country. 
 
 Hordeum murinum. Wall barley, mouse 
 barley, or way-bennet grass. 
 
 This is an annual grass, with a fibrous 
 root, supporting a number of culms twelve 
 to eighteen inches high, procumbent at the 
 base, afterwards^ erect, with three or four 
 joints. Spikes brittle, two or three inches 
 long, flowers placed in two rows. This is 
 one of the most inferior grasses with 
 respect to nutritive powers ; and the long 
 awns, with which it is armed must make it 
 dangerous to the mouths of horses, when it 
 enters into the composition of their hay. 
 Fortunately it is uncommon in pastures, 
 being chiefly confined to roadsides and 
 other beaten or barren places. I never 
 could observe this grass eaten by cattle of 
 any description, not even by the half-starved 
 animals which feed by roadsides, where this 
 is often the most prevalent grass. Dr. 
 Withering, however, says, it is eaten by 
 sheep and horses, and that it feeds the 
 brown moth (Phalcena granella), and the 
 barley -fly (Musca frit) The nutritive 
 matter afforded by this grass consists chiefly 
 of mucilage and extractive matter insoluble 
 after the evaporation of a decoction of it. It 
 flowers about the first week of July, and the 
 Beed is ripe towards the end of the same 
 month. 
 
 Hordeum pratense. Meadow barley- 
 grass. This species has some affinity to the 
 642 
 
 wall barley-grass in appearance, but differs 
 from it in being strictly perennial ; and in 
 having the culms more slender, much taller, 
 and erect, and the sheaths roundish ; the 
 spike (about two inches long) is also slender 
 in comparison with that of the H. murinum, 
 and of a purple or greenish hue, while 
 that of the wall barley-grass is of a dirty 
 yellow. The husks of the calyx are bristle 
 shaped, rough, but not ciliate, and the awns 
 much shorter. 
 
 This is a very hardy grass, which is tole- 
 rably early in the spring produce of foliage, 
 and its nutritive powers are considerable. 
 Though said to be partial to dry chalky 
 soils, I have always found this grass most 
 prevalent on good rich meadow ground ; 
 it thrives under irrigation, and there are 
 but few pastures in which it is not to be 
 found. The Rev. G. Swayne observes, 
 that in moist meadows it produces a consi- 
 derable quantity of hay, but is not to be re- 
 commended as one of the best grasses for 
 the farmer. It is liable to the same ob- 
 jection as the last, viz. the long sharp awns 
 with which the spikelets are armed, ren- 
 dering it dangerous to the mouths of cattle 
 by sticking in small fragments to their gums 
 and producing inflammation. It flowers in 
 J uly, and the seed is ripe in August. 
 
 Hordeum maritimum. Sea barley, or 
 squirrel-tail grass. This species is annual 
 in its habit, and grows in pastures and sandy 
 ground near the sea. It most resembles 
 H. murinum in general habit, but is on the 
 whole rather smaller, and more glaucous. 
 The awns are all rougher with minute 
 bristly teeth. The plant is not of common 
 occurrence, although it abounds in the isle 
 of Thanet. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 179. ; 
 Hort. Gram. Wob.) 
 
 HOREHOUND, STINKING BLACK. 
 (JBallota nigra.) This is a common peren- 
 nial weed, growing about hedges and waste 
 places, blowing whorls of dull purple flowers 
 in July and August. The whole herb is 
 finely hairy or downy, of a greyish green, 
 with a peculiar pungent and disagreeable 
 scent ; stem two or three feet high, erect, 
 clothed with recurved hairs ; leaves stalked, 
 an inch or more in length, ovate, serrated. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 101.) 
 
 HOREHOCJND, WATER. One of the 
 names of the common gipsy-wort (Lycopus 
 Europceus) ; which see. 
 
 HOREHOUND, WHITE. (Marrubium 
 vulgare, from marrob, a Hebrew word, sig- 
 nifying a bitter juice; in allusion to the ex- 
 treme bitterness of the plant.) This species 
 grows in rubbish by roadsides, in dry waste 
 grounds, and on commons, flowering from 
 July to September. The stem is bushy, 
 1 n ancliing from the bottom, bluntly quad- 
 
HORMAN, WILLIAM. 
 
 HORNBEAM. 
 
 rangular, clothed with fine woolly pubes- 
 cence. The shape and size of the leaves 
 varies ; the flowers are white, in dense con- 
 vex whorls. The whole herb has a white 
 or hoary aspect, and a very bitter, not un- 
 pleasantly aromatic, flavour. Its extract 
 is a popular remedy for coughs and asth- 
 matic complaints ; hence also the celebrity 
 of horehound tea among the common peo- 
 ple. Bees collect honey from the flowers ; 
 but the herb is not eaten by any of the do- 
 mestic animals. 
 
 Any common soil will suit these plants, 
 and they are readily increased by divisions 
 of the roots, or by seeds. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 103. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 HORMAN, WILLIAM. A native of 
 Salisbury, was educated at Winchester 
 School, and proceeding thence to New 
 College, Oxford, became there a perpetual 
 fellow in 1477. In 1485 he was elected 
 schoolmaster and fellow of Eton, and finally 
 became its vice-provost. After several 
 years of retirement, he died in 1535, and 
 was buried in the College Chapel. He was 
 a man of extensive and various erudition. 
 Among his numerous works are " Her- 
 barum Synonyma," and Indices to Cato, 
 Varro, Columella, and Palladius, " De Re 
 Rustica." 
 
 HORN. A hard substance, growing on 
 the heads of various animals, which partakes 
 of the chemical nature of the cartilaginous 
 part of bone ; it consists chiefly of albumen, 
 with some gelatine and a trace of phosphate 
 of lime. 
 
 The horn of the ox is composed of an 
 elongation of the frontal bone, covered 
 by a hard coating, originally of a gelatinous 
 nature. Its base is a process or continuation 
 of the frontal bone, and it is, like that bone, 
 hollow and divided into numerous compart- 
 ments or cells, all of them communicating 
 with each other, and lined by a continuation 
 of the membrane of the nose. The bone of 
 the horn is exceedingly vascular, and hence 
 when broken, the haemorrhage is so great, 
 that there could scarcely be more bleeding 
 from the amputation of a limb. The rings 
 on the horns of cattle have been considered 
 as forming a criterion by which to deter- 
 mine the age of the ox. At three years 
 old the first distinct one is usually observed ; 
 at four years old, two are seen ; and after- 
 wards one is added each succeeding year. 
 Thence was deduced the rule, that if two 
 were added to the number of rings the age 
 of the animal would be given. These rings, 
 however, are perfectly distinct in the cow 
 only ; in the ox they do not appear until 
 he is five years old, and they are often con- 
 fust (I: in the bull they are either not seen 
 until five, or they cannot be traced at all. 
 643 
 
 As a criterion of age, this process of nature 
 is far too irregular for any certain depend- 
 ence to be placed upon it, and the rings 
 are easily effaced by a rasp. The length 
 of the horn — whether classed as long horns, 
 shorthorns, or middle horns, — now forms 
 the distinguishing character of the different 
 breeds of cattle. The oxen of the northern 
 part of central Africa, although smaller than 
 the majority of the English cattle, have 
 horns that are nearly four feet in length, 
 and will contain more than ten quarts. The 
 Burmese oxen, which are much larger, 
 have singular horns of a half spiral form, 
 very soft, the pair together scarcely weighing 
 four pounds ; yet Capt. Clapperton tells us, 
 they are three feet seven inches in length, 
 two feet in circumference at the base, and 
 one foot six inches midway towards the tip. 
 Some of the true Arnee buffaloes of Bengal 
 and the Abyssinian cattle have also enormous 
 horns. The horns of cattle are applied to a 
 variety of purposes ; for making combs, 
 knife-handles, the tops of whips, substitutes 
 for glass in lanterns, glue, and the refuse 
 chippings are used as manure. 
 
 The Iceland sheep sometimes carry five 
 or six horns. (Youatt on Cattle, p. 278- 
 283.) 
 
 HORNBEAM. (Carpinus betulus, from 
 the Celtic cor, wood, and pinda, head, the 
 wood being fit for the yokes of cattle.) A 
 rigid tree of humble growth, patient of 
 cropping, and well suited for hedges or co- 
 vered walks in gardens of the old style, some 
 of which may still be seen attached to se- 
 veral old English mansions. Fashion has 
 entirely swept away the liornbeam, which 
 composed the labyrinth, the maze, the alleys, 
 the verdant galleries, arcades, porticoes, and 
 arches of our forefathers, and which formed 
 the leafy walls that divided their stately 
 gardens into stars, goose-foot avenues, and 
 devices as numerous as geometrical figures 
 are various. When standing by itself and 
 allowed to take its natural form, the horn- 
 beam makes a much more handsome tree 
 than most people are aware of, growing 
 from twelve to thirty feet high. It is found 
 in woods and hedges, on a meagre, damp, 
 tenacious soil, and makes a principal part of 
 the ancient forests on the north and east sides 
 of London, as Finchley, Epping, &c. The 
 wood is, as Gerarde says, of a horny tough- 
 ness and hardness; the bark smooth and 
 whitish or light grey. Leaves resembling 
 those of an elm, but smooth, doubly serrated, 
 pointed about two inches long, plaited when 
 young, having numerous, parallel transverse 
 hairy ribs. 
 
 Young trees are raised from seeds or 
 layers without difficulty. It is known by 
 different local names, such as the hard beam- 
 
 T T 2 
 
HORNED-POND WEED. 
 
 HORSE, THE. 
 
 tree, the horse, or horn beech tree &c. The 
 leaves of the hornbeam afford a grateful 
 food to cattle, but no grasses will grow under 
 their shade. The wood burns like a candle, 
 is much employed by turners, and is very 
 useful for various implements of husbandry, 
 being wrought into cogs for the wheels of 
 mills, presses, &c. which are far superior to 
 those made of yew. (Eng. Flor. iv. 155.; 
 Phillips s Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 308.) 
 
 HORNED-POND WEED. (Zannichel- 
 lia palustris, named in honour of John Jerome 
 Zannichelli, a Venetian botanist.) This is 
 a hardy aquatic annual, found common in 
 ponds and ditches, which is generally sub- 
 mersed, except when in flower in July. The 
 root consists of several slender fibres, herbage 
 smooth, stem thread shaped, much branched, 
 leafy, twelve or eighteen inches long, floating. 
 The leaves are very narrow and acute. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 70.) 
 
 HORNED-POPPY. (Glaucium, from 
 glaukos, alluding to the hoary grey colour of 
 the plants.) A genus of very pretty an- 
 nuals, or biennials, some of which are par- 
 ticularly handsome in the flower borders 
 of the garden, where they flower and ripen 
 seed in abundance, which has only to be 
 sown in the open border. The following 
 are the indigenous species. 
 
 1. Yellow horned-poppy. (G. luteum.) 
 This is a biennial, growing wild on the sandy 
 sea coast, producing golden yellow flowers 
 in July and August. 
 
 The root is spindle shaped, plant very 
 glaucous ; stems spreading, two or three 
 feet long, round, branched, leafy and smooth. 
 Radical leaves numerous, stalked, a span 
 lon^, pinnatifid, lyrate, lobed, cut, hairy ; 
 lasting through the winter ; the stem leaves 
 are sessile, less rough, short, broad, lobed 
 and cut. Pod nearly a foot long, curved, 
 roughish with minute tubercles, never hairy, 
 rarely quite smooth. The surface of the 
 seeds in every species is curiously cellular. 
 
 2. Scarlet horned-poppy, (G. phamiceum.) 
 This is a very rare, or, as Smith observes, 
 perhaps doubtful native. It is annual in 
 habit, the root is tapering, the herb rather 
 less glaucous, and more upright than the 
 preceding. The stem is clothed with 
 spreading hairs ; the leaves are all oblong, 
 hairy, deeply and unequally pinnatifid and 
 cut ; the upper ones clasping the stem. The 
 flower stalks and calyx are also hairy. The 
 petals are smaller and naiTOwer than those 
 of the last described species, and of a rich 
 scarlet, with an oblong black spot at the base. 
 The pod is clothed with numerous rigid, 
 silky bristles. 
 
 Violet liornod-poppy. (G. violaceum.) 
 This is an an i nuil met with sometimes, but 
 not frequently, in cornfields. The root is 
 G44 
 
 slender, stem erect, a foot high, round, even, 
 and quite smooth ; leaves dark green, twice 
 or thrice pinnatifid ; flowers of a brilliant 
 violet blue, very splendid, but extremely 
 fugacious, somewhat larger than the last ; 
 pods two or three inches long, cylindrical, 
 more or less clothed with bristly prickles. 
 (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 5. ; Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet.) 
 
 HORNET. (Vespa crabro.) A well- 
 known fierce insect, which is about one inch 
 in length, and builds its nest in hollow trees. 
 The sting of the hornet is severe, and oc- 
 casions a considerable tumour, accompanied 
 with intense pain ; for the mitigation of 
 which, there is no better remedy than sweet 
 oil, or honey water, immediately applied to 
 the place. Hornets are very dangerous ene- 
 mies to bees, which they attack and consume 
 entirely except the wings and feet : they are 
 also very destructive to fruit. See Wasp. 
 
 HORNWORT. (Ceratophyllum, from 
 keras, a horn, and phyllon, a leaf : the petals 
 are cut so as to appear like a stag's horn.) 
 These are uninteresting water plants, thriving 
 in any pond, and easily raised from seeds. 
 The common hornwort (C. demersum) 
 is abundant in ditches and fish-ponds ; the 
 herb floating entirely under water, dark 
 green, copiously branched, two or three feet 
 long, densely clothed with whorled spreading 
 forked leaves, eight in each whorl, and ax- 
 illary, solitary, sessile, pale green flowers. 
 The fruit armed with two spreading lateral 
 spines. There is another indigenous species 
 the unarmed hornwort (C. submersum), 
 which is a more rare plant, and the fruit is 
 destitute of spines. (Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 141.) 
 
 HORSE, THE. The genus Equus, ac- 
 cording to modern naturalists, consists of 
 six different animals, — viz. the Equus ca- 
 ballus, or horse ; E. Hemionus, the Dzig- 
 githai ; E. asinus, the ass ; E. quagga, the 
 quagga ; E. zebra, or mountain zebra ; 
 and E. burchelli, the zebra of the plains. 
 It is only of the first that I shall have to treat 
 in this article. 
 
 Horse, the. This noble animal, there is 
 little doubt, is a native of the warm coun- 
 tries of the East, where he is found wild in 
 a state of considerable perfection. It is 
 there that we find the barb and the Arab, 
 noble races of horses that have long mainly 
 contributed to improve the present English 
 race-horse, until he has arrived at his pre- 
 sent state of unequalled perfection. The 
 use of the horse, -both as a beast of burthen, 
 and for the purposes of war, early attracted 
 the attention of mankind. Thus the Cana- 
 anites are recorded as having gone out to 
 fight against Israel with many horses and 
 chariots. (Joshua, ii. 4.) And 1650 years 
 
HORSE, THE. 
 
 b. c. when Joseph proceeded with his father's 
 body into Canaan from Egypt, there accom- 
 panied him both chariots and horsemen. 
 {Gen. 19.) They were fed in those days 
 on barley (1 Kings, iv. 28.) : and 150 years 
 afterwards, the chariots of Egypt are de- 
 scribed as being exceedingly numerous. The 
 horse was early employed on the course. 
 1450 years b. c. the Olympic Games were 
 established in Greece, at which horses were 
 used in the chariot and other races. 
 
 Preserved from the flood waters in the 
 ark, the first breed of horses must have pro- 
 ceeded from the neighbourhood of Mount 
 Ararat ; but whether the original stock were 
 first located in Asia or in Africa is an en- 
 quiry which we have no means of deciding. 
 Equally ineffectual are all the attempts 
 which have been made to decide as to which 
 variety of the horse constitutes the original 
 breed ; while some contend for the barb, 
 others prefer the wild horses of Tartary. 
 It is certain, however, that so late as the 
 seventh century, there were but few horses 
 in Arabia ; even now the breed is much 
 more limited in number, according to Burck- 
 hardt, than is commonly supposed. He re- 
 marked, in a letter to Professor Sewel, " It 
 is a mistaken idea that Arabia is very rich 
 in horses ; the breed in that country is limited 
 to the extent of its fertile pasturing dis- 
 tricts ; and it is in these parts only that the 
 breed prospers ; while the Bedouins, who 
 are in possession of poor ground, seldom 
 possess any horses. We therefore see that 
 the tribes richest in horses are those who 
 dwell in comparatively the fertile plain of 
 Mesopotamia, on the borders of the Eu- 
 phrates, and in the Syrian deserts. It is 
 there that the horses can feed for several 
 spring months upon the green grass and 
 herbs of the valleys and plains, produced 
 by the rains, which seem to be an absolute 
 requisite for its reaching to its full vigour 
 and growth." The care with which the 
 Arabs tend their horses is proverbial. " The 
 Bedouins," adds Burckhardt, " when a horse 
 is born, never let it drop down to the ground, 
 but receive and keep it for several hours 
 upon their arms, washing it, stretching, and 
 strengthening its limbs, and hugging it like 
 a baby." (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vii. 
 p. 577.) None were found either on the con- 
 tinent or on the islands of the new world. 
 And yet the large droves of wild horses 
 which have descended from the two or three 
 mares and stallions left by the early Spanish 
 voyagers, and which now abound in the 
 plains of South America, prove very clearly 
 that the climate and the soil of the new 
 world are not adverse to the propagation of 
 the wild horse. 
 
 " The horse," says Professor Low (lllus- 
 645 
 
 trations of the Breeds of the Domestic Ani- 
 mals, part ix.), " is seen to be affected in 
 his character and form, by the agencies of 
 food and climate, and it may be by other 
 causes unknown to us. He sustains the 
 temperature of the most burning regions ; 
 but there is a degree of cold at which he 
 cannot exist, and as he approaches to this 
 limit, his temperament and external con- 
 formation are effected. In Iceland, at the 
 arctic circle, he has become a dwarf; in 
 Lapland, at latitude 65°, he has given place 
 to the reindeer ; and in Kamtschatka, at 
 latitude 52°, he has given place to the dog. 
 The nature and abundance of his food, too, 
 greatly affect his character and form. A 
 country of heaths and innutritious herbs 
 will not produce a horse so large and strong 
 as one of plentiful herbage. The horse of 
 the mountains will be smaller than that of 
 the plains ; the horse of the sandy desert 
 than of the watered valley." 
 
 Leaving, however, these interesting, but 
 for this work too extensive, researches, I 
 propose to direct my attention to the Eng- 
 lish breed of horses, and more especially 
 to those which come particularly within the 
 farmer's province. 
 
 From a very early period there appears 
 to have existed in England a powerful, 
 active, useful, and numerous breed of 
 horses. Cassar, perhaps with the natural 
 inclination of a conqueror to elevate the 
 prowess of his defeated enemies, gives a 
 very lively account of the horses used by 
 the early Britons in their war chariots ; 
 which, armed with iron scythes affixed to 
 their axletrees, were driven furiously and 
 destructively amid the ranks of their ene- 
 mies. And if it be true, that when Cassi- 
 bellaunus had disbanded the chief portion 
 of his army, that he yet retained 4000 
 war chariots to harass the foraging parties 
 of the Roman army ; the supply of good 
 horses able to work these heavy war cha- 
 riots with sufficient speed over the open 
 country, and bad roads of that period, must 
 have been pretty considerable. 
 
 Of such imperfect materials is constituted 
 all the accounts in our possession, of the 
 native breed of English horses. That they 
 were valuable, is proved, amongst other 
 things, by the fact, that the Roman generals 
 carried many of them to Italy. The im- 
 provement of the breed was an object of 
 the early Saxon princes of England. Athel- 
 stan imported several German running 
 horses, and he even (930) prohibited the 
 exportation of those bred in England, a de- 
 cree, which of itself proves that they were 
 then in demand abroad. It is supposed 
 that oxen were, in his days, solely used for 
 the plough : there is no early record of the 
 t t 3 
 
HORSE, THE. 
 
 horse being used for such a purpose. The 
 first notice of a horse being employed in 
 agriculture, is in the tapestry of Bayeux 
 (woven in 1066), where one is depicted 
 drawing a harrow. 
 
 With William of Normandy came many 
 Spanish horses. His army was furnished 
 with a powerful cavalry, to whom he might 
 well attribute his hard-earned victory of 
 Hastings. 
 
 In 1121, we have the first notice of an 
 Arabian horse being in our island ; for in 
 that year, I find that Alexander I. of Scot- 
 land presented one to the church of St. An- 
 drews. King John procured from Flanders 
 100 stallions, and is to be gratefully remem- 
 bered for other efforts to improve the Eng- 
 lish breed of horses. Edward II. and 
 Edward III. also imported horses from Lom- 
 bardy, France, and Spain. Henry VIII. 
 did all he could to encourage the- breed. 
 Race-courses were now established at Ches- 
 ter and at Stamford. But it was not till 
 the time of James I. that the modern sys- 
 tem of racing, under certain rules and regu- 
 lations, commenced, and a peculiar breed of 
 race-horses began to be formed; for previous 
 to that time fast horses of all breeds ran in 
 the same race. 
 
 This noble breed of race-horses, which 
 now excels in beauty, speed, and endurance 
 that of all other nations, has been gradually 
 formed by the introduction of the best 
 blood of Spain, of Barbary, of Turkey, and 
 of Arabia. It would be a grateful task to 
 follow the English race-horse through his 
 entire history, to trace his progress by gra- 
 dual yet steady degrees towards perfection, 
 his generous properties, his contests, and 
 his triumphs over the best horses of Arabia, 
 of Persia, and of the New World ; outfitt- 
 ing the fleetest, and in endurance excelling 
 all that the proud nobles of Russia could 
 produce of the best and most celebrated 
 Cossack horses of the banks of the Don. 
 But in a work devoted to agriculture, my 
 attention must be more directed to those 
 valuable breeds of horses generally employed 
 by the farmer. 
 
 The Cart Horse. — Of this description 
 there are several varieties, the principal of 
 which are the Cleveland, the Clydesdale, the 
 Northamptonshire, the Suffolk punch, and 
 the heavy black or dray horse. 
 
 The Clydesdale is a valuable breed of 
 cart-horses, bred chiefly in the valley of 
 the Clyde (hence their name). They are 
 strong and hardy, have a small head, are 
 longer-necked than the Suffolk, with deeper 
 legs, and lighter carcasses. (See Mr. Wal- 
 lace's paper " on the Clydesdale Breed of 
 Horses," Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol.ii. p. 398.; 
 Bad Low's Illustrations of British Cattle.) 
 646 
 
 The Suffolk Punch is a very valuable 
 breed of horses, especially for farms com- 
 posed of soils of a moderate degree of 
 tenacity. They originated by crossing 
 the Suffolk cart mare with the Norman 
 stallion. 
 
 " The true Suffolk," says the author of the 
 Lib. of Useful Know. (" The Horse" p. 38.), 
 " like the Cleveland, is now nearly extinct. 
 It stood from fifteen to sixteen hands high, 
 of a sorrel colour, was large-headed, low- 
 shouldered, and thick on the top, deep, and 
 round- chested, long-backed, high in the 
 croup, large and strong in the quarters, 
 full in the flanks, round in the legs, and 
 short in the pasterns. It was the very 
 horse to throw his whole weight into the 
 collar, with sufficient activity to do it 
 effectually, and hardihood to stand a long 
 day's work. The present breed possesses 
 many of the peculiarities and good qualities 
 of its ancestors. It is more or less inclined to 
 a sorrel brown : it is a taller horse, higher, 
 and finer in the shoulders, and is a cross 
 with the Yorkshire half or three fourths 
 bred. The excellence, and a rare one, of 
 the old Suffolk (the new breed has not 
 quite lost it) consisted in nimbleness of 
 action and the honesty and continuance 
 with which he would exert himself at a 
 dead pull even until he dropped." 
 
 The heavy black horse is chiefly bred in 
 Lincolnshire, and the midland counties. 
 These are commonly sold by the breeders 
 at two years old to the farmers of Surrey, 
 and other metropolitan counties, who work 
 them till they are four years old, and then 
 sell them to the London merchants for 
 brewers' drays, and other heavy carriages. 
 " This kind of horse," says the same ex- 
 cellent authority I have just quoted, " should 
 have a broad chest, and thick and upright 
 shoulders (the more upright the collar 
 stands on him the better), a low forehead, 
 deep and rourid barrel, loins broad and 
 high, ample quarters, thick fore-arms and 
 thighs, short legs, round hoofs, broad at 
 the heels, and soles not too flat. The great 
 fault of the large dray horse is his slowness. 
 This is so much in the breed, that even the 
 disciplined ploughman who would be better 
 pleased to get through an additional rood in 
 the day, cannot permanently quicken him. 
 The largest of this heavy breed of black horses 
 are used as dray horses. The next in size 
 are employed as waggon horses ; and a 
 smaller variety, and with more blood, con- 
 stitutes a considerable part of our cavalry ; 
 and is likewise devoted to undertakers' 
 work." (Lib. Useful Know. p. 46.) 
 
 " The dray horse" says Mr. Wilson, 
 "probably results from a .fine carriage 
 horse, possessed of a certain portion of 
 
HORSE, THE. 
 
 blood, and a very strong well-formed mare 
 of the country breed. The gigantic pro- 
 portions and immense powers of these 
 horses are only equalled by their intelli- 
 gence and docility. It may safely be said 
 that this breed of horses is not to be 
 paralleled on the face of the earth." (Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 34.) 
 
 Besides these valuable kinds of English 
 draught horses, there are a variety of 
 mongrel breeds employed by the farmers, 
 especially in the neighbourhood of London, 
 and other large towns, which it is needless 
 to name, and difficult to describe : — aged 
 or lamed cab horses, the refuse of the 
 London hackney coaches, &c. may all be 
 seen drawing the small farmers' teams in 
 the neighbourhood of London. 
 
 Too little attention is generally paid, in 
 fact, to the breeding of superior cart horses 
 by the farmer. The soil and the food 
 which the district produces, has commonly 
 more influence upon the size of the animal 
 than the choice of the mare or the stallion. 
 And although by the exertions of the High- 
 land, and other Agricultural Societies, the 
 breed is now considerably improved, yet, 
 still much more remains to be effected in 
 this way. 
 
 " The most important circumstance," 
 says a well-known author, " which in- 
 fluences the profits of the farmer, is the 
 cost of his team and the wages of his 
 labourers. These vary in different situ- 
 ations. In some parts of the country, the 
 horses are pampered and kept so fat that 
 they can scarcely do a day's work as they 
 ought. In others they are over-worked 
 and badly fed. Either extreme must be a 
 loss to the farmer. In the first case, the 
 horses cannot do their work and consume 
 an unnecessary quantity of provender ; in 
 the other, they are soon worn out ; and the 
 loss in horses that become useless or die, is 
 greater than the saving in their food or the 
 extra work done by them. A horse pro- 
 perly fed will work eight or ten hours every 
 day in the week, resting only on Sundays. 
 By a judicious division of the work of the 
 horses', they are never over-worked; and 
 an average value of a day's work is easily 
 ascertained. This, in a well regulated farm, 
 will be found much less than the common 
 valuations give it." 
 
 The labour of a horse is commonly reck- 
 oned equal to that of five men, he works, 
 however, only eight hours, while a man 
 works ten. It has often been asserted that 
 the powers of endurance of a man are con- 
 siderably greater than that of a horse, and 
 in a hurdle race at Ipswich, in 1841, be- 
 tween a capital hunter carrying ten stones, 
 and Townshend, a celebrated runner, over 
 647 
 
 six miles of ground, and. 100 hurdle leaps, 
 the horse was easily beaten. In a second 
 trial, however, the horse came off the winner. 
 The power of a horse in pulling, seldom ex- 
 ceeds 144 lbs.; but he will carry from 500 lbs. 
 to 1000 lbs. The power of a horse in pulling 
 if equal to 144 lbs. at a rate of 2 miles an 
 hour, would be reduced to 64 lbs. at 4 miles 
 an hour, and to 36 lbs. at 6 miles. In wheel 
 carriages on level roads, a horse will draw 
 easily about fifteen times the power exerted. 
 A horse in a single horse cart seems capable 
 of drawing his load to the greatest ad- 
 vantage; and, of late, several improved 
 single horse carts have been suggested. 
 (See Carts ; and Journ. of Roy. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 73.) The single horse carts, both 
 of London and Liverpool, convey enormous 
 weights over the paved streets ; and at 
 Paris a single horse draws two tons. The 
 carriers between Edinburgh and Glasgow, 
 in carts weighing 7 cwt. convey a ton of 
 goods, twenty-two miles a day, with one 
 horse. The carriers of Normandy, with 
 four horses, in two- wheeled carts, weighing 
 11 cwt., convey from fourteen to twenty- 
 two miles per day, four tons of goods. See 
 Traction. 
 
 The Hunter. It has been said that the 
 hunter should be rarely under fifteen or 
 sixteen hands high, below this he cannot 
 well stand over his work, and above this he 
 is apt to be long-legged and awkward at 
 his work. With the increased speed of the 
 hounds, and by the enclosures increasing 
 the powers of the country to retain the 
 scent, the speed of the modern hunters is 
 much greater than that of the olden time, 
 when with slow hounds, and strong active 
 horses, the country gentlemen had their 
 " meets " at break of day, and continued 
 the chase for hours. Hence it is now 
 pretty generally agreed that the modern 
 hunter should be at least three quarters 
 bred. Many prefer the thorough-bred 
 horse, especially if he can be procured 
 with sufficient bone. The properties which 
 a good hunter should possess, are thus de- 
 scribed in the Library of Useful Knowledge 
 (The Horse, p. 51.) : " He should be light in 
 hand. For this purpose his head must be 
 small ; his neck thin, and especially thin 
 beneath his crest, firm and arched, and his 
 jaws wide. The head will then be well set 
 on. It will form that angle with the neck 
 which gives a light and pleasant mouth. 
 Somewhat of a ewe-neck, however it may 
 lessen the beauty of the race-horse, does not 
 interfere with his speed, because more weight 
 maybe thrown forward, and consequently the 
 whole bulk of the animal more easily im- 
 pelled ; at the same time the head is more 
 readily,and perfectly extended, the windpipe 
 t t 4 
 
HORSE, THE. 
 
 is brought almost to a straight line from the 
 lungs to the muzzle, and' the breathing is 
 freer. Should the courser, in consequence 
 of this form of the neck, bear more heavily 
 on the hand the race is soon over, but the 
 hunter may be our companion and our ser- 
 vant through a long day, and it is of essential 
 consequence that he shall not too much 
 annoy and tire us by the weight of his head 
 and neck. The forehead should be loftier 
 than that of the racer. A turf horse may 
 be forgiven, if his hind quarters, rise an 
 inch or two above his fore ones. His prin- 
 cipal power is wanted for behind, and the 
 very lowness of the forehead may throw 
 more weight in front, and cause the whole 
 machine to be more easily and speedily 
 moved. A lofty forehead, however, is indis- 
 pensable in the hunter, the shoulder as ex- 
 tensive as in the racer, as oblique, and 
 somewhat thicker; the saddle will then be 
 in its proper place, and will continue so, 
 however long may be the run. The barrel 
 should be rounder, to give greater room for 
 the heart and lungs to play, and send more 
 and purer blood to the larger frame of this 
 horse ; and especially more room to play 
 when the run may continue unchecked for 
 a time that begins to be distressing. A 
 broad chest is an excellence in the hunter. 
 In the violent and long continued action of 
 the chase, the respiration is exceedingly 
 quickened, and abundantly more blood is 
 hurried through the lungs in a given time, 
 than when the animal is at rest. There 
 must be sufficient room for this, or the ani- 
 mal will be blown, and possibly destroyed. 
 The majority of horses that perish in the 
 field are narrow-chested. The arm should be 
 as muscular as that of the courser, or even 
 more so, for both strength and endurance 
 are wanted. The leg should be deeper than 
 that of the race-horse (broader as you stand 
 at the side of the horse), and especially be- 
 neath the knee. In proportion to the dis- 
 tance of the tendon from the cannon or 
 shankbone, and more particularly just below 
 the knee, is the mechanical advantage with 
 which it acts. A racer may be tied beneath 
 the knee without perfectly destroying his 
 power, but a hunter with this defect will 
 rarely have stoutness. The leg should be 
 shorter than that of the race-horse, for higher 
 action is required of him, that the legs may 
 be cleanly and safely lifted over many an 
 obstacle, and particularly that they may be 
 well doubled up in the leap. The pastern 
 should be shorter, and less slanting, yet re- 
 taining considerable obliquity. The long 
 pastern is useful by the yielding resistance 
 which its obliquity affords to break the con- 
 cussion, with which the race-horse, from his 
 immense stride and speed, must come to 
 648 
 
 the ground; and the oblique direction of 
 the different bones, beautifully contributes 
 to effect the same purpose. With this elas- 
 ticity, however, a considerable degree of 
 weakness is necessarily connected, and the 
 race-horse occasionally breaks down in the 
 middle of his course. The hunter, from his 
 different action, takes not this length of 
 stride, and therefore wants not all this elastic 
 mechanism ; he more needs strength to sup- 
 port his own heavier carcase, the greater 
 weight of his rider, and to endure the fatigue 
 of a long day. Some obliquity, however, he 
 requires, otherwise the concussion even of 
 his shorter gallop, and more particularly 
 of his frequently tremendous leaps, would 
 inevitably lame him. The foot of the 
 hunter is a most material point, for it is 
 battered over many a flinty road, and stony 
 field, and if not particularly good, will 
 soon be disabled and ruined. The po- 
 sition of the feet requires some attention 
 in the hunter : they should, if possible, stand 
 upright. If they turn a little outward 
 there is no serious objection, but if they 
 turn inward, his action can hardly be safe, 
 particularly when he is fatigued or over- 
 weighted. The body should be short and 
 compact compared with that of the race- 
 horse, that he may not in his gallop take too 
 extended a stride. This would be a serious 
 disadvantage in a long day, and with a heavy 
 rider, from the stress on the pasterns ; and 
 more serious efforts required when going 
 over clayey poachey ground in the winter 
 months. The compact short strided horse 
 will almost skim on the surface, while the 
 feet of the longer reached animal will sink 
 deep, and he will wear himself out by efforts 
 to disengage himself. The loins should be 
 broad, the quarters long, the thighs mus- 
 cular, the hocks well bent, and under the 
 horse." {Ibid: p. 53.) 
 
 Galloways. A horse between thirteen 
 and fourteen hands high is called a galloway. 
 The name originated from a beautiful race 
 of little horses once bred in Scotland, on the 
 banks of the Solway Firth. The pure gal- 
 loway was distinguished for its speed and 
 stoutness, and was remarkably sure-footed. 
 Horses of this kind are very service- 
 able and useful, are capable of perform- 
 ing a great deal of light active work, and 
 are rarely so high-priced as the larger 
 horse. 
 
 Ponies. Of these there are an endless 
 variety, both in fine shape and value. The 
 Welsh pony is perhaps the most beautiful 
 of the class. He has a neat small head or 
 barrel, that is at once round and deep, good 
 feet, short strong joints, flat legs, with high 
 withers : some of the most beautiful ponies 
 of England are of this breed. 
 
HORSE, THE. 
 
 
 First 
 
 Second 
 
 Third 
 
 Fourth 
 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 Class. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 1. Farinaceous substances, 
 
 
 
 
 
 consisting of bruised 
 
 
 
 
 
 or ground beans, pease, 
 
 
 
 
 
 wheat, barley, or oats 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 2. Bran, fine or coarse 
 
 3. Boiled or steamed pota- 
 
 
 
 _ 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 toes, mashed in a tub 
 
 
 
 
 
 with a wooden bruiser 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 4. Fresh grains (boiled 
 
 
 
 
 
 barley) 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 5. Hay cut down into chaff 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 6. Straw cut down into 
 
 
 
 
 
 chaff 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 7. Malt dust, or ground oil- 
 
 
 
 
 
 cake 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 30 
 
 With 2 oz. of salt for each 
 
 
 
 
 
 class. 
 
 
 
 
 
 The New Foresters are commonly very 
 ill-made, coarse, ragged, large-hipped, ugly 
 animals, but active, enduring, hardy, and 
 easily maintained upon very coarse food. 
 The same remarks will pretty generally ap- 
 ply to those of Exmoor and Dartmoor in 
 Devonshire. 
 
 Of the Scotch breeds, the Highland is the 
 largest, and the most useful ; those of the 
 Shetland Isles, called in the north shelties, 
 range between seven and a half and nine 
 and°a half hands in height, are often small- 
 headed, beautiful, good-tempered, and do- 
 cile. They have commonly short necks, 
 low and thick shoulders, short backs, possess 
 great strength, and will fatten upon the 
 coarsest food. 
 
 The Irish Horse. — In the rich grazing 
 districts of Roscommon and Meath, many 
 large thoroughbred horses are reared, that 
 were formerly distinguished for their large, 
 coarse, ragged, rawboned appearance, but 
 the breed has been very materially im- 
 proved by the introduction of superior 
 stallions and other means, so that now many 
 of the Irish horses claim an equality with 
 the best of those of England. The Irish 
 horse is commonly beautiful, fiery, yet 
 good-tempered, easily excited, of great en- 
 durance, and perhaps the best leaper in the 
 world. 
 
 The best method of feeding horses, espe- 
 cially those belonging to the farm, is a 
 question highly interesting to the farmer. 
 Many are the substances employed for this 
 purpose, such as oats, oatmeal, barley, bran, 
 beans, pease, potatoes, turnips, carrots, 
 parsnips, hay, sainfoin, clover, rye-grass, 
 straw, grains, and sometimes oil-cake : 
 bruised gorse or furze is excellent. The 
 oats are best given when bruised, the 
 potatoes should be steamed and mixed with 
 chaff and salt ; hay and straw are econo- 
 mically cut into chaff. In many of the 
 stables about London, hay is never put into 
 the rack. Thus in the stables of Hanbury 
 and Truman, each horse is allowed per day 
 18 lbs. of cut hay and straw (one-eighth of 
 the latter), 14 lbs. of bruised oats, and 1 lb. 
 of bruised beans ; half-a-pound of salt per 
 week is also given ; in summer the beans 
 are withdrawn, and the oats increased. 
 In France the daily rations allowed to 
 the heavy cavalry horses are, oats 10 lbs., 
 hay 10 lbs., straw 10 lbs. (" On the Nor- 
 man Horse," Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. xii. 
 p. 230.) 
 
 Dr. Sully, of Wivelscombe, some years 
 since, gave the following statement of 
 the different articles of food which his 
 horses received to keep them in excellent 
 condition. He, too, had no racks in his 
 stables. {Ibid. vol. ii. p. 726.) 
 649 
 
 The advantage of cooking the food for 
 horses has been advocated by Mr. Dick, 
 Ibid. vol. iii. p. 1024.; and in many cases 
 is a practice highly to be commended. An 
 apparatus for steaming food for horses with 
 an engine is given, Ibid. vol. vi. p. 33. ; 
 and Mr. Fisher details the mode of feeding 
 them with potatoes, Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. iv. p. 335. A machine for bruising 
 grain for horses is described in Quaint. 
 Journ. Agr. vol. v. p. 100.; but I have given 
 a cut of a simpler and better one under the 
 head Crusher. 
 
 The number of horses of all kinds in 
 England is estimated by Mr. M'Culloch, to 
 be from 1,400,000 to 1,500,000, which, at 
 an average value of from 12Z. to 151., makes 
 their total value from 18,000,000?. to 
 22,500,000?. In 1832, the riding horse 
 duty was paid for 182,878 horses. (Com. 
 Diet.) 
 
 The Wild Horse. — The horse is still 
 found wild in Africa, in Tartary, and in 
 southern America, in which last extensive 
 continent they are said to be sometimes 
 found in droves of 10,000. It is here that 
 they seem to act both in self-defence, and 
 for the attack of their enemies, with a sub- 
 ordination and union of purpose that is not 
 a little curious. It seems that they have 
 some bold and strong horse for their chief, 
 who is their courageous leader in the onset, 
 the first to direct their retreat. They close, 
 at some intelligible signal, upon their ene- 
 mies, and trample them to death. These, 
 amongst the natives of America, are neither 
 very numerous nor dangerous. The leo- 
 pard, tiger, and lion of the New World are 
 very inferior animals to their namesakes of 
 the olden continents. Man is their greatest 
 enemy ; they are hunted and captured by 
 the Guachos with their lassos, or even 
 killed for their skins and flesh, in consider- 
 able numbers. These wild American horses 
 are not particularly fast, but they can en- 
 dure great fatigue, and, when once tamed, 
 are exceedingly docile. Other wild horses 
 
HORSE DEALERS. 
 
 HORSE-HOE, THE. 
 
 are found in various parts of the world, but 
 no where in a state of nature does he equal 
 the size, the form, the speed, or the strength 
 of the domesticated horse. 
 
 Good keep and good management, indeed, 
 strangely improve the appearance of even 
 the naturally poorest breeds. The ponies 
 of Shetland, or the still more diminutive 
 steeds of China, when bred on rich English 
 pastures, rapidly increase in size. The 
 horses of Arabia do the same. 
 
 HORSE CHESTNUT. See Chestnut. 
 
 HORSE DEALERS. Persons whose 
 business it is to buy and sell horses. Each 
 person carrying on the business of a horse 
 dealer is required to keep a book, in which 
 he shall enter an account of the number of 
 horses kept by him for sale and for use, 
 specifying the duties to which the same are 
 respectively liable. This book is to be open 
 at all reasonable times to the inspection of 
 the officers ; and a true copy of the same is 
 to be delivered quarterly to the assessor of 
 the parish in which he resides. Penalty for 
 non-compliance, 501. (43 Geo. 3. c. 161.) 
 Horse dealers are assessed if they carry on 
 their business in the metropolis 25/., and if 
 elsewhere, 121. 10s. per annum. From the 
 papers published by the Board of Trade, it 
 appears that the number of persons of this 
 class assessed in 1831, was 74 in the me- 
 tropolis, and 963 in other parts of the king- 
 dom. 
 
 HORSE, DISEASES OF. See each 
 disorder. 
 
 HORSE DUNG. See Farm-yard 
 Manure. 
 
 HORSE FLY or FOREST FLY (ffip- 
 pobosca equina, Linn.) This fly lives 
 chiefly on horses, but sometimes also attacks 
 horned cattle and other mammalia. The 
 male is scarcely so large as the house fly ; 
 the female is larger. The insect generally 
 attaches itself to the abdomen of the animal 
 which is least covered with hair, particu- 
 larly between the hind legs. This fly has 
 a singular movement : it runs very quickly, 
 but sideways like a crab : it is covered 
 with a hard crust ; and adheres so firmly 
 by its claws as to render it difficult to take 
 it off. As it torments the animals very 
 much, means of driving it away must be 
 thought of. Picking off by hand is too trou- 
 blesome. By the following remedy it may be 
 got rid of in twenty-four hours' time : take 
 of mineral earth eight ounces ; lard one 
 pound, and make them into a salve. Some of 
 this salve is to be rubbed on here and there 
 upon the hair, and worked in with a wisp 
 of Btraw. After twenty-four hours the 
 salve is to be washed off with warm water, 
 in winch brown sonj) has been dissolved. 
 Care must be taken lor some days that the 
 650 
 
 horse does not catch cold. (Kollar on Insects, 
 Miss Loudon's Trans.) 
 
 HORSE-HOE, THE. For this valuable 
 implement of agriculture, the farmer is in- 
 debted to the justly celebrated Jethro Tull. 
 Previous to his time, we search in vain in 
 the works of agricultural authors for the 
 slightest allusion to such an instrument. 
 The production of the horse-hoe, indeed, 
 seems to have been almost a natural conse- 
 quence of the adoption of the drill system, 
 for which also the cultivator is mainly in- 
 debted to Tull. He gave in his Husbandry, 
 more than a century since, an engraving of 
 an horse-hoe of his own invention, which 
 resembles a common, rudely-shaped swing 
 plough, with the mould board omitted, and 
 the shares having a cutting edge turned up 
 on its landside. A variety of improvements, 
 were gradually made in the construc- 
 tion of this implement : I proceed to notice 
 those which are now considered to be the best. 
 
 The advantages which these possess over 
 the hand hoe are very fairly stated by the 
 late Mr. Francis Blakie : he remarks, " In 
 many cases the hand hoe may be used to ad- 
 vantage, and should then be so used. But 
 generally speaking, the hand is not so effi- 
 cient as the horse-hoe. Expedition is a 
 most material point in all processes of hus- 
 bandry, carried on in a variable and un- 
 certain climate, and it frequently happens, 
 that hoeing, in any way, can only be exe- 
 cuted to advantage, in a very few days in 
 spring : hence the horse-hoe has a most de- 
 cided advantage over the hand hoe, for a 
 man will only hoe about half an acre a day 
 with the latter, while, with the former, a 
 man and a boy, with one horse, will hoe 
 eight or ten acres a day, and that in a more 
 effectual manner." {On Farm-yard Ma- 
 nure, p. 39.) 
 
 Clarke's Universal Ridge Horse-hoe. — 
 This is a very ingenious contrivance of Mr. 
 Clarke, of Long Sutton, which is made by 
 the Messrs. Ransome, for carrying out the 
 several operations of ridge culture, and for 
 which the English Agricultural Society 
 awarded its silver medal at its first meeting. 
 
 It is adapted for the uses of a double 
 torn, a moulding plough, a broad share or 
 cleaning plough, and a horse-hoe. It is 
 only as fitted for the latter purpose that we 
 have now to describe it : its other forms 
 will be given under the head Plough. 
 
 To the frame of the plough is attached a 
 pointed share, which serves as a hoe for the 
 centre of the furrow : a moveable frame is 
 attached to the beam, which is readily ad- 
 justed to any given width : to this is at- 
 tached, when it is intended to hoe plants 
 upon the ridge, the stalks of two curved 
 hoes, as shown in the drawing ; when used 
 
HORSE-HOE, THE. 
 
 upon flat work, the flat hoe should be sub- I This forms a very perfect and simple horse- 
 stituted for the curved or inverted hoe a, 6,c. | hoe. 
 
 clauke's uidge horse-hoe. 
 
 Blakies Inverted Horse-hoe. — This excel- I fully hoed between several rows of turnips 
 lent hoe, which was the first that succes- | at once, and which led the way to the re- 
 
 '' ^1 2 3 4 * 5 
 
 blakie's inverted horse-hoe. 
 
 cent improvements of Mr. Garrett, was in- I or any light axletree, by the draft irons fixed 
 tended to be attached to a drill carriage, | to the handles. Blakie described it pretty ac- 
 curately when he said " it is adapted 
 for cleaning between rows of plants, 
 growing at narrow intervals, within 
 which it may be worked with per- 
 fect safety when in their infant 
 state ; indeed the idea first struck 
 me on observing a large propor- 
 tion of the plants buried by the 
 operation of the hoes formerly in 
 use." {On Farm-yard Manure, 
 p. 40.) 
 
 Gay^retfs Horse-hoe. — This horse- 
 hoe, invented by the manufacturers, 
 Garrett and Son, of Leiston, Suf- 
 folk, is suited to all methods of 
 drill cultivation, whether broad, 
 stetch, or ridge ploughing ; and is 
 adapted to hoeing corn of all kinds 
 
 garrett's korse-hoe. 
 
HORSE-HOE, THE. 
 
 as well as roots. The peculiar advantages 
 of this implement are that the width of the 
 hoes may be increased or diminished to suit 
 all lands, or method of planting; the axletree 
 being moveable at both ends, either wheel 
 may be expanded or contracted, so as always 
 to be kept between the rows of plants. 
 
 The shafts are readily altered, and put to 
 any part of the frame, so that the horses 
 may either walk in the furrow, or in any 
 direction, to avoid injury to the crop. 
 
 Each hoe, or each pair of hoes, works 
 on a lever independent of the others ; so 
 that no part of the surface to be cut, how- 
 ever uneven, can escape ; and in order to 
 accommodate this implement to the con- 
 solidated earth of the wheat crop, and also 
 the more loosened top of spring corn, roots, 
 &c, the hoes are pressed in by different 
 weights being hung upon the ends of each 
 lever, and adjusted by keys or chains, to 
 prevent their going beyond the proper 
 depth. 
 
 And what has hitherto been an objection 
 to the general use of the horse-hoe is 
 avoided in this by adopting a mode of 
 readily shifting the hoes, by a plan similar 
 
 to that of the steerage (see Drlll, p. 391.) 
 so that the hoes may be guided to the 
 greatest nicety. This implement is so con- 
 structed that the hoes may be set to a varying 
 width, from seven inches to any wider 
 space ; the inverted hoes are preferred when 
 the distance between the rows is sufficient 
 to admit two of them ; otherwise, hoes, as 
 shown in the annexed sketch, may be sub- 
 stituted, or any other form that may be 
 considered best for the purpose. 
 
 Lord Dude's Expanding Horse-hoe. The 
 parallel expanding horse-hoe is used for 
 hoeing drill crops, and is constructed prin- 
 cipally of wrought iron : it has five tines, and 
 can be regulated to any width, from twelve 
 to twenty-seven inches, with the greatest 
 facility, so that the tine shall always present 
 its edge to what it has to cut : this is 
 effected by the support of each tine moving 
 parallel with the beam : it is worked on the 
 principle of the parallel rule ; the machine 
 has one wheel in front, with a tiller for the 
 horse to yoke to : the depth it enters into the 
 ground is regulated by raising or lowering 
 the wheel ; there is a pair of handles for the 
 man who attends the machine to steady it by. 
 
 MORTON'S OR LORD DUCIE'S HORSE-HOE. 
 
 Grants Horse-hoe, and Moulding Plough. 
 — The form of this implement will be seen 
 by the annexed wood engraving. By sub- 
 
 stituting mould-boards in the place of the 
 wrought iron frame and hoes, this horse- 
 hoe becomes a moulding plough. 
 
 JL 
 
 G52 
 
 OR A NT S 1IORSK-I10E. 
 
HORSE MINT. 
 
 HORSE-RACING. 
 
 White s Double-action Turnip Hoe. — This 
 implement is constructed so that it may- 
 be used with only one horse and a man, 
 and is intended to hoe either broadcast, 
 drilled, or ridged turnips. It hoes two 
 rows lengthways and crossways at one time 
 when necessary. It can be set to suit the 
 
 drills at any distance, from fifteen to thirty 
 inches, and to leave the distance of each 
 turnip, nine, twelve, or fifteen inches apart. 
 It may be used also as a scarifier by re- 
 moving the cross-cut hoes, and replacing 
 them with spear-footed tines. 
 
 white's horse-hoe. 
 
 HORSE MINT. (Mentha sylvestris.) A 
 species of wild mint, growing freely in waste 
 ground, especially in watery places. It is 
 a perennial, blowing dense crowded whorls 
 of small, pale purple flowers in August and 
 September. The whole herb is of a hoary 
 or greyish green, clothed with fine soft 
 downy hairs, and exhaling a strong peculiar 
 scent. The stems are two or three feet 
 high, rather bluntly quadrangular ; the leaves 
 nearly sessile, one and a half to two and a 
 half inches long, spreading, strongly and 
 sharply serrated, acute ; their upper surface, 
 hoary ; under, snaggy, with dense soft white 
 hairs. It might be used in medicine instead 
 of the Mentha viridis, as it yields the same 
 kind of oil by distillation with water. The 
 infusion of it allays sickness. 
 
 HORSE-RACING. By the 13 G. 2. 
 c. 19. s. 2. horse-races for sums under 50l. 
 are prohibited. And this statute applies to 
 matches (Bilmead v. Gale, 4 Burroughs, 
 2482.), but a match for 251. a side is 
 not within the statute. It has been de- 
 cided that a horse-race is a game within 
 the 9 Anne, c. 14. (Blaxton v. Pye, 1 
 Wilson, 309.) — so is betting at a horse- 
 race above 10£. (Clayton v. Jennings, 2 W. 
 Black. 706.) And as racing for less sums 
 653 
 
 than 501. is prohibited, no bets at such 
 illegal races can be recovered by law (John- 
 son v. Banns, 4 T. R. 1.), but an action does 
 lie for a wager under \0l. when the race 
 was for the sum of 50/. or more (M'-Al- 
 lester v. Haden, 2 Campbell, 438.), but not 
 for a wager above \0l. (Shillito v. Teed, 7 
 Bingham, 405.) But an action does not 
 lie for wagers on races run on the high 
 road (Whaley v. Pigot, 2 B. and P. 51.), 
 nor on such wagers as those against time in 
 a post-chaise (Ximenes v. Jaques, 6 T. R. 
 499.). A plaintiff cannot recover a stipu- 
 lated reward for running an illegal race 
 after having performed it, although he 
 was retained by the defendant to do so. 
 (Coates v. Hatton, 3 Starkie, 61.) The loser 
 may recover back his deposit upon an illegal 
 wager, after the event has been decided. 
 (Lauccasade v. White, 7 T. R. 535.) 
 
 Lengths of Courses. — Doncaster is a 
 round course of about 1 mile, 7 furlongs, 
 and 70 yards. The other courses are por- 
 tions of this circle, viz. — Red House in, 
 
 5 furlongs, 164 yards; T.Y.C., 7 furlongs, 
 189 yards; Fitzwilliam Course, 1 mile, 4 
 furlongs, 10 yards ; St. Leger Course, 1 mile, 
 
 6 furlongs, 132 yards ; Two-mile Course, 
 2 miles, 15 yards: Four-mile Course (twice 
 
HORSE-RACING. 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. 
 
 round), 3 miles, 7 furlongs, 219 yards; Cup 
 Course, from the Red House and once 
 round, 2 miles, 5 furlongs, 14 yards. 
 
 Epsom. — Old Course, 2 miles ; the New- 
 Derby Course is exactly a mile and a half, 
 in the form of a horse-shoe ; New T. Y. C, 
 6 furlongs ; Old T. Y. C. or Woodcot Course, 
 not quite 4 furlongs ; Craven Course, 1 mile, 
 2 furlongs. 
 
 The following is a table of the abbre- 
 viations used in designating the different 
 courses of Newmarket, and their length : — 
 
 
 Abbrev. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Furl. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 The Beacon course 
 
 B. C. 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 138 
 
 Last three miles of do. 
 
 L. T. M. 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 45 
 
 From the Ditch in 
 
 D.L. 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 97 
 
 From the turn of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 lands in - 
 
 T.L.I. 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 184 
 
 Clermont course 
 
 C. C. 
 
 1 
 
 5 
 
 217 
 
 Across the Flat 
 
 A.F. 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 44 
 
 Two-year old course - 
 
 T. Y.C. 
 
 0 
 
 5 
 
 136 
 
 Yearling course 
 
 Y.C. 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 147 
 
 Round course - 
 
 R. C. 
 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 93 
 
 Ditch mile 
 
 D. M. 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 148 
 
 Abingdon mile - 
 
 A. M. 
 
 0 
 
 7 
 
 211 
 
 Rowley Mile 
 
 R.M. 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 1 
 
 Two middle miles of 
 
 
 
 
 
 B.C. 
 
 T.M. M. 
 
 1 
 
 7 
 
 115 
 
 A distance is the length of two hundred 
 and forty yards from the winning post. In 
 the gallery of the winning post, and at the 
 distance post, are placed two men holding 
 crimson flags. As soon as the first horse 
 has passed the winning post, the man drops 
 his flag ; the other at the distance post drops 
 his at the same moment, and the horse which 
 has not then passed that post is said to be 
 distanced, and cannot start again for the 
 same plate or prize. 
 
 A feather-weight is the lightest weight 
 that can be put on the back of a horse. 
 
 A give-and-take plate is where horses carry 
 weight according to their height. Fourteen 
 hands are taken as the standard height, and 
 the horse must carry nine stone (the horse- 
 man's stone is fourteen pounds). Seven 
 pounds are taken from the weight for every 
 inch below fourteen hands, and seven pounds 
 added for every inch above fourteen hands. 
 A few pounds additional weight is so serious 
 an evil, that it is said, seven pounds in a 
 mile-race are equivalent to a distance. A 
 post match is for horses of a certain age, 
 and the parties possess the privilege of 
 bringing any horse of that age to the post. 
 A produce match is that between the pro- 
 duce of certain mares in foal at the time of 
 the match, and to be decided when they ar- 
 rive at a certain age specified." (Farmer s 
 Series ; Lib. of Useful Knowledge, 50.) 
 
 HORSE-RADISH. (Cochlearia armo- 
 racia. From cochlear, a spoon ; the form 
 of tlit* leaves, being rather hollow, re- 
 Bemble mi old-fashioned spoon.) The 
 horse-radish delights in a, deep, mouldy, 
 rich soil, kept as much as possible in a mo- 
 G54 
 
 derate but regular degree of moistness ; 
 hence the banks of a ditch, or other place 
 which has a constant supply of water, is a 
 most eligible situation for the beds, so that 
 they do not lie so low as to have it in ex- 
 cess. If the soil is poor, the roots never 
 attain any considerable size ; and the same 
 effect is produced if grown in a shady place, 
 or beneath the drip of trees. Should the 
 ground require to be artificially enriched, 
 Mr. J. Knight recommends leaf mould, or 
 other thoroughly decayed vegetable sub- 
 stance, to be dug in to the depth at which 
 the sets are intended to be planted. If cow 
 or horse- dung are from necessity employed, 
 it should be in a highly putrescent state. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. i. p. 209.) 
 Horse-radish flowers in June, but in this 
 climate seldom perfects its seed; conse- 
 quently it is propagated by sets, which are 
 provided by cutting the main root and 
 offsets into lengths of two inches. The 
 tops or crowns of the roots form the best ; 
 those taken from the centre never be- 
 coming so soon fit for use, or of so fine a 
 growth. Each set should have at least two 
 eyes ; for without one, they refuse to ve- 
 getate at all. Mr. J. Knight recommends, 
 for the obtaining a supply of the crowns, 
 any inferior piece of ground to be planted 
 with sets, six inches apart and six deep ; 
 these will furnish from one to five tops each, 
 and they may be collected for several suc- 
 cessive years with little more trouble than 
 keeping them clear of weeds. 
 
 Horse-radish may be planted from the 
 close of January until the same period in 
 March ; but the best times are in October 
 and February ; the first for dry soils, the 
 latter season for moist ones. 
 
 The sets must be inserted in rows eighteen 
 inches apart each way. The ground should 
 be trenched between two and three feet 
 deep, the cuttings being placed along the 
 bottom of the trench, and the mould turned 
 from the next one over them, or inserted 
 to a similar depth by a long, blunt-pointed 
 dibble. When the planting is completed, 
 the surface should be raked level and kept 
 clear of weeds, until the plants are of such 
 size as to render it unnecessary. It is of great 
 benefit if the mould lies as light as possible 
 over the sets ; therefore, treading on the 
 beds should be carefully avoided. They 
 speedily take root, and send up long straight 
 shoots, which make their appearance in May 
 or June. The only cultivation required 
 is to keep them free of weeds, and, as the 
 leaves decay in autumn, to have them care- 
 fully removed; the ground being also hoed 
 and raked over at the same season, which 
 may be repeated in the following spring, 
 before they begin to vegetate. In the 
 
"HORSE-SHOE VETCH. 
 
 HORSETAIL. 
 
 succeeding autumn they merely require to 
 he hoed as before, and may be taken up as 
 wanted. By having three beds devoted to 
 this root, one will always be lying fallow 
 and improving, of which period likewise ad- 
 vantage should be taken to apply any re- 
 quisite manure. If the plants, when of 
 advanced growth, throw out suckers, these 
 should be carefully removed during the 
 summer as they appear. In September 
 or October of the second year, the roots 
 may be taken up, and in November a 
 sufficient quantity should be raised to 
 preserve in sand for winter supply. To 
 take them up, a trench is dug along the 
 outside row, down to the bottom of the up- 
 right roots, which by some persons, when 
 the bed is continued in one place, are cut 
 off level to the original stool, and the earth 
 from the next row is then turned over them 
 to the requisite depth, and so in rotation to 
 the end of the plantation. By this mode a 
 bed will continue in perfection for five or 
 six years, after which a fresh plantation is 
 usually necessary. But the best practice is 
 to take the crop up entirely, and to form a 
 plantation annually ; for it not only causes 
 the roots to be finer, but also affords the 
 opportunity of changing the site. If this 
 mode is followed, care must be taken to 
 raise every lateral root ; for the smallest of 
 them will vegetate if left in the ground. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) See 
 Scurvy- Grass. 
 
 HORSE-SHOE VETCH, TUFTED. 
 (Hippocrepis comosa. Both the popular and 
 generic names allude to the appearance of 
 the curved recesses of the pods.) 
 
 The plants of this genus are all remark- 
 ably neat and beautiful, and highly deserv- 
 ing a place in every garden. The herbaceous 
 kinds grow well in any light sandy soil, and 
 look well when planted in a bank, or rock- 
 work. The seeds of the annual kinds should 
 be sown early in spring, in the open border. 
 The tufted horse-shoe vetch is the only 
 native species. The root is woody, running 
 deep into the ground. Stems branched at 
 the bottom, furrowed, procumbent, from 
 six to twelve inches long. Flowers deep 
 yellow, about six or more together, in um- 
 bels, rising high above the rest of the plant ; 
 legumes above an inch long, curved down- 
 wards, bright bay-coloured. {Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 292.) 
 
 HORSE STEALING. See Animals, 
 Stealing or ; and Buying and Selling. 
 
 HORSETAIL. (Equisetian, from eqnus, 
 a horse, and seta, hair, in allusion to the 
 fine hair-like branches.) Although the 
 plants of this genus are looked upon as mere 
 weeds, they have a very interesting aspect 
 when seen growing in their natural situ- 
 655 
 
 ations ; they are found in boggy places, :md 
 multiplied by divisions. Several of the 
 species, like grasses, secrete a quantity of 
 flinty earth (silica) mostly lodged in their 
 articulations. There are seven indigenous 
 species. 
 
 1. Branched wood horsetail (E. sylvati- 
 cum), growing in shady moist woods, by 
 trickling rills, but not very frequent. This 
 is a very elegant species, twelve or eighteen 
 inches high ; stems erect, beset with many 
 whorls of slender compound, angular, smooth, 
 spreading branches. 
 
 2. Great water horsetail (E. fluviatile). 
 Horses eat this plant with avidity, and in 
 some parts of Sweden it is collected for the 
 purpose of serving them as winter food ; 
 flourishing in watery places, about the banks 
 of rivers and lakes. This is by far our 
 largest species, differing from the fore- 
 going in the fructification, which is a large 
 cylindrical catkin, having four or five pale 
 teeth on a separate short stem, differing 
 from the branched or whorled frond, as is 
 likewise the case with the following one, E. 
 arvense : all the others hitherto observed in 
 Britain have terminal catkins at the top of 
 the fronds. The terminal stems of the great 
 water horsetail are quite erect ; at least a 
 yard high, often much more, furnished from 
 top to bottom with whorls of numerous long 
 slender branches. The catkins are brown, 
 with scales, which separate and show the 
 white scales when they are ripe. 
 
 3. Corn horsetail (E. arvense). This is a 
 very common species growing in wet mea- 
 dows and moist corn fields. It is a most 
 troublesome weed in pastures, and is seldom 
 touched by cows, unless pressed by hunger, 
 when it occasions an incurable diarrhoea ; 
 it is eaten with impunity by horses, but is 
 noxious to sheep. The fronds are reckoned 
 unwholesome to such animals as feed upon 
 them in autumn, especially swine. This 
 rough grass is employed for cleansing and 
 polishing tin vessels. In this species the 
 root is much branched, creeping extensively, 
 producing in the spring several simple, up- 
 right, flowering stems quite destitute of 
 branches ; a span high, cylindrical, smooth, 
 juicy, of a pale brown, bearing three or four 
 brown-ribbed sheaths, and at the top a so- 
 litary catkin. 
 
 4. Marsh horsetail, or paddock pipe (E. 
 palustre) . This species grows most frequent 
 in spongy watery bogs, and other marshy 
 places, flowering in June and July. The 
 stem is rather slender, deeply furrowed, 
 beset throughout with whorls of slender, 
 angular, minutely rough branches. 
 
 It is not so strong as the preceding spe- 
 cies, but is equally prejudicial to cows. It 
 is also very troublesome in drains, within 
 
HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
 
 HOUND'S-TONGUE. 
 
 which it vegetates, and forms both stems 
 and roots several yards in length : thus the 
 course of the water is interrupted, and the 
 drains are totally obstructed. 
 
 5. The smooth naked horsetail {E. limo- 
 surri) grows also in marshy watery places, 
 and has stems stouter than the last, about 
 two feet high, very smooth to the touch, 
 though finely striated. 
 
 6. Greater rough horsetail. Shave-grass ; 
 pewterwort. (E.hyemale.) This species is 
 found in boggy woods, but not very common. 
 The root is black, variously branched ; stems 
 of a deep glaucous green, from one to two 
 feet high, cylindrical, uniformly and rather 
 copiously furrowed, the furrows minutely 
 toothed and of a strong hardness. This 
 species is wholesome to horses, and is eaten 
 by them ; but it is hurtful to cows and dis- 
 agreeable to sheep. That eminent chemist, 
 Sir H. Davy, first detected a quantity of 
 pure silex in the furrowed cuticle of this 
 plant, which accounts for its power, as a file, 
 in polishing wood, ivory, or even brass. 
 This purpose it has long served in England 
 under the name of Dutch rushes, being 
 usually imported from Holland, and is 
 chiefly employed by turners and cabinet- 
 makers to polish their work, as well as by 
 dairy-maids for cleaning pails and other 
 wooden utensils. So wheat-straw, whose 
 cuticle contains the same earth in an impal- 
 pable stale, like others of the natural family 
 of grasses, is used, when burnt, to give the 
 last polish to marble. 
 
 7. Variegated rough horsetail (E. varie- 
 gatiini) is found in wet, sandy ground in 
 Scotland and Ireland. The whole plant is 
 smaller and much more slender than the last. 
 The fibres of the root of this curious little 
 species are remarkably woolly, like those of 
 grasses that grow in loose sand. The sheaths 
 which crown the joints are lax, with lanceo- 
 late teeth. The catkin is ovate, acute, blacker 
 than E. hyemale, with a more slender stem. 
 (Eng. Flor. iv. 335—341.; WillicKs Bom. 
 Encyc.) 
 
 HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY OF 
 LONDON". This society had its origin in 
 1 804, from a few individuals of wealth and 
 talent who associated for the improvement of 
 the art in which they delighted. Their views 
 soon enlarged, and on the 17th of April, 
 1809, they were incorporated. The charter 
 states the society to be for the improvement 
 of horticulture in all its branches, orna- 
 mental as well as useful. In 1821 they 
 founded a garden at Chiswick, covering 
 thirty-three acres, which they have on a 
 Lease renewable for ever, of the Duke of 
 I >evonshire. To the formation of this garden, 
 which is confessedly one of the most exten- 
 sive in the world, the king, and the greater 
 
 part of the fellows, contributed, and none 
 but subscribers participate in its benefits. 
 
 HORTICULTURE. (Lat. hortus, a gar- 
 den, and colo, I cultivate.) The culture of 
 the kitchen garden and orchard. The chief 
 difference between horticulture and agri- 
 culture is, that in the former art the cul- 
 ture is performed by manual labour in a 
 comparatively limited space, called a gar- 
 den ; while in the latter it is performed 
 jointly by human and animal labour in 
 fields, or in an extensive tract of ground 
 called a farm. See Agriculture, Farming, 
 and Gardening. 
 
 HORTUS SICCUS. A collection of 
 dried plants preserved in books or papers. 
 See Herbal. 
 
 HOT-BEDS. In gardening, are made 
 either with fresh horse-dung, or tanner's 
 bark, and covered with glasses to protect 
 them from the severity of the wind and 
 weather. It is very important in making 
 hot-beds not to raise the temperature too 
 high, as the plants become scorched. See 
 Frames, Kitchen Garden, and Pits. 
 
 HOT-HOUSE. A general term for the 
 glass structures used in gardening and in- 
 cluding Stoves, Greenhouses, Orangeries 
 and Conservatories. See these heads. 
 
 HOT WALLS. In gardening, walls for 
 the growth of fruit trees, which are built 
 with flues or other contrivances for being 
 heated in severe weather, so as to facilitate 
 the ripening of the wood or the maturity of 
 the fruit. The advantages of hot walls are 
 well illustrated by their influence in ripen- 
 ing peaches, nectarines, and similar fruits 
 in Scotland, and many parts of the north 
 of Europe, where such fruits could not be 
 produced in the open air without this aid. 
 
 HOUND. An appellation given to dogs 
 of the chace- See Dog and Greyhound. 
 
 HOUNDS'-TONGUE. (Cynoglossum.) 
 A genus of herbaceous plants, of which only 
 two species grow wild in Great Britain. 
 The cultivated foreign species are pretty 
 border plants, succeeding in any common 
 soil, and readily multiplied by division. 
 
 1. Common hound's-tongue (C. officinale) 
 is found abundant in waste ground and by 
 road-sides. The root is fleshy and tapering. 
 The whole herb of a dull green, downy, and 
 very soft, exhaling when touched a pungent 
 and nauseous scent. When bruised it is 
 affirmed to drive away mice. The stem 
 grows to two feet high, branched, leafy, 
 furrowed, and hairy, bearing terminal pa- 
 nicled clusters of dull crimson flowers. 
 This plant is eaten by goats, but refused by 
 sheep, horses, hogs, and cows. It has a 
 bitter taste, and is esteemed powerfully 
 narcotic and dangerous for internal use. 
 The roots are astringent and sedative ; and 
 
IIOUSELEEK. 
 
 HUMUS. 
 
 are used externally and internally in de- 
 coction in cases of scrofula. 
 
 2. Green-leaved hound's-tongue. (C.syl- 
 vaticum.) This is a more rare plant, grow- 
 ing by road- sides and hedges in shady situ- 
 ations, and is distinguished from the com- 
 mon species, in its bright shining green 
 colour, and want of downy softness, besides 
 having scarcely any scent. The flowers, 
 which blow in June, are at their first opening 
 reddish, subsequently of a dull blue. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 259. ; Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet) 
 
 HOUSELEEK. (Scmpervivum, from 
 semper vivo, to live for ever ; the tenacity 
 of life in the houseleek is well known.) 
 There are seven species of houseleek men- 
 tioned by Miller (but these are only a few 
 of this extensive genus). They all thrive 
 best on dry rocky situations. These inter- 
 esting plants are worthy a place in every 
 collection. The mountain houseleek is a 
 very hardy perennial, bearing a purple 
 flower in June and July. The houseleek 
 (S. arboreum), which is a native of the 
 Levant, is hardy and handsome, bearing a 
 golden yellow flower in autumn and even in 
 winter. Cuttings taken off and laid to dry 
 for two or three days, will root very freely. 
 The juice of the common houseleek (S. tec- 
 toruni), applied either by itself or mixed 
 with cream, gives immediate relief in burns 
 or other external inflammations. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 HOUSE-SPARROW. See Sparrow. 
 
 HOVEL. An open shed for sheltering 
 cattle, for protecting produce or materials 
 of different kinds from the weather, or for 
 performing various country operations, 
 during heavy rains, falls of snow, or severe 
 frosts. 
 
 HOVE 1ST. See Cattle, and Sheep, Dis- 
 eases OF. 
 
 HUMMELLER, BARLEY. An instru- 
 ment for separating the awns of the barley 
 plant from the seed. There are various 
 modes of taking off the awns : a com- 
 mon one is by treading it by a horse walk- 
 ing over it ; another by rolling it with a 
 grated roller, an instrument something simi- 
 lar to a garden roller, the cylinder being- 
 
 formed of thin flat wrought iron bars, placed 
 about two inches apart, and the edges to the 
 surface : this rolled over the barley, takes 
 657 
 
 off the awns or ailes. We have also seen 
 a grated pressor or chopper, about a foot 
 square, barred across with thin plates, which 
 is lifted up and down by the workman, and 
 thus chops off the awns; but the best machine 
 we have seen is one upon a wood stand, with 
 a hopper into which the barley is thrown, 
 from whence it falls into a box in which a 
 spindle is placed in an inclined position, 
 having, when at a few inches apart, short 
 knives placed spirally, so as to form a sort 
 of screw, which, when put in motion, has a 
 tendency to draw the barley from the upper 
 end of the box to the dower : during the 
 operation the awns of the barley are effec- 
 tually knocked off. This mode of dressing 
 barley constitutes one of the principal im- 
 provements in Salter's patent winnowing 
 machine, which will be described hereafter ; 
 but the hummeller is made in the form de- 
 scribed for barley only, by several makers : a 
 good one is made by Mr. Grant of Stamford. 
 See Winnowing Machine. (J. A. Ransome.) 
 
 HUMUS. A modern term given by 
 some chemists to the very finely divided or- 
 ganic matters, which all cultivated soils 
 contain. " Woody fibre in a state of decay 
 (observes Liebig) is the substance called hu- 
 mus. The humic acid of chemists is a pro- 
 duct of the decomposition of humus by al- 
 kalies : it does not exist in the humus of 
 vegetable physiologists." He says in another 
 place, " Transformations of existing com- 
 pounds are constantly taking place during 
 the whole life of a plant, in consequence of 
 which, and as the result of these transform- 
 ations, there are produced gaseous matters 
 which are excreted by the leaves and blos- 
 soms, solid excrements deposited in the bark, 
 and fluid soluble substances, which are eli- 
 minated by the roots. Such secretions are 
 most abundant immediately before the 
 formation and during the continuance of 
 the blossoms : they diminish after the deve- 
 lopment of the fruit. Substances containing 
 a large proportion of carbon are excreted 
 by the roots, and absorbed by the soil. The 
 soluble matter thus acquired by the soil is 
 still capable of decay and putrefaction ; and 
 by undergoing these processes furnishes re- 
 newed sources of nutrition to another gene- 
 ration of plants, and it becomes humus. The 
 leaves of trees which fall in the forest in 
 autumn, and the old roots of grass in the 
 meadow, are likewise converted into humus 
 by the same influence : a soil receives more 
 carbon in this form than its decaying humus 
 had lost as carbonic acid. Humus does not 
 nourish plants by being taken up, and as- 
 similated in its unaltered state, but by pre- 
 senting a slow and lasting source of carbonic 
 acid, which is absorbed by the roots, and is 
 the principal nutriment of young plants at 
 u u 
 
HUNDRED. 
 
 HURDLE. 
 
 a time, when being destitute of leaves, they 
 are unable to extract food from the atmo- 
 sphere." (Liebig's Organic Chem. pp. 46-58.) 
 
 HUNDRED. An ancient division of 
 a county, which originated either from its 
 being occupied by 100 families, or because 
 every such district found the king 100 able- 
 bodied men for his wars. They were first con- 
 stituted by Alfred the Great. He is supposed 
 to have derived the idea from Northern 
 Germany ; but there centa, or centena, is a 
 jurisdiction over 100 towns. A hundred 
 court is only a larger court baron : each 
 hundred has its high constable, who is bound 
 to present the petty constables of his hundred 
 who neglect their duty, and he is to collect 
 county rates, and fulfil other duties. See 
 Constable. 
 
 HUNDRED - WEIGHT. A weight of 
 112 lbs. avoirdupois, generally written cwt. 
 
 HUNGER-ROT. The name of a disease 
 in sheep which speaks for itself. It is oc- 
 casioned by poor living, especially during 
 the winter, and is best cured by better 
 keep. 
 
 HUNTERS. See Horse. 
 
 HURDLE. (From the Sax. hypbel, to 
 keep, or the Germ, hurden.) The hurdles 
 of the ancients (crates) were somewhat 
 similar to those of the moderns ; they were 
 a kind of wicker work, and used for various 
 purposes. When employed for drying figs 
 or grapes, they were called ficaria : they 
 were also used for screening fruit from the 
 weather. (Colum, xii. 15.) Hurdles, Virgil 
 informs us (Georg. i. 94.), were employed 
 as harroAvs to level the ground, which had 
 been turned up by the rastrum, or heavy 
 rake. In modern husbandry hurdle implies 
 a light frame of wood or iron, somewhat in 
 the form of the common gate, constructed 
 for the purpose of forming a moveable 
 fence for the confining of sheep and other 
 animals. They are generally made of some 
 light split timber, or of hazel-rods, wattled 
 together. These are principally employed 
 where sheep are folded on arable lands, or 
 where they are fed with turnips in the field, 
 to keep them on a certain space of ground, 
 or to confine them to a certain portion of 
 their food at a time, in which way they are 
 extremely useful ; as the sheep, by being 
 so closely confined, contribute greatly to 
 the improvement of the land in the first 
 case ; and they improve by having a given 
 quantity of food allowed them at once, 
 with less loss than they would do if allowed 
 to range at large over the field. 
 
 A dozen and a half hurdles will fold 30 
 Sheep, and twelve dozen 1000. On the South 
 Downs tlie .allowance is three sheep to a 
 hurdle: this of course varies with the de- 
 scription of sheep. A shepherd and his 
 058 
 
 dog, without any other help than having 
 the hurdles carted to the field, will, with 
 the requisite number of hurdles, feed off 
 one hundred acres of turnips. " The 
 number of hurdles required (Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. iii. p. 647.) is one row the 
 whole length of the ridges of an enclosed 
 field, and as many more as will reach 
 twice across two 8 -step lands or ridges, or 
 four 4-step lands. This number is suf- 
 ficient for a whole quadrangular field, 
 whatever number of acres it may contain. 
 The daily portions are given, more or less, 
 according to the number of the flock. 
 Two of these portions are first set off, 
 or " pitched," the sheep being let in on 
 the first or corner piece. Next day they 
 are turned into the second piece, and the 
 cross-hurdles that enclosed them in the 
 first are carried forwards and set to form 
 the third piece. These removes are con- 
 tinued daily till the bottom of the field is 
 reached : both the cross rows are then to 
 spare, and are carried and set to begin a 
 new long row, close to the off-side of a 
 furrow, and the daily folding carried back 
 over two or four lands, as at first. It is 
 always proper to begin at the top of the 
 field, if there be any difference in the level, 
 in order that the flock may have the driest 
 lair to retire to in wet weather. In the 
 setting of hurdles an iron crow-bar, or fold 
 pitcher, is employed, by which much time 
 and loss by breakage of the hurdles is 
 effected." New hurdles, in the south of 
 England, are about 16s. per dozen. They 
 are made at 4d., by professed hurdle makers, 
 who find their own tools ; they make about 
 a dozen per day. A larger kind of hurdles, 
 called park hurdles, costs 2s. each, and iron 
 hurdles about 4s. 6d. to 6s. ; and these are, in 
 the long run, for permanent divisions, more 
 economical than wooden ones. A new kind 
 of iron hurdle for feeding sheep in gardens 
 and pleasure grounds is described, with 
 a wood engraving, by Mr. Baist (Ibid. 
 vol. ii. p. 113.), and the complete pro- 
 cess of wooden hurdle making is given, Ibid. 
 vol. iii. p. 647. There is also another kind 
 of hurdle, made with twisted hazel rods, 
 very common in the south of England, 
 whose first cost is less than the other kinds, 
 but they do not last so long, and sooner 
 get out of repair. 
 
 The farmer who uses the ash hurdles 
 would find the advantage, on the score of 
 durability, of charring (or partially burn- 
 ing) that portion of them which goes into 
 the ground. Net hurdles are also some- 
 times economically used ; but they are ra- 
 ther more troublesome than wooden or 
 iron hurdles, and require to be kept care- 
 fully in a dry place, when not in use. 
 
IIURDS. 
 
 hyacinth. 
 
 There is a very elaborate paper on hurdling 
 off, and more especially upon all kinds of 
 fencing, for the temporary or permanent 
 enclosure of land, by Mr. Somerville {Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. ii. p. 1.); he advocates 
 the more general hurdling off of grass 
 lands in the spring of the year. 
 
 There are two modes of folding, which 
 should be practised according to circum- 
 stances : the first is where the sheep fed 
 during the day on waste or common land, 
 are penned at night, for the sake of their 
 manure, on the enclosed arable pastures of 
 the farm. This is a highly profitable mode. 
 It is calculated that the dressing thus 
 given by 300 sheep is sufficient, in a 
 week, for one acre of land, and is worth 
 three pounds. Hence the enhanced value 
 of farms having ready access to downs, or 
 possessing a right of common. The second 
 mode of folding is the feeding off of green 
 crops by sheep enclosed in daily divisions, 
 by hurdles, by which means the land has 
 the full benefit, equally distributed, yielded 
 by the consumption of the green crop ; of 
 course the value of the folding will mainly 
 depend, both in quality and quantity, upon 
 the food consumed : hence, too, the superior 
 fertilising effect derived from sheep having 
 oil-cake or corn added to their green food. 
 The plan of feeding sheep on one field 
 during the day, and folding them on another 
 during the night, is a bad practice long 
 since condemned by Arthur Young, who 
 describes it as " merely robbing Peter to 
 pay Paul," since it is, in fact, only the 
 removal from one field to another of the 
 richest organic matters, the sheep being 
 also injured by the drift or labour of re- 
 moval, and by the fasting (so contrary to 
 their natural habits) during the night. 
 
 The folding of sheep on green crops is 
 one of the great modern agricultural im- 
 provements. It ensures the equal dis- 
 tribution of the manure, prevents waste of 
 food, keeps the sheep quiet, gives them 
 fresh ground daily, and enables the farmer 
 to plough close after the sheep, and thereby 
 prevents the loss by evaporation of the 
 finest portion of the manure. See Folds 
 and Folding. 
 
 HURDS, or HARDS. A provincial 
 name for the refuse of hemp or flax. 
 
 HURTLEBERRY, and HURTS. Pro- 
 vincial names of the Whortleberry. 
 
 HUSKS. The dry envelopes, or out- 
 ward integument of either fruits or flowers. 
 
 HUSBANDRY. A comparatively pri- 
 mitive term, including both agriculture and 
 gardening, or all those country occupations 
 which the father of a family is expected to 
 perform in the country. The term is very 
 commonly used as svnonymous with agri- 
 659 
 
 culture. The Berwickshire husbandry, the al- 
 ternate husbandry, and the convertible hus- 
 bandry, are terms employed in agriculture 
 for certain systems of cropping, in which the 
 land is alternately kept under grass and 
 tillage. See Agriculture, and Rotation 
 of Crops. 
 
 HUTCH, among farmers implies a corn 
 chest, or hollow trap for taking vermin alive, 
 and a case for keeping rabbits. 
 
 HUTCHINSIA,ROCK. {Hutchinsia pe- 
 trcea.) This is a pretty alpine native plant, 
 growing on limestone rocks and walls in the 
 south of Britain. The root is fibrous, an- 
 nual rather than biennial. The stems, one 
 or more, two or three inches high, erect, 
 leafy, branched ; leaves, elegantly and 
 deeply pinnated, with a terminal one of the 
 same size. The flowers, which appear in 
 March and April, are white, very minute, 
 corymbose. The petals narrow, with oval 
 pouches, tipped with a sessile stigma. The 
 seeds are two in each cell. (Smith's Engl. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 168.) 
 
 HYACINTH. (Hyacinthiis.) Miller 
 reckons six distinct species of hyacinth, of 
 which there are many varieties ; but one 
 species only is indigenous, namely, the 
 starch hyacinth (H. racemosus). It grows 
 wild in grassy fields, or among ruins, blowing 
 ovate dense clusters of little drooping, dark 
 blue flowers in May. The bulb is ovate, 
 brown externally. The leaves are deep 
 green, flaccid, and loosely spreading, about 
 a span long, linear, very narrow. The 
 flowers small, like wet starch, being equally 
 disagreeable and oppressive to most people, 
 causing headach and nausea to many. 
 {Engl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 149.) The H. orien- 
 talis is our garden favourite. The soil in 
 which these bulbs succeed best is a light 
 sandy loamy soil, or a compost made from 
 leaves, dung, turf, &c, decomposed by salt 
 which has been thrown over the materials 
 and dug in. Such a compost heap should 
 be ready in eveiw garden. The bulbs of 
 the hyacinth should be taken up when the 
 flower- stems decay, and they should be 
 replanted in September. When dug up 
 first, they should be laid sideways on the 
 bed, covered with an inch of soil only, 
 to dry gradually. Here they may re- 
 main a fortnight, and then the stems, 
 cleaned from dirt and dead leaves, should 
 be separated from the offsets, and put by in 
 a cool dry place, till it is time to plant them 
 again. A handsome semi-double flower 
 should be chosen, to ripen seed from : the 
 seedling does not flower for four or five 
 years ; but it is worth the trouble, in order 
 to produce varieties. The seed is to be 
 sown in August, in shallow boxes; the 
 surface being made level, and the seeds 
 u u 2 
 
HYBERNATION. 
 
 sprinkled upon it, and fine light earth sifted 
 over them half an inch deep. The boxes 
 must then be placed in an eastern aspect, 
 till the weather becomes cold and wet, when 
 they must be protected through the winter 
 from frost. In the early spring the seedlings 
 appear : guard them from frost and heavy 
 rains, and keep the earth clean round them 
 The second year the seedlings may be placed 
 in a bed to strengthen, till they flower. 
 Hyacinths bloom well indoors. Place the 
 bulb in a blue glass, and fill it with rain 
 water, to half way up the bulb, and add a 
 few grains of salt. The water should be 
 changed every week. 
 
 HY ACINTH, THE WILD. See Squill 
 HYBERNATION. (Lat. liybernus, 
 wintry.) The act by, or the state in, 
 which certain animals exist during the sea- 
 son of the year when excess of cold, or 
 lack of food, prevents their going abroad, 
 and performing their customary functions. 
 The bat and the hedgehog, lizards, snakes, 
 frogs, toads, &c, are among the animals and 
 reptiles which hybernate. Some quadru- 
 peds, as the dormouse and squirrel, which 
 subsist on articles of diet better adapted to 
 be laid up in store than insects, cany a 
 winter provision to their hybernating nests ; 
 and their torpidity is more nearly allied to 
 a profound, but ordinary sleep. 
 
 HYBRIDS. (Gr.) The produce of a 
 female plant or animal which has been im- 
 pregnated by a male of a different variety 
 or species. 
 
 The most common hybrids are those which 
 result from the connection of different va- 
 rieties of the same species, as the produce of 
 the wild boar and domestic sow ; the endless 
 modifications which result from analogous 
 inter-breeding from varieties of the rose, the 
 African geranium, and other ornamental 
 plants, are familiar examples of the prin- 
 ciple among vegetables. The most common 
 and useful of hybrids is the mule. Although 
 some rare exceptions to the rule are on re- 
 cord, it seems to be a principle of nature 
 that all hybrids should be sterile. 
 
 HYDRANGEA. {Hydrangea arbores- 
 cens.) A hardy perennial, native of North 
 America, which flowers in July and August. 
 It loves a moist soil, and should be kept 
 free from weeds. Its roots may be parted 
 in October. If a severe winter attacks the 
 plant, it will only die down to the ground. 
 
 H. hortensis, or the changeable hy- 
 drangea, blooms from June to October. It 
 is a native of China. Cut the stems down 
 every autumn, and cover the root through 
 the winter, to guard it from frost. Ilydran- 
 geae are propagated by cuttings. 
 
 HTDHOGEN. A chemical element, 
 which derives its name from two Greek 
 660 
 
 HYDROGEN. 
 
 words that signify " a generator of water," 
 because it is one of the constituents of that 
 fluid, which is always formed when hydrogen 
 gas is burned in combination with atmo- 
 spheric air, or with oxygen gas. It is known 
 to us, in its simplest form, only in the state 
 of gas^and is speedily fatal to animal life 
 when it is breathed unmixed with atmo- 
 spheric air. It is, however, a component of 
 animal matters, and it forms a very essential 
 part in the economy of vegetable substances, 
 it which it is always found. Thus sugar 
 contains 6 - 90 per cent, of hydrogen ; gum, 
 6-93 ; bee's wax, 12-672 ; wood of the oak, 
 5-69 ; wheat starch, 6*77 ; acetic acid (the 
 acid of vinegar), 6*35 per cent. It is re- 
 garded as an element, because it has resisted 
 every attempt to decompose it. It is the 
 lightest of all ponderable matter, 100 cubic 
 inches weighing only 2'15 grains. No known 
 degree of cold has been able to condense it 
 to a liquid. It cannot support combustion, 
 but is combustible in conjunction with atmo- 
 spheric air. It constitutes one ninth of the 
 weight of water, — a substance essential to 
 vegetation, and which plants are supposed 
 to have the power of decomposing. Under 
 such circumstances, Liebig asserts that 8-04 
 parts of hydrogen unite with 100 parts of 
 carbonic acid to form woody fibre, whilst the 
 oxygen is separated in the gaseous state. 
 (Organic Chem. p. 63.) Most vegetable 
 structures contain hydrogen in the form of 
 water ; but the hydrogen essential to this 
 constitution cannot exist in the form of 
 water. That hydrogen gas exerts a con- 
 siderable influence upon the leaves of plants, 
 was first noticed by Dr. Priestly. Senne- 
 bier found that plants which lose their green 
 colour in the dark, preserve it under those 
 circumstances, if a small portion of hydrogen 
 gas is present in the atmosphere in which 
 they are placed ; and Dr. Ingenhous noticed 
 that its presence, when they are growing in 
 the light, renders their colour of a deeper 
 green (Ann. de Chim. vol. iii. p. 57.) ; and, 
 again, M. Humboldt has noticed that the 
 Poa a?i?iua, Trifolium arvense, and other 
 plants growing in the galleries of coal mines, 
 preserve their green colour, although vege- 
 tating in the dark, and that, in such situa- 
 tions, the atmosphere contains a proportion 
 of hydrogen gas. 
 
 When applied to the roots of plants in 
 moderate proportion, the • influence of hy- 
 drogen gas is evidently beneficial in all 
 those situations where this gas is evolved, as 
 in drains, stagnant waters, dung-hills ; :ind 
 the vegetation growing over such places is 
 uncommonly rank and luxuriant. The u:i« 
 observed to arise by the agitation of the 
 mud of stagnant pools is the same gas 
 employed for the purposes of illumination, 
 
HYDROPHOBIA. 
 
 HYGROMETER. 
 
 or carburetted hydrogen gas, a peculiar 
 gas composed of carbon 0*416; hydrogen 
 0"0694. In the process of putrefaction, 
 a quantity of water exactly corresponding 
 to that of the hydrogen, is formed by the 
 extraction of oxygen from the air ; while all 
 the oxygen of the organic matter is returned 
 to the atmosphere in the form of carbonic 
 acid. Now the process of vegetable as- 
 similation consists in the extraction of 
 hydrogen from water, and carbon from 
 the carbonic acid ; hence the advantage of 
 decomposing vegetable matter to living 
 plants. A small portion of carburetted hy- 
 drogen gas in the atmosphere, or in the soil 
 of plants, certainly therefore promotes their 
 vegetation; but like pure hydrogen gas, 
 when it constitutes their entire atmosphere 
 it destroys them. (Thomson s Chem. vol. iv. 
 p. 347.) See Gases, their Use to Vege- 
 tation. 
 
 HYDROPHOBIA. A disease caused by 
 the bite of a rabid dog, or other rabid 
 animal. The disease occurs at irregular 
 periods after the bite has been received; 
 instances are on record where it appeared 
 in a few days ; and in a few, two years have 
 passed before its appearance. The wound 
 generally heals kindly, and the person 
 seems in good health, until a few days 
 before the disease displays itself. Pain or 
 some itching is first perceived in the cica- 
 trix of the bitten part ; and shoots along 
 the affected limb. This is followed by 
 flying, convulsive pains in different parts 
 of the body. The countenance of the 
 patient next indicates great anxiety ; he be- 
 comes restless, and depressed in spirits ; the 
 eyebrows are contracted ; the face is tumid ; 
 his sleep is broken ; and during the day he 
 has irregular chills and flushings. The appe- 
 tite sometimes is lost ; and a peculiar pain 
 is felt at the pit of the stomach, with a sen- 
 sation of stiffness at the back of the neck, and 
 extending to the jaws. The patient, in at- 
 tempting to swallow, finds that the effort is 
 impeded by spasmodic convulsions of the mus- 
 cles of deglutition ; and as this is increased 
 when liquids are attempted to be swallowed, 
 he conceives a dread of the attempt : hence 
 the presence of liquids associating in the 
 mind the pangs connected with the effort 
 of swallowing them, his imagination operates, 
 and he shudders on beholding them, and 
 naturally turns from them, when they are 
 offered to him. This has given the name 
 to the disease, but it is the dread of the 
 effort of swallowing, not of the liquids, 
 which causes the convulsions excited by 
 -the sight of them. As the disease pro- 
 gresses, the skin becomes so susceptible of 
 impressions that the least breath of air, or 
 even the movement of a person in the room, 
 661 
 
 or a fly lighting upon the body, will bring 
 on tremors, and sometimes convulsions. 
 The salivary glands are peculiarly excited, 
 which causes constant hacking and spitting ; 
 and often the saliva runs out of the mouth. 
 The senses are sometimes affected : — they 
 become more acute ; touch is painful ; odd 
 smells are felt, the causes of which are not 
 present ; hearing is often acute to a painful 
 degree ; but by degrees this great sensibility 
 ends in obtuseness, almost amounting to para- 
 lysis. In man the disease is never attended 
 with any attempt to bite, and the stories 
 of howling and barkings are fabulous. The 
 symptoms are the same whether the rabid 
 animal be a dog or a cat. Every age and 
 sex is equally liable to the disease ; and in 
 every recorded instance it has terminated 
 in death. It unfortunately happens that 
 nothing in the way of cure, and little even 
 as palliation, has been successfully effect- 
 ed in this disease ; but there appears no 
 doubt that the timely application of pre- 
 ventive measures has been successful, and 
 of these the excision of the bitten part, and 
 the application of caustics to it, or both 
 united, are most to be relied on, and the 
 sooner they are resorted to, the better the 
 chance of success. It appears, however, 
 that they may be effective any time before 
 the appearance of itching, pain, or redness 
 in the cicatrix of the wound. Among 
 caustics, the nitric acid and the nitrate of 
 silver are perhaps the most effective. Ex- 
 cision, however, can be confidently relied 
 upon ; and care must be taken to make the 
 excision much beyond the wound, both as. 
 to extent and depth. 
 
 HYGROMETER. (Gr. vypoc,. moist, 
 and [xaTpov, measure.) An instrument which 
 indicates the degree of moisture, or vapour 
 present in the atmosphere, or its relative 
 degrees of dampness and dryness. Hy- 
 grometers are of several forms, and a rude 
 hygrometer is easily made by means of a 
 long hair, or strip of leather, or cat-gut 
 suspended from a peg, kept in its upright 
 position by. a slight weight : these, by their 
 very sensible contractions and expansion 
 according to the humidity of the air, in- 
 dicate by an attached scale its variations. 
 Hygrometers of this kind, however, are 
 defective, from the irregularity of their 
 action, and the impossibility of comparing 
 them with each other, their alteration by 
 time, and other circumstances. These dis- 
 advantages gave rise to the construction by 
 Professor Daniel, of that now commonly used, 
 which is thus clearly described by the in- 
 ventor. 
 
 Its principle is simply this : it consists of 
 two small glass bulbs connected together 
 by a glass tube bent at right angles. A 
 u u 3 
 
HYGROMETER. 
 
 HYSSOP, COMMON. 
 
 very delicate thermometer is introduced 
 into one bulb (a), which is filled with ether, 
 
 and heated until the vapour passes with 
 full force into the other bulb (&), and passes 
 out of an aperture in it, which is then 
 hermetically sealed. The empty bulb is 
 next covered with a piece of fine muslin, 
 so that when ether is dropped upon it, 
 the evaporation will cool the covered bulb. 
 This external evaporation will condense 
 the internal etherial vapour, and cause 
 the ether in (a) to evaporate and cool 
 its external surface. The fall of the in- 
 terior thermometer will mark the degree 
 of the falling temperature, which must be 
 noted as the dew-point, at the moment that 
 a slight ring of dew, just coincident with 
 the surface of the liquid, forms upon the 
 glass. A small thermometer (e) is inserted 
 into the pillar of the stand for the purpose 
 of comparing the temperature of the air 
 with that of the dew-point (DanielFs Introd. 
 to Chem. Phil p. 136-7.) 
 
 By this particular contrivance the tem- 
 perature of the apparatus can be gradually 
 reduced at pleasure. This reduction of 
 temperature,- unless the surrounding at- 
 mosphere is perfectly dry, will at length 
 occasion a deposition of moisture in the 
 form of dew upon the exterior surface of 
 the glass ; for it is known that, whenever 
 aqueous vapour comes in contact with a 
 substance whose temperature is less than 
 its own, condensation immediately ensues ; 
 and this condensation is the more copious 
 the greater the difference between their 
 temperatures. Familiar instances of this 
 are seen in summer, when a bottle of wine 
 is brought from a cool cellar, or when a 
 decanter is fresh filled with water from a 
 well. As the reduction of temperature 
 takes place slowly, the precise instant can 
 be observed when the deposition of the 
 moisture commences. The indication of the 
 thermometer enclosed in the bulb at this 
 instant is whit is called the " dew-point." 
 
 We see then that the dew-point is the 
 temperature immediately below that of the 
 vapour contained in the surrounding atmo- 
 sphere : the difference, however, between 
 the dew-point and that of the vapour is so 
 slight that for all ordinary purposes they 
 may be considered the same. 
 
 The temperature of the invisible vapour 
 of the atmosphere being thus ascertained 
 (for it differs materially from the tempe- 
 rature of the air in which it is contained), 
 it is easy to calculate the force it exerts as 
 thus existing in the state of steam, and 
 the weight of given bulk of it, and in conse- 
 quence tables have been formed, which will 
 be found inDsmielYs Meteorological Essays, 
 p. 139. 
 
 HYSSOP, COMMON (Hyssopus offici- 
 nalis, probably from the Hebrew). There 
 are three varieties, distinguished by the 
 colour of the flowers, the white, red, and 
 blue ; the last of which is most commonly 
 cultivated. It is a perennial, native of 
 Siberia, but cultivated in our gardens, 
 flowering from June to September. The 
 root is knobbed, woody, fibrous ; the stem 
 about two feet high, quadrangular, erect, 
 branching. The leaves sessile, in pairs, 
 elliptical, entire, punctured. The flowers 
 are borne in half verticillate spikes inter- 
 mixed with leaves. The calyx is persistent, 
 striated ; the corolla is violet-coloured with 
 a whitish tube ; the seeds are four at the 
 bottom of the calyx. 
 
 A dry soil is the one most appropriate for 
 hyssop. If it is grown on a rich or wet one, 
 it becomes luxuriant ; but from a deficiency 
 of woody matter, is generally destroyed by 
 the frost, as well as rendered less aromatic 
 and powerful in its medicinal qualities. It 
 is propagated by seed and slips of the 
 branches and young shoots, as well as by 
 offsets. The seed may be sown from the 
 close of February until the end of May. 
 Rooted offsets may be planted in March, 
 April, August, and September ; cuttings of 
 the branches in April and May, and slips of 
 young shoots in June or July. 
 
 The seeds may be inserted broadcast, or 
 preferably in drills, six inches apart, in 
 either case not being buried deeper than half 
 an inch. It is the usual practice, when the 
 seedlings have attained the growth of six 
 weeks, ' to prick them out twelve inches 
 apart; but it is by much the best practice 
 to raise them where they are to remain. 
 
 The slips and offsets are best planted at 
 first in a shady or north border ; they are 
 generally firmly rooted in two months. 
 
 In September or October they are all 
 fit for removal to their final stations. After 
 every removal, whether of planting, prick- 
 ing, &e., they must be watered plentifully 
 
IBEX. 
 
 IMBRICATED. 
 
 and regularly until established. Hyssop 
 possesses some excitant and tonic powers, 
 but is now rarely employed in medicine. 
 (G. W. Johnsons Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 I. 
 
 IBERIS. See Candytuft. 
 
 IBEX. (Lat. a wild goat.) The name 
 is restricted to a species of goat, the Capra 
 ibex of Linnseus, bonquetin of BufFon and 
 the French naturalists. It is characterised 
 by having large horns, with a flattened an- 
 terior surface, and marked with prominent 
 transverse ridges or knots. It inhabits the 
 summits of the highest mountain chains in 
 the continents of Europe, Africa, and Asia, 
 but does not exist in the New World. Its 
 habits are solitary, and its haunts the most 
 inaccessible rocks; on which account its 
 capture is a work of difficulty and danger. 
 
 IBIS, THE GLOSSY. (Ibis falcinellus). 
 The appearance of the glossy ibis in this 
 country is very rare, and merely accidental, 
 although it is now included among the birds 
 which visit the British Islands. This bird 
 is termed a liver, and it is said the town 
 and earls of Liverpool derive their titles 
 and names from it. In Europe the ibis lives 
 principally on the banks of rivers, and par- 
 takes of the form and character of the 
 curlew. The head, neck, breast, sides and 
 belly of the adult bird are deep reddish 
 brown ; the wing coverts and testials dark 
 maroon brown, with brilliant green and 
 purple reflections ; the legs and toes are 
 deep green. The whole length of the bird 
 is about twenty-two inches. (YarreWs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 505.) 
 
 ICE. (Sax. ir; Dutch, eyse.) Water in a 
 state of congelation. Ice is about one eighth 
 part lighter than water : hence it swims in 
 that element ; and, owing to this property, 
 the icebergs and ice islands are floated down 
 to southern latitudes from the arctic circle. 
 The height of an ice island out of the sea is 
 exactly one-half of the real depth of the mass 
 of ice of which it is composed. The degree of 
 cold requisite to form ice in salt water is 
 much greater than in fresh water ; for saline 
 impregnations lower the point of freezing, 
 and also the point of maximum density ; and 
 on the same account, the saline particles are 
 precipitated before the water freezes. Ice 
 taken up at sea contains salt water in its 
 interstices ; but if a solid mass can be pro- 
 cured, it will be found that on melting it, 
 fresh water only is obtained. Water ex- 
 pands in freezing, and consequently when 
 it is interposed in crevices and clefts of 
 rocks, it separates these, and often preci- 
 pitates immense masses from the tops of 
 663 
 
 mountains into the adjoining valleys. This 
 is a principle which should be kept in re- 
 membrance by the farmer in making mounds 
 or walls of earth, for if the smallest clefts be 
 left, the walls may be broken down and 
 crumbled to pieces even by moderate frosts. 
 
 ICHNEUMON. (Gr.) A name applied 
 in zoology in a double sense to a viverrine 
 genus of quadrupeds, and to a family of Pu- 
 pivorous Hymenoptera. 
 
 ICHTHYOLOGY. (Gr. ) The science 
 which treats of the nature, uses, and classi- 
 fication of fishes. 
 
 IGNIS FATUUS; (Lat. vain or foolish 
 fire ; a translation of the French feu follet.) 
 A kind of luminous meteor, which flits 
 about in the air a little above the surface of 
 the earth, and appears chiefly in marshy 
 places, or near stagnant waters, or in 
 church-yards, during the nights of summer. 
 There are, we are ' told, many instances of 
 travellers having been decoyed by these 
 lights into marshy places, where they pe- 
 rished ; and hence the names Jack-with-a- 
 lantern, Will- with- a- wisp ; the common 
 people ascribing the appearance to the 
 agency of evil spirits, who take this mode of 
 alluring men to their destruction. The 
 cause of the phenomenon does not seem to 
 be perfectly understood; it is generally 
 supposed to be produced by the decomposi- 
 tion of animal or vegetable matters, or by 
 the evolution of gases which spontaneously 
 inflame in the atmosphere. (Brandes Diet, 
 of Science.) 
 
 Milton, in his Paradise Lost, b. ix. 1. 634., 
 thus alludes to it : — 
 
 A wandering fire, 
 Compact of unctuous vapour, which the night 
 Condenses, and the cold environs round, 
 Kindled through agitation to a flame, 
 Which oft, they say, some evil spirit attends, 
 Hovering and blazing with delusive light, 
 Misleads the amazed night wanderer from his way 
 To bogs and mires, and oft through pond or pool, 
 There swallowed up and lost, from succour far. 
 
 IGNITION. (Lat. ignis, fire.) The act 
 of setting fire to, or of taking fire ; as op- 
 posed to combustion, or burning, which is a 
 consequence of ignition. The term " spon- 
 taneous ignition," is applied to cases in which 
 substances take fire without previous apjuli- 
 cation of heat. This is illustrated in the 
 burning of hay-stacks, when the hay has 
 been put up too green, the scorching of 
 corn stacks from the same cause, and the 
 taking fire of ships laden with fermentable 
 products. 
 
 ILES. A provincial term employed in 
 some places to signify the beards of different 
 sorts of grain. See Aw>\ 
 
 - IMBRICATED. In botany, a term used 
 in speaking of the arrangement of bodies, 
 to denote that their parts lie partly over 
 each other in regular order, like the tiles 
 u v 4 
 
IMMERSED. 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL. 
 
 upon the roof of a house ; as the scales upon 
 the cup of some acorns ; also applied in 
 speaking of the aestivation of petals, or 
 leaves, to denote that they overlap each 
 other at the margin without any involution. 
 (Brandes Diet, of Science.') 
 
 IMMERSED. Buried ; applied usually 
 to persons or substances, totally sunk in 
 water. In botany the term is applied to the 
 leaves of aquatics when they grow under 
 the water, and to the ovary when it is buried 
 in the disk. The Ranunculus aquatilis has 
 some of its leaves immersed ; some spread 
 on the surface of the water ; some elevated 
 above it. {PaxtonHs Bot. Diet.) 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, AGRICULTURAL. 
 Almost all the operations of agriculture may 
 be performed by the plough, the harrow, the 
 scythe, and the flail ; and these, or similar 
 tools for performing the same work, are the 
 sole implements in the primitive agriculture 
 of all countries. With the progress of im- 
 provement, however, many other imple- 
 ments have been introduced, the more 
 remarkable of which are the drill-plough, 
 the horse-hoe, the winnowing machine, the 
 thrashing machine, and the reaping ma- 
 chine. The object of all these implements 
 and machines is to abridge human labour, 
 and to perform the different operations to 
 which they are applied with a greater de- 
 gree of rapidity, and in a more perfect 
 manner than before. As I have treated at 
 length of the different implements, &e. in 
 their alphabetical order, it is unnecessary 
 to go farther into the subject here. Of the 
 progress made in the construction of agri- 
 cultural instruments, the judges of imple- 
 ments, at the Liverpool meeting of the 
 English Agricultural Society, in their report 
 very justly remark, when sj^eaking of " the 
 good effects which have already resulted 
 from the public exhibition of implements 
 at the Society's meetings, in stimulating 
 the talent of the mechanic and the zeal of 
 the husbandman. At Oxford the show-yard 
 may be said to have presented an epitome 
 of- the state of agricultural mechanism ex- 
 isting in 1839, the era of the formation of 
 the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 
 No spectator of that show can have failed 
 to be struck with surprise and admiration 
 at the Liverpool exhibition. At Oxford 
 there were some examples of good ma- 
 chinery and workmanship, but many more 
 of rude, cumbrous, and ill-executed im- 
 plements. At Liverpool many machines 
 were exhibited, not only of surpassing skill 
 in contrivance and execution, but also 
 having for their object the effecting of 
 processes in tillage-husbandry of the most 
 refined nature and acknowledged import- 
 ance, but hitherto considered of very diffi- 
 f>(>4 
 
 cult practical attainment. Some of these 
 may already be considered as forming part 
 of the necessary apparatus of every well- 
 managed farm, and to be essential to its 
 economy and profit. This vast stride in 
 the mechanics of agriculture, made within 
 so short a period, has doubtless arisen from 
 the congregating together of agriculturists 
 and mechanicians from all parts of the 
 empire : and a still higher perfection in 
 machinery may be confidently anticipated 
 from the opportunity offered, under the aus- 
 pices of the Society, of periodically contrast- 
 ing and estimating the merits of varied im- 
 plements used for similar purposes in different 
 localities and soils. It is apparent that the 
 manufacture of even the commoner instru- 
 ments has already, to a great extent, passed 
 out of the hands of the village ploughwright 
 and hedge-carpenter, and been transferred 
 to makers possessed of greater intelligence, 
 skill, and capital. The improved style of 
 finish, the greater lightness and elegance of 
 construction, and the generally superior 
 adaptation of the means to the end, in every 
 class of implements, were sufficient mani- 
 festations of the beneficial results arising 
 from the encouragement given by the So- 
 ciety to these objects. Neither were ex- 
 amples wanting in the higher classes of 
 machines to show that the fourth important 
 object for which the Society was incor- 
 porated is, to some extent, fulfilled — viz., 
 ' to encourage men of science in their 
 attention to the improvement of agricultural 
 implements.' " 
 
 The remarks of the Messrs. Ransome, of 
 Ipswich, upon the preservation of agri- 
 cultural implements in general are such as 
 every farmer should be guided by. They 
 " suggest to farmers generally, that a little 
 instruction given to the workmen in the 
 use of the machines, and care in preserving 
 them, would add to their efficiency and 
 durability. Attention to washing imple- 
 ments and machines before laying them by, 
 a little oil on such as have revolving wearing 
 parts, and a coat of paint occasionally to 
 each, will cost but little, and make the 
 difference between having a machine ready 
 for use, or covered with rust and wanting 
 repair, just as the season for its use com- 
 mences. These suggestions are so obvious, 
 that they would think no apology needful 
 for making them, as their experience proves 
 that a large proportion of the repairs re- 
 quired, arises from want of attention to 
 these apparently trifling matters." And 
 to this end the advice of Mr. Crosskill, 
 of Beverley, may be acted upon with con- 
 siderable advantage : he says, " Select the 
 most likely labourer on the farm, put the 
 implements under his care, make i! .1 strict 
 
IMPLEMENTS, HORTICULTURAL. 
 
 INCUBATION. 
 
 rule with all the men that each implement 
 done with for the season shall be brought 
 to one particular place, say near the pond 
 or pump ; the man having charge of the 
 implements must then wash and clean 
 them well before putting them into the 
 shed." (Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 
 150.) There are papers upon harvest im- 
 plements by Mr. Boys and Mr. Rodwell. 
 (Ibid. vol. i. p. 444—447.) 
 
 IMPLEMENTS, HORTICULTURAL. 
 The essential implements of horticulture are 
 the spade and the pruning knife. The rake 
 might be added, but it can be done without, 
 because, if seed be sown on a rough surface, 
 it may be covered by beating that surface 
 smooth with a spade ; and if on a smooth 
 surface, it may be covered by scattering, 
 with the spade, a very thin sprinkling of 
 earth over it. Even the pruning-knife 
 might be dispensed with ; because culinary 
 vegetables could be pulled up by the roots, 
 or cut off at the surface of the ground with 
 the spade; and fruit trees will produce 
 crops without pruning, as by disbudding 
 and thinning with the finger and thumb, as 
 large fruit may be grown as ever will be 
 produced by the use of the knife. It must 
 be confessed, however, that the knife and the 
 rake are very nearly essential instruments 
 of horticulture. With the progress of 
 horticulture a great number of implements, 
 instruments, utensils, and machines have 
 been brought into use. Of these may be 
 mentioned the hoe for stirring the soil and 
 cutting up weeds ; and this implement on 
 a larger scale, in warm countries, is used as 
 a substitute for the spade. The watering- 
 pot in modern gardening is an important 
 utensil, and the syi-inge a machine that can 
 scarcely be dispensed with. In the forcing 
 department we have the thermometer, the 
 hygrometer, and various contrivances for 
 supplying and regulating heat, admitting or 
 excluding air, and producing artificial va- 
 pour or rain. (JBrande's Diet, of Science, Sfc.) 
 
 IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS. The in- 
 terests of the agriculturists and the culti- 
 vators of the soil in general are usually much 
 studied by the legislature of every country, 
 who wisely afford protection, by imposing 
 duties on all articles imported from foreign 
 countries, which are likely to come into com- 
 petition with those of native growth, produce, 
 or manufacture, and allowing drawbacks 
 and bounties on many which are exported. 
 The principal articles of import which in- 
 terest the farmers of this country are corn, 
 timber, wool, and woollen manufactures, 
 hides and skins, cattle and horses, provisions, 
 such as pork, bacon, and hams, salted beef, 
 butter, cheese, poultry and eggs ; seeds, 
 tallow, &c. A very large portion of the re- 
 665 
 
 venue of Great Britain being derived from 
 customs duties, or from duties on commo- 
 dities imported from abroad, the business of 
 importation and exportation is subjected to 
 various regulations, which must be carefully 
 observed by those who would avoid incur- 
 ring penalties, and subjecting their property 
 to confiscation. All these regulations will 
 be found fully detailed in the act, 3 & 4 
 W. 4. c. 52. Corn, grain, meal, flour, malt 
 and hops cannot be re-imported for home 
 use, nor any goods for which bounty or 
 drawback of excise had been received on 
 exportation, unless by special permission of 
 the commissioners of customs. See Corn 
 Laws, Woollen Manufactures, &c. ; and 
 for a statement of the various organic mat- 
 ters that are annually imported into this 
 country, and eventually tend to fertilise the 
 land, see Manures applicable by the 
 Drill. (M i Culloc?is Com. Diet.) 
 
 IMPOSTHUME. In farriery a sort of 
 swelling, or collection of matter or pus in 
 any part of the body of an animal. See 
 
 -A.BSCESS 
 
 IN-AND-IN-BREEDING. The prac- 
 tice of breeding from close relations. See 
 Breeding, Cattle, Sheep, &c. 
 
 INARCHING. See Grafting. 
 
 INCH. A measure of length, the twelfth 
 part of a foot. 
 
 INCISORS, or INCISORES. (Lat. 
 incido, I cut.) The teeth implanted in the 
 inter-maxillary bones of the upper jaw, and 
 in the corresponding place in the lower jaw, 
 and which are generally shaped for the 
 purpose of cutting or coarsely dividing the 
 food. The ruminating animals, including 
 the bull and cow, sheep, goats, the deer 
 tribe, and the camel have no incisors in the 
 upper jaw ; but some of them have canine 
 teeth, which project from the mouth. See 
 Age of Animals. 
 
 ENCLOSURE. (Lat. includo, I shut up.) 
 See Enclosure. 
 
 INCUBATION. (Lat. ineumbo, I brood 
 over.) Hatching or the lying down of an 
 animal upon her own or another's eggs, 
 communicating to them heat, and main- 
 taining them at her own temperature ; a 
 condition essential to their development. 
 In many, animals the development of the 
 foetus takes place after the exclusion of the 
 egg, and whilst it is maintained in contact 
 with the external surface of the parent's 
 body, as in the crab and lobster tribes be- 
 neath the caudal plates ; or agglutinated to 
 the surface of the abdomen, as in certain 
 species of pipe-fish (syng?iathiis), or con- 
 cealed in cutaneous marsupial cavities, as in 
 other species of syngnathus, and the hippo - 
 campus ; but in these and other instances 
 from the cold-blooded animals, the eggs are 
 
INCUBATION. 
 
 INDIA, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 retained by special contrivances in contact 
 with the parent, without occasioning any 
 restraint upon her postures or movements. 
 
 That a due degree of warmth is the es- 
 sential object of incubation in birds is proved 
 by the ancient and well-known practice of 
 substituting artificial heat, by which fertile 
 eggs are hatched in the same period, and 
 the excluded chick is as fully and strongly 
 developed, as when produced by natural in- 
 cubation. 
 
 Artificial incubation has been practised 
 from a remote period by the Egyptians and 
 Chinese ; the former indeed have carried 
 this process to such a high degree of per- 
 fection, as in many instances to have entirely 
 superseded the use of the hen in hatching. 
 
 It is effected either by means of an oven, 
 stove, or steam, and it has been calculated 
 that the ovens of Egypt every year com- 
 municate life to about 93,000,000 chickens. 
 This process has received considerable at- 
 tention from the French philosophers ; but 
 perhaps the best exemplification of its results 
 that has been witnessed in Europe, was given 
 by the proprietor of the Eccaleohion, which 
 was lately exhibited in Pall Mall, London. 
 
 The mean temperature of incubation is 1 00° 
 Fahr. ; it may vary from 95° to 105°, and, 
 towards the close of the process, may be 
 suspended for one or two hours, or for a 
 longer period, according to the degree of 
 extraneous heat which the eggs may derive 
 from their situation, without fatal conse- 
 quences to the embryo. The power of com- 
 municating the requisite degree of warmth 
 to their eggs arises out of the unusual de- 
 velopment of, and determination of blood 
 to, a peculiar plexus of vessels, distributed 
 over the skin of the abdomen, and which in 
 most birds is connected with a derivation of 
 blood from the internal organs of genera- 
 tion, after the subsidence of the functional 
 activity of the ovarium and oviduct to the 
 external integuments. The vascular, hot, 
 and sensitive condition of the skin of the 
 abdomen is the exciting cause of that un- 
 controllable propensity to incubate, which 
 the Greeks denominated " storge," and 
 which, with its associated phenomena of pa- 
 tience, abstinence, and self-denial, forms so 
 remarkable a feature in the economy of 
 birds. The eggs of the bird present se- 
 veral peculiarities in relation to the circum- 
 stances under which the foetus is to be devel- 
 oped : their oval form permits a greater pro- 
 portion of their surface to be in contact with 
 the heat-communicating skin of the parent, 
 than if they had been a spherical body ; while 
 the shell, by virtue of its hard calcareous tex- 
 ture, and its arched disposition about the soft 
 contents, sufficiently defends them from the 
 superincumbent pressure. As warmth is 
 i G66 
 
 the only essential influence which the egg 
 derives from the parent, the shell is porous 
 and permeable to air, and the germ is sur- 
 rounded by an adequate store of nutritious 
 matter. See Egg. 
 
 The period of incubation is generally di- 
 rectly as the size of the bird, but the degree 
 of development which the chick attains 
 prior to exclusion varies. As a general 
 rule, it is inferior in birds of flight, as the 
 Accipitrine and Passerine orders, than in the 
 terrestrial, wading, and swimming birds ; 
 and the warmth and complexity of the nest 
 bears relation to this difference of deve- 
 lopment. If the thrush had been forewarned 
 that her young would be excluded from the 
 egg naked and helpless, she could not have 
 prepared beforehand a warmer and more 
 comfortable abode, than her instinct had led 
 her to construct for their accommodation ; 
 and if with such a nest we contrast the rude 
 mass of straw in which the hen deposits and 
 incubates her eggs, it might be imagined 
 that she knew beforehand that her chickens 
 would come into the world well clothed 
 and strong enough at once, to run about 
 and pick up their own food. In this case, 
 therefore, the nest relates only to incubation, 
 in the other to incubation and subsequent 
 rearing of the young : and according to the 
 degree of development attained during in- 
 cubation, and the associated condition of 
 the nest and habits of the parent, birds have 
 been divided into two great groups, the 
 Aves altrices, and Aves prcecoces. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 INDIA, THE AGRICULTURE OF. 
 The British farmer will, I am afraid, not 
 derive many useful hints from the most 
 careful study of the agriculture of the 
 eastern portions of Asia. In Hindostan, 
 for instance, too many causes have contri- 
 buted to retard the march of agricultural 
 improvement. The innate dislike of the 
 natives to innovations of all kinds, the na- 
 ture of their region, their indolence, and 
 the political oppressions under which they 
 have long laboured, are amongst the many 
 causes of the degraded state of Indian agri- 
 culture. I am indebted to my brother, 
 Mr. George Johnson of the Supreme Court 
 at Calcutta for most of the following 
 sketches of Indian modes of cultivation. 
 He says, in describing the residences of 
 the Indian ryots or farmers, " When I 
 speak of an Indian farm the image must not 
 rise to the mind of the European reader of 
 a substantial dwelling-house, surrounded 
 by commodious outbuildings, and conveni- 
 ently placed amongst its compactly enclosed 
 fields : such an agricultural establishment 
 bespeaks a far advance in the art of cultiva- 
 tion, the employment of large capitals, and 
 
INDIA, AGRICULTU11E OF. 
 
 remunerating prices to the cultivator. Now, 
 none of these contingencies occur in Hin- 
 dostan ; but, on the contrary, the operations 
 of agriculture are rudely executed; the 
 cultivators are poor, the profits are small, 
 the results correspondent. The dwellings 
 of the ryots throughout India are in no 
 degree superior to the other mean huts, 
 with which they are associated in the village. 
 No barn is attached to the residence of the 
 poorer cultivators ; for the pittance of grain 
 annually raised is immediately beaten out, 
 the major part sold at once to the merchant, 
 and the small residue for seed and suste- 
 nance is stored in baskets, or jars, and these 
 are usually placed in the room where the 
 family dwells. The outbuildings rarely ex- 
 tend beyond an enclosure in which to se- 
 cure the cattle at night. By far the greatest 
 number of farms do not exceed a size re- 
 quiring a single yoke of oxen, for the occu- 
 pier is the only ploughman." 
 
 The various imposts to which these little 
 farmers are exposed, sound strange to an 
 English agriculturist : they are enumerated 
 by Dr. Buchanan, (Lid. Eech. vol. ii. p. 
 200.) The ryot's heap of grain is usually 
 
 about 3000 seers : of this is first set apart, 
 
 Seers. 
 
 For the gods, or rather for the priests - 5 
 For charity . to the brahmins and other 
 
 mendicants - - 5 
 For the astrologer - - - 1 
 For the hereditary brahmin of the vil- 
 lage - - - - - 1 
 For the barber - - - 2 
 For the potter - - - - 2 
 For the carpenter and blacksmith - 2 
 For the measurer - - 4 
 For the washerwoman - - - 2 
 For the beadle - - - - 7 
 For the chief of the village - - 53 
 For the accountant - 200 
 For the watchman - - - 10 
 For the conductor of the water - - 20 
 
 314 
 
 This leaves a residue of 2686 seers : of 
 this government takes 10 per cent., and 
 then half of the residue, so that when all 
 these drains have been satisfied, the grower 
 remains in possession of 2000 seers of rice." 
 (Buchanan's Mysore, vol. i. p. 265.) 
 
 Irrigation is practised in India and in 
 almost all the hot countries of Asia, to an 
 extent of which the English farmer has 
 little conception ; for, as Mr. George Johnson 
 remarks, " In every district of Hindostan, 
 as in all other tropical climates, irrigation 
 is the most effectual mode of promoting 
 fertility. In places favoured by nature 
 whole plains are occasionally Hooded merely 
 by the construction of a dam across the 
 ' outlet' of some mountain stream, or it is con- 
 667 
 
 fined nearer to its source, so as to form a 
 reservoir, from which the water may be ob- 
 tained at the most desirable seasons. In 
 less favourable situations, the water fre- 
 quently has to be raised to a considerable 
 height, in order to attain an elevation level 
 with, or slightly above the cultivated land. 
 This is very generally effected by a scoop 
 of matting suspended between two ropes, 
 the ends of which are held by two men who 
 bale it from the reservoir into a hole, some 
 feet above it, and from thence it is similarly 
 baled by others from hole to hole, until the 
 desired height is attained. Sometimes the 
 scoop is suspended between poles, erected 
 in the form of a gallows ; at others, as in the 
 Jaut wells, from which the water is raised 
 by cattle or by hand, in some districts. 
 The extensive canals, formed in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Delhi and in the Punjab, are no 
 longer employed. The machinery, so ge- 
 neral in China, is no where used in India 
 for raising water. In 1798, Dr. Tennant 
 relates, that the practice of the natives then 
 was, and is still followed, after ploughing 
 the fields in the usual manner, but before 
 sowing, to divide them into regular small 
 squares like a chess board : each square is 
 surrounded with a shelving border about 
 four inches high, capable of preventing the 
 escape of water. Between these square 
 inclosures, small dykes are formed for con- 
 veying a rivulet over the whole field ; when 
 the water has stood a sufficient time in one 
 square, it is let off into the surrounding 
 dyke, and conveyed to another, and so in 
 succession through the whole field. The 
 fertility induced amply recompenses the 
 labour, and the neatness imparted to the 
 country by this husbandry is very striking." 
 (Ind. RecJi. ii. 167.) In some places the 
 water has to be raised from deep wells, se- 
 veral of which are in the most elevated 
 parts of each field. The work of drawing 
 the water is performed by two bullocks, not 
 travelling round in a mill, but pacing in a 
 direct line from the well's mouth. The 
 various little trenches already mentioned, 
 all radiate from these wells. About Patna 
 the irrigation water is raised from the wells 
 by means of a bamboo lever with its fulcrum 
 on a frame about ten feet high, a weight at 
 the opposite end being employed to assist 
 the workmen in counterpoising the leather 
 bag of water ; this plan is only resorted to 
 when the wells are shallow and the water 
 near the surface of the earth, and then not 
 bags but buckets are used, sometimes of 
 leather but more frequently of iron. Four 
 bullocks and three labourers are engaged 
 nine days in irrigating one acre of land 
 thoroughly. The importance of this branch 
 of agriculture is evidenced by the great 
 
INDIA, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 number of wells, which even these most in- 
 dolent people sink in districts deficient in 
 streams. Near Madras, at Saymbrum- 
 bacum, a reservoir more than seven miles 
 long, and three broad, for the purposes of 
 irrigation, has been formed, by merely 
 raising a bank across a natural ravine. In 
 the Tamul language a reservoir of this kind 
 is called an Eray. This supplies 32 vil- 
 lages containing 5000 persons employed in 
 agriculture (should the rains fail) for 18 
 months. Sluices lined with bricks pass under 
 the banks to supply the fields : the inner open- 
 ing of the sluice is covered by a flat stone, in 
 which is cut a circular hole, through which 
 the water is allowed to pass as required, by 
 means of a plug fixed to a bamboo, and se- 
 cured from escape by means of stone pillars 
 and cross bars. When bullocks are em- 
 ployed to raise water from wells, a leathern 
 bucket is used, which holds 45 gallons ; 
 this two bullocks will raise every minute 
 and a half from a well 44 feet deep, and 
 they work eight hours per day. 
 
 To the insoluble matter of the water 
 employed in irrigation, must be attributed 
 a considerable portion of its value. These 
 vary at different seasons. That of the 
 Ganges, which is extensively employed in 
 irrigation, was examined by Mr. Everett : 
 he found in it of insoluble matters 
 
 Grains. 
 
 July 3. In a wine quart. - 1 
 
 7. - k , - - 8 
 
 23. - - - - 10 
 Aug. 1—8. - 58-10 
 
 22. - - - - 26 
 
 Sept. 6. - - - - 17 
 
 24. - - - - 8 
 Oct. 8. - - - - 6 
 
 This insoluble or mechanically suspended 
 matter was analysed by Mr. Piddington : he 
 found in 200 parts from the banks of the 
 
 Ganges at Mohulpore — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Vegetable matter - - 5^ 
 
 Saline matters, chiefly muriate of potass % 
 Carbonate of lime - - - 16^ 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - - 1 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - - 12 
 
 Silex - - - - - 139 
 
 Alumina - - - - 14f 
 
 Water - - - - - 2 
 
 Loss - - 8| 
 
 200 
 
 As these rich, purely divided matters, are 
 depositing on the lower grounds within reach 
 of the flood waters, it follows as a natural 
 consequence that " the higher soils are ge- 
 nerally and rapidly impoverishing, and this 
 to a degree of which few, who have not 
 made the subject one of attention, are 
 aware." 
 
 The rapid effects produced by a copious 
 GG8 
 
 artificial watering of grass lands under the 
 burning sun of India, may be judged by the 
 following report made in 1841, by Sir Ed- 
 ward Burnes to Lord Auckland, upon the 
 artificial grasses of Cabool. 
 
 " There are three kinds of grasses culti- 
 vated in Cabool — 'rishku,' or lucern, 'shuf- 
 tul,' a kind of trefoil, and ' si barga,' or 
 clover. The first and the last continue to 
 yield crops for some years, but the ' trefoil' 
 (shuftul) is an annual. The lucern (rishku) 
 is sown in spring, generally about the vernal 
 equinox : for each jureeb, or about half an 
 English acre (20,089 jureebs are equal to 
 an English acre), two seers of Cabool or 
 about 28 lbs. English are required as seed. 
 In forty days it comes to perfection, and is 
 cut down, and will yield four full-grown 
 crops ere winter sets in, but by early cut- 
 ting six or eight crops may be drawn, — the 
 last may sometimes be inferior from pre- 
 mature cold. One jureeb or half an En- 
 glish acre yields on an average ten camel 
 loads of grass at each cutting, as a camel 
 carries about 500 lbs. ; this is a produce of 
 5000 lbs. the jureeb, or 10,000 lbs. the 
 English acre, and for four fine crops 40,000 
 lbs. English. The third crop is considered 
 the best, and from it the seed is preserved : 
 of this the half acre sown with the two 
 seers of Cabool will yield forty seers, or 
 about 560 lbs. This plant requires the best 
 black soil, much manure, and is watered 
 five times each crop, in fact whenever it 
 droops. It is sometimes sown along with 
 barley, but in that case the grain by ex- 
 hausting the soil injures the crop. The 
 seed is never exported, but the grass is so 
 plentiful, though all the cattle are fed on it, 
 as much to exceed the consumption ; it is 
 therefore dried, and that produced at any 
 distance from a market is generally stored 
 in this manner and sold during winter. A 
 camel load of it, or about 500 lbs. English, 
 whether green or dry, sells for one Cabool 
 rupee — a coinage of which 11 5£ are equal 
 to 100 Company's rupees. Lucern gene- 
 rally lasts for six years, but it will yield for 
 ten years if manure be abundantly scattered 
 over it. The seed is at present sold for a 
 rupee, a stone of 14 lbs. ; but as it is not cul- 
 tivated for exportation, this is much dearer 
 than it might otherwise be had, and its 
 price has been almost doubled by the ar- 
 rival of the British troops. The trefoil, or 
 ' shuftul,' in cultivation, in the time of 
 sowing, reaping, and soil, resembles lucern, 
 and the calculations of produce for the one 
 will suffice for the other, only it is an annual 
 plant. The seed too is dearer by one half 
 Ilia n that of lucern. 
 
 "The clover, or 'si barga ' (i.e. (luce 
 leaves), assimilates likewise to the lucern, 
 
INDIA, AGRICULTURE OF. 
 
 INDIGO. 
 
 and it lasts as long. I may however ob- 
 serve that the climate of Cabool is much 
 later than that of England, and, excepting 
 the seed sown in autumn, nothing is put in 
 the ground here with advantage before the 
 1st of April." 
 
 Of a rotation of crops, or of fallows, the 
 ryots of Bengal have but little idea : their 
 richest low-lying grounds are devoted to 
 the growth of rice, and on the uplands they 
 generally crop the soil till it is exhausted, 
 and then abandon it to the weeds, which 
 soon occupy it in profusion : they have be- 
 sides a wretched method of sowing various 
 seeds together, in a manner that cannot be 
 sufficiently reprehended. It is only in some 
 parts of India, that any thing like rotation 
 of crops is observed. In the high lands of 
 Behar, the following rotation is usually 
 adopted: — 1. Year fallow and wheat. 2. 
 Maize (muckai) followed by big or bear, a 
 kind of barley. 3. Murwa, sama, and 
 coweree, being species of millet, followed by 
 cotton. 
 
 There is nothing remarkable in the do- 
 mestic animals of Bengal : the oxen are 
 inferior, and their sheep are described as 
 " small, lank, and thin ; " the colour of three 
 fourths of each flock is black, or dark grey. 
 The quality of the fleece is worse, if possible, 
 than its colour ; it is harsh, thin, and hairy, 
 in a very remarkable degree : no part of 
 clothing or domestic furniture, so far as 
 Dr. Tennant had observed, is manufactured 
 of wool, except a coarse kind of blanketting 
 which some of the boatmen (dandies) and 
 people in the upper districts use during the 
 cold season, as a wrapper at night. 
 
 The same system of irrigation which pre- 
 vails in Arabia, in Persia, and in Hindostan. 
 is carried on to a very considerable extent 
 in the empire of China, where the soil is 
 cultivated perhaps more carefully, and with 
 a greater minuteness of detail, or garden 
 system of husbandry, than in any other 
 country. I do not allude in this work to 
 their cultivation of crops, such as the tea 
 plant, or those from which the English cul- 
 tivator is as little likely to derive useful 
 hints. They are remarkable for the care 
 with which they deepen, even by the spade, 
 their cultivated lands, and their husbanding 
 of manures of all kinds is admirable ; every 
 thing that is produced in their cities en- 
 dued with fertilising properties is collected, 
 and preserved with the utmost care. The 
 night-soil, for instance, is made into a kind 
 of bricks, with calcareous matter, and car- 
 ried into the most distant provinces, for 
 the use of the farmers. " There is per- 
 haps," says the author of British Husbandry, 
 (vol. i. p. 273.), "no part of the world in 
 which the preparation, and the practical 
 669 
 
 application of vegetable and animal manure; 
 is so well understood as in China; but owing 
 to its overflowing population, almost the 
 whole of the labour is performed by man, 
 by which the number of working animals is 
 so much reduced, that night-soil forms the 
 principal dependence of the farmer. It is 
 extensively employed in a dried state, and 
 is sold as an article of commerce throughout 
 the empire, in the form of cakes, mixed up 
 with one third of their weight of marl." 
 To the same end the poor are employed in 
 collecting in the public roads and streets 
 all the horse and other dung, which is also 
 made into cakes, with marl, and these are 
 afterwards dried in the sun. 
 
 The system of tillage formed by the 
 Chinese, however antiquated, is not of a 
 general description, calculated to instruct 
 the English cultivator; and the Chinese 
 husbandmen are entirely uninformed as to 
 any scientific principles, by the observance 
 of which the cultivation of the earth is im- 
 proved. The same remark, in fact, extends 
 to most oriental farmers : they merely follow 
 a regular routine of operations, because it 
 is that which their forefathers adopted : — 
 followed without consideration, it is trans- 
 mitted unimproved. See Irrigation, and 
 Night-soil. (Memoir on the Agriculture 
 of India, by G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 INDIAN CORN. See Maize. 
 
 INDIAN CRESS. See Cress, Indian. 
 
 INDIGENOUS PLANTS. Such plants 
 as are natives of, or are common to, a 
 country. 
 
 INDIGO. (Indigo/era, from indigo, a 
 blue dye stuff, a corruption of Indicum, 
 India, and fero, to bear; most of the 
 species produce the well-known dye, called 
 indigo.) This is an extensive genus of 
 rather elegant plants, the shrubby kinds of 
 which are well worthy of cultivation. The 
 stove and green-house shrubby kinds thrive 
 best in a mixture of sandy loam and peat, 
 and may be increased without difficulty by 
 cuttings of the young wood, planted in 
 sand, under a glass, in heat. The annual 
 and biennial kinds must be raised from 
 seeds sown in a hotbed, in spring ; and when 
 the plants have grown a sufficient height, 
 they may be planted singly into pots, and 
 treated as other tender annuals and bi- 
 ennials. The genus belongs to the natural 
 order Leguminosce : hence the flowers re- 
 semble the pea tribe: the vexillum is 
 round, emarginate ; the keel furnished with 
 a subulate spur on both sides ; stamens dia- 
 delphous ; style filiform ; legume contin- 
 uous, one or more seeded, two-valved. 
 The Indigofera coerulea yields the finest 
 indigo ; the I. argentea, an inferior kind, 
 which comes from Egypt ; the I. tinctoria, 
 
INDULATED. 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. 
 
 besides yielding indigo, is also medicinally 
 employed ; and the powdered leaf of /. anil 
 is used in some diseases of the liver. (PaxtorCs 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 INDURATED. (Lat. iriduro.) A term 
 implying that a substance naturally soft is 
 hardened. It is a term frequently used in 
 botanical works to signify the above-men- 
 tioned change. 
 
 INERT VEGETABLE MATTER. 
 The inert vegetable matters of the soil are 
 those which decompose very slowly, and 
 consequently afford very little nourishment 
 to the growing plant : of this kind are 
 woody fibre, tanner's bark, peat, &c. all of 
 which, if not previously rendered more 
 easily soluble, by being mixed with farm- 
 yard dung, or other easily fermentable 
 substances, afford food to vegetation by 
 very slow degrees. 
 
 INFIRMARY. (Lat. infirmus, weak.) 
 A hospital for the reception of the sick. The 
 Veterinary College in London have an in- 
 firmary for sick and diseased horses, to which 
 the horses of their subscribers have access 
 and medical treatment, free from charge. 
 
 INFLAMMATION. In farriery, is a 
 disease or affection consisting in an in- 
 creased heat and action in any part of an 
 animal, arising from various causes, external 
 or internal, local or universal. In animals, 
 the chief causes are wounds, bruises, and 
 sudden or excessive cold, and the appli- 
 cation of heat afterwards. 
 
 The horse is subject to inflammation of 
 the lungs, stomach, bowels, kidney, and of 
 the eye and foot. Of inflammation of the 
 bowels I have already spoken (see Bowels). 
 Of inflammation of the stomach in the 
 horse, except from poisonous herbs, or 
 drugs, we know little. It very rarely 
 occurs, and then can, with difficulty, be 
 distinguished from inflammation of the 
 bowels ; and in both diseases the assistance 
 of a skilful veterinary surgeon is required. 
 (The Horse, p. 200.) 
 
 Among the causes of inflammation of the 
 kidney are, improper food, such as mow- 
 burnt hay, musty oats, &c. Bleeding, in 
 this case, must be promptly resorted to ; 
 and carried to its full extent. An active 
 purge should next be administered ; and a 
 counter-inflammation excited as near as 
 possible to the seat of disease. 
 
 Inflammation of the lungs is one of the 
 causes of roaring : it is generally brought 
 on by the respiration of heated and em- 
 poisoned air, in neglected and filthy stables ; 
 by sudden changes from heat to cold, or 
 cold to heat, from grass to the stable, or 
 stable to grass, and so on. Bleeding, blis- 
 tering, and relaxing medicines should be 
 resorted to under the advice of a profes- 
 (i7() 
 
 sional man; for the cure of this malady 
 can scarcely be safely undertaken without 
 proper advice. 
 
 Cooling applications, such as Goulard's 
 extract, one drachm or half an ounce of the 
 tincture of opium to a pint of water, with 
 mash diet and gentle physic, will usually 
 get rid of common inflammation of the eye, 
 or the inflammation will subside itself ; but 
 should three or four days pass and the 
 inflammation not be abated, we may begin 
 to suspect that it is specific and fatal in- 
 flammation, or true ophthalmia, for which 
 there is no cure. See Eye. 
 
 Inflammation of the foot is brought on 
 by over-exertion. If a horse that has been 
 ridden or driven hard be suffered to stand 
 in the cold, or if his feet be washed and 
 not speedily dried, he is very likely to have 
 " fever in the feet." Bleeding at the foot, 
 and poultices of linseed meal to cover the 
 whole of the foot and pastern, with sedative 
 and cooling medicines, should be resorted 
 to. And to promote evaporation it is 
 advisable to remove the shoe, pare the sole 
 as thin as possible, and have the crust, and 
 particularly the quarters, well rasped. ( The 
 Horse, p. 291.) See Grease. 
 
 A very excellent article by Mr. Matthew 
 #M.Milburn,of Thorpfield, Yorkshire, " on the 
 Inflammatory Complaints of Farm Horses," 
 which received a premium from the High- 
 land Society, may be consulted with advan- 
 tage. See their IVansactious, vol. vi. p. 188. 
 
 For inflammation in sheep see Sheep. 
 
 In inflammatory fever in cattle prof use 
 bleeding, followed by immediate purging 
 (1^ lbs. of Epsom salts dissolved in water 
 or gruel) must be had recourse to. (Youatt 
 on Cattle, p. 359.) 
 
 INFLORESCENCE. (Lat. inflorescere, 
 to flourish.) The general arrangement of 
 the flowers upon a stem or branch. It con- 
 sists of the following principal kinds : viz. 
 the spike, the raceme, the panicle, the ca- 
 pitulum, the cyme, and the umbel. 
 
 The spike is a long rachis of sessile flowers. 
 The term raceme is commonly applied to 
 flowers, when they are arranged round a 
 filiform simple axis, each particular flower 
 being stalked. The panicle is a loose dis- 
 position of inflorescence, in which the pri- 
 mary axis developes secondary axes, which 
 themselves produce tertiary, as in oats ; or 
 in other words, it is a raceme bearing 
 branches of flowers in place of simple ones. 
 Capitulum implies the arrangement in small 
 heads. The cyme is a mode of inflorescence 
 resembling a flattened panicle, as that of' the 
 elder. 
 
 Of the particular arrangement of the um- 
 bel, the carrot is a familiar example; the 
 peduncles and pedicles spring from a com- 
 
INFLUENZA. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 mon centre, and rise till tliey form a nearly 
 flat tuft. The difference between an umbel 
 and a corymb is, that whilst in the latter 
 the flowers form a flat head, the pedicles do 
 not, as in the former, spring from a common 
 centre. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.; Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 INFLUENZA. An epidemic catarrh 
 attended by febrile and other symptoms, 
 which often run very high, and assume a 
 variety of aspects, dependent upon the sea- 
 son and other causes. The possibility of the 
 existence of a peculiar state of the atmos- 
 phere, although we have no means of de- 
 tecting it, is undoubtedly the true cause of 
 influenzas. Miasms, or vapours of a noxious 
 kind, may exist, though in very minute 
 quantity, also as exciting causes of influenza, 
 an idea suggested by Dr. Prout. It may 
 possibly be of volcanic origin ; and such a 
 substance as seleniuretted hydrogen, which, 
 even in extremely minute quantity, is highly 
 deleterious, might perhaps account for some 
 of the phenomena of influenza ; but we 
 must acknowledge that nothing certain is 
 known respecting the cause of this disease. 
 See Distemper, Epidemic, and Murrain. 
 
 ING. A provincial term, employed to 
 signify a common pasture or meadow which 
 lies low or wet. 
 
 INOCULATION. An operation in the 
 management of fruit trees, which is some- 
 times called budding. It is a kind of graft- 
 ing practised in the summer months on va- 
 rious trees and plants, and often succeeds 
 better than the common method of grafting. 
 (See Budding and Grafting.) It is also a 
 term used to signify the process of trans- 
 planting grasses. See Grasses. 
 
 INOM, BARLEY. A local term ap- 
 plied to barley which is sown as the second 
 crop after the ground has been fallowed. 
 
 INSECT-ORCHIS. (Ophrys.) The 
 species of this genus are highly curious, and 
 worth a place in every collection. The 
 flowers are large and handsome, inodorous, 
 variously coloured, especially the lip, re- 
 sembling different kinds of insects. The 
 species indigenous to Britain, are : — 
 
 1. The fly orchis (0. muscifera) grows 
 in chalky pastures, or in meadows among 
 calcareous rocks, sparingly, or much dis- 
 persed, flowering in June. This is one 
 of the most distinct species ; its habit is 
 more slender than the rest, and the leaves 
 narrower, a little glaucous. Stem somewhat 
 leafy, usually about a foot high. Flowers 
 about six or more on the spike, rather dis- 
 tant, sessile. They strikingly resemble some 
 sort of fly, yet not any one in particular. 
 The petals of the flowers are very narrow, 
 chocolate-coloured, and downy. 
 
 2. The bee orchis (<?. apifera). This 
 
 671 
 
 plant is not very uncommon in meadows and 
 pastures. The herb is taller, stouter, and 
 often less glaucous, than the foregoing ; the 
 bractes are larger and broader, as well as 
 the foliage. The flowers are also larger and 
 very conspicuous; resembling bees, chiefly 
 from the form and hairiness of the nectary. 
 
 3. Late spider orchis (O. arachnites). 
 This species grows plentifully in chalky pas- 
 tures, particularly in Kent ; flowering in 
 July. The roots and herbage are in general 
 like O. apifera, but the leaves are, according 
 to the Rev. G. E. Smith, usually narrower. 
 The calyx leaves are shorter in proportion 
 to the lip than those of the apifera, always 
 paler, and rather white than pink, except 
 when the flowers approach to decay; the 
 keel is green, as in that species. Petal rather 
 shorter, smaller, and broader, more coloured, 
 downy on the inner surface. Lip essentially 
 and obviously different, much broader and 
 more dilated, nearly twice as long as the 
 calyx ; its margin thin, expanded and di- 
 rected forward, not reflexed. The disk is 
 of a duller brown, the lines or spots less 
 yellow or vivid. The O. arachnites is ob- 
 served to grow more in tufts or clumps, 
 than the apifera, which is commonly scat- 
 tered or solitary, though less so than O. 
 muscifera. 
 
 4. Early spider orchis (0. aranifera). 
 This species is found most generally in dry 
 chalky limestone, or gravelly pastures and 
 pits, flowering in April; it is of more 
 humble growth than the bee orchis, with 
 fewer flowers, which are of a greenish 
 brown hue ; the herbage is rather more 
 glaucous. 
 
 5. Drone orchis (O. fucifera.) This is 
 of the size and habit of the last species, with 
 which the general aspect of the flowers ac- 
 cords, though they are of a somewhat lighter 
 brown, and seldom more than three in each 
 spike. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. vi. p. 28. and 
 273.) 
 
 INSECTS. (Lat. insecta.) A very ex- 
 tensive, and, to the cultivators of the earth, 
 important class of animals. On the subject of 
 the science of entomology, in this work, I 
 propose only to touch upon those, which 
 are the most injurious or important to the 
 farmer ; and many of these, such as the bee, 
 ant, fly in turnips, wireworm, &c. will be 
 found under their respective heads ; indeed 
 the mere list of known insects is so nu- 
 merous that the catalogue alone would be 
 too extensive for a work of this description. 
 " The great characteristic of this vast as- 
 semblage of animals," says Mr. Swain son 
 (On Insects, p. 1.), " is the total absence of 
 internal bones : hence, their hardest parts 
 are always external, and the muscles are 
 usually attached to the under side of the 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 substance which forms the covering- of the 
 animal. The body is always divided into 
 rings or transverse joints, from which cir- 
 cumstance naturalists have agreed to call 
 them annulose, or ringed animals. This 
 name is peculiarly applicable, since it ex- 
 presses a marked distinction from such as 
 have an internal skeleton, analogous to that 
 of man, and thence called vertebrate (ver- 
 tebratd). So diversified, indeed, are the 
 different groups of this immense assemblage, 
 or sub-kingdom of the animal world, that it 
 is impossible to assign to them any other 
 character, as a whole, than that just men- 
 tioned." 
 
 From the works of Mr. Swainson, of 
 Kirby and Spence, the papers of Mr. Dun- 
 can in the Quart. Joitrn. of Agr., and the 
 valuable little work of V. Kollar, On In- 
 sects injurious to Gardeners, Foresters, and 
 Fanners, so carefully translated from the 
 German, by the Misses Jane and Mary 
 Loudon, the chief facts of this paper are 
 obtained. And to use the words of M. Kol- 
 lar, in reference to the plan I propose to 
 follow in it, " To enable the readers, for 
 whom this work is intended, to find more 
 easily the insect particularly interesting to 
 each, it has been considered proper not to 
 treat of families and species in any system- 
 atic arrangement, but according to the 
 branch of culture to which they are parti- 
 cularly injurious." And, in pursuance of 
 this object, I shall only briefly allude to 
 some of the chief of the insect depredators, 
 for " to enumerate," says Davy, " all the 
 destroying animals and tyrants of the vege- 
 table kingdom, would be to give a catalogue 
 of the greater number of the classes in 
 zoology ; almost every species of plant is 
 the peculiar resting-place or dominion of 
 some insect tribe ; and from the locust, 
 caterpillar, and snail, to the minute aphis, a 
 wonderful variety of inferior insects are 
 nourished, and live by their ravages upon 
 the vegetable world." 
 
 Of the considerable extent to which the 
 various insect tribes commit their depreda- 
 tions, no farmer will for a moment doubt, 
 and yet he forms his judgment only upon 
 the ravages of the larger insects. Of the 
 smaller tribes — the minute trespassers — 
 the animalculae, those only discernible 
 through a microscope, he forms no estimate. 
 Yet of those that he does see the catalogue 
 is fearfully alarming. " There is," says 
 Mr. Duncan, " scarcely one of our most 
 useful plants, which is not assailed in some 
 way or other ; and the forms of insects, and 
 their modes of living are so infinitely diver- 
 sified, as to enable them to continue their 
 ctepredations in all the different states of 
 these plants. The various kinds of corn, 
 G72 
 
 for example, have a host of enemies, in the 
 subterraneous larvae of beetles which con- 
 sume the roots ; various kinds of caterpillars 
 feed on the blade ; some particular species 
 attack the ear ; and even when laid up in 
 apparent security, a small beetle is often 
 found to scoop out the interior of each 
 grain, and convert it into an abode for it- 
 self. (See Corn Moth.) The turnip in a 
 like manner is equally exposed to these de- 
 predators. If the seed of this useful plant 
 escape the attack of a minute weevil, 
 another enemy awaits the unfolding of the 
 cotyledon leaves, and a third buries itself 
 in the bulb and rootlets, which become dis- 
 eased and covered with unseemly excres- 
 cences (see Anbury), while the mature 
 foliage is often consumed by caterpillars. 
 But even when there is no remarkable aug- 
 mentation of their numbers, there is reason 
 to believe that the injury occasioned to ve- 
 getation by insects is at all times greater 
 than is generally supposed. Their opera- 
 tions are often carried on under cover, 
 either beneath the surface of the soil, within 
 the substance of the plant, or in other situ- 
 ations where they escape observation. Many 
 kinds again feed only during the night, and 
 conceal themselves during the day in holes 
 and crevices. In consequence of this latent 
 and insidious mode of attack, there is no 
 doubt that we are often led to ascribe the 
 unhealthiness and decay of plants to bad- 
 ness of soil, unfavourable weather, and other 
 causes, when in reality they are produced 
 entirely by insects." (Quart. Journ. Agr. 
 vol. viii. p. 97.) " The only course," adds 
 Mr. Duncan, " which is likely to lead to 
 the discovery of proper remedies is to in- 
 vestigate carefully the habits and natural 
 history of insects in connection with the 
 structure and general physiology of the 
 plants which they attack. In prosecuting 
 this object the attention should be directed 
 to ascertain the time when, and the manner 
 in which, the eggs-|are deposited, as well 
 as their composition, and that of the en- 
 closing membrane, with a view to determine 
 in what way the vital principle might be 
 most easily destroyed. The habits of the 
 larvae call for particular attention, as it is 
 generally in this state that the mischief is 
 committed : the period of their appearance, 
 their times of feeding, plants on which they 
 feed, and (if attached to more than one) the 
 kind they seem to prefer, the part of the 
 plant attacked, duration of the larvas state, 
 should be carefully noted; an acquaintance 
 with the places to which the larva' usually 
 retreat when about to change to pupsB, and 
 with the structure, duration, &c. of the 
 latter, might probably suggest some easy 
 means of destroying many in that dormant 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 state. A knowledge of the economy of the 
 perfect insect is of course of the utmost im- 
 portance ; if we could become acquainted 
 with the retreats in which they pass the 
 winter, or find means to destroy the few 
 that generally survive, when they first ap- 
 pear in the spring, and before they have 
 deposited their eggs, the injuries which are 
 sustained by their means might be alto- 
 gether prevented." {Ibid. p. 99.) 
 
 Let not, however, the farmer, when he is 
 thus warmly engaging in the destruction of 
 the annoying insects of the field, omit to 
 consider, whether many of these are not, in 
 some shape or other, productive of benefit 
 — whether they do not serve to keep within 
 reasonable limits other insects, or perhaps 
 perform some other wise purpose in the 
 works of the creation. This has been 
 proved to be the fact in the case of the 
 common earth-worm, whose casts so often 
 annoy the gardener and the farmer. (See 
 Earth- Worm.) For these not only assist 
 in the continual admixture of different 
 strata of earths, but, by boring the soil, 
 they promote in it the circulation of the 
 atmospheric gases, and even the drain- 
 age from it of its superfluous moisture. 
 And as White, of Selborne, remarks in his 
 Natural History, "The most insignificant 
 insects and reptiles are of much more con- 
 sequence, and have much more influence in 
 the economy of nature, than the incurious 
 are aware of. From their minuteness, which 
 renders them less an object of attention, 
 from their numbers and fecundity, earth- 
 worms, though in appearance a small and 
 despicable link in the chain of nature, yet, 
 if lost, would make a lamentable chasm." 
 
 Insects have been divided by entomo- 
 logists into two great divisions — the winged, 
 and the wingless. 
 
 Winged insects are divided into the fol- 
 lowing orders : — 
 
 1. Coleoptera. Of this are the weevils, 
 the maybug, ground beetles, &c. 
 
 2. Orthoptera. Of this order are the 
 blackbeetle, the cockroach, field cricket, 
 migratory locust, the green grasshopper, 
 &c. 
 
 3. Hemiptera. Of which are the field, 
 tree, and house bugs, &c. 
 
 4. Neuroptera. In which are compre- 
 hended the dragon fly, lace fly, day fly or 
 ephemera, &c. 
 
 5. Hymenoptera. In this order are bees, 
 wasps, ants, humble bees, saw-flies, gall- 
 flies, &c. 
 
 6. Lepidoptera. Of which order are the 
 butterflies, moths, &c. 
 
 7. Rhipiptera. Of which are certain in- 
 sects living on bees, wasps, &c. 
 
 8. Diptera. Of this order are gnats, 
 
 673 
 
 house flies, midges, ox and horse breeze- 
 flies, &c. 
 
 The insects without wings are divided 
 into the following orders : — 
 
 9. Myriapoda. Of this are the centipede, 
 julus, &c. 
 
 10. Thysanura. The sugar louse, &c. 
 
 1 1 . Parasita. The lice tribe, &c. 
 
 12. Suctoria. The flea. 
 
 Crabs and spiders, included by Linnaeus 
 amongst insects, are now formed into two 
 classes — Crustacea and A rachnida. (Kollar, 
 p. 12.) 
 
 I. The Transformation of Insects. — In- 
 sects commonly change their form several 
 times in the most apparently magic man- 
 ner. A few, the Aphis, for instance, are 
 viviparous, but they are generally produced 
 from eggs, that is, the eggs are produced in 
 the body of the mother. u The female," 
 says Kollar, " lays her eggs (which are often 
 stuck on and covered with a kind of glue 
 to protect them from the weather) shortly 
 after pairing, instinctively in the place best 
 adapted for their development, and which 
 offers the proper food to the forthcoming 
 brood. The whitethorn butterfly, and the 
 golden -tail moth, lay their eggs on the 
 leaves of fruit trees, or other leafy trees, 
 and the latter covers them over with a gold- 
 coloured covering of silk. The common 
 lackey-moth (Gastropacha (Bombyx) neus- 
 tria) fastens them in the form of a ring, 
 round the stem of the fruit trees, and the 
 gypsey-moth {Bombyx dispar) fastens them 
 in a broad patch on the stem of a tree or 
 paling, and covers them with a thick coat- 
 ing of hair. The winter-moth {Geometra 
 brumata) lays them singly on the buds of 
 the leaves and flowers ; the printer-beetle 
 (Bostrichus typographies) introduces them 
 between the bark and the albumen, &c. 
 
 Most insects issue from their eggs as 
 worms or larvae; those of butterflies are pro- 
 vided with feet, and are called caterpillars ; 
 those of beetles and other insects, larvae ; 
 and when they have no feet, they are called 
 grubs or maggots. In this state, as their bo- 
 dies increase, the insects often cast their skin 
 (see Exuvlse, ante, p. 429.), and sometimes 
 change their colour. Many winged insects, 
 such as the grasshoppers, dragon flies, &c, 
 very much resemble in their larva state the 
 perfect insect ; they only want the wings, 
 which are not developed till after the last 
 change of the skin. The larva state is the 
 period of feeding ; and insects are then usu- 
 ally the destructive enemies of other produc- 
 tions of nature, and objects of persecution 
 to farmers, gardeners, and foresters. 
 
 The nympha or pupa state succeeds that 
 of the larva. Insects do not now require 
 nourishment (with the exception of grass- 
 x x 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 hoppers and a few others), and repose in a 
 death-like slumber. To be safe from their 
 enemies and the weather, the larva? of many- 
 insects, particularly butterflies, prepare for 
 themselves a covering of a silky or a cottony 
 texture. Many form themselves a house of 
 earth, moss, leaves, grass, haulm, or foliage. 
 Many even go into the earth, or decayed 
 wood, or conceal themselves under the bark 
 of trees, and other places of security. 
 
 After a certain fixed period the perfect 
 insect appears from the pupa. It is usually 
 furnished, in this state, with other organs 
 for the performance of its appointed func- 
 tions, as for the propagation of its species, 
 &c. The male insect seeks the female, and 
 the female the place best suited for laying 
 her eggs : hence most insects are furnished 
 with wings. Food is now a secondary con- 
 sideration ; consequently, in many, the 
 feeding organs are less perfectly developed 
 than in the larva state, or very much 
 modified, and suited for finer food, as, for 
 example, in butterflies, which, instead of the 
 leaves of plants, only consume the honey 
 out of their flowers. 
 
 II. The food of insects is indeed procured 
 from an extensive pasture. " From the 
 majestic oak," observes M. V.Kollar, "to the 
 invisible fungus or the insignificant wall- 
 moss, the whole race of plants is a stupen- 
 dous meal to which the insects sit down as 
 guests. Even those plants which are highly 
 poisonous and nauseating to other animals 
 are not refused by them. But this is not yet 
 all. The larger plant-consuming animals 
 usually limit their attacks to leaves, seed, 
 and stalks : not so insects, to the various 
 families of which every part of a plant 
 yields suitable provender. Some which 
 live under the earth, attack roots ; others 
 choose the stem and branches ; a third 
 division live on the leaves ; a fourth prefers 
 the flowers ; Avhile a fifth selects the fruit or 
 seed. Even here a still further selection 
 takes place. Of those which feed on the 
 roots, stems, and branches, some species 
 only eat the rind like the bee-hawk moth ; 
 others the inner bark and the alburnum, 
 like the Tortrix Wozberiana, and the bark 
 beetle ; a third division penetrates into the 
 heart of the solid wood, like the goat-moth 
 and the family of the long-horned beetles. 
 Of those which prefer the foliage some take 
 nothing but the juice out of the sap vessels, 
 as the aphides : others only devour the 
 substance of the leaves without touching 
 the epidermis, as the mining caterpillars; 
 others only the upper or under surface of 
 the leaves (leaf rollers), while a fourth 
 division (as the larvae of the Lepidoptera) 
 devour the entire leaf. 
 
 Of those feeding on flowers some eat the 
 G74 
 
 petals (the mullein moth, &c), others the fa- 
 rina (bees, rose-chaffer, &c.) ; a still greater 
 number consume the honey from the 
 nectaries (wasps, flies, &c.) ; other insects 
 injure the plant by puncturing it and laying 
 their egg in the wound, and with it an 
 acrid matter, which causes a peculiar ex- 
 crescence in which their young are hatched 
 and live, until they are able to eat their way 
 out, to perform the functions of the parents, 
 such as the gall-fly, &c. The death-watch 
 or ticking beetle (Anobium) feeds on dry 
 wood, long used as portions of our dwell- 
 ing-houses. 
 
 Those insects which tenant and feed 
 upon animal matters have an equally va- 
 ried taste ; of these are the different kinds of 
 bird and sheep lice, ticks, mites, &c, gnats, 
 midges, breeze flies, bugs, fleas, &c. Some 
 of the carnivorous beetles devour their prey 
 entire; others only suck out their juices; 
 others live upon the food they obtain in 
 water, and devour swarms of the infusoria. 
 Many live on carrion and the excrements 
 of the larger animals, such as the blue- 
 bottle fly, horse-beetle, dung-beetle, and 
 carcass-beetle ; others live in the stomachs 
 of animals ; many moths live entirely upon 
 hair, leather, wool, and feathers. 
 
 The food of insects varies strangely with 
 their transformations : the caterpillar re- 
 quires very different food from the butter- 
 fly ; the maggot from the beetle and fly. 
 The larva of Sirex gigas feeds on wood, 
 the perfect insect on flies. That of the 
 May bug or cockchaffer lives on roots and 
 tubers, the beetle on leaves. The quantity 
 of food consumed by different insects varies 
 very much : many consume more than their 
 own weight in a day. The maggot of the 
 flesh-fly, according to Redi, becomes two 
 hundred times heavier in the course of 
 twenty-four hours. Caterpillars digest, 
 every day, about one third to one fourth of 
 their weight : hence the ravages they commit 
 in a few days. Others, however, such as 
 the day-flies {Ephemeridce) and the breeze- 
 flies, and even amongst the Lepidoptera 
 which spin cocoons, many appear to abstain 
 from nourishment. Some eat only during 
 the day, others in the evening, and others, 
 such as the caterpillars of the night moths, 
 during the night. Most of them provide 
 their own food ; but a few which live in 
 communities, such as the wasps, bees, ants, 
 &c, are fed by the perfect insect. Many 
 provide a store of food, but the greater 
 number die unprovided with a store : others 
 feed their larva;." {Trans, by the Misses 
 Loudon.') 
 
 III. Destruction of Insects, frc. by Artificial 
 Means. — Various have been the successful 
 recipes suggested for the destruction of 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 the insects which destroy the cultivator's 
 crops : thus ants, it is said, may be easily 
 destroyed by toasting the fleshy side of the 
 skin of a piece of bacon till it is crisp, and 
 laying it at the root or stem of any fruit 
 tree that is infested by these insects — put 
 something over the bacon to keep it dry, 
 the ants will go under it — after a time, 
 lift it up quickly, and dip it into a pail of 
 water. While treating of insects, I may 
 incidentally allude to worms and slugs. 
 For the destruction of slugs, warm in an 
 oven, or before the fire, a. quantity of cab- 
 bage leaves, until they are soft, then rub 
 them with unsalted butter, or any kind of 
 fresh dripping, and lay them in the places 
 infected by slugs. In a few hours the leaves 
 will be found covered with snails and slugs ; 
 this plan has been successfully tried by Mr. 
 Loudon at Bayswater. Earwigs and wood- 
 lice are destroyed in the same way. For 
 field operations, perhaps, the best means of 
 destroying slugs and worms is common 
 salt, an agent too little known for this pur- 
 pose, yet its powers are undoubted. 
 
 No person has employed common salt for 
 the purpose of destroying worms, to a 
 greater extent than Jacob Busk, Esq., of 
 Ponsbourn Park, in Hertfordshire. His 
 valuable experiments have extended over 
 some hundreds of acres of wheat. To use 
 his own words — " In every situation, and 
 at every time, the effect appeared equally 
 beneficial." The quantity per acre — " about 
 four or five bushels sown out of a common 
 seed-shuttle." The period — " In the 
 evening." The effect — " In the morning 
 each throw may be distinguished by the 
 quantity of slime and number of dead slugs 
 lying on the ground. In some fields it has 
 certainly been the means of preventing the 
 destruction of the whole crop." Six bushels 
 of salt per acre was applied by hand, in 
 April, 1828, to a field of oats attacked by 
 the slugs and worms, on the farm of Mr. 
 John Slatter, of Draycote, near Oxford. 
 The crop was completely saved by this ap- 
 plication, although an adjoining field, not 
 salted, was entirely destroyed by this sort of 
 vermin. 
 
 Salt, too, is a complete prevention of the 
 ravages of the weevil in corn. It has been 
 successfully employed in the proportion of 
 a pint of salt to a barrel of wheat. I learn 
 from an American merchant, that wheat 
 placed in old salt barrels, is never attacked 
 by these destructive insects. Six or eight 
 pounds of salt sprinkled over 100 sheaves in 
 stacking, produces exactly the same effect. 
 The holders of bonded corn would do well 
 to remember these facts. (Observations on 
 Salt, p. 9.) 
 
 To kill the black and green fly, dip the 
 675 
 
 points of the young shoots infested with 
 them into a thin cream, composed of strong 
 stiff yellow clay mixed with water, the 
 clay will look dirty upon the trees for a few 
 days, but the first shower of rain washes it 
 off, and the shoots will look more healthy 
 than before the application ; " there is no 
 fear," says Mr. Loudon, " of the return of 
 the insects that season." The scale in pines 
 may be destroyed by the same mixture. 
 The bug (Aphis lanigerd) upon fruit trees 
 (see American Blight), may be killed by 
 the use of the same clay and water, made 
 as thin as whitewash, and mixing with every 
 6 gallons of it 2 lbs. of cream of tartar, 
 1 lb. of soft soap, and half a peck of quick- 
 lime. " When you think," says Mr. Loudon, 
 " that the weather is likely to continue dry 
 for some time, take a bucketful of this 
 mixture, and with a large brush wash over 
 the bark of the trees, wherever you think it 
 has been infected with the bug. A man 
 will dress a number of trees over in a few 
 days with a whitewash brush and this 
 liquid ; it is only necessary to be careful to 
 do it in dry weather so that the rain may 
 not wash over the mixture for some time. 
 Flies and wasps. A mixture of pepper, 
 sugar, and water, will speedily attract and 
 destroy them. (Gard. Mag. No. 37. ; 
 Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. iii. p. 1071.) 
 
 Moss and Insects. — Mr. Thomas recom- 
 mends that the trees infected should be 
 sprinkled with a fine powder in March, and 
 again in October, on a foggy day when the 
 trees are damp but not dripping, and I have 
 no doubt of its efficacy. It is composed as 
 follows : slake five bushels of lime, hot from 
 the kiln, with common salt and water (say one 
 lb. of salt to each gallon of water). When 
 the lime has fallen to a fine powder, add by 
 small quantities at a time a bushel of soot, 
 stirring it until completely incorporated. 
 Mr. Thomas has found that one man can 
 dust over with the powder fifty trees in a 
 day, and that the moss in the turf under 
 fruit trees thus treated, is also completely 
 destroyed by the application. (Trans. Soc. 
 Arts.) Worms in grass plats may be readily 
 destroyed by copiously watering the turf 
 with lime water (half a pound of the hottest 
 quick-lime well stirred in each gallon of 
 water), or by sprinkling common salt (20 
 bushels per acre) over it, or by strewing it 
 on gravel walks in rather larger proportions. 
 Lime is recommended for the destruction of 
 the worm, which sometimes injures young 
 larch plantations, by Mr. Menzies (Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 162.); coal tar and 
 tar water, to preserve hop poles, and other 
 wood, from the ravages of insects. (Ibid. 
 p. 166.) The caterpillars on cabbages 
 may be readily destroyed by sprinkling 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 them with fine powdered lime; and when 
 some years since, a black caterpillar at- 
 tacked very generally and extensively the 
 turnips, in some instances they were very 
 successfully destroyed by turning into the 
 fields considerable numbers of common 
 ducks. Heavy rolling, especially during the 
 night, is in many cases destructive of slugs. 
 Salt, and also rape powder, is pernicious to 
 the wireworm. On many soils, the wheat 
 crop sown after a summer fallow is never 
 attacked by this vermin. Mr. Hillyard 
 thinks he has escaped their ravages of late 
 years, by ploughing his clover lays for 
 wheat after the first year. {Prac. Farm. 
 p. 115.) And it is certain that, by oc- 
 casional material variations in the rotation 
 of crops (see Rotation or Crops), the 
 number of predatory insects may be very 
 considerably reduced in cultivated soils by 
 depriving the larvae of their particular and 
 essential food. 
 
 Mr. Knight recommends the use of car- 
 bonate of ammonia for the destruction of the 
 insects upon the pine and other plants, {Se- 
 lection from Papers, p. 245.) Mr. Baldwin, in 
 effect, does the same, when he commends the 
 use of the steam from hot fermenting horse 
 dung. {Prac. Direct.]). 30.) Mr. Robertson 
 found soot (which contains ammonia), when 
 diffused in water, to be an excellent applica- 
 tion. (Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 18.) When 
 speaking of the use of fermenting horse dung, 
 in the destruction of insects, Mr. Knight 
 remarked, " I conclude the destructive 
 agent in this case is ammoniacal gas, which 
 Sir Humphrey Davy informed me he had 
 found to be instantly fatal to every species 
 of insect ; and, if so, this might be obtained 
 at a small expence by pouring a solution of 
 crude muriate of ammonia upon quicklime ; 
 the stable, or cow-house, would afford an 
 equally efficient, though less delicate fluid. 
 The ammoniacal gas might, I conceive, be 
 impelled by means of a pair of bellows 
 amongst the leaves of the infected plants, 
 in sufficient quantity to destroy animal 
 without injuring vegetable life ; and it is a 
 very interesting question to the gardener, 
 whether his hardy enemy, the red spider, 
 will bear it with impunity." Ammonia 
 seems peculiarly distasteful to insects. Car- 
 bonate of ammonia is often successfully 
 placed in meat-safes to prevent the attacks 
 of flies. 
 
 IV. The natural Enemies of Insects. — 
 Amongst the enemies by which insects 
 are kept in check, may be numbered long- 
 continued rains, late frosts, inundations, 
 storms ; and, among the animals, bats, 
 mice, moles, badgers, hedgehogs, squirrels, 
 foxes, &c. Birds devour them by myriads ; 
 the greenfinch tears open (says Reaumur) 
 
 the strong nest of the yellow-tailed moth, 
 and eats the infant caterpillars. The green 
 and red woodpecker, the tree-creeper, and 
 the nut-hatch, commit great ravages amongst 
 the beetles and caterpillars. The starling is 
 equally indefatigable. The chaffinch is ever 
 in search of the eggs of the caterpillar and 
 the moth. Then, again, the titmouse, the ox- 
 eye, the goldfinch, the redbreast, the red- 
 start, and the wagtails, commit great ravages 
 amongst insects. To these may be added 
 the cuckoo, the crow, the frog, the toad, &c. 
 Many insects, such as the ground beetles, 
 devour the pupa? of others. Then, again, 
 there is the numerous order of the Ichneu- 
 monidce, which lay their eggs in the bodies of 
 other insects, and destroy them. " The eggs 
 are hatched within the body of the living 
 insect, and the young parasites, in the most 
 literal sense, fatten on the entrails of their 
 prey. At last the wounded caterpillar sinks ; 
 the enemies escape through the skin, and 
 become pupse ; or the caterpillar, notwith- 
 standing its internal parasites, enters the 
 pupa state ; but, instead of a butterfly, one 
 or more Tchneumonida appear. To these 
 wonderful animals we often owe the pre- 
 servation of our orchards, woods, and grain." 
 {Loudon s Kollar, p. 25.) Many other modes, 
 besides those I have enumerated, have been 
 suggested, by which the number of the cul- 
 tivator's predatory insects may be reduced, 
 most of which I shall notice under their re- 
 spective heads. I am quite of the opinion, 
 however, of the authors of the work I have so 
 extensively quoted, " that the most essential 
 and necessary means to be opposed to the 
 serious injuries caused by insects, consists 
 in the universal dissemination of the know- 
 ledge of the natural history of hurtful in- 
 sects amongst farmers, gardeners, foresters, 
 and all those, in fact, who are in any man- 
 ner connected with agriculture." {Ibid. 
 p. 28.) 
 
 V. Of the Insects which live and propagate 
 on domestic animals. — The chief are lice, 
 which commonly originate from want of 
 cleanliness, poor unwholesome food, or from 
 the weakening effects of other diseases. 
 Old horses are more subject to them than 
 youn^ ones ; they are common in sheep, and 
 in swine ; for which the best remedies will 
 be found under their respective heads. (For 
 the bots in horses, see Bot ; for those in 
 sheep, see Sheep Bot ; for the ox-warble, see 
 Warble.) The forest fly, or horse fly, lives 
 chiefly on horses. It flies in short flights 
 quickly, and moves about with considerable 
 agility. The female lays but one egg .it a 
 time, from which the fly is hatched. They 
 abound in the New Forest. See Horse Fey. 
 
 The sheep tick, so well known to shep- 
 herds, has no wings; the fore part of its 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 body is very small, but the abdomen is 
 large. Its colour reddish, with white lines 
 on the side of the abdomen. The farmer 
 will find the following an excellent receipt 
 for a sheep-dipping wash, by which they 
 are readily destroyed : — £ a lb. of powdered 
 white arsenic, 4^ lbs. of soft soap. Boil 
 these for a quarter of an hour, or until the 
 arsenic is dissolved, in five gallons of water. 
 Add this to the water sufficient to dip fifty 
 sheep. The quantity of arsenic usually re- 
 commended is too large. (Farmers Al- 
 manac.) See Ticks. 
 
 VI. Insects which injure Sees. — There 
 are several insects which injure bees, such 
 as a parasite bee-louse (Braula cceca), 
 which is about the size of a flea, has no 
 eyes, but the rudiments of four feelers. 
 They tenant chiefly populous hives : some- 
 times two or three are found on a bee. These 
 parasites disturb and annoy even the queen 
 bee. " A bee," says M. Kollar, " infested 
 with a bee-louse, endeavours, but to no pur- 
 pose, to get rid of such an unwished-for 
 guest, till at last she creeps under a number 
 of other bees, and rubs off the louse from 
 her back, when it immediately betakes itself 
 to the back of another bee. That the pre- 
 sence of this parasite causes pain to the bee, 
 is apparent from the restlessness with which 
 she runs out at the hole and back again. 
 The queen is also disturbed in her employ- 
 ment of egg-laying, when she is infested by 
 them, so that the hive suffers in another way 
 by impoverishment. It may even happen 
 that when many of these parasites infest a 
 queen (M. Stern once counted eleven of 
 them), she must eventually perish. In 
 winter the infected bees usually fall to the 
 floor, and perish with cold and hunger." 
 (Trans, by Loudon, p. 74.) Spiders also 
 destroy bees, but only in their nets. Then 
 there is the caterpillar of the honeycomb- 
 moth, whose ravages are very considerable, 
 when once they find their way into a hive. 
 They devour only the wax. Three hundred 
 have been found in a hive, and there are 
 two generations of these caterpillars in a 
 year. Ants also are very fond of honey, and 
 find their way into hives. Wasps very fre- 
 quently do the same. Bees even rob each 
 other's hives. 
 
 VII. The Insects which injure Grain. — 
 These are numerous ; the chief of them 
 are the gibbous ground beetle (Carabeus 
 (Zabrus) gibbus), the larvae of which feed 
 on the green leaves and roots of grain. 
 On these the rooks and other useful birds 
 feed very copiously. The German or 
 field cockchaffer (Melolontha agricold) : 
 these attack the ears of wheat and rye, in 
 June, while the grain is juicy. The lined 
 click-beetle (Slater lineatus), whose larva 
 
 677 
 
 is the wireworm, so well known to the En- 
 glish farmer. (See Wireworm.) Kollar 
 describes this beetle as " blackish with grey 
 hairs, the feelers and legs brownish yellow, 
 and the wing-covers striped with grey." 
 The winter, or dart moth (Agrotis (Noc- 
 tua) segetum), injures winter grain sometimes 
 very considerably. It generally appears in 
 August, and lays its eggs on loosely broken 
 ground. In two or three weeks the young 
 caterpillars appear : they prey upon the 
 tender leaves and roots of young corn. The 
 white line dart moth (Noctua (Agrotis) 
 tritici). This moth attacks buckwheat and 
 grain sown in autumn. The caterpillar of 
 the Botys (pyralis) silacealis attacks millet. 
 The corn moth (Tinea granella) produces 
 a larva, known as the white corn worm. It 
 tenants corn granaries, flies only at night, 
 and appears as a moth in May, June, and 
 July. It is only in these months, and in 
 August that the larvae devour the grain. 
 They destroy both wheat, rye, barley, and 
 oats. From September to May, it must be 
 sought for in the cracks of the walls and 
 floors, where it lies wrapped up in its co- 
 coon, until it reappears in April or May, as 
 a fluttering moth. (See Corn Moth.) The 
 Hessian fly (Cecidomyia destructor) is a 
 small midge, which preys upon the wheat 
 plant ; as does the wheat midge (Tipula 
 tritici). The barley midge (Tipula cerealis) 
 attacks the barley and spelt plants. 
 
 VIII. Insects which injure Meadows. — 
 This is also a very numerous class. " Most 
 of the insects that chOose the various sorts 
 of corn for their food (says M. Kollar) " do 
 not reject the other sorts of grasses, in the 
 meadows. The herbage of the meadows 
 has also often peculiar enemies, which are 
 very difficult to find out, and destroy. In 
 most cases the meadows suffer from the 
 roots of the grass plants being injured, which 
 is chiefly occasioned by the larva? of various 
 species of cockchaffers, living in the earth. 
 When bare spots are seen on meadows we 
 may be pretty sure that the larvae of the 
 cockchaffer are there carrying on their work 
 of destruction. (Trans, by Loudon, p. 126.) 
 The sub-turf plough disturbs the operations 
 of these vermin ; the crows devour them. 
 The unspotted lady-bird or lady-cow (Coc- 
 cinella impunctata) ; the migratory locust 
 (Locusta migratoria) ; these are only rarely 
 met with in our islands. The rye-grass 
 moth (Liparis (Bombyx) morio) ; the 
 antler or grass moth (Noctua (Episema) 
 graminis) ; ^ these, especially in Germany, 
 are all considerably injurious to the grasses. 
 
 IX. Insects injurious to cultivated Vege- 
 tables — Are also numerous, and highly in- 
 jurious to the gardener's crops. The spring 
 beetle or skip-jack (Elater sputator) often 
 
 x x 3 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 attacks newly transplanted Jettuces. The 
 asparagus beetle (Lema asparagi), and the 
 twelve-spotted leaf-beetle (Lema duodecim- 
 punctata), both ravage the asparagus plant. 
 The earth-flea beetles (Haltica) are great 
 pests to the gardener : they attack and de- 
 vour during the summer months various 
 members of the cabbage tribe, such as the 
 cabbage, cauliflower, and colewort, the tur- 
 nip, the radish, common and water cress : 
 they also prey upon flax, hops, sainfoin, &c. 
 (See Fl,y in Turnips.) The mole-cricket, 
 jarr-worm, or earth-crab (Gryllotalpa vul- 
 garis). This insect is often peculiarly inju- 
 rious to the German cultivators. It does 
 not confine its ravages to the garden crops, 
 but injures very materially those of the 
 meadow and corn fields. It measures, when 
 full grown, about two inches in length. The 
 painted field-bug (Cimex ornatus) ; the 
 plant-lice (Aphis) chiefly haunt the cabbage, 
 peas, and beans. They are devoured in 
 great numbers by several of the lady-birds 
 and fly tribes. The large cabbage white 
 butterfly (Papilio (pontia) brassicce) ; the 
 small white butterfly (P. p. Papoe) ; the 
 green-veined white butterfly (P. p. napi), 
 (whose caterpillar dwells on cabbages, tur- 
 nips, and mignionette) ; the gamma moth 
 (Noctua (Plusia) gamma) ; the white line 
 brown-eyed moth (Noctua (Mamestra) ole- 
 racea) ; the cabbage-garden pebble moth 
 (Botys (Pyralis) forficalis) ; the carrot 
 moth (Tinea (Hamilis) daucella) ; the 
 onion fly (Anthomyia Ceparum) ; the cab- 
 bage fly (A. Brassicce) ; the lettuce fly 
 (A. Lactucarum) ; the negro fly (Psila 
 Rosa), which also attacks the carrot, are 
 the chief insects inj urious to the gardener. 
 
 X. Insects which injure Greenhouse Plants. 
 — Of these I need only mention the 
 Forficula auricularia (see Earwig) ; the 
 orange scale insect (Coccus hesperidum) ; the 
 pine-apple scale insect (Coccus bromelice) ; 
 the mealybug (Coccus Adonidum) ; the olean- 
 der scale insect (Aspidiotus Nerii) abound- 
 ing on oleanders, acacias, aloes, palms, &c. ; 
 the rose-scale (A. Rosce), found in old rose 
 stems and twigs ; the cactus-scale (A. Echi- 
 nocacti), on the cacti; the sweet-bay-scale 
 (A . Lauri), on the sweet bay ; the rose-moth 
 (Tinea (Ornix) rhodophagella) ; and the 
 plant-mite or red spider (Acarius telarius). 
 
 XI. Insects which attack Fruit Trees. — The 
 number of insects which live either partially 
 or entirely upon fruit trees, is very con- 
 siderable. I can hardly do more in this 
 work than give the names of the most for- 
 midable of these little depredators. The 
 black-veined, white, or hawthorn butterfly 
 (Pie ris Cratcegi) ; this lays its eggs, which 
 produce caterpillars upon leaves of many of 
 the taller fruit trees, in May and June. The | 
 
 yellow-tailed moth (Bombyx (Liparis) chry- 
 sorrhoza). This is in some districts of Ger- 
 many one of the most injurious of all the 
 insects that attack fruit trees ; it appears in 
 June and July, and preys not only upon 
 the leaves of the apple, pear, and plum, but 
 upon those of the beech and the oak. The 
 brown-tailed moth (Bombyx aurifiua) ; this 
 moth so abounded in 1782, as to obtain pub- 
 lic notice. ( Curtis on the Brown-tailed Moth.) 
 It lives upon the hawthorn, oak, elm, most 
 fruit trees, the blackthorn, rose trees, and 
 the bramble. The lackey moth (Bombyx 
 (Gastropacha) neustria); this moth attacks 
 all kinds of trees, both evergreens and de- 
 ciduous ; it only appears at night and in July. 
 The gypsey moth (Bombyx (Liparis) dispar) 
 appears in August. The goat moth(Bombyx 
 (Cossus) Ligniperda) ; the caterpillar of this 
 dreaded moth lives upon the wood of various 
 fruit trees. It is one of the largest of the 
 moth tribe, measuring four inches in breadth, 
 and lives deep in the interior of the tree ; 
 although the walnut and other fruit trees 
 are its favourite abode, it is even found on 
 the oak and the elm. The wood-leopard 
 moth (Bombyx (Cossus) jEsculi) is found 
 chiefly in the trunks of the elm, walnut, pear, 
 and apple trees, during the month of Au- 
 gust. The figure-of-8 moths (Noctua (Epi- 
 sema) c&ruleocephala) are met with chiefly 
 on the leaves of the black and white thorn, 
 almond, apricot, and peach trees ; the cater- 
 pillars arrive at their full size in June. The 
 winter moth (Geometra (Acidalia) brumata) 
 appears in November, its caterpillar (the 
 green looper) in the spring. The pale 
 brindled beauty moth (G. (Amphidasis) 
 pilosaria) appears in March or April. The 
 lime looper or mottled umbre moth (Fidonia 
 (Geometra) defoliaria) appears in November. 
 The small ermine moth (Tinea (Yponomenta) 
 padella) arrives in June or beginning of 
 July, and haunts the apple tree. The 
 codling moth (Tortrix (Carpocapsd) po- 
 monana) : the small reddish grub met with 
 in early pears and apples is the product 
 of this moth ; it may be seen of an even- 
 ing in May depositing its eggs in the trees 
 which produce these fruits. The red 
 grub of the plum (T. C.nigricana); the 
 moth which produces this grub is not so 
 large as a house fly. It chiefly tenants the 
 bark of the plum tree. The red bud 
 caterpillar (T. (penthina) ocellana) chiefly 
 attacks the blossoms, buds, or leaf buds of 
 dwarf fruit trees. The plum tree tortrix 
 (T. (Carpocapsd) Wceberiana) dwells chiefly 
 under fhe inner bark of the peach, almond, 
 and apricot trees. The copper-eoloured 
 weevil (Curculio (Rynchites) cupreus) prin- 
 cipally lives on the plum and apricot. The 
 Bacchus weevil (C. R. Bacchus) chiefly 
 
INSECTS. 
 
 attacks the apple tree. The stem-boring 
 weevil (C. R. Alliarice) bores into young 
 shoots and grafts. The apple weevil 
 (C. (Anthonomus) pomorum) attacks the 
 buds. The pear weevil (C. A. Pyri) tenants 
 the pear tree, destroying its blossom-buds, 
 blossoms, and leaf-buds. The oblong weevil 
 (C. (Polydrusus) oblongus) devours the 
 leaves of fruit trees — as does the red-footed 
 beetle (Luperus rvfipes), and the garden 
 beetle (Melolontha (Anisoplia) horticola). 
 The apple bark beetle (Bostrichus dispar) 
 only appears &z an interval of several years. 
 The small bark beetle (Scolytus hcemorrhous) 
 attacks the bark of apple trees. The common 
 elm-destroying scolytus (Scolytus destructor) 
 does not confine its ravages to the elm, but 
 the plum and other fruit trees often suffer 
 dreadfully from its attacks ; it penetrates 
 and destroys the inner bark. The plum saw- 
 fly (Tenthredo morio) attacks chiefly the 
 young plums, as the pear saw-fly (T. 
 hamorrhoidalis) ravages the pear-tree, de- 
 positing its eggs in May or June on the 
 leaves. The peach or poplar saw-fly (T. 
 populi) attacks only the leaves. The 
 pear chermes (Chcrmes pyri) besets the 
 wood of the dwarf pear-trees in May and 
 several of the subsequent months. The 
 plant-lice or aphides generally confine their 
 attack to dwarf fruit trees. There are three 
 chief varieties — the A. pyri mali, A. pruni, 
 and A. persicce. The pear midges (Sciara 
 pyri, and Schmidbergeri) attack chiefly the 
 fruit of the pear, as do the black gall midges 
 (Cecidomyia nigra). 
 
 XII. Insects injurious to Forest Trees. — 
 These are divided by M. Kollar into two 
 classes : — 1 . Those which attack deciduous 
 trees ; and 2. those which are injurious to 
 the evergreens. 
 
 Of those destructive to the deciduous 
 trees are the cockchaffer or May bug (me- 
 lolontha vulgaris). (See Cockchaffer.) 
 The processionary moth (Bombyx gastro- 
 pacha processionea) deposits its eggs deeply 
 on the oak. The satin moth (B. (Liparis) 
 Salicis) does the same on the willow and 
 the poplar. The ruff-tip moth (B. (Pygaira) 
 bucephala) is one of the few which attack 
 the lime : it is found also on the oak, 
 beech, birch, elder, and Avillow. It appears 
 in May and June. 
 
 XIII. Insects which attack the Fir and 
 Pine Tribe. — These often injure very se- 
 riously the leaves, bark, and young shoots 
 of some of the Pinus tribe. The most de- 
 structive are the pine-tree lappet-moth 
 (Bombyx (Gastropacsa) Pini), chiefly on 
 old pine trees ; the black arch moth (B. 
 (Siparis) mojiacha), chiefly on the white 
 and red firs; and the pine saw-fly (Ten- 
 thredo pini) ; this last appears in April, and 
 
 679 
 
 continues till July. Besides the above there 
 are several others, such as the fox-coloured 
 saw-fly (Tenthredo (Pteronus) rufus) ; the 
 red-headed saw-fly (T. (Pamphilius) ery- 
 throcephala), which in a minor degree in- 
 jure the fir tribe. 
 
 Such then is a very brief glance at that 
 immense and important class of animals, 
 which are included in the science of en- 
 tomology. It must be considered, to use the 
 words of Mr. Swainson, only as suggestions 
 and stimulants to further inquiry. The 
 review, however, cannot but fill us with 
 astonishment ; for although we see only a 
 very limited portion of the insect world 
 (and even the microscope, it is probable, 
 does not enable us to see all), yet that view, 
 limited as it is, is fraught with instruction to 
 the cultivator. It will lead him perhaps to 
 a clearer understanding of the often-re- 
 peated truth, that nothing is created in vain. 
 It may suggest to him also the means in 
 some cases of arresting their ravages, when 
 by their excessive numbers they become a 
 nuisance, and it may perhaps be instru- 
 mental in saving from destruction many a 
 rook or other useful bird when the sports- 
 man is made aware of the number of pre- 
 datory insects which they so unceasingly 
 destroy. The astonishing number, habits, 
 and instincts of the insect tribe too are 
 equally instructive, and can only be ex- 
 plained in one way. These phenomena did 
 not escape the notice of the great Paley. 
 Thus he observes, " Moths and butterflies 
 deposit their eggs in the precise substance, 
 that of a cabbage for instance, from which 
 not the butterfly herself, but the caterpillar 
 which is to issue from her eggs, draws its 
 appropriate food. The butterfly cannot 
 taste the cabbage ; cabbage is no food for 
 her ; yet in the cabbage, not by chance, but 
 studiously and electively, she lays her eggs." 
 (Nat. Phil. p. 306.) And when referring to 
 this immense mass of animal life, he says, in 
 another place, " To this great variety in 
 organised life the Deity has given, or per- 
 haps there arises out of it, a corresponding- 
 variety of animal appetites. For the final 
 cause of this we have not far to seek. Did 
 all animals covet the same element, retreat, 
 or food, it is evident how much fewer 
 could be supplied, and accommodated, than 
 what at present live conveniently together, 
 and find a plentiful subsistence. What one 
 nature rejects, another delights in. Food 
 which is nauseous to one tribe of animals, 
 becomes, by that very property which makes 
 it nduseous, an alluring dainty to another 
 tribe. Carrion is a treat to dogs, ravens, 
 vultures, fish. The exhalations of corrupted 
 substances attract flies by crowds. Mag- 
 gots revel in putrefaction." (Il)id. p. 345^) 
 x x 4 
 
INSPISSATED. 
 
 INVENTORY. 
 
 Neither can the astonishing changes of some 
 of the insect tribe be regarded by a rational 
 being without very considerable interest. 
 " The order Lepidoptera," says Swainson, 
 " comprises the butterflies, the hawk moths, 
 and the moths. The wonderful metamor- 
 phosis undergone by these insects would 
 be almost incredible were it not fami- 
 liarised to us from early childhood, that a 
 crawling worm, ravenous of grass food, 
 should voluntarily seek a retreat in the 
 earth, or spin its own shroud ; that such a 
 change should come over it, so complete, as 
 that not a lineament of its first form was 
 retained ; that in this state, after remaining 
 a misshapen lump to all appearance inani- 
 mate, it should suddenly burst forth, full of 
 life and joy, and with many-coloured wings 
 ascend into mid air, and derive its only 
 sustenance from the nectar of flowers ; — all 
 this we say is one of those miracles of Na- 
 ture, which, were it told of an insect that 
 had never yet been seen, the world would 
 not believe." {Nat. Hist. "Insects," p. 81.; 
 Swainson and Shuckard's Treat. ; Kollar 
 on Insects ; Mr. J. Duncan, Quar. Journ. 
 Agr. vol. viii. p. 96 — 348.; vol. ix. p. 1. 
 394. 563.; vol. xi. p. 59—362. ; vol. xi. 128. 
 252. 355.) 
 
 INSPISSATED. Thickened, in botany, 
 spoken of sap and other liquids. 
 
 INSTEP. In farriery, a name given to 
 that part of a horse's hind leg, which reaches 
 from the ham to the pastern joint. 
 
 INSURANCE. One means of security 
 against fire. The farmer being constantly 
 surrounded by much combustible matter, 
 should never omit rendering himself safe by 
 insuring his stock of every kind, in some 
 public office, instituted for this purpose. 
 
 The legislature has wisely afforded very 
 considerable facilities to the insurance of 
 farming stock. By the act of 3 & 4 W. 4. 
 c. 23. s. 5., farming stock is exempted from 
 duty. " The Farmer's Insurance Institution" 
 of London insures it at Is. 9d. per cent., with- 
 out the average clause ; thus easily repaired 
 are the ravages of the incendiary, of acci- 
 dental fires, and lightning. To small farmers 
 and others, also, the legislature, by the 5 & 6 
 W. 4. c. 64., has increased the facilities for 
 life insurance, by reducing the stamp duty 
 for policies under 50/. to 2s. 6d., and under 
 100/. to 5s. All such imposts ought, how- 
 ever, to be entirely abolished, for they are, 
 in fact, as has been well remarked, taxes 
 upon prudence. 
 
 The tenant from year to year, in the ab- 
 sence of a special agreement, is neither 
 obliged to insure his landlord's premises, 
 nor is he liable for accidental fires (statute 
 6 Anne, c. 31.); and if he is prosecuted, 
 and the plaintiff is nonsuited, he shall re- 
 680 
 
 ceive treble costs. When in a lease the 
 covenant is to insure the property, it usually 
 specifies to what amount, or in what office, 
 but "in some sufficient office within the 
 cities of London or Westminster " will 
 suffice. (Doe v. Shewin, 3 Campbell, 134.) 
 When the covenant is merely to insure, and 
 there is no provision to apply the insurance 
 money, in case of fire, this is merely a per- 
 sonal contract; it binds only the covenantor 
 and his representatives, but not an assignee 
 of the term. If the term is forfeited by a 
 breach of the covenant to insure, the court of 
 Chancery will not relieve the tenant ( White 
 v. Warner, 2 Merrivale, 459. ; Green v. 
 Bridges, 4 Simons, 96.). 
 
 And it will be a breach of the covenant 
 to insure, the suffering the premises to re- 
 main uninsured for ever so short a period, 
 even if no damage ensues, such as if he 
 omits to pay the premium within the fifteen 
 days allowed by the office (Doe v. Shewin, 
 3 Campbell, 137.). 
 
 A tenant has no equity to compel a land- 
 lord who has received money from an in- 
 surance office, to expend it on the demised 
 premises being burnt down in rebuilding the 
 premises, or to restrain the landlord from 
 sueing for the rent, until the premises are 
 rebuilt (Leeds v. Cheetham, 1 Simons, 146.). 
 
 INTEGUMENT. The outer covering 
 or skin of an animal ; it is also used in the 
 same sense as a synonyme for Testa, for the 
 husk or exterior covering of seeds. 
 
 INUNDATION. (Lat, inundatio ; Fr. 
 inondation.) An excessive overflow of water. 
 Sir John Hall (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. 
 p. 440.) suggests a plan for modifying the 
 evils arising from great and sudden inun- 
 dations in hilly countries, which consists in 
 making at the upper end of the gorge or 
 steep-sided defile which usually expands 
 into a plain of some extent, " a very solid 
 arch, just sufficient by calculation to con- 
 tain the harmless flood, and upon it to raise 
 a mound, also essentially characterised by 
 the principle of the arch, of height and 
 strength fully sufficient to keep back the 
 waters of a destructive flood, which would 
 then gradually run off in a modified current 
 after the rain had ceased, or the snow 
 melted. Of the expense of such an under- 
 taking (concludes Sir John Hall) I cannot 
 pretend to form an idea. It would depend 
 much on the proximity of the materials. 
 I should like much to know the opinion 
 of distinguished practical men as to the fea- 
 sibility of this project, which, if even at- 
 tempted, must be executed by engineers of 
 established reputation only; because the 
 dangers, in case of failure, would be fright- 
 ful. See Embankments. 
 
 INVENTORY. .(Fr. inventaire; Lat. 
 
INVOLUCRE. 
 
 IRRIGATION. 
 
 inventarium.} A detailed account taken of 
 any thing upon a farm. Inventories of the 
 various kinds of farming stock should be 
 taken annually, at the close of the year. 
 See Bookkeeping and Appraisement. 
 
 INVOLUCRE, or INVOLUCRUM. In 
 botany, the bractes (or small leaves placed 
 near the calyx, or the peduncle or pedicil) 
 which surround the flowers or the umbels. 
 Involucels are the partial involucres of um- 
 belliferous plants. (Paxtons Bot. Diet?) 
 
 IRIS. (From iris, the eye ; alluding to 
 the variety and beauty of the colours of the 
 flower.) This extensive genus has long 
 been, as it still continues to be, a great fa- 
 vourite in the flower-garden. " The sword- 
 leaved sorts (says Sweet) do best in a light 
 loamy soil, and increase freely by suckers 
 from the roots or by seeds. The tuberous- 
 rooted ones are more difficult to cultivate, 
 and thrive best in a mixture of loam, peat, 
 and sand, as does also the tribe to which 
 1. persica belongs, as I. alata, I. caucasica, I. 
 reticulata, &c. The common bulbous species 
 do well in any garden soil, the more sandy 
 the better." I. tuberosa is aromatic as well 
 as emetic and purgative, and /. versicolor 
 and I. vema are used in the United States as 
 cathartics. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) Two 
 species of iris only are indigenous to this 
 country. 
 
 1. The yellow water iris, or flower- 
 de-luce (7. pseud-acorus), which grows 
 wild in ditches, pools, and rivers, and 
 forms a handsome ornament for the banks 
 of ponds and streams, blowing from three 
 to six large bright yellow flowers in July. 
 The root is horizontal, depressed, brown, 
 very astringent ; the stem three or four feet 
 high ; leaves erect, ribbed, grass-green. 
 The disks of the larger segments of the 
 flowers are pencilled with dark purple. 
 
 2. Stinking iris, or Gladwyn. Roast-beef 
 plant. (I. fcetidissima.) This species grows 
 in groves, thickets, and under hedges, but it 
 is rather rare. Dr. Withering, however, ob- 
 served it to be very common in all the 
 south-west counties. It is a perennial ; 
 growing to about two feet high ; the leaves 
 are dull green, exhaling, when rubbed, a 
 scent compared to that of roast beef, to 
 which it is no compliment. The flowers 
 which appear in May are dull pale purple, 
 pencilled with dark veins. Seeds, orange- 
 coloured, polished. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 
 
 48 -> . 
 
 Miller only mentions 19 species of cul- 
 tivated irises, but there are now nearly 
 100 known species and varieties. Two or 
 three only are much admired as ornamental 
 flowers. The I. xiphium is a bulb from 
 Spain, blowing blue, white, yellow, and 
 violet flowers in June. The Persian iris 
 681 
 
 blows a fragrant flower in March and April : 
 plant the bulb in October, in a pot filled 
 with equal quantities of fine mould and 
 sand, and house it during frost. The dwarf 
 iris is ornamental in clusters, in a garden : 
 it grows only three inches high, and blows 
 in April. Part its roots in autumn. The 
 Siberian iris blows in June, and likes a 
 moist situation : it bears flowers, whose 
 falling petals are blue, and the upright ones 
 dark purple ; its stem is tall, and its leaves 
 are narrow. /. susiana, or fleur-de-lis. 
 This iris was said by Clusius to be derived 
 from Susa, the capital of Susiana, an as- 
 sertion which Sir J. E. Smith has refuted ; 
 and he added reasons for believing that it is 
 a native of a more northern clime. The 
 Turkish name for an iris is susam, derived 
 from the Hebrew Susan or Schuscham, a 
 lily. (Linncean Trans, vol. xL p. 228, 229.) 
 The plant is tuberous-rooted, loves a good 
 soil, and should be removed every three 
 years. It flowers handsomely in June, 
 bearing varieties of pale blue, deep blue, 
 and striped or blueish white flowers. Its 
 odour is feeble, but it is fetid. These are 
 the most favourite kinds in gardens. The 
 /. florentina, which is occasionally seen in 
 our gardens, yields the orris root, which is 
 the dried and peeled rhizomes of the plants. 
 Orris root is prized chiefly on account of its 
 odour, which resembles that of the violet. It is 
 added on this account to tooth powders and 
 hair powder. A hazardous custom prevails 
 of giving the entire root to infants to gnaw 
 during teething ; but fatal results have fol- 
 lowed this custom. 
 
 IRISH SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 IRISH HEATH. (Menziesia polifolia. 
 Named in honour of Archibald Menzies, 
 F. L. S., surgeon and naturalist to the ex- 
 pedition under Vancouver, who collected 
 many specimens of plants from America, 
 New Holland, &c.) This is a very orna- 
 mental genus of plants, which thrive best in 
 sandy peat, or very sandy loam ; and cut- 
 tings taken oft" close to the plant will root 
 in sand, under a glass placed in heat, or 
 they may be multiplied from seeds, &c. 
 (Paxtoiis Bot. Diet.} 
 
 IRRIGATION. (Lat, irrigo, to water.) 
 In agriculture, the watering of the earth, to 
 increase its productiveness. The term, how- 
 ever, is confined to that species of flooding 
 which consists of spreading a sheet of water 
 over a field or meadow, in such a manner 
 that it can be easily withdrawn. 
 
 Irrigation, or the artificial watering of the 
 earth, chiefly to produce increased crops of 
 grass, has been in use from a very early 
 period. In Oriental countries, in fact, the 
 heat of the climate is such, that, in many 
 situations, the now productive soil would be 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 absolutely sterile, were it not that the cul- 
 tivator enriched his ground with a copious 
 supply of water. The simile employed by 
 Isaiah (i. 30.), to indicate barrenness and 
 desolation, is " a garden that hath no 
 water." And that, in patriarchal times, 
 they laboured hard to supply their grounds 
 with water, by means of various hydraulic 
 machines, some of which resembled the 
 water-wheels of the fen districts of England, 
 and were worked by the feet of men, some- 
 thing after the style of the modern tread- 
 mill, is certain. Moses alluded to this prac- 
 tice when he reminded the Israelites of their 
 sowing their corn in Egypt, and watering 
 it with their feet (Deut. xi. 10. ; 2 Kings, 
 xix. 24.), and in the sandy soils of Arabia 
 the same system is still continued. (JViebu7ir, 
 vol. i. p. 121.) According to Dr. Shaw, the 
 following is the modern mode of raising and 
 using the water of the Nile for the purpose of 
 irrigation in Egypt. " Such vegetable pro- 
 ductions as require more moisture than what 
 is occasioned by the annual inundation of the 
 Nile, are refreshed by water that is drawn 
 at certain times out of the river, and lodged 
 in large cisterns made for that purpose. The 
 screw of Archimedes seems to have been the 
 instrument formerly made use of for that 
 purpose, though at present the inhabitants 
 either supply themselves with various kinds 
 of leathern buckets, or else with a sakiah, as 
 they call the Persian wheel, which is the most 
 useful and generally employed machine. 
 Engines and contrivances of both these 
 kinds are placed all along the banks of the 
 Nile, from the sea to the cataracts, their 
 situations being higher, and consequently 
 the difficulty of raising the water being 
 greater, as we advance up the river. When 
 their pulse, saffron, melons, sugar-canes, &c. 
 (all of which are commonly planted in rills), 
 require to be refreshed, they take out a 
 plug from the bottom of the cistern, and 
 then the water gushing out, is conducted 
 from one rill to another by the gardener, who 
 is always ready, as occasion requires, to stop 
 and divert the current." In Egypt, at the 
 present day, according to Dr. Clarke, the 
 water is sometimes raised, for the purposes 
 of irrigation, by means of a wicker basket 
 lined with leather, which is held by cords 
 between two men, who, by this laborious 
 means, swing it over the banks of the Nile 
 into the canal which conveys it to the lands 
 intended to be irrigated. A machine similar 
 to the Persian wheel is still employed in 
 China by the cultivators, for the purposes 
 of irrigation. This use of machinery for the 
 purposes of watering might, in fact, in many 
 situations, be advantageously employed in 
 England, to a much greater extent than is 
 commonly believed. It is well known how 
 682 
 
 many thousand acres of valuable land are 
 profitably drained by means of the steam- 
 engine. At this very period a public com- 
 pany is proposing to enclose and drain an arm 
 of the sea in Lincolnshire, by the assistance of 
 its gigantic aid. Yet how rarely, if ever, is 
 that power employed to irrigate the thirsty 
 lands of England ; lands of all others the 
 most profitable, the best adapted for the 
 formation of water meadows. The tracts 
 to which I allude are those on a slope, as 
 on the side of a hill ; but these are rarely 
 found in situations where a sufficiently co- 
 pious supply of water can be constantly ob- 
 tained for the purposes of irrigation. Yet 
 the quantity thus required is not so large 
 as to be beyond the power of the steam- 
 engine to supply ; thus, to sufficiently satu- 
 rate a square yard of a calcareous sand soil 
 with water to the depth of one foot, as in ir- 
 rigation, requires about 30 gallons of water, 
 equal to about 145,000 gallons per imperial 
 acre. Now, that the steam-engine could 
 readily and profitably supply this quantity 
 of water, may be concluded from several 
 facts ; thus, the two engines, one of eighty, 
 the other of sixty horses' power, which 
 keep Deeping Fen, near Spalding, com- 
 pletely drained, when working, in 1835, 
 only ninety-six days, of twelve hours each, 
 raised more than 14,000,000 tons of water 
 several feet. The district drained by them 
 contains about 25,000 acres (Brit Farm. 
 Mag. N. S. vol. iii. p. 300.), which would 
 otherwise be a complete swamp. And it 
 has been proved that, by a common con- 
 densing steam-engine, one bushel of coals 
 will raise more than 50,000,000 lbs. of water 
 one foot. In many situations, therefore, 
 where, for the purposes of irrigation, good 
 river water can be copiously obtained, and 
 fuel is at a moderate price, I am confident 
 that great results are yet to be obtained by 
 the aid of mechanical power. For, by the 
 steam-engine, the soils of all others the best 
 adapted for irrigation, may be successfully 
 brought into cultivation ; for instance, the 
 poor sands and gravels on the sloping banks 
 of many of the English and Scottish rivers, 
 many of whose waters, from being charged 
 with organic matter, the carbonate and sul- 
 phate of lime, and various earthy substances, 
 are excellent for the use of water meadows. 
 The early employment of irrigation by the 
 Egyptians and Chinese was most likely the 
 result of the good effects which were ob- 
 served to be produced by the overflowings 
 of the Nile and the Chinese rivers ; for, in 
 the " Celestial Empire," irrigation has, it 
 seems, been employed, according to their 
 veracious historians, for a period long be- 
 fore that assigned to the flood. In Italy, 
 especially on the banks of the Po, the cul- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 tivators of the earth have certainly em- 
 ployed this process for a period previous to 
 the days of Virgil (Georg. lib. i. v. 106-9.), — 
 
 Deinde satis fluvium inducit, rivosque sequentes— 
 
 and it is still carried on with a zeal and care 
 worthy of the art they practise. M. P. Cato, 
 the earliest of the Roman writers upon 
 agriculture (150 years before Christ), in 
 his ninth chapter, told the Italian farmers 
 to " make water meadows if you have 
 water, and if you have no water, have dry 
 meadows." The directions of Columella 
 seem to have all the freshness of a modern 
 age about them. He was the first who noticed 
 the inferior nutrition afforded by the hay 
 from water meadows. " Land," says he, 
 " that is naturally rich, and is in good heart, 
 does not need to have -w ater set over it ; 
 and it is better hay which nature, of its own 
 accord, produces in a juicy soil, than what 
 water draws from a soil that is overflowed. 
 This, however, is a necessary practice when 
 the poverty of the soil requires it ; and a 
 meadow may be formed either upon a stiff 
 or free soil, though poor when water may 
 be set over it ; neither a low field with hol- 
 lows, nor a field broken with steep rising 
 ground, are proper ; the first, because it 
 contains too long the water collected in 
 the hollows ; the last, because it makes the 
 water run too quickly over it. A field, 
 however, that has a moderate descent may 
 be made a meadow, whether it be rich, or 
 so situated as to be watered ; but the best 
 situation is where the surface is smooth, and 
 the descent so gentle, as to prevent either 
 showers, or the rivers that overflow it, re- 
 maining too long ; and, on the other hand, to 
 allow the water that comes over it quietly 
 to glide off ; therefore, if in any part of the 
 field intended for a meadow, a pool of water 
 should stand, it must be let off by drains, 
 for the loss is equal either from too much 
 water or too little grass." (Col. lib. ii. c. 16.) 
 Pliny tells us that " meadows ought to be 
 watered immediately after the spring equi- 
 nox, and the waters restrained whenever 
 the grass shoots up into stalk." (Nat. Hist. 
 lib. xviii. c. 27.) When, after the fall of the 
 Roman Empire, agriculture, in common with 
 all other sciences, rapidly declined, a very 
 remarkable exception to this melancholy re- 
 sult of slavery and despotism was presented 
 in the case of irrigation, which was carried on 
 and extended through the long period of the 
 dark ages with equal zeal and success. This 
 was more especially the case in Lombardy, 
 where it was certainly prosecuted on a very 
 bold and profitable scale long before 1037. 
 The princes of Lombardy patronised and fol- 
 lowed the example of the various religious 
 establishments, which then monopolised all 
 683 
 
 the wealth and learning of the land, in ex- 
 tending the employment of water in all pos- 
 sible directions. The monks of Chiazevalle, 
 in particular, were so celebrated for their 
 knowledge of this branch of. agriculture, 
 and of hydraulics in general, that the em- 
 peror, Frederick the First, in the thirteenth 
 century, very gladly sought their advice and 
 assistance. This system has ever been zeal- 
 ously and carefully extended and improved, 
 in every possible way. The waters of the 
 chief rivers of the north of Italy, such as 
 the Po, the Adige, the Tagliamento, and of 
 all the minor streams, are employed in irriga- 
 tion. There is no other country which pos- 
 sesses an extent of rich water meadows equal 
 to that of the Lombards. The entire country 
 from Venice to Turin may be said to be 
 formed into one great water meadow : yet 
 the irrigating system is not confined to grass 
 lands ; the water is conveyed into the hol- 
 lows between the ridges in corn lands, into 
 the low lands where rice is cultivated, and 
 around the roots of vines. From Italy the 
 practice extended into the south of France, 
 into Spain, and then into Britain. In the 
 States of Lombardy, the water of all the 
 rivers belongs to the state ; in those of 
 Venice, the government extends its claims 
 to that of the smallest springs, and even to 
 collections of rain water, so highly, for the 
 use of the cultivator, is water of every kind 
 valued in the north of Italy . It is necessary, 
 therefore, in Lombardy, to purchase from 
 the state the water taken from the river ; 
 this may be taken, by means of a canal, 
 through any person's grounds, the govern- 
 ment merely requiring the payment of the 
 value of the land to the proprietor, and re- 
 straining him from carrying his channel 
 through a garden, or within a certain dis- 
 tance of a mansion. The water is sold by the 
 government at a certain rate, which is re- 
 gulated by the size of the sluice, and the 
 time the run of water is used ; this is either 
 by the hour, half-hour, or quarter, or by so 
 many days at certain periods of the year ; 
 the right to these runs of water is regularly 
 sold like other property. Arthur Young 
 gives an account of the sale of an hour's 
 run of water through a sluice near Turin, 
 which produced, in 1778, 1500 livres. The 
 rent of the irrigated lands in the north of 
 Italy is, upon an average, more than one- 
 third greater than the same description of 
 land not watered. (Com. Board, of Agr. 
 vol. vii. p. 189.) 
 
 In Bengal, wells are dug in the highest 
 part of their fields, and from this, by means 
 of bullocks and a rope over a pulley, water 
 is raised in buckets, and conveyed in little 
 channels to every part of the field. No 
 attempts at cultivation are here made with- 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 out the assistance of water, obtained by 
 some mode or other. (See India, Agri- 
 culture of.) The art of irrigation was not 
 confined to the Old World. The Mexicans 
 practised it long before the days of Colum- 
 bus ; they collected the mountain torrents, 
 and conducted their waters to their lands 
 in proper channels, with much care and 
 address. It was only towards the termina- 
 tion of the seventeenth century that water 
 meadows were constructed in Britain upon 
 any thing like a regular system. Of these, 
 those in Wiltshire, which are amongst the 
 most celebrated in England, especially those 
 in the Wyley Bourn, were made between 
 1700 and 1705. Those of Hampshire and 
 Berkshire were constructed about the same 
 period, but they were at first formed very 
 inferior to the modern noble water-meadow 
 lands of those counties. Great improve- 
 ments were made towards the conclusion of 
 the eighteenth century, through the publi- 
 cations of G. Boswell on Meadow Watering 
 in 1780, and of the Rev. T Wright of Auld, 
 in Northamptonshire, whose writings ap- 
 peared at intervals from 1789 to 1810. It 
 is noticeable that the water employed for 
 these celebrated southern meads is perhaps 
 the most clear and swift flowing of all the 
 English rivers : issuing from the chalk-form- 
 ation, it is equally copious and transparent. 
 Some of the chief advantages, therefore, of 
 irrigation may evidently be derived from 
 almost any description of water ; for it is 
 proved by the good effects produced by the 
 brilliant chalk- waters of the south of En- 
 gland, and the still greater fertilising effect 
 of those surcharged with organic matter, as 
 in the Craigintinny meadows, near Edin- 
 burgh, that there is no water too bright or 
 too full of impurities, to be useless for the 
 purposes of irrigation. 
 
 I propose in this paper to investigate the 
 chemical properties of river water, and of 
 the effects produced by it in irrigation, 
 adding a few remarks upon the practice of 
 the best and most skilful cultivators of the 
 water meadows of the south of England: 
 
 1. With regard to the composition of 
 river water, there have been several che- 
 mical examinations ; that of the Thames 
 was analysed by Dr. Bostock, who found, in 
 10,000 parts after most of its mechanically 
 suspended matters had subsided, about If 
 parts of foreign substances, viz. — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Organic matters - - 0 - 07 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 1*53 
 Sulphate of lime - - 0*15 
 
 Muriate of soda - - 0*02 
 
 In an equal quantity of the waters of the 
 Clyde, Dr. Thomson found l£ part of solid 
 substances, namely, — 
 684 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Common salt - - - 0-369 
 Muriate of magnesia - - 0-305 
 Sulphate of soda - - 0114 
 Carbonate of lime - - 0*394 
 Silica - - - - 0-118 
 
 The water of the Itchen in Hampshire is 
 one of the most celebrated of all the southern 
 streams, for the use of the irrigator. I 
 found, in 10,000 parts of its water, about 
 2| parts of solid matter, viz. : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Organic matter - - 0-02 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 1*89 
 
 Sulphate of lime - - 0-72 
 
 Muriate of soda - - 0-01 
 
 From an examination of the substances found 
 in these streams (and they afford a pretty 
 correct view of the contents of most others), 
 the farmer will see that they all yield in- 
 gredients which are the food or natural con- 
 stituents of the grasses. Thus, sulphate and 
 carbonate of lime are found in most of them, 
 and there is no river-water which does not 
 contain, in some proportion or other, or- 
 ganic matter. To ascertain, therefore, whe- 
 ther pure water was alone able to effect all 
 the magic effects of irrigation, it was neces- 
 sary to employ other water than that of 
 rivers, lakes, or even springs. Pure water, 
 as obtained by distillation, therefore, has 
 been tried as a supporter of vegetation, but 
 it was found totally inadequate to the sup- 
 port of plants, — they merely vegetated for 
 a time, but they could not, by any means, 
 be made to perfect their seeds. In this 
 conclusion, the experiments of Dr. Thomson, 
 and of MM. Saussure and Hassenfratz, en- 
 tirely agree. Pure water, therefore, not- 
 withstanding the dreams of the Greek phi- 
 losophers, and the celebrated deceptive ex- 
 periments of Van Helmont with his willow 
 tree, is not able to support the growth of 
 the grasses. Van Helmont's tree, when he 
 planted it in an earthen pot, weighed five 
 pounds ; the earth previously dried in an 
 oven, weighed 200 pounds ; after five years 
 it weighed 164 lbs., although it had been 
 watered during that time with only rain 
 and distilled water, and the earth had lost 
 only two ounces of weight. Hence, said 
 Van Helmont and his disciples, water is the 
 sole food of plants. Bergman, in 1773, first 
 pointed out the source of error. He showed, 
 from the experiments of Margraff, that the 
 rain-water contained a sufficient quantity 
 of earth to account for the increased weight 
 in the willow, every pint of rain-water con- 
 taining one grain of earth. Then, again, the 
 earthen vessel (which was sunk in the earth) 
 would in this experiment transmit its 
 moisture impregnated with all kinds of so- 
 luble substances. And yet, it has been 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 shown, that impure water, such as that from 
 a sewer or from a dunghill, is alone suffi- 
 cient to sustain vegetation. This was, 
 clearly evidenced in the experiments of M. 
 Lampadius ; for he found, that plants placed 
 in a pure earth, such as silica or alumina, 
 although they would not grow when wa- 
 tered with pure water only, yet, when 
 watered with the liquid drainage of a 
 dunghill, they nourished very luxuriantly, 
 and this fact has been also proved in another 
 way. It has been shown by chemical ana- 
 lysis, that the quantity of solid or earthy 
 matters absorbed by plants, is in exact pro- 
 portion to the impurity of the water with 
 which they are nourished. Thus, equal 
 quantities of some plants of beans, fed by 
 distilled water, yielded 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Of solid matters or ashes - - 3 -9 
 Those fed by rain water - - 7*5 
 Those grown in garden mould - 12*0 
 
 These facts strongly confirm the conclu- 
 sions of some of the most sagacious cultiva- 
 tors, that the chief advantages of irrigation 
 are attributable to the foreign substances 
 with which the water is charged, although, 
 as I have elsewhere observed, almost every 
 farmer has a mode of accounting for the 
 highly fertilising effects of irrigation, — one 
 thinks it cools the land, another that it keeps 
 the grass warm in winter. And this was 
 Davy's opinion. He thought that a winter 
 flooding protected the grass from the inju- 
 rious effects of frost He says, " Water is 
 of greater specific gravity at 42° than at 
 32° — the freezing point; and hence, in a 
 meadow irrigated in winter, the water im- 
 mediately in contact with the grass is rarely 
 below 40°, a degree of temperature not at 
 all prejudicial to the living organs of plants. 
 In 1 804, in the month of March, I examined 
 the temperature in a water meadow near 
 Hungerford in Berkshire, by a very delicate 
 thermometer. The temperature of the air 
 at 7 in the morning, was 43°. In general, 
 those waters which breed the best fish are 
 the best fitted for watering meadows, but 
 most of the benefits of irrigation may be de- 
 rived from any kind of water." 
 
 Such were the opinions of Davy as to the 
 fertilising properties of water. It is to be 
 regretted that the opportunities for agricul- 
 tural observations of this great chemical 
 philosopher were so few, for his valuable 
 remarks were always cautiously made. He 
 appears, however, as I have remarked else- 
 where, never to have steadily investigated 
 the chemical composition of river-water 
 with regard to its uses in irrigation, and, in 
 consequence, knew little of the value of 
 some of its impurities to vegetation. Thus, 
 if the river-water contains gypsum, (sulphate 
 685 
 
 of lime,) which it certainly does — if the water 
 is hard, it must, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, on this account alone be highly fer- 
 tilising to meadows, since all grasses contain 
 this salt in very sensible proportions ; for, 
 calculating that one part of sulphate of lime 
 is contained in every two thousand parts of 
 river water, and that every square yard of 
 dry meadow soil absorbs only eight gallons 
 of water (and this is a very moderate al- 
 lowance, for many soils will absorb three or 
 four times that quantity), then it will be 
 found that, by every flooding, more than 
 one hundred weight and a half of gypsum 
 per acre is diffused through the soil in the 
 water, a quantity equal to that generally 
 adopted by those who spread gypsum on 
 their clover crops, lucern, and sainfoin, as 
 a manure, either in the state of powder, or 
 as it exists in ashes. And if we apply the 
 same calculation to the organic substances 
 ever more or less contained in flood waters, 
 and allow only twenty parts of animal and 
 vegetable remains to be present In a thousand 
 parts of river water, then we shall find, 
 taking the same data, that every soaking 
 with such water will add to the meadow 
 nearly two tons per acre of animal and ve- 
 getable matters, which, allowing, in the case 
 of water meadows, five floodings per annum, 
 is equal to a yearly application of ten tons 
 of organic matter. 
 
 The quantity of foreign substances pre- 
 sent in river water, although commonly less, 
 yet very often exceeds what I have thus 
 calculated to exist in it. I have found it 
 impossible, however, to give, from analysis, 
 the amount which, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, is present in river waters, with any 
 tolerable accuracy, since the proportion not 
 only varies at different seasons of the year, 
 but a considerable proportion of the merely 
 mechanically suspended matters subside, 
 when the specimen water is suffered to rest. 
 In my conclusions with regard to the theory 
 of irrigation, I have found many excellent 
 practical farmers concur. Thus, Mr. Sim- 
 mons of St. Croix, near Winchester, consi- 
 ders that the great benefit of winter flooding 
 for meadows is derived, in the first place, 
 from the deposits made by the muddy 
 waters on the grass ; and, secondly, from 
 the winter covering with water preventing 
 the ill effects to the grass of sudden transi- 
 tions in the temperature of the atmosphere. 
 This gentleman is perfectly aware of the 
 value of the addition of the city drainage of 
 Winchester to the fertilising qualities of the 
 Itchen river water, and of its superiority 
 for irrigation after it has flowed past the 
 city, having water meadows both above and 
 below the town ; and he finds that, if the 
 water has been once used for irrigation, that 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 then its fertilising properties are so mate- 
 rially reduced, that it is of little value for 
 again passing over the meadows ; and so 
 convinced is he of this fact by long experi- 
 ence, that, having in this way long enjoyed 
 the exclusive and valuable use of a branch 
 of the waters of the Itchen for some grass 
 land, a neighbour higher up the stream fol- 
 lowed his example, constructing some wa- 
 ter-meadows, and using the water before it 
 arrived at those of my informant, who, in 
 consequence, found the water so deteriorated 
 in quality (though not sensibly diminished 
 in quantity), that he had once thought of 
 disputing the right with his more upland 
 neighbour. The experience of other irri- 
 gators tends to the same conclusion. In the 
 best managed water meadows of Hampshire 
 the farmer does not procure annually more 
 than three crops of grass ; yet in situations 
 where a richer water is employed, as near 
 Edinburgh, four or five are readily obtained. 
 It is evident, therefore, that the chemical 
 properties of water have a much greater in- 
 fluence in irrigation than is commonly be- 
 lieved. The quality of the water, therefore, 
 employed for the purposes of irrigation, is 
 of the first importance to be well under- 
 stood by the farmer ; and although many 
 more modern discussions have taken place 
 upon the subject, yet the definition which 
 the great Lord Bacon gave, in his Natural 
 History, of the advantages of "Meadow Wa- 
 tering," has never been excelled, — " that it 
 acts not only by supplying useful moisture 
 to the grass, but likewise by carrying nour- 
 ishment dissolved in the water." This 
 nourishment is, generally speaking, com- 
 posed almost entirely of the animal and ve- 
 getable matters mechanically suspended or 
 chemically dissolved in the water ; — the 
 fouler the water the more fertilising are its 
 effects. The objection which has been 
 sometimes urged to this explanation, by in- 
 stancing the prejudicial effects of some very 
 thick muddy waters (as those of the Hum- 
 ber) on meadow lands, is very erroneous •, 
 for, in those cases, the mud deposited on the 
 grass did not consist of animal or vegetable 
 matters, but of fine earthy particles, such 
 as clay or chalk, substances of which the al- 
 luvial soil, on which the same flood waters 
 had for ages occasionally deposited their 
 earths, was in fact entirely composed, and 
 to which, in consequence, any farther supply 
 was almost useless, the earthy slime merely 
 covering the grass with mud, without adding 
 a single fertilising ingredient not already 
 abounding in the soil. If, however, the soil 
 is naturally deficient in any of the earthy 
 ingredients contained in the water, then 
 even such flood waters are ever found most 
 fertilising. 
 
 68G 
 
 " The agency of water in the process of 
 vegetation," says Mr. Stephens, " has not 
 till of late been distinctly perceived. Dr. 
 Hales has shown that, in the summer 
 , months, a sunflower, weighing three pounds 
 avoirdupois, and regularly watered every 
 day, passed through it or perspired twenty- 
 two ounces each day, that is, half its weight. 
 Dr. Woodward found that, in the space of 
 seventy- seven days, a plant of common 
 spearmint increased seventeen grains in 
 weight, and yet had no other food than pure 
 rain water ; but then he found that it in- 
 creased more in weight when it lived in 
 spring water, and still more when its food 
 was Thames water." (Practical Irrigator, 
 p. 2.) And when speaking of the fact, that 
 some irrigators think clear spring water 
 equal to any, he adds (p. 24.), " I would 
 recommend to those who are of the same 
 opinion, to inspect the irrigated meadows 
 which are watered by the washings of the 
 city of Edinburgh, where, I trust, they will 
 find the superiority of muddy water to that 
 of clear spring water most strikingly mani- 
 
 Edinburgh has many advantages over the 
 most of her sister cities ; the large supply 
 of excellent spring water is one of the 
 greatest blessings to her numerous inhabit- 
 ants, both in respect to household purposes 
 and keeping the streets clean, as well as ir- 
 rigating the extensive meadows situated 
 below the town, by the rich stuff which it 
 carries along in a state of semi-solution, 
 where the art of man, with the common 
 sewer water, has made sand hillocks pro- 
 duce riches far superior to anything of the 
 kind in the kingdom, or in any other 
 country. 
 
 By this water, about two hundred acres 
 of grass land, for the most part laid into 
 catch-work meadow, are irrigated ; whereof 
 130 belong to W. H. Miller, Esq., of Craig- 
 intinny, and the remainder to the Earls of 
 Haddington and Moray, and other proprie- 
 tors. The meadows belonging to these no- 
 blemen, and part of the Craigintinny mea- 
 dows, or what is called the old meadows, 
 containing about 50 acres, have been 
 irrigated for nearly a century. They are 
 by far the most valuable, on account of the 
 long and continual accumulation of the rich 
 sediment left by the water ; indeed the 
 water is so very rich, that the tenants of the 
 meadows lying nearest the town have found 
 it advisable to carry the common sewer 
 water through deep ponds, into which the 
 water deposits part of the superfluous ma- 
 nure before it runs over the ground. Al- 
 though the formation of these meadows is 
 irregular, and the management very imper- 
 fect, the effects of the water are astonishing ; 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 they produce crops of grass not to be 
 equalled, being cut from four to six times 
 a-year, and the grass given green to milch 
 cows. 
 
 The grass is let every year by public sale, 
 in small patches of a quarter of an acre and 
 upwards, and generally brings from 24/. to 
 30/. per acre per annum. In 1826, part of 
 the Earl of Moray's meadow fetched 57/. per 
 acre per annum. 
 
 About forty acres of the Craigintinny 
 lands were formed into catch-work water 
 meadow before the year 1800, which com- 
 prises what is called Fillieside Bank old 
 meadows, and is generally let at from 20/. 
 to 30/. per acre per annum. In the spring 
 of 1821, thirty acres of waste land, called 
 the Freegate Whins, and ten acres of poor 
 sandy soil, were levelled and formed into 
 irrigated meadow, at an expense of 1000/. 
 The pasture of the Freegate Whins was let, 
 previously to this improvement, for 40/. per 
 annum, and the ten acres for 60/. They 
 now bring from 15/. to 20/. per acre per an- 
 num, but may be much improved by judi- 
 ciously laying out 200/. more in better 
 levelling that part next the sea, and carry- 
 ing a larger supply of water to it which 
 might be easily done without prejudice to 
 the other meadows. 
 
 This, perhaps, is one of the most benefi- 
 cial agricultural improvements ever under- 
 taken ; for the whole of the Freegate Whins 
 is composed of nothing but sand, deposited 
 from time to time by the action of the waves 
 of the sea. Never was 1000/. more happily 
 spent in agriculture ; it not only required a 
 common sewer to bring about this great 
 change, but a resolution in the proprietor 
 to launch out his capital on an experiment 
 upon a soil of such a nature. 
 
 Since the making of the Freegate Whins 
 into water meadows, Mr. Miller has levelled 
 and formed forty acres more of his arable 
 land into irrigated meadow, worth, before 
 the formation, 9/. per acre per annum. It 
 will only require a few years before these 
 meadows will be as productive as the for- 
 mer ; for it is evident that the longer water 
 is suffered to run over the surface of grass 
 land, the greater quantity of fertilising 
 substance will be collected ; therefore, as 
 the water is so very superior in quality to 
 all other water, a speedy return for the ca- 
 pital laid out may be expected. The ex- 
 pense of keeping these meadows in repair 
 is from 10s. to 15s. per acre per annum, 
 which is more than double the expense of 
 keeping water meadows in repair in general. 
 
 It by no means, however, follows, as a 
 necessary result of any contemplated im- 
 provement in irrigation, that the water 
 should previously undergo a chemical ex- 
 687 
 
 amination. There are many other modes 
 by which the farmer can form a pretty (di - 
 rect conclusion, as to the fertilising proper- 
 ties of the water he proposes to employ. 
 
 The surest proofs, says Mr. Exter, of 
 the good quality of water (and the observ- 
 ations of this gentleman will be readily 
 confirmed by the irrigators of the southern 
 counties), as a manure, are the verdure of 
 the margin of its streams, and the growth 
 of strong cresses in the stream itself ; and 
 wherever these appearances are found, 
 though the water be perfectly transparent, 
 the occupier of the soil through which it 
 flows may depend, in general, on having a 
 treasure, if he is attentive to it ; but that 
 this is not invariably the case, and that 
 there are instances where a good water will 
 not improve the herbage of certain soils, is 
 proved by the following account (and there 
 are several other cases with which I am ac- 
 quainted) of the meadows of Mr. Orchard, 
 of Stoke Abbey, Devon. These two mea- 
 dows are situated on the side of a hill, their 
 aspect nearly south, — the superstratum a 
 fine rich loam, from eight to ten inches 
 deep, on a substratum of strong yellow clay. 
 No difference whatever can be seen by the 
 naked eye, in either the upper mould or the 
 substratum, or in the herbage growing on 
 the surface of them ; except that, in the 
 lower part of one, a few rushes appear, in 
 consequence of some small springs which 
 rise near them, but the water from them is 
 not sufficient to render any part of the land 
 poachy. At the head of the two meadows 
 is a large pond, formed by the collecting of 
 some small runs of spring water rising near 
 it, and which is also improved by the wash 
 of a small farm-yard adjoining, which, of 
 course, must add to its efficacy as a manure. 
 When this water is thrown over one of the 
 meadows, it produces the richest herbage in 
 abundance, and this field is regularly mowed 
 for hay ; on the other meadow, though re- 
 peatedly tried, it produces no good what- 
 ever. (Ann. of Agr. vol. xxx. p. 206.) 
 
 This result is attributable to the superior 
 tenacious, retentive quality of the sub- 
 stratum of the lower field, or of some 
 chemical difference in the composition of 
 the soil ; and although almost any de- 
 scription of soil is adapted to the formation 
 of water meadows, those of a heavy clay 
 description are generally the most unsuit- 
 able, those of a light or peaty kind are 
 better, and those with a sandy or very 
 absorbent gravel substratum still more so. 
 There are some of the most celebrated 
 water meadows on the banks of the Kennet 
 of this description, and many of the best on 
 the banks of the Wiltshire Avon have a 
 mass of broken, porous flints for a subsoil. 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 Those near Edinburgh, irrigated by the 
 city drainage, rest upon the sands thrown 
 up by the sea. 
 
 It is evident, therefore, that it is as im- 
 portant an object in the construction of 
 these meadows to secure a ready and rapid 
 exit for the flood-waters, as to procure, in 
 the first instance, a copious and fertilising 
 supply. 
 
 The farmer is generally well aware of 
 the injurious effects to his meadows of 
 suffering the water to remain too long on 
 them. He watches, therefore, with much 
 care, for the first indications of ferment- 
 ation having commenced, which is evinced 
 by the rising of a mass of scum to the 
 surface of the water — putrefaction is now 
 beginning in the turf, and he knows very 
 well that if the water is not speedily re- 
 moved, that his grass will be either ma- 
 terially injured, or entirely destroyed ; he 
 hastens, therefore, to open his water-courses. 
 There are some soils in the vicinity of 
 Standen in Berkshire, however, of so po- 
 rous a quality, that they need not any 
 drains to empty the water-courses ; and, in 
 fact, in many instances, the farmer does 
 not even require them : after a few hours 
 all the water is absorbed by the soil ; and 
 yet these lands, with hardly six inches of 
 mould above the gravel, are amongst the 
 richest of water-meadows ; the roots of the 
 grasses penetrate readily into the gravel, 
 and the earliest and sweetest grasses are 
 produced on them. 
 
 Almost any description of grass will 
 flourish under proper management in wa- 
 ter-meadows. Those whose soils consist of 
 peat resting on sand or on sandy loam, with 
 a substratum of chalk or gravel, generally 
 produce the meadow foxtail (Alopecurus 
 pratensis), the brome-grass (Bromus or- 
 vensis), and the meadow-fescue {Festuca 
 pratensis), on the tops and sides of the 
 ridges. The furrows and sides of the drains 
 are usually tenanted by the creeping-bent, 
 the hard-fescue, the rough-stalked meadow- 
 grass, and the woolly soft-grass. In those 
 water-meadows whose soil consists of a 
 sandy loam on a clay subsoil, the chief 
 grasses are commonly the creeping-rooted 
 soft-grass, the crested dog's-tail, the mea- 
 dow barley, and the sweet-scented vernal- 
 grass. But some grasses change their ap- 
 pearance in a very remarkable degree, 
 when exposed under favourable circum- 
 stances to the influence of the flood-waters. 
 This fact is strikingly exemplified in the 
 case of two small meadows situated at 
 Orcheston, six miles from Amesbury in 
 Wiltshire, denominated from their great 
 produce, " the long grass meads." These, 
 says Davis, " contain together only two 
 688 
 
 acres and a half, and the crop they pro- 
 duce is so immense, that the tithe hay of 
 them was once sold for five guineas." 
 Much discussion took place amongst the 
 Wiltshire farmers as to the nature of the 
 crop of these meads, before it was at last 
 shown that the greatest part of their herb- 
 age consisted of nothing else than the 
 black-couch, or couchy-bent, the Agrostis 
 stolonifera, one of the worst of the grasses 
 or weeds which haunt the poor ill-culti- 
 vated arable soils. 
 
 It is a very general, as well as correct 
 conclusion of the English farmers, that the 
 grass and hay of water-meadows is not so 
 nutritious as that of the permanent pasture 
 lands. The difference, however, is not so 
 great as is commonly supposed. The late 
 Mr. George Sinclair determined this ex- 
 perimentally, and he is no mean authority 
 with regard to all that relates to the grasses. 
 
 He obtained from the rye-grass (Lolium 
 perenne), at the time of flowering, taken 
 from a water meadow that had been fed 
 off with sheep till the end of April, of 
 nutritive matter, 72 grains ; and from the 
 same weight of this grass, taken from a 
 rich old pasture, which had been shut up 
 for hay about the same time, 92 grains. 
 From the same grass from the meadow, 
 that had not been depastured in the spring, 
 1 00 grains. And from the same grass, from 
 the pasture which had not been fed off', 120 
 grains. All the grasses, in fact, where their 
 growth is forced by the application of 
 either liquid or solid manures, are found to 
 contain nutritive matter in diminished quan- 
 tities : — this, too, was determined by Sin- 
 clair. From four ounces of a very rankly 
 luxuriant patch of rye-grass, on which a large 
 portion of cow-dung had been deposited, 
 he obtained of nutritive matter, 72 grains. 
 From the same quantity of the same grass, 
 growing on the soil which surrounded this 
 luxuriant patch, he obtained 122 grains. 
 
 And, in a second trial, the same species 
 of grass, on a soil entirely destitute of 
 manure, afforded, of nutritive matter, 95 
 grains. On the same soil, excessively ma- 
 nured, the grass afforded only 50 grains. 
 In these experiments, the plants were of 
 the same age, and were examined at the 
 same stage of their growth. (Ilortus Gram. 
 384.) 
 
 With regard to the construction and 
 management of water meadows, there are 
 many practical works of the highest au- 
 thority to which the farmer has ready 
 access, and, in the following observations, 
 therefore, I shall merely very briefly pa- 
 raphrase the accounts given by Mr. Davis 
 and others, of the practice of irrigation 
 in the southern counties. In this, how- 
 
HUM CAT I ON. 
 
 over, even since the time that Davis wrote, 
 there has been a groat and steady improve- 
 ment. The land is better levelled, the slopes 
 more evenly preserved, the water-way, 
 aqueducts, and hatches, better constructed, 
 and in many of the more recent improve- 
 ments, in the valley of theltchen in Hamp- 
 shire, the sliding-water doors are regulated 
 by a cogged wheel turned with a moveable 
 winch, so as to render them safe from alter- 
 ation during the absence of the meadow - 
 keeper. 
 
 The management of the Wiltshire and 
 Hampshire water-meadows, as well as it 
 can be briefly described, is as follows : — In 
 the autumn, the after-grass is eaten off 
 quite bare, when the manager of the mead 
 (provincially the drowner) begins to clean 
 out the main drain, and the main carriage, 
 and to " right up the works," that is, to 
 make good all the carriages and drains 
 which the cattle have trodden in, so as to 
 have one tier or pitch of work ready for 
 drowning. This is immediately put under 
 water, whilst the drowner is preparing the 
 next pitch. 
 
 In the flowing meadows this work ought 
 to be done, if possible, early enough in the 
 autumn to have the whole meadow ready 
 to catch the first floods after Michaelmas ; 
 the water, being the first washing of the 
 arable lands on the sides of the chalk hills, 
 as well as the dirt from roads, is then thick 
 and good ; and this remark as to the su- 
 perior richness of the flood waters, is one 
 that is commonly made in Berkshire and 
 other parts of England. The length of the 
 autumnal watering cannot be precisely 
 stated, as much depends upon situations 
 and circumstances ; but if water can be 
 commanded in abundance, the custom is to 
 give meadows a " thorough good soaking at 
 first," perhaps for a fortnight or three 
 weeks, with an intermission of two or three 
 days during that period : and continue 
 for the space of two fortnights, allowing an 
 interval of a week between them. The 
 works are then made as dry as possible, to 
 encourage the growth of the grass. This 
 first soaking is to make the land sink and 
 pitch close together, a circumstance of 
 great consequence, not only to the quan- 
 tity, but to the quality of the grass, and 
 particularly to encourage the shooting of 
 new roots, which the grass is continually 
 forming, to support the forced growth 
 above. 
 
 While the grass grows freely, a fresh 
 watering is not wanted ; but as soon as it 
 flags, the water must be repeated for a few 
 days at a time, always keeping this funda- 
 . mental rule in view, " to make the meadows 
 as dry as possible after every watering, and 
 689 
 
 to take off the water the moment any scum 
 appears upon the land, which shows that it 
 has already had water enough." 
 
 Some meadows that require the water 
 for three weeks in October, and the two 
 following months, will not, perhaps, bear it 
 one week in February or March, and some- 
 times scarcely two days in April and May. 
 
 In the catch-meadows, which are watered 
 by springs, the great object is, to keep the 
 works very dry between the intervals 
 of watering ; and as such situations are 
 seldom affected by floods, and generally 
 have too little water, it is necessary to make 
 the most of the water, by catching and 
 rousing it as often as possible ; and as the 
 upper works of every pitch will be liable to 
 get more water than those lower down, a 
 longer time should be given to the latter, so 
 as to make them as equal as possible. 
 (Davis's Agriculture of Wikshirc, p. 125 — 7.) 
 
 In Berkshire they first flood their water- 
 meadows about Michaelmas ; these are situ- 
 ated principally on the banks of the Ken- 
 net. The first flooding they deem the 
 richest in quality : this they keep on the 
 land for about four days, then they dry 
 them for about a fortnight, and after that the 
 water is let on for three or four days more ; 
 those meadows which are the most readily 
 dried are the most productive. There are 
 none more so, in fact, than those which 
 have a porous, gravelly, or broken flint 
 bottom, from which the flood-water readily 
 escapes, almost without drains. They be- 
 gin to feed their meadows with sheep about 
 the 6th of April, and continue feeding till 
 about the 21st of May, when the meadows 
 are again flooded for a crop of hay ; the 
 land is then flooded and dried alternately 
 for three days until hay-time. 
 
 The number of acres of land in Wiltshire 
 under this kind of management has been 
 computed, and with a tolerable degree 
 of accuracy, to be between 15,000 and 
 20,000. Some considerable additions, how- 
 ever, have been made to the water-meadows 
 of the district since this calculation was 
 made. {Davis's Wilts., p. 122.) About the 
 same number of acres are formed into 
 water-meadows in Berkshire, and a still 
 larger number in Hampshire. No one has 
 attended more carefully to his water-mea- 
 dows than Lord Western, on some of those 
 situated on the London clay-formation in 
 the Blackwater Valley in Essex, a soil of 
 all others, perhaps, from its tenacity, the 
 least adapted to their successful formation, 
 and his testimony is very important : — 
 " There is an old adage," says his lordship, 
 " that water is the best servant in agricul- 
 ture, and the worst master. Water has in 
 itself intrinsic value, — distilled through 
 
 Y Y 
 
IRRIGATION. 
 
 IVY. 
 
 chalk, lime, or marl, it acquires a portion 
 of their qualities, though preserving the 
 most perfect transparency, and, coming- 
 down in torrents and floods, it carries along 
 the finer part icles of earth and manure from 
 the mountains, or higher grounds, into the 
 valleys; hence, of course, it is that the 
 valleys derive their fertility, and the value 
 of the meadow has been originally created 
 by an accumulation of wealth from the 
 hills." (On the Improvement of Grass- 
 land, pp. 5. 14. 23.) 
 
 " In descending the Jura mountains, 
 which divide France from Switzerland, the 
 very first pasture you find on the descent 
 evinces the value placed on the mountain 
 floods by the inhabitants of those districts ; 
 and, accordingly, every stream is sedulously 
 directed and conducted over the pastures in 
 a most skilful manner. The very washing 
 of the roads in hasty rains is also attended 
 to and applied to the same purposes." This 
 system of catching the uncertain flood- 
 waters is known amongst farmers by the 
 name of catch-work, and though highly 
 valuable, yet they deem it infinitely less 
 important to them than irrigation, which is 
 watering (generally five or six times a-year) 
 from a certain and ever-accessible head of 
 water, as a river, &c. And yet Lord Wes- 
 tern s testimony is decisive in favour of 
 even one catch-Hooding ; for he observes, 
 when speaking of the expense of construct- 
 ing the requisite little channels to disperse 
 the flood-waters over the grass, — " In 
 many cases it will be trifling, in some cases 
 considerable ; but when the farmer reflects 
 that one winter's flooding will do more in 
 many, I may say in most cases, than thirty 
 loads an acre of the best rotten dung manure 
 that can be laid upon his grass lands, he 
 can hardly shrink from some considerable 
 expenditure." If, then, the effects even of 
 a catch-flooding with water are so great, 
 how infinitely superior are the advantages 
 capable of being derived from a regular 
 constant supply of the enriching foul wa- 
 ters, like those issuing from the drains of 
 a large city, which is even now most suc- 
 cessfully employed near Edinburgh, but 
 worse than wasted in the case of London ! 
 Whatever may be the value, in an agri- 
 cultural point of view, of the solid con- 
 tents of the London sewers, yet, to me, 
 the absolutely liquid portion, for the pur- 
 poses of irrigation, appear at least equally 
 important. 
 
 There is no agricultural question, there- 
 fore, of more consequence in a national 
 point of view, than that of the improve- 
 ment of the soil by the practice of irrigation ; 
 for, in its prosecution, all the rich organic 
 and other matters diffused through the 
 690 
 
 rivers, which would otherwise be carried 
 into the sea, are saved to agriculture. This 
 is not, therefore, a question like that at- 
 tending most other modes of fertilising the 
 soil, merely transposing manure from one 
 field or district to another; but it is the 
 absolute recovery, as it were, from the 
 ocean, of a mass of finely divided enrichi no- 
 substances, constantly draining from the 
 land. It is the effectual diversion of a 
 stream which is ever steadily impoverishing 
 all cultivated soils, and which unnoticed^ 
 and in too many instances deemed worth- 
 less, gliding into the ocean, is almost the 
 only drawback to the steadily increasing 
 fertility of our country. 
 
 There are papers on irrigation by Mr. 
 J. Purdy, of Castle Acre in Norfolk, Com. 
 Board of Ag. vol. vii. p. 112. ; by Mr. D. 
 Shank, of Wigtonshire, ibid. p. 170. ; by 
 Mr. Beck, of Norfolk, ibid. p. 108. ; on 
 the irrigation of Lombardy and Piedmont, 
 by Don R. S. Coutinho, ibid. p. 189. ; in 
 Aberdeenshire, ibid. vol. iv. p. 263. ; in 
 Denbighshire, ibid. p. 266. ; by Mr. Eyres, 
 of Norfolk, ibid. vol. vi. p. 328. ; by Pro- 
 fessor Rennie, Qnqr. Journ. of Ag. vol. v. 
 p. 24. ; on the foul water irrigation of Edin- 
 burgh, ibid. vol. x. p. 256. (Quar. Journ. 
 of Ag. vol. x. p. 558. ; Stephens's Practical 
 Irrigator; Brown s Rural Affairs, p. 263. ; 
 Sinclair's Hortus Gram., p. 382. ; Davis's 
 Wiltshire ; Driver's Hampshire.*) 
 
 IRRITABILITY OF PLANTS. See 
 Botany (ante, p. 228.), Temperature, and 
 
 AcCEIMITATION OF PeANTS. 
 
 ISNARDIA (named in memory of' 
 Anthony Isnard, member of the Academy 
 of Sciences). These plants are mere weeds, 
 growing in marshy situations. 
 
 The marsh isnardia (I. palustris) is the 
 only indigenous species. 
 
 It is an annual, growing in ponds and 
 watery places, blowing axillary, solitary, ses- 
 sile, small, green, and inconspicuous flowers 
 in July. The herb is floating, smooth, 
 with numerous long filamentous roots. The 
 stems are several, about a span long, simple, 
 or slightly branched, leafy, bluntly quad- 
 rangular. The leaves are opposite, stalked, 
 ovate, acute, entire, scarcely an inch in 
 length, bright green, somewhat succulent, 
 the mid-rib often red or purplish. (Eng. 
 Flor., vol. iv. p. 264.) 
 
 ITALIAN RYE-GRASS. See Rye- 
 Grass. 
 
 ITCH. In farriery, a cutaneous disease. 
 See Mange. 
 
 IVY. (Hedera helix. The name ap- 
 pears to be derived from hedra, a Celtic 
 word signifying a cord; and the English 
 name ivy is derived from ivo, a word in the 
 same language signifying green.) A hardy 
 
IVY, IRISH. 
 
 JANUARY. 
 
 evergreen climber, common everywhere in 
 Europe, which is excellent as a screen 
 planted against trellis-work. The common 
 ivy is very often employed for covering 
 naked buildings or trees, which latter it in- 
 variably kills. The stem is branched, either 
 trailing on the ground and bearing 5-lobed 
 white-veined leaves, but no flowers ; or 
 climbing, flattened and attached by dense 
 tufted fibres, which serve for support, not 
 nourishment; the flowering branches are 
 loosely spreading, round, bearing ovate, un- 
 divided leaves. Umbels aggregate, green, 
 many-flowered, their stalks covered with 
 starry pubescence, and accompanied at the 
 base by several small bracteas. The berry is 
 the size of a currant, smooth, black, inter- 
 nally whitish and mealy, with seldom more 
 than five seeds. The whole plant is some- 
 what aromatic ; and a very fragrant resin 
 exudes from the old stems when bruised. 
 
 IVY, GROUND. See Alehoof. 
 
 IVY, IRISH (Canadensis), is a fast grow- 
 ing climber, with large lobed leaves, which 
 soon covers walls and houses. It is propa- 
 gated by layers, or slips taken off and planted 
 where they are to grow. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 334. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; 
 Phillips'' Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 323.) 
 
 IXIA. (Ixia hulhocodium. The name is 
 derived from ixia, bird-lime, because of the 
 viscid nature of some of the species.) This 
 is a genus of very handsome plants when in 
 flower. Sweet recommends them to be 
 grown in a mixture of sandy loam and 
 decayed leaves, or peat soil . When they 
 have done flowering, they require no water 
 till they begin to grow afresh. In October 
 they should be first potted, and set in a 
 cool frame, as they only require to be pro- 
 tected from frosts till their pots are well 
 filled with roots, when they may be set on 
 the shelves of the greenhouse, and watered 
 regularly, and they will flower well. Most 
 of the species will grow well in a south 
 border in the open air, planted from five to 
 six inches deep, in a light sandy soil near a 
 wall, and to be covered with dry litter in 
 severe weather ; they will then flower much 
 stronger than if grown in pots, and they 
 may be increased by offsets from the bulbs 
 or by seeds. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 J. 
 
 JACK-BY-TIIE-HEDGE. One of the 
 provincial names of the garlick treacle- 
 mustard (Erysimum alliaria). See Trea- 
 cle-mustard. 
 
 JACKDAW. (Corvus monedula.) This 
 well-known bird is found common in most 
 69 1 
 
 parts of this country. Jackdaws appear to 
 prefer cultivated districts, frequenting arid 
 building in church towers, belfries, steeples, 
 chimnies, &c. The female forms a nest of 
 sticks, lined with wool and other soft sub- 
 stances, and lays from four to six eggs of a 
 pale bluish white, spotted with ash colour 
 and clove brown ; the length one inch seven 
 lines, by one inch and half a line in breadth. 
 These birds feed indiscriminately on almost 
 all substances, insects, grain, eggs, carrion, 
 shell-fish, &c. The general colour of the 
 plumage is black. The whole length of a 
 male bird about fourteen inches ; the female 
 is smaller in size. (YurreWs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 102.) 
 
 JACKFISH. See Pike. 
 
 JACOB'S LADDER, Blue or Greek 
 Valerian. (Polemonium coeruleum.') This 
 indigenous plant is a common ornament 
 of flower borders in rustic gardens, of no 
 particular qualities, notwithstanding its 
 name of valerian, derived perhaps from the 
 leaves which resemble those of some of the 
 Valerianae. The root is fibrous, not creep- 
 ing, herb nearly smooth, perennial, one and 
 a half or two feet high ; stems angular, 
 leafy, hollow, often reddish, unbranehed, 
 panicled at the top ; leaves alternate, of 
 many elliptic-lanceolate, entire leaflets, with 
 an odd one of nearly equal size. The 
 flowers, which appear in June, are rather 
 drooping, numerous, blue, occasionally white. 
 All the species are of the easiest culture 
 and propagation. (Smitlis Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 286.) 
 
 JAMOCK, or JAjSTNOCK. A pro- 
 vincial name for bread made from oatmeal. 
 
 JANUARY. The first month in the 
 year. Farmer s Calendar. In this season 
 of the year, when frost and snow very 
 commonly impede the progress of the 
 plough, and almost all other out-door 
 work, the flail and the thrashing machine 
 are wont to be busily employed. Manure, 
 however, is carted, especially on to grass- 
 lands, in frosty weather ; and now is a good 
 time, when the roads are hard, to carry 
 all kinds of artificial manure : the Essex 
 farmers are still busy with their chalk and 
 their sprats ; those of Devon with the cal- 
 careous sea sand. This, too, is a good time 
 to mix lime and salt for dressing spring- 
 corn ; two bushels of lime to one bushel of 
 salt — mix dry, and protect from wet. There 
 are few fertilising mixtures more powerful 
 than this, at the rate of from forty to sixty 
 bushels per acre ; apply it broadcast, either 
 by hand or the shovel, in March and April. 
 Cart also pond mud and ditch scrapings, 
 remains of old banks, &c. ; all these are very 
 .powerfully enriched as fertilisers at a small 
 expense, by being mixed with a bushel of 
 
 Y Y 2 
 
JANUARY. 
 
 salt or lime, or both, to a cubic yard of the 
 earth. This is a good period to burn lime, 
 an earth which is not near so extensively 
 employed on the heavy lands of the south 
 as it ought to be : the quantity is from fifty 
 to eighty bushels per acre. Look to your 
 water-courses, keep the drains in woods 
 clear. If the weather is open, now is a good 
 time for the sub-soil or sub-turf plough to 
 be at work in fallows or pastures ; but do 
 not think that the subsoil plough will render 
 under-draining unnecessary ; where you 
 subsoil, you must have your drains a foot 
 below the depth to which the ploughpene- 
 trates. Land intended for pease, beans, and 
 vetches should be ploughed (those early 
 sown on dry land always seed best), and the 
 seed may be sown in dry weather towards 
 the end of the month. If the weather is 
 soft, and the worms or slugs attack the 
 wheats, sow four or five bushel of salt per 
 acre over them early on a moist morning ; 
 the expense is trifling — the cure certain. 
 Attend to live stock : give your sheep and 
 cattle rock or other common salt in their 
 troughs ; keep a lump always in your horses' 
 mangers. The improved general health of 
 the live stock will well reward your care in 
 this respect ; remember, too, that regular 
 good feeding is better than irregular pro- 
 fusion : attend also to their cleanliness and 
 warmth ; filth and cold are much more pre- 
 judicial to all live stock, and much more 
 materially retard their fattening, than the 
 farmer commonly imagines. Ewes for early 
 spring now begin to lamb; prepare the yard 
 for them : cabbages are now very valuable 
 food for them; they are not only come-at-able 
 in all weathers, even in deep snows, and yield 
 much milk, but they never freeze like tur- 
 nips. Look to, and mix, the manure of 
 your farm-yard ; do not let the horse litter 
 remain in heaps at the stable door, but 
 spread it with that of other stock ; see that 
 no liquid manures are running to waste. 
 Look to your fences, and cleanse ditches ; 
 see that the water does not lodge on the 
 land. Cut underwood, and remember the 
 poor, for this month, says honest John 
 Worlidge, "is often the. rich man's charge, 
 and the poor man's misery." Water-mea- 
 dows must be preserved by floating from 
 the injury of frost; but they must not be 
 kept too long under water : after ten days 
 the meadow should be dried for a time. To 
 promote early laying, give your poultry 
 buckwheat and barley. Last year's early 
 pullets will begin to lay at Christmas ; re- 
 serve some, therefore, for this purpose — 
 the French farmers generally adopt this 
 plan. All fat meat sells well this month. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Artichokes, attend 
 to, shelter, &c. Asparagus, plant in a hot- 
 692 
 
 bed — attend to in forcing. Beans, plant 
 b., earth up early ones, plant in hot-bed. 
 Beet (red), plant for seed. Cabbages, 
 plant e., sow e., plant for seed. Car- 
 doons, attend to, shelter, &c. Carrots, sow 
 small crop, plant for seed. Cauliflowers, 
 attend to those under frames, as also those 
 picked, sow e. Celery, earth up, shelter, 
 &c, e. Composts, prepare and turn over. 
 Cucumbers, sow e., prick out. Dung, pre- 
 pare for hot-beds, wheel on vacant ground. 
 Earth up plants disturbed by frost. Endive, 
 blanch. Frost, protect plants from, that 
 require it. Ground (vacant), dig trenches, 
 &c. Hot-beds, make and attend to. Horse 
 radish, plant e. Jerusalem artichokes, 
 plant e. Kidney beans, sow in hot-beds, e. 
 Liquorice, plant e., dig up three year old 
 plants. Lettuces, in frames, attend to, 
 transplant to force, sow e. Melons, sow. 
 Mint, force in hot-bed. Mushroom bed, 
 make, attend to those in production. Mus- 
 tard and cress, sow in hot-bed. Onions 
 (winter standing) clean from weeds, examine 
 those in store, sow small crop, e., plant for 
 seed. Peas, sow, earth up advancing, plant 
 in hot-bed, prepare sticks for. Potatoes, 
 plant. Radishes, sow in hot-beds and in 
 borders, e. Rape (for salading), sow in 
 hot- bed, (edible rooted) sow. Savoys, plant 
 for seed. Shelter tender plants from frost. 
 Small salading, sow. Spinach, clean from 
 weeds, sow e. Tansy, plant in hot-beds. 
 Tarragon, plant in hot-bed. Turnips, plant 
 for seed. Weeds, continually destroy, and 
 do every thing that can tend to lessen the 
 work of the next month, which is generally 
 more busy than this. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Keep your lawn and 
 grass walks neat and smooth, by rolling ; 
 if any part requires fresh turf, this is the 
 season for cutting and laying it down: 
 that from a common is best, as the herbage 
 is short and free from nettles, docks, &c. ; 
 lay it down firm and even, allowing for 
 the sinking of the newly laid earth an inch 
 or two ; roll it well after it is down. Weed 
 and roll gravel walks in dry weather ; if you 
 attempt to roll in wet weather the gravel 
 clings to the roller. Dig clumps where 
 you intend to plant evergreens in February 
 and March — the frost will render newly 
 dug earth more friable. If the weather 
 is very settled and mild, you may still plant 
 out hardy deciduous shrubs, such as sweet- 
 briars, double bramble, double-blossomed 
 cherry, dwarf almond, jasmines, honey- 
 suckles, roses, lilacs, laburnums, guelder- 
 rose, spme frutex, mezereons, &c. ; trims- 
 plant each shrub with a good ball of earth 
 round its roots. Prune flowering shrubs 
 now where they require it, with a sharp 
 knife, not with shears — when I say flower- 
 
JANUARY. 
 
 JASMINE. 
 
 ing shrubs, I do not mean shrubs in. 
 flower, but shrubs that do flower. Trans- 
 plant suckers from hardy flowering shrubs ; 
 take care not to injure their roots, support 
 them neatly with stakes. Cuttings of shoots 
 of hardy deciduous shrubs may be planted 
 in mild weather to root, and form good 
 plants by the autumn. Layers may also be 
 formed. Protect all the choicer species of 
 flowering shrubs, and all cuttings of every 
 kind, from severe frosts, by spreading litter 
 over them. Plant tulips in mild weather, 
 to blow late in the year ; but they will not 
 be so handsome as those which were planted 
 in September and October: the same re- 
 mark applies to ranunculuses, anemones, 
 &c. Protect all choice bulbs and tuberous- 
 rooted perennials from severe weather. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — January 
 was placed as leader of the months by Numa 
 Pompilius, when he added two months to 
 the old Alban calendar formed by Romulus, 
 though it was not admitted to the same 
 precedence in this country until a motion 
 was made to that effect by the Earl of Mac- 
 clesfield, on the 18th of March, 1750, in the 
 House of Peers. It was then determined 
 that our calendar should be ordered accord- 
 ing to the Gregorian style, the Julian style 
 being previously followed ; and accordingly 
 the year was accustomed to commence with 
 March, though, as some persons had pre- 
 viously considered January as the first 
 month of the year, any occurrence in Ja- 
 nuary and February was noted as happening 
 in two years, as 1750-1. Numa assigned 
 to January 31 days, the Decemvirs dimi- 
 nished them to 29 ; but Julius Caesar re- 
 stored to it the original number. 
 
 January received its name in honour of 
 Janus, the most ancient king of Italy, who, 
 after death, in common with many others, 
 increased the number of the Roman deities. 
 From their mythology, no individual could 
 be selected whose attributes rendered him 
 so appropriate to preside over the first 
 month of the year as Janus. He was con- 
 sidered as possessing two or four faces (bi- 
 frons or quadrifrons) : with one, depicted 
 as the visage of an experienced sage, he 
 looked back upon the past ; the other, beam- 
 ing with youth and expectancy, was turned 
 to futurity ; whilst those to the right and 
 left viewed the current of affairs as it 
 passed. So should it be with every Janua- 
 rian : guided by experience, and calculating 
 the probability of future events, we should 
 ever regulate our actions ; but at the com- 
 mencement of a new year we seem espe- 
 cially called upon to make some general 
 calculations, to institute some general regu- 
 lations. Varied scenes have been shifted 
 in the past act of life's drama : some beacon 
 693 
 
 must have arisen to guide the hero through 
 the next; — some follies have been perpe- 
 trated, some sorrows experienced, many 
 pleasures participated in, still more mercies 
 manifested. Are not these subjects of re- 
 pentance, warning, and thankfulness ? Janus 
 presides over gates and avenues ; thus sym- 
 bolically he admitted the new year, and 
 attended the departure of the old. By those 
 who have laboured to trace a resemblance 
 between the characters of Scripture and 
 those of Heathen Mythology, and to prove 
 that those of the latter are corrupted types 
 of the former, Janus is believed to be a 
 sketch of Noah. Noah, having survived the 
 deluge, was the sole recorder of the past, as 
 well as the calculator of the future. Janus 
 is reported to have taught mankind how to 
 plant the vine — Noah is recorded to have 
 done the same. Janus is said to have lived 
 in the golden age of the world — Noah in 
 that period when nature was reviving in 
 all its pristine purity after its late calamity. 
 
 The Saxons named this month Wolf 
 monath, because, as prey became scarce in 
 their native haunts, these ravenous beasts 
 prowled near the habitations of man, and 
 more endangered his life. As Christianity 
 arose, it was designated Aefteryula, or after 
 Christmas. In the now obsolete language 
 of Cornwall it is named Genver, an obvious 
 corruption of January, in French, Janvier. 
 Our January was divided amongst two of 
 their months — Nivose, which extended from 
 the 2 1st of December to the 20th of January ; 
 and Phwiose, from the 20th of January* to 
 the 1 9th of February. {Farmer 's Almanac.) 
 
 JASMINE. (Jasminum. Linnaeus de- 
 rives the name from z'a, a violet, and osme, 
 smell ; some assert that it is from ysmyn, the 
 Arabic name of the plant.) The species 
 of this very elegant genus are familiar to 
 every one. The stove and greenhouse 
 kinds thrive well in a mixture of sand, loam, 
 and peat ; and cuttings of the ripened wood 
 root freely in soil or sand under a glass in 
 heat. The hardy kinds thrive well in any 
 common soil, and are easily increased by 
 cuttings planted under a glass. They are 
 remarkably well adapted for training over 
 an arbour, or against a wall or trellis-work. 
 The genuine oil of jasmine of the shops is 
 the produce of ./". grandiflorum and J. offi- 
 cinale; but a similar perfume is obtained 
 from J. sambac. (Paxton's Bot. Diet.) " We 
 now reckon," says Phillips, writing in 1823 
 (Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 317.), " eleven dis- 
 tinct species of jasmines, besides varieties 
 of several of them." But more than thirty 
 species, besides sub-varieties, are described 
 in later botanical and floricultural works. 
 
 The common white jasmine (J. officinale) 
 is a native of the East Indies, growing from 
 
 Y Y 3 
 
JAY, THE. 
 
 JOHN'S WORT. 
 
 ten to twelve feet high, blooming deliciously 
 sweet, delicately shaped, white flowers from 
 July to October. It is admirable for trellis 
 work and arbours. The white jasmine 
 thrives best in a light warm soil, but it will 
 grow in any ground in a sheltered situation. 
 The yellow jasmine (J. humile), a shrub 
 growing four and five feet high, blows a 
 yellow flower from July to September. It 
 is not sweet like the white, but very elegant 
 in appearance. Both these sorts may be 
 propagated by suckers. 
 
 Phillips, speaking of jasmines, says, " They 
 should be woven into the trellised arch or 
 alcove, climb the palisades, rest on the 
 branches of the broad-leaved laurel, cover 
 the dead wall, and run gaily wild over the 
 shrubs of the wilderness walks, whilst, obe- 
 dient to the scissors of the gardener, they 
 are formed into bushy shrubs and little trees 
 for the near approach to the dwelling, 
 where, in the morning and evening, their 
 star-topped tubes send forth a shower of 
 odours that embalm, refresh, and purify 
 the surrounding air. 
 
 many a perfume breathed 
 
 From plants that wake when others sleep ; 
 
 From timid jasmine buds, that keep 
 
 Their odour to themselves all day, 
 
 But when the sun-light dies away, 
 
 Let the delicious secret out 
 
 To every breeze that roams about — Moore." 
 
 JAY, THE. (Garrulus glandarius.) The 
 jay is a handsome bird, well known in most 
 of the wooded districts of England ; and it 
 also inhabits some of the midland and more 
 southern counties of Ireland, where it is 
 said to have been much more common for- 
 merly than now, because, being considered 
 to do injury to young trees, by a statute of 
 the 17 Geo. 2. grand juries were empow- 
 ered to offer three-pence for the head of 
 each jay, which reward soon had the effect 
 of thinning their numbers. The jay has a 
 peculiar propensity for mimicking the cries 
 of other birds and domestic animals. The 
 jay builds its nest in a thick bush, or tall 
 hedge row. The nest is cup-shaped, open 
 at the top, formed on the outside with 
 short sticks, and thickly lined with fine 
 roots and grass. The eggs are five or six 
 in number, of a yellowish-white ground 
 colour, minutely and thickly speckled all 
 over with light brown. They are one inch 
 four lines long, by one inch broad. The 
 breast and belly of this bird are of a reddish 
 buff colour. The forehead and crown of 
 the head are greyish white, and the elon- 
 gated feathers form a crest which the bird 
 can elevate at pleasure. On each side of 
 the lower mandible there is a moustache- 
 like spot of velvet black, an inch long. 
 The logs, toes, and claws are pale brown. 
 The whole length of the bird is thirteen 
 694 
 
 inches and three quarters. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 116.) 
 
 JERSEY STAR THISTLE. (Centaurea 
 Isnardi.) See Star Thistle. 
 
 JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. See 
 Artichoke 
 
 JOHN'S WORT, or ST. JOHN'S 
 WORT. {Hypericum. The generic name 
 is said to be derived from uper, and eicon, 
 an image. The superior part of the floAver 
 represents a figure. The common name 
 is derived from their coming into flower 
 about St. John the Baptist's day.) The 
 most part of the species of this extensive 
 genus are showy plants. The greenhouse 
 and frame shrubby kinds do well in loam 
 and peat, and young cuttings root freely in 
 sand under a glass. The hardy shrubs are 
 well fitted for the front of shrubberies, 
 being dwarf and showy. They may be in- 
 creased by divisions or seeds, as well as 
 the herbaceous kinds, which thrive well 
 in any common soil. The seeds of the 
 annual species have only to be sown in 
 the open ground in spring. The indige- 
 nous species are eleven in number, viz., — 
 
 1. Large-flowered St. John's Wort. (//. 
 calycinum.) A shrub, growing wild in bushy 
 places in the west of Ireland and Scotland. 
 The root of this species is creeping, the 
 stems shrubby, erect, twelve or eighteen 
 inches high, with simple, leafy, square 
 branches, smooth like every other part. 
 Leaves, ovate-oblong, varying in bluntness, 
 coriaceous, evergreen, about two inches 
 long, on very short stalks. The flowers, 
 which appear from July to September, are 
 two or three inches wide, of a bright golden 
 yellow, with innumerable reddish tremulous 
 anthers. This plant is a great ornament to 
 shrubberies and parks, and excellent as a 
 shelter for game, bearing any cold of our 
 climate. 
 
 2. Tutsan, or Park Leaves. (H. Androsce- 
 mum.) This shrub is found in moist shady 
 lanes, thickets, and woods in Britain and 
 Ireland, but not very general. It is rather 
 taller and more branched than the preceding ; 
 the branches are quadrangular, more or less 
 compressed. Leaves ovate, or somewhat 
 heart-shaped, sessile, widely spreading. 
 Panicles terminal, erect, forked, many flow- 
 ered, with angular or winged smooth stalks. 
 The flowers, which appear in July and 
 August, are an inch wide, yellow, with three 
 sets of stamens, and as many styles. The 
 leaves and other parts have an aromatic 
 scent when rubbed. 
 
 3. Square St. John's Wort, or St. Peter's 
 Wort. (H. quadrangulum.) This species is 
 perennial, and common in moist meadows 
 and thickets, and about the banks of rivers. 
 The root is somewhat woody, creeping ; the 
 
JOHN'S WORT. 
 
 JULY. 
 
 herb smooth, light green ; stems several, 
 from one to two feet high, erect, leafy, 
 acutely quadrangular, with convex inter- 
 stices, beset from top to bottom with short, 
 opposite, axillary, leafy branches ; leaves 
 crossing each other in pairs, sessile, elliptical 
 or ovate, obtuse, many -ribbed, veiny, full of 
 minute, colourless, pellucid dots, and bor- 
 dered with a more or less perfect row of 
 dark-coloured ones yielding a blood-red 
 liquor. The uppermost branches form a 
 leafy dense panicle of numerous lemon- 
 coloured flowers, about half the size of the 
 last-described species. 
 
 4. Common perforated St. John's Wort. 
 (H. perforation.) This perennial species is 
 met with abundantly in thickets, woods, 
 hedges, and on dry banks. The root is 
 woody, tufted, and somewhat creeping ; 
 the stem reaches to the height of eighteen 
 inches, and is round and bushy in conse- 
 quence of the much greater length of its 
 axillary leafy branches. The whole herb is 
 moreover of a darker green, with a more 
 powerful scent when rubbed, staining the 
 fingers with a dark purple, from the greater 
 abundance of coloured essential oil lodged 
 in the herbage and even in the petals : the 
 leaves are very numerous, smaller than the 
 last, elliptical or ovate, obtuse, various in 
 width ; the flowers are numerous, in dense 
 forked terminal panicles, bright yellow, 
 dotted and streaked with black or dark 
 purple. This species is eaten by goats, cows, 
 and sheep, but is refused by horses and 
 hogs. As this plant was found to bleed at 
 the slightest touch, it was supposed to have 
 a vulnerary quality, and became the "balm 
 of the warrior's wound," giving a blood-red 
 colour to every composition, whether of a 
 spirituous or oily nature, into which it en- 
 tered. It contains resin, and the leaves 
 give a good red dye to wool and oil. 
 
 5. Imperforate St. John's Wort. (H. du- 
 bium.) This species inhabits rather moun- 
 tainous groves and thickets. In habit it is 
 like the last, with long, leafy, lateral branches, 
 but the leaves are larger, paler beneath, 
 with few or no colourless, pellucid dots. 
 The young radical shoots are bright red ; 
 the stem quadrangular in the upper part, 
 but not winged or bordered ; the petals and 
 calyx are dotted and blotched with dark 
 purple. 
 
 6. Trailing St. John's Wort. (II. humi- 
 fusum.') This is a pretty little procumbent 
 smooth species, with the lemon-like scent of 
 H. dubinm and perforatum, which tenants 
 sandy or gravelly, heathy, and rather boggy 
 pastures. The root is fibrous, stem com- 
 pressed, prostrate ; flowers few, somewhat 
 cymose ; leaves elliptical, smooth. 
 
 7. Mountain St. John's Wort. (II. mon- 
 
 695 
 
 tanum.) Though not an ostentatious plant, 
 this species well deserves John Bauhin's 
 epithet of " most elegant." The glutinous 
 dark fringes of its calyx and bracteas re- 
 semble the glands of a moss-rose ; the stems 
 are erect, round, smooth, about two feet 
 high ; the leaves ovate, naked, clasping the 
 stem. 
 
 8. Bearded St. John's Wort (II. barba- 
 turri), which grows for the most part in 
 bushy places in Scotland, on a herbaceous 
 stem a foot or more in height, flowering in 
 September and October : 9. Hairy St. John's 
 Wort (II. hirsutum), flourishing in thickets 
 and hedges, chiefly on a dry chalky soil, 
 stem two feet high : 10. Small upright St. 
 John's Wort (H. pulchrum), met with very 
 frequent in woods and bushy heathy places 
 on a clay soil ; stem twelve to eighteen in- 
 ches high: 11. Marsh St. John's Wort (//. 
 elodes), stems procumbent, creeping. There 
 are other species, which call for no detailed 
 description. (Fng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 322 — 
 330.) 
 
 JOINTED GLASSWORT. See Glass- 
 wort. 
 
 JOINTS. In botany, the places at 
 which the pieces of the stem are articulated 
 with each other. 
 
 JONQUIL. A species of daffodil, of 
 which there are several sorts. The great 
 jonquil and the odorous jonquil blow about 
 the middle of March. The lesser or proper 
 jonquil somewhat later. When they blow 
 well and early they forebode a fine season. 
 
 JOURNEY. In husbandry, signifies 
 provincially a yoking, or as much ground 
 as can be ploughed over in a day ; though 
 it is not applied in the same way in all 
 districts, nor has it the same signification, 
 for in some places it is used to express a 
 much less proportion of labour. See Team. 
 
 JUDAS TREE. (Cercis.) This is a 
 beautiful genus of ornamental trees, flower- 
 ing early in spring, and looking very pretty 
 planted singly on a lawn, or trained to a 
 wall or trellis ; they grow to the height of 
 twenty feet, prefer an open loamy soil, 
 and may be plentifully increased from seeds. 
 (PaxtovLS Bot. Diet. ; Phillips' Sylv. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 318.) 
 
 JULY. The seventh month of the year. 
 Farmer s Calendar. This is the chief turnip- 
 sowing month of the east of England. It is 
 now that the farmer's hopes and fears of a 
 plant of turnips are excited by every cloud, 
 and depressed by every gleam of sunshine. 
 Now we hear on all sides the details 
 of the horrors of i; the fly," " the palmer," 
 " the caterpillar," and " the grub," and 
 yet all these dangers must be boldly met, 
 for what is the plight of the light land 
 cultivator without his turnips ? Let such, 
 
 Y Y 4 
 
JULY. 
 
 therefore, to attain success, neglect no 
 reasonable precaution or scientific improve- 
 ment. Drill in rows, and use the manure 
 drill. A weak solution of carbonate of 
 ammonia (lib. to five quarts of water) is a 
 good steep for the seed ; we have seen a 
 pound of saltpetre added to the ammonia 
 with good effect. Keep the hand-hoe or the 
 horse-hoe constantly at work ; this, by 
 keeping the soil loose, admits the air to the 
 roots of the young turnips, and pushes them 
 rapidly into broad leaf. You may have to 
 sow two or three times for this valuable 
 root, but have in case of need, especially 
 for your Swedish turnip land, a copious 
 supply of cabbage plants ready to fill up 
 all gaps ; they will supply by good manage- 
 ment almost all the deficiencies in the 
 Swedish turnips. Do not fancy that by 
 any mechanical means you can kill the 
 flies, or that the black caterpillars are bred 
 in the crushed bones ; the boiled bones of 
 Manchester are extensively used for tur- 
 nips in the midland counties, and the fields 
 where these have been drilled are equally 
 attacked with those manured with the 
 fresh or green bones. Rapecake powder 
 has been successfully drilled with the 
 turnip seed in Norfolk and Essex, at the 
 rate of five or six cwt. per acre : this fer- 
 tiliser is very noxious to the wireworm — 
 the most stubborn of all the predatory 
 vermin of the farmer's crops. Rape and 
 coleseed may be sown this month, either 
 after tares or amongst beans, to be fed off 
 for wheat. 
 
 Let your sheep have shade, and water. 
 Ewes, to produce early lambs, should be 
 Avell kept this month, that they may be the 
 more ready for the ram the beginning of 
 next month. Ewes for this purpose are 
 now commonly bought in. Take the boars 
 from the sows from this month until the 
 middle of November, that the sows may 
 not farrow in winter. Hunters are now 
 taken in from grass. 
 
 Horse-hoe potatoes and hoe carrots. Lu- 
 cern may be cut and hoed this month ; do 
 not mow it too close to the ground, close 
 cutting injures it. Fold your sheep on 
 the lands intended to be first sown ; wean 
 lambs. Carry earthy manures ; cut pease 
 and rye. Buckwheat (" the brank " of 
 Essex) should not be sown after the first 
 of this month. Harvest is now close upon 
 you ; prepare the foundations for your 
 corn stacks ; look to your tarpaulins, 
 frames, thatching straw, and waggons. Re- 
 pair and make hurdles, and have as little 
 farming work left for the next busy harvest 
 month as you possibly can. This is often 
 one of the wettest months in the year. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Alexanders, earth 
 696 
 
 up. Artichokes, attend to. Asparagus 
 beds, clean, leave off cutting from. Beans, 
 plant b., leave some in production for 
 seed. Beet, red, thin b., Green White, 
 sow b. Borage, sow e. Borecole, plant, 
 prick out. Broccoli, prick out, plant. 
 Cauliflowers, plant e. Cabbages, plant, 
 prick out seedlings, sow, earth up advan- 
 cing. Carrots, thin b., sow b. Celery, 
 prick out, plant, earth up. Celeriac, plant. 
 Chamomile flowers, gather. Coleworts, 
 plant. Coriander, sow. Chervil, sow e. 
 Cucumbers, attend to. Cress, American, 
 sow, earth up where necessary. Endive, 
 plant, sow. Finochio, earth up. Garlic, 
 take up as wanted. Horse radish, attend 
 to hoeing. Particularly attend to Kidney 
 beans (dwarfs) sow, runners sow b., at- 
 tend to advancing crops. Lavender, gather. 
 Leeks, weed, &c. and plant b. Lettuces, 
 plant, sow, leave for seed. Marigolds, 
 flowers, gather. Marjorum, gather for 
 drying. Melons, attend to. Mint, plant b. 
 Mushroom bed, attend to, make c. Spawn, 
 collect. Onions, weed, &c, press down 
 leaves, sow b. Parsley, sow, Hamburgh, 
 thin, &c. Parsnips, weed, &c. Peas, sow, 
 hoe advancing, leave for seed. Peppermint, 
 gather. Pompions, are fit for pickling, 
 attend to. Pot-herbs, are fit in general for 
 drying and distilling. Radishes, sow. 
 Rampion, is fit for use e. Rape, edible- 
 rooted, sow. Salsafy, thin, &c. Savoys, 
 plant. Scorzonera, thin, &c. Scurvy 
 grass, sow seeds, gather as they ripen. 
 Small salading, sow. Spinach, sow, hoe, 
 and thin, stir ground between plants. 
 Succory, sow. Turnips, sow b. and hoe 
 advancing crops. Turnip cabbage, prick 
 out vacant ground for, dig free from weeds, 
 &c, water where necessary. Wormwood, 
 plant. 
 
 Flower Garden. — You may lay car- 
 nations and double sweet-williams still, but 
 let it be done before the end of the second 
 week in this month. Propagate by slips 
 and pipings. Transplant the seedling 
 auriculas which were sown last year, and 
 also the seedling polyanthus. Transplant 
 the perennial and biennial seedlings which 
 were not done last month, to remain till 
 October. Take up all bulbs as fast as 
 their leaves decay. If this month prove 
 hot and dry, place your potted carnations 
 in a sheltered situation, and keep them 
 just moist. Support flowering shrubs and 
 plants, and cut away decayed steins. Keep 
 the borders clean. Mow the lawn and 
 grass walks. Plant autumnal bulbs. 
 
 This is indeed the carnival month of all 
 vegetation, and of the insect tribe. The fox- 
 glove is universally in flower in its opening 
 days ; the garden convolvolus, (C tricolor), 
 
JUNE. 
 
 and the flowering rush, soon follow. The 
 nightshade, the bittersweet, the great 
 yellow wolfsbane, are all in full bloom. 
 The toad-flax flowers about the twelfth ; 
 the water-plaintain a few days later ; then 
 the garden persicary, and towards the close 
 of the month the mountain groundsel L and 
 the purple willowhest are in flower. 
 Roses, " the pride of the garden," and 
 pinks, are fast departing. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — July, 
 the fifth month of the Roman calendar, 
 received in consequence the name of 
 Quintilis, to denote its numerical position. 
 It was sacred to Jupiter, and had in the 
 Alban calendar thirty-six days. Romulus 
 took from it five days. Numa reduced it 
 to thirty, but Julius Ca?sar enlarged it to 
 thirty-one, the present number. In honour 
 of this conqueror, Mark Antony changed 
 its name from Quintilis to Julius, hence our 
 July. Our Saxon forefathers, who com- 
 monly named their months from certain 
 natural appearances or events, denominated 
 this month Heio monath or Hey monath, 
 since this was their hay harvest ; also, 
 from their meadows being then in flower, 
 they called it Maed monath. In Holland 
 also, in the days of the republic, this was 
 denominated Hooymaand, or Hay month. 
 (Farmer 's Almanac.) 
 
 JUNE. The sixth month of the year. 
 Farmers Calendar. Your fallows now 
 demand your earnest attention ; continue 
 to plough and cleanse them. Swedish tur- 
 nips are now being sown in all parts of 
 England ; drill these in rows, and, if pos- 
 sible, use the manure drill. There are 
 a multitude of. artificial manures, which 
 the farmer may in need have recourse to : 
 crushed bones, either by themselves, or 
 mixed and fermented with an equal quan- 
 tity of sheep- dung, ashes, saw -dust, or 
 peat wetted with urine, are all excellent ; 
 then again, these being exhausted, there are 
 — the urate of the London Manure Com- 
 pany, Poittevin's, Clarke's, and Lance's 
 composts, the graves or refuse tallow of the 
 candle melters. If you have none of these, 
 five -and- twenty or thirty bushels per acre 
 of dry ashes, mixed with three gallons of 
 train oil, has been found by Mr. George 
 Sherbourn to be excellent. Drill as soon 
 as you have mixed the oil, otherwise it 
 heats. And Mr. Hewitt Davis, rather than 
 not have some kind of manure for his drill, 
 has succeeded with only the ashes, and has 
 grown excellent crops of turnips with these 
 alone. When your Swedish turnips fail, 
 fill up the rows with cabbage plants ; hand 
 and horse-hoe them. Buckwheat, vetches, 
 &c, when intended for manure, may be 
 ploughed in now, just as they are going out 
 697 
 
 of bloom. Plant out cabbages. Weed 
 your wheat, peas, and beans. Soil your 
 live stock. Cut clover, meadow-grass, and 
 sainfoin for hay. If your hay is damaged 
 by heavy rains, add salt to it as you stack 
 it — 14 to 28 lbs. of salt to a load of hay ; 
 your stock will prefer such to all others. 
 Cart out your manure, and plough it in 
 as soon as you can after it is spread ; it is 
 much injured by exposure to the sun and 
 wind ; its richest portions are dried up, its 
 salts of ammonia are dissipated. 
 
 Watch your sheep ; the fly is now on the 
 wing. Have your shears sharpened, and 
 the hellebore powder and black brimstone 
 ready ; the proportions ± lb. of hellebore 
 root powder to 1^ lb. of black brimstone. 
 Sprinkle from the head to the tail with a 
 dredging box. Wash and shear your 
 sheep ; see that the clot is removed, and 
 that the shearers do not cut too close ; 
 have some ointment ready for the wounded 
 places. 
 
 Hoe carrots and potatoes. Weed flax. 
 Tie your hop bines, and prune them when 
 needful. Hoe carefully young lucern. 
 Carry chalk, marl, and clay. Clean out 
 ponds ; husband the mud. Sow cole seed. 
 Take care of milch cows, that they are not 
 overheated ; their health, and consequently 
 their produce of milk, is more injured by sul- 
 try weather, and by being irritated by the 
 flies, than the farmer sometimes supposes. 
 If the farmer will j3are and burn his soil, 
 this is a good time for this generally in- 
 jurious operation. Burn clay. This is a 
 proper time to plant holly hedges ; they 
 grow slowly, but they are the best of all 
 hedges when sufficiently grown ; they suc- 
 ceed best on the level ground, protected 
 from live stock by fencing, or two rows of 
 hurdles. Burn lime ; mix lime and salt 
 together, dry, for your wheat, at the rate 
 of two bushels of lime and one bushel of 
 salt ; protect the mixture from the wea- 
 ther. For boggy or peaty land, lime is an 
 excellent dressing. Look to the bees, they 
 are now about to swarm. Hire your har- 
 vest men. This is a good time to inclose 
 waste land. Calculate the advantages of 
 spade husbandry, compared with horse 
 labour ; the expense is much more nearly 
 the same than some persons believe. If 
 possible, prefer manual labour ; one good 
 digging is better for the land than two or 
 three ploughings ; the soil is better pul- 
 verised, the land more completely levelled 
 This is a good time to form tanks for liquid 
 manure. Towards the end of the month, 
 the sowing of Aberdeen, bullock, and the va- 
 rieties of hybrid Swede turnips commences, 
 and these are followed by the different round 
 turnips. Hand-weed all your corn ; cut 
 
JUNE. 
 
 JUNIPER. 
 
 down weeds in the hedges — do not let 
 them ripen their seed. 
 
 Kitchen Garden. — Alexanders, earth up. 
 Artichokes, weed, &c. Asparagus beds, 
 clean, &c. Beans, plant, hoe, &c., ad- 
 vancing crops. Beets, thin, &c. Borecole, 
 plant, sow b., prick out. Broccoli, sow b., 
 prick out, plant. Basil, plant b. Cabbages, 
 sow, prick out, plant, earth up, &c. Cap- 
 sicums, plant b. Carrots, thin, &c. Cauli- 
 flowers, prick out ; seedlings, earth up, &c, 
 leave for seed. Celery, sow b., plant, earth 
 up, advancing. Celeriac, plant. Coleworts, 
 sow for, plant. Cucumbers, sow b., plant 
 b., in forcing attend to. Cardoons, thin 
 and plant out. Coriander, sow. Cress, 
 American, sow, water, plant, earthing up 
 attend to. Endive, sow b. v plant. Fennel, 
 j)lant. Finochio, sow, earth up advancing 
 crops. Garlic is fit for present use. Herbs, 
 for drying and distilling, gather. Jerusalem 
 a?*tic7iokes, hoe, &c. Kidney beans, dwarfs, 
 sow, runners attend to. Leeks, thin, &c, 
 transplant e. Lettuce, sow, plant, &c, 
 leave for seed. Melons, plant out. Mint, 
 plant. Onions, thin, &c, transplant into 
 deficiencies. Parsley, sow. Hamburg 
 ditto, thin. Parsnips, thin. Peas, sow, 
 attend to advancing crops. Potatoes, hoe 
 e. Pompions, plant, b. Radishes, sow. 
 Itampion, thin. Sage, plant. Salsafy, thin. 
 Savoys, plant, prick out. Scorzonera, thin, 
 Scurvy-grass, sow seeds, attend to and 
 gather. Small salading, sow. Spinach 
 sow, thin advancing; stir ground between 
 crop in rows, &c. Succory, sow. Tarra- 
 gon, plant. Thinning, attend to. Tomatos, 
 plant out, b. Turnips, sow, thin advancing. 
 Turnip cabbage, sow, plant, attend to their 
 watering and weeding. Wormwood, plant. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Propagate carnations 
 by layers and pipings ; double sweet-williams 
 and pinks, by layers and cuttings or slips ; 
 perennial fibrous-rooted plants, by cuttings 
 of the stalks. Transplant the large annuals 
 from the seedling bed to the places where 
 they are to remain ; let this be done in 
 showery weather if possible. Take up all 
 bulbs, ranunculus and anemone roots, &c, 
 as the flowers and roots- decay. Water the 
 delicate plants, if the weather proves dry ; 
 give a moderate watering every evening, 
 but never in the heat of the clay. Sow 
 some hardy annuals, such as ten-week 
 stocks, virgin-stocks, &c. Plant out China- 
 asters, Chinese hollyhocks, ten-weeks' con- 
 volvulus, &c. ; but let each root have a ball 
 of earth round it. Examine the perennial 
 and biennial plants, to cut off all dead, 
 broken, or decaying shoots. Trim the 
 African and French marigolds from their 
 lower straggling shoots, that they may pre- 
 sent a neat, upright appearance. Trim the 
 698 
 
 chrysanthemums, which are apt to branch 
 too near the root, and stake them neatly. 
 Plant out carnations and pink seedlings into 
 their proper places. Keep everything just 
 moderately moist, if there is drought in 
 this month. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — June was 
 the Thamur or Tamuz of the Hebrews — 
 that is, after their escape from the Babylo- 
 nish captivity, for previously to that they 
 had simply distinguished their months by 
 the aid of numeration. Thamur, or Tamuz, 
 signifies continuance and perfection, alluding 
 probably to the almost uninterrupted day- 
 light, maturation of fruit, &c, which occur 
 during its continuance. The Greeks named 
 it Desios, from a surname of Juno, inti- 
 mating that she presided over marriages 
 and births. The Romans designated it 
 Junius, according to Macrobius, in honour 
 of the same goddess, which is a much more 
 probable derivation of the name than that 
 which assigns it as being applicable to the 
 youth (Juventus) of the year, or in honour 
 of the Roman youths (juniorum), though 
 the first has the name of Plutarch, and the 
 latter that of Ovid, in its support as an 
 opinion. Romulus assigned to it the name 
 and the number of days which we have 
 adopted. Our Saxon ancestors named it 
 Lida, which signifies gentle and navigable, 
 because the serenity of the season was pro- 
 pitious for voyages in their frail vessels. 
 They also knew it as the weyd monath, be- 
 cause their cattle did now feed (weyd) in 
 the meadows. 
 
 All nature is now putting on her gayest 
 attire ; life is teeming around us in all pos- 
 sible directions, and, as Paley says, " it is a 
 happy life too." In the early days of this 
 month our lady's lily (Lilium candidum) com- 
 monly flowers. The " electric " marigolds 
 are now in full bloom. White flowers are 
 visible all night. The white bindwell (Con- 
 volvulus sepium) comes into flower about 
 the ninth. Starlings now congregate. The 
 lavatera and tiger-lily bloom about the 
 18th. The berries of the" mountain ash 
 begin to redden. Dragon flies are appear- 
 ing as the month closes. (Farmers Al- 
 manac.} 
 
 JUNET or JURNUT. A common 
 country name for the earth-nut. 
 
 JUNIPER. (Jwiiperus, derived from 
 the Celtic juniperus, rough or rude, in al- 
 lusion to the stiff habit of the shrubs.) 
 This genus is too well known to need to 
 be particularised here. All the species will 
 grow in sandy loam, and some in any com- 
 mon garden soil. They are mostly raised 
 from seed, though cuttings will strike when 
 planted in a sheltered situation, under a 
 hand-glass. The stimulating and diuretic 
 
JUNIPER. 
 
 JURY. 
 
 powers of the savin (J. sabiua) are well 
 known. The fruit of J. communis are 
 proverbial for the flavour they give to gin. 
 (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) The species are all 
 evergreen aromatic shrubs, with narrow 
 leaves, either spreading and sharp-pointed, 
 or closely imbricated, minute, and obtuse. 
 The fruit is globular or oval, black or 
 brown, with a glaucous efflorescence. 
 
 J. sabina is a native of the south of Eu- 
 rope, but it is cultivated as an evergreen in 
 our gardens. The plant is a pyramidal 
 shrub, with small closely-adhering glan- 
 dular leaves, which exhale, when rubbed, a 
 strong heavy odour, and have a bitter, 
 nauseous taste. By distillation they yield 
 a large quantity of volatile oil, which has 
 the odour and taste of the recent plant. 
 Savin is a powerful acrid poison, irritating 
 and vesicating the skin when it is ap- 
 plied to it. When swallowed in large 
 doses, it causes vomiting, purging, and in- 
 flammation of the stomach and bowels. It 
 operates specially on the liver, the kidneys, 
 and, by contiguity, on the womb in females. 
 It has been used by young women to cause 
 criminal abortion ; but it is as likely to 
 kill the mother as the child. A cerate of 
 it is useful for keeping open blisters ; but 
 a membrane forms on the surface to which 
 it is applied, and this must be regularly re- 
 moved before each dressing. 
 
 The common juniper (/.communis) grows 
 wild on hills and heathy downs, especially 
 where the soil is chalky. Dr. Sibthorpe 
 found it on Olympus and Athos, in Greece. 
 It is, like all the species, a bushy shrub, 
 with evergreen, linear pointed, glaucous 
 leaves, dark green on the under disk. The 
 flowers are axillary, .small, sessile, male and 
 female organs in separate flowers. The 
 fruit, although called a berry, is a galbalus 
 or succulent cone. It requires two seasons 
 to arrive at maturity. The dwarf alpine 
 juniper (J. nana) is a variety of the com- 
 munis. It grows upon lofty mountains, 
 and is, as its name implies, more humble in 
 its growth. These are the only indigenous 
 species. The tops and the fruit are used in 
 medicine as powerful diuretics. The former 
 have a bitter, turpentine flavour and co- 
 lour ; the fruit is sweetish, with an agree- 
 able, somewhat balsamic, odour, depending 
 upon a volatile oil, and a peculiar saccharine 
 matter analogous to the sugar of the grape. 
 The volatile oil is contained in cells in the 
 shell of the seeds ; hence, in making infusion 
 of juniper, the seeds should be bruised. 
 The infusion is made with an ounce of the 
 bruised fruit and a pint of boiling distilled 
 water. It is a useful beverage in some 
 kinds of dropsies. The red cedar (J. vir- 
 giniana) is a hardy, handsome evergreen, 
 699 
 
 native of North America, with dark foliage, 
 producing a small blue berry-like, fruit in 
 May. It frequently attains to the height 
 of a very lofty tree. 
 
 JURY. (From the Latin jurare, to 
 swear.) A body of men sworn to decide 
 a certain fact or facts, according to the evi- 
 dence produced before them. 
 
 This noble institution, like many others 
 as dearly cherished by all lovers of freedom, 
 commenced among the northern nations of 
 Europe at a very early period. The early 
 notices of this mode of trial, remaining to us, 
 do not speak of its first institution ; and, in 
 truth, it most probably originated in some 
 rude form or other as soon as men began 
 to dwell together in fixed habitations. 
 
 That trial by jury was employed by our 
 Saxon ancestors from time immemorial is 
 very certain, and over-industrious histo- 
 rians have wasted much time in fruitless 
 endeavours to assign the honour of the first 
 discoverer to the real author. Thus Stiern- 
 hook (De Jure Sueonum, 1. i. c. 4.) ascribes 
 the glory to Regner, king of Denmark and 
 Norway, who was the contemporary of our 
 Egbert. Archbishop Nicholson carries the 
 date of the invention back to Woden, the 
 great captain, legislator, and god of the 
 Northernmen. 
 
 Sir Edward Coke appears to have fancied 
 that there is something in the very number 
 twelve, in which the laws of God and man 
 seem to delight ; and he instances the 
 twelve judges, twelve counsellors of state, 
 twelve to wager the laws, twelve apostles, 
 tribes, stones, &c. (Coke on Littleton, 
 s. 234. b. 
 
 In our own laws, trial by jury is men- 
 tioned as early as the reign of King Ethel- 
 red, but not as a novel institution. ( Wil- 
 kins' Laics of the Anglo-Saxons, 1 17.) And 
 in Magna Charta it is mentioned more than 
 once, and particularly ordained, That no 
 freeman shall be dispossessed of his lands 
 or goods, unless by the judgment of his 
 peers : and amid all the long continued 
 struggles of Englishmen for the liberty of 
 the subject (from the days of King John 
 down to the time of Fox and his decla- 
 ration of the office of juries in libel cases), 
 the preservation of the freedom of* juries 
 has ever been a darling object with English 
 patriots. 
 
 The care of the legislature may be esti- 
 mated from the fact that, by the act of the 
 6 G. IV. c. 50., which consolidates the sta- 
 tutes with regard to juries, more than 
 sixty acts or portions of acts of parliament 
 were repealed, relating to juries — acts 
 which extend from the 43 Hen. III. to the 
 5 G. IV. 
 
 Our forefathers, although they valued 
 
JURY. 
 
 this great privilege as highly as they ought, 
 had some strange reasons to account for 
 the fact that the natives of the south of 
 Europe had it not — as may be seen at 
 length in Fortescues De Laudibus Legibus, 
 c. 25 — 29. : the chief of which, however, was, 
 that " they are not able to make sufficient 
 and like juries as be made in England." 
 Fortescue was equally industrious in his 
 endeavours to prove that trial by jury was 
 not repugnant to the law of God — a suspi- 
 cion which some good people then enter- 
 tained, from what our Lord says in St. 
 John, chap. viii. v. 17., "the testimony of 
 two men is true ; " since these thought it 
 impious to require the testimony of twelve 
 men, when God had ordained that the evi- 
 dence of two should be sufficient. 
 
 It would seem, that in the reign of Ed- 
 ward III. the jurors were summoned prin- 
 cipally at the discretion of the sheriff or his 
 officers, and that in consequence many cor- 
 ruptions were practised, by reason, as the 
 preamble to the 13 Edw.III. c. 38. expresses 
 it, that many diseased and decrepit old 
 men and unreasonable multitudes of jurors 
 were summoned, to extort money from 
 some of them to let them go in peace ; so 
 that the poor men served on the juries, and 
 the rich men, by reason of their bribes, 
 " abide at home." To provide against these 
 abuses, it was by this act ordained that no 
 one should serve on a jury who could not 
 " dispend " at least 205. a-year, and that 
 not more than twenty-four in number, nor 
 any over seventy years of age, should be 
 summoned. 
 
 By the 28th of the same king, stat. 3. cap. 
 9., jurors were directed to be " next neigh- 
 bours, most sufficient and least suspicious." 
 And by the 1 1 Henry IV. c. 9. sheriffs nor 
 bailiffs were directed alone to return the 
 jurors to the justices. And by many other 
 acts the qualification and summoning of 
 juries was regulated and enforced : 27 Eliz. 
 c. 6. ; 4 & 5 W. & M. c. 25. s. 15. ; 3 Geo. II. 
 c. 25. s. 18. By this act, sec. 1., every man 
 between twenty-one and sixty years of age, 
 residing in any county in England, who shall 
 have in his own name or in trust for him, 
 within the same county, 10/. by the year above 
 reprizes in lands or tenements, whether of 
 freehold, copyhold, or customary tenure, or 
 of ancient demesne, or in rents issuing out 
 of any such lands or tenements, or in such 
 lands, tenements, and rents taken together, 
 in fee simple, fee tale, or for the life of him- 
 self* or some other person, or who shall have 
 within the same county twenty pounds by 
 the year above reprizes in lands or tene- 
 ments held by lease or leases for the abso- 
 lute term of twenty-one years or longer, or 
 On any life or lives, or who, being a house- 
 700 
 
 holder, shall be rated or assessed to the 
 poor's rate or to the inhabited house duty, 
 in the county of Middlesex on a value of 
 not less than 30Z., or in any other county 
 in not less than 20Z., or who shall occupy a 
 house containing not less than fifteen win- 
 dow—shall be qualified and liable to serve 
 on juries, for the trial of all issues joined, 
 in any of the king's courts of record at 
 Westminster, and in the superior courts, 
 both civil and criminal, of the three counties 
 palatine, and in all courts of assize, nisi 
 prius, oyer and terminer, and gaol deli- 
 very, such issues being respectively triable 
 in the county in which every man so qua- 
 lified respectively shall reside ; and shall 
 also be qualified and liable to serve on 
 grand juries in courts of sessions of the 
 peace, and on petty juries, for the time of 
 all issues joined in such courts of sessions 
 of the peace, and triable in the county, 
 riding, or division in which every man so 
 qualified respectively shall reside. And it 
 further provides that in Wales three-fifths 
 of the foregoing qualifications shall suffice. 
 
 Persons exempt from serving on Juries. — ■ 
 By the 6 Geo. IV. c. 50. s. 2., all peers, 
 judges, clergymen in orders, Roman Ca- 
 tholic priests, ministers of registered dis- 
 senting chapels, not following any secular 
 employment except that of a schoolmaster ; 
 barristers actually practising, doctors of law, 
 and advocates of the civil law actually prac- 
 tising ; all attornies, solicitors, and proctors, 
 duly admitted in any court of law or equity, 
 or of ecclesiastical or admiralty jurisdictions, 
 practising and having taken out their an- 
 nual certificates ; all officers of such courts ; 
 all coroners, gaolers, and keepers of houses 
 of correction ; all practising members and 
 licentiates of the Royal College of Physicians 
 in London ; all surgeons who are members 
 of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, or 
 Dublin ; all certificated apothecaries ; all 
 naval or military officers on full pay ; all 
 licensed pilots ; all masters of vessels in the 
 light or buoy service ; all the king's ser- 
 vants ; all officers of customs and excise ; 
 sheriffs' officers, high constables, and parish 
 clerks, — " shall be and are absolutely freed 
 and exempted from being returned and 
 from serving upon any juries or inquests 
 whatsoever, and shall not be inserted in the 
 lists preferred by virtue of this act." This 
 clause also preserves the right of all persons 
 who are exempt by virtue of any prescrip- 
 tion, charter, grant, or writ. 
 
 The inhabitants of a hundred maybe ex- 
 empt from serving on juries by immemorial 
 custom. (Rex v. Pugh, 1 Douglas, 188.) The 
 tenants of all lands held in ancient demesne, 
 if they have no lands elsewhere for which 
 they may be charged, are exempt from 
 
JURY. 
 
 serving on juries. (Fitz. Nat. Brev. 14 E. ; 
 2 Inst. 542. ; 4 Inst. 269.) 
 
 Persons disqualified from serving as Jurors. 
 —By the 6th of Geo. IV. c. 50. s. 3. it is 
 enacted, that, except in the case of juries de 
 medietate, aliens, persons attainted of trea- 
 son or felony, or convicted of any crime 
 that is infamous (unless he shall have ob- 
 tained a free pardon), nor any outlaw, or 
 person excommunicated, is or shall be qua- 
 lified to serve on juries. By the charter 
 2 Ed. IV., aldermen of the city of London, 
 and those who have been mayors, shall not 
 be put upon juries. 
 
 Mode of arranging the Jury Lists. — By 
 the 6 Geo. IV. c. 50. s. 4., the clerk of the 
 peace in every county of England and 
 Wales shall, within the first week of every 
 July, issue his warrant, according to a form 
 prescribed by the act, to the high constables 
 of every hundred, lathe, wapentake, or other 
 like district, commanding them to issue 
 their precepts to the churchwardens and 
 overseers of every parish and to the over- 
 seers of every township within their con- 
 st ableships, commanding them to prepare 
 and make out a true list of all men residing 
 within their respective parishes and town- 
 ships, qualified and liable to serve on juries, 
 and to comply with other directions con- 
 tained in the precept. (See 3 & 4 Anne, 
 c. 18. s. 5. ; 3 Geo. II. c. 25.) And by sec. 5. 
 the clerk of the peace is to provide, at the 
 expense of the county, a sufficient number 
 of these printed writs and precepts, which 
 he shall annex to every writ. By sec. 6. 
 every high constable shall, within fourteen 
 days from the receipt of the writ, issue 
 and deliver to the churchwardens and 
 overseers of every parish and township 
 within his constableship, his precept, with a 
 sufficient number of these printed forms for 
 returns ; and where there is more than one 
 high constable, each shall have a writ with 
 precepts annexed delivered to him, and each 
 shall be liable for the due delivery of the 
 precepts. 
 
 Extra-parochial Places. — By sec. 7. of 
 the 6 Geo. IV. c. 50., justices of the peace at 
 a special petty sessions to be holden for that 
 purpose, before the first day of July in any 
 year, may for the purposes of the act annex 
 such extra-parochial place to any adjoining 
 parish or township. 
 
 Churchwardens and Overseers. — By sec. 7. 
 of 6 Geo. IV. c. 50., on the receipt of the 
 high constable's writ, the churchwardens and 
 overseers shall forthwith prepare and make 
 out a list in alphabetical order, according to 
 the prescribed form, of every person, within 
 their parish or township, qualified to serve 
 on juries. And by sec. 9. the said officers 
 are to affix a copy to the door of every place 
 701 
 
 of public worship within their respective pa- 
 rishes or townships, on the three first Sun- 
 days in September ; subjoining to such 
 lists, a notice stating when and where all 
 objections to the lists will be heard by the 
 justices of the peace. 
 
 Appeal to Justices. — By sec. 10. of the 
 6 of Geo. IV. c. 50., the justices of the peace 
 in every division are directed to hold a 
 special sessions in the last seven days of 
 September in every year, at some place of 
 which notice shall be given by their clerk, 
 before the 20th of August next preceding, 
 to the high constable, and to the church- 
 wardens and overseers of every parish and 
 to the overseers of every township within 
 such division ; and the churchwardens and 
 overseers shall then and there produce their 
 list of men qualified and liable to serve on 
 juries, and shall answer upon oath such 
 questions touching the same as shall then 
 be put to any of them by the justices then 
 present ; and if any man is improperly in- 
 serted in such list, the justices are em- 
 powered, upon satisfaction from the oath of 
 the party complaining, or other proof, or of 
 their own knowledge, that he is not qualified 
 or liable to serve on juries, to strike his 
 name out of such list, and also the lunatic, 
 the imbecile, the blind, the deaf, or any 
 having a permanent infirmity. 
 
 They are also empowered, on the applica- 
 tion of any person omitted, or of the parish 
 officer, to insert the name of any person 
 omitted (such person previously having no- 
 tice of the application), or at an adjourned 
 session to be held within the next four 
 days ; the justices are then to sign the list, 
 and the high constable on the next first 
 quarter sessions of the county, riding, or 
 division, on the first day of its sitting, shall 
 deliver the same, attesting on oath that he 
 received the same from the petty sessions, 
 and that no alteration hath been made 
 therein since his receipt thereof. And 
 by sec. 1 1 . the churchwardens and overseers, 
 or justices of petty sessions, are empowered, 
 in order more correctly to make out their 
 lists, to inspect at reasonable hours, between 
 the first day of July and the first day of 
 October, any duplicate of any tax assess- 
 ment in the possession of any collector or 
 inspector of taxes : sec. 3 Geo. II. c. 25. s. 1. 
 
 When a juryman is duly summoned, he 
 is bound to attend and must remain, unless 
 previously discharged by the chairman or 
 judge, during the sessions or assizes, and if 
 he absent himself he is liable to such fine 
 as the court shall think fit to impose. When 
 sworn, the province of the juryman is to 
 decide upon the facts of the case according 
 to the evidence laid before him, disregarding 
 all that he may have previously heard. For 
 
JUSSIEU, BERNARD. 
 
 KALE, SEA. 
 
 the law he is to look to the judge, but upon 
 the facts the jurymen are to be the only 
 judges. It is to be lamented that so much 
 disinclination is commonly evinced to serve 
 on juries, for, as Blackstone truly observes, 
 " trial by jury ever has been, and I trust 
 ever will be, looked upon as the glory of 
 the English law." (Com. v. iii. p. 379.) 
 See Grand Jury. 
 
 JUSSIEU, BERNARD, was born at 
 Lyons in 1699; he practised physic, and 
 became demonstrator of plants in the Royal 
 Gardens at Paris, and superintendent of that 
 at Trianon. In the botanical garden of Tri- 
 anon he first displayed the celebrated system 
 which bears the family name, and has been 
 so much perfected by his nephew the cele- 
 brated Antoine Laurent de Jussieu. Ber- 
 nard Jussieu died in 1777 ; he published 
 an edition of Tournefort on the Plants near 
 Paris, 2 vols. 12mo. All the members of 
 this family have devoted themselves to 
 science. (Watkins Biog. Diet.) 
 
 JUSTICE, JAMES. An eminent 
 Scotch horticulturist and botanist, one of the 
 principal clerks of session in Scotland, and 
 a fellow of the Royal Society. He had a 
 villa and garden at Crichton, near Dalkeith, 
 upon which he expended his fortune, and 
 was ultimately obliged to sell it, after de- 
 voting himself, in its retirement, to the 
 practice of gardening for thirty years. To 
 acquire information on the culture of bul- 
 bous-rooted flowers, he twice visited Hol- 
 land, and travelled once into Italy for fur- 
 ther improvement in his skill and taste. 
 He was unsparing of expense in procuring 
 exotics and new varieties. lie was the 
 first to introduce the pine-apple into Scot- 
 land, and had, as he states, the largest col- 
 lection of auriculas in Europe. He died 
 in 1762 or 1763. He was the author of the 
 following work : — 
 
 The Scots Gardener's Director, Edinburgh, 1754. 8vo. 
 Another edition appeared in 1764, after his decease, en- 
 titled " The British Gardener's Director, chiefly adapted 
 to the Climate of the Northern Counties, directing the 
 necessary Work in the Kitchen, Fruit, and Pleasure 
 Gardens, and in the Nursery, Greenhouse, and Stove." 
 Edinburgh. 8vo. Another edition dated the same year, 
 arranged as a Monthly Calendar, is very different from 
 the others. There was another edition in 17G7. Pro- 
 fessor Martyn says, " It is an original and truly valuable 
 work, founded upon reflection and experience." 
 
 (G. IV. Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 K. 
 
 KALE, SEA, Cole, or Colewort. 
 (Crambe maritima. From upa/xeos, dry, be- 
 cause it frequents shingly, dry shores ; or 
 from Kop'i/j.g\ri, on account of its being sup- 
 posed to render the eyesight dim.) A 
 species of sea-cabbage, which is highly es- 
 teemed as a culinary vegetable, and has 
 been much improved by culture. Its young 
 
 shoots, which are very hardy, are earlier 
 than asparagus, and nearly as good. It is 
 found, in its wild state, common on the 
 sandy sea coast of Great Britain. 
 
 A light, moderately rich soil, on a dry 
 substratum, suits it best; though in any 
 dry soil it will succeed. A bed may be 
 composed for it of one-half drift sand, one- 
 third rich loam, and one-third small gravel 
 road stuff or coal ashes; if the loam is" poor, 
 a little well-rotted dung or decayed leaves 
 being added. The soil must especially be 
 deep, so that the roots can penetrate with- 
 out being immersed in water, which in- 
 variably causes their decay. Mr. T. Barton, 
 of Bothwell Castle, has even found it suc- 
 ceed well on a pretty strong loam that had 
 a loose bottom. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 100.) The depth should not be 
 less than two and a half feet ; and if not 
 naturally deep, it should be worked to it by 
 trenching. If at all tenacious, this oppor- 
 tunity may be taken to mix with it drift or 
 sea sand, so as to reduce it to a mouldy texr 
 ture. If the soil be wet it must be drained, 
 so that water never shall stand within three 
 feet of the surface. If poor, well putrified 
 dung must be added ; but decayed leaves 
 are preferable (Trans. Hort. Soc. Loud. 
 vol. i. p. 17.), and sea weed still more so. 
 These precautions must all be particularly 
 attended to, for upon the due richness and 
 dryness of the soil not only depend the lux- 
 uriance and delicate flavour of the plants, 
 but their very existence. Common salt, as 
 might be anticipated, is found to be a very 
 beneficial application, either applied dry, 
 at the close of autumn, in the proportion 
 of twenty or thirty bushels per acre, or by 
 occasional waterings with a solution con- 
 taining four or five ounces in the gallon, 
 round every stool during the summer. As 
 regards the situation, it cannot be too open 
 and free from trees. Sea kale is propagated 
 both from seed and slips of the root ; the 
 first is by far the best mode, for although it 
 may be obtained from slips with greater cer- 
 tainty, yet the plants arising from seed are 
 the strongest and longest lived ; whilst the 
 failure of seed, which is sometimes com- 
 plained of, mostly arises from its being old, 
 buried too deep, or some other extraneous 
 cause. The seed may be inserted in drills 
 from October to the commencement of 
 April ; but the best time for inserting it is 
 during January, February, or March. It 
 is by much the best mode to leave the plants 
 where raised, and with that intent, to guard 
 against failure, inserting the seed in patches 
 of six or twelve seeds, each six inches apart, 
 and the patches two feet asunder. If, how- 
 ever, they are intended for transplanting, the 
 seed may be sown in drills twelve inches 
 
KALE, SEA. 
 
 asunder ; in either case it must not be 
 buried more than two inches below the sur- 
 face ; and it is a good practice, previous to 
 inserting it, to bruise the outer coat of the 
 seed, without injuring its vegetating power, 
 as by this treatment the germination is ac- 
 celerated. The plants will in general make 
 their appearance in four or five months, 
 never sooner than six weeks ; but, on the 
 other hand, the seed will sometimes remain 
 twelve months before it vegetates. 
 
 The best time for increasing it by slips 
 is in March. Rooted offsets may be de- 
 tached from established plants; or their 
 roots, which have attained the thickness of 
 the third finger, be cut into lengths, each 
 having at least two eyes. To plant the 
 offsets requires no particular direction : the 
 cuttings must be inserted in an upright po- 
 sition two or three inches beneath the sur- 
 face. It is best to plant two together, to 
 obviate the danger of failure, at two feet 
 apart, to remain. Some persons, from a 
 desire to save a year, recommend yearling 
 plants to be obtained and inserted in Fe- 
 bruary or March ; but, as the shoots ought 
 not to be cut for use the first season after 
 planting, the object is not attained, for 
 seedlings may be cut from the second year. 
 
 Whatever mode of propagation is adopted, 
 the bed should be laid out three feet wide, 
 and a two-feet alley between every two, in 
 preference to the plan sometimes recom- 
 mended of planting three rows in beds 
 seven feet wide, for in such the soil must 
 be consolidated by the feet during the ne- 
 cessary grades of cultivation. 
 
 If the months of June and July prove 
 dry, the beds should be plentifully watered. 
 The seedlings require no other attention 
 during the first summer than to be kept 
 free from weeds, and, if they come up too 
 numerous, to be thinned to five or six in 
 each patch. When their leaves have de- 
 cayed, and been cleared away about No- 
 vember, they must be earthed over an inch 
 or two with dry mould from the alleys, and 
 over this about six inches depth of long 
 litter be spread, and thus left to stand the 
 winter. In the following spring the litter 
 is to be raked off, and a little of the most 
 rotten dug into the alleys. When the plants 
 have perfectly made their appearance, they 
 must be thinned, leaving the strongest plant, 
 or, as Mr. Maher recommends, the three 
 strongest, at each patch ; those removed 
 bein<* transplanted at similar distances if 
 required ; but it must be remarked that 
 those transplanted never attain so fine a 
 growth, or are so long-lived. In this second 
 winter, the earthing must be increased to 
 five or six inches deep over the crowns, and I 
 the covering of litter performed as before. I 
 703 1 
 
 In the third spring, the litter being removed) 
 and some dug into the alleys, as before, about 
 an inch depth of drift sand or coal ashes must 
 be spread regularly over the surface. The 
 sprouts may now be bleached and cut for 
 use; for if this is commenced earlier, the 
 stools are rendered much less productive, 
 and much shorter lived. In November, or 
 as soon as the leaves are decayed, the beds 
 being cleared of them, the coating of sand 
 or ashes removed, and gently stirred with 
 the asparagus fork, they must be covered 
 with a mixture of three parts earth from 
 the alleys, and one part of thoroughly de- 
 cayed leaves, to the depth of three or four 
 inches. The major part of this is to be re- 
 moved in the following spring, the beds 
 forked, and the covering of sand renewed, 
 this routine of cultivation continuing during 
 the existence of the beds. 
 
 The above course is the one also pursued 
 if the plants are raised from offsets or cut- 
 tings, as it is much the best practice not 
 to commence cutting until they are two years 
 old. Blanching, as before observed, may 
 commence the second spring after sowing. 
 The most simple mode is that originally 
 adopted, namely, to cover over each stool 
 sand or ashes to the depth of about a foot ; 
 the shoots in their passage through it, being 
 excluded from the light, are effectually 
 bleached. Sir G. S. Mackenzie, Bart, scat- 
 ters dry clean straw loosely over the plants, 
 to effect the same purpose {Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 313.); but this mode 
 is troublesome, inasmuch as that the straw 
 must be changed as often as it becomes wet 
 and heavy. The same objection I should 
 conceive is applicable to the plan of Mr. T. 
 Barton, of Bothwell, though he does not 
 give any directions for a renewal of the 
 covering under similar circumstances. He 
 covers the bed entirely with the dry leaves 
 as they are collected in autumn, to a depth 
 of from five to twelve inches, the first being 
 the quantity allotted to the youngest, the 
 latter to the oldest plants ; over the leaves 
 a slight covering of long dung is laid, just 
 sufficient to keep them from being scattered 
 by the winds. This covering remains until 
 the cutting ceases in the spring, when it is 
 entirely removed, and the bed dug over. 
 The shoots raise the covering so as to indi- 
 cate when they are in a fit state for cutting, 
 and thus obviate the necessity of removing 
 more of it than is immediately over the 
 plant; it is likewise stated, that no un- 
 pleasant taste is communicated by the 
 leaves. (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 99.) But pots are 
 by much to be preferred to any of these 
 coverings. Common flower-pots, of large 
 I dimensions, may be employed, care being 
 | taken to stop the hole at the bottom with 
 
KALE, SEA. 
 
 a piece of tile and clay, so as to exclude 
 every ray of light; but those suggested 
 by Mr. Maher, and represented below, 
 are generally adopted. They are of earth- 
 enware, twelve or eighteen inches in dia- 
 meter, and twelve high. Mr. Sabine 
 improved upon them by making the^ top 
 moveable, which prevents the trouble arising 
 from the escape of the spreading shoots, or 
 the entire removal of the dung at the time 
 of forcing. {Trans. Hort. Soc.Lond. vol.i. 
 P . 18.) 
 
 Frames of wicker are sometimes employed, 
 being covered with mats, more perfectly to 
 exclude the light. 
 
 Previous to covering the stools with the 
 pots, &c. the manure laid on in the winter 
 must be removed ; and the operation should 
 commence at the close of February, or at 
 least a month before the shoots usually ap- 
 pear, as the shelter of the pots assists ma- 
 terially in bringing them forward. In four 
 or six weeks after they are covered, the 
 plants should be examined, and as soon as 
 they appear three or four inches high they 
 may be cut ; for if none are taken until they 
 attain a fuller growth, the crop comes in too 
 much at once. In order to prolong the 
 season of production, Mr. Barton recom- 
 mends plants to be raised annually, so that 
 every year a cutting may be had from a 
 yearling crop, which comes in much later, 
 and consequently succeeds, in production, the 
 old established roots. The shoots should be 
 cut whilst young and crisp, not exceeding 
 five or six inches in height ; the section to 
 be made just within the ground, but not so 
 as to injure the crown of the root. Slipping 
 off the stalks is said to be preferable 
 to cutting. The plants may be gathered 
 from until the flower begins to form, when 
 all covering must be removed. If, when 
 arrived at the state in which broccoli is 
 usually cut, the stalks and immature flowers 
 are employed as that vegetable, they will 
 be found an excellent substitute. (Mem. 
 Ceiled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 315.) Some per- 
 sons, however, recommend the same plant to 
 be cut from only once ; if we wish to pro- 
 long the duration of our beds, which must 
 be renewed as soon as the stools appear 
 declining and produce weakly shoots, this 
 practice of course is preferable ; so studious, 
 indeed, are they to prevent over-cutting, that 
 
 it is recommended to have such an extent of 
 beds, that one half may be allowed alter- 
 nately to lay fallow, or to be cut from only 
 every other year. (Curtis on the Crarnbe 
 Maritima, new edit. p. 23.) When the 
 cutting ceases, all covering must be re- 
 moved, and the plants allowed to grow at 
 liberty. For producing seed, a stool, which 
 has not been cut from, or even covered at 
 all for blanching, must be allowed to run in 
 spring. It flowers about June, and pro- 
 duces abundance of seed on every stem, 
 which ripens about the close of July, or early 
 •*in August. To force sea kale, take some 
 established plants, at the end of October, or 
 early in November, being trimmed as di- 
 rected above at that season, and the bed 
 covered with a mixture of moderately-sifted 
 light earth, and sand or coal ashes, two or 
 three inches deep, each stool must be covered 
 with a pot, set down close, to keep out the 
 steam of the dung ; or, as Sir G- Mackenzie 
 observes, bricks or planks may be placed to 
 the height of eight or ten inches on each 
 side of the row to be forced, and covered 
 with cross spars, having a space of about an 
 inch between them. (Mem. Caled. Hort. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 315.) But this mode is by no 
 means so eligible as the first. The dung 
 employed must be well tempered and mixed 
 for three weeks before it is required, or for 
 four if mingled with leaves ; otherwise the 
 heat is violent, but transient. When thus 
 prepared, each pot is covered ten inches 
 thick all round, and eight inches at the top. 
 The heat must be constantly observed ; if it 
 sinks below 50°, more hot dung must be ap- 
 plied; if above 60°, some of the covering 
 should be removed. Unless the weather is 
 very severe, it is seldom necessary to renew 
 the heat by fresh linings ; when the ther- 
 mometer indicates the necessity, a part only of 
 the exhausted linings should be taken away, 
 and the remainder mixed with that newly ap- 
 plied. In three or four weeks from being 
 first covered, the shoots will be fit for cut- 
 ting, and they will continue to produce at 
 intervals for two or three months, or until 
 the natural crops come in. To have a suc- 
 cession, some should be covered with mulch, 
 or litter that is little else than straw ; this, 
 by sheltering the plants from cold, will 
 cause them to be forwarder than the natural 
 ground ones, though not so forward as those 
 under the hot dung ; and by this means it 
 may be had in perfection from Christmas to 
 Whitsuntide. 
 
 Mr. W. Gibbs, of Inverness, and Mr. 
 Barton, before mentioned, recommend it 
 to be forced in a hot-bed, as asparagus. 
 When the heat moderates, a little light 
 mould being put on, three or four year old 
 plants, which have been raised with as little 
 
KALE, SEA. 
 
 injury as possible to the roots, are to be in- 
 serted close together, and covered with as 
 much earth as is used for cucumbers. The 
 passes must be covered close with double 
 5»atting to exclude the light, and additional 
 covering afforded during severe weather. 
 Mr. Barton, however, when the danger of 
 over-heating is past, removes the light, and 
 puts on leaves to the depth of four or five 
 inches, adding more as the heat declines, 
 until the frame is nearly full. Sea kale, 
 thus forced, will be fit for cutting in about 
 three weeks. Instead of frames and glasses, 
 any construction of boards and litter that 
 will exclude the light would undoubtedly 
 answer as well. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 389 ; vol. ii. p. 100.) This mode 
 of forcing is greatly superior to that of 
 whelming hot dung over pots, &c. The 
 saving, observes Mr. Barton, in labour and 
 dung^is obvious ; added to which, the diffi- 
 culty in the old mode of keeping up a 
 regularity of temperature is obviated. A 
 common melon frame will contain as many 
 as are capable of being produced in two 
 drills of twenty yards each, and with only 
 one-third the quantity of dung. To keep 
 up a regular succession until the natural 
 ground crop arrives, the same gentleman 
 observes, two three-light frames will be 
 sufficient for a large family ; the first pre- 
 pared about the beginning of November, 
 and the second about the last week in De- 
 cember. Mr. A. Melross, of Ardgowan, 
 inserts the plants along the back of the flue 
 in his vinery ; the pots being put over them, 
 and the heat of the vinery regularly kept 
 up, shoots may be cut in a fortnight. Twelve 
 covers will supply a family, and a regular 
 succession kept up until the open ground 
 crop is in production, by taking away the 
 roots as soon as cut from, and planting 
 others. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. 
 p. 164.) 
 
 Mr. T. Baldwin, of Ragley, also recom- 
 mends a plan, which in a manner is a com- 
 bination of the other two, and certainly 
 obviates an objection to the frame forcing, 
 namely, the destruction of the plants, whilst 
 at the same time it is nearly as economical 
 in the consumption of dung. On each side 
 of a three-foot bed, a trench is to be dug 
 two feet deep, the side of it next the bed 
 being perpendicular, but the outer side 
 sloping, so as to make it eighteen inches wide 
 at the bottom, but two and a half feet at the 
 top. These trenches being filled with fer- 
 menting dung, which of course may be re- 
 newed if ever found necessary, and frames 
 put over the plants, the light is to be com- 
 pletely excluded by boai^ds, matting, &c. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 64.) 
 Unlike the generality of vegetables, the 
 705 
 
 KAMES (HENRY HOME), LORD. 
 
 shoots of forced sea kale are always more 
 crisp and delicate than those produced na- 
 turally. Those plants will not do for forcing 
 a second time which have been forced in 
 frames ; consequently, a small bed should be 
 sown every year for this purpose, so that a 
 succession of plants may be annually had, 
 they not being used until three years old. 
 Sometimes a plant will send up a flower 
 stalk ; this must be immediately cut away, 
 it will then be as productive as the others. 
 But those plants which are forced by whelm- 
 ing dung over the pots are not much de- 
 trimented for the natural ground production 
 of the succeeding year. When, therefore, 
 they have done producing, all covering must 
 be removed, and the ground dressed. Mr. 
 Nicol knew an instance of the same plants 
 being forced for seven years, and producing 
 as healthy shoots as if only forced every 
 second year (Curtis on Crambe maritima, 
 p. 33.) ; but to force the same plants but 
 seldom is the best practice. (G. W. John- 
 son's Kitch. Gard.) See Borecole. 
 
 KALE, THE WOBURN PEREN- 
 NIAL. See Cabbage, Borecole, &c. 
 
 KALI. A sea weed, from the ashes of 
 which the alkali glass is procured ; whence 
 the word alkali. See Kelp, Saltwort, and 
 Glasswort. 
 
 KALMIA. The plants of this genus 
 rank among the most handsome of our hardy 
 naturalised shrubs. They do best when 
 grown in a peat soil, though they will grow 
 in a very sandy loam ; they may be in- 
 creased by layers or seeds. 
 
 The narrow-leafed kalmia (K. angusti- 
 folia) is a native of North America. It 
 loves a light moist boggy soil, and blows its 
 beautiful clusters of pink flowers most part 
 of the summer. It throws out plenty of 
 suckers, which flower much earlier than 
 the plants produced from seed. 
 
 The broad-leafed kalmia (K. latifolia) 
 is a hardy American shrub, which likes a 
 shady situation. It grows twelve feet in 
 height, and blooms reddish-white flowers in 
 May or June, which become of a peach- 
 blossom colour as they expand. 
 
 KAMES (HENRY HOME), LORD, 
 was born in July 1696. He was an able 
 and learned Scotch judge, and an ardent and 
 successful friend to agriculture. This warm 
 feeling he evinced through a long life, at 
 every possible period that he could spare 
 from the extensive engagements of a labo- 
 rious profession. He not only farmed and 
 planted successfully, but he endeavoured 
 to improve these national avocations by 
 every means in his power. He warmly sup- 
 ported the idea of forming a Sootch board 
 of agriculture, which has been since realised 
 by the formation of the very excellent 
 z z 
 
KEEL. 
 
 KELP. 
 
 Highland Society, whose labours have pro- 
 duced such magic effects in the northern 
 parts of our island. But Lord Karnes was 
 not content with merely stimulating others 
 in the great work, for in his 80th year he 
 published a spirited volume, entitled " The 
 Gentleman Farmer, being an attempt to im- 
 prove Agriculture by subjecting it to the 
 test of rational principles," a work which 
 his biographer very justly describes as " a 
 singular specimen of the powers of a vigorous 
 mind, which, even at that advanced age, 
 when the weakness of nature usually gives 
 itself a respite from all laborious exer- 
 tions, could prosecute its employments with 
 undiminished energy." He died Dec. 27. 
 1 782, in the 87th year of his age. (Farmer s 
 Almanac.} 
 
 KEEL. (Carina.) In botany, when 
 the midrib of a leaf or petal is sharp and 
 elevated externally, it is called a keel. It 
 sometimes consists of two petals joined at 
 one edge, as in the pea tribe, or papiliona- 
 ceous flowers. 
 
 KEEPER. In rural economy, a keeper 
 is one who has the superintendence of parks 
 or preserves, and the care of game or beasts 
 of chace. See Gamekeeper. 
 
 KEEVE. A provincial name for the vat 
 in which beer is worked or fermented. 
 
 KELP, SEA- WEED, BARILLA, &c. 
 I class these manures together, when treating 
 of kelp, since it is to the presence of various 
 salts of soda that sea- weed principally owes 
 its fertilising qualities, for when they are 
 washed out, the residuum is nearly inert. 
 Sea-weed has been analysed by M. Gaultier 
 de Claubry. In the Fucus saccharinus and 
 in the Fucus digitatus (which is much used 
 in Scotland as a manure) he found the fol- 
 lowing substances (Thomsons Chem. vol. 
 iv. p. 298.) : — 
 
 Saccharine matter. Muriate of magnesia. 
 Mucilage. Carbonate of potash. 
 
 Vegetable albumen. Carbonate of soda. 
 Oxalate of potash. Hydriodate of potash. 
 Malate of potash. Silica. 
 Sulphate of potash. Phosphate of lime. 
 Sulphate of soda. Phosphate of magnesia. 
 Sulphate of magnesia. Oxide of iron. 
 Muriate of soda. Oxalate of lime. 
 
 Muriate of potash. 
 
 By burning these weeds the kelp and 
 barilla of commerce is formed ; the first of 
 which has been often advantageously em- 
 ployed in Ireland and on the coast of Scot- 
 land as a manure. The Suffolk and the 
 Kentish farmers, however, as well as some 
 of the Scotch, employ the sea-weed in its 
 freshest state, either ploughing it into the 
 soil, or spreading it on the top of their 
 heaps of compost. The first plan, however, 
 I have ever seen productive of the best 
 706 
 
 effects ; and in that conclusion I am sup- 
 ported by the experience of many excellent 
 farmers. 
 
 The salt turf of the sea-shore has been 
 long used in many parts of England as an 
 excellent manure, especially for potatoes ; 
 and, according to Dr. Holland (Survey of 
 Cheshire, p. 143.), even the salt mud of the 
 Mersey is extensively used for the same 
 crop, at the rate of twenty tons per acre. 
 " The ground thus manured not only gives 
 a large produce of potatoes, but is in a 
 state of excellent preparation for a suc- 
 ceeding crop of either wheat or barley. 
 The adoption of this practice has increased 
 very greatly the value of land about Wes- 
 ton." 
 
 There can be no doubt of the advantage 
 of using the sea-weed, or sea-turf, in the 
 freshest possible state, after it has been co- 
 vered with the salt water, as by a spring 
 tide; for if the salt water has been suffered 
 to drain away from the weeds, and a partial 
 decomposition has taken place, their value 
 as a manure must be materially diminished. 
 The Cornish farmers, when they fetch the 
 calcareous sand from the sea- beach, are 
 careful to obtain it as much wetted with 
 the salt water as possible : and there are in 
 the juices and other components of marine 
 plants a variety of ingredients which must 
 produce the most luxuriant effects upon 
 vegetation growing at a distance from the 
 sea ; and their constituents are peculiarly 
 noxious to the vermin with which all culti- 
 vated soils abound. If this conclusion be 
 correct, then the mode adopted by the Isle 
 of Thanet and Suffolk farmers, of collect- 
 ing the sea-weed into heaps, and suffering 
 it to putrefy, is decidedly wrong ; for, by 
 being thus decomposed, half its fertilising 
 virtues are lost to the soil. The common 
 excuse for rendering dung putrid before it 
 is spread, viz. that it is a necessary practice 
 to kill the seeds of weeds, has no application 
 here, for those of marine weeds will not 
 grow on arable upland soils. 
 
 The use of sea-weed as a manure, in the 
 isles of Jersey and Guernsey, has been 
 very extensive from time immemorial. Thus, 
 in a work upon Jersey, by the Rev. Philip 
 Falle, published in 1694, he observes, that 
 "Nature having denied us the benefit of 
 chalk, lime, and marie, has supplied us with 
 what fully answers the end of them in hus- 
 bandry — it is a sea- weed, but a weed more 
 valuable to us than the choicest plant that 
 grows in our gardens. We call it vraic 
 (varec), in ancient records veriscum, and 
 sometimes wrecum, and it grows on the rocks 
 about the island. It is gathered only at 
 certain times appointed by the magistrate 
 and signified to the people by a public crier 
 
KELP. 
 
 on a market day. There are two seasons 
 for cutting it, the one in summer, the other 
 about the vernal equinox. The summer 
 Draw, being first well dried by the sun on 
 the sea-shore, serves for fuel, and makes a 
 hot glowing fire ; but the ashes are a great 
 improvement to the soil, and are equal almost 
 to a like quantity of lime. The winter 
 vraic being spread thin on the green turf, 
 and afterwards buried in the furrows by the 
 plough, it is incredible how with its fat unc- 
 tuous substance it ameliorates the ground, 
 imbibing itself into it, softening the clod, 
 and keeping the root of the corn moist 
 during the most parching heats of summer. 
 In stormy weather, the sea does often tear 
 up from the rocks vast quantities of this 
 weed, and casts it on the shore, where it is 
 carefully gathered up by the glad husband- s 
 man." 
 
 The plants chiefly valued for making- 
 French varec are Fucus vesiculosus, F. no- 
 dosus, F. serratus, Laminaria digitata and 
 bulbosa, Himanthalialorea, and Chorda Jilum. 
 Twenty-four tons of the sea-weeds make 
 one ton of kelp. The Jersey and Guernsey 
 Agricultural Society confirmed this account 
 of the excellent effects of the ashes from sea- 
 weed, in 1797, in their Eeport to the English 
 Board of Agriculture, when they observed — 
 
 " It is judged, that a chabot (half a bushel), 
 strewed over a perch of ground in winter 
 or the beginning of spring, will be a suffi- 
 cient manure. Our labourers are unani- 
 mously of opinion, that it gives a full ear 
 to the corn, and prevents it being laid — 
 those who have any varech to sell may at 
 all times get a chabot of wheat for a quartier 
 or six bushels of varech." (Com. to Board of 
 Agr. vol. i. p. 216.) 
 
 The fertilising effects of sea-weed are not 
 confined to the better description of soils ; 
 the poorest kind of heath lands are bene- 
 fited by the application of this manure ; — 
 thus, Mr. John Sherriff, of Haddington, has 
 described the effects of sea-weed, or sea- 
 tang, as it is called in Scotland, on common 
 heath or moor land, in the following terms : 
 " Sea-weed, which is a capital manure for 
 any land, may often be procured at little or 
 no expense. Crops almost incredible, of 
 turnips, barley, clover, and rye, have, to 
 the writer's certain knowledge, been ob- 
 tained on an extensive tract of the most 
 miserable benty wastes and poor rabbit 
 warrens, by the powers of this manure; soils 
 which, twelve years since, were not worth 
 three shillings per acre. The bent was torn 
 up by the common swing plough, burnt, and 
 the ashes spread ; the soil was then manured 
 with the sea-tang, as much as could be 
 ploughed in. Turnips were immediately 
 drilled, and rolled to prevent blowing ; this 
 707 
 
 crop was succeeded by rye or barley, and 
 that by red clover and rye-grass. On the 
 clover stubble, and sometimes after the tur- 
 nip crop, plenty of tang was again laid, the 
 ley ploughed down, and sown with oats, 
 barley, or rye, and frequently with turnips, 
 which in this way have succeeded admi- 
 rably on the ley with one ploughing." {Com. 
 to Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 122.) It is 
 certain, from the experiments of the late 
 Mr. Knight, that green manures of all kinds 
 are an admirable manure ; and it seems well 
 established that the more the juice of the 
 vegetables so employed is impregnated with 
 saline matters, the more fertilising are their 
 effects : thus, in Bavaria, borage is very 
 commonly cultivated for this purpose, and 
 the reason assigned for the preference shown 
 to this plant is, that it contains soda and 
 other salts. (Gardener s Mag. vol. i. p. 200.)_ 
 I have no doubt that in many situations 
 the sea-weed may be successfully culti- 
 vated on the sea-coast, expressly for ma- 
 nure ; and it seems that for this purpose 
 hardly any thing is required except placing 
 stones on the shore, to which the fuci can 
 attach themselves, and in two years the crop 
 may be cut. According to Mr. Jamieson 
 (Miner, of Scottish Isles, vol. ii. p. 251.), 
 various kinds of stones have for this pur- 
 pose been employed in Scotland, as basalt, 
 sandstone, and limestone, which last is the 
 best adapted for the purpose, and after that 
 the basalt. 
 
 There are also in many parts of the coast 
 of Britain extensive tracts of land which it 
 would be difficult to enclose, and yet these 
 places are either already covered with a 
 coarse turf, or might be so with a little 
 management ; and this turf, when cut and 
 carted on to the light upland soils, is found 
 almost invariably to be an admirable ferti- 
 liser ; — for instance, when spread over land 
 during the winter, and then turned into the 
 soil, for potatoes, the crop is sure to be ex- 
 cellent. No description of fertiliser, per- 
 haps, can be named, which freshens, as the 
 farmers say, an over-cropped soil so much 
 as a dressing of from twenty to twenty-five 
 loads per acre of the turf from the sea- 
 shore, soaked with sea-water ; and no plant 
 delights in fresh soil so much as the potato. 
 It is, therefore, more than probable, that 
 the excretions of the commonly cultivated 
 corn crops are peculiarly noxious to this 
 plant ; and it is certain that the potato, by 
 the deposit which it leaves in the soil, renders 
 it distasteful to the crop by which it is suc- 
 ceeded. Thus the wheat plant rarely looks 
 well on soils where the potato has immedi- 
 ately preceded it. Saline fertilisers, in these 
 cases, are sure to be serviceable, for they 
 unite with, and neutralise the effects, as well 
 z z 2 
 
KELP. 
 
 as promote the decomposition, of the excre- 
 tory matters which all plants deposit in the 
 soil. 
 
 The chief fertilising qualities possessed by 
 barilla are attributable to the presence of 
 soda. This alkali is found in all marine 
 vegetables, and in most of those which grow 
 on the sea-shore. It has been used in se- 
 veral experiments as a manure since the 
 price of soda has been so much reduced ; 
 but these have not been conducted with 
 sufficient accuracy to enable us to judge of 
 its value as a fertiliser. What little has 
 been done, promises well. Thus, it has 
 been found, when a pound of soda is dis- 
 solved in fourteen gallons of water, that 
 this solution forms an excellent liquid ma- 
 nure for many culinary vegetables ; for in- 
 stance, the vegetable-marrow plant, when 
 thus treated, has been found to flourish 
 better in common garden mould than other 
 plants growing on a dunghill. And, as I 
 have remarked in another place, nature is 
 here again our instructor : the fertile plains 
 of Syria, and some of the most profusely 
 luxuriant fields of the orientalists, abound 
 in carbonate of soda. This alkali not only 
 enters into the composition of many vege- 
 tables, but it promotes the growth of all, 
 by preserving the moisture of the soil, 
 and by accelerating the decomposition of 
 the numerous organic substances found in 
 all cultivated lands. The sewer water of 
 towns and cities, which has been found so 
 very rich and fertilising as a dressing for 
 grass lands, abounds with soda ; for that is 
 contained in the soap suds and other refuse 
 washings which such drainage matters al- 
 ways convey. Soda has been found in very 
 sensible proportions in the urine of the horse, 
 by M. Fourcroy ; and in that of the ass, by 
 Mr. Brande ; and a small portion of this 
 alkali is usually presented in the waste 
 ashes of soap-makers, which many culti- 
 vators consider highly valuable as a ma- 
 nure. 
 
 As the use of kelp has been of late much 
 greater than formerly as a manure, it will 
 be useful for the cultivator to learn the pro- 
 portion of alkali contained in the kinds usu- 
 ally met with in commerce, as determined 
 by Mr. Jamieson (Min. of Scottish Isles, 
 vol. ii. p. 248.) : — 
 
 lbs. oz. lbs. 
 
 Barilla from Alicant, good - 23 8 in 100 
 
 Teneriffe, bad - 8 7 
 Kelp from Norway, indifferent - 2 11 
 Shetland, indifferent 2 6 
 Lewis, indifferent - 2 6 
 W. Highlands, much 
 
 damaged - - 0 5 g 
 
 Arran - - 3 8 
 
 Isla, good - - 4 0 
 
 Mull, good - - 4 8 
 
 708 
 
 lbs. oz. lbs. 
 
 Kelp from Morven, good - 4 8 in 100 
 
 Skye, good - - 5 0 
 
 Leith shores - 4 0 
 
 But, besides the alkali referred to, kelp 
 contains iodide of potassium, bromide of 
 potassium, and sulphuret of potassium ; all 
 of which probably exert considerable influ- 
 ence on vegetation. It is well known that 
 seeds sown in pure sand, and watered with 
 a solution of iodine, germinate very rapidly. 
 
 The residuum, when all the soda and 
 common salt are extracted from the barilla, 
 is principally earthy matters, which are of 
 a very inert nature, and need not be re- 
 garded by the cultivator as possessing any 
 peculiar fertilising properties different from 
 marl, which they much resemble in compo- 
 sition. 
 
 100 parts of these insoluble matters of 
 kelp are composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Sulphuretted hydrogen and 
 
 carbonic acid - - 14*00 
 
 Carbon - - 4-10 
 
 Sulphuric acid - - *47 
 
 Silica - 12-30 
 
 Lime - 32-60 
 
 Magnesia - - - 18-50 
 
 Alumina - - - 15-40 
 
 Iron - - - *77 
 
 Loss - - - - 1*86 
 
 100- 
 
 From the quantity of kelp produced on 
 the shores of Scotland, and its reduced price 
 since the peace, which again allowed the 
 unrestricted import of Spanish barilla, and 
 more especially since the discovery of a 
 cheap mode of extracting soda from common 
 salt, the application of kelp as a manure has 
 engaged the serious attention of the farmers 
 of that part of the island, and a committee 
 was some time since appointed by the High- 
 land Society of Scotland to report upon its 
 pretensions ; in much of that report, from 
 which the following extracts are made, I 
 cordially agree : — 
 
 " Your committee are unwilling to offer 
 any theoretical opinion as to the way in 
 which kelp may operate as a manure. From 
 the quantity of alkali which it contains, it 
 may naturally be expected to operate by 
 rendering the animal and vegetable matter 
 soluble, and a fit food for plants ; but, from 
 the series of facts to be noticed, kelp would 
 seem to possess other qualities as a manure. 
 Although it may be beneficially applied as 
 a dressing by itself, yet the committee are 
 at present inclined to think that, with a 
 view to raising of green crops, it would be 
 better to mix it in compost with other sub- 
 stances. The selection of these must do- 
 
KELP. 
 
 pend upon what the farmer can furnish ; 
 but the committee think that good earth or 
 moss will form a good compost, and if to 
 this mixture can be added a little vegetable 
 or animal manure, a beneficial result may 
 be relied on. In this way, a few tons of 
 kelp would enable a farmer to extend his 
 farm dung over at least four times the quan- 
 tity of land." 
 
 The relative value of kelp as a manure 
 may be estimated from the following expe- 
 riments, made in the neighbourhood of 
 Edinburgh : — A field upon the estate of 
 Inverleith, possessed by Mr. Hutchinson, 
 was selected, which had been in wheat in 
 the year 1828, hence it was in some measure 
 in an exhausted state : upon one ridge of 
 this field there was sown at the rate of 
 12 cwt. of kelp per acre ; on a second, 
 at the rate of 10 cwt. per acre; and on 
 a third at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre. 
 Two other ridges were manured with the 
 best cow and horse dung, at the rate of 
 20 tons per acre ; and the whole was sown 
 with wheat, late in the spring of 1829. The 
 two ridges which had got the greatest quan- 
 tity of kelp were equal to that which had 
 the dung, and the ridge which had got the 
 smallest quantity was decidedly superior to 
 the others. Similar experiments were made 
 upon the same field, by sowing barley after 
 the previous crop of wheat : the result was, 
 that the barley manured with the kelp was, 
 according to the estimate of the tenant and 
 his steward, a much heavier crop than after 
 an application of horse and cow dung, and 
 that the ridge with the smallest quantity of 
 kelp appeared the heaviest crop. 
 
 A portion of the lands of Bangholm were 
 manured with kelp of inferior quality, at 
 the rate of one ton per acre, and the land 
 sown with yellow turnip ; the crop, upon 
 examination, is considered to be fully equal 
 to that part of the field which has been ma- 
 nured with dung. (Baxter s Lib. of Agr. 
 Know. p. 406.) 
 
 Mr. Kerr of Henfield has given the result 
 of his experiments on kelp, from which he 
 is of opinion that " 5 cwt. of kelp per Scotch 
 acre will produce a manifest improve- 
 ment on any crop." (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 320.) Care must, however, be 
 taken not to apply too copious a dressing of 
 kelp. Mr. Mackinnon, of" Corry, draws the 
 following conclusion from his experiments : 
 he used the ashes of sea-weed burnt in a 
 heap : " of the ashes thus manufactured, 
 20 bushels were allowed to the acre, and 
 distributed in the drills. When the turnips 
 sprouted, they had an unhealthy green or 
 rather yellowish appearance, but after some 
 time several patches in the field seemed to 
 be growing luxuriantly, while others seemed 
 709 
 
 to retain their sickly hue. Upon a care- 
 ful investigation, it was discovered that 
 wherever the ground was deepest, and the 
 ashes of the sea-weed had been most mixed 
 up with the soil, the turnips were best ; and 
 on the other hand, that where the ashes, not 
 being mixed up with the soil, came in con- 
 tact with the seed, the turnips did not at all 
 thrive. In clearing the ground the weeds 
 were collected into heaps, and burnt upon 
 the spot ; and it was observed that on the 
 side of these heaps the turnips were very 
 nearly as good as those on an adjoining 
 piece of ground manured solely with dung." 
 (Ibid. vol. iv. p. 246.) There is a good 
 paper on the manufacture of kelp in Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 927. ; and on mix- 
 ing kelp with composts, peat, turf, &c. 
 ibid. vol. iii. p. 556. 
 
 Every farmer has it in his power, even in 
 the most inland situations, to procure soda 
 for the use of his farm, by means of a mix- 
 ture of two parts of lime and one part of 
 common salt, and suffering the mixture to 
 remain incorporated in a shady place, or 
 covered with sods, in a dry state, for two or 
 three months ; a plan which I suggested 
 some years since (Johnson on Salt, p. 32. 
 3d edit.), and which has been recently suc- 
 cessfully adopted by Mr. Bennet in Wilt- 
 shire. By this process a gradual decompo- 
 sition takes place, chloride of calcium and 
 soda are formed, the whole mass speedily 
 becoming encrusted with this alkali. There 
 is another advantage to be derived from the 
 adoption of this process, besides the forma- 
 tion of the soda, viz. that the chloride of 
 calcium is one of the most deliquescing or 
 moisture-absorbing substances with which 
 we are acquainted ; and, in consequence, 
 wherever it exists in a soil, the warmth of 
 the sun has, in summer, much less influ- 
 ence upon it than it would otherwise 
 have. 
 
 Mr. G. Irwin, of Taunton, bears testimony 
 to the value of common soap-suds. " The 
 portion of the garden invigorated by the 
 soap-suds, only annually exhibits a luxuri- 
 ance almost equal to anything this fertile 
 neighbourhood can produce." The Rev. J. 
 Falconer, when commenting upon this ex- 
 periment, says, " This mixture of an oil and 
 an alkali has been more generally known 
 than adopted, as a remedy against the insects 
 which infest wall fruit trees. It will dis- 
 lodge and destroy the insects which have 
 already formed their nests and bred amongst 
 the leaves. When used in the early part of 
 the year, it seems to prevent the insects 
 from settling upon them. Mr. Speechly, 
 the author of a treatise upon the Cultiva- 
 tion of the Vine, published in 1796, used 
 this mixture with great success, although, 
 
KENNEL. 
 
 KIDNEY-VETCH. 
 
 from not having employed a garden engine, 
 he applied the soap-suds awkwardly and 
 wastefully. He directs it to be poured 
 from a ladder, out of a watering-pot, over 
 both trees and wall, beginning at the top of 
 the wall, and bringing it on in courses from 
 the top to the bottom." 
 
 Mr. Martin, of Warbleton, has recently 
 used soda for turnips, half a cwt. per acre, 
 previously to the last ploughing, thinking, 
 as he observed, that it would destroy such 
 insects as lie in the ground in an embryo 
 state, or prevent their arriving at maturity 
 so as to injure his crop. In respect to the 
 use of soda on corn lands, he said he used it 
 rather extensively last season, and that he 
 had tried several experiments with it, both 
 upon grass and arable land. That in a 
 field of wheat, a very thin poor gravelly 
 soil, he sowed one warp without any ma- 
 nure at all; on another warp adjoining, he 
 used one cwt. per acre ; and on a third 
 warp he put one and a half cwt. per acre. 
 The produce of eight rods on each warp was 
 as under : this was on land of a very bad 
 description : — 
 
 per acre. 
 
 8 rods without manure, 7 gallons, or 17£ bushels 
 8 rods with 1 cwt. soda per acre, 
 
 10i gallons, or ... 26 bushels, 2 galls. 
 8 rods with 1£ cwt. soda per acre, 
 
 15i galls, or - - - 38 bushels, 6 galls. 
 
 KENNEL. (Fr. chenil, from chien, a 
 dog.) The hole of a fox or other wild 
 beast. In rural economy, a habitation for 
 dogs, especially those of the hound kind : it 
 should be situated a good distance from the 
 house. Large kennels require to be kept 
 clean, well aired, and strewed with fresh 
 straw to prevent the mange or other in- 
 fectious distempers. Those readers who 
 wish to acquire information on the manage- 
 ment of the kennel will do well to consult 
 Blaine s Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports. 
 
 KENT, WILLIAM, an artist and cele- 
 brated ornamental gardener, was born in 
 Yorkshire, in 1685. From 1743 to 1748 
 he was troubled with various inflammatory 
 attacks, which terminated his life on the 
 12th of April in the last named year. Wal- 
 pole, Mason the poet, and G. Mason highly 
 panegyrise him, and, indeed, by general 
 consent, he is allowed to have been the first 
 general practitioner of landscape gardening. 
 For the following outline of his style of 
 design I am entirely indebted to Mr. Wal- 
 pole, his contemporary : — " The great prin- 
 ciples on which he worked were perspective, 
 and light and shade. Groups of trees broke 
 too uniform or too extensive a lawn ; ever- 
 greens and woods were opposed to the 
 glare of the champain ; and where the view 
 was less fortunate, or so much exposed as 
 to be beheld at once, he blotted out some 
 710 
 
 parts by thick shades, to divide it into 
 variety, or to make the richest scene more 
 enchanting by reserving it to a farther 
 advance of the spectator. Where objects 
 were wanting he introduced temples, &c. 
 but he especially excelled in the manage- 
 ment of water. The gentle stream was 
 taught to serpentine seemingly at its plea- 
 sure, and, where discontinued by different 
 levels, its course appeared to be concealed 
 by thickets properly interspersed, and glit- 
 tered again at a distance where it might be 
 supposed naturally to arrive. Its sides 
 were smoothed, but preserved their mean- 
 derings ; a few trees were scattered here and 
 there on its edges, and when it disappeared 
 among the hills, shades descending from 
 the heights leaned towards its vanishing 
 point. He followed Nature even in her 
 faults. In Kensington Gardens he planted 
 dead trees, but was soon laughed out of 
 the excess. His ruling principle was, that 
 Nature abhors a straight line." (G. W. 
 Johnson's Hist, of Gardening.) 
 
 KERN. A hand mill, consisting of two 
 pieces of stone, by which corn is ground ; 
 it is written likewise quern. The word is 
 still in use in some parts of Scotland. 
 Kern also signifies to granulate and to 
 harden, as ripened corn ; and is the com- 
 mon corrupted name for churn in some 
 parts of that country. 
 
 KERN-BABY (a corruption of corn- 
 baby) was an image formerly dressed up 
 with corn, carried before the reapers to 
 their harvest-home. 
 
 KERNEL. (Sax. cypne], a gland.) In 
 general this word signifies the substance 
 within a shell ; but it has different meanings, 
 sometimes implying any thing included in 
 a husk or integument, as the seed of pulpy 
 fruits, the grain of oats, &c. In horti- 
 culture the hardy fruits are generally ar- 
 ranged under the heads of kernel fruits, or 
 pomes, including the apple, pear, quince, 
 medlar, and service ; stone fruits, as the 
 peach, nectarine, almond, apricot, plum, and 
 cherry ; berries, as the mulberry, barberry, 
 elderberry, gooseberry, currant, raspberry, 
 cranberry, and strawberry ; and nuts, as 
 the walnut, chestnut, and filbert. (Loudon's 
 Encyc. of Gard.) 
 
 KERRY COWS. See Cattle. 
 
 KID. A young goat. (See Goats.) 
 Also a provincial name for a small faggot 
 of underwood or brushwood. 
 
 KIDED. A provincial name for the 
 pods of beans, &c. 
 
 KIDEROW. A local term applied to the 
 place set apart for keeping a sucking calf. 
 
 KIDNEY-BEAN. See Beans. 
 
 KIDNEY- VETCH. (Anthyllis; derived 
 from avOog, a flower, and lov\og, down, in re- 
 
KILN. 
 
 KINGFISHER. 
 
 ference to the flowers being usually covered 
 with a soft or silky pubescence.) The species 
 are, for the most part, elegant and free- 
 flowering, plants proper for ornamenting 
 rock- work. The hardy perennial and an- 
 nual kinds thrive well in a warm situation 
 and light soil. The green-house and frame 
 kinds succeed best in sandy loam and peat ; 
 and increase plentifully from seeds, and 
 sometimes from cuttings. (Paxtons Bot. 
 Diet) 
 
 The common kidney-vetch, or ladies' 
 finger (^L. vulneraria), is the only species 
 indigenous to these islands. It is found 
 growing wild in chalky or limestone coun- 
 tries, where the soil is dry and rather 
 barren, and the herbage affords good pas- 
 turage for sheep. The root of this species 
 is woody, the stems annual, round, hairy, 
 leafy, mostly simple, ascending, about a foot 
 high. The radical leaves are simple, el- 
 liptical, on long stalks, soon disappearing ; 
 the rest alternate, pinnate, with a terminal 
 elliptical leaflet, and several pairs of op- 
 posite, small, lanceolate ones ; all entire, 
 smooth, and a little glaucous above, hairy, 
 or rather silky, underneath and at the 
 margin. The flowers which are numerous, 
 in a pair of crowded terminal heads, ac- 
 companied by figured bracteas, are usu- 
 ally yellow, rarely of a fine red. In Ger- 
 many, according to Haller, the flowers are 
 most frequently white. This plant for- 
 merly had the reputation of possessing 
 some vulnerary properties, whence the 
 specific name. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 269.) 
 
 KILN. (Sax. cyln.) A kind of furnace 
 or stove for admitting heat, in order to dry 
 substances of various kinds, as corn, malt, 
 hops, &c. It also signifies a fabric or 
 building constructed for the purpose of 
 burning limestone, chalk, and other cal- 
 careous stones into lime. Kilns are of 
 various kinds, and formed in different ways, 
 according to the purposes for which they 
 are designed. See Hops, Malt, Lime, 
 Clay Kiln, &c. 
 
 KILN ASHES. The ashes made in 
 kilns where wood, straw, furze, &c. are 
 burnt. These ashes are useful as manure 
 for almost any kind of soil. They are 
 found to succeed best when spread just 
 before rain. See Ashes. 
 
 KING'S CLAVER. See Common Me- 
 
 LILOT. 
 
 KING'S CUPS. A local and provincial 
 name for the buttercups, or creeping and 
 bulbous crowfoot. (Ranunculus repens, 
 bulbosus, and acris.) See Buttercup and 
 Crowfoot. 
 
 KING'S SPEAR. See Asphodel. 
 
 KINGFISHER. (Alcedo ispida.) The 
 711 
 
 well known kingfisher (says Mr. Yarrell) 
 is one of the most beautiful of our JJriiish 
 birds, and will bear a comparison with many 
 of those which are brought from climates 
 considered more favourable to the pro- 
 duction of brilliant colours. It is also ge- 
 nerally distributed, though it can scarcely 
 be said to be very numerous anywhere. It 
 frequents the banks of streams, sometimes 
 inhabiting fish-ponds ; and the bird is most 
 frequently seen when flying rapidly along 
 near the surface of the water. Its food 
 consists of water-beetles, leeches, minnows, 
 sticklebacks, and probably many other 
 species of small fish which it can seize upon 
 by surprise. For this purpose the king- 
 fisher takes a station near the water, sitting 
 on the branch of a bush or tree overhanging 
 the stream, or on a rail by the water-side, 
 whence it darts instantaneously upon any 
 passing prey, and will occasionally sus- 
 pend itself on the wing, hovering and watch- 
 ing for a favourable opportunity to make 
 the plunge which is to secure its victim. 
 The prey is always taken with the beak ; 
 and so unerring is the aim, that the bird 
 seldom fails to gain the fish it strikes at, 
 which when thus captured is brought to the 
 usual waiting place, and, after some mu- 
 tilation to produce death, is invariably 
 swallowed head foremost. The kingfisher is 
 solitary in its habits, and pugnacious in 
 disposition, seldom to be seen with any as- 
 sociate except its mate during the breeding 
 season. At this period a pair take possession 
 of a hole already formed by some burrowing 
 animal, in the Bank by the water-side, where 
 the female deposits five or six eggs upon 
 the fish-bones which have been rejected 
 from the stomach ; for kingfishers, like many 
 other birds, possess the power of reproducing 
 the contents of the stomach at pleasure. 
 The eggs are of a short oval form, almost 
 round, measuring ten lines and a half in 
 length, by nine lines in breadth ; of a smooth 
 and shining white when blown, but pre- 
 viously exhibiting a delicate pink tinge, 
 from the influence of the colour of the yolk, 
 which pervades the transparent albumen 
 and thin shell. 
 
 In form the kingfisher is bulky and heavy 
 for its size and length, reminding the ob- 
 server of the powerful body and short wings 
 of the dipper. 
 
 The beak is about one inch and a half long 
 from its point to the feathers on the forehead, 
 and two inches long from the point to the 
 angle formed by the gape. The whole length 
 of the bird is about seven inches. When 
 flying in a bright day the plumage of this 
 bird exhibits a variety of the most dazzling 
 colours. The crown of its head, the beak, 
 and the coverts of its wings, are of a deep 
 z z 4 
 
KINNEL. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 blackish green, spotted with a bright azure 
 tint ; the back and tail exhibit the most re- 
 splendent shades ; the breast, belly, and the 
 whole interior side of the body is of an orange 
 cast, or pale chestnut ; the tail feathers in- 
 digo blue; legs, toes, and claws, reddish 
 brown. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol ii. p. 
 206.) 
 
 KINNEL. A provincial term sometimes 
 applied to a powdering tub. 
 
 KIPPER. A term used in Scotland and 
 in Wales for salmon moderately salted, dried, 
 and smoked. 
 
 KIPPER-NUT, or PIG-NUT. See 
 Earth-Nut. 
 
 KIRK. (Sax. cvnce.) An old word for a 
 church, yet retained in Scotland. 
 
 KIT. In some places a name given to a 
 milking-pail or vessel in the form of a churn, 
 with two ears and a cover, used to convey 
 milk in. 
 
 KITCHEN GARDEN. A piece of 
 ground laid out for the cultivation of fruit, 
 herbs, pulses, and other culinary vegetables. 
 
 The kitchen garden is the most im- 
 portant object of the horticulturist's care, 
 inasmuch as that its productions, next to 
 those of agriculture, tend most to the sup- 
 port of mankind. 
 
 It often affords the chief support of the 
 cottager, and ought to be the constant at- 
 tendant of his dwelling. Of more exalted 
 mansions it is always an accompaniment, 
 but it is much to be regretted that a more 
 plentiful use of its products is not adopted 
 in preference to grosser aliment. 
 
 The kitchen garden also Tias for its in- 
 mates many plants chiefly valuable as ren- 
 dering other kinds of food more palatable, 
 or as possessing sanative qualities. These 
 last formerly far exceeded in number the 
 edible plants. The subsequent more ge- 
 neral employment of mineral medicines has 
 reversed this state of our kitchen garden. 
 The culture of aromatic herbs is also much 
 less attended to since the introduction of 
 spices. In selecting the site, and in erecting 
 the inclosures, as well as in the after-pre- 
 paration of the soil, the ingenuity and 
 science of the horticulturist are essentially 
 requisite. He will be called upon to rectify 
 the defects, and to improve the advantages, 
 which nature affords ; for it is very seldom 
 that the natural situation of a mansion, or 
 the plan of its grounds, allows him to con- 
 struct it in the most appropriate spot. 
 
 A gentle declination towards the south, 
 with a point to the east, is the most favour- 
 able aspect ; to the north-east the least so : 
 in short, any point to the south is to be 
 preferred to one verging towards the north. 
 A high wall should inclose it to the north 
 and east, gradually lowering to the south 
 
 and west. If, however, a plantation or 
 buildings, on the east side, at some distance, 
 shelter it from the piercing winds which 
 blow from that quarter, and yet are at such 
 a distance as not to intercept the rays of the 
 rising sun, it is much to be preferred to 
 heightening the wall. It is a still greater 
 desideratum to have a similar shelter, or 
 that of a hill, on the south-west and north- 
 west points. 
 
 The garden is best situated at a mo- 
 derate elevation ; the summit of a hill, or 
 the bottom of a valley, is equally to be 
 avoided. It is a fact, not very difficult of 
 explanation, that low-lying ones are the 
 most liable to suffer from blights and severe 
 frosts ; those much above the level of the 
 sea are obviously most exposed to inclement 
 winds. To determine the appropriate size 
 of a kitchen garden is impossible. It ought 
 to be proportionate to the number of the 
 family, their partiality for vegetables, and 
 the fertility of the soil. 
 
 It may serve as some criterion to state, 
 that the management of a kitchen garden 
 occupying the space of an acre affords ample 
 employment for a gardener, who will also 
 require an assistant at the busiest periods 
 of the year. In general, a family of four 
 persons, exclusive of servants, requires a 
 full rood of open kitchen garden. The 
 walls are usually built in pannels from 
 fifteen to thirty feet in length, one brick 
 thick, with pillars, for the sake of adding 
 to their strength, at these specified dis- 
 tances ; the foundation is a brick and a half 
 thick. The plan of Mr. Silverlock, of Chi- 
 chester, is worthy of adoption, since, if well 
 constructed, it is equally durable, and saves 
 one third of the expense. Walls so con- 
 structed are stated to become dry after rain 
 much more rapidly than a solid wall of the 
 same or any other thickness ; and there 
 appears not a shadow of a reason why it 
 should not ripen fruit equally, well. He 
 forms the wall hollow, nine inches in 
 breadth, by placing the bricks edgeways, so 
 as to form two facings ; they are laid in 
 good mortar, and the joints carefully 
 finished. They are placed alternately with 
 their faces and ends to the outside, so that 
 every second brick is a tie, and in each 
 succeeding course a brick with its end out- 
 wards is placed on the centre of one laid 
 lengthways on either side. The top of the 
 wall must be covered with a coping of stone 
 or bricks, projecting two inches. It is 
 strengthened at every twenty feet by piers 
 of fourteen-inch work, built in the same 
 manner, with bricks laid on edge. {Trans. 
 Hart. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 244.) The mode 
 of constructing the piers, obviating the dis- 
 advantages arising from training branches 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 round their sharp angles, which often causes 
 them to gum, recommended by the Rev. 
 T. Cullum, of Bury St. Edmonds, is to have 
 their corners bevilled. He also recommends 
 that the copings should be made to project 
 twelve inches farther than they usually do ; 
 but his reasoning refers more immediately 
 to the management of wall-fruit. (Trans. 
 Hort. Soc. Lond., iv. pp. 269—271.) 
 
 It is a practice, sanctioned by economy, 
 to build the wall half-brick thick, on a 
 nine-inch foundation, and to compensate 
 for its want of strength a waved form is 
 given. Both the smallness of its substance, 
 and its form, are found, however, to be in- 
 imical to the ripening of fruit. In every 
 instance a wall should never be lower than 
 eight feet. 
 
 Next to a wall, a close set paling of 
 the above height is to be preferred. A 
 hedge is not only an imperfect screen, but 
 in other respects is worse than useless, since 
 nothing can be trained to it, and its roots 
 exhaust the soil in their neighbourhood 
 very considerably ; as the south fence of a 
 garden it may be employed without such 
 numerous disadvantages. For its formation 
 quick or hawthorn is in general employed, 
 and is, perhaps, the worst shrub that could 
 be made use of. A hawthorn hedge, says 
 Mr. Williams, of Pitmanston House, near 
 Worcester, is the nursery of the same 
 aphides, beetles, and caterpillars that feed 
 upon the foliage of the apple and pear ; 
 whence they spread to the trees nearest the 
 hedge, and finally overrun the whole garden. 
 Having thus deprecated the use of the haw- 
 thorn, he proceeds to demonstrate the su- 
 periority of evergreen over deciduous 
 hedges ; and more especially recommends 
 the holly, which he states to be nothing 
 near so slow a grower as is generally ima- 
 gined. In a cloudy day in April or May, 
 the wind seems to be actually refrigerated 
 in passing through a thick hawthorn hedge, 
 and this may be accounted for on the same 
 principle that cool air is obtained in the 
 houses of India, by sprinkling branches of 
 trees with water in their verandas. Holly, 
 laurel, and most evergreens exhale but 
 little moisture from their leaves, except for 
 about a month in June ; consequently, in 
 April and May, when we most require 
 warmth, and in September, and October, 
 the leaves of these, when fully exposed to 
 the sun, become heated to the touch ; he sur- 
 mises to 85° or 90°. ( Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. ii. p. 354.) Added to this, hoar frost, 
 or a deposition of moisture of any kind, never 
 attaches so readily, or remains for so long a 
 time upon the foliage of evergreens as upon 
 the sprays of deciduous shrubs, consequently 
 the refrigeratory power is greatly dimi- 
 713 
 
 nished. When the garden is of considerable 
 extent, three or four acres and upwards, it 
 admits of cross walls or fences for an in- 
 crease of training surface and additional 
 shelter. In forming the ground-plan of a 
 kitchen garden, utility is the main object. 
 A border should extend round under the 
 wall of about ten feet breadth, the widest on 
 those sides that face the south, which will not 
 only be beneficial to the trees, but convenient 
 for raising early crops, &c. Next to this 
 should be a walk five feet in width, likewise 
 extending round the area. 
 
 Clayey gravel is best employed for the 
 walks, though they are often formed of 
 road -drift, sand, or cinders ; grass is in- 
 convenient, not only from its wetness, but 
 from the injury it sustains from the wheel- 
 barrow, &c. Each walk should be laid five 
 inches thick of the material employed, being 
 founded upon stones, brickbats, clinkers, &c. 
 which, serving as an underdrain, will keep 
 it dry in the wettest weather. It should be 
 gently arched, as this form tends also to 
 keep it in a dry state, and to prevent it 
 sinking into holes. Beneath the walks the 
 mould ought to be good, as the roots of the 
 trees extend in general beneath them. 
 
 Box and other live edgings being a har- 
 bour for snails, slugs, and vermin, are 
 best excluded ; and the limits of the beds 
 and walks marked by a single course of 
 bricks, as these are not only durable, but 
 save much labour in keeping them up. On 
 the edges of the cross-paths, parsley, thyme 
 or other pot-herbs, may be employed for 
 this purpose. 
 
 The insertion of the fruit trees is the first 
 thing to be attended to, at the proper season, 
 after the formation of the garden, both 
 against the walls and on the borders. In 
 the main compartments no fruit tree of a 
 size larger than the gooseberry shrub should 
 on any account be admitted, for not only 
 are the culinary tribes injured by their 
 presence, but the roots of the trees must 
 either be materially injured, or, what is as 
 objectionable, the beds cannot be submitted 
 to the spade ; even the gooseberries, rasp- 
 berries, &c. should be planted in compart- 
 ments by themselves, they then can have 
 any requisite cultivation performed more 
 easily, and are prevented from injuring 
 other crops. 
 
 Espaliers ought not to be nearer to each 
 other than fifteen or twenty feet. Dwarf 
 standards, if admitted, at least the same. 
 If these or full standards are necessarily 
 admitted on the main quarters, they ought 
 to be set at least fifty feet apart, and towards 
 the angles of the divisions. 
 
 Thus much can be done in taking ad- 
 vantage of all natural circumstances that 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 contribute to the welfare of plants, and to 
 obviate as much as possible their defects, 
 without having recourse to any artificial 
 heat, &c. But the temperature of our cli- 
 mate, even with the most just management, 
 can never be raised sufficiently high, by any 
 practical means of accumulation, for the 
 growth of the plants of warmer countries ; 
 nor in winter, to grow certain vegetables 
 which are then in request, that will nourish 
 at other seasons in our unsheltered beds. 
 To overcome this barrier of nature, an ar- 
 tificial temperature is obtained, and the 
 severity of the natural atmosphere excluded 
 by means of glass. This constitutes the 
 hot-house and forcing department ; but, as 
 far as it is connected with the inhabitants 
 of the kitchen garden, it is here treated of 
 as preventing, in a great measure, the ne- 
 cessity of ulterior reference, which cannot, 
 without endless repetitions, but confuse 
 and disturb every advantage that is ob- 
 tained by a systematic arrangement. In 
 pursuance of this opinion, directions for the 
 construction of hotbeds, &c. are given here, 
 since for all crops that require artificial heat 
 the construction of a hotbed is the same, 
 consequently the following will serve as a 
 general guide. 
 
 A hotbed is usually constructed of stable 
 dung, of which that made by the best fed 
 horses is to be preferred. It should be 
 about ten days from the stalls, and with- 
 out too large a proportion of litter. After 
 being thrown into a heap of conic form for 
 five or six days, it must be so turned over 
 that the inner parts are brought to the out- 
 side, the clots well separated with the fork, 
 the heap being re-formed conical as before, 
 and left for an equal number of days. By 
 this time and treatment the dung in gene- 
 ral acquires a sufficient and steady heat ; if, 
 however, it is very dry and fresh, it must 
 be moderately moistened, and left for five 
 or six days more. At the time of forming 
 the heap, as well as at every turning, water 
 should be applied, if its substance appears 
 at all dry, as a regular state of moisture is 
 of first importance to the obtaining a fa- 
 vourable fermentation. There is a consi- 
 derable difference of opinion with respect 
 to the length of time that dung should con- 
 tinue thus in the heap, some gardeners pro- 
 tracting it even to four weeks ; a more 
 decisive rule appears to be, that it should 
 remain until the straw in general assumes 
 a dark brown colour, when it should be im- 
 mediately formed into the bed. If, of ne- 
 cessity, dung is used that is neither* fresh 
 nor strong, a portion of coal ashes, or a 
 larger one of leaves or tan, may be mixed 
 with advantage. If it is fresh, the addition 
 of these is apt to make the fermentation 
 714 
 
 violent and transitory. Dr. Hunter, how- 
 ever, recommends leaves to be mixed at all 
 times, as heat is thereby generated during 
 a greater length of time. {Georg. Essays, ii. 
 p. 63.) In cold, wet, or boisterous weather 
 the heaps should be covered to a moderate 
 depth with litter. 
 
 # In making the beds, they must be so 
 situated as to be entirely free from the 
 overshadowing of trees, buildings, &c. and 
 having an aspect rather a point eastward of 
 the south. A reed fence surrounding them 
 on all sides is a shelter that prevents any re- 
 verberation of the wind, an evil which is 
 caused by paling or other solid inclosure. 
 This must be ten feet high to the northward 
 or back part, of a similar height at the 
 sides, but in front only six. The wicket or 
 gate must be of sufficient width to admit a 
 loaded wheelbarrow. An inclosure of this 
 description, 100 feet in length and 60 broad, 
 will be of a size sufficiently large for the 
 pursuit of every description of hotbed for- 
 cing. But for cucumbers, melons, and a 
 few inferior articles, a space for six or eight 
 lights is sufficient. Fruit may be forced 
 slightly by being trained within it on the 
 southern aspect ; the fence on that side, in 
 that case, must be of brick or wood, and, to 
 assist in increasing the temperature, painted 
 black. To prevent unnecessary labour, this 
 inclosure should be formed as near to the 
 stable as possible. 
 
 For the reception of the bed, a trench is 
 often recommended to be dug, of its de- 
 termined length and breadth, and six inches 
 deep if the soil is wet, or eighteen or more 
 if it is dry. In a dry soil and climate this 
 cannot be productive of much injury, but, 
 otherwise, it almost always chills the bed ; 
 at the same time it is to be observed, that 
 it is never productive of benefit, further 
 than not being so high it is easier of access, 
 but gives much additional trouble both at 
 the time of founding, and afterwards when 
 linings are to be applied. From these and 
 other considerations, which may be dis- 
 cerned as the future operations are traced, 
 it appears that a hotbed is best founded on 
 the surface to which a gentle inclination 
 from the N. towards the S. should be given. 
 
 The site of the bed being determined, a 
 stake should be driven perpendicularly at 
 the four corners, as a guide for its rectan- 
 gular construction. The dung must be 
 thoroughly mixed just before it is used, and 
 as carefully separated and spread regularly 
 with the fork, as the bed is formed with it. 
 It is beneficially settled down in every part 
 alike by beating with the fork, as the work 
 proceeds, rather than by treading, for if too 
 much compressed a high degree of heat is 
 generated, but is soon spent; a contrary 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 phenomenon is often caused if trod to a still 
 greater excess, viz. that no heat at all is 
 engendered. 
 
 The longest, or littery, part of the dung 
 should be laid at the bottom of the bed, and 
 the finer fragments of the dung upon the 
 top. If it is not regularly and moderately 
 moist throughout, it should be sprinkled 
 over with water. As the surface on which 
 the bed is founded is usually horizontal, so is 
 the dung laid perfectly parallel with it. 
 Mr. Knight recommends it, on the contrary, 
 to be equally inclined with its foundation, 
 that it may associate well with the new form 
 which he recommends for frames. 
 
 The breadth of a bed must always be from 
 four to five feet — in the depth of winter 
 four and a half feet high when firmly settled : 
 to form it of this size, about twelve bar- 
 row-loads are required to a light. In early 
 spring a height of three and a half feet is 
 sufficient, and as the season advances it may 
 decline to three or two and a half feet. In 
 May, or early summer, when the only object 
 is to hasten the germination of seeds, two 
 feet, or eighteen inches, is not less than the 
 necessary height. The length of the bed 
 in all cases must be guided by the size of 
 the frame. 
 
 To prevent the sudden changes of tem- 
 perature by the external air affecting the 
 heat of the bed, a practice of Mr. Fowler, 
 who was the first person that ever produced 
 cucumbers about Christmas, is much to be 
 commended : he was accustomed to coat the 
 sides of the bed with sand (coal ashes or 
 earth might be substituted) to a thickness 
 of two feet. " This," observes Bradley, 
 " not only prevents a fluctuation in the 
 heat, but maintains the bed in a regular one 
 much longer." (Gen. Treat, on Husb. and 
 Gard. ii. p. 63.) 
 
 As the heat declines, linings, or, as they 
 might be more properly called, coalings, are 
 made use of ; which consist of hot fermenting 
 dung, laid from eighteen to twenty-four 
 inches, in proportion to the coldness of the 
 season, &c. all round the bed to the whole 
 of its height, and if founded in a trench, one 
 equally deep must be dug for the coating, it 
 being of importance to renew the heat as 
 much as possible throughout its whole mass ; 
 if after a while the temperature again de- 
 clines, the whole coating must be taken away 
 and a similar one of hot dung applied in its 
 place. As the spring advances, the warmth 
 of the sun will compensate for the decline 
 of that of the bed ; but as the nights are 
 generally yet cold, either a moderate coating 
 about nine or ten inches thick is required, 
 or the mowings of grass, or even litter, may 
 be laid round the sides with advantage. 
 
 The depth of earth as well as the time 
 715 
 
 and manner of applying, vary considerably ; 
 it should never be put on until four or five 
 days after the bed is formed : before it is 
 applied the edges of the bed should be raised 
 full eight inches higher than the middle, as 
 from the additional weight of the frame they 
 are sure to sink more, and quicker ; thereby 
 often causing the earth to crack and injure 
 the roots of the plants. {Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Lond. vol. iii. p. 147.) 
 
 The roots of plants being liable to injury 
 from an excessive heat in the bed, several 
 plans have been devised to prevent this ef- 
 fect. If the plants are in pots plunged in 
 the earth of the bed, they may be raised an 
 inch or two from the bottom of the holes 
 they are inserted in by means of a stone. 
 But a still more effectual mode is to place 
 them within other pots, rather larger than, 
 themselves ; a space filled with air being 
 thus interposed between the roots and the 
 source of heat, an effectual security is ob- 
 tained. To prevent the same injury oc- 
 curring when the plants are in the earth of 
 the bed, a moderate layer of neat's dung, 
 laid between the earth and the fermenting 
 mass, is an efficient precaution, and is much 
 preferable to a similarly placed layer of 
 turf, which interrupts too much the full be- 
 nefit of the heat. A plan recommended by 
 Bradley is well worthy of notice. A woven 
 hurdle, somewhat larger than the frame, 
 being placed upon the dung, on this its 
 woodwork can rest, and the earth is laid 
 within it ; thus the whole can be moved to- 
 gether without disturbance. {Gen. Treat, on 
 Husb. and Gard. vol. i. p. 47.) This would 
 especially be of advantage when bark is em- 
 ployed, which requires occasional stirring 
 to renew its heat, in case of emergency, 
 when time cannot be allowed for the bed 
 becoming regular in its heat before the 
 plants are inserted. Besides these precau- 
 tions, vacancies should be left in the mould, 
 and holes bored with a thick pole into the 
 bed, which must be filled up with hay or 
 dung when the danger is past. 
 
 For ascertaining the internal temperature 
 of the bed, the thermometer is the only 
 certain guide ; as it also is for judging of 
 the temperature of the air within the frame : 
 the ingenious mode of introducing it into 
 the body of the bed recommended by M. 
 Regnier of Paris, is to have the thermometer 
 inclosed in a wooden case of the size and 
 form of an ordinary dibble, which is to be 
 lined with baize, and fitted with a cap of 
 tinned iron to exclude the exterior tempe- 
 rature. The end which enters the earth is 
 shod with perforated copper. (Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. iii. p. 180.) In conjunction 
 with the thermometer, trying sticks may be 
 employed for occasional observation : these 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 are smooth laths of wood, about two feet in 
 length, thrust into different parts of the bed, 
 which, being drawn out and grasped quickly, 
 afford a rough estimate of the heat of the 
 bed. The small content of the frame, and 
 the rapid deterioration of the air within it 
 by the plants, render its frequent renewal 
 necessary. To effect this, the common prac- 
 tice is to raise the glasses in proportionate 
 heights according to the state of the air ; 
 and to prevent any injury arising, when 
 necessarily admitted during inclement wea- 
 ther, mats are hung over the opening ; but 
 notwithstanding these precautions, the sup- 
 ply of air can seldom be regular ; hence, 
 and from sudden chills, the plants are often 
 checked, sometimes essentially injured. It 
 may be remarked here, that raw, foggy days, 
 if any thing, are more unfavourable than 
 those that are frosty for the admission of 
 air. A complete remedy for all these diffi- 
 culties is afforded by a plan suggested by 
 Dr. Hales, the celebrated vegetable physio- 
 logist, since by it a regular supply of warm 
 air is kept up, and renders it unnecessary 
 to raise the lights, except in the most fa- 
 vourable times. His mode succeeds on the 
 principle that warm air ascends, and simply 
 consists of a pipe passed through the body 
 of the bed, one end communicating with 
 the exterior air, the other opening into the 
 frame, at one of the top corners of which 
 an aperture must be made ; the heated air 
 of the frame will constantly be issuing from 
 this aperture, and its place supplied by that 
 which rises through the pipe. {Lewis's 
 Chem. 2d ed. vol. i. p. 411.) This suggestion 
 is more practically illustrated by Mr. Keith 
 of Ravelstone, who states that he employs 
 a pipe of lead, about two or three inches in 
 diameter, bent nearly at a right angle, and 
 each limb being three feet long ; one of these 
 to be placed horizontally as the bed is form- 
 ing, with its mouth extending into the open 
 air ; that of the other opening into the 
 frames ; a cap should be fitted to the first, 
 and by a slit on its under side the quantity 
 of air admitted can be regulated. (Mem. 
 Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. p. 185.) 
 
 Although stable manure, from its abun- 
 dance, is generally employed for the con- 
 structing of hotbeds, yet there are several 
 other vegetable matters that are also in use 
 for the same purpose. Tanner's bark, from 
 its long continuance and regularity of heat, 
 is much to be preferred, especially for very 
 tender exotics. In many situations it can 
 be obtained at a cheaper rate than stable 
 dung : it should be employed when fresh 
 drawn from the vats, or at most when a 
 fortnight or three weeks old : it must lie in 
 :i heap for six or eight days, to allow the 
 escape of the superfluous moisture; in sum- 
 716 
 
 mer this is not of such material consequence, 
 as an excess of wet is at that season not so 
 liable to prevent fermentation. If the ground 
 is dry, a pit three feet deep may be dug, 
 and is better if lined with boards or brick- 
 work ; but whatever may be the nature of 
 the soil, it is best to form this case or bin of 
 a similar height upon the surface. Without 
 some support the tan will not form a solid 
 bed, and if mould becomes mixed with it, 
 the fermentation is retarded, or entirely 
 prevented. The breadth must not be less 
 than five or six feet, or of a length shorter 
 than ten or twelve, otherwise the heat will 
 not be lasting. When the bark is laid, it 
 must be gently settled with the fork, but 
 never trodden upon, for if violently com- 
 pressed it loses the power of fermenting : 
 if the bark is fresh, and not ground very 
 small, it attains a sufficient warmth in a 
 fortnight for the insertion of the plants, and 
 will continue in heat for two or three months ; 
 the larger the fragments of the bark are, 
 the longer time it requires to ferment, but 
 in an equal proportion it attains a higher 
 temperature and preserves it much longer ; 
 middle-sized bark is therefore in general 
 to be preferred; and, added to the above 
 considerations, it is to be remarked, that 
 when made of large fragments, violent and 
 sudden excesses often arise, even after the 
 bed has been constructed two or three 
 months ; on the contrary, if very small, the 
 fermentation soon passes off. 
 
 When the crops are removed and the 
 heat declines, if well stirred, and a load or 
 two of fresh bark mixed with it, the bed 
 will acquire and continue in heat for an 
 equal further lapse of time : this may be 
 repeated throughout the year as often as 
 the heat is found to decline. But it is ne- 
 cessary every autumn entirely, or nearly so, 
 to reconstruct the bed with fresh bark ; for 
 when the old is far advanced towards pu- 
 trefaction, it will no longer generate heat. 
 If the bed is required in a shorter time than 
 it would of itself acquire a sufficient tem- 
 perature, a small quantity of fresh ferment- 
 ing dung may be placed at the bottom of 
 the bed ; otherwise this is a detrimental 
 practice, occasioning often a violent, and 
 always a transient fermentation. 
 
 The leaves of the oak and sweet chestnut, 
 and doubtless of many other trees,, answer 
 for hotbeds as well or even better than tan- 
 ner's bark, since they will continue to afford 
 a moderate heat for nearly twelve months, 
 without any addition or stirring. They are 
 to be collected as they fall in autumn, and 
 carried to some situation, or be so hurdled 
 in, that they may be preserved from scat- 
 tering by the winds; the heap should be 
 six or seven feet thick, trod firmly down, 
 
KITCHEN GARDEN. 
 
 KITE. 
 
 and moderately watered if dry. In a few 
 days a very powerful heat is produced, and 
 in five or six weeks will have become so 
 regular, that it may be broken up, and the 
 beds constructed with its materials, water 
 being again employed if dryness appears, 
 and they must be well trod down as before. 
 There are many other substances that ge- 
 nerate heat during fermentation; there is 
 perhaps no vegetable substance that does 
 not ; even a heap of dry sticks acquires a 
 strong accession of temperature if moistened. 
 Mr. Kurnet of Kennet, North Britain, recom- 
 mends the trial of the refuse matter thrown 
 off in dressing flax for constructing hotbeds : 
 " this refuse," he says, " he has observed, 
 when left undisturbed, continue at a tem- 
 perature of 64° for many months ; " he seems 
 to intimate as long as fourteen. {Mem.Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 219.) This material 
 is, however, to be had in very few districts. 
 Grass, and other green herbage, and even 
 wetted straw mixed with coal-ashes, have 
 been used on an emergency with success. 
 
 The order in which successive crops are 
 grown on the same compartment has very 
 considerable influence in prolonging the 
 continuance of the soil in fertility. Some 
 vegetables, as onions and carrots, are ex- 
 tremely impoverishing to a soil, whilst let- 
 tuces are but in a small degree prejudicial. 
 It is, therefore, obvious, that a succession 
 of exhausting crops should be never grown 
 on the same bed, however plentiful manure 
 may be, not merely because abundance is 
 no excuse for a want of economy, but that 
 fresh applied dung is not' so immediately 
 beneficial as those remains of organised 
 matters, which, by long continuance in the 
 soil, have become impalpably divided and 
 diffused through its texture, and of which 
 each succeeding crop consumes a portion. 
 Those plants in general are the least ex- 
 hausting which have the largest surface of 
 leaves, and vice versa, because the first are 
 not only possessed of a larger proportion of 
 aqueous than solid matter than the latter, 
 but also are enabled to obtain a greater 
 quantity of their food from the atmosphere. 
 It may be objected to many crops included 
 by this rule, and especially to turnips, that 
 they require a soil of extreme fertility ; but 
 this is only an apparent anomaly, for, al- 
 though the turnip, for example, requires a 
 rich soil, it is only because it requires a 
 regular supply of moisture : neither will a 
 tenacious soil therefore be beneficial ; on 
 the contrary, a superfluity or deficiency, ac- 
 cording to the season, being then afforded, 
 decay or immaturity is induced. 
 
 There are many other contingencies which 
 should regulate the rotation of crops. The 
 roots of different plants strike in different 
 717 
 
 directions, and to different depths ; and, as 
 their constituents vary, absorb different 
 matters. Deep-rooted plants, therefore, 
 should be succeeded by such as spread but 
 a little below the surface ; perennials always 
 by annuals ; crops left for seed, or those that 
 are of a dry solid texture, by such as are suc- 
 culent and juicy ; but, above all, the same 
 species of plant should never be grown in 
 successive crops upon the same ground. This 
 is not even palliated by the excuse that ma- 
 nure is abundant, for, as Sir H. Davy ob- 
 serves, " though the general composition of 
 plants is very analogous, yet the specific dif- 
 ference in the products of many of them 
 prove that they must derive different mate- 
 rials from the soil ; and though the vege- 
 tables having the smallest systems of leaves 
 will proportionably most exhaust a soil of 
 common nutritive matter, yet particular ve- 
 getables, when their produce is carried off, 
 will require peculiar principles to be supplied 
 to the land which produces them." (Lect. on 
 Agric. Chem. p. 358.) It is known to every 
 cultivator of soil, that land soon becomes 
 tired of the same crop ; in many instances, 
 peculiar diseases are induced by the repe- 
 tition. The most beneficial plan of rotation 
 appears to be that where an exhausting and 
 non- exhausting crop alternately succeed 
 each other, for example, 
 
 Onions. Turnips. 
 
 Lettuce. Peas. 
 
 Carrots. Potatoes. 
 
 Manure. Manure. 
 Mr. Kelly, of Airthrey Castle, Scotland, 
 says, that on poor ground the rotation he 
 finds best is, 1. celery ; 2d season, cauliflowers 
 and red beet ; 3d, onions ; 4th, German 
 greens or peas. By digging deep, and ma- 
 nuring abundantly for celery, the ground is 
 brought into such fine tilth, that the whole 
 rotation is often gone through without any 
 further addition, and without failing in any 
 of the crops. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden.) See Forcing, Frames, Hot- 
 bed, Manure, Rotation of Crops, &c. 
 
 KITE. (Milvus vulgaris.) " The kite," 
 says Mr. Yarrell, " is readily distinguish- 
 able among the British Falconida>, even 
 when at a distance on the wing, by its long 
 and forked tail. The flight of this large 
 bird is singularly graceful and easy, gliding 
 smoothly along with little muscular ex- 
 ertion. It still retains, in some districts, 
 the name of gledor glead, derived, according 
 to Pennant, from the Saxon glida. In its 
 mode of taking its prey the kite is distin- 
 guished from falcons, and hawks generally, 
 by pouncing upon it upon the ground. 
 The kite preys upon fish, moles, leverets, 
 rabbits, snakes, and particularly the young 
 of various gallinaceous birds before they 
 
KNAPPIA, EARLY. 
 
 KNAPWEED. 
 
 have acquired the power of using their 
 wings. The kite, like the sparrow-hawk, 
 frequently visits the poultry yard, but is 
 not remarkable for its courage ; hens have 
 been known by their vociferations and their 
 show of resistance to protect their chickens 
 from the threatened attack, and even to 
 drive away the unwelcome intruder. 
 
 This bird has now become comparatively 
 rare in England, extensive forests or well- 
 wooded districts affording it the only chance 
 of escape from the increasing desire to pre- 
 serve game, and the consequent war of 
 extermination carried on by gamekeepers 
 against birds of prey generally. 
 
 The nest, formed of sticks and lined with 
 various soft materials, is usually placed in 
 the forked branch of a tree in a thick wood. 
 Two and sometimes three eggs, of a short 
 oval form, measuring two inches two lines 
 in length by one inch nine lines in breadth, 
 of a soiled white colour, marked with a few 
 reddish brown spots over the larger end, 
 are laid early in the season. The kite 
 measures about twenty-six inches in length, 
 but with expanded wings it measures up- 
 wards of five feet ; the females are rather 
 larger than the males. The colour of the 
 plumage of the kite is for the most part 
 rufous brown ; the feathers of the head, 
 neck, chin, and throat are greyish white ; 
 the back and wing-coverts dark brown ; 
 broadly edged with rufous ; tail feathers, 
 breast, belly, and thighs, reddish brown ; 
 tail deeply forked ; the tarsi and toes yellow ; 
 the claws black. 
 
 The swallow-tailed kite (Nauclerus fur- 
 catus) is only an occasional visitor to this 
 country ; it is a native of the southern states 
 of North America. This bird always feeds 
 on the wing. Its principal food consists of 
 large grasshoppers, grass-caterpillars, small 
 snakes, lizards, and frogs. The whole length 
 of the bird is about twenty inches. The 
 head, neck, and under surface of the body 
 are pure white ; the back and tail feathers, 
 &c. black ; legs and toes greenish blue ; 
 claws faded orange colour." (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 66—75.) 
 
 KNAPPIA, EARLY. (Knappia agros- 
 tidea. It was named by Sir J. Smith in 
 compliment to Mr. M. Knapp, a writer 
 on British grasses.) Of this, one of the 
 least of the British grasses, only one spe- 
 cies is known ; although common on the 
 coasts of France, it is very rare in England, 
 but is found in maritime pastures, some- 
 times in Wales. It is an annual ; root of 
 many long slender fibres ; stems one to 
 three inches high, erect, simple, slender, 
 smooth, triangular, naked, except at the 
 very bottom, where they are invested with 
 the membranous sheaths of a few short, 
 718 
 
 obtuse, channelled leaves. Stipules mem- 
 branous, bluntish, cloven, but not deeply 
 divided. Spikes solitary, simple, erect, of 
 from six to ten flowers, mostly sessile, al- 
 ternate, erect ; two or three of the lower- 
 most only more or less stalked ; their com- 
 mon stalks zigzag, slender, smooth, angular, 
 but not excavated, as in the truly spiked 
 grasses. Flowers, like the top of the stem, 
 purplish. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 84.) 
 
 KNAPWEED. (Centaurea.) This is 
 a large herbaceous genus of plants, which 
 Jussieu, after Tournefort, has divided into 
 several, by the structure or termination of 
 the calyx scales. Linnaeus has kept it en- 
 tire, and Decandolle has not disturbed it. 
 Smith {Eng. Flora), also, makes one family 
 of them. The following are the indigenous 
 species known under the common name of 
 knapweed. I have treated of other species 
 under the heads Blue Bottle and Stab 
 Thistle. 
 
 1. Brown radiant knapweed. (C.Jacea.) 
 This grows in meadows where the soil is 
 tenacious and moist. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in August and September. The 
 root is rather woody, with many long fibres. 
 Stem solid, erect; a foot high, branched, 
 angular, furrowed and roughish, leafy. 
 Leaves, light green, rough, with short hairs ; 
 radical ones largest, stalked, toothed or pin- 
 natifid; the rest scattered, sessile, oblong, 
 or linear lanceolate, entire, or toothed near 
 the base. Flowers large, numerous, radiant, 
 light crimson, solitary at the tumid end of 
 each branch, accompanied by a few leaves 
 close to the calyx, which is brown ; the 
 calyx-scales are membranous, torn. Lin- 
 naeus says, the herb steeped in water, with 
 alum, before the flowers expand, dyes silk 
 of a fine yellow. 
 
 2. Black knapweed. (C nigra.) This 
 grows in pastures, and by road sides, very 
 common, flowering from June to August. 
 In habit it is like the last, but the stem is 
 taller, more bushy, more deeply furrowed, 
 and rather less rough. The lower leaves 
 are somewhat lyrate, with angular lobes ; 
 upper ones ovate; their colour always 
 darker than that of C. Jacea. The flowers 
 are also of a deeper crimson, commonly 
 without any radiant or abortive florets. 
 The flowers are occasionally white. 
 
 3. Greater knapweed. (C. Scabiosa.) This 
 is also a very common species, growing in 
 the borders and ridges of corn-fields, and 
 by way sides. The root is somewhat woody ; 
 stem about two feet high, erect, branched, 
 angular, furrowed, leafy, smooth to the 
 touch. Leaves dark green, slightly hairy 
 on both sides, pinnatifid. The flowers, which 
 blow in July and August, are terminal, 
 stalked, solitary, large, and of a handsome 
 
KNAWEL. 
 
 KNOT. 
 
 crimson colour, rarely white ; their radiant 
 florets are large, each with five deep, long, 
 and narrow segments. Calyx-scales ovate, 
 green, somewhat downy, fringed with fine 
 parallel teeth. The seeds are crowned with 
 many reddish bristles ; and after they are 
 blown away, the calyx becomes reflex, and 
 displays the silvery shining hue of its in- 
 side. {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 463.) 
 
 KNAWEL. (Scleranthus, from o-fc\?jpoc, 
 hard, and avQog, a flower; in allusion to 
 the dry juiceless calyx.) These are dry 
 rigid herbs which can only be considered as 
 useless weeds. Two of the species are in- 
 digenous, viz. 
 
 1. The annual knawel, or German 
 knot-grass (S. annuus), which grows com- 
 mon in dry sandy soils and corn fields, 
 flowering in July. The root is small and 
 tapering. The stems numerous, widely 
 spreading, and partly decumbent ; round, 
 leafy, a little downy, branched, and many- 
 flowered at the upper part. Leaves linear, 
 acute, pale green, combined at the base by 
 a membranous fringed border. Flowers 
 small, green, nearly sessile, partly axillary, 
 partly collected into dense forked tufts. 
 Calyx of the fruit spreading, with taper, 
 acute segments. The Swedes and Germans 
 introduce occasionally the steam arising 
 from a decoction of the knawel into their 
 mouths, with a view to cure the toothache. 
 Its leaves are astringent. Goats and sheep 
 eat this plant, but cows totally refuse it. 
 
 2. Perennial knawel. (S.perennis.) This 
 species is less common ; it flowers from 
 August to October, while the annual knawel 
 blows in July. The root is woody, branched, 
 with many decumbent or prostrate stems, 
 three or four inches long. The whole 
 herb is of a glaucous, glistening appearance, 
 turning red with age, especially the stems. 
 The leaves are more tapering, crowded, 
 and curved, than in the foregoing. Seg- 
 ments of the calyx more obtuse, concave, 
 and finally converging. In several parts of 
 Europe the roots of this species are attacked 
 by the insect called Coccus polonicus {Linn. 
 Syst. vol. i. p. 741.), which yields a fine 
 crimson dye : it is said likewise to live on 
 S. annum and on some PotentillcB. A good 
 account of its economy is given in the Upsal 
 Transactions for 1742, t. i. p. 51. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 282.) 
 
 KNEE GRASS. A name sometimes 
 given to the rough panic grass. 
 
 KNEE HOLLY. See Butchers' Broom. 
 
 KNEES, BROKEN. See Broken Knees. 
 
 KNIGHT, THOMAS ANDREW, Pre- 
 sident of the Horticultural Society of Lon- 
 don, F.R.S. &c. a distinguished vege- 
 table physiologist and horticulturist, was 
 born at Wormesley Grange in Hereford- 
 719 
 
 shire, August 12. 1759. " My father," 
 says Mr. Knight in a late communication to 
 me, " was a man of much learning and ac- 
 quirements. Having great powers of mind, 
 and living in an extremely quiet and se- 
 questered spot, he was supposed by his ig- 
 norant neighbours, in their language, to 
 know every thing." He died at an advanced 
 age when Mr. Knight was an infant, and as 
 evidence of the respect his knowledge ob- 
 tained him, whenever in childhood his son 
 sought for information upon any unusual 
 subject, he was told that his father would 
 have answered him, but that nobody now 
 could. Being born in the midst of or- 
 chards, " I was early led," he continues, " to 
 ask whence the varieties of fruit I saw came, 
 and how they were produced ; I could ob- 
 tain no satisfactory answer, and was thence 
 first induced to commence experiments, in 
 which, through a long life of scarcely inter- 
 rupted health, I have persevered, and pro- 
 bably shall persevere as long as I possess the 
 power." 
 
 He died May 11. 1838, in the eightieth 
 year of his age. The death of Knight was 
 lamented by all men of science, for, as it 
 was soon afterwards well remarked of him 
 by the Duke of Sussex, when addressing the 
 Fellows of the Royal Society, " It would 
 be difficult to find any other contemporary 
 author, in this or other countries, who had 
 made such important additions to the know- 
 ledge of horticulture and the economy of 
 vegetation." (Selection from his Papers, 
 p. 69.) To this interesting work a memoir 
 of its author is prefixed. 
 
 Mr. Knight was author of the following 
 works, besides numerous papers in the Phi- 
 losophical and Horticultural Transactions : 
 
 1. A Treatise on the Culture of the Apple and Pear, 
 and on the Manufacture of Cyder and Perry. London. 
 1797. 12mo. The third edition in 1808. 2. Some Doubts 
 relative to the Efficacy of Mr. Forsyth's Plaister, in re- 
 novating Trees. London. 1802. 4to. 3. Report of a 
 Committee of the Horticultural Society of London. 
 London. 1805. 4to. 4. Pomona Herefordiensis, or a 
 descriptive Account of the old Cyder and Perry Fruits 
 of Herefordshire, London. 1800. 4to. 5. A Letter on 
 the Origin of Blight, and on raising late Crops of Peas. 
 This is appended to Sir J. Banks's Essay on the Mildew. 
 London. 180G. 8vo. 2d Edition. 
 
 (G.W.Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 KNOLL. (Sax. cnolle.) A little round 
 elevation ; the top of a hill or mountain. 
 
 KNOLLS. A provincial term used in 
 some counties to signify turnips. 
 
 KNOT. (Tringa canutus.) The knot is 
 by no means an uncommon bird in this 
 country from autumn through the winter to 
 the spring, remaining sometimes as late as 
 the beginning of May, and assuming the 
 fine red tints of plumage peculiar to their 
 breeding state, before they leave for those 
 northern districts in which they produce 
 their young. These birds appear to feed 
 principally on aquatic insects, and the soft 
 
KNOT-GRASS. 
 
 LABOUR. 
 
 animals inhabiting bivalve shells. The whole 
 length of an adult bird is ten inches. ( Yar- 
 relTs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 630.) 
 
 KNOT-BERRIES. See Cloudberry. 
 
 KNOT-GRASS. The common oat-like 
 soft-grass (Holcus avenaceus), from its 
 bulbous roots is often called by farmers 
 knot-grass ; but in a botanical sense the 
 following are the true knot-grasses. 
 
 KNOT-GRASS, COMMON. {Polygo- 
 num aviculare ; from 7roXu, many, and yoW, 
 a knee ; referring to the numerous joints of 
 the stem.) This common annual grass is 
 found almost everywhere, in waste as well 
 as cultivated ground, streets, paths, and 
 barren sandy places. The root is fibrous, 
 long, very tough, and somewhat woody, 
 branched below, simple at the crown. 
 Stems several, spreading in every direction, 
 generally prostrate, much branched, round, 
 striated, leafy at the numerous knots or 
 joints. Leaves alternate, stalked, hardly 
 an inch long, elliptic or lanceolate, entire, 
 obtuse, single ribbed, smooth except at the 
 margin ; tapering at the base, very variable 
 in width ; their substance rather coriaceous ; 
 their colour greyish or glaucous, stipules 
 membranous, acute, often red, with a few 
 remote brownish ribs. The flowers which 
 appear from April to October are axillary, 
 two or three together on simple stalks, 
 small, seeds acutely triangular of a shining 
 black, the food of many small birds. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 238.) 
 
 KNOT-GRASS, VALENTIA. A 
 name by which the powdery sea-heath 
 (Frankenia pulverulenta) is known in some 
 districts* 
 
 KNOT-GRASS, WHORLED. (Ille- 
 cebrum verticillatum.) This is an interesting- 
 dwarf perennial plant, which is not uncom- 
 mon in marshy boggy ground in Cornwall 
 and Devonshire, flowering in July. The 
 different species are pretty, may be grown 
 in any soil, and increase from seed without 
 difficulty. The root is creeping ; herb 
 smooth, branched, procumbent. Leaves 
 small, ovate, acute, or sometimes spatulate, 
 scarcely stalked, rather fleshy. Stipules 
 intra-foliaceous, small, white, jagged. The 
 flowers are small, white or reddish, whorled, 
 without bractes. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 335.) 
 
 KOBRESIA,COMPOUND-HEADED. 
 (Kobresia caricina, named after Dr. Kobres, 
 a German, and a great promoter of botany.) 
 This is a mere indigenous perennial weed, 
 growing on mountains, in moist muddy 
 spots. The root is fibrous, densely tufted, 
 crowned with the brown, sheathing basis of 
 old leaves. Stems solitary, erect, simple, 
 naked, round, striated, from three to five 
 inches high ; angular and rough edged at 
 the top. The leaves are several, radical, 
 720 
 
 spreading or recurved, linear, channelled, 
 acute, rough edged, shorter than the stem ; 
 their longish sheaths closely embracing its 
 base, each crowned with a short stipule. 
 Catkins four or five, brown, aggregate, 
 crowded alternate. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol.iv. p. 129.) 
 
 KOHL-RABI. Bulb-stalked cabbage 
 (Brassica oleracea, var. caula-rapa.) This 
 curious variety of cabbage is a native of 
 Germany, where it is much cultivated, and 
 whence it was first introduced into England 
 by Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt. The stem is 
 swollen like a tuber, and when divested of 
 the leaves, may readily be mistaken for one. 
 The produce is nearly the same as that of 
 Swedish turnips, and the soil that suits the 
 one is equally good for the other. It may 
 either be sown in drills, or raised in beds, 
 and transplanted like cabbages ; in this case 
 the beds require to be made and sown the 
 preceding autumn. Two pounds of the seed 
 will produce a sufficiency of plants for one 
 acre of ground. Hares are so fond of it, 
 that on farms where these animals abound 
 the culture of this plant is found to be im- 
 practicable. 3840 grains of the tubes of kohl 
 rabi afford 105 grains of nutritive matter. 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 411.) See Cab- 
 bage, p. 273. 
 
 KOLREUTERIA PANICULATA, 
 named in honour of the celebrated German 
 botanist, J. G. Kolreuter. This is a very 
 handsome plant, blowing a yellow flower in 
 August, which grows well in any common 
 soil. It should be planted in a sheltered 
 situation, as it will not flower if too much 
 exposed ; it may be readily increased by 
 layers or cuttings of the roots. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 L. 
 
 LABELLUM. (Lat.) In Botany, the 
 front segment of an orchidaceous or other 
 flower ; also the lower petal or lip. 
 
 LABOUR. (Fr. labeur; Lat. labor.) In 
 a general sense, labour implies the exertion of 
 human strength in the performance of any 
 kind of work. 
 
 Without entering into an abstruse trea- 
 tise on the science of political economy, it 
 may not be out of place to examine shortly 
 the subject, for labour is the only source of 
 wealth to the farmer ; and having done 
 this, I shall next inquire into the means by 
 which labour may be rendered most effi- 
 cient. Nature spontaneously furnishes the 
 matter of which all commodities are made ; 
 but until labour has been applied to appro- 
 priate that matter, or to adapt it to our 
 use, it is wholly destitute of value, and is 
 not, nor ever has been, considered as form- 
 
LABOUR. 
 
 ing wealth. Were we placed on the banks 
 of a river, or in an orchard, we should in- 
 fallibly perish of thirst or hunger, unless by 
 an effort of industry we raised the water to 
 our lips, or plucked the fruit from its parent 
 tree. But this illustration is an extreme 
 case ; and it is more to our purpose to re- 
 mark, that the mere appropriation of matter 
 is seldom sufficient. In the vast majority 
 of cases, labour is required not only to ap- 
 propriate matter, but to convey it from place 
 to place, and to give it that peculiar shape 
 without which it may be totally useless, and 
 incapable of administering either to. our 
 necessities or our comforts. The coal used 
 in our fires is buried deep in the bowels of 
 the earth, and is absolutely worthless, until 
 by the labour of the miner it has been ex- 
 tracted from the mine, and brought into a 
 situation where it may be made use of. The 
 stones and mortar used in building our 
 houses, and the rugged and shapeless ma- 
 terials that have been fashioned into the 
 various articles of convenience and orna- 
 ment with which they are furnished, were 
 in their original state destitute alike of 
 value and utility. And of the innumerable 
 variety of animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 products which form the materials of our 
 food and clothes, none were originally ser- 
 viceable, while many were extremely noxious 
 to man. The labour that has subdued 
 their bad qualities, that has given them 
 utility, and fitted them to satisfy our wants, 
 and to minister to our comforts and enjoy- 
 ments, is plainly therefore the only source 
 of wealth. " Labour," to use the words of 
 Adam Smith, "was the first price, the 
 original purchase-money, that was paid for 
 all things. It was not by gold or by silver, 
 but by labour, that all the wealth of the 
 world was purchased." ( Wealth of Nations, 
 p. 14.) Those who observe the progress 
 and trace the history of the human race in 
 different countries and states of society, 
 will find that their comfort and happiness 
 have in all cases been principally dependent 
 on their ability to appropriate the raw pro- 
 ducts of nature, and to adapt them to their 
 use. The savage whose labour is confined, 
 like that of the Australian, to the gathering 
 of wild fruits, or of shell fish on the sea- 
 coast, is placed at the very bottom of the 
 scale of civilization, and is in point of com- 
 fort decidedly inferior to many of the lower 
 animals. The first step in the progress of 
 society is made when man learns to hunt 
 wild animals, to feed himself with their 
 flesh, and clothe himself with their skins. 
 But labour, when confined to the chase, is 
 extremely barren and unproductive. Tribes 
 of hunters, like beasts of prey, whom they 
 closely resemble in their habits and modes 
 721 
 
 of subsistence, are but thinly scattered over 
 the countries which they occupy ; and not- 
 withstanding the fewness of their numbers-, 
 any unusual deficiency in the supply of 
 game never fails to reduce them to the ex- 
 tremity of want. The second step in the 
 progress of society is made when the tribes 
 of hunters and fishers devote themselves, 
 like the ancient Scythians and modern Tar- 
 tars, to the domestication of wild animals 
 and the rearing of flocks. The subsistence 
 of herdsmen is much less precarious than 
 that of hunters ; but they are almost en- 
 tirely destitute of the various comforts and 
 elegancies that give to civilised life its chief 
 value. The third and most decisive step in 
 the progress of civilization, in the great art 
 of producing the necessaries and conve- 
 niences of life, is made when the wandering 
 tribes of hunters and shepherds renounce 
 their migratory habits and become agri- 
 culturists and manufacturers. It is then 
 that man begins fully to avail himself of his 
 productive powers. He then becomes la- 
 borious, and by a necessary consequence 
 his wants are then, for the first time, fully 
 supplied, and he acquires an extensive, com- 
 mand over the articles necessary for his 
 comfort -as well as his subsistence., The 
 importance of labour in the production of 
 wealth was very clearly perceived by Locke. 
 In his Essay on Civil Government, pub- 
 lished in 1689, he has entered into a length- 
 ened, discriminating, and able analysis, to 
 show that it is from labour that the pro- 
 ducts of the earth derive almost all their 
 value. " Let any one consider," says he, 
 "what, the difference is between an acre of 
 land planted with tobacco or sugar, sown 
 with wheat or barley, and an acre of the same 
 land lying in common, without any hus- 
 bandry upon it, and he will find that the 
 improvement of labour makes the far greater 
 part of the value. I think it will be but a 
 very modest computation to say, that of the 
 products of the earth useful to the life of 
 man, nine-tenths are the effects of labour ; 
 nay, if we rightly estimate things as they 
 come to our use, and cast up the several 
 expenses about them, what in them is purely 
 owing to nature, and what to labour, we 
 shall find that in most of them ninety-nine 
 hundredths are wholly to be put on the ac- 
 count of labour. 
 
 " There cannot be a clearer demonstration 
 of any thing than several nations of the 
 Americans are of this, who are rich in land 
 and poor in all the comforts of life ; whom 
 nature having furnished as liberally as any 
 other people with the materials of plenty, 
 i. e. a fruitful soil apt to produce in abund- 
 ance what might serve for food, raiment, 
 and delight, yet for want of improving it 
 
LABOUR. 
 
 by labour have not one hundredth part of 
 the conveniences we enjoy ; and the king 
 of a large and fruitful territory there feeds, 
 lodges, and is clad worse than a day-la- 
 bourer in England. 
 
 " To make this a little clearer, let us but 
 trace some of the ordinary provisions of'life 
 through their several progresses before they 
 come to our use, and see how much they 
 receive of their value from human industry. 
 Bread, wine, and cloth are things of daily 
 use and great abundance ; yet, notwith- 
 standing, acorns, water, and leaves or skins 
 must be our bread, drink, and clothing, did 
 not labour furnish us with these more useful 
 commodities ; for whatever bread is more 
 worth than acorns, wine than water, and 
 cloth or silk than leaves, skins, or moss, that 
 is solely OAving to labour and industry ; the 
 one of these being the food and raiment 
 which unassisted nature furnishes us with; 
 the other provisions which our industry and 
 pains prepare for us ; which how much they 
 exceed the other in value, when any one 
 hath computed, he will then see how much 
 labour makes the far greatest part of the 
 value of things we enjoy in this world. 
 And the ground which produces the ma- 
 terial is scarcely to be reckoned in as any, 
 or, at most, but a very small part of it ; so 
 little that even amongst us, land that is 
 wholly left to nature, that hath no improve- 
 ment of pasturage, tillage or planting, is 
 called, as indeed it is, waste ; and we shall 
 4ind the benefit of it amount to little more 
 than nothing. 
 
 " An acre of land that bears here twenty 
 bushels of wheat, and another in America, 
 which, with the same husbandry, would do 
 the like, are, without doubt, of the same 
 natural intrinsic value (utility). But yet 
 the benefit mankind receives from the one 
 in a year is worth five pounds, and from the 
 other possibly not worth a penny, if all the 
 profit an Indian received from it were to 
 be valued and sold here ; at least, I may 
 truly say, not one thousandth. It is labour, 
 then, which puts the greatest part of value 
 upon land, without which it would scarcely 
 be worth anything. It is to that we owe 
 the greatest part of all its useful products ; 
 for all that the straw, bran, bread, of that 
 acre of wheat, is more worth than the pro- 
 duct of an acre of good land which lies 
 waste, is all the effect of labour. 
 
 "For it is not barely the ploughman's 
 pains, the reaper's and thrasher's toil, and 
 the baker's sweat is to be accounted into the 
 bread we eat ; the labour of those who sell 
 the oxen, who digged and wrought the iron 
 and stones, who felled and framed the tim- 
 ber employed about the plough, mill, oven, 
 or any other utensils, which are a vast 
 722 
 
 number, requisite to this corn; from its 
 being seed to be sown to its being made 
 bread, must all be charged on the account 
 of labour, and received as an effect of that ; 
 nature and the earth furnished only the al- 
 most worthless materials as in themselves. 
 It would be a strange catalogue of things 
 that industry provided and made use of 
 about every loaf of bread before it came 
 to our use, if we could trace them; iron, 
 wood, leather, bark, timber, stone, bricks, 
 coals, lime, cloth, dyeing drugs, pitch, tar, 
 masts, ropes, and all the materials made use 
 of in the ships that brought away the com- 
 modities made use of by any of the work- 
 men to any part of the work ; all which it 
 would be almost impossible, at least too long, 
 to reckon up." 
 
 Labour is the sole source of exchangeable 
 value, and, consequently, of wealth. It is 
 the talisman that has raised man from the 
 condition of the savage ; that has changed 
 the desert and the forest into cultivated 
 fields ; that has covered the earth with 
 cities, and the ocean with ships ; that has 
 given us abundance, comfort, and elegance, 
 instead of want, misery, and barbarism. 
 Labour, according as it is applied to the 
 raising of raw produce, to the fashioning of 
 that raw produce, when raised into articles 
 of utility, convenience, or ornament, or to 
 the conveyance of raw and wrought produce 
 from one country or place to another, is 
 said to be agricultural, manufacturing, or 
 commercial. An acquaintance with the 
 particular processes, and most advantageous 
 methods of applying labour in each of these 
 grand departments of industry, forms the 
 peculiar and appropriate study of agricul- 
 turists, manufacturers, and merchants. 
 
 In thus endeavouring to exhibit the im- 
 portance of labour, and the advantages 
 which its successful prosecution confers on 
 man, it must not be supposed that refer- 
 ence is made to the labour of the hand only. 
 This species, indeed, comes most under our 
 observation ; it is that, too, without which 
 we could not exist, and which principally 
 determines the value of commodities. It is 
 questionable, however, whether it be really 
 more productive than the labour of the 
 mind. The hand is not more necessary to 
 execute than the head to contrive. All the 
 means by which labour may be facilitated 
 and wealth increased resolve themselves, 
 1st, into the better division and combina- 
 tion of employment among individuals and 
 nations ; and 2d, into the more extensive 
 or more judicious application of capital or 
 stock in industrious undertakings. 
 
 The division of employments can only be 
 imperfectly established in rude societies and 
 thinly-peopled countries ; but in every state 
 
LABOUR. 
 
 LABOURER. 
 
 of society — in the rudest as well as the 
 most improved — we may trace its operation 
 and effects. Even in the simplest businesses 
 this co-operation and subdivision is required; 
 neither hunting nor fishing, any more than 
 agriculture or manufacture, can be advan- 
 tageously carried on by solitary individuals. 
 As society advances, this division of labour 
 extends itself on all sides ; one man becomes 
 a tanner or dresser of skins, another a weaver, 
 a third a smith, and so on. The wealth and 
 comforts of all classes are, in consequence, 
 prodigiously augmented. In countries where 
 the division of labour is carried onto a con- 
 siderable extent, agriculturists are not ob- 
 liged to spend their time in clumsy attempts 
 to manufacture their own produce, and 
 manufacturers cease to interest themselves 
 about the raising of corn, and the fattening 
 of cattle. The facility of exchanging is the 
 vivifying principle of industry ; it stimulates 
 agriculturists to adopt the best system of 
 cultivation, and to raise the largest crops, 
 because it enables them to exchange what- 
 ever portion of the produce of the land ex- 
 ceeds their own wants for other commodities 
 contributing to their comforts and enjoy- 
 ments, and it stimulates manufacturers and 
 merchants to increase and improve the 
 quantity, variety, and quality of their goods, 
 that they may thereby obtain greater sup- 
 plies of raw produce. A spirit of industry 
 is thus universally diffused ; and that apathy 
 and languor which characterise a rude state 
 of society entirely disappear. 
 
 Besides that sort of division of labour 
 which enables each individual in a united 
 society to confine himself to a particular 
 employment, there is another and most im- 
 portant branch of the division of labour, 
 which not only enables particular indivi- 
 duals, but the inhabitants of entire districts 
 and even nations, to addict themselves in pre- 
 ference to certain branches of industry. It 
 is on this territorial division of labour, as it 
 has been appropriately termed, that the com- 
 merce carried on between different districts 
 of the same country, and between different 
 countries, is founded. The variations in the 
 situation, soil, climate, mineral products, 
 &c. of the different districts of an extensive 
 country, render them more suitable for some 
 than for other species of industry. A dis- 
 trict where coal is abundant, which has an 
 easy access to the ocean, and a considerable 
 command of internal navigation, is the na- 
 tural seat of manufactures. Wheat and 
 other species of grain are the proper pro- 
 ducts of rich arable soils ; and cattle, after 
 being reared in mountainous districts, are 
 most advantageously fattened in meadows 
 and low grounds. Nothing can be more 
 obvious than that the inhabitants of these 
 723 
 
 different districts will be able, by confining 
 themselves to those employments for the pro- 
 secution of which they have some peculiar 
 capabilit y, to produce a much greater quan- 
 tity of useful and desirable articles than they 
 could do were they to engage indiscrimi- 
 nately in every possible employment. 
 
 Providence, by giving different soils, cli- 
 mates and natural productions to different 
 countries, has evidently provided for their 
 mutual intercourse and civilization. By 
 permitting the people of each to employ 
 their capital and labour in those departments 
 in which their geographical situation, the 
 physical capacities of the soil, their national 
 character and habits fit them to excel, 
 foreign commerce, or the territorial division 
 of labour, has a wonderful influence in mul- 
 tiplying the products of arts and industry. 
 
 Having been led thus far into this fertile 
 subject, I will conclude with some apposite 
 and excellent observations by Dr. Baley. 
 " Every man has his work. The kind of work 
 varies, and that is all the difference there is. 
 A great deal of labour exists besides that of 
 the hands ; many species of industry besides 
 bodily operation, equally necessary, requiring 
 equal assiduity, more attention, more anx- 
 iety. It is not true therefore, that men of 
 elevated stations are exempted from work ; 
 it is only true that there is assigned to them 
 work of a different kind : whether more 
 easy or more pleasant may be questioned ; 
 but certainly not less wanted, nor less essen- 
 tial to the common good." (JBrande's Did. 
 of Lit. and Art.) 
 
 LABOURER,. One who is employed 
 in coarse and toilsome work. But, in agri- 
 culture, the term is applied to a person 
 who performs the manual or most laborious 
 part of the business of a farm. The price 
 of labour has at all times varied ; and, as 
 the poorer classes feel, with additional rigour, 
 every evil arising from the pressure of the 
 times, different expedients have been de- 
 vised, with a view to alleviate their bur- 
 thens, supply their wants, and render them 
 more comfortable. From these investiga- 
 tions, it appears that, in the middle of* the 
 fourteenth century, the usual price of la- 
 bour was 2d. per day, and wheat was sold 
 at from Ss. 4d. to 4s. per quarter. In the 
 middle of the fifteenth century, the pay of 
 a labourer per day was 3d., and wheat cost 
 from 5s. to 5s. 6d. per quarter. In the 
 earlier part of the sixteenth century, the 
 price of labour rose to 3%d., and that of a 
 quarter of wheat to 7s. 6d. About the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, the pay 
 of a labourer upon an average was (in Essex) 
 13c?., and corn had risen to 40s. per quarter. 
 Towards the latter end of the eighteenth 
 century, the daily pay of a labourer was 
 3 a 2 
 
LABURNUM. 
 
 LACTOMETER. 
 
 from 14d. to 18d. in the country, and from 2s. 
 to 2s. 6d. in the metropolis ; while the price of 
 wheat was 48s. per quarter. The payment of 
 daily wages, however, serves but imperfectly 
 to ascertain the real price of labour, as a 
 considerable portion of work is performed 
 by the piece, so that a labourer in general 
 earns from 3d. to 6d. per day more than by 
 the common pay. The curious and philan- 
 thropic reader, who feels an interest in this 
 popular inquiry, will be fully gratified by a 
 perusal of Mr. Davies's Case of Labourers 
 in Husbandry Stated and Considered, &c. 
 4to, 1795, p. 200. ; and Sir F. M. Eden's 
 State of the Poor, &c, 3 vols. 4to, 1797. 
 Mrs. Davies Gilbert, of Eastbourne, a lady 
 whose active interest for the prosperity of 
 agriculture, and the improvement of the 
 condition of the labouring poor, may fairly 
 (as has been justly observed) be set as an 
 example for many country gentlemen to 
 follow, urges most strenuously, in many 
 publications (but particularly the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. xii. p. 252.), the advan- 
 tages to be derived from manual labour, in 
 preference to horse labour. Many benevo- 
 lent persons, of distinguished rank, have 
 also recently taken up the cause of the la- 
 bourer, and formed themselves into a so- 
 ciety, very appropriately named " the La- 
 bourer's Friend Society." They advocate 
 strongly, and endeavour to promote more 
 generally the system of home colonies, for 
 the cultivation of waste land. See Allot- 
 ment and Spade Husbandry, Farm Ser- 
 vants, Workmen, &c. 
 
 Farm labourers, being the most valuable 
 class of men that a populous country pos- 
 sesses, should have every comfort provided 
 for them that is compatible with their situa- 
 tion, and comformable to the general in- 
 terest of the community. Their wages ought 
 to be everywhere and at all times sufficient 
 for the maintenance of themselves and 
 families while in health, with a surplus to 
 provide against the day of sickness, without 
 their being under the debasing necessity of 
 making application to their neighbours for 
 relief. Persons so essentially useful to so- 
 ciety should not merely support existence, 
 but have the comforts of wholesome habita- 
 tions, with sufficient spaces of ground to 
 furnish them and their families with changes 
 of proper vegetable food without much ex- 
 pense. 
 
 LABURNUM. See Cytisus. 
 
 LACTARY. A milk-house, dairy, or 
 place where milk, is kept. 
 
 LACTEALS, (From lac, milk.) See 
 Absorption, and Vegetable Physiology. 
 
 LACTIC ACID. This substance, in the 
 opinion of Berzelius and some other che- 
 mists, exists in milk, and in larger propor- 
 724 
 
 tion when it has become sour ; but others 
 imagine that it is the product of its decom- 
 position. It was first recognised as a pe- 
 culiar acid by Scheele, but he did not obtain 
 it perfectly pure. It was afterwards ob- 
 served by Berzelius in many animal fluids ; 
 and by Braconnot to exist with acetic acid 
 in^ fermented rice-meal, wheat-paste, the 
 juice of the beetroot,, and other vegetable 
 substances : he named it nanceic acid. It 
 is formed, also, during the putrefactive pro- 
 cess in some animal bodies. Lactic acid is 
 a colourless, inodorous, syrupy liquid, and 
 very sour. It may be so concentrated as to 
 have a specific gravity of 1*215 : it attracts 
 moisture from the atmosphere, and dissolves 
 in water and alcohol in all proportions. 
 At 480° Fahrenheit, it is decomposed. 
 When added to boiling milk, it is capable of 
 immediately coagulating about 700 times its 
 weight ; but, when cold, it produces com- 
 paratively little effect upon it : it also co- 
 agulates albumen. It has the property of 
 dissolving fresh precipitated phosphate of 
 lime ; a property which is of great advan- 
 tage in the animal economy, and might even 
 be rendered useful in manures. The con- 
 stituents of the lactic acid are, 6 parts of 
 carbon, 5 of hydrogen, and 5 of oxygen. 
 (Penny Cyclopcedia, vol. xiii. p. 268.) 
 
 LACTOMETER. (Lat. lac, milk, and 
 metrum, a measure.) A term applied to a 
 glass tube for ascertaining the proportion 
 which the cream bears to the milk of any 
 particular cow, or the produce of a whole 
 dairy. Lactometers of different kinds have 
 been invented ; the best is called " the four 
 or five glass lactometer," and is thus de- 
 scribed by Messrs. W. & S. Jones, of 30. 
 Holborn, who make them with great care. 
 
 The principle of the instrument is, that 
 if new milk is poured into glass tubes and 
 allowed to remain, the division between the 
 cream, which floats upon the surface of the 
 milk, will be so evident that its depth may 
 be easily measured ; and should the milk 
 from any cow produce more cream than 
 that of another, the difference will be seen 
 by the divisions or marks on the glass 
 tubes. The lactometer consists of four or 
 five glass tubes, about half an inch diameter, 
 and eleven inches long, fitted into an up- 
 right mahogany frame ; each tube having a 
 fine line drawn round it, ten inches from 
 the bottom ; three inches from the line 
 downwards, it is graduated into inches and 
 tenths of inches. At milking time, each 
 tube is to be filled up to the line with new 
 milk. After standing twelve hours, the 
 quantity of cream which floats upon the 
 surface is shown by the scale of inches - and 
 tenths ; each division will therefore repre- 
 sent one per cent, of the whole. 
 
LADIES' 
 
 cushion". 
 
 LADIES' SMOCK. 
 
 If the milk given by a cow at one meal is 
 one gallon, or eight pints, and the thickness 
 or depth of the cream which floats upon it 
 measures fourteen divisions, multiply the 
 number of pints, 8, by the depth of the 
 cream, 14 ; the result will be that the pro- 
 duce of the cream of that meal is 112, 
 or 1 pint -jt^j-. Care must be taken to fill 
 these tubes as soon as the pail is taken from 
 under the cow, for if any delay takes place, 
 some of the cream will have ascended to- 
 wards the top. The milk should be taken 
 from the middle of the pail, which is to be 
 done by dipping a cream pot below the- 
 froth. (Journ. Roy. Inst. vol. iv. p. 157. ; 
 Rees's Cyclo. vol. xx.) 
 
 LADIES' CUSHION". One of the com- 
 mon names of the mossy saxifrage. (Sax- 
 ifraga hypnoides.) See Saxifrage. 
 
 LADIES' FINGER. A name given to 
 the common kidney-vetch (Anihyllis vulne- 
 raria), which, from its soft and downy 
 nature, was supposed to possess vulnerary 
 properties in staunching the blood of slight 
 wounds. See Kidney-vetch. 
 
 LADIES' MANTLE. (Alchemilla.) 
 The species of this genus of plants are all 
 astringent in their root, and somewhat 
 mucilaginous. A. vulgaris is slightly tonic. 
 Many of them are ornamental, and well 
 adapted for planting in gardens near the 
 front of borders, or for adorning rock- 
 work. They succeed well in any common 
 soil, if not over wet, and may be increased 
 from seeds or divisions. The indigenous 
 species are — 
 
 1 . Common ladies' mantle. (A. vulgat^is.) 
 A perennial, growing in dry, rather moun- 
 tainous pastures. The root is woody, with 
 long fibres ; stems from four to eight inches 
 high, more or less procumbent, alternately 
 branched, round, hairy, leafy, terminating 
 in numerous little corymbose clusters of 
 green flowers, or smooth, almost capillary 
 stalks. The radical leaves are numerous, 
 on long footstalks, large, roundish, kidney- 
 725 
 
 shaped, bluntly-lobcd, plaited, serrated, of 
 a fine green above ; soft and hairy beneath. 
 The stem-leaves are of the same form, hut 
 a great deal smaller ; alternate, on short 
 stalks, with a pair of large notched stipules 
 to each. Horses, sheep, and goats, eat this 
 vegetable ; but it is not relished by cattle, 
 ana hogs totally refuse it. 
 
 2. Alpine ladies' mantle. (A. alpina.) A 
 perennial plant growing on alpine rocks, es- 
 pecially in a micaceous soil. It is rather 
 smaller in habit than the last species, and 
 essentially different, not only in the silvery 
 pubescence of the stalks, flowers, and backs 
 of the leaves, but in the latter being sepa- 
 rated to the base into five or six obovate 
 lobes, closely serrated towards the extremity. 
 Nothing can be more beautiful than the 
 silvery splendour of their under sides, espe- 
 cially in exposed and barren spots, when the 
 leaves are agitated by the wind. No figure 
 can do them justice. The upper surface is 
 smooth and naked, of a fine green. 
 
 3. Field ladies' mantle, or parsley piert. 
 (A. arvensis.) This annual species will ge- 
 nerally be found growing in sandy or gra- 
 velly fields, especially when falloAv, as well 
 as on heathy banks. The root is small and 
 fibrous ; stems numerous, about a finger's 
 length, spreading or prostrate, round, leafy, 
 hardly subdivided. Leaves flat, three-lobed, 
 variously cut on short stalks. The whole 
 plant is more or less hairy, and in flavour 
 and scent approaches its natural ally, bur- 
 net. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 223.) 
 
 LADIES' SLIPPER. (Cypripedium, from 
 Cypris, one of Venus's names, and podioti, a 
 slipper ; hence the name Venus's or ladies' 
 slipper.) The species of this genus are re- 
 markably handsome when in flower, and on 
 that account deserve a place in every col- 
 lection. They are all of the easiest culture. 
 The hardy species succeed well in peat soil, 
 either kept in a frame, or planted out in a 
 shady border. The species, natives of Ame- 
 rica, require to be protected from severe 
 frost and rain. The only indigenous species 
 is the common ladies' slipper (C calceolus) : 
 which is very rare, growing only in moun- 
 tainous woods and thickets in the north of 
 England. It is a perennial, blowing large 
 yellow, solitary, terminal flowers without 
 scent, in June. The stems are solid, twelve 
 or eighteen inches high, downy, bearing three 
 or four large alternate, ovate, rather pointed 
 leaves, clasping or sheathing at their base. 
 {Eng. Flor. iv. 51. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 LADIES' SMOCK. (Cardamine.) An 
 interesting genus of the simplest culture and 
 propagation, natives of various countries, 
 generally preferring watery situations. The 
 native species are five in number : — 
 
 1. Daisy-leaved ladies' smock. (C. belli- 
 3 a 3 
 
LADIES' TRACES. 
 
 LADDER. 
 
 difolia.) This perennial species grows in 
 moist, grassy, lofty, alpine pastures. The 
 root is rather woody, divided at the crown. 
 Herb two or three inches high, unbranched, 
 erect, bright green, smooth leaves, sometimes 
 a little wavy or angular, the uppermost 
 nearly sessile. Flowers few, corymbose, 
 white, appearing in August. Style short, 
 conical. 
 
 2. Impatient ladies' smock. (C impatiens.) 
 This annual species grows in shady, rather 
 moist, rocky situations in the north of 
 England ; it is rarely met with in Scotland. 
 The root is small and tapering ; the herbage 
 pale green ; stem one and a half to two 
 feet high ; leaves pinnate ; leaflets lan- 
 ceolate, mostly cut ; stipules fringed. The 
 flowers which are numerous, and small, and 
 white, appear in May and June. Pods 
 erect, very slender, composing long clusters, 
 and discharging their seeds with a crackling 
 noise, and great force, on the slightest touch 
 or concussion, by means of the revolute 
 valves. The whole plant is disagreeably 
 bitterish and pungent. 
 
 3. Hairy ladies' smock. (C.hirsuta.) Also 
 annual in habit. This species is found very 
 frequent in waste or cultivated ground, es- 
 pecially in moist shady places ; flowering 
 from March to June. The root consists of 
 many white fibres. The herb is variable in 
 size and luxuriance, deep green, more or 
 less hairy, rarely quite smooth ; stem from 
 three to twelve inches or more in height ; 
 leaves pinnate, without stipules ; leaflets 
 stalked, roundish, oblong, notched. 
 
 4. Meadow ladies' smock. (C.pratensis.) 
 See Cuckoo Flower. 
 
 5. Bitter ladies' smock. (C.amara.) This 
 is not a common species, but is found occa- 
 sionally in watery places, by the sides of 
 rivers and brooks. It is perennial, and be- 
 fore it flowers, greatly resembles water- 
 cress, but the taste is bitter and nauseous. 
 The root is toothed, somewhat creeping ; 
 stems one to two feet high, more or less 
 hairy, creeping at the base, with several 
 radicles, and sometimes a few slender scions. 
 Leaves pinnate without stipules ; leaflets of 
 the lowermost roundish ; of the rest, toothed 
 or angular. Style obliquely elongated 
 Flowers, which appear in April or May, 
 always white or cream- col oured with violet 
 anthers. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. pp. 
 186-91.) 
 
 LADIES' TRACES. (Neottia, a bird's 
 nest, in allusion to the interwoven fibres 'of the 
 roots.) This is a pretty genus of orchi- 
 daceous plants. The hardy species will 
 succeed well in chalky soil, or a mixture of 
 loam, peat, and sand ; they are all increased 
 by divisions. (Paxton's Bot. Diet.) 
 
 There arc only two indigenous species: — 
 72fl 
 
 1. Sweet ladies' traces. (N. spiralis) which 
 grows in open pastures, on a chalky or gra- 
 velly soil, or in meadows in various parts of 
 England, flowering in August and Septem- 
 ber. The leaves are awned, all radical, on 
 broad stalks, spreading, ovate, acute, ribbed, 
 rather glaucous. Stalk a finger's length or 
 more, viscid and downy upwards, clothed 
 with several sheathing, upright, pointed 
 bractes. Spike spiral, of many, crowded, 
 small white and highly fragrant flowers, in 
 a single row, each with an ovate, tumid, 
 pointed, downy, close bracte. 
 
 2. Proliferous ladies' traces. (N. gemmi- 
 para.) This species grows in marshes on 
 the west coast of Ireland, and flowers in 
 J uly. The root consists of two thick fleshy 
 downy annual, perpendicular knobs, each 
 about three inches long, and one -fifth of an 
 inch in diameter near its origin, tapering 
 downwards to a blunt point. After flower- 
 ing the root decays. Leaves five or six, 
 upright, broadly lanceolate, acute, three - 
 ribbed, three inches in length. Foot stalks 
 broad, sheathing, near an inch long. Stalk 
 erect, two inches high, sheathed more than 
 half way up by the foot stalks of the inner- 
 most leaves, and bearing in the upper 
 part two or three lanceolate, smooth, upright 
 bractes. Spike an inch long, ovate, dense, 
 erect, of about eighteen white flowers in 
 three rows, twisted round in a very remark- 
 able way, and each accompanied by a smooth 
 lanceolate bracte, as tall, as itself. The 
 outside of the flowers and capsule are downy ; 
 every other part of the herb is smooth. 
 Buds destined to flower the following year, 
 are formed among the leaves, at the bottom 
 of the flower-stalk. In the spring, each 
 bud puts forth a pair of oblong knobs and 
 becomes a separate plant. {Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iv. p. 35.) 
 
 LADIES' TRACES. Ladies' hair or 
 quaking-grass. See Briza Media. 
 
 LADDER. A framework of steps be- 
 tween two upright pieces. Ladders of va- 
 rious length are essential requisites on a 
 farm, whether for use in repairs to buildings, 
 for reaching stacks, or in cases of fire. 
 
 " Garden ladders are of three kinds : the 
 common wall tree ladder, which differs from 
 those used in other arts in having two pieces 
 of ten or twelve inches in length, projecting 
 at right angles from the upper end, the use 
 of which is to avoid injuring the trees, by 
 keeping the top of the ladder at a small 
 distance from the wall, and thus admit of 
 the operation of nailing. The orchard lad- 
 der consists of a frame on low wheels, as a 
 basis for several ladders which fit into each 
 other, and are capable of being hoisted up by 
 machinery, so as a person near the extre- 
 mity of the ladder may have access to any 
 
LAIR. 
 
 LANCEWOOD. 
 
 part of a tree with convenience, either to 
 prune it or gather the fruit. 
 
 The three-styled, forkde, and double lad- 
 ders are also well adapted for the ordinary 
 purposes of gathering fruit or pruning. 
 The rule-joint ladder is used for working 
 on curvilinear roofs either of glass, or domes 
 of lead, stone, &c, which require panes re- 
 newed or trees nailed. Such ladders are 
 particularly useful for repairing the roofs 
 of hothouses and greenhouses. The step- 
 ladder, instead of round rods on which to 
 place the feet, has steps or boards, an im- 
 provement essentially necessary where much 
 work is to be done, because less fatiguing 
 to the feet. Such ladders have a back or 
 fulcrum, by which they s+and independently 
 of any other object, and which is removable 
 at pleasure by drawing out an iron bolt." 
 (Loudon's Encyc. of Gard. p. 290.) 
 
 LAIR. Provincial^, land in a state of 
 grass or sward. (See Lay.) Also employed 
 in some counties, to signify soil and dung. 
 Lair is used sometimes to express the couch 
 or resting-place of a boar or wild beast, or 
 of cows in dairies. 
 
 LAMA, or LLAMA. See Alpaca. 
 
 LAMB. The young of a sheep. See 
 Sheep. 
 
 LAMB ALE. The name of a feast for- 
 merly given in Oxford and some other 
 counties to celebrate the time of shearing- 
 lambs. 
 
 LAMB'S LETTUCE. See Corn Salad. 
 
 LAMB'S QUARTERS. A name given 
 to the wild or mountain spinach (Chenopo- 
 dium album.) See Goosefoot. 
 
 LAMB SKINS. (Germ, lamsfelle.) The 
 value of lamb skins varies according to the 
 fineness, brilliancy, and colour of the wool. 
 Black lamb skins are more generally es- 
 teemed than those of any other colour. 
 English lamb skins are seldom to be met 
 with perfectly black ; but since the intro- 
 duction of Merino sheep into this country, 
 many of the white fleeces have, in point of 
 quality, arrived at a pitch of perfection 
 which justly entitles them to be ranked 
 with some of the best fleeces in Spain. The 
 importation of lamb skins is immense, having 
 amounted on an average in 1831 and 1832, 
 to 2,365,635. Eight tenths of the whole 
 quantity are supplied by Italy. They are 
 mostly used in the glove manufacture. 
 (M'Culloclis Com. Diet.) See Wool. 
 
 LAMB'S-WOOL. A common name for 
 ale mixed with sugar, nutmeg, and the pulp 
 of roasted apples. 
 
 LAMENESS. In farriery, an affection 
 in the feet or limbs in horses and other 
 animals, by which motion is rendered less 
 perfect. In the horse, it is brought on from 
 various causes — sprains, over-exertion, dis- 
 727 
 
 eases of the foot, &c. The muscles of the 
 shoulder are occasionally sprained, and in 
 this case the animal cannot lift his foot 
 without great difficulty, indeed he will be 
 observed to drag his toe along the ground. 
 In this case few local measures can be 
 adopted. The horse should be bled from 
 the vein on the inside of the arm, fo- 
 mentations applied, and a dose of physic 
 given. In this, as in most other cases of 
 lameness, quiet and rest are essential to the 
 restoration of the animal. (The Horse, p. 
 229.) 
 
 LAMMAS DAY. In the calendar, the 
 1st of August. Dr. Johnson supposes this 
 term to be a corruption of Lattermath, which 
 signifies a second mowing of grass. Others 
 derive it from a custom which once pre- 
 vailed in some parts of England, of bringing 
 a lamb alive on this day into the church at 
 high mass. Others again derive it from a 
 Saxon term signifying loaf mass, so named 
 as a feast of thanksgiving for the first-fruits 
 of the corn. (Brande's Diet, of Lit. &c.) 
 
 LAMP BLACK. A colouring substance 
 which is in very general use for several 
 purposes. The finest lamp black is pro- 
 duced by collecting the smoke from a lamp 
 with a long wick, which supplies more oil 
 than can be perfectly consumed, or by suf- 
 fering the flame to play against a metalline 
 cover, which impedes the combustion, not 
 only by carrying off part of the heat, but 
 by obstructing the current of air. Lamp 
 black is prepared, however, in a much 
 cheaper way for the demands of trade. The 
 dregs which remain after the purification of 
 pitch, or else small pieces of fir wood, are 
 burned in furnaces of a peculiar construc- 
 tion, the smoke of which is made to pass 
 through a long horizontal flue, terminating 
 in a close-boarded chamber. The roof of 
 this chamber is made of coarse cloth, through 
 which the current of air escapes, while the 
 soot remains. (Tire's Diet.) 
 
 LAMPREY, the lesser. (Petromyzon 
 fluviatilis.) This fish, about eight or ten 
 inches long, is sometimes found in the 
 rivers Thames, Severn, and Dee. The lam- 
 pern (P. bronchialis) has a body not thicker 
 than a swan's quill, and conceals itself in 
 the mud in the Isis and other British 
 rivers. 
 
 LANCEOLATE. In botany a term 
 used to describe leaves which are oblong 
 and gradually tapering towards each ex- 
 tremity, or shaped like a spear or lance. 
 
 LANCEWOOD. (Guatteria,™ honour of 
 J. B. Guatteri, an Italian botanist, and once 
 professor at Parma.) This is a splendid 
 genus of evergreen shrubs, succeeding in a 
 mixture of loam, peat, and sand. They are 
 natives of warm climates and require stove 
 3 a 4 
 
LAND. 
 
 LAND-STEWARD. 
 
 culture. Young plants are readily obtained 
 by cuttings raised in sand under a glass in 
 heat. (Paxton's Bot. Diet) 
 
 LAND (Germ.), in the widest acceptation 
 of the word, is used to denote the solid 
 matter of which the globe is composed ; in 
 contradistinction to the liquid matter or 
 water (see Geology) : but in its most re- 
 stricted signification it is confined to arable 
 ground. The latter is the legal meaning of 
 the term ; and in this sense it is used in all 
 original writs, and in all court and formal 
 pleadings. 
 
 LAND-DITCHING, or hollow drain- 
 ing as it is sometimes termed, is chiefly 
 practised in the counties of Essex and 
 Hertford. It consists in digging both main 
 and side drains, similar to those generally 
 adopted in draining land : the former are 
 usually made from 22 to 24 inches, the latter 
 from 20 to 22 inches in depth. The soil is 
 previously ploughed, and the length to 
 which the main drains may be protracted 
 without a vent, depends upon the situation 
 of the land. When the land has a regular 
 declivity, the most proper method will be 
 to carry off as much water as possible, by 
 means of side drains ; but if the ground be 
 irregular, it will be requisite to form addi- 
 tional main-drains, so that every advantage 
 may be derived from the valleys, into which 
 the latter must often be conducted to a 
 considerable extent. 
 
 The length of the side-drains varies ac- 
 cording to the elevation of the soil ; in ge- 
 neral they need not be more than one rod 
 apart from each other ; though in very loose 
 or porous grounds, they may be dug at a 
 distance of one rod and a half. When the 
 trenches are cut to a sufficient depth, they 
 are filled up and covered in the usual man- 
 ner with straw and bushes. The expense 
 of this method of draining is computed to 
 be nearly 31. per acre. 
 
 Land- ditching not only carries off the 
 water from wet or marshy soils, but also 
 meliorates * stiff loamy clays, which being 
 thus better enabled to resist the long con- 
 tinuance of moisture on their surface du- 
 ring the winter, promote vegetation very 
 early in the spring, and the grass is rendered 
 of a superior quality. The weeds, &c. 
 change their colour, and are totally divested 
 of their rankness ; the corn also increases 
 both in quantity and weight. Another im- 
 portant advantage arising from this practice 
 is, that it will admit of the soil being 
 ploughed at an earlier period of the spring 
 and later in autumn ; while it maybe tilled 
 with greater facility, and kept clean from 
 weeds at a very small expense. 
 
 LAND LORD. One who owns lands or 
 houses, and has tenants under him. See 
 728 
 
 Tenant, Customs op Countjes, Lease, 
 Agreement, &c. 
 
 LANDMARK, signifies in a general 
 sense anything by which the boundary of a 
 property is defined. In ancient times the 
 correct division of lands was an object 
 of great importance; and various means 
 were adopted to give distinctness and per- 
 manency to the boundaries of every man's 
 property. Stones and hillocks were the 
 most usual landmarks. The importance of 
 this subject among the Israelites particu- 
 larly, may be judged of from the denunci- 
 ation of Moses, " Cursed be he that re- 
 moveth his neighbour's landmark." 
 
 LANDREEVE. A subordinate officer 
 on an extensive estate, who acts as an as- 
 sistant to the land steward. 
 
 LANDSCAPE GARDENING. The art 
 of laying out grounds so as to produce the 
 effect of a natural landscape. Its principles 
 are the same as those upon which the land- 
 scape painter proceeds in composing a pic- 
 ture ; and though it is an art of which, like 
 many others, every body thinks he is a 
 judge, it requires to be properly practised, 
 and the possession of powers of a much 
 higher order than fall to the lot of most 
 men. Mr. Brown, commonly called Capabi- 
 lity Brown, was the first who practised the 
 art in this country, so as to render himself 
 worthy of the name of artist. To lay 
 down the principles of this art here would 
 be quite impossible ; but this general 
 observation contains the sum of them; 
 let selected and beautiful nature be con- 
 stantly your model, and success must follow. 
 Loudon s Encyc. of Gardening may be con- 
 sulted with advantage by those desirous of 
 practising the art. 
 
 LANDSLIP. A portion of land that 
 has slid down in consequence of disturbance 
 by an earthquake, or from being under- 
 mined by the action of water or other 
 means. 
 
 LAND SPRINGS. Land springs are 
 sources of water which only come into action 
 after heavy rains ; while constant springs 
 which derive their supplies from a more 
 abundant source, flow throughout the year. 
 All springs owe their origin to rains. In 
 the case of land springs, the water when it 
 sinks through the surface, is speedily inter- 
 rupted by a retentive stratum, and there 
 accumulating soon bursts out into a spring, 
 which ceases to flow a short period after the 
 cause which gave it birth has ceased to 
 operate ; but the water which supplies con- 
 stant springs sinks deeper into the earth, 
 and accumulates in rocky or gravelly strata, 
 which become saturated with the fluid. 
 
 LAND STEWARD. A person who has 
 the care of a landed estate, and whose dut ies 
 
LAND TAX. 
 
 LARCH TREE. 
 
 vary in different countries, according to the 
 mode in which landed property is managed. 
 In England, where the landlord very com- 
 monly undertakes to keep the buildings and 
 fences of his tenants in repair, the duties of the 
 land steward are constant and multifarious ; 
 while in Scotland, where the buildings and 
 fences are kept in repair by the tenant, the 
 duties of the steward are limited to receiv- 
 ing the rents, and seeing that the covenants 
 of the leases are duly fulfilled. In many 
 parts of the Continent, and particularly in 
 Italy, where the landlord is a partner with 
 his tenant, and shares the produce with him, 
 the duties of the land steward or fattore, as 
 he is there called, are much more onerous 
 than in Britain. See Bailiff. 
 
 LAND TAX. A branch of the public 
 revenue, which was first raised in its pre- 
 sent form in 1692. The rate at which this 
 tax is charged is As. in the pound on the 
 annual value. The amount which it yielded 
 to the exchequer in 1837 was 1,192,6357. 
 {Penny Cyclo. vol. xiii. p. 300.) 
 
 LANGLEY, BATTY, was an architect 
 and garden designer. He was born in 1696, 
 at Twickenham, where he continued to re- 
 side. He published the following works : — 
 
 1. Practical Geometry, applied to the Arts of Building, 
 Surveying, Gardening, and Mensuration. London. 1726. 
 2. The sure Method of improving an Estate by Plant- 
 ations of Oak, Elm, Ash, Birch, and other Timber Trees. 
 London. 1728. 4to. 1 Plate. 3. Pomona, or the Fruit 
 Garden illustrated ; being the sure Method of preserving 
 the best Kinds of Fruit, with Directions for Pruning, 
 Nailing, &c. With 79 Plates. London. 1729. Folio. 
 4. New Principles of Gardening ; or the Laying out of 
 Pastures, Groves, Wildernesses, Labyrinths, Avenues, 
 Parks, &c. 4to. 1728. With Engravings . 
 
 LAPLAND BUNTING. {Plectrophanes 
 Lapponica.) This bird, though a native, as 
 its name imports, of the most northern parts 
 of Europe, has yet been taken on three or 
 four occasions in this country. The whole 
 length of the bird is about six inches and a 
 quarter. The plumage of the upper surface 
 of the body is dark brown ; breast, velvet 
 black ; lower part of breast and belly, dark 
 white ; crown of the head, velvet black, with 
 a collar of bright chestnut ; tail forked ; 
 legs, toes, and claws, pitch black. (YarreWs 
 Brit. Birds, vol.i, p. 421.) 
 
 LAPWING. {Vanellus cristatus.) The 
 lapwing, or peewit, is a constant inhabitant 
 of this country, and one of the best known 
 of our native birds. The first name is sug- 
 gested by its peculiar mode of night, — a 
 slow flapping of its long wings ; the 
 second name has reference to the fre- 
 quently repeated note of the bird, which 
 the sound of the word peewit closely re- 
 sembles. The lapwing subsists chiefly on 
 worms and the animalcula of the sea-shore, 
 which it frequents in great numbers. The 
 females make a simple nest by scraping to- 
 gether a little dry grass, and deposit thereon 
 729 
 
 I four eggs, of a dirty olive colour spotted 
 with black ; one inch eleven lines long, by 
 one inch four lines in breadth. 
 
 The young birds are covered with a thick 
 down when hatched, and soon begin to run 
 about ; at the approach of danger they squat 
 down, and the parent, by a curious instinct, 
 endeavours to attract the attention of any 
 intruder near them, and draw him away 
 from the spot, by fluttering about with cries 
 of inquietude, or even running along the 
 ground as if lame. In October, the lapwings 
 are fat, and in good condition for the table : 
 their eggs are considered a great delicacy. 
 The whole length of this bird is a little 
 more than twelve inches. The plumage on 
 the breast is of a shining black ; the back 
 and wing coverts are green, glossed with 
 purple and copper colour ; the end of the 
 tail-feathers black. On the occiput there 
 is a tuft of six or seven elongated slender 
 feathers, which the bird can elevate or de- 
 press at pleasure. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 417.) 
 
 LARCH-TREE. (Lat. larix; It. and 
 Span, larice.) Of this tree there are three 
 species described by botanists. The larch 
 is one of the most valuable exotics which 
 has been introduced into Britain. In the 
 north of Scotland it has been grown to a 
 great extent, cultivated with particular 
 attention ; and found to be one of the most 
 profitable of all trees to the planter, pro- 
 vided the land be well drained, but it will 
 not succeed in swampy situations. It grows 
 with great rapidity, is subject to very few 
 accidents, transplants with but little risk, 
 and produces timber of great excellence 
 and value, not only for domestic but for 
 naval purposes. 
 
 In bridges, dock-gates, mill work, and 
 especially in mill axles (where oak only 
 used formerly to be employed), larch has 
 been substituted with the best effect. The 
 small larch is useful for agricultural imple- 
 ments, gates, upright palings, rails, and 
 hurdles. Boats built of larch have been 
 found sound when the ribs made of oak 40 
 years old were decayed. A fine frigate of 
 36 guns, named the Atholl, was launched at 
 Woolwich in 1820, built entirely of larch, 
 the growth of the Atholl plantations. It is 
 also very useful for staves for casks. 
 
 1 . The common larch fir 6r white larch 
 {Abies larix). The leaves of all the species 
 are clustered, and deciduous. The cones 
 vary : in the common larch they are ovate, 
 oblong, blunt ; and the flowers are pink. 
 In mountainous districts in Scotland the 
 Duke of Atholl planted this species in im- 
 mense quantities, having had nearly 9000 
 acres in cultivation with the larch alone. 
 We are told by Dr. Anderson that his 
 
LARCH TREE. 
 
 Grace planted 200,000 every year ; and in 
 the winter of 1819 and the following spring 
 no less than 1,102,367 were planted on 556 
 acres, at 2000 per Scotch acre. The late 
 Earl of Fife also planted 181,813 in Mo- 
 rayshire. Goodwood, the property of the 
 Duke of Richmond, was probably the first 
 place at which the larch was planted as 
 a forest tree, and even there it was only in 
 small numbers. A few years after, viz. in 
 1738, it was introduced into Scotland by a 
 Mr. Menzies. About 1740 James Duke of 
 Atholl commenced planting larches around 
 Dunkeld House and Atholl House, the two 
 residences of his Grace ; and great attention 
 having been paid to these nurseries by his 
 Grace's successors, the plantations have 
 amazingly increased. A very detailed ac- 
 count of the plantations on the Atholl es- 
 tates and experiments on the wood will be 
 found in the 3d vol. of the Prize Essays of 
 the Highland Society, p. 165., drawn up 
 from papers and documents communicated 
 by his Grace's trustees. In a communica- 
 tion to the Board of Agriculture in February 
 1812 (vol. vii. p 273.), the Duke of Atholl, 
 speaking of the advantages to be derived 
 from a more general culture of the larch, 
 says, " The lower range of the Grampian 
 Hills, which extend to Dunkeld, are in al- 
 titude from 1000 to 1200 feet above the level 
 of the sea ; they are in general barren, and 
 are composed of mountain schist, slate, and 
 iron-stone. Up to the highest tops of these, 
 larch grow luxuriantly, where the Scotch 
 fir, formerly considered the hardiest tree of 
 the north, cannot rear its head. In consi- 
 derable tracts, where fragments of shivered 
 rocks are strewed so thick that vegetation 
 scarcely meets the eye, the larch puts out 
 as strong and vigorous shoots as are to be 
 found in the valleys below, or in the most 
 sheltered situation." And it further appears 
 from a report of that nobleman to the Hor- 
 ticultural Society {Trans, vol. iv. p. 416.) that 
 in situations 1500 to 1600 feet above the 
 level of the sea, he has felled trees 80 years 
 old that have each yielded six loads of the 
 finest timber. The growth of larch is not, 
 however, confined to Scotland ; but much 
 land has been planted in the northern coun- 
 ties of England. The Society in London 
 for the Encouragement of Arts and Manu- 
 factures, so long ago as 1783, offered pre- 
 miums for the planting of larch. A gold 
 medal was offered to those who should plant 
 within any one year 5000 larches from two to 
 four years old at a distance of 5 feet asunder ; 
 and a silver medal to any one who should 
 plant 3000 larches at the same distance. 
 This premium only contemplated making 
 plantations solely of the larch. The first 
 claimant for the premium was the Bishop of 
 730 
 
 Llandaff, who had by that time planted 
 48,500 larches on 18 acres of the high 
 grounds near Ambleside in Westmoreland, 
 at a distance of 4 feet from one another. 
 Thomas White, Esq., of West Retford, in 
 Nottingham, planted 13,000, about the year 
 1 789. In 1790 Sir George Wright, of York- 
 shire, obtained the silver medal for planting 
 at Gillingwells 11,573 larches on 3 £ acres, 
 which gives a distance of about 3 feet 
 9 inches. In 1794 the gold medal was con- 
 ferred on the Rev. T. D. Whittaker, for 
 planting in 1791, at Holme in Claviger, in 
 the county of Lancaster, 64,135 larches, from 
 two to four years old in 24 acres, and which 
 gives a width between them of 4 feet. About 
 this timeW. Mellursh, Esq., of Blyth, planted 
 47,500 ; Joseph Cowlishaw, Esq., of Hods- 
 coch Park, 27,400 ; and Richard Slater 
 Milnes, Esq., of Foyston, near Ferrybridge, 
 Yorkshire, 200,000 of about four year old 
 plants. In 1791 Thomas Gaitskell, Esq., 
 of Little Braithwait in Cumberland, planted 
 43,300 on 15 acres of high land, and 
 Mr. Myles, 145,000. John Sneyd, Esq., of 
 Belmont in Staffordshire, planted 13,000 
 larches between the years 1784 and 1786, 
 and 11,000 more in 1795. He received the 
 gold medal of the Society in 1798, for 
 planting 6000 larches of four years old, and 
 6000 larches at three years old on 5| 
 acres, which gives them a standing space of 
 4 feet 3 inches. 
 
 J. Jones, Esq., of Hafod in Cumberland, 
 was the next great claimant : he received in 
 1800 the gold medal for planting 300,000 
 larches, two-year-old seedlings, at 2 ft. apart ; 
 85,000 one year transplanted larches at 2± ft. 
 apart; and 15,000 three year transplanted 
 larches at 3 feet 6 inches asunder ; in all 
 400,000 larches over 44 acres of ground. 
 In 1802 J. C. Curwen, Esq., of Workington 
 Hall, in Cumberland, planted 84,900. In 
 1803 Dr. Henry Ainslie had planted in eight 
 years 91,800; and in 1805 Mr. White, of 
 Butfield, planted 125,800. From 1805 to 
 1816, no candidates appeared to claim the 
 premium, in consequence of the severe blight 
 which aflected the larch trees in England 
 for some years ; and which preventing the 
 formation of the cones, deprived the growers 
 of larch plants of the usual supply of seed. 
 
 There is no account given of the height 
 at which these larches were planted. Had 
 they been placed at a considerable elevation 
 above the level of the* sea, they would have 
 probably escaped the contagion of the blight. 
 In the account of the Dunkeld larch planta- 
 tions, the late Duke of Atholl conceived that 
 he had introduced three great improvements 
 in the planting of the larch, when it was to 
 be raised for useful timber. These improve- 
 ments were the planting it at a high ele- 
 
LARCH 
 
 TREE. 
 
 vation on the mountain side, in a region in 
 which no other kind of timber tree would 
 grow to perfection in this country ; the in- 
 serting the tree in the soil at an early age, 
 not exceeding two years old in the seed-bed ; 
 and the notching the small plants into the 
 ground by a peculiar instrument, at wide 
 intervals not nearer than five and a half 
 feet to each other ; for if planted close, they 
 exhaust the soil, and prevent its being nou- 
 rished by the annual deposition of spines, 
 on account of the closeness of the trees. 
 
 In 1820 the gold medal was awarded to the 
 Duke of Devonshire for planting 1,981,065 
 forest trees, 980,128 of which were larch. 
 Besides these instances of the planting the 
 larch alone, there are many others in Eng- 
 land in which they were planted along with 
 other trees ; but as they would probably be 
 so planted merely as nurses to the hard 
 timber, such plantations cannot be con- 
 sidered as interesting experiments, in regard 
 to the value of the larch as timber. From 
 the foregoing details, however, we find that 
 mainly under the auspices of the Society 
 for the Encouragement of Arts and Manu- 
 factures, 1,407,036 larches were planted in 
 England in 37 years. It is singular that so 
 much elevated barren land in the counties of 
 Hants, Sussex, and Kent should be suffered 
 to remain unplanted with this and other 
 timber, which would find a ready sale in 
 the neighbouring government yards. 
 
 Plantations that are formed exclusively of 
 larch destroy the heath and all other vegeta- 
 bles ; but after a few years, a fine grass springs 
 up which is so valuable for grazing, that it has 
 been let from 10s. to 51. per acre for this pur- 
 pose, which, previously to its being planted, 
 would not bring as many pence. 
 
 Three varieties of the common larch are 
 mentioned by botanical writers ; one remark- 
 able for the young cones being pale green 
 instead of crimson, and erect, not drooping. 
 A second has a weeping habit, with pen- 
 dulous branches, but is distinct in botanic 
 characters from the black larch (Larix pen- 
 dula) of North America; both these varieties 
 are natives of the Tyrol. The third sort is 
 of a slow, stunted growth, and an inelegant 
 appearance, leafing early, and very subject 
 to injury from spring frosts. The bark is 
 cinereous, not yellowish brown. It was raised 
 by the Duke, of Atholl from seed, pro- 
 cured at Archangel in 1806. Both in its ap- 
 pearance as a tree, and its value as timber, 
 this Russian larch is much inferior to the 
 common larch. From the boiled inner bark, 
 mixed with rye flour, and afterwards buried 
 a few hours in the snow, the hardy Siberian 
 hunters prepare a sort of leaven, with which 
 they supply the place of common leaven 
 when the latter is destroyed, as it frequently 
 731 
 
 is by the intense cold to which hunters are 
 subject in the pursuit of game. The bark 
 of the larch is nearly as valuable to the tan- 
 ner as oak bark ; this valuable property was 
 first discovered by Mr. T. White, in 1812. 
 (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 278.) 
 The larch also produces the substance called 
 Venice turpentine, which is of considerable 
 use in medicine, and flows in abundance 
 when the lower part of the trunk of old trees 
 is wounded or tapped between the months 
 of March and September. When forests of 
 larch in Russia take fire, which sometimes 
 happens, a gum issues from the medullary 
 part of the trunks, during the combustion, 
 which is called Orenburgh gum. A sac- 
 charine matter, also, resembling manna, and 
 called manna of Briancon, exudes from the 
 larch in June : and another sort of manna 
 is exuded from its leaves in the form of a 
 white flocculent substance, which finally be- 
 comes concreted into small lumps. From 
 the inner rind or bark of the larch, the 
 Russians manufacture fine white gloves, not 
 inferior to those made of the most delicate 
 chamois, while they are stronger, cooler, and 
 more pleasant for wearing in the summer. 
 
 The larch is propagated by seed, which is 
 generally ripe in September and December, 
 when the cones may be collected and care- 
 fully dried, and put away till April, which 
 is considered the best time for sowing. The 
 most proper season for felling the larch is 
 July. 
 
 2. The red larch fir. (A. microcarpa.) In 
 this species the cones are oblong, small, thin ; 
 scales erect, close pressed, the upper ones 
 much smaller than the lower. It is a graceful 
 tree, with much of the habit of the common 
 larch, from which however its very small 
 cones of a bright purple readily distinguish 
 it. It is a native of North America. This 
 is by no means so well adapted to the 
 planter's purposes as the common larch. 
 According to the Duke of Atholl, trees when 
 fifty years old do not contain one third as 
 many cubic feet as the common larch. The 
 wood is so heavy that it will scarcely swim 
 in water. 
 
 3. The black larch fir. (A.pendida.) Cones 
 oblong, with numerous spreading scales, 
 which gradually diminish from the base to 
 the apex of the cones. Branches weak and 
 drooping. The leading shoot will often be- 
 gin to droop at the height of fifteen or 
 twenty feet from the ground, and after 
 gradually acquiring a horizontal direction 
 will bend towards the earth, so as to form 
 a natural arch of great beauty. This species 
 is also a native of North America, where 
 it is found growing on a rich clay soil, 
 mixed with sand, in cold mountainous dis- 
 tricts. When cultivated in this country 
 
LARD. 
 
 LARKSPUR. 
 
 it is an elegant tree, having a good deal of 
 resemblance to the common larch, but being 
 of a brighter green colour, and much more 
 graceful. The wood is less valuable than 
 the common larch. 
 
 There is a report {Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. v. p. 391.) by Mr. Lawson on larches 
 raised by him from seed imported from the 
 Tyrol, which being the native country of the 
 larch, is supposed to mature the most per- 
 fect seed. 
 
 The larch is affected with many diseases 
 in this country. Some of these have been 
 supposed to arise from a constitutional weak- 
 ness engendered in the tree from the seed 
 not having been perfectly ripened. The 
 reader's attention may be drawn to several 
 valuable treatises on the diseases of the larch 
 distributed through the volumes of the Trans- 
 actions of the Highland Society of Scotland, 
 &c. In the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, 
 there are also some able papers, " On the 
 probable Cause of the Diseases of the 
 Larch in Great Britain," by the late M. De- 
 candolle (vol. v. p. 403.) ; " On the Diseases 
 of the Larch in the South of Scotland," by 
 Mr. Webster {Ibid. p. 535.); "On the Rot in 
 Larch," by Mr. Gorrie {Ibid. p. 537.) ; and 
 some remarks on the foregoing papers {Ibid. 
 p. 574.) ; " On the Canker in Larch," by Mr. 
 Drummond, vol. ii. p. 221. {Phillip's Syl. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 8. ; Penny Cyclo. vol. i. 
 p. 32.; Paxton's Pot. Diet.; Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. iii. p. 165. and vol. v. p. 391. ; 
 Quar. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 794. ; Brit. 
 Husb. vol. iii.) See Canker, Firs, and 
 Pines. 
 
 LARD. The melted fat of the hog, 
 which is much used for domestic purposes, 
 and in cookery, for ointments, pomatums, 
 and other purposes. Pure lard has little or 
 no taste, and no odour ; its melting point is 
 78-6° to 87-5° Fahrenheit. When long ex- 
 posed to the air it attracts oxygen, and be- 
 comes rancid ; whilst a portion of carbonic 
 acid is evolved. Lard is a compound of a 
 solid, firm fat, stearine, and a semifluid sub- 
 stance termed elaine, in the proportion of' 
 38 of the former to 62 of the latter. Lard 
 should never be used when it becomes 
 rancid. See Fat and Adeps. 
 
 LARK. The common name of the native 
 species of the genus Alauda of Linnaeus, of 
 which one, the A. arvensis, is distinguished 
 as the sky-lark, or laverock ; the other, 
 A. campestris, Lin., is called the field-lark. 
 As the species of this genus differ from most 
 other insessorial birds in resting habitually, 
 and sleeping on the ground, their feet pre- 
 sent a singular but simple modification, 
 which at the same time beautifully adapts 
 them to their office of supporting the super- 
 incumbent body on a flat surface ; it consists, 
 
 in the extreme elongation, in an almost 
 straight line of the claw of the hinder toe, 
 which is at the same time proportionally 
 robust ; thus the plane of support is ex- 
 tended at the expense of the prehensible 
 faculty, which the habits of the lark render 
 of little or no value to it. 
 
 The sky-lark {A. arvensis) is universally 
 admired for the power and melody of its 
 song, and for the beautiful associations in- 
 spired by the circumstances under which 
 its notes are most richly poured forth ; viz. 
 while soaring aloft to greet the rising sun. 
 It ascends in the air almost perpendicularly, 
 by successive flights, to an elevation at 
 which its song becomes inaudible : its de- 
 scent is generally oblique. The female 
 builds her nest on the ground, and lays 
 four or five eggs, which are of a greyish 
 brown colour, marked with darker spots : 
 she sits about fifteen days, and usually 
 rears two broods in the year. This pro- 
 lific species is granivorous : in the winter 
 large flocks congregate together; they are 
 very fat at this season, and are captured in 
 great numbers for the table. This bird is 
 too well known to need description. The 
 whole length of an adult male is about 
 seven inches and a quarter. Almost all the 
 larks brought to the London market are 
 taken in the neighbourhood of Dunstable. 
 
 The wood-lark {A. arborea) is immedi- 
 ately distinguished from the sky-lark by its 
 smaller size, its shorter tail, and by a con- 
 spicuous light-brown streak over each eye 
 and ear-covert. It prefers hedge-bound 
 meadows, cultivated lands, and corn-fields 
 that are interspersed with copses, planta- 
 tions, and small woods, and is seldom found 
 on those open exposed tracts of country 
 where the sky-lark is most abundant. In 
 food and other habits it assimilates closely 
 to the sky-lark. The whole length of a 
 male bird is rather more than six inches. 
 
 The shore-lark {A. alpestris) is not at all 
 common in this country, being most fre- 
 quently met with in America. The whole 
 length of the bird is about seven inches. 
 {YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol.i. p. 402—420.) 
 
 LARKSPUR. {Delphinium, from del- 
 phin, a dolphin, in reference to the supposed 
 resemblance in the nectary of the plant to the 
 imaginary figures of the dolphin.) All the 
 species of larkspur are showy, and valuable 
 -as border flowers, especially D. Ajacis and 
 D. Consolida, both of which are universally 
 grown among the border annuals. The her- 
 baceous and perennial kinds are increased 
 by divisions or seeds, and the annual and 
 biennial kinds merely require sowing in the 
 open border, where they will flower and 
 seed freely. The fieldlarkspur {D. Consolida) 
 grows wild in sandy or chalky corn fields, 
 
LARVA. 
 
 LAUREL. 
 
 and is regarded as a simple astringent. 
 In gardens this species is called the branching 
 larkspur, and attains the height of three or 
 four feet, blowing vivid blue flowers. (Pax- 
 tori s Bot. Diet.) 
 
 D . grandifiorum is a hardy and beautiful 
 perennial, blowing dark blue flowers in J uly 
 and August. It loves a dry soil, and open 
 situation. 
 
 The bee larkspur is a beautiful perennial, 
 blowing bright blue flowers in July and 
 August. Sheep and goats eat the wild lark- 
 spur, horses do not relish it, while cows and 
 swine totally refuse it. Bees are remark- 
 ably attached to its flowers, which are like- 
 wise gathered by the country people of 
 Germany, cut small and mixed with tobacco, 
 to improve its flavour. 
 
 LARVA. (Lat. a mask.) A term applied 
 to that state, in which an insect exists im- 
 mediately after its exclusion from the egg, 
 and which precedes the pupa state. The 
 animals commonly called grubs, maggots, 
 and caterpillars, are larvae. Grub appears 
 to be a general term analogous to larva; 
 the term maggot is most generally applied 
 to the larva state of dipterous insects ; and 
 caterpillar, in the most common acceptation 
 of the term, is used to designate the larva 
 state of lepidopterous insects. These terms, 
 however, are used in a very vague manner. 
 (Penny Cyclo. vol. xiii. p. 3.38.) 
 
 LAST. An uncertain quantity, varying 
 in different countries, and with respect to 
 various articles. The following quantities 
 of different commodities generally make a 
 last : — 12 dozen of hides or skins ; 12 bar- 
 rels of meal; 10£ qrs. of cole-seed ; 10 qrs. 
 of corn or rape seed (in some parts of Eng- 
 land 21 qrs. of corn go to a last) ; 12 
 sacks of wool, 1700 lbs. of feathers or flax. 
 (M'-CullocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 LATHS. Long thin stripes of wood, 
 distinguished according to their length into 
 five, four, and three feet laths, and into 
 various sorts, according to the different kinds 
 of wood of which they are made, and the 
 purposes to which they are to be applied. 
 Their ordinary breadth is about an inch, 
 and their thickness £ of an inch : laths are 
 sold by the bundle, which is generally called 
 a hundred, but the number of score in each 
 hundred differs with the length. 
 
 LATHYRUS. (From la, augmentative, 
 and thouros, anything exciting, in allusion 
 to the medicinal qualities of the seeds.) 
 This genus belongs to the natural order 
 Leguminese. It consists for the most part 
 of very handsome plants when in flower, 
 well adapted for arbours or shrubberies, 
 where they must be supplied with branches 
 to support them, as they climb by means of 
 tendrils terminating the footstalk, and some- 
 733 
 
 times without tendrils. Any common soil 
 suits them ; they are increased by seeds, 
 and some of the perennial kinds by dividing 
 the roots. 
 
 The yellow vetchling (L. Aphaca) is an 
 annual, flowering in June. The plant is 
 glaucous, without any true leaves or leaflets, 
 except near the root. The flowers are soli- 
 tary on long stalks, small, drooping, lemon- 
 coloured. The pod is an inch in length, 
 nearly cylindrical, smooth, and containing 
 six seeds, which produce intense headach if 
 eaten in any quantity, while the roots of L. 
 tuberosus are said to be wholesome food. 
 (Paxtoris Pot. Diet) See Vetcilling. 
 
 Crimson vetch (Z. Nissolia) is also an 
 annual, flowering in May. It is destitute 
 of tendrils, it has a grass-like form, and 
 bears beautiful crimson flowers, variegated 
 with purple and white. The pod is long 
 and the seeds numerous. 
 
 There are five other species of lathyrus : 
 namely, L. hirsutus, L.pratensis, L. sylvestris, 
 L.palustris, and L. latifolius, which is the 
 only one of importance as a garden flower. 
 
 Broad-leaved everlasting pea (L. latifolius) 
 is a perennial, flowering in July and August. 
 The herb is glaucous, the stem winged, the 
 leaflets broadly elliptical, bluntish, three or 
 five ribbed, and the tendrils in five branches. 
 The stipules are ovate in their upper part, 
 and broader than the stem. The flowers 
 are large, handsome, of a fine rose colour, 
 and in tufts of five to ten. The legume is 
 long, compressed, and narrow. It is one of 
 the most showy of the herbaceous species 
 of the pea tribe ; and well adapted as an 
 ornament to cottages. See Everlasting 
 Pea. 
 
 LAUREL. (From the Celtic word blaur 
 the b is dropped, signifying green, in allusion 
 to the foliage of the plants.) This is a very 
 handsome and interesting genus of plants: 
 among the most interesting and valuable of 
 the hardy kinds, is the bay tree (X. nobilis), 
 which is injured by severe frost. (See Bay- 
 Tree.) L. benzoin, L. sassafras, and se- 
 veral others are deciduous, and in some si- 
 tuations attain a great size. They may be 
 increased by layers or cuttings of the roots. 
 The bark of L. benzoin is stimulant and 
 tonic, and in North America it is used in 
 intermittent fevers. The tree yields by in- 
 cision benzoin. In L.fcetens, an acrid red 
 or violet juice is particularly abundant. All 
 the species are more or less aromatic and 
 stomachic. 
 
 The Portugal laurel (Prunus lusitanica), 
 is a beautiful evergreen, which grows from 
 ten to fifteen feet high, blowing handsome 
 spikes of white flowers in June and July. 
 It forms a round head, and is very orna- 
 mental upon lawns. 
 
LAVA. 
 
 LAWRENCE (JOHN). 
 
 The Alexandrian laurel (Ruscus racemo- 
 sus) is a dwarf evergreen shrub, growing 
 about two feet high, and blowing a yellow 
 flower, succeeded by beautiful red berries. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Phillips's Syl. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 28.) See Cherry Laurel, and 
 Spurge Laurel. 
 
 LAURESTINE, Lauristinus, or Wild 
 Bay. {Viburnum Tinus, said to be derived 
 from vieo, to tie ; because of the pliability of 
 some of the branches.) All the species of 
 Viburnum are very elegant, rather early- 
 flowering shrubs. The hardy kinds are well 
 fitted for planting in ornamental shrub- 
 beries. They are increased by layers or 
 by cuttings planted under a glass in a 
 shady situation. The berries are violently 
 purging, but become eatable after ferment- 
 ation, and are made into a sort of cake by 
 the North American Indians. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet. ; Phillips's Shrub, vol. ii. p. 39.) 
 See Guelder Rose. 
 
 LAVA. The substances which flow in a 
 melted state from a volcano. They vary 
 considerably in texture and composition. 
 
 LAVENDER. (Lavandula, from Zauo, 
 to wash, in allusion to the use formerly 
 made of its distilled water in baths, on ac- 
 count of its fragrance.) The hardy kinds 
 are the only plants of this genus worth cul- 
 tivating. 
 
 Common garden lavender (L. vera) is 
 well known and much esteemed for the 
 fragrance of its flowers, and the volatile oil 
 which they yield by distillation with water. 
 It is cultivated in great abundance for the 
 London market, at Mitcham in Surrey. A 
 very poor and light gravelly soil is best suited 
 to this plant, being in such more fragrant, 
 longer lived, and more capable of enduring 
 severe weather than in a rich soil. In rich 
 or moist soils it grows luxuriantly, but is 
 in general destroyed during the winter. 
 The situation cannot be too open. It is 
 propagated by slips and cuttings of the 
 current year's shoots, which may be planted 
 in May and June, as well as by cuttings of 
 those which are a year old ; these are to be 
 planted in March, April, and early in May. 
 Both slips and cuttings must be from five 
 to seven inches in length, these, after being 
 stripped to half their length of the lower 
 leaves, are to be planted to that depth either 
 in a shady border, or in any compartment, 
 to have the shade of a mat during mid-day 
 until they have taken root, in rows six 
 inches apart each way. Water must be 
 given in moderate quantity every evening 
 until fully established. 
 
 Having attained sufficient strength, they 
 may be moved to their final stations in Sep- 
 tember or October, which is the season to 
 be preferred if the soil is not light and dry 
 734 
 
 on which they have been raised; or they 
 may be left until the succeeding spring. If 
 it is grown in considerable quantity for me- 
 dicinal purposes, which is the only claim it 
 has to a place in the herbary, it must be 
 planted in rows two feet apart each way, 
 otherwise only detached plants are inserted 
 along the borders. The only after-culture 
 required is the occasional employment of 
 the hoe, the decayed spikes and brandies 
 being removed in autumn, and the surface 
 gently stirred with the spade in the spring. 
 
 The flowers are ready for gathering either 
 to dry or for distillation, in July or the end 
 of June. The flowers are used as excitants 
 and carminatives in medicine, in the form 
 of tinctures. The oil is an agreeable per- 
 fume, and one or two drops rubbed up with 
 sugar and mixed in water forms a useful 
 draught in nervous headach and hysteria. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 LAVENDER, SEA. See Thrift. 
 
 LAWN. A space of ground covered 
 with grass, kept short by mowing, and ge- 
 nerally situated in front of a house or man- 
 sion, Or within the view from such. Lawns, 
 when once established, require only to be 
 kept neat by the ordinary routine of rolling, 
 mowing, and sweeping, except keeping the 
 surface perfectly even, by making up small 
 hollows with screened mould early in spring. 
 When lawns become worn out, a top dress- 
 ing of any finely divided manure will refresh 
 them ; malt dust applied in October is ex- 
 cellent for this purpose ; and at the same 
 time an additional quantity of grass seed 
 may be sown. (Pen. Cyc. vol. xiii. p. 366.) 
 
 LAWRENCE or LAURENCE, JOHN. 
 Was admitted B. A. of Clare Hall, Cam- 
 bridge, in 1688, and was presented to the 
 rectory of Yelvertoft, in Northamptonshire, 
 in ] 703. To the cultivation of the garden 
 of the rectory house he assiduously applied, 
 and though its soil was shallow, and on the 
 worst description of subsoil, viz. a white 
 clay, in three years he grew in it some of 
 the choicest fruit. In 1721, he moved to 
 the rectory of Bishop's Wearmouth in the 
 county of Durham. In 1723, lie was a 
 prebendary of Salisbury. He died at his 
 rectory, in 1732. He was a naturalist and 
 very fond of horticulture, especially that 
 part of it which includes the culture of 
 fruits. Working in his garden, he tells us 
 was " the best and almost only physick " he 
 took. 
 
 1. The Clergyman's Recreation, showing the Pleasure 
 and Profit of the Art of Gardening. London. 8vo. 1714, 
 1715,1717. The sixth Edition appeared in 172G. 2. The 
 Lady's Recreation in the Art of Gardening. London. 
 1717, 1718. 8vo. This work, I find, has a mere assump- 
 tion of Mr. Lawrence's name, for he states in one of his 
 succeeding publications that he never saw it until after it 
 was printed. 3. The Gentleman's Recreation ; or the 
 second part of the Art of Gardening improved ; con- 
 
LAWSON (WILLIAM). 
 
 LEAF. 
 
 taining several new experiments, and various observa- 
 tions relating to Fruit Trees ; particularly a new Method 
 of building Walls with horizontal shelters. With an 
 Appendix to fix a meridian line by the brother of the 
 Author, Edward Laurence. London. 8vo. 1714, 1710. 
 The third Edition is dated 1723. 4. The Fruit Garden 
 Kalendar ; or a Summary of the Art of managing the 
 Fruit Garden, teaching in order of time what is to be 
 done therein every Month in the Year, containing several 
 new and plain directions more particularly relating to the 
 Vine. With an Appendix of the Usefulness of the Ba- 
 rometer. London. 8vo. 1718. 5. A new System of 
 Agriculture, being a complete body of Husbandry and 
 Gardening. In five books. 1726. folio. 6. Paradise 
 Regained ; or the Art of Gardening ; a Poem. London. 
 1728. 8vo. (G. W.Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 LAWSON, WILLIAM, an author who 
 professed to write entirely from experi- 
 ence, published the following works : — 
 
 1. A new Orchard and Garden ; or the best Way for 
 Planting, Grafting, and to make any Ground good for a 
 rich Orchard ; particularly in the North, and generally 
 for the whole Commonwealth ; w'th the country House- 
 wife's Garden, for Herbs of common use ; their Virtues, 
 Seasons, Profits, Ornaments: Variety of Knotts, Models 
 for Trees, and Plots for the best Ordering of Grounds 
 and Walks. As also the Husbandry of Bees, with their 
 several Uses and Annoyances : all being the experience 
 of forty and eight years' labour, and now the third time 
 corrected and much enlarged. Whereunto is newly 
 added the Art of propagating Plants, with the true 
 Ordering of all Manner of Fruits, in their Gathering, 
 Carrying Home, and Preservation. Followed by a most 
 profitable new Treatise, from approved experience, of 
 the Art of propagating Plants. By Simon Harwood. 
 London. 4to. 1597, 1615, 1618, 1623, 1626, 1648, 1649. Again 
 much enlarged in 1665 and 1676. It was printed along 
 with Markham's Way to get Wealth. 1648 and 1660. 
 2. Tractatusde Agricultura. London, 4to. 1656 and 1657. 
 
 LAY. A term applied to land in the 
 state of grass or sward. This kind of ground 
 is frequently distinguished into such as has 
 been long in the state of sward, and such as 
 is newly laid down to grass, or into old and 
 new lays. The proper method of managing 
 the latter is of great importance to the 
 farmer, and which Young thought should 
 be by keeping them perfectly free from 
 stock for the following autumn and winter 
 after their being laid down, when, in the 
 spring, they will afford a growth of young- 
 grass highly valuable for sheep, with which 
 they should only be well stocked, and kept 
 down then, and during the following summer. 
 Nothing, in his opinion, being more per- 
 nicious than mowing a new lay, as directed 
 by certain authors. They may, he thinks, 
 have succeeded in spite of such bad manage- 
 ment, but never by it. 
 
 LAYERING. In gardening, an opera- 
 tion by which the propagation of plants is 
 effected by laying down or bending the 
 shoots, so that a portion of them may be 
 covered with earth. A shoot so operated 
 on is called a layer, and the point which 
 furnishes the layers bears the name of stock. 
 Some plants are so much disposed to emit 
 roots that if their branches happen to come 
 in contact with the earth they immediately 
 begin to strike. Plants so situated as to 
 render it impossible to bend their branches 
 to the ground, may nevertheless be layered 
 by having their shoots introduced into a 
 pot or box of soil elevated to them, and 
 735 
 
 supported in a convenient position. This 
 is a common practice among the Chinese, 
 who cause branches of trees to root in this 
 manner by partially ringing them, and 
 covering their parts so ringed with a ball of 
 clay, which is kept moist. (Penny Cyclo.) 
 
 LEAD WORT. (Plumbago ; from plum- 
 bum, lead.) A genus of pretty, free-flower- 
 ing plants, growing in any common soil, and 
 increased readily by cuttings. The root of 
 P. europcea, it is said, when chewed, will cure 
 the toothach. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 LEAF. (Sax.) The well-known fine 
 membranous part of a tree or plant, which 
 is put forth and unfolded in the spring, and 
 wli'ich in some trees falls off in the autumn. 
 " The leaf," says a writer in the Penny 
 Cyclopedia, " is an expansion of the bark 
 of a plant, from whose axil a leaf-bud is de- 
 veloped: but this opinion is hypothetical. 
 The leaf is usually thin, and traversed 
 with one or more veins, composed of woody 
 and vascular tissue ; sometimes it is fleshy, 
 and occasionally cylindrical, or nearly so." 
 The functions of the leaf being at once that 
 of respiration, digestion, and nutrition, its 
 surface is covered with stomata, or breathing 
 pores, which communicate with minute 
 hollow chambers in its interior. It is in 
 the leaf that all the peculiar secretions of a 
 plant are prepared out of the under sap 
 which the roots obtain from the soil, and 
 which, carried up to the leaves, is exposed 
 to the air, and undergoes the action of 
 the vital chemistry which converts it into 
 the proper juice. It is then returned to 
 the stem, and forms the different secre- 
 tions of the plant, as resin, starch, sugar, 
 gum, &c. A leaf is either united to the 
 stem by means of a petiole, or stalk, or 
 it is sessile ; that is to say, seated on the 
 branch without an intermediate stalk ; 
 the veins pass through the petiole before 
 they can expand into the broad or green 
 part forming the blade of the leaf. Some 
 leaves are furnished with an appendage, 
 which in grasses is a thin membranous 
 body arising from the base of the lamina, 
 and in palms is a coarse net, formed; as it is 
 said, of tissue belonging to the veins of the 
 leaves. When leaves have but one blade, 
 they are simple, as in the apple ; but when 
 there is more than one blade, each seated 
 on a ramification of the petiole, a leaf is 
 called compound. Of these, and of the ex- 
 ternal form of the leaf, there are endless 
 modifications. Between 200 and 300 are 
 enumerated by Bischoff. 
 
 The distinction of leaves made by those 
 who have written on botany are the fol- 
 lowing : a simple leaf is that which is not 
 divided to the middle. A compound leaf is 
 divided into several parts, each resembling 
 
LEAF. 
 
 LEOPARD'S BANE. 
 
 a simple leaf, as in liquorice, &c. A digitate 
 leaf is a leaf divided into several parts, all of 
 which meet together at the base, as in hemp, 
 black hellebore, &c. A trifoliate leaf is a 
 compound leaf, consisting of three leaflets, 
 as the trefoil, &c. A quinquefoliate leaf is 
 a leaf consisting of five leaflets, as in He- 
 dera quinquefolia. A pinnated leaf is a 
 compound leaf divided into several parts, 
 each of which is called a leaflet, placed 
 along a middle axis, either alternately or by- 
 pairs. When the axis is terminated by an 
 odd leaflet, it is said to be unequally pin- 
 nated ; and equally pinnated when it is not 
 terminated by an odd leaflet, as in the 
 cassia ; when the leaflets are all nearly of 
 the same form and bigness, it is called an 
 uniform pinnated leaf, as in the liquorice ; 
 when they are not so, it is said to be dif- 
 form, as in the agrimony. A winged leaf is 
 a pinnated leaf, with an intervening mem- 
 brane. A ramose leaf is that which is still 
 farther divided than the pinnated leaf, as in 
 the osmund royal, female fern, &c. An 
 entire leaf or lobe is that which has no di- 
 vision on its edges, as in the apple-tree, &c. 
 A sinuated leaf is that which is cut about 
 the edges into several long segments, as in 
 common mallows. A serrated leaf is that 
 which is cut about the edges into several 
 acute segments, resembling the teeth of a 
 saw, as in the nettle, &c. A crenate leaf 
 is that which is cut on the edges into 
 several obtuse segments, as in betony, &c. 
 A laciniated or jagged leaf is that which is 
 cut on the edges into several pretty deep 
 portions in an irregular manner, as in the 
 horned poppy, &c. 
 
 All the experiments which have been 
 made in order to show how serviceable the 
 leaves of trees and plants are to their well- 
 being, have proved that when the plants 
 have been divested of their leaves, or their 
 leaves have been eaten or cut during their 
 growth, they have been remarkably weak- 
 ened or destroyed. If the leaves of plants 
 be the means by which their juices are pre- 
 pared for their support, as has been just 
 stated, it should teach us not to pull or cut 
 off the leaves of trees or plants on any ac- 
 count, while they retain their verdure, and 
 are in health, as they may be greatly injured 
 thereby. Hence, probably, the error of the 
 common practice of feeding down wheat in 
 the winter and spring with sheep, as, by so 
 doing, the stalks may in many cases be 
 rendered weak, and the ears shorter, the 
 grains of corn not being so plump and well 
 nourished as when it is not fed down 
 upon the ground. It is well known, too, 
 that in grass which is often mowed, the 
 blades are rendered finer in proportion to 
 the frequency of mowing ; so that, though 
 
 this may be a desirable thing in lawns, &c. 
 where regard is had to the produce it should 
 certainly be avoided. 
 
 The leaves of trees or plants, where they 
 can be collected in large quantities, as in 
 parks and woods, may be highly useful in 
 augmenting the manure heaps of the farm. 
 
 Mr. Young, in his Calendar, recommends 
 that, in wooded countries, all the leaves 
 that can be had at little expence, should be 
 raked up in October, and carted to the yards 
 and standing folds, for littering and making 
 them into dung : he did it, he said, at 3d. 
 per one-horse cart load. They do not rot 
 easily, but that is, he thinks, no objection 
 to them ; they are a sponge to be saturated 
 with urine, and if not touched previously to 
 carting on to the land, will convey to the 
 field much of what might otherwise be lost ; 
 and they are extremely useful in aiding the 
 main object of bedding the yards in the 
 autumn and winter season. (Penny Cyclo. 
 vol. xiii. p. 374.; Lindleys Introd. to Bot- 
 any.} See Botany, ante, p. 231. 
 
 LEAF-BUDS. Rudiments of young 
 branches, made up of scales imbricated 
 over each other, the outermost being the 
 hardest and thickest, and surrounding a 
 minute axis, which is in direct communica- 
 tion with the woody and cellular tissue of 
 the stem. When stimulated by light and 
 heat they extend into branches ; or if arti- 
 ficially removed from the plant that bears 
 them, they are capable of multiplying the 
 individual from which they have been taken.' 
 In this case, however, the individual is not 
 a progeny as from seed, but merely an ex- 
 tension of the parent. 
 
 LEAFLET. A part of a compound leaf, 
 or a small leaf formed on the petiole of a 
 leaf branching out. 
 
 LEAGUE. A measure of length, prin- 
 cipally used in reckoning distances at sea. 
 The sea league is three nautical or geogra- 
 phical miles, or the l-20th of a degree, and 
 consequently about 3*45 English miles. The 
 common land-league is a well-known itine- 
 rary measure on the continent of Europe, 
 chiefly in France. The French, however, 
 have two distinct leagues ; the legal posting 
 league, containing 2000 toises, and equal to 
 2-42 English miles, and a league of 25 to the 
 degree, or equal to about 2*76 English miles. 
 
 The word is said to have been derived 
 from the Celtic leacli, stone ; the distances 
 having been marked by stones in the Ro- 
 man provinces. See Mlle. 
 
 LEAP, or LIP. A measure of capacity 
 signifying half a bushel, in use in some parts 
 of the country. 
 
 LEOPARD'S BANE. (Doronicum.) An 
 ornamental genus, and from the plants 
 flowering early in spring, they are well 
 
LEASE. 
 
 LEASE. 
 
 deserving of cultivation ; they grow in any 
 garden soil, and may be increased with 
 facility by dividing at the root. 
 
 The great leopard's bane (D. pardalian- 
 ehis) is a perennial, native of Great Britain, 
 growing in mountainous pastures or mea- 
 dows. The root is creeping, and consists of 
 several knobs connected by long fibres; 
 woody at the crown. The stem is two or 
 three feet high, hollow, round, leafy, and 
 hairy ; branched and glutinous at the upper 
 part. The leaves are rather soft and 
 downy, heart-shaped, more or less regu- 
 larly toothed, or wiry ; the radical ones 
 large, obtuse, on long foot-stalks; those 
 about the middle of the stem sessile and 
 clasping ; upper ones much smaller, pointed. 
 Flowers, which appear in May, solitary 
 at the ends of the branches ; two inches 
 wide, of a uniform bright yellow ; the ear- 
 liest overtopped by succeeding ones. The 
 roots are aromatic, and used by sports- 
 men in alpine countries against giddiness. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 446.) 
 
 LEASE. (From locatio, letting, or di- 
 missio, from the French laisser, i. e. di- 
 mittere, to depart with.) " A lease," says 
 Woodfall in his Law of Landlord and Te- 
 nant, " is a contract for the possession and 
 profits of lands and tenements on the one 
 side, and a recompense of rent or other in- 
 come on the other ; or it is a conveyance of 
 lands and tenements to a person for life, or 
 years, or at will, in consideration of a 
 return of rent or other recompense. The 
 party letting the land is called the lessor 
 or landlord, and the party to whom the 
 lease is made, the lessee or tenant. It has 
 generally been supposed, that the con- 
 nection between landlord and tenant has 
 gradually improved from that of master 
 and slave into a state of total independence 
 and mutual interest in the soil. In support 
 of this opinion, we are told (Kaimes Hist. Law 
 Tract.') that lands were originally occupied 
 by bondmen ; but as these men derived no 
 profit from their labour, and had con- 
 sequently no interest in being industrious, 
 it became necessary to have a free man to 
 manage the farm, who probably at first had 
 some acres set apart to him for his main- 
 tenance and wages. In progress of time, it 
 was found more politic to give him an 
 interest in the produce, first, by allowing 
 him a certain proportion in place of wages, 
 and ultimately, by reserving to the master 
 a yearly quantity certain, and permitting 
 the servant to retain the overplus. One 
 further step, necessary to bring this con- 
 tract to its due perfection, was to give the 
 servant a lease for years, without which he 
 was not secure that his industry would turn 
 737 
 
 to his own profit. By a contract in these 
 terms, he acquired the name of tenant, 
 because he was entitled to all the possession 
 for years certain. 
 
 " But the notion that the cultivation of 
 the ground was formerly carried on by 
 slaves alone, is contradicted by the evidence 
 afforded by the records and monuments of 
 the middle ages (see Bell on Leases^ ch. i.), 
 which prove, that while slavery existed in 
 this country, there were also tenants and 
 free labourers of the ground, who held 
 their lands under lease. It appears that 
 the practice of letting lands was known 
 among the ancient British ; a proprietor of 
 lands being permitted to let them for a 
 year at his pleasure, though he could not 
 alien or charge them. (1 Whit. Manch. s. 4. 
 p. 377.) Those who formerly held large 
 districts and tracts of land being unac- 
 quainted with the arts of husbandry and 
 tillage, found it their interest to lease out 
 their demesnes, which for want of care and 
 cultivation, lay waste, and afforded them little 
 or no profit. These leases were granted for 
 years, this mode of letting being thought 
 best to answer the designs and intentions 
 of the lord, as well as the expectations of 
 the tenant : for if they had let them for life, 
 this had given the tenants too great a power 
 over the lord ; and, on the other side, if 
 they had leased their land only at will, few 
 would have chosen to bestow any great 
 pains or industry upon so precarious a 
 possession, which the arbitrary will and 
 pleasure of a peevish lord might have de- 
 feated. (Bac. Abr. tit. Leases.) 
 
 " Thus, these estates were originally 
 granted to mere farmers or husbandmen, who 
 every year rendered some equivalent in 
 money, provisions, or other rent to the lessors 
 or landlords ; but in order to encourage them 
 to manure and cultivate the ground, they 
 had a permanent interest granted them, not 
 determinable at the will of the lord. Their 
 possession, however, was esteemed of so 
 little consequence, that they were rather 
 considered as bailiffs or servants who were 
 to receive and account for the profits at a 
 settled price, than as having any property 
 of their own ; they were, therefore, not 
 allowed to have a freehold estate, but their 
 interest, such as it was, vested after their 
 deaths in their executors, who were to 
 make up the accounts of their testator with 
 the lord, and his other creditors, and were 
 entitled to the stock upon the farm. (2 Bl. 
 Com. 141.) 
 
 " In every lease it is requisite that there 
 should be, 1. A lessor able to grant it. 2. 
 A lessee capable of accepting it. 3. A sub- 
 ject-matter that is demiseable. 4. There 
 must also be the needful ceremonies, &c. ; 
 3 B 
 
LEASE. 
 
 as where a freehold estate is created by 
 lease, livery of seisin must be given to the 
 lessee ; and where a lease is for a term of 
 years there must be an entry by him. 
 
 " No lease is good unless it contains a 
 sufficient degree of certainty, as to its be- 
 ginning and ending ; though it may deter- 
 mine prior to the period for which it is 
 granted ; in consequence of a proviso or 
 condition ; and all modern leases contain a 
 proviso, enabling the lessor to re-enter and 
 determine the lease on non-payment of 
 rent, or breach of the covenants. (Cruis. 
 Dig. Lease.) It is immaterial whether any 
 rent be reserved upon a lease for life, 
 years, or at will, or not ; except only in 
 the cases of leases made by tenant in tail, 
 husband and wife, and ecclesiastical per- 
 sons. 
 
 " The usual words (Co. Lit. 45. ; Ibid. 5. ; 
 2 Black. 318.) whereby a lease is made, are 
 " demise, grant, and to farm let," and what- 
 soever words amount to a grant may serve 
 to make a lease. Farm, ferme, fearme, 
 frrna, is derived of the Saxon word ' feor- 
 man,' to fee, or relieve ; because in ancient 
 time they reserved upon their leases 
 cattle and other victual and provision, for 
 their sustenance, so that a farmer, firmarius, 
 was one who held his lands upon payment 
 of a rent or feorme, though, at present, by 
 a gradual departure from the original sense, 
 the word 'farm' is brought to signify the 
 very estate o£ lands so holden upon farm or 
 rent." 
 
 The beneficial effects, both to the land- 
 lord and tenant, of leases of a sufficient 
 duration to encourage men of capital and 
 skill, to properly cultivate the land, I need 
 hardly point out. And it will be very 
 desirable to have as few restraining cove- 
 nants introduced into these as possible. 
 They merely retard and annoy the good 
 farmer and rarely improve the practice of 
 the unskilful. 
 
 " In the northern part of this island, cus- 
 tom and expediency have very generally 
 fixed the duration of the lease at about 
 twenty years. Experience will evince 
 that the time is not always more than 
 enough to allow the possessor of the land 
 to conduct and mature a profitable system 
 of management, and to pay to the owner an 
 adequate rent. All the great operations of 
 the husbandman have a prospective result 
 as regards the profit to be derived. The 
 capital expended in such cases is only to be 
 drawn back by periodical returns after the 
 lapse of time. In the providing of extra- 
 neous manures, in the adoption of rotations 
 of crops, which, to be effectual to the pur- 
 poses intended, must be extended through 
 many seasons, in the draining of the land, 
 738 
 
 and the like, time is necessary, both to effect 
 the operations, and to recover with a future 
 profit the capital employed. When, indeed, 
 land is of very rich quality, and at once 
 productive, without other outlay than the 
 ordinary expenses of tillage, or when it has 
 the means of fertilisation near to it, and 
 abundant, as in the vicinity of cities, the 
 duration of the term may be comparatively 
 short. But in other and dissimilar cases, 
 this cannot be without a sacrifice of present 
 income; and a landlord will scarcely fail 
 to experience, that if there be not a suffi- 
 cient period of secure possession accorded 
 to the occupier, the necessary expenditure 
 on the cultivation of the ground will not 
 be hazarded ; but more than this, a person 
 of good capital will, like every trader, re- 
 gard as a benefit the power of carrying on 
 his business undisturbed, and will set a pe- 
 cuniary value on security and independ- 
 ence." (Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. i. p. 795.) 
 With regard to a lease in general, and its 
 covenants, see a good paper (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 
 134.) In speaking of rents, the author re- 
 marks, " As to the kind of rent to be paid, 
 constant experience proves that the best and 
 most satisfactory is a fixed rent in money. 
 To rents, payable in grain, or in money re- 
 gulated by the prices of grain, there is this 
 obvious objection, that the tenant will ge- 
 nerally be required to pay the highest rent 
 when he is least able to do so, that is, when 
 prices rise from a deficiency in the produce 
 of the crop." And when speaking of the 
 lease and its precautionary covenants, he 
 observes, " the greatest error 1 consists in 
 vain precautions and attempts to provide 
 against every possible contingency which 
 from the nature of the transaction, and the 
 unforeseen events to which it may give rise, 
 it is impossible to do. All that can be done 
 is to make as precise as possible the condi- 
 tions which experience shows to be neces- 
 sary. The terms of the contract should be 
 few and simple, and easily understood and 
 complied with. Not only are hurtful cove- 
 nants to be avoided, but such as are un- 
 necessary, since to increase the number of 
 them too much serves, but to perplex the 
 lessee, and give birth to future quarrels, 
 and since all experience on the subject 
 shows that the interests of either party may 
 be sufficiently guarded without multiplying 
 too much conditions, penalties, and restric- 
 tions." The form of lease adopted by Mr. 
 T. Escourt is given, Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. vi. p. 495. 
 
 Contracts for Leases. — What are the 
 usual covenants in a lease is a question of 
 fact, and not of law. (Bennett v. Wornack, 
 7B.&C. 627.) It is doubtful if the plea 
 of the house being burnt down before the 
 
LEASE. 
 
 party could take possession, is a defence to an 
 action on the agreement. {Bullock v. Domitt, 
 6 T. R. 650.) And if the tenant covenants 
 to repair, he is bound to rebuild in case of a 
 fire (Ibid.), or destruction by lightning, or 
 if thrown down by enemies. (Paradine v. 
 Jane, All. 27. ; Chesterfield v. Bolton, Com. 
 Rep. 626.) It is an excuse for not taking 
 a house or farm according to agreement 
 that the lessor was in arrear of rent of the 
 demised premises to his landlord (Partridge 
 v. Sowerby, 3B. & P. 172.), or that another 
 person had an interest in it. (JRumbal v. 
 Wright, 1 C. & P. 589 ) A person who lets 
 a farm engages to give possession, and if 
 he fails to do so the lessee may recover da- 
 mages against him. (Cove v. Clay, 5 Bing- 
 ham, 529.) If a tenant commits a breach 
 of covenant by waste, or by treating the 
 land in an unhusbandlike manner, the Court 
 of Chancery will not, in such case, compel a 
 specific performance of an agreement for a 
 lease. (Hill v. Barclay, 18 Ves. jun. 63.) 
 An agreement to make a lease is a good 
 lease in equity (Hamilton v. Cardross, 
 2 Broun' s P. C. 125.) ; and whether the in- 
 strument shall operate as a present lease or 
 only as an agreement for a future lease will 
 depend on the intention of the parties, to be 
 collected from the instrument itself (Mor- 
 gan v. Blissett, 3 Taunton, 65.), in which 
 case Mansfield, C. J., said, " If you collect 
 on the face of the instrument the intent 
 of the parties to give a future lease, it shall 
 be an agreement only." 
 
 A lease of a farm, provided its term does 
 not exceed three years and a rent is reserved, 
 may be by parole (Crosby v. Wadsworth, 
 6 East, 602.) ; and although a parole agree- 
 ment for a lease of longer duration than 
 three years is void by the statute of frauds, 
 29 C. 11. c. 3. s. 2., yet the agreement still 
 creates a tenancy from year to year. (Clay- 
 ton v. Blakeney, 8 T. R. 3.) A lease from a 
 certain day commences on the next day. 
 (Anon. Lofft, 275.) The words " from the 
 day of the date," mean either inclusive or 
 exclusive, according to the context and 
 subject-matter, and the court will construe 
 them so as to effectuate the intention of the 
 parties. (Pugh v. Leeds, Cowper, 714.) 
 " From the feast of St. Michael," means 
 from new Michaelmas. (Spicer v. Lea, 11 
 East, 312.) A general parole demise at an 
 annual rent, where the bulk of the farm is 
 inclosed, and a small part in the open com- 
 mon fields, is only a lease from year to year, 
 and not for so long as the usual round of 
 husbandry extends. (Roe v. Lees, 2 W. 
 Black. 1171.) A lease for seven, fourteen, or 
 twenty-one years, "as lessee shall think 
 proper," is a good lease for seven years what- 
 ever it may be for the fourteen or the 
 739 
 
 twenty-one years. (Ferguson v. Cornish, 2 
 Burrows, 1032.) And if it be granted for the 
 same terms, unconditionally, the lessee only 
 has the option at which of the above periods 
 the lease shall determine. (Dunn v. Spur- 
 rier, 3 B. & P. 399. 7 Ves. jun. 231 ) For 
 every doubtful grant must be construed in 
 favour of the grantee. (Doe v. Dixon, 9 
 East, 16.) A tenancy from year to year 
 of glebe land is determined by the death of 
 the incumbent. (Doe v. Carter, R. & M. 
 237.) The churchwardens and overseers 
 of a parish may grant leases of the parish 
 lands under the 59 G. 3. c. 12. s. 17., but 
 the churchwardens alone cannot. (Phillips 
 v. Pearce, 8 D. & R. 43.) 
 
 Form of the Lease. — In all farming leases 
 there are always some of the following co- 
 venants, according to the intentions of the 
 contracting parties, or the course of hus- 
 bandry followed in the district. 1. Date, 
 parties, demise, &c. 2. Liberty for lessor 
 to view the necessary repairs, and to take 
 certain excepted trees. 3. Reservation of 
 game, &c. 4. " To have and to hold." 5. 
 " Yielding and paying." 6. Additional rent 
 for converting pasture to tillage. 7. And 
 for improper husbandry. 8. Lessee to pay 
 rent and taxes, and repair, landlord finding 
 rough timber, and to leave in repair. 9. 
 Lessor to make certain alterations in farm, 
 to the extent of .10. All further 
 
 repairs and alterations to be at the les- 
 see's expense ; lessee to carry materials, 
 to insure against fire, and not to assign 
 without a licence, and to give notice of as- 
 signment or underletting. 11. Lessee to 
 paint the house, to ring swine, clean tiles of 
 buildings. 12. Lessee to level mole-hills, 
 cut rushes, deliver loads of straw yearly to 
 landlord. 13. Lessee to provide straw for 
 thatching. 14. Lessee to perform certain 
 work with his teams for the lessor ; to 
 provide beer for workmen ; to carry building 
 materials. 15. Lessee to keep a dog for 
 lessor. 16. Lessee not to suffer persons to 
 sport over the farm, but to give notice of 
 trespassers. 17. Lessor to bring actions 
 of trespass in lessee's name, and to give 
 notice to trespassers. 18. Lessee to keep 
 up and preserve the stock of pigeons, and 
 to deliver to lessor half the killed pigeons. 
 19. Lessee to follow the proper course of 
 husbandry. 20. Lessee to cultivate in a 
 husbandlike manner. 21. Lessee to cut 
 drains and ditehes. 22. Lessee to observe 
 all the reasonable directions of the lessor, 
 as to cultivation. 23. Lessor to enter, to 
 observe the state of the cultivation. 24. 
 Lessee to summer fallow once in years. 
 25. And not to have more than two white 
 crops without a summer fallow. 26. To 
 cultivate according to the four shift system. 
 3 b 2 
 
LEASE. 
 
 27. Lessee not to take more than one ex- 
 hausting crop in years. 28. Lessee not 
 to sow on fen land more than two successive 
 crops of wheat. 29. Lessee to sow clover 
 with second crop, and clover to remain 
 years. 30. Lessee not to plough meadow, 
 or mow fatting lands. 31. Lessee not to 
 mow pasture or meadow-land, during the 
 last five years of term, for two years suc- 
 cessively. 32. Lessee to repair fences. 33. 
 And repair hedges, not to buckstall them, 
 but to cut and scour one part of them 
 yearly. 34. Lessee to scour one part of 
 the ditches, and plash one part of the hedges 
 yearly, to plant quick and trees, where 
 needed, not cutting hedges under a certain 
 growth, not selling any for fire wood. 35. 
 Lessee not to cut down and injure trees or 
 make pollards, not to cut pollards under 
 years' growth, or any which have not been 
 previously cut. 36. Lessee not to cut un- 
 derwood under years' growth. 37. Not 
 to dig pits. 38. Lessor may pursue any 
 remedy in equity for breach of covenants. 
 39. Lessee may dig clay for farm, or gravel 
 for roads of the farm. 40. Shall kill moles, 
 mow thistles, not carry away brakes. 41. 
 Lessee to spread dung upon the land, leave 
 all dung at the expiration of term without 
 compensation ; to spread marl; to lime. 42. 
 Lessee to feed off turnips. 43. Lessee to 
 keep sheep, and fold them on land. 44. 
 Lessee at end of term to leave one part of 
 last year's hay to be paid for by lessor. 45. 
 Lessee to carry out part of last year's dung, 
 and to leave remainder on the premises, to 
 leave also , all straw and chaff and stubble. 
 46. Lessee not to sell straw within the 
 last years. 47. Lessee to consume hay 
 upon the land. 48. Lessee may sell hay 
 and straw, bringing on to the farm, for each 
 ton sold, tons of manure. 49. Lessee to 
 inbarn and stack all the corn- crops, &c, 
 grown on the farm, and to use the straw 
 there. 50. Lessor may stack hay on the 
 farm, during the last year of farm, and enter 
 to sow turnips. 51. Lessor to enter and 
 make plantations, not exceeding acres, 
 making allowance for the same in rent. 
 52. Lessee in last year to sow one part of 
 arable land with clover, one part with 
 turnips. 53. Lessee not to cut grass more 
 than once in last years of his term, or 
 plant more than one crop of potatoes, in last 
 years, or take a crop of coleseed during 
 last years. 54. Lessee to leave at expi- 
 ration of term one part of land in fallow, 
 or green crops. 55. Lessee to leave without 
 charge or remuneration all the dung on the 
 premises. 56. Lessee to lay down with 
 clover summer corn. 57. Lessor to have 
 Leave to enter, to plough fallows, and sow 
 seeds, during the last year of term. 58. 
 
 Lessee to plough and sow, to be paid for 
 (if lessor neglects) by succeeding tenant. 59. 
 Lessee to find room in house for servants of 
 succeeding tenant, and stables for his horses, 
 and permit him to carry out dung into the 
 farm. 60. Lessor to allow use of barns for 
 nine months after the expiration of the term. 
 
 61. Lessee to provide the succeeding tenant 
 with loads of straw per month, as long 
 as he occupies the barn, after end of term 5 . 
 
 62. Lessee to leave on farm loads of hay. 
 
 63. Lessor to pay for grass, hay, and herbage 
 left on premises. 64. Mode of valuing crops. 
 
 65. Lessor to keep buildings in repair, to 
 allow rough wood for repairing the gates. 
 
 66. Lessor to find timber for repairs. 67. 
 Lessor to repair buildings damaged by 
 storms. 68. Lessor to find timber upon 
 notice, and to allow, if upon the farm, 
 plough-bote. 69. Lessor to re-enter if rent 
 not paid, or other covenants broken by les- 
 see, or upon lessee becoming bankrupt or 
 insolvent, or making a bill of sale assigning 
 over property for the benefit of his creditors, 
 assigning, or pledging lease, or selling the 
 growing crops. 70. Lessor in case of re- 
 entry to pay for improvements, according 
 to valuation. '71. A schedule of fields, and 
 marked plan. (WoodfalVs Landlord and 
 Tenant, 942.) 
 
 Stamps on Leases. — By the 55 G. 3. c. 
 184. the stamps of the following value are 
 required for leases : — 
 
 " Leases or tacks of any lands, here- 
 ditaments, or heritable subjects at a yearly 
 rent, without any sum of money by way of 
 fine, premium, or grassum, paid for the 
 same." 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Where the yearly rent shall not amount 
 
 to £20 10 0 
 
 Where to £20 and not to j£"100 - 1 10 0 
 
 — 100 — 200 - 2 0 0 
 
 — 200 — 400 - 3 0 0 
 _ 400 — 600 - 4 0 0 
 _ 600 — 800 15 0 0 
 
 — 800 — 1000 - 6 0 0 
 
 — 1000 and upwards - - 10 0 0 
 
 Stamps on Agreement for Leases. — By the 
 same statute it is provided that, " Where 
 the same shall not contain more than 1080 
 words (being the amount of fifteen common 
 law folios, or sheets of 72 words each) a 
 duty of 1/., and where the same shall contain 
 more than 1080 words, a duty of 11. 15s., 
 and for every entire quantity of 1080 words 
 contained therein, a further duty of 1/. 5s. 
 
 An agreement for a lease which is sealed 
 requires a 11. 15s. stamp. (Clayton v. Bur- 
 tenshaw, 7 D. & R. 800.) The stamp re- 
 quired for a lease is regulated by the amount 
 expressed to be paid (whether fine or rent), 
 and not by that which is actually paid. (Doe 
 v. Lewis, 10. B. & C. 673. ; Duck v. Brad- 
 dyl, M'Clelland, 217.) 
 
LEASE. 
 
 LEATHER. 
 
 Forfeiture of Lease. — Provisoes in leases 
 for re-entry are to be construed like other 
 contracts, not with the strictness of con- 
 ditions at common law. {Doe v. Elsam, 
 M. & M. 189.) Acceptance of rent after a 
 forfeiture is a waver of the forfeiture (Arns- 
 by v. Woodward, 6 B & C. 519.) if the 
 fact of the forfeiture was known to the 
 lessor at the time. (Roe\. Harrison, 2 T. R. 
 425.) 
 
 Custom of the Country with regard to 
 Leases. — Custom of the country cannot con- 
 troul the express terms of a lease ; but if the 
 lease is silent, then the custom of the country 
 must be adopted (Smith v. Jersey, 2B.&B. 
 551.), and evidence of that custom may 
 be received, although there is a written 
 agreement which is silent on the particular 
 point. (Webb v. Plomer, 2 B. & Aid. 746. ; 
 Senior v. Armitage, Holt, 197.) See Cus- 
 toms of Counties. 
 
 Repairs. — The implied duty to repair is, 
 by the common law, cast upon the tenant. 
 The extent of this obligation, however, is in 
 a great degree to be taken in connection with 
 the extent of the tenant's term : the mere 
 yearly tenant, it is evident, could hardly be 
 expected to perform those substantial re- 
 pairs to a farm house, that would be required 
 of a leaseholder for a long term. (Ferguson 
 v., 2 Espinasse, 590.) These two kinds 
 of repairs have been sometimes, there- 
 fore, divided into substantial and ordinary, 
 and the custom of the country usually is for 
 the tenant to repair the house, and the 
 landlord the farm buildings, and the tenant 
 is only bound to use the premises in a 
 tenant-like manner (Horsefall v. Matthew, 
 Holt, 7.) ; and the mere neglect of repairs 
 does not render him liable for waste. (Heme 
 v. Bembow, 4 Taunton, 764.) 
 
 Cultivation. — The mere relation of land- 
 lord and tenant is a sufficient consideration 
 for the tenant's promise to manage a farm 
 in an husbandlike manner (Pawley v. 
 Walker, 5 T. R. 373.), and according to 
 the custom of the country, and this may be 
 enforced although there is a written agree- 
 ment as for the out-going tenant to carry 
 off the way-going crop. (Wriglesworth v. 
 Dallison, 1 Douglas, 201.) In this case 
 Lord Mansfield remarked, " The custom is 
 good — it is just ; for he who sows ought to 
 reap, and it is for the benefit and encourage- 
 ment of agriculture. It is, indeed, against 
 the general rule of law concerning emble- 
 ments which are not allowed to tenants who 
 know when their term is to cease, because 
 it is held to be their fault or folly to have 
 sown when they knew their interest would 
 expire before they could reap ; but the cus- 
 tom of a particular place may rectify what 
 otherwise would be imprudence or folly." 
 
 And the custom or usage to be binding 
 need not be one followed from time imme- 
 morial : it is sufficient if there be a general 
 usage (Dolby v. Hirst, 3 Moore, 536.) ; and 
 that it is the prevalent course of husbandry. 
 (Legh v. Hewett, 4 East, 164.) In this case 
 Lord Ellenborough in giving judgment said, 
 " The custom of the country with reference to 
 good husbandry, must be applied to the ap- 
 proved habits of husbandry in the neigh- 
 bourhood under circumstances of a like na- 
 ture ; and perhaps a contract to occupy an 
 estate in a good and husbandlike manner, 
 simply would have imposed the same duty 
 on a tenant, because the same sort of evi- 
 dence drawn from the approved practice 
 would have been brought forward to show 
 what was good husbandry." (See also 
 Pawley v. Walker, 5 T. R. 373. and Brown 
 v. Crump, 6 Taunton, 300.) 
 
 Contracts to cultivate. — These are usually 
 introduced into the farmer's leases, gene- 
 rally in the vague manner of binding him 
 to cultivate according to the custom of the 
 country, or, what is often as bad, obliging 
 him to farm his land according to old and 
 obsolete systems, instead of allowing him to 
 adopt all the improvements which science 
 and experience shall suggest. It is advisable, 
 however, to have certain restraining cove- 
 nants introduced into all leases for the 
 landlord's security, a protection which the 
 legislature has carefully extended ; thus by 
 the 56 Geo. 3. c. 50. s. 1. it is provided that 
 no sheriff or other officer shall sell or carry 
 off from any lands any straw, chaff, or tur- 
 nips, or manure, in any case, nor any hay 
 or other produce, contrary to the covenant 
 or written agreement. And by a subsequent 
 section of the same act, the assignees of a 
 bankrupt or insolvent are prevented from 
 taking any crop, hay, straw, or manure, in 
 any other way than the bankrupt would 
 have been entitled to do. 
 
 LEASH. A term applied to game, &c. 
 by sportsmen, and which implies three, as 
 three hares, partridges, &c. It also signi- 
 fies a line to hold a dog by. 
 
 LEATHER (Germ, leder; Dan. lizder.) 
 The prepared skins of animals. The prin- 
 cipal object of the art of converting skin 
 into leather is to render it strong and tough, 
 durable, and often water-proof, and to pre- 
 vent its destruction by putrefaction. The 
 skins are first cleansed of hair and cuticle, 
 then impregnated either with vegetable 
 tan and extract, as in the production of 
 what is called tanned leather. In this pro- 
 cess the tannic acid, which is the active 
 principle of the astringent vegetables em- 
 ployed, combines with the gelatin of the 
 skins, and forms an insoluble tannate of 
 gelatin. It is this formation which ren- 
 3 b 3 
 
LEATHER. 
 
 ders the skins impermeable to water, and 
 checks the tendency to decomposition, which 
 they, in common with all animal matter, 
 possess. Instead of tan, some leather is 
 prepared with alum and other salts, as 
 for tawed leather. These processes are 
 sometimes combined, and tanned leather 
 often undergoes the further operation of 
 currying, or impregnation with oil. As 
 instances of these different results, thick 
 sole leather is tanned ; white kid for gloves 
 is tawed ; the upper leather for boots and 
 shoes is tanned and curried; and fine 
 Turkey leather is tawed and afterwards 
 slightly tanned. Morocco leather, as it is 
 called, is chiefly prepared from sheep-skins. 
 Shammoy leather is generally sheep or doe- 
 skin, prepared by dressing, lining, &c, and 
 dyed, if necessary, and then finished in oil. 
 Russia leather acquires its peculiar odour 
 from birch tan. There is an excellent 
 abstract of the manufacture of different 
 kinds of leather in Aikiris Dictionary of 
 Chemistry, which those who wish to pur- 
 sue the subject further may consult. The 
 leather manufacture of Great Britain is 
 of very great importance, being inferior, in 
 point of value and extent, only to those of 
 cotton, wool, and iron. " If we look," says 
 Dr. Campbell, " on the instruments of hus- 
 bandry, on the implements used in most 
 mechanic trades, on the structure of a 
 multitude of engines and machines — if 
 we contemplate at home the necessary parts 
 of our clothing, — breeches, shoes, boots, 
 gloves, — or the furniture of our houses, 
 — the books of our shelves, the harness of 
 our horses, or even the substance of our 
 carriages, what do we see but instances of 
 human industry exerted upon leather ? 
 What an aptitude has this single material 
 in a variety of circumstances for the relief 
 of our necessities, and supplying conve- 
 niences in every state and stage of life ! 
 Without it, or even without it in the plenty 
 we have it, to what difficulties should we 
 be exposed." (Polit. State of Great Brit. 
 vol. ii. p. 176.) The number of persons 
 engaged in all the various branches of the 
 leather manufacture in Great Britain is 
 estimated at between 200,000 and 300,000, 
 the total quantity of all sorts of leather at 
 65,000,000 lbs., and the entire value of the 
 manufacture at 13,5O0,O00Z. Nearly the 
 whole of the leather made in this kingdom, 
 and of the articles made with it, is used at 
 home. The quantity and declared value of 
 leather, wrought and unwrought, and the 
 declared value of sadlery and harness ex- 
 ported (almost wholly to our colonies and 
 dependencies), in each of the ten years from 
 1828 to 1837, were as follows : — 
 
 742 
 
 LEECHES. 
 
 Years. 
 
 1828 
 1829 
 1830 
 1831 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 1836 
 1837 
 
 Leather wrought and un- 
 wrought. 
 
 No. of lbs. 
 
 1,321,542 
 1,338,987 
 1,495,003 
 1,314,931 
 1,407,729 
 1,652,579 
 1,617,421 
 2,104,318 
 2,042,471 
 1,647,000 
 
 Declared 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 273,976 
 268,380 
 257,130 
 246,410 
 244,393 
 279,524 
 248,302 
 285,934 
 322,546 
 255,818 
 
 Sadlery and 
 Harness. 
 
 Declared 
 Value. 
 
 £ 
 
 89,600 
 83,303 
 78,321 
 61,312 
 52,583 
 60,013 
 63,095 
 74,462 
 94,059 
 87,938 
 
 {M'CullocVs Com. Diet; 
 Brandes Diet, of Science.) 
 
 Penny Cyclo.; 
 
 LEAVEN. (Lat. levare, to raise.) A 
 piece of sour dough used to ferment and 
 render light dough or paste. It is a 
 very imperfect substitute for yeast; and 
 as it communicates to the bread an as- 
 tringent taste, which few persons relish, it 
 ought to be used only where yeast cannot 
 be procured. As, however, the latter fer- 
 ment cannot always be obtained, especially 
 during winter, I shall state the most simple 
 methods of preparing, as well as of pre- 
 serving it, under the article Yeast. 
 
 By the law of Moses, leaven was strictly 
 forbidden during the passover ; and the 
 Jews, who were taught to regard it from the 
 vigil of the feast as unclean, with religious 
 scrupulosity, purified their houses from the 
 contaminating influence. See Bread. 
 
 LEECHES. (Hirudines, Lin., from 
 haurio, to draw.) A genus of abranchiate, 
 red-blooded worms, or Anellidans, which are 
 provided with a sucker at one end of the 
 body, and a mouth at the other. We pos- 
 sess a few native species ; some frequenting 
 the fresh waters, as the horse-leeches (Hce- 
 mopis sanguisorba, H. stagnorum), and the 
 officinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis) ; others 
 inhabit the ocean, where they are parasitic 
 upon fishes, as the skate-sucker (JPontobdella 
 muricata) . The species employed for medi- 
 cal purposes belong to the genus Sangui- 
 suga, the true English or speckled leech. 
 It is composed of from 90 to 100 rings ; 
 is convex on the back, which is of an olive 
 green colour, with six rust-red, longitu- 
 dinal stripes, spotted with black. The belly 
 is flat, greenish yellow, spotted with black. 
 The extremities are narrower than the body. 
 The mouth is tri-radiate, with cartilaginous 
 jaws, armed with numerous cutting teeth. 
 The sucker at the tail is an organ of pre- 
 hension or holding, by which the animal 
 is enabled to progress. The leech breathes 
 by pores, which open into small vesicles, as 
 
LEECHES. 
 
 ranged on each side. The stomach occupies 
 two thirds of the length of the animal, and 
 is divided into eleven compartments, each 
 furnished with two csecal sacs ; it is closed 
 by a sphincter valve at its lower end. The 
 leech has no heart, but, instead of it, four 
 large pulsating vessels, one on each side, 
 one on the dorsal, and the fourth on the 
 abdominal surface. Nothing is known of 
 the mode in which the blood circulates. 
 The breathing organs are the vesicles al- 
 ready mentioned. The nervous system is a 
 series of ganglia, or knots, connected by 
 lateral filaments. Leeches are herma- 
 phrodite : they are viviparous, but the young 
 are expelled in cocoons, which are pierced 
 by tLe young leech when it attains a certain 
 size. The great demand for leeches may 
 be inferred from the extent to which the 
 trade is carried on ; four only of the prin- 
 cipal dealers in London annually import 
 7,200,000. Norfolk supplies the greatest 
 part of the leeches brought into the London 
 market, but some are taken in Kent, Suffolk, 
 Essex, and Wales, and large numbers are 
 imported from Lisbon and the south of 
 France. The leech dealers of Bretagne 
 drive horses and cows into the ponds that 
 the leeches may fatten and propagate more 
 abundantly by sucking their blood. Chil- 
 dren are employed to catch them by the 
 hand ; and the grown-up persons wade into 
 the shallow waters in the spring and au- 
 tumn, and catch the leeches that adhere 
 to their naked legs, or more generally the 
 catchers beat, as they wade in, the surface 
 of the water with poles, which sets the 
 leeches in motion, and brings them to the 
 surface, where they are taken with the 
 hand and put into bags. They are also 
 taken by a sort of net made of twigs and 
 rushes, which is used in the summer, when 
 the leeches retire into the deeper waters. 
 About 100,000,000 are annually used in 
 France. The leech makes a triangular 
 wound, and continues to suck until its 
 muscular powers are paralysed by the dis- 
 tension of the animal, compressing the 
 breathing cells, and causing suffocation ; 
 it then drops off". Leeches should never 
 be taken off forcibly, as the teeth are left 
 in the wound, and cause erysipelas. The 
 best mode of applying them is to dry them, 
 and then placing them in a hollow made in 
 a clean napkin, to apply it over the spot, 
 and hold it there until they all adhere. By 
 this method any number may be applied as 
 soon as one. After they fall off, a bread 
 and water poultice should be applied over 
 the bite. Leeches will not adhere if any 
 strong smell, as that of sulphur or tobacco, 
 be present in the room during their appli- 
 cation. A very interesting account of 
 743 
 
 LEEK. 
 
 these valuable little animals, and of the 
 best method of preserving them, will be 
 found in the Penny Cyclopaedia, vol. xiii. 
 {Thomson's Dispens.; Johnson on Medi- 
 cinal Leech ; Branded Diet, of Science.} 
 
 LEEK. {Allium porrum.) The leek is a 
 hardy biennial, for although it attains per- 
 fection in size and for culinary purposes the 
 first year, it does not run to seed until the 
 second, the perfecting of which it also often 
 survives. The whole plant is eaten, being 
 employed in soups, &c, and is by some 
 persons boiled and eaten with meat. There 
 are four varieties ; the Musselburgh, and 
 the large London leek, which are by far the 
 best ; the Scotch or flag, which is larger 
 and hardier ; and the Flanders. It is raised 
 solely from seed, which must be sown first 
 in the end of February, a small crop for 
 transplanting in June and July, as well as 
 in part to remain where sown ; again for 
 the main crop in the course of March or 
 early in April ; and lastly, towards the close 
 of April or beginning of May, for late 
 transplanting. These sowings are performed 
 in general broadcast and raked in, though 
 some gardeners employ drills, the plants to 
 remain after thinning ; the leek, however, is 
 so much benefited by transplanting as ob- 
 viously to point out the error of this prac- 
 tice. When the plants are three or four 
 inches in height, in eight or ten weeks after 
 sowing, they must be weeded, hoed, and 
 thinned, where growing too close, to two or 
 three inches apart ; water also being given, 
 in dry weather, will with the above treat- 
 ment strengthen and forward them for 
 transplanting in another month, or when 
 six or eight inches high. They must be 
 taken away regularly from the seed bed ; 
 the ground being well watered previously, 
 if not soft, and easily yielding. When 
 thinned out, they may be left to remain in 
 the seed bed six inches asunder as they do 
 not grow so large as the transplanted ones, 
 which must be set by the dibble in rows 
 ten inches apart, and eight in the lines, 
 being inserted nearly down to the leaves, 
 that the neck, by being covered with the 
 earth, may be blanched; water in abund- 
 ance must be given at the time of planting, 
 and the long weak leaves shortened, but 
 the roots left as uninjured as possible. 
 The bed should be hoed over occasion- 
 ally, as well to kill the weeds as to loosen 
 the soil. By this treatment, and by cutting 
 off the tops of the leaves about once a 
 month, as new ones are produced, the neck 
 swells to a much larger size. The several 
 sowings above directed will yield a supply 
 from August until the following May, when 
 they advance to seed. A portion should be 
 always taken up and laid in sand previous 
 3 b 4 
 
LEES. 
 
 LETTUCE. 
 
 to the ground being locked up by continued 
 frost, but they will not keep many days in 
 this situation. To obtain seed some of the 
 finest roots of the previous year's growth, 
 which have been left where raised, may be 
 transplanted thence in February or the 
 early part of March, eight inches asunder, 
 in a row beneath a warm fence ; and when 
 seed stems arise they must be attached to 
 stakes for support, or to the fencing ; the 
 closer and sooner they are drawn to this 
 latter the better will it enable the seed to 
 ripen, for in cold summers, particularly in 
 open exposures, it never comes to maturity, 
 and by the first sharp autumnal frost it is 
 entirely destroyed. Good varieties never 
 flower before May or June, and ripen their 
 seed in September. The heads should be 
 cut when changed to a brownish colour, 
 with a foot in length of the stalk left at- 
 tached, for the convenience of tying in 
 bundles, three or four together to dry ; — 
 when they are perfectly dry, they may be 
 hung up and kept in the head until wanted, 
 or immediately thrashed out and stored. 
 As the husk is very tough, it is usual, when 
 small quantities have to be operated upon, 
 to rub them against a tile, which breaks it 
 more easily than any other mode that can 
 be adopted. (Cr. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden.) 
 
 LEES. The dregs or feculencies of li- 
 quors, which, after being separated by fer- 
 mentation, fall to the bottom of the vessels. 
 All the various kinds of lees, such as those 
 of wine, beer, ale, oil, &c, may be made use 
 of as manures when they can be had in suf- 
 ficient quantities. 
 
 LEET. An inferior court held within a 
 manor, and called the king's court, on ac- 
 count that its authority to punish offences 
 originally belonged to the crown, and from 
 thence descended to inferior persons. Leet 
 is the precinct or district within the cog- 
 nizance or subject to the jurisdiction of a 
 court-leet. 
 
 LEGS. The extremities that form the 
 support of animals. Of the four legs of a 
 horse, the two before have several parts, 
 each of which has a peculiar name ; thus by 
 the name of fore-leg, we commonly under- 
 stand that part of the fore- quarters that 
 extends from the hough to the pastern- joint, 
 and which is frequently called the shank. 
 The part that corresponds with it in the 
 hinder quarters is called the instep. In the 
 language of the manege a horse is said to 
 want the fifth leg when he is tired, and, 
 bearing upon the bridle, lies heavy upon 
 the rider's hand. 
 
 LEGUMINOUS PLANTS (from le- 
 gumen, pulse) are those which bear legumes 
 or pods, such as beans, peas, tares, &c. 
 744 
 
 The Leguminosce are a very extensive na- 
 tural order of plants found in all parts of 
 the world; forming large trees and huge 
 twiners in the tropics; herbaceous plants 
 or small bushes, rarely trees, in colder 
 countries. The order contains a very great 
 variety of useful and beautiful species, some 
 of which, like clover, lucern, sainfoin, and 
 vetches, are cultivated for cattle ; others, as 
 beans, peas, lentils, and various other kinds 
 of pulse, form part of the food of man. In- 
 digo, logwood, and many more, are well 
 known dyeing plants : several acacias pro- 
 duce gum ; certain Astragali yield traga- 
 canth ; the tamarind and others bear pods 
 whose interior is filled with an agreeable 
 pulp ; Cassia acutifolia and other species of 
 cassia yield senna ; Glycyrrhiza, the liquor- 
 ice root ; Ceratonia, the wild locust fruits of 
 Scripture ; finally, many are valuable tonics, 
 and some are dangerous narcotics, among 
 which the common laburnum is to be named. 
 
 LEICESTER SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 LENTICULAR. A botanical term sig- 
 nifying lens or pea-shaped. 
 
 LENTIL. (Ervum Lens, from erw, tilled 
 land in Celtic ; some of the species are a 
 pest in cultivated ground, being useless and 
 too prolific weeds.) An exotic plant of the 
 vetch or tare kind, cultivated in some parts 
 of England as fodder for cattle. The len- 
 til is an annual, growing to the height of 
 about eighteen inches, with stalks and leaves 
 like those of tares, but smaller, and pro- 
 ducing pale purple flowers, which are suc- 
 ceeded by small flat pods, containing two 
 or three round, hard, smooth, and flat seeds. 
 There are two sorts of lentil, the white and 
 the yellow, but the latter affords the greater 
 quantity of fodder. The seeds of this plant 
 are generally sown in March or April, in 
 the proportion of one and a half to two 
 bushels per acre. Lentils also furnish good 
 dry fodder for cattle, and particularly for 
 cutting into chaff as trough meal for sheep 
 tind 1ioi*sgs 
 
 LESSEE, LESSOR. See Lease. 
 
 LETTING FARMS. See Lease. 
 
 LETTSOM, JOHN COAKLEY. Was 
 born in 1744, of Irish quaker parents, on 
 the little island of Vandyke, near Tortola, 
 in the West Indies, where his father was a 
 planter. He died November the 1st, 1815, 
 many years previous to which, he had ceased 
 to be a member of the Society of Friends. 
 The works for which he deserves our notice 
 are, 
 
 1. Hortus Uptonensis ; or a Catalogue of Stove and 
 Greenhouse Plants in Dr. Fothergill's Garden, at his 
 Death. London, 1781. 8vo. 2. Grovehill ; a Rural and 
 Horticultural Sketch. Lonaon, 1804. 4to. 3. On the 
 Beta Cicla (Mangel Wurzel), or Root of Scarcity. In 
 the Caledonian Horticultural Trans, vol. i. p. 420. 
 
 LETTUCE. (Lactuca, from lac, milk, 
 
LETTUCE. 
 
 on account of the milky juice which exudes 
 from the plants when broken.) There are 
 three indigenous species of lettuce, all bien- 
 nials. 
 
 1. Strong-scented lettuce (Z. virosa), 
 which grows about hedges, old walls, and 
 the borders of fields on a chalky soil, not 
 uncommon. The whole herb abounds with 
 an acrid fetid milky juice, having the smell 
 of opium ; but only slightly narcotic, and 
 little likely to produce the consequences at- 
 tending the use of that drug. This juice 
 springs out suddenly, in large drops on the 
 slightest touch from the calyx and tender 
 leaves, when the plant is in flower, but not 
 at other times, evincing a considerable de- 
 gree of irritability in the plant. The root 
 is tap-shaped. Stem solitary, two or three 
 feet high, round, smooth, sparingly leafy, 
 scarcely branched, panicled at the top, a 
 little prickly below. Leaves horizontal, 
 nearly smooth, finely toothed, radical ones 
 numerous, obovate, undivided, depressed. 
 Flowers numerous, panicled, light yellow. 
 
 2. Prickly lettuce (Z. Scariola). This 
 species is found in waste ground and dry 
 stony borders of fields. The whole herb is 
 glaucous, milky, bitter, but less fetid than 
 the preceding. Stem two or three feet 
 high, leafy, panicled. Leaves numerous, 
 vertical not horizontal, variously pinnatifid 
 and toothed ; thin midrib furnished with a 
 close row of prominent prickles ; their base 
 clasping the stem. Flowers, small, pale 
 lemon- coloured. 
 
 3. Least lettuce (Z. salignd). This 
 species grows in chalky waste ground, or 
 about salt marshes. The whole plant is 
 very slender. Stem about two feet high, 
 wavy, pale brown or whitish, somewhat 
 branched, leafy throughout. Leaves glau- 
 cous, smooth except the midrib beneath; 
 linear, hastate or pinnatifid, entire, sessile. 
 Flowers in small alternate tufts composing 
 long clusters, very small, pale yellow, open 
 in sunshine only, and soon fading- (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 344.) 
 
 Of the well-known cultivated lettuce 
 (Z. sativa) there are many varieties, which 
 are divided into families, the cos and the 
 cabbage. The first are more grown in 
 summer than winter ; the second at all 
 seasons, but more usually in winter, on ac- 
 count of their superior hardihood. The cos 
 varieties are characterised by being of an 
 upright growth, and, with the exception of 
 the Brighton, require to have their leaves 
 drawn together for blanching ; the cabbage, 
 as growing close to the ground, produces 
 a blanched heart, in the manner of a cabbage, 
 without any assistance. The cilicias are 
 of a nature intermediate between -the two. 
 When young the cabbage varieties are in 
 745 
 
 general sweeter than those of the cos at the 
 same age ; but at full growth, this is re- 
 versed : hence the latter are preferred for 
 salads, and the former for soups. 
 
 The cabbage varieties succeed better in a 
 hotbed than the cos. 
 
 CABBAGE VARIETIES. COS VARIETIES. 
 
 Drumheaded. Brighton. 
 
 Brown Dutch. Black-seeded green. 
 
 Tennis ball. Early Egyptian. 
 
 Hardy green, or Capuchin. Green. 
 
 Prussian. White or Versailles. 
 
 Prince's. Silver. 
 
 Common white. Spotted or leopard. 
 
 Large white. Green and brown Cilicia. 
 
 Imperial. Lop. 
 
 Grand admirable. 
 
 Large Roman. 
 
 Lettuces thrive best in a light rich soil, 
 with a dry substratum. In a poor or tena- 
 cious one they never attain any considerable 
 size, but run to seed prematurely. Like 
 most other crops, that soil is to be pre- 
 ferred which is rich rather from prior cul- 
 tivation than the immediate application of 
 manure. It is of advantage to trench it ; 
 and if manure is necessarily applied at the 
 time of insertion, it should be in a state of 
 forward decay. For the first and last crops 
 of the year a warm sheltered situation is 
 required; but for the midsummer ones a 
 border that is sheltered during the meridian, 
 but far from being confined or under the 
 shadow of trees, is to be preferred. Lettuce 
 is propagated by seed, that for the first crop 
 should be sown in a frame, on a warm bor- 
 der, or slender hotbed, at the end of Janu- 
 ary or early in February ; at the close of this 
 last month a larger quantity may be sown 
 in any open situation, and repeated once 
 every three weeks in small proportions until 
 the end of July for summer and autumn 
 use ; to be continued, at similar intervals, 
 until the close of September for winter and 
 early spring. The sowing is always per- 
 formed broadcast, moderately thin, each 
 variety separate, and raked in even and 
 light, care being taken that the bed is 
 trampled upon as little as possible. It is 
 usual when the plants are about a month 
 old, or two inches in height, to thin them 
 to three or four inches apart, those removed 
 being pricked out at similar distances. 
 Those from the sowings in January and 
 February, in a similar situation to that in 
 which they were raised ; and thence until 
 August in any open situation. Those of 
 the August sowing must be divided into 
 two portions ; the largest being selected 
 and planted in an open compartment for 
 late autumn use, and the smaller on a warm 
 border for winter and early spring. 
 
 When planted out finally, they must be 
 set in rows a foot apart each way, which is 
 abundant for the largest variety, and not 
 more than necessary for the smaller. At 
 
LETTUCE. 
 
 LEVER. 
 
 the time of every removal, whether of 
 picking out or planting, water must be 
 given moderately, and until the plants are 
 rooted. It may be remarked, that trans- 
 planted lettuces never attain so fine a growth 
 as those left where sown, nor become so 
 soon fit for use; those which are planted 
 out at once to remain, being better in these 
 respects than those which are pricked out 
 previous to final planting. The difference in 
 their time of becoming fit for use, however, 
 is of advantage, as by these means a more 
 perfect succession is obtained. Those which 
 are planted to withstand the winter (which 
 they easily do if sheltered with hoops and 
 matting during severe weather), and con- 
 tinue in a state fit for use, are best planted 
 on the summit of ridges, as this is a great 
 protection from excessive wet, from which 
 they always suffer. In every stage of 
 growth they must be kept free from weeds, 
 well watered, and the earth around them 
 frequently stirred for the extirpation of 
 slugs and snails, which are particularly in- 
 jurious, and are very prevalent in moist 
 seasons. 
 
 When the cos varieties have attained an 
 advanced growth, they require their leaves 
 to be drawn together with a shred of mat- 
 ting, to render the interior blanched, care 
 being taken that it is not performed so tight 
 as to bruise them. Under every favourable 
 circumstance for a vigorous growth, the 
 plants, especially of the cos varieties, and 
 during dry seasons, will yet run up to seed 
 before the heart is perfectly blanched : to 
 retard this, it is an effectual practice at the 
 time of tying them up, to cut out the cen- 
 tre of each with a sharp knife. The plants 
 raised from the September sowing may be 
 divided as directed for those of August, but 
 in addition, some of the cos varieties may 
 be planted on a warm border, to have the 
 shelter of frames and hand-glasses. Some 
 of the strongest of these may in succession, 
 during November, December, and January, 
 be planted in a moderate hot-bed, or on the 
 borders of the stove, being removed with 
 as little injury as possible to the roots, to 
 bring them forward for immediate use. 
 
 Whilst in frames they require much at- 
 tention. Being watered and shaded until 
 established, they must afterwards have as 
 much light and air admitted as possible, as 
 well as a regular supply of moisture. At 
 night the additional shelter of matting, and 
 in severe weather an increased covering 
 must be afforded. The temperature should 
 never exceed 80°, nor fall below 65°, other- 
 wise the vegetation of the plants will be 
 proportionately injured. The plants may 
 be Bet in rows about six inches apart ; but 
 of those which are merely sheltering during 
 
 the winter, on the return of mild weather, 
 at the beginning of March or April, every 
 second one must be carefully removed and 
 planted in a warm border at the usual open 
 ground distance. 
 
 To produce seed, some of the finest and 
 most perfect plants of each variety that 
 have survived the winter, or from the 
 forwardest sowing of the year, should be 
 selected. The seed from any that have 
 run up prematurely cannot be depended 
 upon. All other plants must be removed 
 from their neighbourhood, themselves being 
 left at least a foot apart ; neither is it allow- 
 able for two varieties to flower near each 
 other, as only mongrel varieties will be 
 obtained. Each stem is advantageously 
 attached to a stake, as a support in tem- 
 pestuous weather. It is to be observed, 
 that the branches must be gathered as the 
 seed ripens upon them, and not left until 
 the whole is ready, as some will ripen two 
 or three weeks before others, and .conse- 
 quently the first and best seed will be shed 
 and lost. It must be well dried before 
 it is beaten out and stored. Lettuce seed 
 is considered to be best the second year; 
 but when three years old, it refuses to ve- 
 getate. 
 
 The juice of the lettuce inspissated is 
 termed lactucarium. It possesses slight 
 narcotic properties, and is useful in coughs. 
 (Le Qaintiris Compl. Gard. vol. ii. p. 309. ; 
 G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 LETTUCE, LAMB'S. See Corn 
 Salad. 
 
 LETTUCE, THE WALL. See Wall 
 Lettuce. 
 
 LEVELLING. In husbandry, implies 
 rendering the ground even and removing 
 of impediments to the common opera- 
 tions of tillage. This is generally done by 
 the plough, but sometimes machines are 
 employed for the purpose. 
 
 LEVER, in mechanics, an inflexible rod 
 moveable upon a fulcrum or prop, and 
 having forces applied to two or more points. 
 The lever is one of the mechanical powers ; 
 and being the simplest of them all, was the 
 first that was attempted to be explained. 
 
 Examples of the application of the lever 
 are of constant occurrence in the mechanical 
 arts. The crowbar, the handspike, nippers, 
 pincers, &c. are levers of the first kind. 
 The second kind includes the chipping 
 knife, the common door, nutcrackers, the 
 wheelbarrow, &c. To levers of the third 
 kind belong the sheep-shears, the treddle of 
 the turning-lathe, tongs, &c. The bones of 
 animals are generally levers. The socket 
 of the bone is the fulcrum ; a strong mus- 
 cle attached to it near the socket is the 
 power ; and the weight of the limb, with 
 
LEVERET. 
 
 LICKS, 
 
 whatever resistance is opposed to its motion, 
 is tbe weight. A very moderate contrac- 
 tion of the muscle thus gives considerable 
 motion to the limb. {Gregory 's Mech. 
 vol. ii.) 
 
 LEVERET. A young hare, in the first 
 year of its age. 
 
 LEY, LEA or LAY. Land in the state 
 of sward or grassy surface. 
 
 LIAS. A provincial name adopted by 
 geologists for an argillaceous limestone, which 
 together with its associated beds, is charac- 
 terised by peculiar fossils. See Geology. 
 
 LIBER. (Lat. bark.) In botany, the 
 interior lining of the bark of exogenous 
 plants. It consists of woody tissue in great 
 quantity, and very thick-sided, intermixed 
 with cellular tissue. It appears to be 
 formed annually, at the same time as the 
 concentric zones of wood, and is intended 
 by nature to convey downwards the secre- 
 tions elaborated in the bark and leaves. 
 The liber is the principal seat of lactiferous 
 vessels. 
 
 LIBRARIES, FARMERS'. Collections 
 of books on agricultural and horticultural 
 subjects, are" now becoming very general 
 throughout the country, through the in- 
 strumentality of farmers' clubs. They can- 
 not fail of being eminently useful to the 
 cause of agriculture, by diffusing among 
 the cultivators of the soil the latest dis- 
 coveries and improvements in husbandry, 
 as well as the different opinions and theories 
 entertained on matters having reference to 
 agriculture and its collateral sciences of 
 chemistry, botany, natural history, geology, 
 meteorology, and vegetable physiology, &c. 
 This union of parties is further eminently 
 beneficial to each, for they have thus access 
 to a large number of standard works, many 
 of which are frequently expensive, and the 
 cost of so large a number would in most in- 
 stances be beyond the small farmer's means. 
 As a nucleus which may be gradually in- 
 creased, the following list of practical works 
 and periodicals may be found useful to per- 
 sons contemplating the formation of agricul- 
 tural libraries or farmers' clubs : — 
 
 Low's Elements of Prac. Agriculture, 3d 
 edit. vol. i. 8vo. 18s. The publications of 
 the Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge, viz. British Husbandry, 3 vols. 
 1Z. 105. 6c?. ; Cattle, 1 vol. 10s. 6c?. ; The 
 Horse, 1 vol. 8s. 6c?. ; Sheep, 1 vol. 10s. 6c?. 
 Davy's Agricultural Chemistry, 6th edit. 
 15s. Johnson, On Fertilisers, 12s. Bayl- 
 don's Rents and Tillage, 5th edit. 10s. 6c?. 
 Morton, On Soils, 3d edit. 7s. Von Thaer's 
 Principles of Agriculture (Shaw's Trans- 
 lation). Complete Grazier, 8vo. 17s. Sir 
 John Sinclair's Code of Agriculture. George 
 Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus, 30s. Hill- 
 747 
 
 yard's Practical Farming and Grazing, 10s. 
 Liebig's Organic Chemistry, 2d edit. 16s. 
 Baxter's Library of Agriculture, 30s. Lou- 
 don's Encyclopaedias of Agriculture and 
 Gardening, each2Z. 10s.; Farmer's Encyclo- 
 paedia, 21. 10s. ; of Rural Architecture, 31. 
 Main's Farmer's Manual, 6s. Prof. John- 
 ston's Lectures on Ag. Chemistry. Main's 
 Planter's Assistant, 6s. J ackson's Treatise on 
 Dairy Hasbandry, 2s. Sd. Harley's Dairy 
 Husbandry, 8s. Kollar, On the Insects in- 
 jurious to Farmers, Sec. (Misses Loudon's 
 Translation). Rogers's Vegetable Cultivator, 
 7s. Stephen's Book of the Farm, 2s. 8d. Pe- 
 riodicals : Journal of the Royal Agricul- 
 tural Society of England. London. 3s. 6c?. 
 Journal of Agriculture. Edinburgh. Quar- 
 terly. 5s. British Farmer's Magazine, 3s. 
 Liverpool. Quarterly. 5s. Shaw's Farmer's 
 Magazine. London. Monthly. Is. 6d. Ve- 
 terinarian. London. Monthly. Is. 6c?. News- 
 papers : The Mark Lane Express, the 
 Farmer's Journal, and Bell's Weekly Mes- 
 senger, &c. Weekly. Johnson and Shaw's 
 Farmer's Almanack. Annual. Is. Some of 
 the old works contain much valuable prac- 
 tical matter, particularly the County Re- 
 ports, and the works of Marshall, Jethro 
 Tull, and Arthur Young. 
 
 LICHENS. Plants of a very low or- 
 ganisation, which grow on the bark of trees 
 or rocks, when they form a kind of incrust- 
 ation ; or upon the ground, when they con- 
 sist of irregular lobes, parallel with the 
 earth's surface. Occasionally, in all situ- 
 ations, they are found in a branched state ; 
 but their sub-divisions are generally irre- 
 gular, and without order. Their fructifica- 
 tion consists of hard nuclei, called shields, 
 which breaks through the upper surface of 
 the thallus, or main substance of the lichen, 
 are of a peculiar odour and texture, and 
 contain the reproductive particles. Lichens 
 abound in the cold and temperate parts of 
 the world. The greater part are of no 
 known use ; but some, as the reindeer-moss 
 (Cenomyce rangiferina), the Iceland moss 
 (Cetraria islandica), and various species of 
 Gyrophora, are capable of sustaining life, 
 either in animals or man. The Iceland 
 moss, when deprived of its bitterness by 
 soaking in an alkali and then boiling, 
 becomes, indeed, a diet recommended to 
 invalids. Others are used as tonic medi- 
 cines, as Variolaria faginea and Parmelia 
 parietina. Their principal use is, however, 
 that of furnishing the dyer with brilliant 
 colours ; orchall, cudbear, and perolle, with 
 many more, are thus employed. (Brande's 
 Diet, of Science.) See Moss. 
 
 LICKS. A term applied in North Ame- 
 rica to sandy tracts of land, upon which 
 common salt forms an efflorescence, and 
 
LICE ON PLANTS. 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 which almost all graminivorous animals re- 
 sort to for the purpose of licking the sur- 
 face. See Salt. 
 
 LICE ON PLANTS. See American 
 Blight and Insects. 
 
 LID. In botany, the calyx which falls 
 off from the flower in a single piece. 
 
 LIGHT, ITS INFLUENCE ON VE- 
 GETATION. That light has a consider- 
 able influence upon the growth of plants, is 
 an observation that must have been very 
 early made by mankind. The inferior green 
 colour of plants growing in the shade, as in 
 woods, or when covered with earth, or in- 
 verted vessels, would clearly indicate to the 
 most careless observer, that light at least 
 influenced the colour of vegetation : every 
 gardener, in truth, takes advantage of this 
 fact, when he is blanching his culinary ve- 
 getables. But it was not till after the days 
 of Priestly, that the other chemical effects 
 which light produces upon a growing plant, 
 were so much better understood. 
 
 It is probable that this influence com- 
 mences at a very early period in the life of 
 the plant, with even the germination of the 
 seed. Ingenhouz, says Dr. Thomson, found 
 that seeds always germinate faster in the 
 dark than in the light. (Exper. sur la 
 Veg. 11.) And his experiments were re- 
 peated by Sennebier with equal success. 
 (Mem. Physico-Chem. vol. iii. p. 41.) But 
 the Abbe Bertholin, who distinguished him- 
 self so much by his labours to demonstrate 
 the effect of electricity on vegetation, ob- 
 jected to the conclusions of these philoso- 
 phers, and affirmed that the difference in the 
 germination of seeds in the shade and in the 
 light, was owing, not to the light itself, but 
 to the difference in the moisture in the two 
 situations, the moisture evaporating much 
 faster from the seeds in the light than from 
 those in the shade ; and he affirmed that 
 when precautions were taken to keep the 
 seeds equally moist, then those in the sun 
 germinated sooner than those in the shade. 
 (Journ. de Physic, 1789.) But when Sen- 
 nebier repeated his former experiments, 
 and employed every possible precaution to 
 insure equality of moisture in both situa- 
 tions, he constantly found the seeds in the 
 shade germinated sooner than those in the 
 light. We may conclude, therefore, that 
 light is injurious to germination ; and hence 
 one reason for covering seeds with the soil 
 in which they are grown. But from the 
 more recent experiments of Saussure, there 
 is reason to believe that light is only in- 
 jurious to vegetation in consequence of the 
 heat it produces ; for where the direct rays 
 of the sun were intercepted, though light 
 was admitted, the germination of the seeds 
 was not sensibly retarded, (llech. Chcm. 
 
 sur la Veg. p. 23. ; Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. 
 p. 307.) 
 
 And with regard to the after-growth of 
 plants, light exercises a very considerable 
 influence. It is now clearly ascertained 
 that plants vegetating in the light, absorb 
 carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, and 
 emit oxygen gas ; but when vegetating in 
 the dark different effects are produced, for 
 then carbonic acid gas is emitted, and oxy- 
 gen gas absorbed. (See Gases.) This lat- 
 ter process is thus explained by Liebig : 
 — "It is true that the decomposition of 
 carbonic acid is arrested by the absence 
 of light ; but then, namely, at night, a true 
 chemical process commences, in consequence 
 of the action of the oxygen in the air upon 
 the organic substances, composing the leaves, 
 blossoms, and fruit. This process is not at 
 all connected with the life of the vegetable 
 organism, because it goes on in a dead plant 
 exactly as in a living one. The substances 
 composing the leaves of different plants 
 being known, it is a matter of the greatest 
 ease and certainty to calculate which of 
 them during life should absorb most oxygen 
 by chemical action where the influence of 
 light is withdrawn. The leaves and green 
 parts of all plants containing volatile oils, 
 or volatile constituents in general, which 
 change into resin by the absorption of 
 oxygen, should absorb more than other 
 parts which are free from such substances. 
 Those leaves, also, which contain either the 
 constituents of nutgalls, or compounds in 
 which nitrogen is present, ought to absorb 
 more oxygen than those which do not con- 
 tain such matters. The correctness of these 
 inferences has been distinctly proved by 
 the observations of De Saussure ; for whilst 
 the tasteless leaves of the Agave americana 
 absorb only 0*3 of their volume of oxygen 
 in the dark during twenty-four hours, the 
 leaves of the Pinus Abies which contain 
 volatile and resinous oils absorb ten times, 
 those of the Quercus Robur containing tannic 
 acid fourteen times, and the balmy leaves 
 of the Populus alba twenty-one times that 
 quantity. This chemical action is shown 
 very plainly also in the leaves of the Coty- 
 ledon calycinum, the Cacalia Ficoides, and 
 others; for they are sour like sorrel in the 
 morning, tasteless at noon, and bitter in 
 the evening. The formation of acids is 
 effected during the night by a true process 
 of oxydation; these are deprived of their 
 acid properties during the day and evening, 
 and are changed, by separation of a part of 
 their oxygen, into compounds containing 
 oxygen and hydrogen, either in the same 
 proportions as in water, or even with an 
 excess of hydrogen, which is the compoyi tion 
 of all tasteless and bitter substances. When 
 
LIGHT. 
 
 the green leaves of the poplar, the beech, 
 the oak, or the holly, are dried under the 
 air-pump, with exclusion of light, then 
 moistened with water, and placed under a 
 glass globe filled with oxygen, they are 
 found to absorb that gas in proportion as 
 they change in colour. The chemical na- 
 ture of this process is thus completely es- 
 tablished. The diminution of the gas which 
 occurs can only be owing to the union of a 
 large proportion of oxygen with those sub- 
 stances which are already in the state of 
 oxides, or to the oxydation of the hydrogen 
 in those vegetable compounds which contain 
 it in excess. The fallen brown or yellow 
 leaves of the oak contain no longer tannin, 
 and those of the poplar no balsamic con- 
 stituents. {Organic Chem. p. 28.) 
 
 The action of light upon the growing 
 plant is in every point of view full of in- 
 terest to the cultivator : " If all the branches 
 of a tree exclusive of one," said Mr. T. M. 
 Knight (and he was one of the ablest of 
 modern vegetable physiologists), " be much 
 shaded by continuous trees, or other ob- 
 jects, the branch which is exposed to the 
 light attracts to itself a large portion of the 
 ascending sap, which it employs in the form- 
 ation of leaves and vigorous annual shoots, 
 whilst the shaded branches become languid 
 and unhealthy. The motion of the ascend- 
 ing current of sap appears therefore to be 
 regulated by the ability to employ it in the 
 trunk and branches of the tree ; and this 
 current passes up through the alburnum, 
 from which substance the buds and leaves 
 spring. But the sap which gives existence 
 to, and feeds the root, descends through 
 the bark, and if the operation of light give 
 ability to the exposed branch to attract 
 and employ the ascending or alburnous 
 current of sap, it appears not improbable 
 that the operation of proper food and moist- 
 ure in the soil, upon the bark of the root, 
 may give ability to that organ to attract 
 and employ the descending or cortical cur- 
 rent of sap." (Selection of Paper, p. 160.) 
 " M. Decandolle, I believe, first observed 
 that the succulent shoots of trees and her- 
 baceous plants, which do not depend upon 
 others for support, are bent towards the 
 point from which they receive light, by the 
 contraction of the cellular substance of their 
 bark upon that side, and I believe his 
 opinion to be perfectly well founded. The 
 operation of light upon the tendrils and 
 stems of the Ampelopsis and ivy appears to 
 produce diametrically opposite effects, and 
 to occasion an extension of the cellular bark 
 wherever that is exposed to its influence ; 
 and this circumstance affords, I think, a 
 satisfactory explanation why these plants 
 appear to seek and approach contiguous 
 749 
 
 opaque objects, just as they would do if they 
 were conscious of their own feebleness, and 
 of power in the objects to which they ap- 
 proach, to afford them support and pro- 
 tection. The tendril of the vine is in- 
 ternally similar to that of the ampelopsis, 
 though its external form and mode of at- 
 taching itself, by twining round any slender 
 body, are very different. Some young plants 
 of this species which had been raised in pots 
 in the preceding year, and had been headed 
 down to a single bud, were placed in a 
 forcing house, and the shoots from these 
 were bound to slender bars of wood, and 
 trained perpendicularly upwards. Their 
 tendrils, like those of the ampelopsis, when 
 first emitted pointed upwards, but they 
 gradually formed an increasing angle with 
 the stems, and ultimately pointed perpen- 
 dicularly downwards, no object having 
 presented itself to which they could attach 
 themselves. Other plants of the vine under 
 similar circumstances were trained hori- 
 zontally, when their tendrils gradually 
 descended beneath their stems, with which 
 they ultimately stood very nearly at right 
 angles. A third set of plants were trained 
 almost perpendicularly downwards, but with 
 an inclination of a few degrees towards the 
 north, and the tendrils of these permanently 
 retained very nearly their first position re- 
 latively to their stems ; whence it appears 
 that these organs, like the tendrils of the am- 
 pelopsis and the claws of the ivy, are to a 
 great extent under the control of light. 
 A few other plants of the same species were 
 trained in each of the preceding methods, 
 but proper objects were placed in different 
 situations near them, with which their ten- 
 drils might come into contact, and I was by 
 these means afforded an opportunity of ob- 
 serving with accuracy the difference be- 
 tween the motions of these and those of the 
 ampelopsis under similar circumstances. 
 The latter almost immediately receded from 
 light, by whatever means that were made to 
 operate upon them ; and they did not sub- 
 sequently show any disposition to approach 
 the points from which they once receded. 
 The tendrils of the vine, on the contrary, 
 varied their positions in every period of the 
 day, and afterwards returned again during 
 the night to the situations they had occupied 
 in the preceding morning, and they did 
 not so immediately or so regularly bend 
 towards the shade of contiguous objects. 
 But as the tendrils of this plant, like those 
 of the ampelopsis, spring alternately from 
 each side of the stem, and as one point only 
 in three is without a tendril, and as each 
 tendril separates into two divisions, they 
 do not often fail to come into contact within 
 their reach, and the effects of contact upon 
 
LIGHT. 
 
 LIGHTNING. 
 
 the tendril are almost immediately visible. 
 It is made to bend towards the body it 
 touches, and if that body be slender to 
 attach itself firmly by twining round it, in 
 obedience to certain causes. The tendril 
 of the vine, in its internal organisation, is 
 apparently similar to the young succulent 
 shoot and leaf-stalk of the same plant ; 
 and it is abundantly provided with vessels 
 or passages, for the sap ; and I have proved 
 that it is alike capable of feeding a succu- 
 lent shoot, or a leaf when grafted upon it. 
 It appears, therefore, I conceive, not im- 
 probable that a considerable quantity of 
 the moving fluid of the plant passes through 
 its tendrils, and that there is a close con- 
 nection between its vascular structure and 
 its motions." {Ibid. p. 166.) 
 
 "The stems of the potatoe,"he adds in an- 
 other place, " as of other plants, rise perpen- 
 dicularly under the influence of their un- 
 erring guide, gravitation, so long as they 
 continue to be concealed beneath the soil ; 
 but as soon as they rise above it, they are 
 to a considerable extent under the control 
 of another agent, light. Each inclines in 
 whatever direction it receives the greatest 
 quantity of it, and consequently each avoids 
 and appears to shun the shade of every con- 
 tiguous plant ; gravitation labouring to give 
 a perpendicular, the other a horizontal 
 direction to the leaves, and the comparative 
 power of one agent increasing, as that of the 
 other decreases." {Ibid. p. 300 — 306.) 
 
 The opinions of Liebig as to the chemical 
 changes produced in plants, by the action 
 of light, and its withdrawal, seem con- 
 firmed in some degree by those of Davy. 
 "In the changes that take place in the 
 composition of the organised parts," said 
 that excellent philosopher, " it is pro- 
 bable that saccharine compounds are prin- 
 cipally formed during the absence of light ; 
 gum, woody fibre, oils, and resins, during 
 its presence ; and the evolution of carbonic 
 acid gas, or its formation during the night, 
 may be necessary to give greater solubility 
 to certain compounds in the plant. {Agric. 
 Chem. p. 223.) And after giving a variety of 
 experiments to elucidate the action of ve- 
 getation on the atmosphere (see Gases, 
 their Uses to Vegetation.), he adds, 
 " These facts confirm the popular opinion, 
 that when the leaves of vegetables perform 
 their healthy functions, they tend to purify 
 the atmosphere in the common variations of 
 weather, and changes from light to dark- 
 ness. It may occur, however, as an ob- 
 jection to these views, that if the leaves of 
 plants purify the atmosphere towards the 
 end of autumn and through the winter 
 and early spring, the air in our climates 
 must become impure, the oxygen in it di- 
 
 minish, and the carbonic acid gas increase, 
 which is not the case ; but there is a very 
 satisfactory answer to this objection. The 
 different parts of the atmosphere are con- 
 stantly mixed together by winds, which, 
 when they are strong, move at the rate of 
 from 60 to 100 miles in an hour. In our 
 winter, the south-west gales convey air, 
 which has been purified by the vast forests 
 and Savannas of South America, and which 
 passing over the ocean, arrives in an uncon- 
 taminated state. The storms and tempests 
 which often occur at the beginning and 
 towards the middle of our winter, and 
 which generally blow from the same quarter 
 of the globe, have a salutary influence. By 
 constant agitation and motion, the equili- 
 brium of the constituent parts of the atmo- 
 sphere is preserved; it is fitted for the 
 purposes of life : and those events which 
 the superstitious formerly referred to the 
 wrath of heaven, or the agency of evil 
 spirits, and in which they saw only disorder 
 and confusion, are demonstrated by science 
 to be ministrations of Divine intelligence, 
 and connected with the order and harmony 
 of our system." {Ibid. p. 230.) 
 
 LIGHTNING. An electric phenomenon, 
 produced by the passage of electricity be- 
 tween one cloud and another, or between 
 a cloud and the earth. The identity of 
 lightning with electricity, though it had 
 been previously suspected, was first di- 
 rectly demonstrated by the celebrated Dr. 
 Franklin, in the year 1749, by the experi- 
 ment of drawing sparks by the electric kite. 
 Since that time the science of electricity 
 has been greatly advanced ; nevertheless, 
 the cause of some of the appearances con- 
 nected with lightning is not well explained, 
 even at the present day. 
 
 There are three phenomena in particular 
 for which theory fails satisfactorily to ac- 
 count. The first is the form of the flash,' 
 which is almost always zigzag, or in broken 
 lines, making a greater or smaller angle 
 with each other. The second is the frequent 
 repetition of the flashes from the same 
 cloud, which often follow one another in 
 quick succession, contrary to what takes 
 place in the case of electric conductors, 
 which generally recover their natural state, 
 or discharge the whole of their electricity 
 at a single stroke. The third is the length 
 of the flash, which sometimes appears to 
 embrace a large extent of the sky. This 
 phenomenon can be best observed from the 
 tops of mountains, reaching above the 
 clouds, from which the lightning proceeds ; 
 and observers in such cases agree in stating 
 that they have seen flashes certainly ex- 
 tending several miles in length. 
 
 The zigzag form of the flashes is common 
 
LIGHTS, NORTHERN. 
 
 LILAC. 
 
 to lightning and the electric spark : the 
 same explanation should consequently apply 
 to both ; but this the theory has not yet 
 been able to give. 
 
 The theory of an electric fluid, and the 
 well-ascertained differences in the conduct- 
 ing power of different substances, suggested 
 the idea of protecting buildings from the 
 destructive effects of lightning by metallic 
 rods. It has been disputed whether con- 
 ductors ever have been or can be of use in 
 any case ; and the question will not pro- 
 bably be satisfactorily answered until the 
 cause and nature of electric action are better 
 understood. See Electricity and Thun- 
 der. {Diet, of Science.) 
 
 LIGHTS, NORTHERN, or AURORA 
 BOREALIS. A luminous meteor, gene- 
 rally appearing in the northern part of the 
 sky, and presenting a light somewhat re- 
 sembling the dawn or break of day. The 
 appearances which it exhibits, and the 
 forms it assumes, are so proverbially un- 
 steady, that it is not possible to comprehend 
 them under any general description. In 
 the Shetland Islands, and other countries in 
 high latitudes, the northern lights are the 
 constant attendants of clear and frosty 
 evenings in winter. They are most frequent 
 in autumn. A very interesting account of 
 this meteor, and of the works treating on 
 the subject, will be found under the head 
 "Aurora Borealis," in Brande's Diet of 
 Science, &c. 
 
 LIGNEOUS. (Lat. lignum, wood.) In 
 entomology, a part is so called, when it is 
 composed of a hard inelastic substance, 
 like wood. 
 
 LIGNIN. (Lat. lignum.) The woody 
 fibre. This most important proximate 
 principle of vegetables exhibits itself in a 
 variety of forms, constituting the different 
 textures of hard and soft wood, and various 
 fibrous products, such as hemp, flax, cotton, 
 &c. When by fine mechanical division it is 
 reduced to a pulpy state, it is formed into 
 paper. When by different re-agents all the 
 soluble matters are extracted from wood, 
 the insoluble residue is lignin ; its ultimate 
 components are carbon, oxygen, and hy- 
 drogen, the two latter elements being in the 
 same relative proportions as in water ; so 
 that woody fibre may be considered as a 
 compound of carbon . and water, and, ac- 
 cording to Dr. Prout's experiments, almost 
 exactly in equal weights. Lignin is very 
 unperishable, but under certain circum- 
 stances it is attacked by dry rot, arising out 
 of the growth of a parasitic fungus, which 
 causes its rapid decay. Damp timber in 
 situations where air has not free access, is 
 particularly subject to its attacks ; and when 
 once it has made its appearance, the well- 
 751 
 
 seasoned timber in its neighbourhood be- 
 comes liable to the same disease. The 
 dry rot may be prevented by impregnating 
 the timber with certain saline solutions, 
 and of these, solution of corrosive sublimate 
 has been found most effectual ; this (the bi- 
 chloride of mercury) combines chemically 
 with the albumen of the wood, and the com- 
 pound is very indestructible. (See Dry Rot.) 
 Lignin has also a strong attraction for alu- 
 mina, and hence linen, cotton, paper, and 
 other forms of this fibre, may be aluminised 
 by steeping them in hydrated alumina dif- 
 fused through water, or more effectively by 
 soaking them in certain aluminous solutions, 
 drying them, and afterwards washing out the 
 excess of the salt. It is in this way that cotton 
 goods are impregnated with alumina for the 
 purpose of dyeing and calico printing. Other 
 metallic oxides exhibit similar attractive 
 powers, especially the oxide of iron. The 
 analogy that exists between the composition 
 of sugar, gum, starch, and even vinegar and 
 lignin, suggests the possibility of the con- 
 version of those substances by an exchange 
 of their proximate elements into each other ; 
 and it has accordingly been found that by 
 carefully roasting pure and fine sawdust, it 
 is rendered partially soluble in water, and 
 that a part of it' is converted into a nutri- 
 tious substance, probably intermediate be- 
 tween sugar and starch, and which, when 
 mixed with a little flour, yields a palatable 
 bread, not very unlike that made by some 
 of the inhabitants of the northern parts of 
 Europe of the bark of trees. Mixed with 
 sulphuric acid lignin passes into gum, and 
 from this sugar may be obtained by boiling 
 it for some hours in a very dilute sulphuric 
 acid ; this sugar, when purified, much re- 
 sembles grape or honey sugar. By this 
 process rags may be converted into nearly 
 their own weight of this peculiar saccharine 
 matter. 
 
 The production of vinegar by the destruc- 
 tive distillation of wood, was originally sug- 
 gested about the middle of the seventeenth 
 century, by Glauber, a celebrated German 
 chemist of that time ; it has lately become 
 a very important branch of manufacture in 
 this country. Upon the whole there are 
 very few natural products equally important 
 with lignin in their applications to the use- 
 ful and ornamental arts. See Pyroligneous 
 Acid. 
 
 LILAC. (Syringa, from syrinx, a pipe. 
 The branches are long and straight, and 
 are filled with medulla ; hence the old name 
 of the lilac, pipe-tree. The English name 
 of the genus is from lilac or lilag, the Per- 
 sian word for the flower.) The species of 
 lilac are well known elegant shrubs. 
 
 The common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) is a 
 
LILY. 
 
 LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. 
 
 shrub originally from Constantinople, grow- 
 ing to the height of 18 or 20 feet. The 
 elegant lilac- coloured bunches of flowers are 
 very sweet and graceful to the eye. There 
 is also the white lilac, still more delicate- 
 looking, and equally sweet-scented. The 
 most beautiful variety of the common 
 purple lilac is that known by the title of 
 the Scotch lilac. 
 
 The Chinese lilac (S. chinensis) is a na- 
 tive of China, and less in size than the com- 
 mon lilac ; it was first brought to this coun- 
 try in 1795. Blooms violet-coloured flowers 
 in May. 
 
 The Persian lilac (S. persica) is a native 
 of Persia, and seldom exceeds five or six feet 
 in height, blowing light purplish pink flowers 
 in May. The lilacs love a good garden soil, 
 and may be propagated by layers, shoots, 
 and suckers from the roots. 
 
 LILY. (Lilium, derived from the Celtic 
 word li, signifying whiteness ; on account of 
 the beautiful white flowers of the original 
 species.) This is a fine ornamental and 
 well-known genus of exotic plants, almost 
 all of which are remarkable for the delicacy 
 and beauty of their flowers. Most of the 
 species succeed in a rich light soil, but the 
 American species should be grown in peat. 
 (PaxtovLS Sot. Diet.) 
 
 Miller, in his Dictionary, mentions thirteen 
 species, with their varieties : but there are 
 now more than thirty-four known species, 
 besides innumerable varieties : the finest for 
 garden ornament are as follows : — 
 
 The superb martagon. (Z. superbum.) A 
 beautiful plant, blowing many bright orange 
 flowers spotted with violet. It loves bog soil. 
 
 Purple martagon, which grows three or 
 four feet high, blooming reddish or white 
 flowers spotted with purple. It blows in 
 July. It is sometimes called Turk's cap. 
 It is a native of Germany. 
 
 Scarlet martagon. (Z. chalcedonicum.') 
 Native of the Levant, blowing a bright 
 scarlet flower in June and July. It likes a 
 good soil. 
 
 Turk's turban (Z. pomponiurn) blows a 
 pretty pendulous red flower in June in 
 the shape of a turban. In Kamschatka the 
 bulb of this species is cultivated the same 
 as the potato is in this country. 
 
 Orange or fire lily. (Z. bulbiferum.) 
 Large flower, of a deep orange colour, or 
 flowering or blowing in June and July. 
 The Russians and Tungusians also eat the 
 roots of this species, either boiled in milk, 
 or roasted. A German author informs us 
 that these mealy roots might, in times of 
 scarcity, be made into wholesome bread. 
 The roots are cathartic, and the leaves 
 cooling. 
 
 Tiger lily. (Z. tigrinum.) A beautiful 
 752 
 
 showy bulb, blowing an orange flower in 
 J une : it loves a sandy soil and open situ- 
 ation. 
 
 Philadelphian lily. (Z. philadelphicum.) 
 Native of N. America, blowing a deep 
 orange spotted or scarlet flower in July. 
 Protect it in winter by spreading coal ashes 
 over it. 
 
 The common white lily (Z. candidum) 
 is too well known to need description. 
 It is hardy, and produces a beautiful flower, 
 the fragrant odour of which is so powerful 
 as to induce fainting if numbers of them 
 be kept over night in a close apartment. 
 The bulb roasted is emollient and suppur- 
 ative. All descriptions of lilies are pro- 
 pagated freely by offsets from the bulbs, 
 which should be taken up when the stem 
 decays, and parted and replanted early in 
 October, five or six inches deep in a light 
 dry soil. The bulbs of martagons must 
 never be transplanted till after the stem is 
 decayed, as they will not bear being dis- 
 turbed. Many varieties of lilies are pro- 
 duced from seed, which is treated in the 
 same way as tulip seed. 
 
 LILY-OF-THE-VALLEY. (Convalla- 
 ria majalis, from the Latin convattis, a valley.) 
 This very elegant sweet-scented indigenous 
 perennial is not reckoned among the lily 
 tribe. It grows in woods, heaths, and at 
 the foot of hills, flourishing and shedding 
 its fragrance in May and June. The roots 
 are thread- shaped, creeping, much en- 
 tangled. Leaves two, radical, elliptical, 
 three or four inches long, acute, entire, 
 many-ribbed, smooth-stalked. Footstalks 
 longer than the leaves, erect, channelled, 
 folded, clasping each other, sheathed at the 
 base with several purplish scales. Flower- 
 stalk solitary, simple, radical, naked, semi- 
 cylindrical, bearing a simple curved cluster 
 of several pendulous, cup-shaped, white 
 flowers, with rather distant segments. Berry 
 as large as a black currant, scarlet. There 
 are varieties with double or with purple 
 flowers, sometimes seen in gardens ; but 
 not easy of cultivation, and far less elegant 
 than the wild kind, which is among the 
 most favourite of our native flowers. 
 
 This vegetable is eaten by sheep and 
 goats, but refused by cows, horses, and 
 swine. The flowers when dried have a 
 narcotic scent, and if reduced to powder 
 excite sneezing ; hence they are sometimes 
 used as a stimulatory. A beautiful green 
 colour may be prepared from the leaves, 
 with the addition of lime. The lily-of-the- 
 valley will grow in any moist shady situa- 
 tion, and even under the drip of trees, 
 where few other plants would succeed. It 
 is multiplied by dividing the roots in au- 
 tumn. See Solomon's Seal. 
 
LILY, THE DAY. 
 
 LILY, THE YELLOW' WATER. 
 
 LILY, THE DAY. (HemerocaUis, from 
 r/^x£oo, a day, and icaWog, beauty; alluding to 
 the beauty and duration of the flowers.) This 
 is an ornamental genus of exotic flowering 
 plants of the simplest culture, thriving well 
 in any light loamy soil, and readily increased 
 by divisions. The most common species 
 are the yellow day-lily (H.Jlava), a native 
 of Siberia, blowing yellow flowers in June, 
 and the fulvous or copper-coloured day-lily 
 (H. fuloa), a native of the Levant, blowing 
 fulvous flowers in July and August. (Pax- 
 ton's Bat Diet.) 
 
 LILY, THE WHITE WATER. Can- 
 dock, or water-socks. (Nymphcea, from 
 nymphc, a water nymph ; alluding to the 
 habitation of the plants.) These are beau- 
 tiful plants, well worthy of cultivating in 
 every collection. The stove species should 
 be grown in tubs of water, placed in a 
 warm part of the house, with some rich 
 loamy soil at the bottom. The hardy kinds 
 may be grown in ponds, canals, &c. They 
 are all increased either by seeds, dividing 
 the roots, or separating the tubers. (Paxtonj 
 
 The great white water-lily (N. alba) is a 
 beautiful perennial, native of Great Britain, 
 perhaps the most magnificent of our native 
 flowers ; growing in clear ponds, and slow 
 rivers. The root is tuberous, horizontal, 
 sending down numerous long, stout radicles, 
 which are fibrous at the extremity ; leaves 
 floating, a span wide, oval, heart-shaped, 
 with nearly parallel or close lobes at the 
 base, entire, smooth. Every part of the 
 herb is slightly vascular, perspiring rapidly, 
 and though so succulent, drying very soon. 
 Flowers four or five inches wide, white 
 with yellow stamens and pistil ; the upper 
 surface of the calyx leaves white, often 
 tinged with pale red, generally destitute of 
 scent. The stems are superior to oak-galls 
 for dyeing grey. The roots are astringent, and 
 a weak infusion is said to be useful in lepra. 
 The roots are used in Ireland and J ura for 
 dyeing a brown colour. The Egyptians 
 eat the roots boiled, and convert the seeds 
 into bread. The Swedes also have used 
 this root in prevailing dearth, as a substitute 
 for corn ; though it requires to be pre- 
 viously divested of its bitter taste by fre- 
 quent washings. According to Gleditsch the 
 roots of this species and of the yellow lily 
 are equally useful in tanning and currying. 
 
 The leaves of the N. alba afford a good 
 illustration of design : the stomata are 
 abundant on the upper surface, which is 
 exposed to the air, whilst on the under, 
 which floats on the water, are innumerable 
 absorbing pores. This plant is eaten by 
 hogs, but disliked by goats, and totally re- 
 jected by cows and horses. 
 
 The white water-lily looks very handsome 
 753 
 
 in sheets of water, or ponds in ornamental 
 grounds, blowing its large flowers in June 
 and July. They have a faint sweet scent, and 
 expand in sunshine, in the middle of the day 
 only, closing towards evening, when they 
 recline on the surface of the water or sink 
 beneath it. The same circumstance is re- 
 corded of the Egyptian N. Lotus, from the 
 most remote antiquity. The stimulus of 
 light, which indeed acts evidently on many 
 other blossoms and leaves, expands and 
 raises with peculiar force these splendid 
 white flowers, that the pollen may reach 
 the stigma uninjured ; and when that sti- 
 mulus ceases to act, they close again, droop- 
 ing by their own weight to a certain depth. 
 When the flower-seeds ripen in August, the 
 plant sinks again to the bottom. In trans- 
 planting the water-lily, the pond must be 
 entered, the stem of the plant felt for, and 
 the roots dug up with a large ball of its 
 mud left round them ; place it in an old fish- 
 basket, and remove it speedily, to sink it in 
 the place intended for its removal. As the 
 basket rots, the plant becomes fixed in its 
 new situation. Propagate by throwing the 
 ripe seed-vessels into large ditches of stand- 
 ing water, when the young plants appear the 
 following spring. 
 
 LILY, THE YELLOW WATER. 
 (Nuphar, from naufar or nylovfar, the Arabic 
 name of Nymphcea.) This, like the last 
 described, is a genus of very beautiful plants, 
 admirably adapted for growing in ponds, 
 cisterns, or lakes ; and they are increased by 
 dividing the roots or by seeds which have 
 only to be thrown into the water where 
 they are intended to grow. (Paxton.) 
 
 The only indigenous species are, 1. The 
 common yellow water-lily, or water-can 
 (N. lutea), which is met with very frequent 
 in the wild state in rivers and pools. The 
 whole plant is rather smaller than the white 
 water-lily. Footstalks two-edged, flattened 
 on the upper surface ; leaves entirely smooth 
 and even rounded at the end, and generally 
 at the lobes, which meet and lap over each 
 other. The flowers, which appear in July, 
 are about two inches wide, cupped, all over 
 of a golden yellow, with the scent of brandy 
 or ratafia, whence they are called brandy- 
 bottles in Norfolk. They perhaps commu- 
 nicate this flavour by infusion to the cooling 
 liquors or sherbets, so much used in the 
 Levant. The seed-vessel, a coated berrv, 
 when ripe, bursts irregularly, not dissolving 
 away into a mass of pulp like the Nymphcea. 
 The roots, like those of the white water-lily, 
 are astringent, and contain a quantity of fe- 
 cula. If moistened with milk, they are said 
 by Linnaeus to destroy crickets and cock- 
 roaches. Hogs will eat this aquatic plant, but 
 all the other species of live stock reject it. 
 
LIMB. 
 
 LIME. 
 
 2. The least yellow water-lily. (JV. pu- 
 mila.) This is much smaller than the pre- 
 ceding : it nourishes principally in the high- 
 land lakes of Scotland. The footstalks are 
 less convex beneath than those of N. lutea, 
 and more concave above. The leaves are 
 only about three inches long, shining at the 
 back ; their lobes not close together. The 
 flowers, which blow in July and August, 
 are lemon-coloured, tinged with green, 
 scarcely 1^ inches wide, and essentially dis- 
 tinguished by the great sharply-notched 
 border of the stigma. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 14.) The marsh- trefoil is often 
 called the dwarf water-lily. 
 
 LIMB. The border of a flower, also the 
 branch of a tree. 
 
 LIME. (Germ, leim, glue.) This very 
 useful earth is the oxide of a metal called 
 Calcium. It is obtained by exposing chalk 
 and other kinds of limestone, or carbonates 
 of lime to a red heat, — an operation gene- 
 rally conducted in kilns constructed for the 
 purpose ; the carbonic acid is thus ex- 
 pelled, and lime, more or less pure, accord- 
 ing to the original quality of the limestone, 
 remains. In this state it is usually called 
 quicklime. The purest quicklime is obtained 
 from the calcination of white marble. When 
 sprinkled with water it becomes very hot, 
 and crumbles down into a dry powder, 
 called slaked lime, or hydrate of lime, owing 
 to the water becoming consolidated and an 
 essential part of the lime. When exposed 
 for some weeks to the air it also falls into 
 powder, in consequence of the absorption of 
 moisture ; but a portion of carbonic acid is 
 also absorbed, and the lime partially con- 
 verted into limestone. The uses of lime 
 are very numerous. Its most important 
 application is in the manufacture of mor- 
 tar and other cements used in building. 
 It is also very extensively used in this 
 country, and in some parts of the Conti- 
 nent and North America, as a manure to 
 fertilise land. 
 
 LIME as a manure. There is some rea- 
 son to infer that lime has been used as a 
 manure from a very remote period. M. P. 
 Cato, in the oldest agricultural treatise 
 which has escaped to us, describes, in his 
 sixteenth and thirty-eighth chapters, with 
 much minuteness, the best means of pre- 
 paring it. And although, in the early 
 writers on rural affairs, we find but few 
 notices of its use as a fertiliser yet we may 
 reasonably conclude, that its employment 
 was nearly as extensive and as early as that of 
 chalk or marl, which were in very primitive 
 times largely and skilfully used for a similar 
 purpose. Pliny attests the use of it by the 
 Iloman cultivators as a dressing for the soil 
 in which fruit trees were planted. 
 7f>4 
 
 Of all the earthy manures, lime is cer- 
 tainly the most powerful and rapid in 
 its effects on the soil; and if its use is 
 not so extensive on the clays and peaty 
 lands of many districts of our island as is 
 desirable, this does not arise from the 
 limited powers of this earth, but rather from 
 a variety of other causes ; such as its ex- 
 pense, the impurity of the lime employed, 
 and an ignorance of its most economical 
 mode of application. 
 
 The common varieties of lime, used by the 
 English farmers, are procured by calcining 
 either chalk or limestone. Such lime is 
 therefore rarely, if ever, chemically pure, 
 for it almost always contains a portion of 
 silica (flint), alumina (clay), and some red 
 oxide of iron. These, however, are not 
 often present in sufficient quantities to in- 
 fluence the fertilising powers of the lime to 
 any material extent, as will readily be seen 
 by the analysis of the limestones, and the 
 chalk usually employed by the limeburners. 
 Common limestone is composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 9.5*05 
 
 Water - - - 1-68 
 
 Silica - - - 1-12 
 
 Alumina - - - TOO 
 
 Oxide of iron - - *75 
 
 100* 
 
 The slate-spar limestone contains, 
 
 Lime - - - 54*70 
 
 Carbonic acid - -• 43*30 
 
 Silica - - - 0-55 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 0*80 
 
 Loss - 0-65 
 
 100- 
 
 Common chalk is composed of 
 
 Lime - - - 56*5 
 
 Carbonic acid - - 43*0 
 
 Water - - 0*5 
 
 100- 
 
 united with various small proportions of the 
 other earths. There is also a very consi- 
 derable proportion of lime made in the 
 North of England from the magnesian 
 limestone, (called by the Yorkshire farmers 
 " hot lime,") all of which differ consider- 
 ably in composition ; that from Sunderland 
 contains in 100 parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 56*80 
 
 Carbonate of magnesia - 40*84 
 
 Clay, water, &c. - - 2*00 
 
 Oxide of Iron - - 0*36 
 
 100- 
 
 This " hot lime," which is well known by 
 the farmers in the neighbourhood of Don- 
 
LIME 
 
 caster, and other parts of the north of 
 England, can only be applied in limited 
 quantities, for the calcined magnesia of the 
 limestone remains for a considerable period 
 in its pure caustic form, without absorbing 
 carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, and 
 in this state its effect is very pernicious to 
 many kinds of plants. It is only when pure, 
 however, that magnesia is prejudicial to ve- 
 getation : by exposure fo the atmosphere, it 
 gradually and slowly absorbs carbonic acid 
 gas, becomes carbonate of magnesia, and in 
 this state forms a part of many cultivated 
 plants. Some of the most fertile soils of 
 our island in fact contain it, in this form, 
 in considerable quantities. 
 
 The action of the fire upon the chalk 
 and the limestones merely deprives them of 
 their water and carbonic acid gas, or fixed 
 air. The farmer must not fall into the very 
 common error of supposing that anything is 
 added by the fire to the lime ; on the con- 
 trary, it loses very materially in weight, by 
 being deprived of its carbonic acid gas, a 
 loss, however, which it gradually recovers 
 by exposure to the atmosphere, which always 
 contains this elastic vapour. 
 
 The lime which I have used has been 
 principally made from chalk, at an expense 
 of about five pence or six pence per bushel. 
 That which I made from the magnesia 
 limestone was from the neighbourhood of 
 Sunderland. This requires less fuel to 
 convert it into lime than the common lime- 
 stone. For the ordinary kinds, about one 
 bushel of coals is required for five or six 
 bushels of the limestone ; and from my own 
 experiments, I am inclined to agree in opi- 
 nion with many of the farmers of the mid- 
 land counties, that the lime procured from 
 limestone is rather more powerful in its 
 effects on clay soils, than that made from 
 chalk. 
 
 In either case the shape of the kiln, and 
 the steady gradual application of the heat, 
 are very material circumstances to be re- 
 garded by those who burn their own lime 
 The limestone and chalk should be placed 
 in the kiln (which I think is best of an egg 
 shape), in moderately-sized pieces, free from 
 the powdered chalk or stone ; and care must 
 be taken to have the earth thoroughly 
 burnt, of which perhaps the best indications 
 are its lightness, and the alteration of the 
 colour of the flame issuing from the top of 
 the kiln, which, when the lime is sufficiently 
 made, loses its red tinge. The price of the 
 fuel, and readiness of access to the limestone 
 or chalk, of necessity governs the price of 
 the lime : in some districts of the north it is 
 made by the farmers for not more than one 
 penny to three halfpence per bushel. 
 
 The chemical uses of lime to vegetation 
 755 
 
 may be conveniently divided into two 
 heads; first, its direct action upon vegeta- 
 tion; and secondly, its chemical operation on 
 the matters contained in all cultivateable 
 soils. 
 
 In its direct action, as a food or consti- 
 tuent of plants, its uses are highly important; 
 for hardly a single plant has yet been ana- 
 lysed, in which the presence of lime has not 
 been detected, in combination with an acid. 
 It must be regarded indeed as an essential 
 ingredient in almost all vegetable sub- 
 stances, as a direct food of plants. 
 
 It is found in the commonly cultivated 
 crops of the farmer, however, in very varying 
 proportions : thus the ashes of the oat plant 
 contain more than five per cent, of lime ; in 
 two pounds' weight of the seeds of wheat 
 are commonly found about twelve grains of 
 carbonate of lime; in the same quantity of 
 rye, about 13 - 4 grains ; in barley 24 - 8 
 grains ; 33*75 grains in the oat, and 46*2 
 in the same weight of rye straw. It abounds 
 also with magnesia in the wood of trees : 
 the ashes of that of the oak contain about 
 32 per cent, of the earthy carbonates ; those 
 from the poplar 27 per cent ; from the 
 hazel 8 ; of the mulberry 56 ; and from the 
 hornbeam 26 per cent. The proportion 
 however of lime found in plants varies 
 with the composition of the soil on which 
 they are produced. Thus the ashes of the 
 leaves of the fir (Pinus Abies), growing 
 upon a limestone hill, were found to contain 
 43*5 per cent, of the carbonates of lime and 
 magnesia, but the ashes from the leaves of 
 another fir growing upon a granite soil 
 yielded only 29 per cent, of the same earthy 
 salts. There are very few soils fit for culti- 
 vation from which this earth is entirely ab- 
 sent, and its addition is commonly found by 
 the farmer to promote the fertility of most 
 barren lands — the most sterile heaths, for 
 these are the very lands whose soils contain 
 hardly a trace of lime ; in that of Bagshot, 
 for instance, it exists in a very minute pro- 
 portion. The attraction of lime for the 
 aqueous particles of the atmosphere is con- 
 siderable. In my own experiments 1000 
 parts of lime previously dried in a tempe- 
 rature of 212° gained by exposure for three 
 hours to air saturated with moisture, at a 
 temperature of 60°, 11 parts. Professor 
 Schubler found that the same weight gained 
 in 12 hours 26 parts, in 24 hours 31 parts, 
 in 48 hours 35 parts, when it appeared to 
 have become saturated with moisture, for in 
 72 hours it had not again increased in 
 weight. Lime therefore is not without its 
 uses even in this respect to vegetation. 
 Lime and chalk differ in their action, and in 
 their value as fertilisers in several respects ; 
 thus lime dissolves and renders soluble 
 3 c 2 
 
LTME. 
 
 the organic matters of the soil, which chalk 
 does not ; its action too, as a direct food of 
 plants, is more rapid, from the superior 
 readiness with which it mingles with the 
 soil. And again, its carriage is considerably 
 lighter, for in the process of lime-burning 
 almost all the water and carbonic acid gas 
 of the chalk are driven off. These amounted 
 in some specimens of Kentish chalk, which 
 I examined, to more than 58 per cent. ; so 
 that when the farmer carries 42 tons of 
 recently well-burnt lime, he conveys as 
 much real earth on to his land, as is some- 
 times contained in 100 tons of chalk. 
 
 The chemical action of the lime on the 
 soil is also very considerable ; mixing with 
 the heavy adhesive clajs, it renders them 
 more friable, less liable to be injuriously 
 acted upon by the sun, and much more 
 readily permeable by the gases and vapour 
 of the atmosphere. It renders them, the 
 cultivator tells you, " more easily workable." 
 And, again, the action of lime upon the 
 organic substances always more or less 
 contained in the farmers' soils is very con- 
 siderable; and this benefit is not merely 
 confined to the vegetable remains in the 
 land, but it extends with equal energy to 
 the dead and the living animal matters, with 
 which, in a countless variety of forms, the 
 soil is tenanted. There are few substances, 
 in fact, more destructive to grub-worms, 
 animalculae, &c. than lime ; and where these 
 are destroyed by the action of the lime, the 
 soil is, as a natural consequence, enriched 
 by their remains. On soils which abound 
 in sulphate of iron, which is commonly the 
 case with those containing an excess of peat, 
 the action of lime is not only highly bene- 
 ficial in decomposing or rendering soluble 
 the mass of inert vegetable remains, but 
 the lime decomposes the sulphate of iron, 
 and, uniting with its sulphuric acid, forms 
 the well-known fertiliser, the sulphate of 
 lime or gypsum of commerce. 
 
 When lime is applied to the soil, it gra- 
 dually becomes converted, by exposure to 
 the atmosphere, into carbonate of lime 
 (chalk) ; its action as a solvent ceases, and its 
 presence is now only useful as a direct food 
 or constituent of the farmer's crops. This, 
 however, affords an opportunity for the 
 beneficial repetition of the dressing with 
 lime, so far as its solvent powers are avail- 
 able. But then, as might, for the above 
 reasons, have been anticipated, the farmer 
 finds that the after-limings never do so 
 much good as the first ; and as by each 
 successive application the lime reduces still 
 more and more the quantity of organic 
 matters in the soil, so it follows as a natural 
 consequence that after each succeeding 
 dressing, the benefit produced becomes less 
 
 and less, and finally the cultivator informs 
 us that " the land is tired of lime." This 
 result has been experienced to a very con- 
 siderable extent in the north of England, 
 where the cheapness of fuel and the abund- 
 ance of the common limestone has, in too 
 many instances, tempted the farmer to add 
 to his land lime in excessive quantities. For 
 such over-limed soils, the only remedy is 
 the addition of organic matters. In such 
 cases, peat will, in moderate quantities, be 
 occasionally found an excellent dressing. 
 
 The quantity of lime used per acre of ne- 
 cessity varies with the soil, and the expense 
 with which it is procured. The heavy clay 
 and peat soils require the largest propor- 
 tions ; the light lands need a much smaller 
 quantity to produce the maximum benefit. 
 I have used it at the rate of 25 bushels per 
 acre, mixed with earth, on light soils, and 
 never more than 100 bushels per acre on 
 clays. This is the proportion commonly 
 used on the heavy soils of the midland 
 counties, and the deep clays of the weald 
 of Kent. In Scotland they apply sometimes 
 as much as 360 bushels per acre, and in 
 Ireland still larger quantities have been 
 successfully employed ; and on some of the 
 peat mosses of the north of England, more 
 than 1000 bushels have been used with 
 good effect. The employment of such large 
 proportions, however, can rarely be justified, 
 even when the lime is obtainable at a very 
 low rate. 
 
 I have used lime, and have been present 
 at other liming operations for many years. 
 I have chiefly employed it either as a top- 
 dressing, or which, for light soils, I much 
 prefer, mixed with ditch scrapings, old 
 banks or pond mud, at the rate of one 
 bushel of lime to a cubic yard of earth. 
 And then, after thoroughly mixing them 
 together, and allowing the mass to remain 
 for a month or six weeks, I have always 
 succeeded in forming a most enriching com- 
 post, which, on even the gravelly soils of 
 Essex, has produced at the rate of twenty 
 to twenty-five cubic yards per acre, both for 
 wheat, clover, and potatoes (to which crop, 
 in general, lime is prejudicial), the most 
 powerful effects, certainly increasing by 
 one third the produce of the natural soil. 
 It is only in the state of mixture with earth, 
 or peat, or salt, that I have found lime pro- 
 fitably useful for light gravelly soils. Yet 
 I have varied the application in a variety 
 of ways and proportions, but still, for the 
 gravels or sands, the result was never en- 
 tirely satisfactory. But I have witnessed, 
 as a dressing for the black hungry gravels 
 of Spring Park, near Croydon, lime and 
 peat mixed together, at the rate of one part 
 of lime and three parts of peat, with the 
 
LIME. 
 
 most complete success. The peat is reduced 
 to a finely-divided state, and rendered par- 
 tially soluble by the action of the lime, and 
 is a most powerful top-dressing for young 
 clovers. This is explainable (amongst other 
 reasons) by the fact that the peat employed 
 being saturated with a solution of sulphate 
 of iron, the lime converted it into sulphate 
 of lime, Avhich is a constituent or direct 
 food of clover. Equally successful, on light 
 soils, have been my trials of lime, when 
 mixed with common salt ; two parts of 
 lime, mixed with one part of salt in a dry 
 state, and suffered to remain for three 
 months previous to its being used in a dry 
 place. By applying this mixture at the 
 rate of from 40 to 50 bushels per acre, 
 crops of turnips have been grown under my 
 directions fully equal to any produced by 
 twenty cubic yards per acre of farm-yard 
 compost : and in 1840, the produce of 
 ground thus dressed fully equalled that of 
 some adjoining lands of the same field, 
 which had been manured with the ordinary 
 compost. And an excellent neighbouring 
 farmer, Mr. Foster, of Great Totham, in 
 July 1840, made an experiment with tur- 
 nips, entirely confirming those I had else- 
 where instituted. He applied a mixture 
 per acre of 30 bushels of lime with 15 
 bushels of salt, to ten acres of a field con- 
 taining twelve acres. The land previously 
 had a crop of rye, which was fed off with 
 sheep ; and on the two acres to which the 
 salt and lime were not applied, the sheep 
 had oil cake given to them, and, moreover, 
 the land was sub-soiled to a depth of 
 eighteen to twenty inches. The field pre- 
 viously had a good summer fallow. The 
 lime and salt was spread broadcast after the 
 last ploughing, and harrowed in before the 
 seed. The turnips were of the variety 
 called green rounds. The land slopes to 
 the south, and its soil is a light, mouldy 
 turnip soil. In examining them in company 
 with Mr. Foster, in the last week in August, 
 he expressed himself abundantly satisfied 
 with the result. The crop of turnips was 
 equally good all over the field ; if there was 
 a shade of difference, it was in favour of 
 the sub-soiled and cake-fed land ; but the 
 advantage, if any, was exceedingly in- 
 considerable. 
 
 In the use of this mixture, I have found 
 the moisture of the atmosphere highly ad- 
 vantageous in increasing the operation of 
 the lime and salt ; an observation, too, 
 which is not confined to the dry, gravelly 
 soils, on which my experiments were car- 
 ried on. Thus, in 1839, on an exhausted, 
 rather heavy turnip loam, 80 bushels per 
 acre of a mixture of salt one part, and 
 lime two parts, made three months prcvi- 
 757 
 
 ously, were spread in July, and sown with 
 the white round turnips. The turnip 
 plants came up equally well all over the 
 field ; but on the portions where the salt 
 and lime were omitted, they speedily pe- 
 rished ; but in every part dressed with the 
 lime and salt, the crop was excellent. 
 
 In the dry season of 1840, however, 
 another portion of the same field being 
 treated in a similar manner, the effect pro- 
 duced by the lime and salt was not nearly 
 so decisive ; the plants were weak, the crop 
 inferior. 
 
 I have found the lime and salt equally 
 beneficial as a dressing for wheat and barley ; 
 but a description of those experiments will 
 more properly be found under the head 
 Salt and Lime ; for when the application 
 is made to the land, the lime and salt have, 
 in fact, entered into new combinations ; the 
 compound applied is no longer a dressing 
 with lime and salt, but with a mixture 
 chiefly composed of chloride of calcium and 
 carbonate of soda, with a portion of unde- 
 composed lime and common salt. 
 
 I have several times mixed lime, in cases 
 where I suspected the presence of grub and 
 the seeds of weeds, with farm-yard compost, 
 but never successfully. Convinced of the ill 
 effects of the lime being thus mixed, I have 
 long since abandoned the practice. There 
 is, in fact, no beneficial object to be attained 
 by this mode. The natural well-regulated- 
 fermentation of the dung effects all that the 
 lime can do, and in a better manner ; for 
 the lime dissolves, and to a considerable 
 extent decomposes the finer and richer 
 portions of the compost ; and it certainly 
 renders the straw and other coarser portions 
 of the manure drier and more difficult to 
 dissolve in the soil. The practice therefore 
 seems worse than useless. 
 
 In the application of lime to heavy clay 
 land, I have always found that it was best 
 used, either in its simple uncombined state, 
 or after an ultimate mixture with sandy or 
 light calcareous earths, or peat, or salt. But 
 by no means of applying it (and I have va- 
 ried my experiments in a variety of ways 
 with considerable industry) on the land, 
 could I ever produce superior effects than 
 by applying the lime in its uncombined 
 state, as well burnt and fine divided as pos- 
 sible ; and this I have generally done as a 
 top-dressing (merely harrowing it in with 
 the seed), from considering that by the so- 
 luble property of lime (1 lb. of lime dis- 
 solving in 480 lbs. of water), the rain 
 always conveys it deeper into the soil. 
 
 And yet, from an experiment recently 
 made at my suggestion by my next neigh- 
 bour Mr. Foster^ a very excellent farmer of 
 Great Totham in Essex, I am inclined to 
 3 c 3 
 
LIME. 
 
 believe that the lime will produce effects 
 nearly equally important when it is ploughed 
 into the soil. This trial was made in De- 
 cember 1839 on a field of five acres, whose 
 soil is a cold, stiff, deep, hungry loam, that 
 had previously borne a very poor crop of 
 turnips, which were fed off with sheep. 
 This field has a declination towards the 
 south-west, and has always produced crops 
 of a very inferior description. In the 
 middle of December, after spreading 80 
 bushels per acre of lime (made from chalk) 
 from the cart's tail, by the shovel, it was 
 immediately ploughed in and drilled with 
 the common red wheat. The effect was ex- 
 cellent, every one of the neighbours agree- 
 ing that the land never produced such a 
 crop before. And that this was owing to 
 the lime, was evident from the inferior pro- 
 duce on the spots where the lime had not 
 been spread. 
 
 The exact quantity, however, per acre, 
 Mr. Foster is unable to state, owing to his 
 being prevented in the hurry of harvest 
 from keeping it separate : he estimates it 
 however at about 4j quarters per acre, 
 and he is clearly of opinion that this large 
 produce (for his land) arose not so much 
 from the thickness of the crop, as from the 
 largeness of the ears. 
 
 In the boggy unreclaimed lands of Spring 
 Park, the effect produced by the direct use 
 of lime at the rate of 200 bushels per acre 
 is excellent. The cost is there four pence 
 per bushel, and it is that made from chalk. 
 But on the light hungry black gravels of that 
 farm, as well in fact as upon the clays of 
 that district (and the same remarks apply 
 in general to almost all light soils and situ- 
 ations), the lime is never productive of such 
 powerful effects as when mixed with the 
 earthy matters from ditches, ponds, old 
 banks, or headlands. But here let me 
 earnestly impress upon the farmer the ne- 
 cessity and the great advantage of paying 
 much more than common attention to the 
 mixing of the lime with the earth. 
 
 The lime should not only be of the best 
 and recently burnt description, but should 
 be mixed as thoroughly and as finely as 
 possible with the earth. By this means the 
 heat generated in the mass by the slaking of 
 the lime is considerable, and is productive 
 of several advantages : it kills more com- 
 pletely insects of all kind, — seeds of weeds, 
 and the more stubborn roots of weeds. 
 And the mixed earths are rendered consi- 
 derably more friable, and capable of a much 
 more even and economical distribution on 
 tlu; farmer's crops, than by the ordinary 
 careless way of mixing them. On peat soils, 
 and on those abounding in the tough inert 
 remains of the heath plants, lime is best ap- 
 
 plied in its purest state, unmixed with any 
 other substances to weaken its effect. Its 
 action on such soils is not difficult of ex- 
 planation. ^ It dissolves and renders soluble 
 the organic matters of the soil, and it de- 
 composes the sulphate of iron (or green vi- 
 triol) which it often contains. In such 
 lands, too, we rarely find any lime : it fur- 
 nishes, therefore, to them a portion of an 
 earth whose presence is absolutely essential 
 to the profitable growth of all the most va- 
 luable vegetables. How excellent such an 
 addition is to these soils, even when applied 
 only at the rate of four bushels per acre, 
 has been proved by some extensive experi- 
 ments of the Scotch planter, the growth of 
 whose young woods has been very mate- 
 rially and rapidly promoted by merely 
 placing a handful of lime under each plant. 
 Now we have already seen how copiously 
 this earth is found in the ashes, not only of 
 the fir, but in those of all other timber trees. 
 So unvaried, indeed, is the presence of the 
 salts of lime in vegetables, that they have 
 been supposed to produce a similar support- 
 ing effect that the same salts of lime yield 
 in the bones of animals. And it is certainly 
 worthy of remark that the phosphate and 
 carbonate of lime, of which the bones of all 
 animals are chiefly composed, are precisely 
 the salts of lime the most universally present 
 in vegetables. 
 
 Lime must, therefore, he classed amongst 
 those manures which commonly serve to 
 promote the permanent fertility of the land, 
 for unless it is washed out by the moisture 
 of the atmosphere, or the flood waters, it 
 can only be removed from the soil by be- 
 coming the food for the cultivator's crops. 
 In poor peaty soils no other manure can be 
 compared to it, either for powerful effeet or 
 for rapidity of action ; and its usefulness is 
 nearly as great on the stiffest clay land. 
 Whenever, therefore, the permanent im- 
 provement of such soils shall be considered 
 with that general and that patient attention 
 which the importance of the object de- 
 mands, at that period the fertilising powers 
 of lime will be still more generally appre- 
 ciated, and its services be far more extended 
 than at present. 
 
 The quantity of lime applied by per acre 
 of necessity varies with the description of 
 the soil ; that which contains most organic 
 matter will, of necessity, bear a larger pro- 
 portion than that which is more free from 
 vegetable or animal remains. The quantity 
 usually applied is much too large, and the 
 dressing too often repeated without proper 
 consideration ; and it is not until the land 
 becomes absolutely overcharged with lime, 
 that the farmer begins to have a suspicion 
 that his land is tired of it. In Ireland it is 
 
LIME. 
 
 sometimes applied to old pasture leys in- 
 tended for potatoes, at the rate of 400 
 bushels per acre ; and on some of the moors 
 in Derbyshire, 1500 bushels per acre have 
 been found not too large a quantity. 
 (Agric. Rep. of Derbyshire, vol. ii. p. 437.) 
 In Scotland the quantity usually applied 
 for light land is about 160 bushels per acre; 
 for stiff clay soils from 240 to 360 bushels. 
 {Gen. Rep. vol. ii. p. 533.) On the stiff 
 clays of the Weald of Kent, the quantity 
 usually employed is about 100 bushels per 
 acre, and that is often repeated every five 
 years, on the fallow before wheat, for many 
 years. (Agric. Hep. of Kent, p. 88.) Lime 
 may be as readily produced by burning 
 limestone with peat as with coals ; the heat 
 produced is amply sufficient, and the heat 
 more easily managed. (Farmer s Mag. vol. 
 iii. p. 488.) 
 
 " I conceive," says Mr. Hillyard of North- 
 amptonshire, " lime to be a stimulant only, 
 and not a manure. Lime gives solidity to 
 light land, the means of retaining moisture, 
 and in some degree prevents the rays of the 
 sun from penetrating so deep into the soil, 
 and drying up the roots. Lime also en- 
 courages the growth of clover ; but it does 
 not do the good that is equal to the expense, 
 when appbed to land that has for a length 
 of time had it periodically laid on. It is the 
 common practice in this county to lime and 
 dung the land for turnips nearly at the 
 same time, just before sowing. To put on 
 materials that must cause such different ef- 
 fects cannot, I think, be quite right, and 
 therefore it would be better not to put 
 on the lime till the next spring, before 
 sowing barley and seeds. I have heard of 
 lime being laid on a stubble or clover ley, and 
 when slaked ploughed in, thus depositing it 
 at the bottom of a furrow, where it can do 
 but little if any good, and it naturally will 
 get lower. It should be laid on the land 
 after it is ploughed, and, by harrowing well, 
 incorporated with the soil. Very little be- 
 nefit," concludes Mr. Hillyard, " is derived 
 from laying on a small quantity of lime : it 
 requires twenty or five and twenty quarters 
 per acre to do a very essential good." 
 (Prac. Farm. p. 34.) 
 
 " In the county of Dublin," says Arthur 
 Young (Young's Tour in Ireland, p. 373.), 
 " they lay 160 barrels, or 640 bushels on an 
 acre ; strong loam or limestone finds the 
 greatest benefit from it, and the farmers say 
 it lasts as long as limestone gravel. In the 
 county of Cork, Mr. Aldworth found lime to 
 have a vast effect on strong loam or lime- 
 stone. (Annals of Agric. vol. xxxiv. p. 72.) 
 On all poor, thin, light soils, and others, on 
 a quarry of stone, especially limestone, that 
 have been long in tillage, lime is found to 
 759 
 
 do no service. Upon wet cold loams, that 
 have not been sufficiently drained, lime does 
 no good : and when they are dry, unless 
 they are rich, this manure will operate very 
 little (Eastern Tour, vol. iv. p. 82.) ; on 
 cold, wet, tenacious clays, it has often 
 failed, and also on strong stony land. Lord 
 Holderness found some very good land of 
 this description almost ruined from' a long 
 course of liming. Where there is a great 
 mass of vegetable or animal matter not pu- 
 trid, and which cannot putrefy sufficiently, 
 there lime does the business at once, and 
 has an effect which has been thought as- 
 tonishing. 
 
 Some excellent practical remarks upon 
 lime burning, by Sir G. C. Stewart Mon- 
 teath were published some time since. He 
 observes : " Having been engaged in burn- 
 ing lime for the supply of an extensive 
 district of country for agricultural im- 
 provements, and being distant from coal 
 sixteen miles, it was desirable to find out 
 the best constructed kiln for burning lime 
 with the smallest quantity of coal, and 
 having been aware, from experiment, that 
 the kilns generally employed in Great 
 Britain for burning lime are of a con- 
 struction too narrow at bottom, and too 
 wide at top, many kilns of this construc- 
 tion being not more than 3 or 4 feet wide 
 at bottom, and 1 8 feet wide at the height 
 of 21 feet, were found to waste the fuel 
 during the process of calcining the lime, or, 
 in other words, did not produce more than 
 two measures of burnt lime shells for one 
 measure of coal ; but it is to be understood, 
 that in whatever construction of kiln lime 
 is burnt, the fuel required to burn lime- 
 stone must vary according to the softness, 
 or hardness, or density of the stone, and 
 the quality or strength of the coal used. 
 The same measure of coal, in Scotland 
 called chews, when employed, will burn a 
 greater quantity of lime in a given time than 
 the same quantity or weight of small coal, 
 the chews or small pieces of coal admitting 
 the air to circulate more freely through the 
 kiln. Though this fact should be well 
 known to lime burners, yet they frequently 
 employ small coal in burning lime, from its 
 being procured at a less price, though really 
 at a greater expense, as it requires a much 
 larger quantity to produce the same effect, 
 and a longer time to admit of equal quan- 
 tities of lime being drawn out of the same 
 kiln in a given time. 
 
 For a sale of lime for agricultural pur- 
 poses in a limited district, I have found kilns 
 of small dimensions to be most profitable ; 
 the construction of a kiln I have employed 
 for many years was of an oval shape, 5 feet 
 wide at bottom, widening gradually to 6 
 
LIME. 
 
 feet at the height of 1 8 feet, and continuing 
 at that width to 28 feet high from the 
 bottom. A kiln of this construction has 
 been found to burn lime in much less 
 time, and with a smaller proportion of fuel, 
 than kilns of larger dimensions, narrow at 
 bottom and wide at top, as heat is well 
 known to ascend more rapidly in a perpen- 
 dicular than in a sloping direction, from 
 which arises the superiority of a narrow 
 kiln, with sides nearly perpendicular, com- 
 pared with one with sides that slope rapidly. 
 
 These narrow kilns will admit of being 
 drawn out of them every day, if fully em- 
 ployed, more than two-thirds, or nearly 
 three-fourths of what they contain, of well- 
 burnt lime ; and afford fully three of lime 
 shells for one measure of coal, when large 
 circular kilns will not give out more than 
 one-half of their contents every day, and 
 require nearly one of coal for every two 
 measures of lime burnt. In a country sale 
 of lime, the quantity sold every day is liable 
 to great fluctuations : two or three cart loads 
 will sometimes only be required from an 
 establishment which, the day before, sup- 
 plied forty ; and as lime is known to be a 
 commodity when exposed to the action of 
 air, which becomes more bulky and heavy, 
 and in that state does not admit of being 
 carried to a distance without additional 
 labour, it has been an object of importance 
 with me to find out a construction of a kiln 
 which will allow of lime being kept for 
 several days without slacking, and at the 
 same time to prevent the fire escaping at 
 the top of the kiln, if the kiln stands twenty- 
 four hours without being employed, espe- 
 cially during the autumn and winter, when 
 the air is cold and the nights long. I now 
 employ kilns of an egg shape, and also oval ; 
 the oval-shaped kilns are divided by arches 
 across the kiln, descending four feet from 
 the top : the object of the arches across the 
 kilns is to prevent the sides of the kiln falling 
 in, or contracting, and also to enable you to 
 form circular openings for feeding in the 
 stone and coal at the mouth of the kiln ; 
 upon this plan, a kiln of any length might be 
 constructed with numerous round mouths. 
 In the model of the kiln sent to the High- 
 land Society, Booker's conical cover may 
 be seen revolving upon an iron ring placed 
 upon the circular mouth, and having placed 
 a lid to the cover, I am enabled to prevent 
 the escape of heat at the top, and by cast- 
 iron doors at the bottom, the air is pre- 
 vented passing through the kiln ; so that, 
 by these precautions, the lime burner can 
 regulate the heat, and prevent its escape 
 lor several days, when the fire would be 
 extinguished, at this season, in the course 
 of twenty-four hours. This is an object of 
 ' 7H0 
 
 great importance, as it enables the lime to 
 be burnt as well, and with as small a quan- 
 tity of fuel, in the winter as the summer 
 season, and to supply the farmer with as 
 well burned lime, and at any time of the 
 year, which cannot be done in the common 
 construction of kilns, open both at top and 
 bottom, for the reasons I have before 
 stated. From the great expense attending 
 the driving of fuel from a distance of twenty- 
 five miles from my own coal-pits, I have 
 adopted the practice of coking the coal, 
 which is a saving of eight-twentieths of the 
 weight ; and I find that an equal measure 
 of coal and coke furnish the same quantity of 
 heat in burning lime, which is somewhat 
 paradoxical, but not the less true. The 
 coal is found to have little effect upon the 
 stone till it is deprived of its bitumen, or is 
 coked in the kiln ; for, during the time 
 the smoke is emitted from the top of a lime 
 kiln, little or no heat is evolved. A kiln 
 in which coke is the fuel employed, will 
 yield near a third more lime shells in a 
 given time than when coal is the fuel ; so 
 that coke may be used occasionally when a 
 greater quantity of lime is required in a 
 certain time than usual, as it is well known 
 to lime burners that the process of burning 
 is done most economically when the kiln is in 
 full action, so as almost constantly to have a 
 column of fire from the bottom to the top 
 of the kiln, with as short intervals as pos- 
 sible in working the kiln. 
 
 In working a kiln with narrow circular 
 mouths, the stone and coal should be care- 
 fully measured, so that the workmen can 
 proportion the fuel employed to the quantity 
 of stones, and it is obvious, that the quantity 
 of coal to be used must depend upon its re- 
 lative quality, and the hardness of the stone 
 to be burnt. If this measure was adopted 
 to kilns of any construction, the lime shells 
 would be found better burnt. 
 
 Circular kilns are constructed with simi- 
 lar eyes or openings at the bottom, and not 
 more than eight feet wide at eighteen feet 
 from the base, and contracted to four or 
 five feet wide at top. In lighting the kiln 
 at the commencement of burning, some care 
 should be taken not to allow the fire to re- 
 main below the upper grate. There are 
 two iron grates at the bottom of the kiln : 
 the upper grate consists of iron bars eight 
 or ten inches distant from each other across 
 the kiln, between which the pieces of burnt 
 lime fall down upon a lower grate with iron 
 bars one inch from each other, which al- 
 lows the lime ashes to fall through them 
 into an ash pit ; these lime ashes are found 
 very useful as a top-dressing for grass 
 ground, and are a clear gain to the pro- 
 prietor of lime-kilns for public sale. As a 
 
LIME. 
 
 LIME-KILN". 
 
 burner of lime for agriculture in an ex- 
 tensive district, of country to the extent of 
 150,000 imperial bushels annually, the value 
 of the lime ashes which fall through the 
 lower grate amounts to more than 1501. 
 annually : the lower grate is three feet above 
 the ground, and the upper grate is the same 
 distance from the lower one. The kilns I 
 employ at Closeburn are upwards of thirty 
 feet high, and nearly perpendicular, which 
 is the cause of the great heat in this con- 
 struction of kiln, and which is found to 
 burn lime more equally than circular kilns 
 of large dimensions. {Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 127.) 
 
 The limestone quarries of Scotland are 
 described by Mr. Carmichael {Ibid. vol. v. 
 p. 57.) : he observes, when speaking of the 
 uses of this valuable earth, " how sterile 
 must have been the soil, how cheerless the 
 dwellings, and how scanty the resources of 
 Britain before lime came into general use." 
 And on the method of calcining limestone 
 in some of the limestone quarries in Scotland 
 there is a paper. {Ibid. p. 441.) 
 
 Limestone Gravel. — There are some traces 
 of this manure in the Isle of Anglesea ; but 
 in general, it is seen only in quantities 
 in Ireland, where it is very common. It is 
 in appearance only common gravel, of a 
 blue colour, mixed with stones as large as 
 a man's fist, and also with loam or clay : it 
 has a strong effervescence with acids, and 
 when used is attended with the usual effects 
 of marl or lime. For bogs, it exceeds every 
 other manure, as its weight assists in the 
 improvement of that loose and spongy soil. 
 Upon strong clays, the use of it is unrivalled, 
 for it has all the effect of a dressing of lime, 
 and gives friability yet more than chalk 
 does. It destroys moss infallibly. Upon 
 whatever soii it is used, it is found very du- 
 rable, lasting, in many instances, in great 
 heart, from twenty to forty years. In lime- 
 stone counties, all blue gravels should be 
 examined ; for it is an invaluable treasure 
 wherever found. {Annals of Ag. vol. xxxix. 
 p. 164.) 
 
 Arthur Young was of opinion, that the 
 lime made by calcining limestone was 
 much superior for agricultural purposes 
 to that made from chalk, of which last de- 
 scription he had evidently but a poor opi- 
 nion as a fertiliser. He thought too, and 
 very justly, that this earth was not so ad- 
 vantageously applied, when mixed with 
 farmyard- dung, as when applied in its simple 
 state ; a conclusion in which he was no 
 doubt pretty near the truth, although he 
 gives some facts observed by a farmer at 
 Belchamp Walter, in Essex, which rather 
 militates against this conclusion : " It de- 
 jtroys," says the Rev. P. Raymond, " all the 
 761 
 
 seeds of weeds in the crop — twenty-five 
 bushels of lime to twenty loads of dung per 
 acre. It is found, however, to be rather 
 detrimental to turnips. Crude lime, laid 
 upon light dry land, at the rate of one 
 bushel to the rod, has produced benefit for 
 seven years : it is generally in this parish 
 carried on to stiff clay, with great advantage, 
 mixed with dung. It is of still more use to 
 wheat than barley. {Johnson on Fertilisers, 
 p. 294.) 
 
 There is perhaps no other country so 
 richly endowed with this earth as our own 
 island, for to say nothing of its great strata 
 of chalk, how endless are the masses and 
 varieties of limestones. Let us not there- 
 fore neglect but extend by every means in 
 our power the use of the treasures we pos- 
 sess, for by so doing we may not only in- 
 crease the fertility of lands already (like 
 the more tenacious clays for instance) in 
 some degree productive of food, but we can 
 bring into cultivation by the judicious em- 
 ployment of this powerful earth the most 
 sterile peats, the trembling bogs, the most 
 worthless heaths : the inferior plants, such 
 as the acid sorrel, are banished by its influ- 
 ence, and the soil which once only held the 
 stagnant water impregnated with unwhole- 
 some vegetable and mineral matters, is now 
 made to produce the most useful of the culti- 
 vator's crops, and the improvement too is of 
 even national importance, for such lands not 
 only furnish additional employment to the 
 labourer, but they now purify an atmo- 
 sphere which their exhalations in an unim- 
 proved state once corrupted. 
 
 LIMESTONE. A generic term for those 
 varieties of carbonate of lime, which are 
 neither crystallised nor earthy ; the former 
 being calcareous spar, the latter chalk ; when 
 burned they yield quicklime. See Geology, 
 Chalk, Lime. 
 
 LIME or LYME GRASS. See Eeymus. 
 
 LIME-KILN". A furnace or rough 
 structure erected for the purpose of con- 
 verting limestone into the lime of commerce 
 by keeping it for some time in a white heat. 
 
 The forms of lime-kilns vary; but the 
 best is that of the frustrum of a cone, which 
 •permits the ignited mass in the upper part 
 to settle down freely, as the lower portion 
 is drawn out. In some places, the kilns are 
 sunk in the earth, in the form of inverted 
 cones, and lined with brick. It is calcu- 
 lated that such kilns will burn 150 bushels 
 of lime in twenty-four hours. When chalk 
 is used, and it is dry, five bushels may be 
 burnt with one bushel of coals ; but the 
 dampness of the chalk lessens considerably 
 the power of the fuel. Peat is sometimes 
 used instead of coals, and some burners pre- 
 fer it to coal. Whatever the fuel may be, 
 
LIME TREES. 
 
 LINEN. 
 
 that is the best which prevents the lime 
 from running together in masses. The best 
 test of the lime being sufficiently calcined 
 is its slacking, and falling into complete 
 powder, when water is poured on it. See 
 Lime. 
 
 LIME TREES. (Tilia.) These are for 
 the most part ornamental, lofty-growing 
 trees, well suited for avenues and parks. 
 They thrive in any soil, and are increased 
 by layers or seeds ; if by layers the tree 
 must be cut down close to the ground, and 
 from its roots a great number of shoots are 
 produced in the following year ; these will 
 be strong enough to lay down the succeeding 
 autumn. Trees raised from seed are far 
 preferable to those raised from layers. The 
 Russian bass-mats are made from the inner 
 bark of the lime-tree, while the Avood, from 
 its being light and white, is much used by 
 the carver and musical instrument maker. 
 
 The charcoal is used in the manufacture 
 of gunpowder, and is considered as scarcely 
 inferior for that purpose to the charcoal 
 produced from the alder and willow. If we 
 possess no evidence sufficiently conclusive 
 to prove that the lime-tree in any of its 
 forms is truly indigenous in Britain, we have 
 at least enough to show that it has long 
 been naturalised, and that its introduction 
 must have taken place at a very distant 
 period ; for upon referring to the earlier 
 works, such as Turner, Gerard, &c. we find 
 it (in the form of T. E. microphylla) spoken 
 of as a well-known, and in their estimation 
 apparently as a native tree. By many 
 botanists (says Mr. Selby), several species of 
 lime are enumerated as inhabitants of 
 Europe, and Sir J. E. Smith makes three 
 distinct species of those cultivated and grown 
 in Britain, viz. T. europcea, T. grandifolia, 
 and T. parvifolia, the two latter answering 
 to the T. platyphylla and T. microphylla of 
 other authors. We are, however (continues 
 Mr. Selby), inclined to adopt the views and 
 follow the opinion of the author of the 
 Arboretum britannicum, and to consider these 
 not as specifically distinct from T. europcea, 
 in its usual form, but as marked varieties, or, 
 as Mr. Loudon designates them, races, origi- 
 nally produced from the seed of one, and 
 which have been kept distinct, and per- 
 petuated by means of layers, grafting, and 
 other artificial modes of propagation ; a view 
 we think strongly corroborated by the fact 
 that the seeds of the different kinds, or sup- 
 posed species, do not always produce plants 
 exactly similar to the trees from which they 
 are gathered, but run into varieties, the seed 
 of T. E. platyphylla often producing plants 
 similar in every respect to those of T. euro- 
 paa (the common lime), and so with the 
 other kinds. 
 
 762 
 
 The lime tree appears to have been held 
 in repute in ancient as well as in modern 
 times, for we learn from Theophrastus that 
 it was known to the Greeks, and Pliny 
 speaks of it as a tree held in high esteem 
 by the Romans, not only for the ornament 
 and shade it afforded, but for the qualities 
 of its wood, and the various purposes to 
 which it was adapted. Nearly two hundred 
 years have elapsed since it was planted 
 along the streets of continental as well as 
 English towns, where their width would 
 admit of it, as affording a pleasant shade 
 and protection during the summer heats, 
 and it was extensively used in topiary works, 
 and in that style of gardening called archi- 
 tectural, as it bore cutting with the knife 
 or shears with patience, and comparative 
 impunity. Examples of this style still exist 
 in some parts of England, and are frequent 
 upon the Continent, in France and Holland, 
 where pyramids, arches, and colonnades are 
 formed of this tree, and sometimes these 
 produce an imposing effect. As an orna- 
 mental tree in picturesque gardening, the 
 lime is well worth cultivating, as it ranks 
 in the first class, in point of magnitude fre- 
 quently attaining a height of eighty or 
 ninety feet, and a trunk corresponding in 
 circumference to such an altitude. The 
 lime holds an important place in the Ma- 
 teria Medica of France, and other conti- 
 nental countries ; but its medicinal powers 
 are merely those of a demulcent. {Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 17. 21. ; Loudoris Arb. Brit.; Gilpin s 
 Forest Scenery ; Selby s British Forest 
 Trees ; Phillips s Srjl. Flor.) 
 
 LINDEN-TREE. See Lime-Tree. 
 
 LINE. In angling, a series of threads 
 or horse hairs twisted together, suspended 
 on a rod, and furnished at the end with a 
 hook, for catching fish. The best material 
 for making lines is horsehair, which should 
 be uniformly twisted, as its strength will 
 thus be considerably increased. Silk is also 
 occasionally employed, but is by no means 
 equal to hair. The best colours for lines 
 are sorrel Tor turbid waters, and white or 
 gray for clear streams.- A light green tinge 
 may be imparted to fishing lines by im- 
 mersing the hair in a liquor prepared of 
 alum, soot, and walnut leaves boiled to- 
 gether. 
 
 LINEN. (Germ, lienwand.) A species 
 of cloth woven with the fibres of the flax 
 plant. The linen manufacture has been 
 prosecuted in England for a very long pe- 
 riod, but though its progress has been con- 
 siderable, particularly of late years, it has 
 not been so great as might have been anti- 
 cipated. It is only within the last fifty 
 years that any machinery has been used in 
 
LING. 
 
 LINSEED. 
 
 the production of linen cloth, the first mills 
 for the spinning of flax having been con- 
 structed at Darlington, about forty-eight 
 years ago. The principal seat of the manu- 
 facture is, in England, Leeds and its im- 
 mediate vicinity, and in Lancashire, Dorset, 
 Durham, and Salop ; in Scotland, Dundee, 
 which, indeed, may be regarded as the chief 
 seat of the British manufacture ; and, in 
 Ireland, the province of Ulster. The entire 
 value of the linen manufacture of Great 
 Britain and Ireland is estimated at 
 8,000,000Z., and the total number of persons 
 employed in it, about 185,000. (M'Cul- 
 loclis Com. Diet. ; Statist, of the Brit. Em- 
 pire, vol. i. p. 679. ; Brandes Diet, of Sci. 
 and Art ; Geog. Diet art. " Dundee.") 
 
 LING. (Calluna vulgaris.) A species 
 of heath. To avoid the inconvenience of 
 giving a new generic appellation to the 
 hundreds of plants familiar to every body 
 as Erica or heaths, Mr. Salisbury has j u- 
 diciously called our common ling Calluna, 
 from KaXXwuj ; which is doubly suitable, 
 whether with Mr. Salisbury and Dr. Hull 
 we take it to express a cleansing property, 
 brooms being made of ling, or whether we 
 adopt the more common sense of the word, 
 to ornament or adorn, which is very appli- 
 cable to the flowers. This shrub grows 
 almost every where, on dry moors, heaths, 
 and open barren wastes, as well as in woods, 
 where the soil is sandy or turfy. The 
 stems are bushy, repeatedly and irregularly 
 branched. Leaves deep green, minute, ses- 
 sile, acute, keeled, somewhat arrow-shaped, 
 closely imbricated on the young branches, 
 making a quadrangular figure, like a close- 
 beaten chain ; they are generally smooth, 
 but in one variety are densely hoary all 
 over. The flowers are stalked, drooping, 
 in longish unilateral clusters, soon over- 
 topped by leafy shoots. The inner calyx, 
 which is the most conspicuous part of the 
 flower, is of a shining permanent rose colour. 
 The flowers appear in June and July. Grouse 
 and other birds, as well as some quadrupeds, 
 eat the seeds and young shoots. There is 
 a white-flowered variety, and a very beau- 
 tiful double red one, cultivated in gardens, 
 whose flowers, from a copious multiplication 
 of the corolla, resemble little roses. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 225.) See Heath. 
 
 iJNHAY. A provincial word applied 
 in Devonshire, to signify an open shed. 
 
 LINIMENT. (Lat. lino, I anoint.) In 
 farriery, a semi-fluid ointment, or a soapy 
 application to rub upon painful joints. 
 The term is also applied to spirituous and 
 other stimulating applications for external 
 use. Liniments are intended either to lu- 
 bricate or to stimulate ; but in either case 
 they can only be regarded as topical appli- 
 763 
 
 cations, their, influence not extending be- 
 yond the part to which they are applied. 
 In some instances they are anodyne ; and 
 contain solutions of opium in oil. 
 
 LINNETS. (Fringillidce.) Mr.Yarrell, 
 in his British Birds, adopts the term Linota 
 as the generic appellation for the linnets. 
 The linnets were probably so named from 
 their partiality to the seeds of the various 
 species of flax, — linum, linaria, linota, la 
 linotte, linnet. As two of the British lin- 
 nets will be noticed under the head redpole, 
 by which common name they are most ge- 
 nerally known, I shall only have to describe 
 in this place two species, the common linnet 
 and the mountain linnet. 
 
 1. The common linnet {Linota cannabind) 
 is a very elegant bird of a small size, 
 which is deservedly esteemed for its song. 
 Linnets exist in great numbers on most of 
 the uncultivated lands of this country, ap- 
 pearing to prefer commons and fields of 
 furze. The plumage is in general chestnut 
 and greyish brown, but in the breeding 
 season the lower part of the breast is tinged 
 with a blood-red colour, and it is then 
 called the rose linnet, and at other times 
 the brown linnet. The female constructs 
 her nest of small twigs and bents of grass, 
 lined with wool and hair, in hedges and 
 furze bushes on heaths. The eggs are four 
 or five in number, of a faint bluish-white 
 colour, speckled with pale purple and 
 reddish brown ; the length nine lines by six 
 lines and a half in breadth. The whole 
 length of the male bird is five inches and 
 three quarters. The female is somewhat 
 smaller. 
 
 2. The mountain linnet, or twite (Z. 
 montium). This species (says Mr. Yarrell) 
 is distinguished from the common linnet, and 
 from both the redpole linnets, by the greater 
 length of its tail, which gives this bird a 
 more elongated and slender appearance ; 
 and by having a reddish tawny throat, but 
 it does not exhibit any red colour either on 
 the head or breast at any season of the 
 year. There is, however, a tinge of red on 
 the rump of the male in summer, and in 
 the general character of the plumage of 
 both sexes there is considerable similarity 
 to that of the other species of the genus. 
 This bird is a winter visitor only to the 
 southern parts of England, where it is ge- 
 nerally seen in small flocks, with other lin- 
 nets ; but it breeds in the northern parts of 
 England, in Scotland, and in the western 
 as well as the northern Scottish islands, 
 every season. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 502—521.) 
 
 LINSEED or FLAX-SEED. (Lat. 
 Mm semen; Germ, leinsaat.) The seed of 
 the flax plant. (See Flax.) This seed is 
 
LINSEED CAKE. 
 
 small, oval, oblong, flattened laterally, acute 
 at the extremities, glossy, brown ; but in- 
 ternally white. It is inodorous, and tastes 
 mucilaginous and oily. The husk or testa 
 yields much mucilage to water, and the 
 kernel a large proportion of oil to pressure. 
 Besides upwards of 11 per cent, of oil, 
 linseed contains wax, an acrid soft resin, 
 extractive, a yellow colouring matter, 
 starch, gum, tannic acid, albumen, gluten, 
 emulsive, and some salts. When the seeds 
 are burnt, the ashes contain oxide of copper. 
 The infusion of linseed in boiling water 
 yields a demulcent mucilage, which is much 
 used as a domestic medicine in coughs, and 
 in cases of acrimony in the urinary dis- 
 charge. The linseed should not be boiled 
 in the water, as that extracts the oil as well 
 as the mucilage, and renders the decoction 
 nauseating. 
 
 Linseed is much used in the economy of 
 the farm, for feeding cattle and other pur- 
 poses. A bushel of linseed averages in 
 weight about fifty-one pounds ; this weight, 
 when crushed, produces about a quarter 
 of its weight of linseed oil, and the remainder 
 is cake. The great bulk of this seed is ob- 
 tained from the Baltic and the Black Sea, 
 and recently considerable quantities have 
 been received from Egypt and Hindostan : 
 of this last, the general character is, that 
 although the seed is good, the impurities 
 with which it is mixed are very considerable, 
 such as the seeds of rape, &c. ; for which 
 reason the oil obtained from it does not 
 possess the drying qualities of that ex- 
 pressed from the unmixed linseed, and the 
 dealers in consequence will not give so 
 much for it. This arises not from any in- 
 tentional adulteration, but from the bad 
 farming, and want of cleanliness of the ori- 
 entalists. 
 
 Linseed oil contains a very considerable 
 quantity of mucilage, which it almost en- 
 tirely deposits by time ; and hence, old lin- 
 seed oil is more valued by the painter, but 
 for the grazier, perhaps, its nutritive powers 
 decrease by time. It is said by some per- 
 sons, that it is to the presence of this mu- 
 cilage that we must attribute the fattening 
 quality of linseed oil when mixed with 
 other substances, for linseed oil by itself is 
 almost as powerful a purgative as castor 
 oil, for which purpose indeed it is very 
 commonly employed by the farmer ; but on 
 the other hand, we must remember, that in 
 small doses even castor oil is very fattening. 
 Linseed is in fact commonly given to some 
 birds, parrots for instance, for this purpose. 
 Its purgative properties are very inferior 
 to those of castor oil. 
 
 LINSEED CAKE. Linseed cake is a 
 well-known and valuable article for the 
 764 
 
 food of live stock, almost equally good for 
 cattle, sheep, and horses. It is the residuum, 
 or refuse, left after the oil is expressed from 
 linseed. 1000 parts of it, according to 
 Davy, contain about 151 parts of nutritive 
 matter. Its price has induced many at- 
 tempts to economise its application. It has 
 been often given as recommended by Mr. 
 Hillyard, mixed with other substances, 
 whose value he thus estimates : — 
 
 " The weekly cost of feeding each beast, 
 including the expense' of getting up, cart- 
 ing, and cutting the turnips and hay, and 
 attendance, will be — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 10± Bushels of turnips - 2 9 
 If Cwt. of hay - - 5 3 
 
 Turnips - - - 2 9 
 
 lJCwt. ofcut and uncut hay - 3 9 
 
 I Bushel of meal - 3 0 
 
 1 Pint of linseed oil - 0 6 
 
 i Bushel of linseed - 3 6 
 
 3 Gallons of meal - 1 6 
 
 Cut and uncut hay - 3 9 
 
 Turnips - - 2 9 
 
 21 Oil cakes, at Qd. - 6 0 
 
 3 Gallons of meal - 1 6 
 
 Cut and uncut hay - 3 9 
 
 Turnips - - 2 9 
 
 10*. 
 
 Us. 6il 
 
 14s. 
 
 can be 
 
 " No food," adds Mr. Hillyard 
 given to stall-feeding beasts that will fatten 
 them so soon or so well as linseed oil cake. 
 It certainly is expensive feed, but not so 
 expensive as it appears to be, taking into 
 consideration that it fattens quicker. Beasts 
 that have been fed with it, do not, after a 
 long drift to market, lose their firmness of 
 handling, as those do, fed without either 
 cake or linseed, and whose dung is not 
 of equal value. Some winters I have fed 
 with linseed instead of cake, and found it 
 answer very well, although it added to the 
 trouble of feeding. My mode of preparing 
 it has been to break it in a little hand-mill, 
 and steep it in cold water in seven tubs of 
 a size sufficient for one day's feed ; in this 
 way it will have been steeped seven days 
 before it is mixed with cut hay and barley, 
 or (which is better) bean meal. If steeped 
 in hot water, two days will do ; if steeped 
 longer than three, it is apt to get a little 
 sour, which, in my opinion, is not quite so 
 well for the beasts. Boiling it is trouble- 
 some, but it thus becomes more of a jelly, 
 and mixes better with the cut hay ami 
 meal, and it prevents the numerous seeds 
 of weeds, found in foreign linseed, from 
 vegetating. One stone of linseed, in a. 
 mixture of other food,%vill do as much to- 
 wards feeding as two stone of cake, which 
 
LINSEED CAKE. 
 
 LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 is merely the husk of the seed after the oil 
 has been pressed out. Linseed, without 
 being mixed with meal, is of too relaxing a 
 nature. 
 
 " Finding, at Christmas, 1838, that I could 
 not get English oil-cake at home at less than 
 about 121. 10s. per ton, I determined to feed 
 the thirty-five beasts then in my stalls, in 
 the following way, and I never had beasts 
 that became better meat ; but as the pro- 
 cess of preparing the food is very trouble- 
 some, I should not recommend this way of 
 feeding without the owner of the beasts 
 will daily see that all is done right : — 
 
 Three feeds daily, of half a bushel s. d. 
 of cut hay, which is 5 lbs each, and 
 4 lbs. uncut at night ; 1 cwt. and not 
 quite a quarter - - - 3 6 
 
 Boiled linseed, 2 lbs. daily, 56s. per 
 
 quarter ; weight, 50 lbs. per bushel - 2 0 
 
 Boiled potatoes, 2 lbs. daily, 1£ gal- 
 lons - - - - 1 6 
 
 Molasses (which is feeding, but may 
 be left out when the beasts have taken 
 to the linseed, as it is only given to 
 make the mixture palatable), about a 
 \ lb daily - - - 0 9 
 
 Turnips, or mangle wurzle - 2 6 
 
 Barley and bean meal, mixed, 3± 
 
 gallons - - - 1 9 
 
 12 0 
 
 " If this mixed food could be pressed to- 
 gether to form a cake, it would be a feeding- 
 one, and the cost 11c?. per stone. As a 
 proof that this mixture is both palatable 
 and nutritive to beasts, they will not eat, 
 excepting in the night, where they have 
 none of it, any of the sweetest hay that can 
 be put before them." (Prac. Farm, p. 89.) 
 
 Many farmers use ground linseed mixed 
 with bran and chaff for their stock, deeming 
 it a more economical plan than the em- 
 ployment of linseed cake. Others use the 
 linseed unground. The saying by this mode, 
 however, is doubtful, for it is by no means 
 certain that the oil possesses any very ma- 
 terial fattening properties ; and if it does 
 not, then the cake is decidedly the cheapest. 
 For at the present prices (1841), 51 lbs. of 
 linseed are worth 7 s. 6d., while 51 lbs. of 
 cake, at HZ. per ton, are only worth about 
 5s. ; and admitting that the oil does con- 
 tain some fattening properties, yet it must 
 be remembered that the value of the oil 
 obtained from a bushel of linseed is worth, 
 for other purposes, about 4s. But, on the 
 other hand, I am aware that a very intelli- 
 gent farmer near Rumford, Mr. S. Poole, 
 who, in 1840, fed his bullocks with a mix- 
 ture of linseed oil and cut chaff, and also 
 other bullocks with, linseed cake and hay, 
 considered the oil to be the cheapest of the 
 765 
 
 two, and in all respects equally fattening, 
 but then it is certain that this mode requires 
 more attention in the mixture of the oil 
 and chaff than the other plan. He com- 
 menced with about a quarter of a pint per 
 day, and gradually increased it to a pint. 
 
 Many have been the experiments upon 
 feeding cattle with linseed. " Two Scots 
 were fed on English linseed cakes ; two 
 Devons on unboiled linseed ; two others on 
 boiled linseed ; and another pair of Devons 
 on foreign ; all of them having as much hay 
 and chaff as they could eat. It was a losing 
 concern in every case. The value of the 
 manure was not equal to the difference of 
 the cost, and the selling prices ; and, strange 
 as it may appear, the greatest loss was sus- 
 tained, when the beasts were fed on oil 
 cake ; the next when foreign cake was used ; 
 the next when boiled linseed was used ; and 
 the least of all when the simple unboiled 
 linseed was given." {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. 
 p. 213.) 
 
 LINSEED JELLY is easily made by 
 adding to six quarts of water one quart of 
 linseed, boiling it for ten minutes. This, 
 mixed with other substances, is sometimes 
 given to live stock as food, and, mixed with 
 milk, is very nutritive for calves. 
 
 LINSEED OIL is an excellent purga- 
 tive for sheep, from 2 to 3 ounces; for 
 horses, in doses of from 16 to 24 ounces; 
 for cattle, from 12 to 20 ounces. The 
 quality of linseed oil may be determined in 
 the following manner : " I fill a phial with 
 it, and hold it up to the light ; if bad it will 
 appear opaque, turbid, and thick ; its taste 
 is acid and bitter upon the tongue, and it 
 smells rancid ; and strong oil, from fine 
 full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a 
 phial, will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; 
 it is mellow, and sweet to the taste, has 
 very little smell, is specifically lighter than 
 impure oil, and when clarified dries quickly 
 and finelv." {Quart. Journ of Agr. vol. v. 
 p. 467.) 
 
 LIP. In botany, the lower petal of any 
 irregular flower. 
 
 LIQUID MANURE. Liquid manure 
 is not a mode of fertilising the land alto- 
 gether of modern origin, for a fermented 
 mixture of water and night-soil has, from a 
 very early period, been employed by the 
 Chinese farmers ; those of Italy certainly 
 practised irrigation in the days of Virgil 
 (Georgics, b. i. v. 106-9.), and Cato adds 
 that they employed a mixture of grape- 
 stones and water to fertilise their olive- 
 trees (b. xxxvii.). Columella praises very 
 highly the use of putrid stale urine for 
 vines and apple-trees (b. ii. c. 15.), com- 
 mending also the lees of oil for the same 
 purpose. More modern agricultural writers 
 
LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 Lave united in praising various liquid 
 preparations ; thus Evelyn (whose ingre- 
 dients most of the authors recommend), in 
 his Treatise on Earth, p. 123-60., gives se- 
 veral recipes, some of which have served as 
 the basis for recent modes of preparing 
 liquid manure, such as the dung of cattle, 
 urine, salt and lime, and nitre. Of these 
 artificial mixtures, salt one part, and lime 
 two parts, mixed together and allowed to 
 remain in a heap for two or three months 
 (Mr. Bennett turns it over three or four 
 times in this period), is fully equal, if not 
 superior, to any thus recommended, most of 
 which I have tried. When mixed with 
 water and spread over land intended for 
 wheat, at the rate of from 25 to 35 bushels 
 of the salt and lime to 10 or 15 tons of 
 water per acre (and it answers very nearly 
 as well when carried on the land dry), ex- 
 cellent results are produced. The wheat 
 which I have thus grown on clover leys has 
 been superior in height, and strength of 
 straw, to any I have seen produced under 
 different modes of treatment, and the seed 
 very bright and heavy. 
 
 All substances, whether organic, earthy, 
 or saline, which are employed to fertilise 
 the soil, or become the food of plants, can 
 only be rendered thus serviceable to vege- 
 tation when they are presented to the roots 
 of plants in solution, or in a fluid state ; 
 and although this may appear at first 
 rather a sweeping position, yet such is the 
 real fact, the compost of the farm-yard, the 
 crushed bones of the turnip cultivator, the 
 oil and bones of fish, the gypsum of the 
 grazier, the earths, lime, magnesia, and 
 even silica, and all the saline manures, are 
 dissolved by some process or other before 
 they can be absorbed by vegetables. Every 
 attempt which has been hitherto made to 
 make plants imbibe the most minutely di- 
 vided powers which chemistry can produce, 
 has been entirely fruitless. Davy ineffect- 
 ually tried the finest impalpable powder of 
 charcoal, and with much perseverance I 
 have fruitlessly employed the earths, saline 
 substances, and organic matters, for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 This absolute necessity for every sub- 
 stance which is the food of plants being of 
 a soluble nature did not escape the sagacity 
 of the early Greek and Egyptian philoso- 
 phers ; it is true they carried their conclu- 
 sions with regard to subjects of natural 
 philosophy too far, as in this instance, when 
 they asserted that water is the only food of 
 plants ; yet they must have patiently no- 
 ticed many facts in vegetable economy, 
 unaided as they were by the light of mo- 
 dern vegetable chemistry, before they could 
 have arrived at a conclusion so nearly ap- 
 766 
 
 proaching the truth. The idea was pro- 
 bably of Egyptian origin, for the cultivators 
 of that country could not fail to notice the 
 magic fertilising powers of the waters of the 
 Nile, whose annual overflow is perhaps the 
 most extensive natural irrigation taken ad- 
 vantage of by the cultivators of the earth. 
 
 The same wild dream of water being the 
 sole food of vegetables was again revived, 
 so lately as 1610, by M. Van Helmont, a 
 celebrated Dutch chemist, who made some 
 very plausible, deceptive experiments on a 
 willow-tree, which he watered only with 
 rain Water ; researches, however, whose in- 
 accuracy (owing principally to rain water, 
 as usually collected, not being quite pure) 
 was shown in 1691 by Mr. Woodward. 
 Although, therefore, it is now well ascer- 
 tained that water is not the only food of 
 plants, yet it certainly contributes univer- 
 sally and largely to their support ; and, as 
 it has been well observed by Davy, no 
 manure can be taken up by the roots of 
 plants unless water is present ; and water, 
 or its elements, exists in all the products of 
 vegetation. {Lecture 15.) 
 
 It must not, however, be concluded that 
 these carefully considered conclusions, from 
 the results of often-repeated laborious expe- 
 riments, are erroneous, because transparent 
 water, apparently pure, as in water-glasses, 
 or in irrigation, promotes the growth of 
 bulbs, grass, &c, since the very purest 
 spring water, even rain-water, contains 
 foreign substances, as I have clearly ascer- 
 tained by experiment ; and when only 
 chemically pure water is employed to water 
 plants, they cannot be made to flourish. I 
 have fruitlessly varied the attempt in se- 
 veral ways. All the experiments of Dr. 
 Thomson were equally unsuccessful, the 
 plants vegetating only for a certain time, 
 and never perfecting their seeds. Similar 
 experiments were made by Hassenfratz and 
 Saussure, and others, with the same unfa- 
 vourable result. Duhamel found that an 
 oak which he had raised from an acorn in 
 common water, made less and less progress 
 every year. The florist is well aware that 
 bulbous roots, such as hyacinths, tulips, &c. 
 which are made to grow in water, unless 
 they are planted in the earth every other 
 year, at first refuse to flower, and finally 
 even to vegetate. Moreover, it has been 
 unanswerably shown by many very accurate 
 experiments (Reck, sur la Veg. p. 51.), at the 
 varied repetition of which I have personally 
 assisted, that the quantity of nourishment 
 or solid matters absorbed by the roots of 
 plants is always in proportion to the im- 
 purity of the water with which they are 
 nourished ; thus some beans were made to 
 vegetate under three different circum- 
 
LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 stances ; the first were grown in distilled 
 water ; the second were placed in sand and 
 watered with rain water ; the third were 
 sown in garden mould. The plants thus 
 produced, when accurately analysed, were 
 found to yield the following proportions of 
 ashes : — 
 
 1. Those fed by distilled water - "3-9 
 
 2. Those fed by rain water - 7*5 
 
 3. Those grown in soil - - 12'0 
 
 And again, all attempts to make plants 
 flourish in the pure earths have failed ut- 
 terly when they have been watered with 
 pure water ; yet a totally different result I 
 liave invariably experienced when I have 
 employed an impure solution or liquid ma- 
 nure. My trials have been entirely sup- 
 ported by" those of M. Giobert, who, having 
 formed of the four earths, silica, alumina, 
 lime, and magnesia, a soil in the most fertile 
 proportion, in vain essayed to make the 
 plants flourish in it when watered with pure 
 water only : but every difficulty was re- 
 moved when he moistened it with the water 
 from a dunghill, for they then grew most 
 luxuriantly ; and M. Lampadius still fur- 
 ther demonstrated the powers of such a foul 
 liquid manure, for he formed plots composed 
 of only a single earth, pure lime, pure alu- 
 mina, pure silica, and planted in each dif- 
 ferent vegetables, watering them with the 
 liquid drainings from a dunghill, and he 
 found that they all flourished equally well. 
 The soluble matters of a soil ever constitute, 
 in fact, its most fertilising portion ; and if 
 by any artificial means the richest mould is 
 deprived of these, as by repeated washings 
 in cold or boiling water, the residuum, or 
 remaining solid matter, is rendered nearly 
 sterile : this fact, first accurately demon- 
 strated by M. Saussure (Rech. 150.), I have 
 since confirmed by a variety of experiments 
 of my own. 
 
 The soluble matters or liquid manures 
 consumed by plants are sometimes imbibed 
 by their roots unaltered, — in other cases 
 they are decomposed during their absorp- 
 tion. The earths, gypsum, and other salts, 
 are instances of the first class ; oil, and other 
 purely animal matters, of the last. Davy 
 found that some plants of mint, which he 
 forced to vegetate in sugar and water, ap- 
 parently absorbed the sugar unaltered, for 
 they yielded a considerably larger propor- 
 tion of a sweetish vegetable extract than 
 those of the same weight which he had 
 grown in common water ; and it is an as- 
 certained fact, that the roots of plants will 
 absorb or reject the various earthy sub- 
 stances of a soil, or even when placed in a 
 saline solution, in a very remarkable man- 
 ner : thus, when equal parts of gum and 
 7G7 
 
 sugar were dissolved together in water, and 
 some perfect plants of Polygonum Persicaria 
 placed with their roots in the solution, it 
 was found that they absorbed 36 parts of 
 the sugar, but only 26 of the gum; and 
 when in precisely the same proportions and 
 manner Glauber salt, common salt, and 
 acetate of lime were used, then it was found 
 that the roots of the Persicaria separated 
 these salts from the solution with much ease, 
 absorbing 6 parts of the Glauber salt, 10 
 parts of the common salt, but not a trace of 
 the acetate of lime. (Thomson, vol. iv. 
 p. 321.) 
 
 These facts will not be uninteresting to 
 the irrigators or occupiers of the English 
 water-meadows, since they may in some de- 
 gree serve to account for the beneficial 
 action of water on such lands — a question 
 not nearly so well understood as it ought to 
 be, and on which widely differing opinions 
 are commonly held by practical farmers. 
 It is a theme intimately connected with the 
 subject of this article, for irrigation is, in 
 truth, a mode of applying the weakest of 
 liquid manures, on a very bold scale, to 
 grass-lands. See Irrigation. 
 
 The employment of artificially prepared 
 liquid manure (though little known at pre- 
 sent in England) is very extensive on the 
 Continent : the Swiss farmers call it guile ; 
 in France it is denominated lizier ; and by 
 the Germans, mist-wasser. They prepare it 
 throughout many of the German states, and 
 in the Netherlands, by sweeping the excre- 
 ments of their stall-fed cattle into under- 
 ground reservoirs, mixing it with four or 
 five times its bulk of water, according to 
 the richness of the dung : fiv.e reservoirs 
 are generally employed, of such a size that 
 they each take a week to fill ; and thus each 
 has four weeks allowed to ferment before 
 the mass, which in this time becomes of an 
 uniform consistence, is removed, by means 
 of a portable pump, in water carts, or large 
 open vessels. A similar plan is adopted in 
 the north of Italy, and from time out of 
 mind has been practised by the Chinese. 
 In that empire, however, the cultivators 
 chiefly employ night soil, which is made 
 into cakes for this purpose with lime or clay, 
 in all their large cities, to prepare their 
 liquid manure. 
 
 It is from long experience an admitted 
 fact among the German farmers, that there 
 are no manures so powerful in their oper- 
 ation as those which are liquids, such as 
 human urine or bullocks' blood ; so that no 
 English farmer need fear deception as to 
 their asserted value. This very fact was 
 submitted some years since to the consider- 
 ation of Professor Hembstadt,' of Berlin, by 
 the Saxon and Prussian authorities, who 
 
LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 were anxious to apply *tlie contents of the 
 city drains towards fertilising the barren 
 lands in the neighbourhood of Dresden and 
 Berlin. This talented agriculturist under- 
 took, in consequence, a series of valuable 
 experiments, which, varied in every possible 
 way, were carried on for a considerable 
 period ; the result of them, so highly ad- 
 vantageous to the prosperity of Germany, 
 Hembstadt then published. They were re- 
 peated with unvaried success by Professor 
 Schiibler, and the results may be stated in 
 the following order : — 
 
 If the soil, without any manure, yield a 
 produce of three times the quantity of seed 
 originally sown, then the same quantity of 
 land will produce — 
 
 5 times the quantity of seed sown, when 
 dressed with old herbage, grass, leaves, 
 &c. 
 
 7 times, when dressed with cow dung. 
 
 9 times, with pigeons' dung. 
 10 times, with horse dung. 
 12 times, with human urine. 
 12 times, with sleep's dung. 
 14 times, with human manure, or bullocks' 
 blood. 
 
 Thus, it will be seen, that, of seven usu- 
 ally employed fertilisers, the liquid manures, 
 urine and blood, were found to be decidedly 
 the most powerful. 
 
 Both with regard to the quantity of liquid 
 manure applied per acre, and the mode of 
 spreading it, much must depend upon the 
 circumstances under which the cultivator is 
 placed, and the richness of the liquid he 
 employs. If the impurities dissolved, or 
 mechanically suspended in the water, are 
 equal to 1 part in 10, then 20 to 30 ton 
 per acre of the liquid manure I have found 
 amply sufficient, under ordinary circum- 
 stances, to produce the most excellent re- 
 sults ; if the fluid mass is purer, then more 
 must be applied. For gardens, and small 
 plots of ground in general, the liquid may 
 be readily and evenly distributed over the 
 beds by means of a watering-pot or garden- 
 engine ; for fields it must be carried in 
 water-carts, and distributed either by being 
 let into a transverse trough, pierced with 
 holes in the manner of those employed for 
 street waterings, or the Flemish plan may be 
 adopted (especially when the manure is of 
 too considerable a thickness to flow readily 
 through holes), of taking it into the fields in 
 the water carts, open at the top (furnished 
 with slight moveable covers), and then dis- 
 tributing it out of the cart very evenly by 
 means of a scoop ; and I have invariably 
 perceived the advantage of ploughing the 
 liquid into the soil as soon after it was spread 
 on the land as possible. The cultivator will 
 find great advantage if he uses the garden- 
 7G8 
 
 engine, watering-pot, or cart, from straining 
 the liquid manure, before he pumps it out 
 of the reservoir, either through straw, coarse 
 sand, or a basket ; the pieces of straw, and 
 other coarsely divided matters thus sepa- 
 rated by the strainer, he will discover add 
 very slightly to the fertilising powers of the 
 liquid, and yet they all materially hinder the 
 even distribution of the manure. 
 
 The expense, per acre, of such an appli- 
 cation of liquid manure, I thus estimate, 
 supposing the cow-herd to be employed : — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Three tons of cow or other fresh 
 
 dung - - - - 0 18 0 
 
 Labour in mixing and occasionally 
 stirring it with from 20 to 25 tons 
 of water - - -020 
 
 Carting, and spreading it on the field 0 8 0 
 
 £18 0 
 
 If it shall occur to the farmer, that the 
 quantity of solid manure thus added to the 
 soil will not, in reality, much exceed, two 
 tons per acre, and that this is, in appear- 
 ance, a very small allowance, I would 
 remind him that the quantity thus con- 
 veyed consists of the soluble or richest 
 portion of the manure, and is, in fact, the 
 extract without any of the straw, or other 
 inert residuum usually carried on to the 
 soil ; besides, it is a very erroneous, though 
 common conclusion, that to produce fer- 
 tility a manure must be used in large 
 quantities. I have observed in this paper, 
 that a flooding with river water, so pro- 
 ductive of heavy crops of grass in the water 
 meadows, does not carry on to the land 
 more than two tons per acre of animal and 
 vegetable substances ; and, in the successful 
 experiments of the late Lord Somerville, 
 at Fairmile, with whale blubber, not more 
 than a ton and a half per acre were applied. 
 The Essex farmers find three-quarters of a 
 ton of sprats amply sufficient ; and two cwt. 
 per acre of gypsum is the ordinary success- 
 ful allowance for grass land. The exact 
 evenness, therefore, with which a manure 
 is spread over the land is a highly im- 
 portant consideration as regards the eco- 
 nomy of manures. There is no commonly 
 cultivated plant which more delights in 
 liquid manure than the potato. It naturally 
 luxuriates near to wet ditches : on plots 
 which have received the drainage of a 
 dunghill it grows with the greatest rapidity. 
 I have invariably found that, to any liquid 
 mixture intended as a manure for potatoes, 
 the addition of five or six bushels of salt 
 per acre is productive of great good, both 
 as regards the quantity and quality of the 
 potatoes. 
 
LIQUID 
 
 MANURE. 
 
 On clover leys intended for wheat, the 
 liquid should be turned into the soil as 
 early as possible after it is spread ; and if 
 this operation is performed in moist cloudy 
 weather, a very material advantage will be 
 perceptible in the succeeding crop. The 
 warmth of the sun is certainly prejudicial 
 to the thinly-spread liquid manure, com- 
 posed of finely-divided animal and vegetable 
 substances. 
 
 Of the tanks for receiving or preparing 
 the liquid manure, I may remark that I 
 have always found them best made of flints 
 or bricks set in good mortar or Parker's 
 cement ; they may be bedded in clay, but 
 I would not recommend the use of clay for 
 the brickwork, since worms are sure event- 
 ually to penetrate through it ; and I advise 
 the shape to be something like a decanter, 
 larger at the top than at the bottom, in the 
 manner introduced at Eastbourne, and in 
 Cornwall, chiefly by the advice of Mr. 
 Davies Gilbert. 
 
 Mr. Milburn has given the annexed es- 
 timate for cutting, walling, plastering, and 
 covering a tank of the following dimen- 
 sions : — Length within, 13 feet 6 inches; 
 width, 6 feet 6 inches ; depth, 6 feet, equal 
 to 19^ cubic yards. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Cutting at 3d. per cubic yard - 0 7 6 
 Walling, including brick and mortar 6 8 0 
 Plastering and cement - - 0 16 0 
 
 Covering and flags - - 2 15 0 
 
 (Traits. High. Soc. vol. ix. p. 280.) 10 6 6 
 
 This would be a tank sufficiently capa- 
 cious for a farm of 150 to 200 acres. 
 
 To the presence of a large proportion of 
 urine, the richest of liquid fertilisers, must 
 be chiefly attributed the luxuriant effects 
 produced by the liquid manure, as pre- 
 pared on the Continent, and from the use 
 of the sewerage matters of large towns, as 
 so strikingly proved in the case of the 
 Craigintinny water-meadows, near Edin- 
 burgh, where the drainage is employed in 
 the state in which it issues from the sewers, 
 and from its use several crops of the 
 most luxuriant grass are annually obtained. 
 " All urine," said a late distinguished che- 
 mical philosopher, "contains the essential 
 elements of vegetables in a state of solution." 
 By a careful analysis, human urine in its 
 fresh state was found, by Berzelius, to 
 contain the following substances : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - 93-300 
 Urea (the peculiar animal matter of 
 
 urine) .... 3-010 
 Sulphate of potassa - 0*371 
 Sulphate of soda - - - 0*316 
 
 Phosphate of soda - 0-294 
 769 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Common salt - 0-445 
 
 Phosphate of ammonia - - 0-165 
 
 Muriate of ammonia - - 0-150 
 
 Lactate or acetate of ammonia 1 
 
 Lactic or acetic acid - i-iia 
 
 Animal matter, soluble in alcohol j 
 
 Inseparable urea - - J 
 Earthy phosphate (earth of bones) 
 
 with fluate of lime - - 0-100 
 
 Uric acid - 0-100 
 
 Mucus of the bladder - - 0*032 
 
 Silica (earth of flint) - - 0*003 
 
 100- 
 
 Thus it will be seen that there is hardly a 
 single ingredient found in urine which is 
 not either a direct food for vegetation, or 
 furnishes by its decomposition a supply in 
 another form; for in it are thus detected 
 the ammoniacal salts of the dunghill, the 
 phosphate of lime of bones, as well as of 
 many cultivated vegetables, and abundance 
 of easily decomposable animal matters. 
 
 The urine of the horse is nearly as rich 
 in animo-vegetable matters ; its composi- 
 tion, according to the experiments of. 
 Fourcroy and Vauquelin, are as follows : — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water and mucus 
 
 - 94-0 
 
 Urea 
 
 - 0-7 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) 
 
 11 
 
 Carbonate of soda 
 
 - 0-9 
 
 Benzoate of soda 
 
 - 2-4 
 
 Muriate of potassa 
 
 - 0-9 
 
 
 100- 
 
 The following are the constituents in 
 that of the cow, as found by Professor 
 Brande : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - - 65-0 
 
 Urea - - 4-0 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 3*0 
 
 Muriates of potassa and ammonia - 15*0 
 Sulphate of potassa - 6*0 
 
 Carbonates of potassa and ammonia - 4*0 
 Loss ., - 3-0 
 
 Too^ 
 
 It would appear, from some experiments 
 of Dr. Belcher, that the ammoniacal salts of 
 urine have a forcing or stimulating power 
 which considerably hastens the vegetation 
 of plants. His experiments were made 
 with the common garden cress ; and, in his 
 trials, some plants nourished with a solu- 
 tion of phosphate of ammonia were fifteen 
 days forwarder than plants growing under 
 similar circumstances, but watered with 
 plain water. In some experiments of Mr. 
 Gregory, who watered half a grass field at 
 Leyton with urine, the portion thus treated 
 yielded nearly double the quantity of hay 
 produced by the other unmanured portion ; 
 
LIQUID MANURE. 
 
 and the use of the urine of the cow, so ex- 
 tensively employed for grass lands, and in 
 the garden and orchard, by Mr. Harley, in 
 the neighbourhood t>f Glasgow, was attended 
 with results equally satisfactory, producing, 
 when diluted with water or soap-suds, very 
 superior crops of grass on land of a very in- 
 ferior description. I shall conclude with a few 
 observations on the loss which the cultivated 
 lands of England incessantly sustain from the 
 neglect of the liquid manure of the sewers of 
 her cities and large towns — a question to 
 whichl have before alluded in this paper, and 
 which is not nearly so well understood as is 
 desirable. Thus, by carefully conducted 
 experiments, and very accurate gaugings, 
 it has been found that the chief London 
 sewers convey daily into the Thames about 
 115,000 tons of mixed drainage, consisting, 
 on an average computation, of 1 part of 
 solid and 25 parts absolutely fluid matters ; 
 but if we only allow 1 part in 30 of this im- 
 mense mass to be composed of solid sub- 
 stances, then we have the large quantity of 
 more than 3800 tons of solid manure daily 
 poured into the river from London alone, 
 consisting principally of excrements, soot, 
 and the debris of the London streets, which 
 is chiefly carbonate of lime : thus, allowing 20 
 tons of this manure as a dressing for an acre 
 of ground, there is evidently a quantity of 
 solid manure, annually poured into the 
 river, equal to fertilising more than 50,000 
 acres of the poorest cultivated land ! The 
 quantity of food thus lost to the country by 
 this heedless waste of manure is enormous ; 
 for, only allowing one crop of wheat to be 
 raised on these 50,000 acres, that would be 
 equal to the maintenance (calculating upon 
 an average produce of 3 quarters of wheat 
 per acre) of 150,000 persons. London, too, 
 is only one huge instance of this thoughtless 
 waste of the agricultural riches of the soil 
 of England ; from every other English city, 
 every town, every hamlet, is hourly passing 
 into the sea a proportionate waste of liquid 
 manure ; and I have only spoken of the 
 solid or mechanically suspended matters of 
 the sewerage ; the absolutely fluid portion 
 is still rich in urine, ammoniacal salts, soda, 
 &c, when all the mechanically suspended 
 matters have been separated from the other 
 portion. According to very careful ex- 
 periments, this fluid part often contains 16 
 per cent, of animal matters, salts, &c, in- 
 timately or chemically combined with the 
 water. 
 
 No farmer, after such an analysis of the 
 sewerage of a large city, can feel surprised 
 at the important results from the use of 
 that sewer water, as long practised in the 
 vicinity of Edinburgh. After learning the 
 composition of such a foul mass — its endless 
 770 
 
 mixture of organic matters — its soot — its 
 carbonate of lime — and, above all, its urine, 
 the forcing nature of the ammoniacal salts 
 which that fluid contains, added to the 
 presence of the other matters which are the 
 food of plants, and the constant supply of 
 such irrigation water in all seasons — he will 
 readily give credence to the talented editor 
 of the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, 
 when he asserts, that by such treatment of 
 the Edinburgh meadows with the sewerage 
 irrigation, they have been increased in value 
 several pounds pes: acre yearly. {Practical 
 Irrigator.} 
 
 I have often employed, with decided 
 effect, in my own garden, for vines, peach 
 and standard apple trees, liquid manure, 
 prepared either by mixing one part by 
 weight of cow dung with four parts of water, 
 or the collected drainage of the stable and 
 cow-house. Of these the vine is by far the 
 most benefited by the application ; but to 
 whatever fruit tree the gardener has occa- 
 sion to apply manure, there is no form so 
 manageable and so grateful to the plant as 
 the liquid. It has been found advantageous 
 to plants cultivated in stoves to apply even 
 a liquid manure, composed of six quarts of 
 soot to a hogshead of water ; and although 
 this is a very unchemical mixture, yet it 
 has been found by Mr. Robertson to be 
 peculiarly grateful and nourishing to pines, 
 causing them to assume an unusually deep 
 healthy green ; and for stoved mulberry, 
 vine, peach, and other plants, the late Mr. 
 Knight, of Downton, employed a liquid 
 manure, composed of one part of the dung 
 of domestic poultry, and four to ten parts 
 of water, with the most excellent result — 
 the trees maintaining, at the end of two years, 
 " the most healthy and luxuriant appearance 
 imaginable." {Trans. Hort. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 127.) 
 
 In whatever way we view the question of 
 liquid manure, an abundant field of research 
 presents itself on every side: it is evidently an 
 investigation likely to amply repay the culti- 
 vator for the labour he maybe induced to be- 
 stow upon it. By such manures nourishment 
 for vegetation is more equally diffused 
 through the soil, and becomes more speedily 
 serviceable to the crop, than by any other 
 mode of cultivation. I have endeavoured, 
 also, in this article, to convince the farmer of 
 what I have long remarked in my own practice 
 — that a much smaller quantity of manure, 
 if uniformly mixed with land, is sufficient 
 foi all the purposes of fertilisation than is 
 commonly believed. Such investigations 
 must be of the highest interest to the farmer 
 and to the public in general, for they relate 
 to the increased produce of the land of 
 England; and not only docs a fortunate ex- 
 
LIQUORICE. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. 
 
 periment carry with it its own reward, but 
 even an unsuccessful one is not without its 
 advantages — it serves, at least, as a beacon 
 to other~cultivators, and affords that satis- 
 faction which ever accompanies the acqui- 
 sition of knowledge. (Journ. Roy. Ag. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 147.) 
 
 LIQUORICE. (Ghjcyrrhiza, from 
 glykys, sweet, and rhiza, a root ; the sweet- 
 ness of the root of liquorice is well known.) 
 A deep light sandy loam suits all the species 
 of this genus, and they are readily increased 
 by slips from the roots with eyes, and plant- 
 ing them in spring. 
 
 Common liquorice (G. glabra) is a na- 
 tive of the south of Europe ; but it is cul- 
 tivated in this country for medicinal use. 
 It is a leguminous plant, with unequally 
 pinnated leaves, composed of ovate, retuse 
 leaflets ; the flowers are in racemose spikes, 
 shorter than the leaves. The legumes 
 are smooth, and six-seeded. The root, 
 when fit for use, is long, about the thickness 
 of the finger, greyish without, and yellow 
 within. The sweet, subacrid, mucilaginous 
 juice contained in the root, is much es- 
 teemed as a pectoral demulcent. Liquorice 
 requires three years to perfect its growth, 
 when the roots are taken up about the end 
 of November with the spade ; they are then 
 washed, the fibres trimmed off, and the 
 smaller roots, which are termed " offal," 
 are separated from the larger. The small 
 roots are dried and ground into powder ; but 
 the larger, which form the principal ar- 
 ticle of profit, are packed up and sold to 
 the druggists. A fair crop will yield from 
 18 to 20 cwt., at an average price of about 
 45s. per cwt. ; but the expense of digging 
 up and preparing it for market, is not short 
 of" 101. per acre ; which, great as it may ap- 
 pear, is by no means extravagant, if we con- 
 sider the depth to which the roots run, and 
 the care which is necessary to avoid breaking 
 or leaving any of them in the ground. (Pax- 
 tori s Bot. Diet. ; Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 330.) 
 
 LIQUORICE, WILD. See Milk- vetch. 
 
 LITTER. The straw, fern, or other dry 
 substances which are placed under horses and 
 cattle in the stables, cow-houses, farm-yards, 
 &c. for the purpose of keeping the animals 
 clean and warm, and providing a supply of 
 manure. In this last view, all sorts of dry 
 materials should be carefully collected, and 
 stacked up for winter use. 
 
 LIVER-WORT. See Lichens and Moss. 
 
 LIVE STOCK. See Horses, Cattle, 
 Sheep, Swine, &c. In our islands, the 
 live stock forms the chief wealth of a farm. 
 The term implies cattle ; but poultry, too, is 
 strictly live stock ; and in some countries, 
 fish, game, bees, &c. are of that importance 
 that they are considered to be live stock. In 
 771 
 
 several districts of England, rabbits are so, 
 and that to a very essential extent. In some 
 parts of southern Europe, even the silk- 
 worm is live stock. 
 
 Having entered fully into the highly 
 important subjects of the various live 
 stock in which the farmer is commonly 
 interested, I have now only to refer 
 those who are anxious for more extended 
 general observations as to live stock, to 
 various other authorities. There is a pa- 
 per by Mr. Cathery, of Alresford, " On the 
 Reduction of the Number of Horses, and the 
 Increasing the Number of Cows," Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 211. There are 
 valuable Essays " upon the Breeding of 
 Live Stock," and on the " Comparative In- 
 fluence of the Male and Female Parents in 
 impressing the Offspring" (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 17.), by Mr. Boswell, and 
 the Rev. Henry Berry ; " On the Compara- 
 tive Advantages of feeding Stock with 
 Mangel-wurzel, Turnips, and Potatoes," by 
 Mr. Howden, Ibid. vol. iii. p. 268.) ; five 
 reports " On the Comparative Advantages 
 of feeding Live Stock on Raw or on Pre- 
 pared Food," Ibid. vol. iv. p. 253., and 
 vol. v. p. 52. ; experiments " On feeding 
 Cattle on different Descriptions of Food," 
 by Mr. Robert Stephenson, Ibid. vol. vi. 
 p. 61. ; " On Live Stock, particularly as 
 regards Crossing," by Mr. Ferguson, Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. i. p. 33. ; " On a Me- 
 thod of obtaining a greater Number of one 
 Sex, at the Option of the Proprietor, in the 
 Breeding of Live Stock, Ibid. p. 63. ; " On 
 the Value of Live Stock with relation to 
 the Weight of Offal," by Mr. Ferguson, 
 Ibid. vol. ii. p. 207. ; " On the Points by 
 which Live Stock are judged," by Mr. 
 Dickson, Ibid. vol. v. p. 159. ; vol. vi. 
 p. 266 — 433. ; and, for general reference, 
 there are numerous excellent works, such as 
 those upon "Cattle," "Horses," and "Sheep," 
 published by the Society for the Dif- 
 fusion of Useful Knowledge ; " Illustrations 
 of the Breeds of our Domestic Animals," by 
 Professor Low, &c. That by the combined 
 exertions of these, and the practical know- 
 ledge of modern breeders, a very material 
 alteration for the better in the breeds of 
 our live stock, has taken place, and is still 
 progressing, no one will dispute, who has 
 been a regular attendant upon the exhibi- 
 tions of the Smithfield Club ; and there is 
 little reason to doubt but that still greater 
 improvements are yet to be effected. 
 To such researches too much attention can 
 hardly be paid, for on the well or ill stocking 
 of the land will mainly depend the culti- 
 vator's success. To this end, however, much 
 must rest on the circumstances in which 
 he is placed ; all the general rules for his 
 3 d 2 
 
LIZARDS. 
 
 LOCKING OF WHEELS. 
 
 guidance, with which I am acquainted, I 
 have given under the head of each domestic 
 animal ; and to those I must refer the reader. 
 
 LIZARDS. (Lacertidce.) A group of 
 the order Sauria, forming the second family 
 in the Cuverian system, in which the cha- 
 racters are given as follows : — tongue long, 
 slender, extensible, and bifurcate at the ex- 
 tremity, as in the serpent tribe ; ear-drum 
 membranous, on a level with the surface of 
 the head, or very slightly sunk; eyelids, 
 consisting of a production of the skin with 
 a longitudinal slit, closed by a sphincter, 
 and a rudimental nictitating, or third eye- 
 lid ; body elongated ; feet, with five toes 
 each ; digits separate and unequal, par- 
 ticularly the hind ones, all armed with 
 nails ; scales on the belly round ; the tail 
 arranged in transverse and parallel bands. 
 Cuvier subdivides the Lacertidce into the 
 two great genera, Monitor and Lacerta, 
 each of which have been again subdivided. 
 
 The common green lizard (Z. agilis) is a 
 native of Britain. During the heat of sum- 
 mer, this animal delights to bask on the 
 sides of dry banks, or beneath aged trees ; 
 but as soon as it is noticed, it immediately 
 retires to its hole. The food of lizards con- 
 sists of insects ; and they are themselves de- 
 voured by birds of prey. These animals are 
 of real service, especially in gardens, and 
 should not be destroyed merely to gratify 
 an unnatural and cruel aversion. 
 
 LIZENED CORN. A term provincially 
 used for shrunk or lank corn. 
 
 LOAM. By this term is generally un- 
 derstood dark-coloured, rich mould, prin- 
 cipally composed of dissimilar particles of 
 earth, and decomposed vegetable matter, 
 moderately cohesive, and therefore neither 
 retentive of moisture, like clay, nor too 
 ready to part with it like sandy soil. Ac- 
 cording as the different ingredients pre- 
 dominate, loamy soils are of different quali- 
 ties — friable and mellow, middling, or 
 heavy loams. (Pract. Hush. p. 284.) Loam 
 is supposed to consist chiefly of woody fibre 
 in a state of decay, which, as it progresses, 
 acquires a black-brown colour, and is then 
 mould or loam. It is a continued source of 
 carbonic acid, as almost every particle of it 
 is enveloped by an atmosphere of that gas, 
 which is absorbed by the roots of plants, 
 and replaced by atmospheric air, to be again 
 converted into carbonic acid. Upon this 
 transformation the influence of loam on 
 vegetation is readily understood : it does 
 not itself nourish plants, but it presents to 
 them " a slow and lasting source of carbonic 
 acid, which is absorbed by the roots." 
 (Liebig, Organic Chem. in its Application 
 to Agriculture, p. 48— 61.) See Humus. 
 
 LOBEL IA. (Lobelia, in honour of Mat- 
 772 
 
 thew Lobel, author of various botanical 
 works ; he was a native of Lisle ; became 
 physician and botanist to James I., and died 
 in London in 1616.) This is an extremely 
 interesting genus of plants, on account of the 
 beauty of the blossoms, and the medicinal 
 properties of some of the species. The 
 green-house, and stove, shrubby, and her- 
 baceous kinds, grow well in a mixture of 
 peat and sand ; the shrubby kinds are 
 readily increased by cuttings in the same 
 kind of soil, and the herbaceous species by 
 dividing and by seeds. The hardy her- 
 baceous kinds do well in a light rich earth 
 or peat soil ; but in winter, most of them 
 require the protection of a frame. The 
 green-house annuals and biennials must be 
 sown in pots, and treated as other green- 
 house annuals and biennials. The seeds of 
 the hardy kinds have only to be sown in the 
 open border. Z. longiflora is one of the 
 most venomous of plants. Barton says the 
 Spanish Americans call it Rebenta cavallos, 
 because it proves fatal to horses that eat it, 
 swelling them till they burst. Taken in- 
 ternally, it acts as a violent cathartic, the 
 effects of which no remedy can assuage, and 
 which terminate in death. Another Ame- 
 rican species, namely, Z. inflata, is a power- 
 ful antispasmodic and emetic, and is much 
 employed to allay the paroxysm of spas- 
 modic asthma. There are two indigenous 
 species : 1 . The water lobelia (Z. Dort- 
 manna), which grows in the lakes of Wales, 
 Scotland, Ireland, and the north of Eng- 
 land. The root consists of many long, 
 simple, whitish fibres. Herb smooth, im- 
 mersed in water like the Hottonia. Leaves 
 numerous, two inches long, linear, entire, 
 with two longitudinal cells. The stem is 
 nearly naked, terminating in a simple cluster 
 of light blue, drooping, alternate flowers, 
 raised several inches above the water, which 
 appear in July and August. 
 
 2. Acrid lobelia. (Z. ureus.) This grows 
 wild on bushy heaths in Devonshire. The 
 root is fibrous ; stem a foot or more in 
 height, nearly upright ; lower leaves ovate, 
 slightly toothed ; upper lanceolate, ser- 
 rated; the flowers are in erect clusters, 
 terminal, of a purplish blue colour, appearing 
 in August and September. The whole herb 
 is milky, fetid, and very acrid. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet; Smith's English Flora, vol. i. 
 p. 297.) 
 
 LOB-WORM. In angling, a name given 
 to a worm that has a red head, a streak 
 down the back, and a broad tail. It is also 
 known as the garden-worm, the dew-worm, 
 and the twachel. It is an excellent bait for 
 salmon. {Walton's Angler, p. 77.) 
 
 LOCKED-JAW. See Tetanus. 
 
 LOCKING OF WHEELS. The means 
 
LOCKE (JOHN). 
 
 LONDON (GEORGE). 
 
 of fastening them so as to prevent their 
 running too swiftly upon the horses, when 
 coming down steep hills. This is effected in 
 various ways ; as by chains, sledges, friction 
 bars, &c. See Wheel, and Waggon. 
 
 LOCKE, JOHN. One of the greatest 
 of philosophers, belonging to the list of En- 
 glish authors on horticulture. He was born at 
 Wrington in Somersetshire, where his father 
 was an attorney, Aug. 29th, 1632. He died 
 at Oates, Oct. 28th, 1704. His numerous 
 philosophical works do not fall under our 
 notice. His dissertation on " The Human 
 Mind " and " On Education " will render 
 him famous throughout time. The publica- 
 tion for which he here requires mention is 
 entitled, " Observations upon the Growth 
 and Culture of Vines and Olives, the Pro- 
 duction of Silk, and the Preservation of 
 Fruits ; printed from the original MSS. in 
 the possession of the Earl of Shaftesbury. 
 London. 1766. 8vo." (G. W. Johnsons Hist, 
 of Gard.) 
 
 LOCULAR. A term in botany : a fruit 
 is called unilocular if it contains but one 
 cell, bilocular if it contains two cells, and so 
 on. In many instances, one or more of the 
 cells are abortive, and become obliterated as 
 the fruit ripens. 
 
 LOCUSTS. The common name of a 
 species of insects forming a group or sub- 
 genus of the gryllus of Linnaeus. They have 
 coloured elytra, and large wings, disposed, 
 when at rest, in straight, fan-like folds, as in 
 other orthoptera, and frequently exhibiting 
 bright blue, green, or red colours. The thorax 
 is capacious, to afford room for the powerful 
 muscles of the wings, and is marked in many 
 species with one or more crests, or wart-like 
 prominences. The locusts fly by starts, but 
 frequently rise to a considerable height. 
 Certain species, called " migratory locusts," 
 unite in incalculable numbers, and emigrate, 
 resembling, in their passage through the air, 
 a dense cloud: wherever they alight all 
 signs of vegetation quickly disappear, and 
 cultivated grounds are left a desert. One 
 species (Acridium migratorium, Latr.) oc- 
 casionally commits devastations in the south 
 of Europe and Poland ; and stragglers have 
 sometimes reached our shores, a circum- 
 stance which happened in 1748 : but they 
 soon perished. To our ideas of the associa- 
 tion of insects, the swarms of locusts, which 
 have occasionally appeared in Oriental coun- 
 tries, seem almost incredible. Major Moor 
 states that a flight which ravaged the Mah- 
 ratta country, and which he saw at Poonah, 
 extended in a dense column five hundred 
 miles, and hid the sun like an eclipse. On 
 that occasion, the natives fried and ate them. 
 The devastation which they make is forcibly 
 described by the prophet Joel : " The land 
 773 1 
 
 is as the garden of Eden before them, and 
 behind them a desolate wilderness." 
 
 LOCUST TREE. (Hymenaa, from Hy- 
 men, the god of marriage ; in reference to 
 the two leaflets.) The species of locust 
 tree are highly ornamental ; they delight to 
 grow in loam and peat, and cuttings will 
 root in sand under a glass in heat. The 
 young plants should be planted out in the 
 autumn of the second year, cutting them 
 down within three inches of the ground. 
 They must be preserved from the attacks 
 of hares and rabbits, which are very de- 
 structive to them. 
 
 LODE. A local term for -a ford in some 
 districts. Lode is also a miner's term, synony- 
 mous with vein, for metals or minerals in 
 the earth. 
 
 LOE. A provincial phrase signifying a 
 little round hillock, or a heap of stones. 
 
 LOG. A large shapeless junk of wood. 
 
 LOKE. A provincial word used in Nor- 
 folk for a close narrow lane. 
 
 LOLIUM. See Rye-Grass. 
 
 LONDON, GEORGE. Died about 
 Christmas, 1717. Switzer glosses over his 
 birth and education. That industry and 
 strong talent, which afterwards obtained for 
 him the patronage of the nobility, and others 
 in after life, were early discerned by his 
 master Mr. Rose, who took particular pains 
 in instructing him and bringing him into 
 notice. After being with Mr. Rose four or 
 five years, Switzer was informed, that that 
 gentleman sent him into France for im- 
 provement. Soon after his return he en- 
 tered the service of Bishop Compton. A 
 few years afterwards . he. entered into the 
 speculation of Brompton Park nursery. 
 This was in 1681, and his partners were 
 Messrs. Cook, Lucre, and Field. In 1694, 
 the two last-named partners having died, 
 and the first retired, Mr. Lpndon remained 
 sole proprietor. He took, Mr. Henry Wise 
 into the concern. At that time the garden 
 covered more than 100 acres of ground. 
 Bowack, who wrote an account of Kensing- 
 ton in 1705, says that some af^pmed that if 
 the stock of these grounds wasjyalued at one 
 penny per plant, the amount would exceed 
 40,000Z. (Loudon's Encyc. of Gard. p. 1063.) 
 London, at the time of entering into this 
 speculation, was gardener to Bishop Comp- 
 ton, as Mr. Cook was to the Earl of Essex ; 
 Mr. Lucre held a similar situation under 
 the Queen Dowager at Somerset House; 
 and Mr. Field held a like situation at Bed- 
 ford House in the Strand, belonging to the 
 Duke of Bedford. Brompton Nursery, says 
 Evelyn, " was the greatest work of the 
 kind ever seen or heard of, either in books 
 or travels. After the Revolution, London 
 was made superintendent of all the roval 
 3d 3 
 
LONG-HORNED CATTLE. 
 
 LOVAGE. 
 
 gardens, with a salary of 200Z. per annum., 
 and a page of the back stairs to Queen 
 Mary. Soon after the peace of Ryswick, 
 he accompanied the Earl of Portland, Am- 
 bassador Extraordinary to King William, 
 into France. At this time, he made the 
 Observations on the Fruit Gardens of Ver- 
 sailles, which are in the Preface to the 
 Abridgement of M. Quintinie's Work, which 
 he, in conjunction with Mr. Wise, trans- 
 lated. (G. W.Johnson's Eng. Gard.^. 123.) 
 
 LONDON PRIDE. See Saxifrage. 
 
 LONDON ROCKET. See Hedge- 
 Must ARD. 
 
 LONG-HORNED CATTLE. A breed 
 of neat cattle now nearly extinct, chiefly 
 distinguished by the length of the horn, 
 the thickness and firm texture of the hide, 
 the length and closeness of the hair, the 
 large size of the hoof, and the coarse lea- 
 thery thickness of the neck. See Cattle. 
 
 LOOSENESS. See Diarrhcea, and 
 Diseases or Cattle and Sheep. 
 
 LOOSETRIFE. (Lysimachia, from lysis, 
 dissolution, and mache, strife.) A very 
 pretty genus of plants, with mostly yellow 
 flowers. All the species are of the easiest 
 culture, and may be propagated by divi- 
 sions, except L. dubia and L. Linum-stel- 
 latum, which must be increased by seeds. 
 The following are the indigenous species 
 which are all perennials. 
 
 1. Great yellow loosetrife (Z. vulgaris), 
 growing in watery shady places, particularly 
 the reedy margins of rivers. The root is 
 creeping ; stems three or four feet high, erect, 
 leafy, with four or more angles, according 
 as the leaves are two or more together ; 
 simple, except at the top, where each ter- 
 minates in a copious panicle of yellow 
 flowers, whose corymbose clusters are partly 
 axillary, partly terminal. Leaves on short 
 stalks, two, three, or four together, two or 
 three inches long, varying in breadth, 
 single-ribbed, veiny, often downy beneath. 
 
 2. Tufted loosetrife (Z. thyrsiflora). This 
 species is very rare in England : the stem 
 rises one or two feet in height. The flowers 
 are smaller than the last, in dense, lateral, 
 axillary stalked clusters about the middle 
 part of the stem. 
 
 3. Wood loosetrife, or yellow pimpernel 
 (Z. nemorum). This species, which is one 
 of our most elegant, though not uncommon, 
 plants, inhabits woods and shady, rather wa- 
 tery places. The stems are creeping at the 
 base, decumbent, often pendant from banks 
 and rocks, branched, twelve or eighteen 
 inches long, leafy, square, smooth, red and 
 pellucid; leaves ovate, acute, of a bright 
 shining green, rather succulent; flowers of 
 a golden yellow, about half an inch broad, 
 each on a simple, slender, twisting, axillary, 
 
 solitary stalk, about the length of the ad- 
 joining leaf ; stamens yellow, quite smooth. 
 
 4. Creeping loosetrife. Money-wort or 
 herb twopence (Z. Nummularia). This is 
 a handsome free flowering plant, which, 
 from its trailing habit, is well fitted for de- 
 corating rock-work. It grows wild in wet 
 meadows, boggy pastures, and the bor- 
 ders of rivulets. The herbage is smooth, of 
 a pale green ; stems quite prostrate, creep- 
 ing, a foot -or two in length ; leaves some- 
 what heart-shaped ; flowers solitary, pale 
 lemon-coloured, rather larger than the last 
 species ; stamens glandular. It flowers from 
 June to August, and affords a wholesome 
 food for cattle, especially sheep. On ac- 
 count of its sub-acid and mildly astringent 
 properties, it is considered as one of the 
 most efficacious vulnerary herbs. Bechstein 
 asserts that the leaves and flowers of this 
 plant, steeped in oil, furnish an excellent 
 remedy for destroying the worms and in- 
 sects infesting the floors of granaries. (Pax- 
 ton's Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 277.) 
 
 LOPPED MILK. Provincially milk 
 that has stood till it has become sour and 
 curdled. 
 
 LOPPING. The operation of cutting 
 off the lateral or other branches of trees. 
 See Pruning and Plantations. 
 
 LOTUS. See Birds'-foot Trefoil. 
 
 LOUSINESS. In farriery, an affection 
 of the skin, arising, in cattle or other ani- 
 mals, from the irritation of lice or other 
 animalculse, which may be distinguished by 
 the naked eye. Most animals, and even in- 
 sects, are subject to this annoyance. Lousi- 
 ness in live stock is produced by neglect 
 and low keep. The best remedy is more 
 attention to cleanliness, with better food. 
 The lice may be killed by a dressing applied 
 with a brush to the chief affected parts, 
 composed of four ounces of black sulphur, 
 mixed with a pint of train oil, or a small 
 portion of weak mercurial ointment. 
 
 LOUSE-WORT. See Red-Rattle. 
 
 LOWER. A corrupted name for a lever 
 in some districts. 
 
 LOWK. A provincial term for the art 
 of weeding corn, &c. 
 
 LOVAGE. (Ligusticum ; so named be- 
 cause some of the species grow in Liguria.) 
 A genus of hardy, herbaceous, and biennial, 
 aromatic plants, which, as flowers, are not 
 worth cultivating. They will grow in any 
 soil, and are increased by seeds. 
 
 The Scottish lovage, or sea parsley 
 (Z. scoticum), grows on rocks, cliffs, and 
 the sea-coasts of Scotland and the north of 
 England, on a stem a foot high ; root, tap- 
 shaped, warm and pungent ; leaves stalked, 
 twice ternate ; footstalks bordered with a 
 
LOVE-GRASS. 
 
 LUCERN. 
 
 purplish compressed membrane at the base ; 
 umbels smooth, not very large, bearing 
 white flowers, with a reddish tinge ; these 
 appear in July. This herb is eaten by the 
 natives of Scotland and its isles, either 
 crude as a salad, or boiled as greens. The 
 flavour is highly acrid, and, though aromatic, 
 stomachic, and perhaps not unwholesome, 
 yet very nauseous to those who are unac- 
 customed to such food. It is relished by 
 horses, sheep, and goats, but refused by 
 cows. The stem yields English opoponax. 
 The roots are reputed to be carminative, 
 and an infusion of the leaves affords a good 
 physic for calves. 
 
 Cornish lovage. (L. corvubiense.) This 
 is a less common species, found sometimes 
 in bushy fields in Cornwall. The root is 
 spindle-shaped, contracted at the crown, de- 
 scending to a great depth ; when wounded, 
 dischai-ging a yellow resinous juice. The 
 stem is two or three feet high, solitary, 
 erect, branched, striated, purple at the base. 
 Leaves, deep green ; the radicles once, 
 twice, or thrice pinnate, rough-edged, cut ; 
 stem-leaves, ternate, lanceolate, entire. Ribs 
 of the seeds, bluntish. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 81. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 LOVE-APPLE. See Tomato. 
 
 LOVE-GRASS. (Eragrostis; frommw, 
 love, and agrostis, grass ; in allusion to the 
 beautiful dancing spikelets, whence also the 
 English name.) It is a pretty species of 
 foreign grass, growing in gardens about a 
 foot high in any common soil. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 LOVE-LIES-BLEEDING. The com- 
 mon name of a species of amaranth (A. 
 caudatus). 
 
 LOY. A very long narrow spade, pe- 
 culiar to the province of Connaught, and 
 some parts of Munster, and only suited 
 to stony land, where a wider edge could 
 not so easily penetrate. (M. Doyle's Pract. 
 Husb.) 
 
 LUCERN, or PURPLE MEDICK 
 GRASS. (Medicago sativa.) An artificial 
 grass, called by the French grand trefle, 
 which affords perhaps a larger produce of fod- 
 der than any other species of artificial grass. 
 Although found growing wild in hedges, 
 pastures, and the borders of fields in dry 
 calcareous soils, yet it can scarcely be con- 
 sidered a native of this country. The stems 
 are erect, or somewhat reclining, about two 
 feet high. Leaflets oblong, inclining to 
 wedge-shaped ; more or less acute, sharply 
 serrated towards the end, clothed with 
 close silky hairs on both sides. The flowers 
 are in clusters, many, bluish-purple, with a 
 small bristle-like bracte under each partial 
 stalk. The legumes are spiral, with rarely 
 more than two or three turns; they are 
 775 
 
 silky while young. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 317.) 
 
 This valuable grass is best cultivated on 
 a good, dry, warm, barley soil ; it is not 
 adapted for heavy or wet soils. Being a 
 deep-rooted plant, it requires a soil in which 
 its roots can penetrate to a considerable 
 depth. It should be sown on land perfectly 
 clean, in the months of March or April, with 
 (or best without) a crop of corn. It is 
 only adapted to the southern parts of our 
 island, since extreme cold destroys it. It 
 is best sown alone in drills, at a distance of 
 twelve to fifteen inches ; the quantity of seed 
 is from ten to sixteen pounds per acre. Any 
 vacancies in the drills may in the autumn 
 or following spring be made good by trans- 
 planting. By careful weeding and hoeing, 
 and frequent top -dressings (for which pur- 
 pose gypsum, calcareous matters, ashes, &c. 
 are excellent) the profitable duration of 
 this crop may be extended eight or ten 
 years, giving during that period, on an 
 average, three or four cuttings per annum : 
 the first of which, in favourable seasons, 
 will be as early as the middle of April. 
 It should always be cut before the appear- 
 ance of the blossom. It may be made into 
 hay, although much better adapted for 
 soiling. An acre will, upon an average, 
 produce fodder for two horses, from the 
 first cutting to October. It is admirably 
 adapted for milch cows, and is, indeed, 
 relished by, all live stock. 
 
 " Lucern," as observed by Mr. Loudon, 
 (Encyclo. of Oard.) is highly extolled by 
 Roman writers ; it is also of great antiquity 
 in Spain, Italy, and the south of France ; 
 is much grown in Persia and Peru, and 
 mown in both countries all the year round. 
 It is mentioned by Hartlip, Blythe, and 
 other early writers, and was tried by Lisle ; 
 but it excited little attention till after the 
 publication of Harte's Essays in 1757 
 (? 1764). Mr. Towers, speaking of lucern, 
 calls it " the plant of plants." " I have 
 grown lucern (he adds) during four or five 
 years, and previously I had witnessed its 
 great success and extensive culture in the 
 Isle ofThanet." 
 
 In cutting for a cow, it will always be 
 advisable to take the plant when it is tender 
 and juicy ; and such it will be when about 
 a foot high. I have thus cut my plot over 
 six times, after the first year ; but they who 
 leave the plants to grow two feet high, will 
 find the stems rigid, fibrous, and less juicy ; 
 and that what they gain in bulk will be lost 
 in time and quality. Lucern is known to 
 produce much milk, perhaps more than any 
 other of the artificial grasses (Leguminosa) ; 
 but some complain that it communicates an 
 austere or bitter flavour. I doubt the fact, 
 3 d 4 
 
LUCERN. 
 
 LUPINE. 
 
 but would always recommend that it be not 
 given quite fresh to a cow, particularly at 
 an early period after calving. 
 
 If the required quantity be cut over night, 
 it will be fit for the stall by ten o' clock of 
 the following morning, and again the after- 
 noon meal should be exposed to the sun for 
 two or three hours before it is used. " As 
 to the trouble in managing an established 
 crop, it is really nothing. Though I allow 
 it is good to hoe twice during the summer, 
 as the plot is cut piece by piece, yet one 
 general fork-digging at that period of early 
 spring, when the plants exhibit the first 
 symptom of growth, so as to remove every 
 weed, and loosen the surface of the soil, 
 will be amply sufficient to secure the safety 
 and full development of the herb. Upon 
 the whole, lucern is a plant of the utmost 
 value ; for if the seed be good, the ground 
 rich and in heart, and rendered deep in the 
 first instance by a thorough trenching, the 
 young plants start into lively growth, attain 
 strength in the shortest possible time, and 
 yield a bulk ofluxuriant herbage that cannot 
 be surpassed. If the plant require four 
 years to attain its maximum of power, it is 
 still a giant even from its infancy, advancing 
 from strength to strength. A well pre- 
 pared field, if kept clean by the forking, 
 will remain productive for more than ten 
 years ; but as a change of crop always pro- 
 motes abundance, it would be advisable to 
 prepare a successional plot every six years. ' 
 {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 96.) 
 
 About eighty pounds' .weight per day, of 
 twenty- four hours, is ..sufficient for the 
 largest cow, and half this, with corn, for a 
 horse. No stock should at any time be 
 permitted to graze upon it. 
 
 There are several varieties of lucern, 
 with violet, yellow, and variegated flowers, 
 which are supposed to be only a variation 
 of the same plant, arising accidentally from 
 the seed. However, neither the yellow nor 
 the variegated is ever so strong as the purple 
 flowered, and cannot, of course, be so pro- 
 fitable to the cultivator. Lucern may be 
 estimated as the choicest of all fodder, be- 
 cause it lasts many years ; will bear cutting 
 down four, five, or six times a year ; en- 
 riches the land on which it grows ; will 
 fatten cattle, and often proves a remedy 
 for the diseased. 
 
 Those of my readers who wish to acquire 
 more minute information relative to the 
 management of lucern, may consult the 
 Rev. Walter Harte's learned Essays on 
 Husbandry ; Rocque's Practical Treatise on 
 Cultivating Lucern Grass ; and British 
 Husbandry, vol. ii. p. 307. There arc also 
 papers " On the Cultivation and Treatment 
 pfa Field of Lucern," Com. to Board of 
 776 J 
 
 Agr. vol. vii. p. 174. ; and by Mr. John 
 Cunningham, Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 113.) 
 
 LUDWIG, CHRISTIAN GOTTLIEB, 
 son of C. T. Ludwig, who opposed the 
 sexual system of Linnaeus, and. advanced 
 one of his own. He became professor of 
 natural history at Leipsic, and a botanical 
 author in 1737. (Rees's Cyclopaedia.) 
 
 LUG. A long measure of land, the same 
 with a pole, or perch, sixteen feet and a 
 half. In Gloucestershire, it, however, sig- 
 nifies a land measure of six yards, or a rod, 
 pole, or perch of six yards. It is a measure 
 by which ditching and other similar opera- 
 tions are performed there. This term is 
 likewise applied to the stick by which the 
 work is measured. It is sometimes called 
 log. 
 
 LUNGWORT. (Pidmonaria; it derives 
 both its common and generic names from its 
 supposed medical properties in diseases of 
 the lungs.) The species of this genus are 
 very pretty flowering plants, well adapted 
 for ornamenting the front of shrubberies. 
 They thrive in any common soil, and are 
 readily increased by divisions. There are 
 two indigenous species: 1. Common, or 
 spotted lungwort (P. officinalis), which is 
 sometimes found wild in woods and thickets, 
 and flowering in April and May. The root 
 is fibrous ; stems nine to twelve inches high, 
 hairy ; leaves ovate, hairy ; mostly speckled 
 with white on the upper side, whence they 
 have been thought to resemble the human 
 lungs, and were, therefore, supposed good 
 for coughs ; but they are more useful as a 
 salad in early spring, and for culinary pur- 
 poses than for pulmonary complaints. The 
 flowers are in terminal, corymbose clusters, 
 of a violet blue, reddish in the bud. This 
 species is eaten by sheep and goats, but is 
 not relished by cows, and totally refused by 
 horses and hogs. It is sometimes known 
 under the names of cowslips of Jerusalem, 
 and broad-leaved lungwort. When burnt, 
 the common lungwort affords a larger pro- 
 portion of ashes than almost any other plant ; 
 the produce in general amounting to one 
 seventh part of its weight. 
 
 2. Narrow-leaved lungwort (P. angusti- 
 folia). This is also a rare plant in our is- 
 lands. It is about twice as tall as the former, 
 from which it differs in the lanceolate shape 
 of its leaves, especially the radical ones, 
 which are a span in length, tapering at each 
 end, seldom spotted. It flowers in May 
 and June. In other respects, it resembles 
 the last described. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 26 1 . ; Paxton's Bot. Diet. ; WillicKs Dom. 
 JEncyclo.) 
 
 LUPINE. (Lupinus, from lupus, a wolf ; 
 in allusion to its drowing or exhausting 
 
LURCHER. 
 
 LYRATE. 
 
 land.) The species of this genus are among 
 the most beautiful of our border flowers. 
 They will flourish in almost any soil, but a 
 rich loam suits them best. They perfect 
 their seeds very freely, from which young 
 plants are easily obtained. In agriculture, 
 the lupine is cultivated principally for being 
 turned in as a manure. (See Green Ma- 
 nukes.) This plant requires but little 
 trouble or labour in its cultivation, as it will 
 thrive in any soil, except the bad chalks, and 
 such as are very wet. It will even grow well 
 on poor, hungry, worn-out land, especially if 
 it be dry and sandy. When sown in Feb- 
 ruary or March, after a single very shallow 
 ploughing, and slightly harrowed in, it will 
 blossom two or three times between May 
 and August, and prove an excellent en- 
 richer of the ground when ploughed in 
 just after its second blooming. The best 
 time for mowing this sort of crop is after a 
 shower of rain, as the seeds drop easily out 
 of their pods when they are gathered too 
 dry. They must, however, be laid up very 
 dry, or worms soon breed in them. They 
 are inferior to many other plants for the 
 above use. 
 
 LURCHER. A sort of hunting dog, much 
 like a mongrel greyhound, with pricked 
 ears, a shaggy coat, and generally of a yel- 
 lowish-white colour. It is a very swift 
 runner, so that, if it gets between the 
 burrows and the rabbits, it seldom misses 
 taking them ; and this is its common prac- 
 tice in hunting. 
 
 LURID. In botany, signifies a colour 
 between a purple, yellow, and grey. 
 
 LYME-GRASS. See Eeymus. 
 
 LYCHNIS. (From lychnos, a lamp ; 
 on account of the brilliancy of the flowers 
 of most of the species.) This is an extremely 
 beautiful genus of plants, well meriting ex- 
 tensive cultivation for the brilliancy of their 
 flowers. Among the most showy and es- 
 teemed of the border flowers is the scarlet 
 lychnis (Z. chalcedonica), the double va- 
 rieties of which require some care, to pre- 
 vent them from returning to a single state. 
 Z. fulgens and Z. grandiflora are truly ele- 
 gant ; the latter will grow and flower well 
 if planted out in the open border in spring, 
 but it must be taken up in autumn, or the 
 frost will kill it. They all grow freely in 
 rich light loamy soil ; but they must be fre- 
 quently divided, or they will dwindle away ; 
 and the best time to do this is early in spring. 
 The seed of the annual species has only to 
 be sown in the open border in spring. Z. 
 cadi rosa is handsome. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 There are four indigenous species of 
 lychnis or campion. 
 
 1. Meadow lychnis, or ragged robin (Z. 
 Jlos cuculi), which is found very common in 
 777 
 
 moist meadows. The root is tapering, stem 
 erect, from one to two feet high, quadran- 
 gular, rough, with deflexed bristles, often 
 sending forth leafy branches from the bot- 
 tom ; the upper part viscid and brownish ; 
 leaves lanceolate ; panicles terminal, of ino- 
 dorous rose-coloured flowers, appearing in 
 June ; petals flaccid, quivering in the slight- 
 est breeze; deeply four-cleft, one-celled 
 capsules, roundish. A double variety, of 
 more humble stature, is sometimes seen in 
 gardens, but seldom lasts long for want of 
 its natural supply of moisture. 
 
 2. Red German catchfly, or rock lychnis 
 (Z. viscarid). This species is rare, being 
 found only in dry fissures of rocks. The 
 root is tufted, rather woody ; stems a foot 
 high, viscid ; leaves, linear-lanceolate, dark 
 green, with a slight woolly fringe at the 
 base ; flowers crowded in a spiked panicle, 
 scentless, pink ; capsule stalked, of five cells. 
 A white-flowered variety has been some- 
 times found ; and a double one is common 
 in rustic gardens. 
 
 3. Red alpine campion (Z. alpina). This 
 species of lychnis is found growing on rocks 
 in the Highlands of Scotland. It is about 
 half the size of the last ; the herbage of a 
 paler hue, and quite destitute of viscidity ; 
 leaves linear-lanceolate, naked at the base ; 
 flowers bright rose-coloured, crowded into 
 a dense roundish tuft ; capsule stalked, of 
 five cells. 
 
 4. Red or white campion (Z. dioicd). . 
 Some of the varieties of this species are 
 found in most hedges and cultivated fields. 
 The root is tapering, rather fleshy ; herb, 
 green, clothed with projecting soft hairs, a 
 little viscid ; stem upright, weak, round, 
 leafy, eighteen to twenty-four inches high ; 
 in some varieties it rises to three feet. 
 Leaves ovate, acute ; panicle terminal, leafy, 
 many flowered, partly forked ; flowers 
 dioecious, dark red or purplish, sometimes 
 white ; petals cloven, crowned with four 
 teeth; capsule of one cell. The red va- 
 riety is often cultivated in a double state, 
 and called bachelor's buttons ; a name, 
 however, which is more frequently given to 
 a species of ranunculus. {Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet. ; Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 326—329.) 
 
 LYNCHET. A country term applied 
 to the stripes or grassy partitions in arable 
 fields, but mostly to such as are in the state 
 of commonage. 
 
 LYNCH-FIN, or LINCH PFN\ The 
 small pin, in carts or other carriages, that 
 is put through the ends of the axle-trees, 
 to confine the wheels on them. 
 
 LYRATE. In botany, leaves are called 
 lyrate which are shaped in the form of a 
 lyre. 
 
MACERATION". 
 
 MAGNESIA. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACERATION, The act of soften- 
 ing any substance by steeping it in cold 
 water or other -liquid. 
 
 MACHINE. (Gr.) In a general sense 
 this word signifies any thing which serves 
 to increase or regulate the effect of a given 
 force. Machines are either simple or com- 
 pound. The simple machines are usually 
 reckoned six in number ; namely, the lever, 
 the wheel and axle, the pulley, the wedge, 
 the screw, and the funicular or rope ma- 
 chine. Compound machines are formed by 
 combining two or more simple machines. 
 
 In husbandry, the term is applied to 
 various implements, such as the Drixe, 
 Thrashing and Winnowing Machines, 
 the Steam Engine, &c. See these respec- 
 tive terms. 
 
 MADDER. (Rubia, from ruber, red, in 
 allusion to the colour of the roots.) This 
 is a genus of interesting plants ; any com- 
 mon garden soil suits them, and they are 
 easily increased by seeds or divisions of the 
 roots. The root of R. tinctorum is one of 
 the most valuable dyes with which we are 
 acquainted, and is a very important article 
 of commerce. The plant is herbaceous, se- 
 veral stems rising from the same root ; te- 
 tragonal, with hooked prickles at the angles. 
 The leaves are four or six in a whorl, lan- 
 ceolate, with the midrib on the under disk, 
 and the margins aculeated. The flowers 
 are small, yellow, supported on axillary tri- 
 chotomous peduncles. 
 
 The dried root of the madder is long, cylin- 
 drical the thickness of a goose quill, branched 
 and covered with a reddish cuticle, which, 
 as well as the bark, is easily separated ; the 
 odour is feeble, and the taste bitter and as- 
 tringent. It is imported entire from Smyrna 
 and the Levant ; but in coarse powder from 
 Holland and France. The cultivation of mad- 
 der has been attempted in England, and it is 
 still carried on to a limited extent in some dis- 
 tricts, but without any very great success or 
 beneficial results, owing to the low price at 
 which it can be procured from the Dutch 
 growers and from Turkey. Rules have been 
 laid down by Miller, On the Culture and Ma- 
 nufacture of Madder, for managing the land, 
 separating and planting the shoots, gather- 
 ing and drying the roots, and for pounding, 
 casking, and preparing them for sale, ac- 
 cording to the most approved English prac- 
 tice. The reader who wishes to attempt 
 the cultivation of madder, will also find some 
 useful hints in the Penny Cyclopaedia, vol. 
 xiv. p. 260., and Brit. Husbandry, vol. ii. 
 p. 332. ; Bechmann's Hist, of Invent, vol. iii. ; 
 and The Complete Farmer, vol. ii. The 
 778 
 
 haulm of madder, though sometimes em- 
 ployed in the feeding of cattle, is not very 
 generally used for that purpose, for it tinges 
 red the milk, the urine, the sweat, and even 
 the bones of the animals fed upon it. The 
 ' average annual imports are about 180,000 
 cwt. of madder root and ground madder. 
 The duty chargeable on consumption is 2s. 
 per cwt. on the prepared madder, and 6d. 
 per cwt. on the roots. Madder was for- 
 merly used as a medicine in jaundice : 
 but it possesses no properties which entitle 
 it to be regarded as a remedy in any dis- 
 ease. (M'-CullocKs Com. Diet. ; Thompsons 
 Chem. ; Paxtorts Bot. Diet.) 
 
 MADDER, THE FIELD. See She- 
 rardia. 
 
 MADDER, WILD. (Rubia peregrina.) 
 This is an indigenous species which is found 
 growing in thickets and on stony or sandy 
 ground in the west of Britain. The root 
 is creeping, fleshy, and tender, of a tawny 
 red, useful in dyeing, but it is very inferior 
 to the cultivated madder. The stem is 
 branched, spreading, square, perennial, 
 partly shrubby, its angles rough with hooked 
 prickles, as are the edges and midrib of the 
 broad, shining, dark, evergreen, elliptical 
 leaves, which are four or more in a whorl. 
 The flowers, which appear from July to 
 August, are yellowish green, five-cleft, in 
 forked terminal panicles. The berries are 
 juicy, in pairs, black and shining. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 211.) 
 
 MADWORT, THE MOUNTAIN. One 
 of the common names of the mountain 
 Germander Speedwell (Veronica montand). 
 
 MADWORT, GERMAN. (Asperugo 
 procumbens.) An annual weed which grows 
 in rich waste grounds, but not common. 
 Root small and tapering ; stems prostrate, 
 square, leafy, a foot or two in length, their 
 angles beset with reflexed prickles ; leaves 
 two, three, or four together, dark green, 
 elliptic, lanceolate, bordered with direct 
 prickles, and rough with depressed bristly 
 hairs, so that the plant sticks to the hands 
 or clothes like Galium aparine. The flowers, 
 which blow in June or July, are small, ax- 
 illary, solitary, on short stalks ; limb of a 
 fine deep blue ; valves white or reddish ; 
 calyx of the fruit flat ; seeds whitish, finely 
 granulated. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. l. 
 p. 265.) 
 
 MADNESS. See Hydrophobia. 
 
 MADS. A provincial term, applied to 
 earth-worms. 
 
 MAGGOT. See Fly in Sheep. 
 
 MAGNESIA. (Fr. magnesie ; It. mag- 
 nesia.) One of the primitive earths having 
 a metallic basis. It is an oxide of magne- 
 sium. It is sometimes found native, nearly in 
 a state of purity ; but is generally prepared 
 
MAGNOLIA. 
 
 MAIDEN HAIR. 
 
 by calcining the common carbonate of mag- 
 nesia. It is inodorous and insipid, in the 
 form of a very light, white, soft powder, 
 having a specific gravity of 2*3. It turns 
 to green the more delicate vegetable blues, 
 and requires for its solution 2000 parts of 
 water at 60°. It is found combined with 
 carbonic and other acids in plants. (See 
 Earths.) It is a useful purgative in an 
 acid state of the stomach ; and taken daily, 
 with short intervals intervening, it is a use- 
 ful preventive of red gravel or lithic acid 
 deposits in the kidneys. 
 
 MAGNOLIA. (Named by Plumier 
 after Pierre Magnol, prefect of the botanic 
 garden at Montpelier, and author of several 
 works on plants; he died in 1715.) This 
 is a genus of very elegant and showy plants 
 when in flower, and well worthy of exten- 
 sive cultivation. The hardy kinds, being 
 remarkably handsome shrubs, should be 
 planted in conspicuous situations where they 
 will flower profusely when they attain a 
 good size. M. glanca, and some others, 
 grow best in a peat soil in a moist situation. 
 They are generally increased by layers put 
 down in spring or autumn, or by seeds ; 
 when the layers are first taken off, they 
 should be potted in a mixture of loam and 
 peat, and placed in a close frame till they 
 have taken fresh root. None of the leaves 
 should be taken off or shortened, nor any 
 shoots be cut off, as they will not succeed 
 so well ; for the more branches and leaves 
 are on the sooner they will strike fresh 
 root. The Chinese kinds are often inarched 
 or budded on M. obovata, one of the rea- 
 diest growing kinds, which takes readily. 
 The seeds of the North American species 
 are received annually from that country. 
 They should be sown as soon as possible 
 after their arrival, in pots of light rich earth, 
 covering them half an inch deep ; these 
 may be placed either in a hotbed or a warm 
 sheltered situation, or they may be sown in 
 the open ground, and when the plants are 
 of sufficient size, they should be planted out 
 singly into pots, and sheltered till they have 
 taken fresh root ; they should also be pro- 
 tected from the frost by a frame for two or 
 three successive winters, giving them the 
 benefit of the open air in mild weather. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet ; Phillips s Shrubbery, 
 vol. ii. p. 64. ; Millers Diet.) 
 
 MAGPIE. (Corvus pica, Linn. ; Pica 
 candata, Gould.) " This well-known bird," 
 as observed by Montagu, " is a great enemy 
 to the husbandman and preserver of game ; 
 but has cunning enough to evade their 
 wrath. No food comes amiss to its car- 
 nivorous appetite ; young poultry, eggs, 
 young lambs, and even weakly sheep, it 
 will attempt to destroy by first plucking 
 779 
 
 out their eyes; the young of hares share 
 the same fate; fish, carrion, insects, and 
 fruit, and lastly grain, when nothing else 
 can be got. It is an artful, noisy bird, pro- 
 claiming aloud any apparent danger, and 
 thereby gives notice to its associates. Nei- 
 ther the fox, or other wild animal, can ap- 
 pear without being observed and haunted ; 
 even the fowler is frequently spoiled of his 
 sport, for all other birds seem to know the 
 alarming chatter of the magpie." 
 
 Magpies generally continue in pairs all 
 the year round. They build in high trees, 
 sometimes in a lofty hedge, and occasionally 
 in a low but thick bush, returning to the 
 same nest for several years in succession. 
 The nest is constructed, with great art, of a 
 framework of sharp thorny sticks, plastered 
 with earth on the inside, and having a lining 
 of fibrous roots and dry grass. There is a 
 sort of dome over the top, and a small aper- 
 ture on the side just large enough to admit 
 the parent bird, who generally sits with her 
 head to the hole, ready to quit the nest on 
 the slightest alarm. 
 
 The magpie breeds early in spring, pro- 
 ducing six or seven eggs of a pale bluish- 
 white colour, spotted all over with ash co- 
 lour, and two shades of greenish brown ; 
 the length one inch four lines and a half, 
 the breadth one inch. When taken young 
 the magpie is easily tamed, chatters to those 
 who feed or notice him, imitates the sound 
 of the human voice, and learns many 
 amusing tricks ; the desire to pilfer and hide 
 any small shining article, observable in all 
 the birds of this family, is particularly con- 
 spicuous in the magpie. 
 
 The beak, chin, throat, upper part of the 
 breast, tail, legs, &c. are black, lower part 
 of the breast, belly, &c. pure white, wing 
 coverts of a fine shining blue, beautifully 
 indescent, with purple green of various 
 shades. The whole length of an adult male 
 is full eighteen inches, of which the longest 
 tail feathers measure nearly eleven inches. 
 The female is smaller in size, the tail is 
 shorter, and the plumage less brilliant. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 108.) 
 
 MAIDEN HAIR. {Adiantum, derived 
 from adiantos, dry. Pliny says, it is in vain 
 to plunge the adiantum in water, for it 
 always remains dry.) These are elegant 
 species of ferns with beautiful leaves. They 
 succeed well in a mixture of loam and peat ; 
 but they appear to thrive best if planted in 
 loose rock-work where there is a good 
 drainage, and may be increased by divisions 
 or by seeds. A. capillus veneris is the only 
 indigenous species. It is often supposed 
 that the French syrup called capillaire is 
 made from this plant ; but it is from the 
 Adiantum pedatum, a plant growing in the 
 
MAIZE. 
 
 MALLOW. 
 
 south of France. Our adiantum, however, 
 would make as useful a syrup. It is a re- 
 freshing beverage, mixed with water, in 
 fevers. See Fern. (JPaxtoiis Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 320.) 
 
 MAIZE. Indian corn. (Zea mays, from 
 zao, to live, in reference to the nutritive pro- 
 perties of the plants.) A species of grain, 
 native of North America, where it is culti- 
 vated to a considerable extent, and forms an 
 important article of food. Maize was brought 
 very prominently into notice some years 
 since by Mr. Cobbett, who grew, with much 
 success, a dwarf variety on his farm of Barn 
 Elm, near London, and published an ela- 
 borate treatise on its culture and the uses 
 to which it could be appliech Notwith- 
 standing his strenuous advocacy, its culti- 
 vation has never been much approved of, 
 and in no part of the kingdom is it grown 
 to any extent. This valuable plant produces 
 a much larger number of ears, which abound 
 with a greater proportion of wholesome 
 mealy matter, than any European grain; 
 and as Indian corn prospers in low, swampy 
 situations, where it tends to dry up the su- 
 perfluous moisture, and to render the soil 
 firm, it might perhaps be advantageously 
 cultivated in some of the southern countries 
 of Britain ; but unfortunately it requires a 
 higher summer heat than we generally ex- 
 perience in these islands. 
 
 Maize is propagated by setting the seed 
 in equi- distant rows, from two or three to 
 five feet asunder. The proper season for 
 planting it is from the middle of April to 
 the beginning of May. For this purpose 
 the earth is opened with a hoe to the depth 
 of three or four inches, and in each hole are 
 deposited four or five grains at a little dis- 
 tance from each other. As soon as the young 
 plants appear, the weeds are carefully era- 
 dicated, and the earth gradually heaped 
 around them, till the ears appear; after 
 which they are left till the harvest arrives. 
 The ears are then gathered and dried in an 
 open situation ; for if this corn be heaped to- 
 gether, it is apt to ferment and putrefy, or 
 to sprout and grow. The best method of 
 preserving it is to husk, or thrash it out, as 
 soon as the harvest is completed, to dry it 
 perfectly in the sun, and deposit it in cool, 
 dry, and airy situations. Maize, in countries 
 where it is extensively grown, is subservient 
 to a variety of purposes : its bulky stalks 
 afford an excellent winter food for cattle, 
 provided they have not been cut in too dry 
 a state. The American Indians parch the 
 corn carefully over a fire, without burning 
 it, after which they pound it, sift the meal, 
 and preserve the latter for their constant 
 rovision. In the United States excellent 
 read is prepared from Indian corn by 
 780 
 
 kneading the boiled flour into a stiff paste, 
 either alone or mixed with that of rye or 
 wheat, which is fermented with leaven or 
 yeast, and then regularly baked, This bread 
 is called Johnny-cake. It is sometimes made 
 from the pottage of ground maize, called 
 homony, and is extremely palatable and nu- 
 tritive. (See Bread.) The Americans also 
 convert the maize into a species of malt, 
 from which, as well as from the bread itself, 
 they brew a wholesome beverage. The 
 many purposes to which this grain may be 
 applied will be found well set forth in Cob- 
 bett's work ; an able and lengthy review 
 of which is given in the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. i. p. 484. 
 
 MAKINBOY. One of the common 
 names of the Irish spurge. (Euphorbia hi- 
 berna). See Spurge. 
 
 MALE FERN. See Fern. 
 
 MALIC ACID. A peculiar acid con- 
 tained in the juice of the apple and several 
 other fruits ; it may also be obtained from 
 the berries of the mountain ash rowan tree 
 (Sorbus aucuparia), and has hence been 
 called sorbic acid. It is very soluble in water, 
 crystallizes with difficulty, has a pleasant 
 acid taste, and forms malates with the alka- 
 lies. 
 
 MALLOW. (Malva, altered from the 
 Greek malache, soft, which comes from ma- 
 lacho, to soften, in allusion to the emollient 
 qualities of the species.) This is an exten- 
 sive genus of plants, some of the species of 
 which are very ornamental. Among the 
 most interesting of the hardy herbaceous 
 species, are M. moschata, M. munroana, and 
 M. purpurata. They should be planted in 
 the flower border, and increased by divisions 
 of the roots, or by seeds. The annual species 
 should be sown in the open ground ; but 
 few of these are worth cultivating. 
 
 The indigenous species are three in num- 
 ber. 1. Common mallow (M. sylvestris), a 
 perennial weed which is very common about 
 hedgerows, roadsides, and in cultivated as 
 well as waste ground. The root is tapering, 
 branching, whitish ; stem upright, much 
 branched, widely spreading, 1£ to 3 feet 
 high, in a barren soil recumbent ; leaves 
 deep green, soft, and downy, with seven 
 acute lobes ; foot stalks and flower stalks 
 hairy ; the flowers, which appear from May 
 to August, are numerous, of a shining pur- 
 ple, veiny, on simple aggregate stalks. The 
 leaves are mucilaginous and emollient, like 
 the marsh-mallow ; and were formerly often 
 used in food to prevent costiveness. The 
 fruit is a depressed disk, and is called by the 
 country people " cheeses." 
 
 2. Dwarf mallow (M. rotundifolia). This 
 species is also very common in waste ground, 
 and by footpaths near towns and villages. 
 
 i: 
 
MALT. 
 
 It is annual in habit ; has a tapering root. 
 The whole plant is smaller than the last, 
 and is quite prostrate, with numerous stems 
 scarcely branched. Leaves roundish, heart- 
 shaped, with five, often seven, shallow lobes. 
 Flowers pale lilac-coloured, several together 
 on axillary hairy stalks ; the stalks when 
 in fruit are bent downwards. 
 
 3. Musk mallow (M. moschata). This is 
 a less common perennial species, found in 
 the grassy borders of fields, &c, on a gra- 
 velly soil. The root is tough and woody ; 
 the herbage is bright green, more or less 
 rough, with spreading, simple, not starry 
 hairs, unaccompanied with any short, dense, 
 woolly pubescence, and exhaling a musky 
 odour, especially in hot weather, or when 
 drawn tightly through the hand. Stems 
 about two feet high, leafy, round, but little 
 branched. Radical leaves kidney-shaped, 
 cut, soon withering away ; the rest in five 
 deep, pinnatifid, jagged segments. The 
 flowers, which appear in July and August, 
 are on long axillary simple stalks, rose- 
 coloured, large and handsome ; calyx hairy, 
 its outer leaves linear-lanceolate. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 244.) 
 
 MALLOW, THE MARSH. See Marsh- 
 Mallow. 
 
 MALLOW, THE TREE. See Tree- 
 Mallow. 
 
 MALT. (Fr. mal ; It. malto ; Lat. mal- 
 tum.) The term malt is applied to designate 
 grain which, being steeped in water, is made 
 to germinate to a certain extent, after which 
 the process is checked by the application of 
 heat. This evolves the saccharine principle 
 of the grain, which is the essence of malt. 
 Rice, and almost every species of grain, has 
 been used in malting ; but in Europe, and 
 especially in England, malt is prepared al- 
 most wholly from barley. It is the principal 
 ingredient in the manufacture of beer, and of 
 ardent spirits. 
 
 The process of malting is performed by 
 steeping any quantity of good barley in cold 
 water for a period which (as regulated by 
 law) must not be less than forty hours ; but 
 beyond that period the steeping may be 
 continued as long as it is thought proper. 
 The proportion of water imbibed depends 
 partly upon the barley, and partly upon the 
 length of time that it is steeped; but the 
 result of a good many trials proves that the 
 medium increase of weight from steeping 
 may be reckoned at 47 lbs. in every 100. 
 The average increase of bulk is about one 
 fifth. After the grain has remained a suffi- 
 cient time in steep, the water is drained off, 
 and the barley thrown out of the cistern 
 upon the malt floor, where it is formed into 
 a heap, called the couch, about 16 inches 
 deep. In this situation it is allowed to re- 
 781 
 
 main about 26 hours. It is then turned by 
 means of wooden shovels, and diminished a 
 little in depth. This turning is repeated 
 twice a day or oftener, and the grain is 
 spread thinner and thinner, till at last its 
 depth does not exceed a few inches. The 
 temperature which it is wished to preserve 
 by these frequent turnings varies from 55° 
 to 62°, according to the different modes of 
 malting pursued. Soon after the rudiments 
 of the future stem, called acrospire by the 
 maltsters, has appeared, the process of 
 germination is stopped by drying the malt 
 upon a kiln. The temperature at first does 
 not exceed 90° ; but it is raised very slowly 
 up to 140°, or higher according to circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Barley by being converted into malt 
 generally increases two or three per cent, in 
 bulk, and loses at an average about 20 
 per cent, in weight, of which 12 are as- 
 cribed to kiln drying, and consist of water 
 which the barley would have lost had it 
 been exposed to the same temperature ; so 
 that the real loss does not exceed 8 per 
 cent. 
 
 The following is Dr. Thomson's analysis 
 of barley, and the pale malt made from it : 
 
 Barley. Malt. 
 
 Gluten 3 1 
 
 Sugar - 4 16 
 
 Gum - - 5 14 
 
 Starch - - 88 69 
 
 100 100 
 
 The gluten in this case is a most important 
 component, as by its transformation, when 
 the malt is converted into wort, ferment is 
 generated; whilst the saccharine matter, 
 which is increased fourfold, is the origin of 
 the alcohol of the beer. Oxygen is appro- 
 priated by the gluten at the same time that 
 the transformation of the sugar is going on ; 
 and thus carbonic acid and yeast are disen- 
 gaged simultaneously. 
 
 In brewing ale, porter, and table beer, 
 three different kinds of malt are employed : 
 1 . pale or amber malt, which yields the sac- 
 charine or fermentable extract ; 2. brown 
 or blown malt, which is not fermentable, but 
 is used to impart flavour ; 3. roasted, 
 black, or, as it is sometimes called, patent 
 malt, which is employed instead of burnt 
 sugar, merely as a colouring matter for 
 porter. 
 
 The manufacture of malt has been carried 
 on in England to a great extent from a very 
 early period ; but it is singular that notwith- 
 standing the products obtained from it have 
 always formed the principal beverage of the 
 great bulk of the people, instead of increas- 
 ing with the progressive wealth of the popu- 
 lation of the country, it remained nearly 
 
MALT DUST. 
 
 MALUS. 
 
 stationary for more than a century, and it is 
 only within the last eight or ten years that 
 there has been»any increase in the manufac- 
 ture. This extraordinary result is most 
 probably to be attributed to the introduc- 
 tion and universal use of tea, coffee, &c, and 
 to the heavy duties which were formerly 
 levied on beer and malt. The present duty 
 on malt from barley is 2s. 7d. per bushel, 
 and from bere or bigg, 2s. The quantity of 
 malt charged with duty in the United King- 
 dom during the three years ending 1838 
 was 41,814,811 bushels; and the revenue 
 derived from it averaged in the same period, 
 5,282,975Z. 
 
 The following is the quantity of malt con- 
 sumed by the brewers of London and its 
 vicinity, from the 10th of October, 1830, to 
 the 10th of October, 1840. 
 
 1831 
 
 1832 
 1833 
 1834 
 1835 
 
 Qrs. 
 622,549 
 604,477 
 578,588 
 662,713 
 702,533 
 
 1836 
 1837 
 1838 
 1839 
 1840 
 
 Qrs. 
 754,313 
 714,488 
 742,597 
 750,176 
 776,219 
 
 The 6 Geo. 4. c. 107. s. 52. enacts that 
 " malt may not be imported into the United 
 Kingdom for home use under pain of for- 
 feiture ; but it may be warehoused for ex- 
 portation." The importation of malt is, 
 however, now allowed under very high du- 
 ties, fluctuating with the price of home pro- 
 duce : but under no state of the market can 
 any addition be thus made to the quantity 
 of malt in this country, because barley which 
 has undergone a voyage of much length is 
 unsuited to the process of malting. The 
 reader will find an elaborate article " On 
 the Malt and Beer Duties," in the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agric. vol. ii. p. 272., and another 
 in the Edin. Review, No. 98. The works 
 quoted at the foot of this article may also 
 be consulted by those who wish to obtain 
 more ample details on the subject. As 
 no one would think of undertaking the 
 business of a maltster without having a copy 
 of the acts 7 & 8 and 1 1 Geo. 4. in his pos- 
 session, it is quite unnecessary for me, even 
 if my limits permitted, to give an abstract 
 of these acts. (Dr. Thomson's Veg. Chem. ; 
 Penny Cyclo. vol. xiv. p. 341. ; M'CullocKs 
 Com. Diet; Brande's Diet, of Science.) 
 See Barley, Beer, and Brewing. 
 
 MALT-DUST. The dust or substance 
 that separates from the malt in the act of 
 drying, or during its preparation. It is 
 sometimes called malt-combs, and has been 
 found useful as a manure as a top-dressing 
 Avlicn sown over the cereal grasses in the 
 Barly spring season. 
 
 The proper quantity of this dust is, if top- 
 dressed, for wheat, 36 to 40 bushels; if 
 782 
 
 drilled with the crop, for barley and turnips, 
 30 to 34 bushels. It is also eminently cal- 
 culated for grass lands; and if applied in 
 the latter proportion, it will produce a very 
 considerable increase of the best feed. The 
 common price at most malt-kilns is from 5s. 
 to 6s. per quarter. Malt-dust is also in 
 some places employed in the feeding of 
 milch cows and pigs. (Brit. Hnsb. vol. i. 
 p. 413.) 
 
 MALUS. (Lat. malum, an apple.) The 
 wild crab (Pyrus mains, see Crab-tree) is 
 the only apple indigenous to this country, 
 and it is on this stock that most of our va- 
 luable apples have been grafted and raised 
 by the ingenuity of the gardeners, who have, 
 by sowing the seeds and studying the soil, 
 so improved and multiplied the varieties of 
 this most excellent fruit, that it has now 
 become of great national importance, af- 
 fording an agreeable and wholesome diet, in 
 a thousand shapes, to all classes. Leonard 
 Mascal was the first who introduced the 
 common or cultivated apple into England, 
 about the year 1525. The varieties of the 
 apple are now so numerous, that the Horti- 
 cultural Society's catalogue includes more 
 than 1400. The apple, like most other 
 hardy trees, may be propagated by seeds, 
 cuttings, suckers, layers, or engrafting ; by 
 seeds for obtaining new varieties, and by 
 the other modes for extending the number 
 of such as are in esteem. 
 
 In every garden and private orchard, 
 apples for ten different purposes are de- 
 sirable : 
 
 1. For summer culinary use, the codlings 
 while not fully grown or imperfectly ripe, 
 are fit for using in June, July, and August. 
 
 2. For summer eating or table use, the 
 jenneting, pomroy, &c, which ripen in the 
 end of June or in July. Margaret summer 
 pearmain, &c. (July). Kentish fill-basket, 
 Hawthorn dean, &c. (August). 
 
 3. For autumn baking, the codlings and 
 Burknotts, red streaks, Eve apple, court pen- 
 der, nonsuch, &c, which ripen in September. 
 Piles's russet, Carlisle codling, catsheads, em- 
 broidered, &c. (October). Wormsley pippin, 
 golden Harvey, queening, golden russet 
 (November). 
 
 4. For autumn table use, the Kirton and 
 Dalmahoy pippins, Loan's pearmain, Col- 
 ville, Kent, Godolphin, &c, which ripen in 
 September ; orange and ribstone pippins, 
 grey rennet, fameuse, violet, &c. (October). 
 Franklin's golden, and Borsdorf pippins, 
 Dredge's russet, margil, &c. (November). 
 
 5. For winter culinary use, the Nimier's 
 dumpling, Burknott, John apple, Mansfield 
 tart, &c, which are fit to use in December. 
 Halldoor, royal pearmain, Dutch queening, 
 Adam's russet (January). Brindgwood 
 
MANDRAKE. 
 
 MANGE. 
 
 pippin, cockagee, tankerton, box-apple 
 (February). 
 
 6. For winter table use, the golden and 
 Kentish pippins, golden and Canadian ren- 
 nets, brandy, &c., which are fit to eat in 
 December. The Norfolk storing, Hub- 
 bard's, Sykehouse, white court pender, &c. 
 (January.) Dredge's Queen Charlotte, 
 Feams, Skenn's kernel, and Dalmahoy pip- 
 pins, royal pearmain, &c. (February). 
 
 7. For spring culinary use, the quince, 
 white Colville, Lord Camden's rennet,winter 
 pearmain, which keep till the end of March. 
 Spencer pippin, Trevoider rennet, Macdon- 
 aid's Scotch nonpareil, Spaniard, &c. (April). 
 Norfolk paradise, Loan's pearmain, English 
 rennet, &c. (May). 
 
 8. For spring table use, the hollow-eyed, 
 Cornwall rennet, Hughes's new golden pip- 
 pin, &c, which will keep till the end of 
 March. Cockle and Whitmore pippins, 
 golden and Piles's russet, Wheeler's extreme, 
 &c. (April). Stone and Spencer pippins, 
 Royal George, Ward, &c. (May). 
 
 9. For summer culinary use, till the 
 apple season returns, the Lord Cheney's 
 green, Baxter's pearmain, stoup codling, &c. 
 which will keep till the end of June. Nor- 
 folk beaufin, Norfolk storing, French crab 
 (July). 
 
 10. For summer table use, till the apple 
 season returns, the Dredge's fame, oaken 
 peg, carnation, &c, which keep till the end 
 of June. Nonpareil, Yorkshire greening, 
 Norfolk Colman, which keep till the end of 
 July. 
 
 Another source of choice under each of 
 the above heads, may respect the soil, 
 situation, and climate of the garden or or- 
 chard in which they are to be planted, or 
 the character, whether of dwarfs, espaliers, 
 or wall trees, which they are to assume 
 there. Young trees are more likely to 
 succeed in exposed sites and poor soils ; 
 but the apple will bear transplanting at 
 a greater age than any other fruit tree. 
 Any common soil, neither extremely sandy, 
 gravelly, or clayey, on a dry subsoil and 
 with a free exposure, will suit this tree. 
 (Phillips's Hist, of Fruits; Loudon's Encyc. 
 of Gard. ; Treat, on Apples and Pears.) See 
 Cider and Orchard. 
 
 MANDRAKE. (Mandragora; the name 
 is derived from mandra, an ox-stall, some- 
 thing relating to cattle, and agauros, cruel ; 
 on account of its poisonous effects on cattle, 
 when accidentally gathered with their fodder 
 in the countries where the plants abound.) 
 These plants, which are natives of the south 
 of Europe, thrive well in a light soil, in a 
 shaded situation. They can only be in- 
 creased by seeds. The roots are very apt 
 to rot during winter. The root has an un- 
 783 
 
 couth form, which is supposed to resemble 
 the human shape; on which account it was 
 imagined to be capable of preventing barren- 
 ness. It is, however, an acro-narcotic poison, 
 and when taken proves fatal by the extreme 
 purging which it causes. The common 
 people still believe in its properties; but the 
 root of a species of Bryony (Tamus commu- 
 nis) is usually sold for it in the herb shops. 
 (Paxtons Pot. Diet.) 
 
 MANG. A provincial word signifying a 
 mash of bran, malt, or other similar substance. 
 
 MANGE. A cutaneous disease, which 
 attacks several domestic animals, especially 
 the dog, and which is attended with an 
 eruption and loss of hair. 
 
 In the horse it is known to exist by the 
 animal's constantly rubbing or biting him- 
 self, so as to remove the hair, and sometimes 
 produces ulceration ; the hair of the mane 
 and tail frequently falls of, and small scabs 
 may generally be observed about the roots of 
 those which remain. This disease is seldom 
 met with, except in common stables where 
 scarcely any attention is paid to the horses, 
 and where their food is of the worst quality; 
 horses highly kept, if not properly attended 
 to, are also subject to this disease, which is 
 very contagious. 
 
 The causes of mange are, sudden changes 
 of temperature, hot stables, bad diet, joined 
 to want of cleanliness. The perspirable 
 matter being never properly removed by 
 friction, and being frequently mixed with 
 dust, &c, completely plugs up the external 
 exhalents, whereby they become obstructed, 
 and a diseased action takes place. It may 
 also be caused by infectious matter coming 
 in contact with the skin ; as when a sound 
 horse rubs himself against the stall in which 
 a mangy horse has been kept. The prin- 
 cipal symptoms are, the horse growing very 
 thin, without any apparent cause, attended 
 with a staring of his coat. This is soon fol- 
 lowed by eruptions, which discharge a thick 
 yellowish matter, forming a kind of scurf, 
 which peels off, and is succeeded by fresh 
 eruptions, and the hair falls off. This, 
 though partial at first, soon spreads all over 
 the body, is attended with an itching, and 
 causing the horse to rub against every thing 
 he comes near. In this disease great at- 
 tention to cleanliness is necessary. 
 
 In the horse the following will be found 
 the best remedy. Bleed to the extent of 
 two or three quarts, according to the con- 
 stitution of the animal, and after first pre- 
 paring the horse by bran mashes, give the 
 following dose of physic : — 
 
 Barbadoes aloes - 6 drachms 
 
 Powdered ginger 2 — 
 
 Castile soap - -2 — r 
 
 Oil of carraways - 20 drops. 
 
MANGEL 
 
 WURZEL. 
 
 Honey or treacle sufficient to form a ball. 
 After which give the following alterative 
 balls : — 2 ozs. each of powdered black an- 
 timony, powdered nitre, flour of sulphur, 
 Castile soap, and aniseed powder, 1 oz. of 
 rosin, added to a sufficient quantity of honey 
 to make eight balls, one to be given every 
 night. 
 
 The following ointment may be applied 
 externally : — 
 
 Black sulphur - - - 8 ozs. 
 
 Strong mercurial ointment - 2 — 
 
 Soft soap - - - 4 — 
 
 Train oil - - - 1 pint. 
 
 These ingredients to be well mixed, and 
 one third part carefully rubbed in daily. If the 
 above ointment should be found ineffectual, 
 4 ozs. of spirit of tar may be added. 
 
 Dogs and. swine are frequently subject to 
 mange. For the common scabby variety in 
 the dog, the following ointment is recom- 
 mended : — 
 
 Powdered sulphur - - 4 ozs. 
 Muriate of ammonia, powdered ^ — 
 Venice turpentine - i — 
 
 Lard, or other fatty matter - 6 — 
 Well mixed. 
 
 MANGEL WURZEL. Field Beet, or 
 Root of Scarcity. (Germ.Mangold Wurzel.) 
 The root of the Beta hybrida, or B. al- 
 bissima, Linn. This is a kind of red beet, 
 which, according to Von Thaer, is a mongrel 
 between the red and white beet. It has been 
 long cultivated in France, Germany, and 
 Switzerland, partly as food for cattle, and 
 partly to be used in distillation, and in the 
 extraction of sugar. Its culture in Great 
 Britain is more recent ; but its value is now 
 becoming very generally appreciated, and 
 the cultivation likely to become more ex- 
 tensive. So far back as the year 1811, Ge- 
 neral Beatson, then Governor of St. Helena, 
 writing to the English Board of Agricul- 
 ture, and describing the extraordinary pro- 
 duce of some plants, the leaves of which 
 had been repeatedly cut to serve as a sub- 
 stitute for spinach, says : — "It certainly 
 possesses advantages over every other plant 
 hitherto introduced in field culture. Its 
 produce is immense ; and I have found it 
 to grow, with considerable luxuriance, upon 
 land where no other vegetation was ever 
 seen. It has also the singular property of 
 being unmolested by the dolphin fly, which 
 is here extremely destructive to cabbages, 
 turnips, and radishes. I have very often 
 observed, where alternate plants of cabbage 
 and mangel wurzel were growing in the 
 same rows, and touching each other, that 
 whilst the former were absolutely annihi- 
 lated by the destructive insect, not one was 
 784 
 
 to be seen on the mangel wurzel leave^" 
 (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 
 
 Lord Spencer, in the Joum. of the Roy. 
 Eng. Agr. Soc, vol. ii. p. 296., reports 
 the result of a trial on the comparative 
 feeding properties of mangel wurzel and 
 Swedish turnips. " Believing," says his 
 lordship, " that mangold wurzel contained 
 more saccharine matter than Swedish tur- 
 nips, and ought, consequently, to be the 
 more nourishing root of the two, I deter- 
 mined to try, practically, whether an ox 
 fed upon mangold wurzel increased in weight 
 more than one fed upon Swedish turnips, 
 in proportion to the quantity of each con- 
 sumed. In order to have rendered my ex- 
 periment perfectly accurate, I ought to have 
 ascertained the weight of hay consumed by 
 each beast during the progress of the trial ; 
 but I did not do this, although I am pretty 
 confident that the quantity consumed by 
 each was nearly the same. I selected two 
 steers, tolerably, and at least equally, well 
 bred. No. 1. calved March 29th, 1823, and 
 No. 2. calved May 6th of the same year ; 
 and on the 24th of December, 1825, I put 
 No. 1. to Swedish turnips, and No. 2. to 
 mangold wurzel. I ascertained their weight 
 by measurement, and both of them mea- 
 sured the same, viz. 4 ft. 10 in. in length by 
 6 ft. 5 in. in girth, making them to weigh 
 668 lbs. each. On the 23d of January, 
 No. 1. had consumed 1624 lbs. of Swedish 
 turnips, and measured 4 ft. 10 in. in length 
 by 6 ft. 7 in. in girth, making him to weigh 
 703 lbs., and to have increased in weight 
 35 lbs., or at the rate of 48A lbs. for every 
 ton of Swedish turnips consumed. No. 2. 
 had consumed 1848 lbs. of mangold wurzel, 
 and measured 4 ft. 10 in. in length by 6 ft. 
 8 in. in girth, making him to weigh 721 lbs., 
 and to have increased in weight 53 lbs., or 
 at the rate of 65^ lbs. for every ton of man- 
 gold wurzel consumed. 
 
 " This difference, however, might have 
 arisen from No. 2. having a greater pro- 
 pensity to feed than No 1. I therefore now 
 put No. 1. to mangold wurzel, and No. 2. 
 to Swedish turnips. On the 20th of Feb- 
 ruary, No. 1. had consumed 1884 lbs. of 
 mangold wurzel, and measured 4 ft. 11 in. 
 in" length by 6 ft. 8 in. in girth, making 
 him to weigh 734 lbs., and to have increased 
 in weight this month 31 lbs., or at the rate 
 of 36f lbs. for every ton of mangold wurzel 
 consumed. No. 2. had consumed 1880 lbs. 
 of Swedish turnips, and measured 4 ft. 
 1 1 in. in length by 6 ft. 8 in. in girth, making 
 him to weigh also 734 lbs., and to have in- 
 creased in weight during this month 1 3 lbs., or 
 at the rate of 15£ lbs. for every ton of Swed- 
 ish turnips consumed. I then put both to 
 mangold wurzel, and divided the food cquall y 
 
MANGEL 
 
 WURZEL. 
 
 between them. On the 19th of March, they 
 had each consumed 1792 lbs. of mangold 
 wurzel ; No. 1 . measured 5 ft. in length by 
 6 ft. lOin. in girth, making him to weigh 
 784 lbs., and to have increased in weight 
 50 lbs. ; No. 2. measured 5 ft. in length by 
 6 ft. 9 in. in girth, making him to weigh 
 765 lbs., and to have increased in weight 
 36 lbs. 
 
 " It would appear, therefore, as if the 
 propensity to feed of No. 1. was greater 
 than that of No. 2. in the proportion of 50 
 to 31 ; but, notwithstanding this, in the first 
 month, when No. 1. was upon Swedish tur- 
 nips, and No. 2. upon mangold wurzel, No. 2. 
 beat No. 1. in the proportion above stated 
 of 65 £ to 48i. It appears at> if there could 
 be no great inaccuracy in estimating the 
 relative weight of the animals, as, soon after 
 the experiment was concluded, I sold No. 1. 
 to a butcher in the country for 24/. 3*., and 
 No. 2. at Smithfield for 24/. 
 
 " It will be for practical men to decide 
 upon the value of this trial ; what appears 
 to me to be most conclusive part of it is, 
 that No. 2, who had during the first month, 
 when he was feeding upon mangold wurzel, 
 increased in girth three inches, in the next 
 month, when his food was changed to Swedish 
 turnips, did not increase in girth at all ; and 
 when, in the third month, he was feeding 
 again upon mangold wurzel, he again began 
 to increase in girth ; because it is very well 
 known, that, if an animal is changed from 
 more to less nutritious food, the probable 
 consequence will be that his growth will be 
 stopped. The result appeared to me so de- 
 cisive, that I have not tried the experiment 
 with the same accuracy since ; but I did 
 try, the following year, the feeding a cow 
 alternately on Swedish turnips and man- 
 gold wurzel, and though I have not by me 
 the details of the trial, I remember that the 
 result confirmed the experiment of the pre- 
 vious year." 
 
 Mr. Miles of Kingsweston, in the same 
 volume of the Journal, p. 298., commenting 
 on the communication of Lord Spencer, 
 describes so fully and explicitly the best 
 mode of culture, &c. of this root, that I 
 cannot do better than adopt his paper en- 
 tire. 
 
 " Notwithstanding the favourable result 
 of Lord Spencers experiment with mangold 
 wurzel, the consideration will naturally 
 suggest itself to the mind of the farmer, 
 previously to his adopting the cultivation of 
 this root, whether, although the mangold 
 wurzel may bring on his cattle faster and 
 better than the Swede turnip, it is not more 
 difficult of culture, more tender in its ha- 
 bit's, and less productive in bulk per acre 
 than the Swedish turnip ; and I think, 
 785 
 
 therefore, it may not be unprofitable to lay 
 before the readers of the journal, first, the 
 chemical analysis of the highest and lowest 
 order of turnip and of mangold wurzel us 
 given by Sir H. Davy, and of the sugar- 
 beet and orange-globe mangold wurzel as 
 lately obtained on the same plan by the 
 celebrated Bristol chemist, Mr. Herepath ; 
 and then to point out the system adopted 
 by myself in the West of England in the 
 cultivation of mangold wurzel, which has 
 been attended with complete success. 
 
 Roots. 
 
 Quantity of Nutritive Matter in 1000 parls. 
 
 Species. 
 
 Muci- 
 lage or 
 Starch. 
 
 Saccha- 
 
 Matter 
 
 or 
 Sugar. 
 
 Gluten 
 or Al- 
 bumen. 
 
 Extract. 
 
 Total so- 
 luble or 
 
 nutritive 
 Matter. 
 
 Swedish turnip 
 White turnip 
 Mangold wurzel 
 Orange-globe 
 Sugar-beet 
 
 9 
 7 
 13 
 
 25f 
 17f 
 
 51 
 
 34 
 119 
 106f 
 126| 
 
 2 
 1 
 4 
 
 1-20 
 U 
 
 2 
 
 less than 1 
 1 
 
 64 
 
 42 
 136 
 135J 
 146| 
 
 " By this table, it is apparent that equal 
 quantities of Swede turnip and orange-globe 
 mangold wurzel contain very different pro- 
 portions of nutritive matter, the latter more 
 than doubling the former in quantity ; and 
 should the mangold wurzel be of equally 
 easy culture with the Swedish turnip, it 
 seems almost unaccountable that it should 
 not yet have come into more general cul- 
 tivation. I have grown the common red 
 sort for six, the sugar-beet for four, and the 
 orange-globe for three years ; these kinds 
 have regularly come into course with Swedes 
 upon light land ; the product has always 
 been equal, in most cases far heavier. The 
 Swede turnip has enemies innumerable ; I 
 have never observed the mangold wurzel 
 attacked either by fly, slug, or wireworm. 
 Equally a cleansing crop with the Swede, it 
 stores better, and lasts good for a longer 
 period. In the summer of this year I was 
 using sugar-beet with stall-fed cattle, which 
 cut perfectly good and crisp in August. 
 The mode of culture I adopt, up to deposit- 
 ing the seed in the ground, is the same as 
 that adopted in Northumberland for ridg- 
 ing the Swede ; great care, however, must be 
 taken that the seed of the mangold wurzel is 
 not buried too deep, or it will not vegetate. 
 Dibbling, as you never can ensure an equal 
 depth, does not answer ; nor does the seed 
 drill well, if properly prepared by steeping, 
 which I should recommend, for at least 
 twenty-four hours before planting. To en- 
 sure, therefore, a proper depth, I have been 
 in the habit of using an iron wheel, round 
 the outer circumference of which, 18 inches 
 apart, iron points project, broad at the base 
 and tapering towards the point, about 2| 
 inches long ; this is wheeled upon the top 
 
MANGEL 
 
 WURZEL. 
 
 of the ridge, the man walking in the furrow, 
 and thus holes are formed which can never 
 run into the excess of great depth, and into 
 which the seeds are deposited by women and 
 boys following the wheel, and generally co- 
 vering the seed by drawing the foot as they 
 advance at right angles with the ridge over 
 the holes ; the roller follows, and thus the 
 sowing terminates. One man with the 
 wheel will keep six persons well employed 
 in depositing the seed after him. This sys- 
 tem was recommended me by my friend 
 Mr. Webb Hall, and since I have adopted 
 it my crop has never failed. 
 
 " The after culture and the storing is similar 
 to that of the Swede ; great care, however, 
 should be taken in never permitting two 
 plants to grow in the same spot, which will 
 be the case frequently, should only one 
 capsule even be deposited in each hole, as 
 every capsule contains many seeds. Should 
 the tops remain uncut, the plant will stand 
 a considerable degree of frost ; it should, 
 however, be stored early in November; the 
 best and cheapest method is to build it up 
 against some high wall contiguous to your 
 beast-sheds, not more than 7 or 8 feet 
 deep, carried up square to a certain height, 
 and then tapering in a roof to the top of the 
 wall ; protect the sides with thatched hur- 
 dles, leaving an interval between the roots 
 and the hurdles, which fill up with dry 
 stubble ; cover the roof with about a foot of 
 the same, and then thatch it, so as to con- 
 duct all moisture well over the hurdles 
 placed as a protection to the sides. In 
 pulling the plants care should be taken that 
 as little injury be inflicted upon them as 
 possible ; cleansing with a knife should on 
 no account be permitted, and it is safer to 
 leave some of the leaf on than by cutting it 
 too close to impair the crown of the root. 
 The drier the season is for storing the 
 better, although I have never found the 
 roots decayed in the heap by the earth, 
 which in wet weather has been brought 
 from the field, adhering to them. As to 
 the productiveness of the different sorts, in 
 one year I have grown a larger quantity of 
 sugar-beet per acre, in another of mangold 
 wurzel ; both these, however, I consider 
 exhaust the land in a greater degree than 
 the Swede ; but I have formed a very high 
 opinion of the orange-globe, though not so 
 large a producer generally as the two other 
 sorts ; it appears always to throw at least 
 two thirds of its weight above ground, 
 neither is its tap-root larger nor its fibrous 
 roots greater than those of the Swede tur- 
 nip. Care should be taken in giving cattle 
 every species of this root, as if taken in 
 excess it is apt to scour ; indeed, from the 
 avidity with which cattle eat the sugar- 
 
 beet, and from its viscous properties when 
 quite fresh from the ground, it should be 
 stored so as to come into consumption the 
 last of the roots. 
 
 " In feeding store cattle I should com- 
 mence with Swede turnip, proceed with the 
 orange-globe, then with mangold wurzel, 
 and finish off with the sugar-beet ; thus not 
 only frequently varying the food, but using 
 them in the order corresponding exactly 
 with the nutritive matter contained in each 
 description of plant. I have found, indeed, 
 equally with Lord Spencer, that it will not 
 do to return from any sort of mangold wur- 
 zel to Swede turnips, as even beasts in the 
 straw -yard have for two or three days re- 
 fused such a change. I may add that the 
 earlier in April your mangold wurzel is sown 
 the better, the deeper the tilth the greater 
 probability of a heavy crop, but that al- 
 though both the mangold-wurzel and sugar- 
 beet require a deeper and stronger land 
 than the Swede turnip, yet that the orange- 
 globe will flourish wherever the latter will 
 succeed." 
 
 Mangel wurzel may be grown on stiffer 
 soils than those adapted for the turnip, and 
 it is better food for milch cows, as it does 
 not, like turnips, give to the milk a taint. 
 It cannot bear the cold, however, so well as 
 the Swedish turnip, and hence is more cul- 
 tivated in the southern portions of our 
 island than in Scotland. 
 
 Mr. W. Lester (Quar. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. iii. p. 365.) describes a method of 
 making ale from this root. He says that a 
 portion of about ten pounds of the root to 
 a gallon would make a good liquor, but 
 with fifteen pounds' weight to the gallon, 
 an excellent ale will be produced ; the ad- 
 dition of two pounds' weight of treacle to a 
 firkin will be a great improvement. One 
 third malt and two thirds mangel wurzel 
 liquor, will make capital ale ; so that even 
 in this way, an important saving will be 
 effected. One method is, first to wash and 
 clean the roots well, take off the top com- 
 pletely, scrape (rather pare) off the outer 
 rind, slice and boil them until soft and 
 pulpy ; squeeze the liquor from the pulp as 
 much as possible, and then boil it again 
 with about six ounces of hops to nine gal- 
 lons, and work with yeast in the usual way. 
 Thus a cottager, by boiling his pot over his 
 winter fire of a night, and using the root as 
 we have described, might seldom be with- 
 out a refreshing beverage even the greatest 
 part of the year, for the roots may be kept 
 in a cool place, in a proper state for use, 
 during most of the winter. The leaves 
 stripped from the plant in August and Sep- 
 tember, are valuable for the cow or pig, 
 not retarding its growth in the least ; and 
 
MANGER. 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 the roots boiled and mashed in the liquor, 
 with either milk or a small quantity of meal 
 added, will feed the pig at a trifling ex- 
 pense. 
 
 MANGER. A trough or crib in the 
 stable in which corn or cut provender for 
 the horse is placed. The usual method is 
 to have them the whole breadth of the 
 stall; but this is unnecessary, as if 18 or 
 20 inches in length and 14 or 16 in breadth, 
 they will be sufficient for every useful pur- 
 pose. In the fixing of them, they should 
 be so contrived as to admit of being re- 
 moved for the purpose of being cleaned. 
 This could, however, never be done in the 
 old method of fixing them ; but by a little 
 contrivance may be easily effected. It is, 
 in many cases, a convenient plan to have 
 them in the corners or angles at the heads 
 of the stalls. See Stable and Stall. 
 
 MANNA. (Fr. marine ; It. manna.) The 
 concrete juice of the Fraxinus ornus, a 
 species of ash growing in the south of Eu- 
 rope. The juice exudes spontaneously in 
 warm dry weather, and concretes into whitish 
 tears ; but the greater part of the manna of 
 commerce is obtained by making incisions 
 in the tree, and gathering the juice in 
 baskets, where it forms irregular masses of 
 areddish or brownish colour, often full of im- 
 purities. Manna consists of two parts ; one 
 a saccharine crystallizable principle, named 
 mannil, closely resembling sugar ; the other 
 an acrid uncrystallizable principle, which is 
 the purgative agent in the manna. This 
 substance is now seldom used except as a 
 purgative for infants. (Thomson's Dispens.) 
 
 _ MAN-ORCHIS. (Aceras.) Very cu- 
 rious species of orchis, which are rather 
 troublesome to cultivate. A light loamy 
 ;oil mixed with chalk is most favourable to 
 their growth, and they can only be increased 
 by seeds. The green man-orchis (A. an- 
 thropophora) is perennial and indigenous, 
 growing in chalk-pits, grassy pastures, and 
 on banks by the road side, on a chalky soil. 
 The root consists of soft or woolly radicles, 
 attached to ovate knobs. The herb is light 
 green, smooth and shining ; the stem twelve 
 or fifteen inches high, bearing four or five 
 spreading leaves near the bottom, and one or 
 two small, sheathing, upright ones towards t he 
 middle ; the flowering spike is long and cylin- 
 drical, formed of numerous, rather crowded, 
 scentless flowers, whose green hue, tinged 
 more or less with brown, renders them not 
 very conspicuous. The lip of the flower, 
 however, is usually of a pale yellow, without 
 any spots, though occasionally tipped with 
 brown or dark red. (Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 25.) 
 
 MANTLE, THE LADIES'. See La- 
 dies' Mantle. 
 787 
 
 MANURES. The word manure, accord- 
 ing to Todd, is derived from the French, 
 manouvrer. Lemon gives the derivation as 
 follows : — " Manure, 1 omnia a manu operan- 
 do.' Skinner — all improvements in agricul- 
 ture brought in by the hand. Webster, Eng. 
 Diet., says, ' Manure (Fr. mancsuvrer, but in 
 a different sense. Norm, mainoverer, to 
 manure; Main, Lat./nawtts, hand, and ouvrer, 
 to work ; Lat. operor.) A manure may be 
 defined to be any fertilising compound or 
 simple ingredient added to a soil, of which 
 it is naturally deficient; and as all cul- 
 tivated lands should contain the earths, silica, 
 carbonate of lime, alumina, decomposing or- 
 ganic matter, and certain saline substances, 
 it is evident that in cases where any one of 
 these is contained in the land in insufficient 
 quantities for the supply of cidtivated ve- 
 getables, that then the addition of that sub- 
 stance, either in its simple or in a compound 
 form, constitutes the great art of manuring. 
 
 Fertilisers therefore naturally divide them- 
 selves into three classes : l.the earthy, which 
 are by far the most permanent portions of 
 a soil, and are usually applied in the largest 
 proportions ; 2. the organic (vegetable and 
 animal), which are the least permanent, and 
 are used in much smaller quantities than 
 the earthy ; and 3d, the saline, which are 
 the most sparingly applied of all fertilisers, 
 are the most readily absorbed by plants, 
 and whose period of duration in the soil is 
 longer than the organic, but less than the 
 earthy. A manure is either useful to ve- 
 getation, by affording in its simple or de- 
 composed state, direct food or constituents, 
 or else it is a fertiliser, by adding to the 
 soil additional power to absorb and retain 
 atmospheric gases and moisture. We shall 
 see, hereafter, that most manures which are 
 commonly applied to the land assist the 
 growth of plants in both ways. Looking 
 at the question abstractedly, it must be 
 evident, that as animals receive almost the 
 whole of their nutriment either directly or 
 indirectly from the vegetable kingdom, 
 their excrement, or their decomposed bo- 
 dies, returning these to the soil, must form 
 the best manure. 
 
 ' With regard to inorganic substances, clay 
 of the earthy manures, and some of the saline 
 fertilisers, act principally by their absorp- 
 tion and retention of moisture. Gypsum, 
 it is true, enters into the composition of 
 some of the grasses ; and, in minute propor- 
 tions, other salts do the same ; but, if we 
 except phosphate of lime (the earthy salt 
 of bones), none of the salts can be considered 
 to be a very general direct food of plants. 
 Davy very clearly explains the desirable 
 objects in the fertilisation of soils: he says, 
 " The plants growing in a soil incapable of 
 3 e 2 
 
MANURES. 
 
 supplying them with sufficient manure or 
 dead organised matter, are generally very 
 low, having brown or dark green leaves, and 
 their woody fibre abounds in earth. Those 
 vegetating in peaty soils, or in lands too 
 copiously supplied with animal or vegetable 
 matter, rapidly expand, produce large bright 
 green leaves, abound in sap, and generally 
 blossom prematurely. Excess of poverty or 
 riches is almost equally fatal to the hopes of 
 the farmer ; and the true constitution of the 
 soil, for the best crop, is that in which the 
 earthy materials, the moisture and manure, 
 are properly associated, and in which the 
 decomposable vegetable or animal matter 
 does not exceed one fourth of the weight of 
 the earthv constituents. (Elements of Ag. 
 Chem. p. 264.) 
 
 Of the organic manures, those which the 
 most readily putrefy are the most rapid in 
 their effects; but then they are the most 
 speedily exhausted : thus oil and fish, the 
 most rapid of fertilisers, are exhausted by 
 the first crop ; while bones, which decay more 
 slowly, will last for two or three. The effect 
 of chopped woollen rags is excellent for two 
 years in the rich clay hop-gardens of Kent, 
 and for three or four in the light chalky 
 arable soils of the valley of the Kennett. 
 Farm-yard dung, when applied in different 
 states of freshness, illustrates the same po- 
 sition. M. Hassenfratz manured two pieces 
 of the same kind of soil, the one with a mix- 
 ture of dung and straw highly putrefied, the 
 other with the same mixture newly made, 
 and the straw almost fresh; he observed, 
 that during the first year the plants which 
 grew on the land manured with the putrefied 
 dung, produced a much better crop than 
 the other ; but the second year, the ground 
 which had been manured with the unpu- 
 trefied dung produced the best crop ; the 
 same result appeared the third year ; after 
 which both seemed to be equally exhausted. 
 " Another experiment of the same chemist," 
 adds Dr. Thomson, " renders this truth still 
 more evident. He allowed wood shavings 
 to remain in a moist place for about ten 
 months, till they began to putrefy, and then 
 spread them over a piece of ground as a 
 manure. The first two years this piece of 
 ground produced nothing more than others 
 which had not been manured at all ; the 
 third year it was better ; the fourth year it 
 was still better ; the fifth year it reached its 
 maximum of fertility ; after which it de- 
 clined constantly till the ninth, when it was 
 quite exhausted." (Chem. vol. iv. p. 323.) 
 
 It is of* the highest importance to the 
 cultivator that he obtains a correct know- 
 ledge of the mode in which those manures 
 operate, which are found to be advanta- 
 geous to the growth of his crops. lie must 
 788 
 
 discard from his mind all those false con- 
 clusions which are sometimes drawn with 
 regard to an imaginary power assigned to 
 plants of generating vegetable substances ; 
 for they can effect no such miraculous re- 
 sults. It is true that they can combine the 
 gases or elements of vegetable matters to- 
 gether, and form gluten, starch, gum, sugar, 
 woody fibre, &c. ; they can absorb and ar- 
 range with these the earths and salin e bodies ; 
 but the oxygen, the carbon, the nitrogen, and 
 the hydrogen, of which the first named are 
 composed, and which plants usually obtain 
 from either the atmosphere or by the de- 
 composition of organic matter ; they can no 
 more create than they can form the lime or 
 the silica, which are as commonly present 
 in most vegetables as sugar, gum, or woody 
 fibre. Davy proved this when he made a 
 plant of the oat grow in pure carbonate of 
 lime, and watered it with pure distilled 
 water. It grew but languidly, and although 
 it had a free supply of the atmospheric air, 
 yet the access of all dust was carefully pre- 
 vented. Upon analysing the plant, it was 
 found to have much increased in carbonate 
 of lime, but its silica or flint was rather 
 diminished, a grain of oat being found to 
 yield more : this Davy attributed to the 
 loss of its husk during vegetation. (Lec- 
 tures, p. 312.) Whatever earthy or saline 
 matters, therefore, are found in vegetables, 
 must have been either derived from the 
 natural soil or furnished by the manures 
 added to it — whether it be carbonate of 
 lime (chalk), or silica (earthy matter of 
 flint), alumina (clay), sulphate of lime (gyp- 
 sum), or phosphate of lime (earthy salt of 
 bone). It should also be a received axiom 
 with the farmer, that there is no part of 
 any decomposing animal or vegetable ma- 
 nure, but what is either in its gaseous or 
 solid state the natural food of plants : thus 
 the gases emitted by the putrefaction of a 
 dunghill are so much lost to the vegetable 
 matters of the soil, and such an injury is never 
 submitted to by the intelligent cultivator, 
 but from an unavoidable necessity. Hence 
 the value of green manures ; for in these 
 cases every portion of the decaying and fer- 
 menting fertiliser is gradually absorbed by 
 the roots and leaves of the succeeding crop. 
 
 When the cultivator is in doubt with re- 
 gard to the possible advantages of any ma- 
 nure, whether earthy, saline, vegetable, or 
 animal, he need only ask himself this ques- 
 tion, — Does this manure contain any con- 
 stituents found in my crops, and is the land 
 I cultivate deficient in any of them ? An 
 inattention to this consideration has been 
 the cause of much disappointment and many 
 mistaken conclusions : for instance, on many 
 soils the application of gypsum to artificial 
 
MANU11ES. 
 
 grasses, and even to turnips, is very useful ; 
 on others it produces no effect. Strange 
 opinions were in consequence long enter- 
 tained with regard to this manure, until it 
 was found that the soils on which it was 
 valueless naturally contained it in abun- 
 dance, and that those soils in which it did so 
 much good were nearly or entirely defi- 
 cient in this essential ingredient of clover, 
 lucern, &c. ; for it was now evident, that to 
 add gypsum to a soil which already con- 
 tained it in sufficient quantities, was as need- 
 less as to add sand to a sandy, or clay to a 
 clayey soil. 
 
 There is little doubt but that plants de- 
 rive all their constituents from the soil or 
 the air, in either the gaseous or liquid state ; 
 that in the light they absorb carbonic acid 
 gas and emit oxygen is well known ; by this 
 means, therefore, they readily obtain the 
 necessary supply of carbon. The hydrogen 
 of vegetable substances is most probably 
 furnished by the decomposition of either 
 water or the carburetted hydrogen emitted 
 during the putrefaction of animal and vege- 
 table substances. This latter seems pecu- 
 liarly grateful to plants in those situations 
 where it is copiously emitted, as near to 
 stagnant pools, over drains, &c, where vege- 
 tation is always rank ; and when present in 
 the atmosphere, as in coal mines, the green 
 colour of plants growing in it is preserved 
 even when they are deprived of light. The 
 earthy or saline matters of vegetables, such 
 as silica, carbonate, phosphate and sulphate 
 of lime, &c, are all in minute proportions 
 soluble in water ; they are found more or 
 less in all cultivated soils, and when they 
 are deficient, their addition, as I have be- 
 fore observed, constitutes the great art of 
 manuring : but there are such endless va- 
 rieties of soils, that there is hardly a ma- 
 nure that will suit every description — each 
 soil must be separately examined — practice 
 is the only substitute for chemical investi- 
 gations. 
 
 Thus, wood ashes of the beech or bone 
 powder form excellent manures for soils 
 deficient in the phosphates ; lime where 
 chalk is altogether absent, and so on ; and 
 whilst we attend to the nature of the soil, 
 we must also ever recollect, as one of the 
 most important principles of agriculture, 
 that whatever is completely removed from a 
 soil by crops, must be in some way or other 
 restored by artificial means. 
 
 That various earthy, animal, and vegetable 
 substances, when applied to the roots of 
 plants, accelerate their growth, has been 
 known from a very early period; but in 
 what manner these fertilisers serve as the 
 food of vegetables has not been certainly 
 determined. That they must all be in a 
 789 
 
 fluid state, is supposed to be absolutely 
 necessary : thus all the attempts of Sir 
 Humphry Davy to make plants absorb the 
 fine impalpable powder of charcoal obtained 
 by washing gunpowder entirely failed. 
 
 The soluble matters consumed by plants 
 are probably, in general, absorbed by their 
 roots unaltered, although, in other cases, 
 decomposed during their absorption. In 
 the experiments of Davy, he caused the 
 roots of some plants of mint to be analysed, 
 which had grown both in pure water and 
 in sugar and water. 120 grains of the roots 
 of the mint which had grown in common 
 water yielded 3^ grains of deep olive ex- 
 tract, of a sweetish and astringent taste ; 
 120 grains of the roots which had grown in 
 sugar and water afforded 5 grains of pale 
 greenish, sweetish extract, not so astringent 
 as the other. (Lectures, p. 270.) These ex- 
 periments, therefore, are evidently in favour 
 of the opinion that plants absorb many of 
 the constituents of manures in an unaltered 
 state, and the experiments of the late Mr. 
 G. Sinclair with saline substances are still 
 more decisive. See Salts. 
 
 The roots are the chief organs for ab- 
 sorbing the food of plants ; and of the 
 roots it is nearly established that the ex- 
 tremities, or spongioles, are the only parts 
 which have the power of absorption, and 
 hence one reason why they increase in 
 length as the soil at their extremities is 
 exhausted of nourishment. It is from this 
 cause that liquid manure is so valuable a 
 fertiliser ; for in the dissolution of the ex- 
 crements of animals in water, as practised 
 so advantageously in foreign countries, and 
 long ably recommended by Mr. Knight, the 
 late president of the Horticultural Society, 
 for the adoption of the English farmers, the 
 dung is merely rendered more easily soluble 
 by the plant, and better diffused in the 
 land. No new compound is formed by the 
 mixture ; the action of the dung, mixed 
 with four or five times its weight of water, 
 is apparently much less energetic ; and yet 
 this plan is decidedly advantageous, suc- 
 cessfully produces the most luxuriant crops, 
 is an old practice on the Continent, is gain- 
 ing ground in England, and the more it is 
 known the oftener it will be adopted. Yet 
 hitherto in this country much too little ge- 
 neral attention has been paid to liquid 
 manures ; by many farmers the drainage of 
 the farm-yard and the house is generally 
 disregarded, and allowed to escape in the 
 best way it can, into the nearest ditch or 
 river, being supposed to contain nothing 
 that is the food of plants ; and this, too, by 
 the very same persons who are particu- 
 larly careful in the preservation, as food 
 for their hogs, of every portion of a miser* 
 3 e 3 
 
MANURES. 
 
 able dish of cabbage-water. See Liquid 
 Manure. 
 
 There are certain properties in which all 
 fertilisers, to a certain extent, agree : — thus 
 they all contain one or more vegetable con- 
 stituents, and they have all a strong attrac- 
 tion for atmospheric moisture (the insensible 
 vapour always contained in the atmosphere). 
 This property is of very considerable ad- 
 vantage to vegetation. The comparative 
 powers, in this respect, of various manures 
 may be judged of from the results of my 
 experiments, which will be found in the fol- 
 lowing table. In these the animal matters 
 were employed without any admixture of 
 straw. (Essay on Salt, p. 8 — 19.) 
 
 Parts. 
 
 1000 parts of horse-dung, dried in a 
 temperature of 100°, absorbed by 
 exposure for three hours to air satu- 
 rated with moisture of the temper- 
 ature 62° - - - 145 
 1000 parts of cow-dung, under the same 
 
 circumstances, absorbed - - 130 
 
 1000 parts of pig-dung - - 120 
 
 1000 parts of sheep-dung - 81 
 1000 parts of pigeons' dung - 50 
 1000 parts of a rich alluvial soil, worth 
 two guineas per acre - 14 
 
 The following were dried at 212°. 
 1000 parts of fresh tanners' bark - 115 
 1000 parts of putrefied tanners' bark - 145 
 1000 parts of refuse marine salt, sold 
 
 as manure - 49* 
 
 1000 parts of soot •• - - 36 
 
 1000 parts of burnt clay - - 29 
 
 1000 parts of coal ashes - - 14 
 
 1000 parts of lime - - - 11 
 
 1000 parts of sediment from salt pans 10 
 
 1000 parts of crushed rock-salt - 10 
 
 1000 parts of gypsum - - 9 
 
 1000 parts of chalk - - - 4 
 
 There is reason to conclude that some 
 manures act as stimulants to plants, and 
 excite them to a more vigorous growth : it 
 is probable that the saline matters of farm- 
 yard compost operate in this way, and that 
 saltpetre and other saline fertilisers do the 
 same. I have often had occasion to notice 
 the increased luxuriance and productive- 
 ness of fruit trees, such as cherries and 
 pears, by the application of common salt. 
 (Essay on Salt, p. 4.) Priestley made simi- 
 lar observations. " It seems pretty plain," 
 to give the words of Dr. Thomson, " that 
 the vessels of plants are made to contract 
 by various stimuli: the experiments of 
 Coulomb and Saussure render this pro- 
 bable ; and an observation of Dr. Smith 
 Barton makes it next to certain. He found 
 that plants growing in water vegetated with 
 much greater vigour, provided a little cam- 
 phor was thrown into the water. (Che- 
 mistry, vol. iv. p. 338.) 
 
 Of the organic manures, the richest 
 abound in azote, or nitrogen ; and, in fact, 
 there are, as Dr. Liebig observes (Organic 
 Chem. p. 70.), "numerous facts showing 
 that the formation in plants of substances 
 containing nitrogen, such as gluten, takes 
 place in proportion to the quantity of this 
 element, which is conveyed to their roots 
 in the state of ammonia, derived from the 
 putrefaction of animal matter. Ammonia, 
 which is composed of 14-15 of nitrogen and 
 1 of hydrogen, is capable of undergoing 
 such a multitude of transformations, when 
 in contact with other bodies, that in this 
 respect it is not inferior to water, which 
 possesses the same property in an eminent 
 degree." " The employment of animal ma- 
 nure," he adds (p. 86.), " in the cultivation 
 of grain, and the vegetables which serve 
 for fodder to cattle, is the most convincing 
 proof that the nitrogen of vegetables is 
 derived from ammonia. The quantity of 
 gluten in wheat, rye, and barley is very 
 different : these kinds of grain also, even 
 when ripe, contain this compound of ni- 
 trogen in very different proportions. Proust 
 found French wheat to contain 12 -5 per 
 cent, of gluten : Vogel found that the Ba- 
 varian contained 24 per cent. : Davy ob- 
 tained 19 per cent, from winter, and 24 per 
 cent, from summer wheat ; from Sicilian 
 wheat 21, and from Barbary wheat 19 per 
 cent. The meal of Alsace wheat, according 
 to Boussingault, contains 17*8 per cent, of 
 gluten ; that of wheat growing in the Jar- 
 din des Plantes 26*7 ; and that of winter 
 wheat 3*38 per cent. Such great differ- 
 ences must be owing to some cause, and 
 this we find in the different methods of 
 cultivation. An increase of animal ma- 
 nure gives rise not only to an increase in 
 the number of seeds, but also to a most 
 remarkable difference in the proportion of 
 the gluten which they contain." And he 
 adds (p. 175.), when speaking of the action 
 of manures, " according to the common 
 view, the action of solid animal excre- 
 ments depends on the decaying organic 
 matters, which replace the humus, and in 
 the presence of certain compounds of ni- 
 trogen, which are supposed to be assimilated 
 by plants, and employed in the production 
 of gluten and other azotised substances. 
 But this view requires further confirmation 
 with respect to the solid excrements of 
 animals ; for they contain so small a pro- 
 portion of nitrogen, that they cannot pos- 
 sibly, by means of it, exercise any influence 
 upon vegetation." 
 
 The following table of manures, con- 
 structed from the experiments of MM. 
 Payen and Boussingault, showing the num- 
 ber of loads required in both the moist (or 
 
MANUIIES. 
 
 ordinary) and dried (or prepared) states to 
 equal 100 loads of farm-yard dung, so far 
 as the quantity of the nitrogen they con- 
 tain is concerned, will be interesting, I 
 think, to the farmer. (Gard. Chron.) 
 
 Pea straw 
 Saintfoin straw 
 Vetch straw 
 Wheat straw 
 Do 
 
 Do., lower joints - 
 
 Do., upper joints, with the 
 
 heads after thrashing 
 Rye straw 
 Do., of 1841 
 Oat straw 
 Barley straw 
 Wheat chaff 
 
 Jerusalem artichoke straw 
 Broom 
 
 Green beet leaves 
 
 Potato leaves 
 
 Carrot leaves 
 
 Heath leaves 
 
 Sea wrack 
 
 Do. ' - 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do., fresh from the sea 
 Malt dust 
 
 Buried clover roots 
 Flax cake 
 Rape cake 
 Fish cake 
 Grease cake 
 Beet-root pulp 
 Do. 
 
 Potato pulp 
 Starch water 
 Do. 
 
 Starch refuse 
 Do. 
 
 Dunghill drainings 
 Sawdust of acacia 
 Do. 
 
 Do. firwood 
 Do. 
 
 Do. oak - 
 Solid cow-dung - 
 Cow urine 
 Mixed cow-dung - 
 Solid horse-dung - 
 Horse urine 
 Mixed horse-dung 
 Do. pig-duug 
 Do. sheep-dung 
 Do. goat-dung 
 Pigeon-dung 
 
 Liquid Flemish manure ■ 
 Do. 
 
 Belloni's poudrette 
 Oyster shells 
 Marl 
 
 Dry muscular flesh 
 Cod salted 
 
 Do., pressed and salted 
 791 
 
 Moist. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 22 
 
 100 
 
 83 
 
 361 
 
 39 
 
 174 
 
 166 
 
 650 
 
 81 
 
 367 
 
 97 
 
 453 
 
 30 
 
 137 
 
 235 
 
 975 
 
 95 
 
 390 
 
 142 
 
 541 
 
 173 
 
 750 
 
 47 
 
 207 
 
 108 
 
 453 
 
 32 
 
 142 
 
 80 
 
 43 
 
 72 
 
 84 
 
 47 
 
 66 
 
 22 
 
 102 
 
 46 
 
 138 
 
 42 
 
 123 
 
 28 
 
 85 
 
 74 
 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 24 
 
 110 
 
 7 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 74 
 
 322 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 
 35 
 
 154 
 
 105 
 
 154 
 
 76 
 
 100 
 
 — 
 
 573 
 
 — 
 
 645 
 
 111 
 
 107 
 
 24 
 
 — 
 
 67 
 
 126 
 
 137 
 
 513 
 
 173 
 
 629 
 
 250 
 
 886 
 
 173 
 
 629 
 
 74 
 
 256 
 
 125 
 
 84 
 
 90 
 
 51 
 
 97 
 
 75 
 
 72 
 
 88 
 
 15 
 
 15 
 
 54 
 
 64 
 
 63 
 
 57 
 
 36 
 
 65 
 
 18 
 
 49 
 
 4 
 
 21 
 
 210 
 
 
 181 
 
 
 10 
 
 44 
 
 125 
 
 487 
 
 78 
 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 Moist. 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Jolood, soluble 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 Do., liquid 
 
 13 
 
 — • 
 
 Do. - - - 
 
 14 
 
 
 Do., coagulated and pressed 
 
 8 
 
 1 1 
 
 Do., dry insoluble 
 
 a 
 A 
 
 1 1 
 
 Feathers - 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Cow's hair 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Woollen rags 
 Horn raspings 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Cockchafers 
 
 12 
 
 14 
 
 Bones, boiled 
 
 5 
 
 25 
 
 Do., moist 
 
 7 
 
 
 do., tat - 
 
 6 
 
 — 
 
 Glue refuse 
 
 75 
 
 213 
 
 Glue dross 
 
 10 
 
 34 
 
 Graves - 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 Animal blacking of the 
 
 
 
 maker - 
 
 37 
 
 95 
 
 Animalised black 
 
 36 
 
 98 
 
 Noir de champs - 
 
 32 
 
 65 
 
 It is a very common error to suppose 
 that manures of a vegetable or animal na- 
 ture impart any sensible warmth to a soil ; 
 the analogy sometimes attempted to be 
 drawn between the action of a fermenting 
 dung-heap and some fifteen or twenty loads 
 of fermented dung, or half a ton of chopped 
 woollen rags, spread thinly over an acre 
 of ground, is too absurd to be admitted. 
 Yet, although the dung cannot increase the 
 warmth of the land, the temperature of 
 the earth, and the free access of the gases 
 of the atmosphere, have a very material in- 
 fluence upon the duration of the manure 
 in the soil. Thus, in the heavy clay and 
 deep alluvial soils it remains much longer 
 than in the sandy, chalky, or gravelly. In 
 the first its good effects may be traced for 
 three or four years ; in the last it is usually 
 consumed in one, two, or at the utmost three 
 years. To the last description of land, 
 therefore, the judicious cultivator usually 
 applies his compost in a half-putrefied state, 
 in order that it may remain longer in the 
 soil : this is now the practice of some of 
 the most enlightened agriculturists. 
 
 Too little attention is paid, in general, 
 to the mixture of manures by the farmer. 
 This remark not only applies to those of the 
 farm-yard, — little care being usually taken 
 to spread evenly those of the horse, the 
 cow, and the pig, although it is notorious 
 to the best cultivators, what was stated by 
 the late Mr. Blakie, in his Essay on the 
 Management of Farm-yard Manure, that 
 this chief of fertilisers is very considerably 
 improved by an even mixture, — but the 
 remark applies to almost all other manures. 
 Thus, old heaps of weeds, pond-mud, scour- 
 ings of ditches, and all the earths in which 
 there is any organic matter, are best applied 
 to the soil after being mingled with lime or 
 3 e 4 
 
MANURES. 
 
 common salt. Peat, sawdust, wood chips, 
 and tanners' bark, nearly inert substances in 
 themselves, become excellent manure when 
 mixed with stable dung. Sprats, and all 
 other fish, are successfully and economically 
 added to three or four times their bulk of 
 mould ; and even bone dust is successfully 
 applied with a third of its weight of the 
 dung of the sheep, and may be then drilled 
 as advantageously with the turnip-seed as 
 the bones in their simple state. Then, again, 
 mixing together some kinds of manures, 
 produces, by their chemical action, a third 
 or fourth, which is more valuable than 
 either. Thus, when salt and lime are united 
 together, in the proportion of one part of the 
 former to two parts of the latter, a chemical 
 action takes place ; the mass swells, and the 
 salt is gradually decomposed ; and in the 
 course of three months, if the heap is suf- 
 fered to remain undisturbed, both the salt 
 and the lime nearly disappear, and two new 
 substances are formed by the combinations 
 into which their constituents have entered, 
 viz. soda and chloride of lime ; both excel- 
 lent manures. In other cases, the mere 
 mixture of two well-known fertilisers, with- 
 out any chemical action between the two, 
 produces much greater effects than that of 
 both when used separately. Thus, a com- 
 pound of salt and soot possesses the most 
 extraordinary fertilising effects. The late 
 Mr. G. Sinclair, in his Prize Essay on Salt 
 describes it " as remarkable," when applied 
 to carrots ; a fact which I have often wit- 
 nessed myself. (My Essay on Salt for 
 Agriculture, p. 145.) The Rev. Edmund 
 Cartwright was the first to notice the same 
 result with potatoes (Com. to Board of 
 Agr. vol. iv. p. 376.) ; and the same benefit 
 is evident when the mixture is used as a 
 top-dressing for wheat ; in which observ- 
 ation my experience is confirmed by that of 
 others. (My Essay on Salt, p. 41. ,) There 
 are a few instances, however, in which sub- 
 stances used as manures are best employed 
 in their simple state. Thus, sea-weed, 
 which many of the farmers on the sea-coast 
 throw on their dung -heaps, is much better 
 employed by itself, turned into .the earth 
 in the freshest and greenest condition : and 
 to all green manures, and to those which 
 contain salts of ammonia, such as urine, or 
 the liquor from gas works, the same remarks 
 are applicable. See Mixture or Soils. 
 
 The proportion in which fertilisers are 
 applied is generally unnecessarily large, 
 even of organic manures ; and although this 
 bad practice has been regularly diminish- 
 ing as agriculture has become better un- 
 derstood, yet much remains to be done, in 
 preventing that wasteful expenditure of 
 dung which is continually taking place. 
 792 
 
 It is more than probable, that the useof 
 the improved manure-drills, by the even 
 distribution of the fertiliser, and bringing 
 it more closely into contact with the crop, 
 will effect much towards this very desirable 
 saving ; for it must be evident to the most 
 careless, that in the manner in which com- 
 post is commonly spread over a field, — suf- 
 fered to be dissipated by long exposure in 
 heaps to the sun and wind, and afterwards 
 spread over spaces in which there are not 
 any plants to absorb, during its ferment- 
 ation, the disengaging gases, a very con- 
 siderable portion of it is lost to the farmer's 
 crops. See Manures applicable by the 
 Drill. 
 
 It is almost needless to remark upon the 
 importance of such investigations as these, 
 both to the cultivator and to the land- 
 owner, or of the caution necessary in draw- 
 ing conclusions from experiments in which 
 vegetation is concerned. " Life," said Davy, 
 " gives a peculiar character to all its pro- 
 ductions ; the power of attraction and re- 
 pulsion, combination and decomposition, are 
 subservient to it; a few elements, by the 
 diversity of their arrangements, are made 
 to form the most different substances, and 
 similar substances are produced from com- 
 pounds which, when superficially examined, 
 appear entirely different." And, as he well 
 remarks in another place, when speaking of 
 the subject of this article — "The doctrine 
 of the proper application of manures offers 
 an illustration of an important part of the 
 economy of nature, and of the happy order 
 in which it is arranged. The fermentation* 
 and putrefaction of organised substances, 
 in the free atmosphere, are noxious pro- 
 cesses ; beneath the surface of the ground 
 they are salutary operations. In this case 
 the food of plants is prepared where it can 
 be used, and that which would offend the 
 senses and injure the health, if exposed, is 
 converted by gradual processes into forms 
 of beauty and of usefulness." {Agr. Chcm. 
 pp. 54 — 309.) All researches like these 
 carry with them their own reward ; for not 
 only does a successful experiment do so, 
 but even an unsuccessful one is not un- 
 attended with advantages : it at least serves 
 as a beacon to other cultivators, and is sure 
 to afford to the farmer that pleasure and 
 increased power, which ever accompanies 
 the acquisition of knowledge. (Johnson on 
 the Fertilisers, p. 32.) 
 
 Several papers on manures will be found 
 as follows : — Com. to Board of Agr. vol. iv. 
 p. 1 16. ; and by the Rev. E. Cartwright (prin- 
 cipally on common salt), Ibid. p. 370. ; " On 
 Green Vitriol," by Dr. Pearson, Ibid. p. 3 1 9. ; 
 " On Manures," by Lord Meadowbank, Ibid. . 
 p. 384. ; " On Soap-makers' waste Ashes," 
 
MANURES. 
 
 Ibid. vol. vi. p. 317. ; u On Bone Manure," 
 by "Mr. Watson, Quar. Journ. Agr. vol. i. 
 pi 40. ; " On Manures in general," Ibid. 
 p. 43—119. ; " On Saltpetre," Ibid. p. 302 
 —308. ; " On Bones," Ibid. vol. ii. p. 106. ; 
 " Dr. Coventry on the Manure required 
 for a Course of Crops," Ibid. p. 331. ; 
 " On Bo"ne Manure," Ibid. vol. iii. p. 715 
 — 1069.; " On Owen's Animalised Car- 
 bon," Ibid. vol. v. p. 619. ; " On the usual 
 Mode of preparing Manure on Farms," 
 Ibid. vol. vi. p. 4 104. ; " On applying it," 
 by Mr. Baker, Ibid, vol.vii. p. 584. ; "On 
 its Management and Application, so as to 
 check the Production of Weeds," by Mr. 
 G. Kirk, Ibid. vol. viii. p. 483. ; and by 
 Mr. Pearson, Ibid. vol. ix. p. 299. ; by Mr. 
 Goree, " On Green Manure," Ibid. p. 506. ; 
 " On the Philosophy of Manure," by Dr. 
 Madden, Ibid. p. 546. ; " On Mineral Ma- 
 nures," by the same, Ibid. vol. x. p. 86. ; 
 " On Poudrette," Ibid. p. 285. ; " On Soot 
 and Bone Dust as a Top-dressing for 
 Grass," Ibid. p. 481. ; " On ploughing in 
 Buckwheat as a Manure," by Mr Bal- 
 lingall, lYans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 124. ; 
 " On Liquid Manure," Journ. Roy. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 147. ; " On various Ma- 
 nures," by Mr. Sim, Ibid. p. 418. 
 
 There are also many valuable observations 
 on the theory of manures, dispersed through 
 the works of Sir H. Davy on Agricultural 
 Chemistry, and of Liebig on Organic Che- 
 mistry. There is an excellent paper by 
 Dr. Sprengel, " On Animal Manures," 
 Journ. Roy. Soc. Agr. vol. i. p. 455., and 
 a" Lecture " On the scientific Principles by 
 which the Application of Manures ought to 
 be regulated," by Dr. Daubeny, Ibid. 
 vol. ii. p. 232. See Gases, Earths, Salts, 
 Water, Farm- Yard Manure, Bones, 
 Chalk, Lime, Liquid Manure, &c. 
 
 Weight of a Cubic Yard of various 
 Manures. 
 
 Cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 Garden mould - - - 19 3 25 
 
 New dung - - - 9 3 18 
 
 Leaves and sea weed - - 9 0 3 
 
 Water - - - - 15 0 3 
 
 Compost of dung, with weeds 
 
 and lime, which had been once 
 
 turned over in nine months 14 0 5 
 
 (C. W. Johnson " On Fertilisers" p. 90.) 
 
 Manures, on rendering them more portable 
 and applicable by the Drill. The application 
 of manures in a more concentrated form than 
 that in which they naturally present them- 
 selves for the cultivator's service, was an effort 
 reserved for modern agriculturists ; an im- 
 provement chiefly induced by the increase 
 of population, which almost compelled the 
 farmer to force into cultivation the poor in- 
 land soils of England and the Continent : 
 793 
 
 lands which could only be enriched by ferti- 
 lisers brought from other districts, and from 
 places where men congregated together in 
 large masses. This necessity was, some years 
 since, first felt and acted upon by many of 
 the large continental cities, such as Paris, 
 Berlin, Frankfort, and some of the other 
 chief German towns. The contents of the 
 cesspools were, in consequence, collected ; 
 their fertilising matters were mixed with 
 drying, disinfecting substances, and when 
 thus reduced to powder, or into cakes, sold 
 at a considerable profit. The enlightened 
 constituted authorities of these places felt 
 that they were, by so doing, conferring 
 great and important benefits not only on 
 their fellow-citizens, but upon the distant 
 cultivator. They did not confine their at- 
 tention to the farmers in their own direct 
 vicinity ; because they well knew that those, 
 in common with the immediate agricultural 
 neighbours of all large cities, have a ready 
 access to an abundance of organic manures, 
 since the cultivators so favourably situated 
 carry their produce with facility into such 
 populous places, and return with their car- 
 riages loaded with manure. And yet, when 
 the German and French authorities thus 
 husbanded, — thus rendered more portable, 
 the manure of their large towns, they made 
 no discovery : they merely practised what 
 the Chinese had preceded them in from 
 time immemorial, and what, in Flanders, is 
 an old and long cherished custom. The 
 only improvement which the citizens of 
 Paris and Frankfort have made is, that they 
 form with their night-soil an enriching 
 powder ; while those of China and of Bel- 
 gium still make theirs into cakes, with a 
 portion of either clay or marl ; so that the 
 powder of Paris can be either applied with 
 the drill or dibble, but the Chinese and 
 Flemings are obliged to dissolve theirs in 
 water, before it can be used as a liquid 
 manure with advantage. In England, how- 
 ever, notwithstanding the example of our 
 neighbours, little or nothing has yet been 
 done to render the commonest manures, 
 such, for instance, as night-soil more port- 
 able. The nightmen and scavengers are 
 still compelled to hurry away their col- 
 lections only at stated hours and in the 
 dead of the night ; are fined for any neglect, 
 and harassed in all possible ways, rather 
 than that this, the most powerful of all the 
 animal fertilisers, should be preserved for 
 the use of the farmer in any way that might 
 endanger the olfactory nerves of the citizens. 
 But an endangerment upon sensitive noses 
 is not essential ; the night-soil might be 
 preserved without any offence to the most 
 sensitive. But this manure has been hitherto 
 little known or employed in this country ; 
 
MANURES. 
 
 its powers have been misrepresented ; all 
 sorts of prejudices have been created against 
 it. I propose here briefly to show, first, 
 the composition and fertilising powers of 
 various manures ; and, secondly, to ex- 
 amine the modes which have been recently 
 adopted to render them inodorous and more 
 easily portable, so as to bring them within 
 the reach of even the farmer who has to 
 contend with the poorest, the most upland 
 soils of Britain, far away from its great 
 towns. And, although I confine my attention 
 in this essay chiefly to one fertiliser, yet there 
 are other manures, now well known to, and 
 extensively employed by, the cultivator, 
 whose powerful action, when judiciously 
 used in very small proportions, well il- 
 lustrates the truth of what I have so often 
 ventured to urge upon the farmer's at- 
 tention, viz. that a much smaller quantity 
 of manure, composed of any description of 
 organic decomposing matters, is sufficient, 
 when applied in a skilful manner, to pro- 
 duce more luxuriant effects than is com- 
 monly believed. The very great importance 
 of applying fertilisers in immediate juxta- 
 position with the young plant, even in very 
 small proportions, as by the drill, is only now 
 beginning to be considered with even patient 
 attention ; and yet there are many circum- 
 stances, with which the farmer is well ac- 
 quainted, which ought to convince the most 
 inattentive that such is the fact. The small 
 quantity of oil-cake drilled with the seed ; 
 the few bushels of bones successfully ap- 
 plied in the same way per acre ; the woollen 
 rags of the Berkshire farmers (half a ton 
 per acre only) ; the 2 cwt. of gypsum ap- 
 plied to sainfoin and clover; the 1 cwt. of 
 saltpetre, or of nitrate of soda, used on the 
 same extent of land, all indicate the truth 
 of the case, that it is not absolutely neces- 
 sary to apply fertilisers of any kind in such 
 great masses as are commonly deemed 
 essential by the cultivator. I was told 
 not long since by an excellent farmer of 
 Middlesex, Mr. George Sherbourn, that he 
 had succeeded in producing the finest crops 
 of turnips by merely mixing about 30 
 bushels of coal-ashes per acre with 3 gal- 
 lons of train-oil, and drilling these oiled 
 ashes with the seed. It is a folly, therefore, 
 to contend that the careless way in which 
 organic manures of all kinds are usually 
 employed is the most economical, and sus- 
 ceptible of no improvement. Such com- 
 placent feelings have ever been the bane of 
 agricultural improvement ; for it is then 
 certain to follow as a natural result, that 
 the system which the cultivator deems per- 
 fect, will, in his hands, remain as he found 
 it. Having no hope for better things, better 
 modes will by him never be discovered. 
 794 
 
 Some recent experiments on a very broad 
 scale, in the forest of Darnaway in Scot- 
 land, haying shown, that the application of 
 a quantity of lime under each seedlino- 
 tree, even so small an amount as 4 bushels 
 per acre, has been productive of the most 
 excellent effects, imparting to the plant- 
 ation a degree of luxuriance hardly credible. 
 The same advantage, therefore, which is 
 derivable from the application of a very 
 small quantity of organic manure, in im- 
 mediate contact with the growing plant, is 
 evidently also derivable from a much smaller 
 quantity of earthy manures, than the farmer 
 commonly supposes. 
 
 There are several advantages derivable 
 from placing the seed in direct contact with 
 the manure, to which the farmer very rarely 
 attends. For instance, the germinating 
 seed in the immediate neighbourhood of the 
 fertiliser, is by this means well nourished at 
 the very period of its growth, when it most 
 needs assistance to enable it to develope its 
 fibres, and to extend its roots. The young 
 plant, so situated, is not exhausted in its 
 extension ; it avoids the usual fate of those 
 crops which tenant poor soils, whose roots 
 are obliged to penetrate some distance in 
 search of the requisite degree of nourish- 
 ment. On the contrary, the strength of the 
 plant is thrown into the stem and the 
 leaves, and the crop flourishes luxuriantly ; 
 for the leaves and roots of the invigorated 
 and healthy plant are enabled to absorb the 
 gases and aqueous vapour of the atmo- 
 sphere, by which the plant is nourished in 
 the most complete manner. The very me- 
 chanical effect, too, of placing the decom- 
 posing organic manure in direct contact 
 with the roots of vegetables, facilitating the 
 free access to them of the atmospheric gases 
 and vapour, would be alone a sufficient 
 reason for the adoption of the manure drill 
 system, even if we say nothing of the other 
 certain advantages of the plan, such as, in 
 the case of decomposing fertilisers, the pre- 
 sentation of the gases of putrefaction to the 
 roots of the plant, at the moment of their 
 extrication, and the economical and forcing 
 effects of this mode of distributing the ma- 
 nure. The farmer, in fact, tells us that the 
 plan is probably a good one, but then his 
 explanation of the derived benefit is very 
 erroneous. He informs us, that thus to 
 push forward the growth of the young crop 
 is very likely to be good husbandry, espe- 
 cially on light soils, since, by this means, 
 where the ground is well covered with the 
 crop, " the moisture is kept in, and the sun is 
 kept out" If the cultivator would but re- 
 member, that the quantity of moisture 
 transpired by a given surface of a grow- 
 ing crop is considerably greater than that 
 
MANURES. 
 
 emitted by -the most naked fallow, he would 
 no longer be content with such an explana- 
 tion as this. 
 
 Dr. Hales ascertained that a cabbage 
 transmits into the atmosphere by insensible 
 vapour, about half its weight of vapour 
 daily : and that a sunflower, three feet in 
 height, transpired, in the same period, 
 nearly two pounds weight. Dr. Woodward 
 found that a sprig of mint, weighing 27 
 grains, in 77 days emitted 2543 grains of 
 water ; a sprig of spearmint, weighing 27 
 grains, emitted, in the same time, 2558 
 grains ; a sprig of common nightshade, 
 weighing 49 grains, evolved 3708 grains ; 
 and a lathyrus, of 98 grains, emitted 2501. 
 (Phil. Trans. 1699, p. 193.) 
 
 If I were asked to produce any evidence 
 of the extreme difficulty with which agri- 
 cultural improvements, even of the most 
 undoubted value, are introduced, I should 
 at once instance the manure drill, the pro- 
 gress of which has been slow — for it has 
 shared the fate of very many other scientific 
 efforts — it has been zealously opposed by 
 the ignorant, neglected by the indolent, and 
 ridiculed by the bigoted farmer, as an in- 
 novation upon the good old system of the 
 days of the patriarchs of agriculture, when 
 the earth brought forth its fruits in abund- 
 ance, and the very seeds were not sown by 
 man. But even here this solitary argument 
 of the adherent to old customs fails ; for the 
 Chinese (the most expert of farmers) and 
 the cultivators of Japan and of Arabia have 
 drilled and dibbled in their seed from time 
 immemorial. The natives of the Carnatic 
 do the same ; and after they have thus de- 
 posited their seed, the Hindoos use a kind 
 of subsoil-plough, which passes under, and 
 loosens, to the depth of about eight inches, 
 the soil under about three drills' breadth at 
 a time. And so prejudiced are the natives 
 of those empires, too, in favour of the cus- 
 toms of their ancestors — so rarely do they 
 introduce new modes of cultivation, that it 
 has been very reasonably concluded that 
 the drill system, so far from being entitled 
 to the appellation of " the new husbandry," 
 ought rather to be classed with those 
 branches of the sciences which degenerated, 
 or were lost in the dark ages. 
 
 Sir George Staunton, in his Account of 
 Lord Macartney s Embassy to China, says, 
 (vol. ii. p. 375.) — " Near Sanchoo, wheat 
 was perceived growing for the first time in 
 China. It was, though on a dry sandy soil, 
 where no rain had fallen for the three pre- 
 ceding months, looking remarkably well. 
 It was very neatly sown in drills, or dib- 
 bled, according to the method used of late 
 in some parts of England. A gentleman of 
 the embassy calculated that the saving of 
 795 
 
 the seed alone in China by this drill hus- 
 bandry, which would be lost by that of 
 broadcast, would be sufficient to maintain 
 all the European subjects of Great Britain." 
 
 In a communication to the Board of Agri- 
 culture, dated at Junacondah, December 
 31. 1795, Captain Halcott says,— -"The 
 drill-plough, I find, is in general use here, 
 and has been so time immemorial, in the 
 culture of all grain (except horse grain), 
 and also of tobacco, cotton, rice, and the 
 castor-oil plant." (Com. Board, of Ag. 
 vol. i. p. 355.) 
 
 The first drill introduced into Europe 
 seems to have been the invention of a Ger- 
 man, who made it known to the Spanish 
 court in 1647. (Harte's Essays on Hus- 
 bandry.) The Roman farmers endeavoured 
 to attain the advantages of row-culture by 
 ploughing in the seeds. 
 
 It is useless to search in the works of 
 Jethro Tull for any recommendation of the 
 drill as a means of applying manure ; for all 
 Tull's arguments and experiments are di- 
 rected to proving that the application of 
 manure of any kind is utterly needless. 
 And yet he had the discernment, when thus 
 suffering his enthusiasm to carry him much 
 too far, to make the observation, that " al- 
 most the only use of all manure is the same 
 as of tillage, viz. the pulveration it makes 
 by fermentation, as tillage doth by attrition 
 or contusion ; and with these differences, 
 that dung, which is the most common ma- 
 nure, is apt to increase weeds, as much as 
 tillage (of which hoeing is chief) destroys 
 them." (New Husbandry, p. 166. 1st edit. 
 1731.) The advantage, thus glanced at by 
 Tull, of the manure keeping the ground 
 light and porous, is much greater than the 
 cultivator commonly suspects, and this be- 
 nefit is mainly owing to the free access 
 which is thus secured of the watery vapour 
 and gases of the atmosphere to the roots of 
 the plants. Now, for the vapour of the at- 
 mosphere, all well pulverised fertile earth 
 has a strong attraction — the richer and the 
 better divided the soil, the more copiously 
 does it absorb vapour ; but the power of 
 the richest cultivated soils in this respect is 
 very much inferior to that of even the most 
 ordinary manure. In my own experiments, 
 I have never found, in a given space, say 
 three hours, that 1000 parts of the richest 
 soil, previously dried, absorbed more than 
 from 14 to 20 parts of moisture ; but in the 
 same time, under similar circumstances, 
 1000 parts of horse-dung absorbed 145 
 parts; cow-dung, 130; pig-dung, 120; 
 sheep-dung, 81 ; pigeons' dung, 50. (My 
 Work " On Fertilisers" p. 41.) It is evi- 
 dent, therefore, that for the mere purpose 
 of withstanding long continued dry weather, 
 
MANURES. 
 
 those plants whose roots have immediate 
 access to organic manures will be much 
 better enabled to absorb the necessary sup- 
 plies of atmospheric moisture, than those 
 merely vegetating in the unmanured soil. 
 
 The merit of the introduction of the drill 
 to general notice in England, is, however, 
 to be ascribed, in a great measure, to 
 Jethro Tull. Yet Jethro Tull certainly 
 thought himself the inventor ; for he tells 
 us so very clearly, in the preface to the first 
 edition of his Horse-Hoe Husbandry, pub- 
 lished in 1731, and even whence he derived 
 the hint for his drill ; he says, — " When I 
 was young, my diversion was music ; I had 
 also the curiosity to acquaint myself tho- 
 roughly with the fabric of every part of my 
 organ ; but as little thinking that I should 
 ever take from thence the first rudiments 
 of a drill, as that I should ever have occa- 
 casion for such a machine, or practise agri- 
 culture ; for 'twas accident, not choice, that 
 made me a farmer." But he was certainly 
 not the originator of the idea of thus ap- 
 plying the seed ; for, nearly a century be- 
 fore his time, John Worlidge ineffectually, 
 in 1669, laboured hard to draw the English 
 farmers' attention not only to the drill, but 
 to the manure-drill also. And little can be 
 now added to what, 175 years since, honest 
 John Wolridge urged in its favour, when 
 he said, after describing the seed-drill, — 
 " By the use of this instrument, also, you 
 may cover your grain or pulse with any 
 rich compost you shall prepare for that 
 purpose, either with pigeons' dung, dry or 
 granulated, or any other saline or lixivial 
 substance, made dispersable, which may 
 drop after the corn, and prove an excellent 
 improvement ; for we find, experimentally, 
 that pigeons' dung, sown by the hand on 
 wheat or barley, mightily advantageth it in 
 the common way of husbandry : much 
 more, then, might we expect this way, 
 where the dung, or such like substance, is 
 all in the same furrow with the corn; 
 whereas, in the other vulgar way, a great 
 part thereof comes not near it. It may 
 either be done by having another hopper 
 on the same frame behind that for the 
 corn, wherein the compost may be put and 
 made to drop successively after the corn ; 
 or it may be sown by another instrument 
 to follow the former, which is the better 
 way, and may both disperse the soil and 
 cover the manure and seed." 
 
 Worlidge was well supported by Evelyn, 
 who, in a communication to the Royal 
 Society, dated in February, 1669, {Trans. 
 Roy. Soc. vol. v. p. 1056) urged the ad- 
 vantages of a drill-plough, which, first in- 
 vented in Germany, had thence been intro- 
 duced at Madrid under the auspices of the 
 796 
 
 Spanish monarch, and had been forwarded 
 from Spain by the Earl of Sandwich, as the 
 invention of a Don Leucatilla. It is there 
 described as " the Spanish sembrador, or 
 new engine for ploughing, and equal sow- 
 ing all sorts of grain, and harrowing at 
 once." Leucatilla saw very clearly the 
 errors of the broadcast system : he ob- 
 served, — " Even at this day (1669) all sorts 
 of seeds are sown by handfuls, heedlessly 
 and by chance, whence we see corn sowed 
 in some places too thick, in others too 
 thin." 
 
 It was between the years 1720 and 1740 
 that Jethro Tull laboured thus hard, and 
 with a success little equal to his merits, to 
 introduce the drill system : the honour, 
 however, was reserved for the present Lord 
 Leicester, in the early part of the present 
 century, of inducing its general employ- 
 ment, for which the soils of the greatest 
 portion of Norfolk are so very well adapted. 
 It then naturally followed, that various 
 manures were found easily applicable at 
 the same time with the seed. Powdered 
 oil- cake was one of the first substances that 
 was used as a manure, and the discovery of 
 the value of crushed bones as a fertiliser 
 for turnips, opened another wide field for 
 the useful application of this invaluable ma- 
 chine. The manure-drill, in fact, thence 
 received an impetus which it will probably 
 never lose, for with its use is now almost 
 inseparably connected the cultivation of 
 some of the most extensive districts of the 
 poor light lands in the north of England ; 
 such as on the Wolds of Lincolnshire, 
 and the sands of Nottinghamshire. See 
 Bones. 
 
 The most recent improvement in the 
 manure-drill is that of Mr. Grounsel of 
 Louth, for which the English Agricultural 
 Society awarded him, in 1839, their silver 
 medal. It is an attempt, and an excellent 
 one too, to imitate the dibbling system, so 
 as not only to save seed, but the manure 
 also. And although, in all researches of 
 this nature, it is especially necessary to 
 proceed with great care, and to regard 
 single experiments with caution, yet what 
 has been yet experienced of its powers, is 
 certainly of a nature to induce farther and 
 more extended trials ; since it is evident 
 that this drill can apply, and evenly too, as 
 small a quantity of crushed bones or ashes, 
 as six bushels per acre. In reply to some 
 inquiries of mine, the inventor says, — " My 
 drill will deposit from 6 to 100 bushels 
 per acre of any kind of compost that may 
 be prepared for drilling, from ten inches to 
 any greater distance apart in the rows, with 
 turnips or corn, and either in a wet or dry 
 condition; but I recommend, from expe- 
 
MANURES. 
 
 rience, ashes to be applied in a wet state, 
 especially in a dry turnip seed season, for 
 then the seeds vegetate much sooner. An- 
 other equally excellent drop, and common 
 drill, is that made by Mr. Hornsby of 
 Grantham." See Drill,. 
 
 Admitting the truth of these experiments, 
 that one half the quantity of organic ma- 
 nures usually spread on the land is suf- 
 ficient, when applied by the drill, in imme- 
 diate contact with the seed, what a field is 
 thus opened for the manuring of much 
 larger breadths of land than has hitherto 
 been deemed possible. The complaints of 
 the deficiency of manures, which are now 
 so prevalent with farmers, need then no 
 longer be heard. Their crops will be pro- 
 perly nourished, and the manure applied 
 with them will be not only bestowed in the 
 most scientific manner, but it will lead to 
 other improvements — it will enable the 
 farmer to mix his manures, according to 
 the nature of his soil and his crop, with 
 much more facility than at present : he 
 will then study, not merely the economy to 
 be regarded in its distribution, but also its 
 quality, or chemical composition, and to 
 what soils the manure is best adapted. 
 
 There is one class of fertilisers, however, 
 whose application by the drill requires 
 great caution ; . I allude to the saline ma- 
 nures, for they are often much too power- 
 ful in their operation to be safely applicable 
 in their pure state or in large proportions. 
 Common salt has, in this way, carried great 
 destruction by being drilled in with the 
 seed, and I have witnessed equally disas- 
 trous effects from applying the lime of the 
 gas works (sulphuret of lime) in the same 
 way. Yet when the seed-wheat is wetted 
 with a nearly saturated solution of salt, 
 and then rolled in lime, or the salt and 
 lime are not used until they have been 
 mixed together for three months, and then 
 sown on the land broadcast, — or when the 
 gas lime is previously mixed with four or 
 five times its bulk of sifted mould or ashes, 
 then I have seen the most excellent effects 
 produced by its being drilled with the 
 turnip-seed : the same remarks apply to the 
 chloride of lime of the calico-bleachers. 
 Other salts, whose action is less energetic, 
 or which are applied in very small propor- 
 tions, are perhaps best applied by the drill ; 
 for instance, saltpetre, which is rarely ap- 
 plied in larger proportion than l^cwt. per 
 acre, may very likely be still further reduced 
 in quantity, especially if mixed with other 
 substances, such as three "or four times its 
 bulk of mould. Mr. Beadel of Witham, in 
 Essex, a very excellent farmer, has found, 
 that where saltpetre was applied to his 
 turnips broadcast as a top-dressing, it did 
 797 
 
 not succeed, but it did so very decidedly 
 when it was drilled with the seed. 
 
 In those situations where nightsoil, or 
 sprats, or bones cannot be obtained at a 
 sufficiently reasonable rate, very great ef- 
 fects may be produced by the careful col- 
 lection of the excrements of domestic ani- 
 mals, and mixing them with merely a 
 sufficient quantity of dry ashes, mould, saw- 
 dust, or, what is best of all, recently pre- 
 pared finely powdered charcoal, to render 
 them sufficiently friable to pass the drill : 
 this is very easily accomplished, by making 
 the preparation under cover some months 
 before it is used, and, if necessary, by caus- 
 ing it to be spread in the sun. By the 
 adoption of these means, a very recent mix- 
 ture will be found available by the farmer ; 
 the excrements of the horse, cow, and 
 especially the sheep (still more so if fed 
 with oil-cake), will be found excellent for 
 this purpose. And in very small proportions 
 the Peruvian farmers, according to Hum- 
 boldt, employ the guano, or excrements of 
 seafowl, (which abound in phosphate of lime, 
 or earthy salt of bones), which is brought 
 in sailing vessels, from the rocky islands of 
 the Pacific, expressly for the use of the Cul- 
 tivators of that republic. See Guano. 
 
 And that bones might be very profitably 
 mixed with other fertilisers, so as to mate- 
 rially reduce the expense of the manure, is 
 indicated by more than one successful ex- 
 periment. To give another instance, which 
 has recently been communicated to me, in 
 the trials made by Daniel Dixon, Esq. of 
 West Clandon, in Surrey. " On a poor 
 chalk soil," observed an excellent and scien- 
 tific friend of mine, " he has used a com- 
 post for a manure-drill for turnips with 
 great advantage. Pie puts 8 bushels of 
 ground bones with 24 bushels of any ashes 
 he can get together in a dry place, and 
 from to time (as often as possible) he emp- 
 ties the liquid sewerage of the house upon 
 it. In two or three months it is fit for 
 use, working well out of the drill. The 
 above is the quantity for an acre. The 
 effect of drilling this mixture with the seed 
 was very remarkable, and as bone manure 
 was drilled by the side of it, the contrast 
 was at once visible ; the difference was more 
 than double. In fact, the bones by them- 
 selves seemed comparatively useless. The 
 soil on which the mixture has been applied 
 is poor, chalky, and flinty, abutting upon 
 the sheep-walks and Guildford race-course. 
 Whenever the mixture is too wet for the 
 drill, it is spread to dry for a day or two." 
 {Letters of Henry Dixon, Esq. to the Author, 
 November 1839, and March 1840.) 
 
 " A friend of ours, a farmer in Northum- 
 berland," says the excellent editor of the 
 
MANURES. 
 
 Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, " the late 
 Mr. George Brown, Hetton Steads, mixed 
 any quantity of coal-ashes, kept dry, and 
 finely riddled, with a quarter of bone-dust 
 per acre, and raised as good a crop of tur- 
 nips (of course drilled) of all kinds, on a 
 clayey soil, resting on a retentive bottom 
 (but drained), as he could with two quar- 
 ters of bone-dust." Mr. Turner of Tring, 
 in Hertfordshire, drilled with his crushed 
 bones an equal quantity per acre of sheep- 
 dung, collected for the express purpose, at 
 an expense of 2^d. per bushel paid to the 
 collectors : this he prepared in the winter, 
 by laying the bone-dust in alternate layers 
 with sheep-dung, and suffering them to re- 
 main fermenting some months until the 
 turnip sowing. By this plan, by the fer- 
 mentation of the mass, the two manures are 
 thoroughly incorporated ; and he considers 
 that 35 bushels of the mixture are fully 
 equal in effect to 25 bushels of the bones. 
 So that, allowing 3s. 6d. per acre for the 
 expense of collecting the sheep-dung, there 
 will be a clear saving of 12s. 6d. per acre in 
 bones, valuing these at 2s. per bushel. The 
 mixed bones and sheep-dung are invariably 
 drilled in with the turnip-seed. 
 
 The application of rape-cake powder by 
 the drill has never been so common as it 
 ought to be, for it is not only a very power- 
 ful, but a very easily manageable fertiliser ; 
 it has moreover the advantage of being 
 moderate in price, and easily attainable at 
 all seasons of the year. There is no doubt 
 of the advantage of feeding stock with this 
 food, the manure they produce when thus 
 fed being exceedingly rich. Many farmers, 
 however, owing to the want of cattle, or an 
 unwillingness to lay out the requisite money, 
 in a long course of stall-feeding, are de- 
 terred from using oil- cake to the extent 
 they would otherwise do. The use of the 
 oil-cake powder conveys to the land all the 
 enriching ingredients of this fertiliser at 
 once, and to the exact extent the farmer 
 requires ; there is neither the waste, the 
 risk, or the trouble of stall-feeding to be 
 dreaded. The oil remaining in the cake 
 certainly constitutes its most enriching por- 
 tion ; the oil abounding in sprats is an in- 
 stance familiar to the farmer, and when this 
 oil is imperfectly crushed out, the cake pro- 
 duced (as is well known to the Swedish 
 cultivator in the case of herring-cake) is 
 found to be exceedingly enriching. A very 
 small quantity of oil left by the crushers in 
 the cake will produce very great results ; 
 even three ^gallons of train-oil, as I have 
 mentioned in another place, has been found 
 amply sufficient per acre, when mixed with 
 earth or ashes, to produce a capital crop of 
 turnips. It has been found (and this is 
 
 another illustration of the value of the 
 manure-drill), that when rape-cake is drilled 
 with the turnip-seed, 3| cwt. per acre is 
 sufficient, but if it is applied broadcast, then 
 double the quantity is required. My friend 
 Mr. Davis, of Spring Park, in Surrey, is 
 well aware of the powers of oil-cake as a 
 manure ; he has found it even an advan- 
 tageous plan to drill common coal, wood, 
 or turf ashes, at the rate of 40 bushels per 
 acre, with his turnip-seed ; and this he has 
 successfully practised for some years, so 
 much is he in favour of bringing the seed 
 and the manure into immediate contact. 
 
 In proceeding to examine, as an instance 
 of one of the least likely substances suc- 
 cessfully applied by the drill, the properties 
 of night-soil, and the modes which have 
 been adopted to reduce its weight, without 
 impairing its effect, many reflections will 
 suggest themselves to the farmer. He will 
 notice that such a process, by producing it 
 in the state of powder, renders it capable 
 of being readily drilled with the seed ; and 
 that the same remarks apply in a great 
 measure to the excrements of the farm-yard, 
 to whale blubber, and to fish. The Essex 
 farmers find, that when sprats are mixed 
 with earth, finely divided, the mass, when 
 these very oily fish are quite dissolved in 
 the mould, forms a very powerful fertiliser, 
 which is excellent as a drill-manure for 
 turnips. They tell you, that the sprats 
 lose none of their enriching powers, even 
 when thus kept mixed with earth for some 
 months. 
 
 Even earthy manures may be advan- 
 tageously reduced in weight by exposure 
 to the air, or by the application of artificial 
 heat. Chalk, I have found by experiment, 
 loses from 15 to 25 per cent, of its weight 
 by being thus deprived of its water ; and 
 a cubic foot of calcareous sand, when 
 thoroughly wet, contains, according to M. 
 Schubler, more than 31 lbs. of water ; the 
 same measure of sandy clay, 38 lbs. ; loamy 
 clay, 41 lbs. ; stiff clay or brick-earth, 45 lbs.; 
 pure grey clay, 48 lbs. ; garden mould, 48 lbs.; 
 and fine slaty marl, 35 lbs. (Journ. of Eng. 
 Ag. Soc. vol. i. p. 184.) By exposing the 
 earths to an intense heat, their weight is 
 still further reduced by the loss of their 
 carbonic acid gas or fixed air; hence 100 
 parts of chalk, for instance, when thus treated, 
 lose very commonly 24 parts of water and 
 34 parts of carbonic acid ; so that 42 lbs. of 
 lime, when well burnt, contain as much 
 real earth as 180 parts of chalk. All these 
 facts are such as the cultivator should be 
 thoroughly acquainted with; for, in many 
 cases, the earth which the farmer removes 
 might be previously very advantageously 
 dried, by exposure in spits to the action of 
 
MANURES. 
 
 the atmosphere. Even the difference of 
 labour to the men and horses, between 
 carting them after continued dry weather 
 and in wet periods, is much more material 
 than the cultivator commonly believes. 
 
 My attention, however, will, in this place, 
 be principally confined to fertilisers of an 
 organic nature, and more especially to night- 
 soil. Night-soil has not, in any form, been 
 employed by the farmers of England to the 
 same extent as on the Continent, although 
 it is certainly by far the most powerful of 
 the organic manures, and the most easily 
 rendered applicable by the drill of any of 
 the class. To this neglect many causes 
 have contributed. Its disagreeable odour, 
 certain vexatious fiscal regulations with re- 
 gard to its removal, to which I have before 
 alluded, and the erroneous modes of apply- 
 ing it, either in excessive quantities, or 
 mixed with other composts in such propor- 
 tions that its powers could not be dis- 
 tinguished in the mass ; its semifluid nature 
 requiring for its removal carriages of a 
 peculiar construction ; the extent and com- 
 pleteness of the sewerage of our large cities, 
 and several other minor obstacles, have 
 rendered its use not nearly so extensive as, 
 even in a national point of view, is desirable. 
 (See Night Soil,.) And yet the necessity 
 for increasing the supplies of manures, in 
 order to promote the fertility of the soil, 
 will be self-evident to every one who re- 
 members, not only the increasing popu- 
 lation of the country, but the immense 
 drains upon its organic fertilising matters 
 which are hourly pouring their contents 
 into the sea. Thus, as I have elsewhere 
 remarked, by carefully- conducted experi- 
 ment it has been clearly ascertained, that 
 the principal London drains convey daily 
 into the Thames 115,000 tons of mixed 
 manure, consisting, on an average compo- 
 sition, of one part solid or mechanically 
 suspended matter, and 25 parts absolutely 
 fluid ; but if we allow only 1 part in 30 
 of this immense mass to be composed of 
 solid substances, then we have the large 
 quantity of more than 3800 tons of solid 
 manure daily wasted in the river from Lon- 
 don alone. What might not the farmers of 
 England effect if this mass of fertilising 
 matter was preserved, at a reasonable rate, 
 for their use ? 15 tons of this solid ma- 
 nure — nay, 10 tons, would render fertile 
 an acre of the poorest cultivated, or even 
 common or heath land. But allow, for the 
 sake of argument, that 20 tons were re- 
 quired, even then 3800 would give a daily 
 allowance of manure sufficient for 180 acres 
 of the poorest land in England ; and if we 
 give 300 days on which this manure was 
 collected, that would afford an annual sup- 
 799 
 
 ply for fifty -four thousand of such acres, 
 which land would not again need manuring 
 for four years; — and in this calculation 
 nothing is allowed for the fluid portion of 
 the drainage. It is the reckless waste of 
 the drainage of our large cities and towns, 
 which has alone .prevented the cultivated 
 lands of England from becoming increas- 
 ingly fertile ; because yearly more abound- 
 ing in organic decomposing matters. For 
 such is the enormous yearly import of 
 foreign products into this country, that it 
 must tend to rapidly increase the natural 
 fertility of the soil of England, since all 
 their ingredients ought, and do in some 
 measure, eventually find their way as a 
 manure upon the land ; thus, in 1834, were 
 imported into the United Kingdom, ac- 
 cording to a parliamentary report, now 
 before me, of 
 
 Cwts. qrs. lbs. 
 
 Barilla - - - 215,750 1 22 
 
 Bark for tanners - 854,869 3 16 
 
 Butter - 136,674 0 23 
 
 Cheese - - - 134,085 3 5 
 
 Coffee, about - - 250,000 0 0 
 
 Currants - - 141,540 3 1 
 
 Figs - - - 15,416 3 14 
 
 Raisins - 158,290 2 1 
 
 Molasses - - 717,666 2 4 
 
 Rice ... 218,867 1 20 
 Seeds, clover - - 53,263 1 30 
 
 Sugar - - - 4,732,749 3 22 
 
 Tea, about - - 250,000 0 0 
 
 Wool and cotton, about 3,000,000 0 0 
 
 So that, including corn, oil-cake, timber, 
 &c, &c, at least 1,000,000 tons of vegetable 
 matters alone are yearly imported from 
 foreign countries into the United Kingdom, 
 and added to the riches of the soil : thus 
 our merchants are annually fertilising, while 
 the Commissioners of Sewers are in an 
 equal ratio impoverishing, the island. But 
 against this great fertilising import, we have 
 at present to set off the large and ever- 
 flowing drainage of the cities and towns of 
 the United Kingdom ; not only London, 
 but Liverpool, Manchester, and a hundred 
 others, are incessantly pouring the riches 
 of the land into the sea, and to such an 
 extent is this done at Bristol, that the Court 
 of King's Bench was obliged, not long since, 
 to interfere to protect the inhabitants from 
 the nuisance created by the non-removal 
 of the city drainage from the bed of the 
 Avon. (Rex v. Bristol Dock Comp., 6 B. 
 Sr C. 181.; 9 D. 8r R. 309.) 
 
 On the Continent, the use of various ma- 
 nure powders made from night-soil is equally 
 extensive and successful. An elaborate 
 report upon these was made a short time 
 since to the Directors of the Thames Im- 
 provement Company by Dr. Granville, who 
 
MANURES 
 
 had been commissioned to make the re- 
 quisite inquiries and surveys; and from 
 this we learn, that the consumption of 
 night-soil in Flanders is very large ; but 
 that the farmers, instead of employing it 
 in the dry or powdered state, rather prefer 
 to mix it with water, and thus form a rich 
 liquid manure. Of late years, the French 
 farmers have adopted the same views with 
 regard to night-soil ; but the practice of 
 their farmers in this respect is somewhat 
 different. They prefer, for the sake of easy 
 and convenient transport, to dry the ster- 
 coral substances to powder, which, bearing 
 the name of poudrette, is sent into the 
 country from the neighbourhood of the ca- 
 pital, and is sold at a high price. The 
 success of the establishment for the manu- 
 facture of poudrette, first formed near Paris 
 about forty years since, by a person named 
 Bridet, has been such, that, in almost every 
 part of the kingdom, similar manufactories 
 have been erected, and nothing now is 
 wasted. The Parisians have at present 
 several such large works. M. Bridet ob- 
 tained a patent for his process of manufac- 
 turing the poudre vegetatif. He proved, 
 by experiments, that the poudrette is many 
 times more valuable than the best sort of 
 ordinary manure. It was found, after re- 
 peated trials, that 240 lbs. of the poudrette 
 would manure an acre of ground with 
 greater effect than eight cart-loads of the 
 best stable manure. (Brevet, tome i. p. 37 1 .) 
 
 Under the name of " Alkalino-vegeta- 
 tive Powder," another preparation of night- 
 soil was ushered into notice in France, and 
 generally adopted, under the auspices of an 
 agricultural lady, Madame Viyert Duboul, 
 to whom, in consequence, the Royal So- 
 ciety of Agriculture, in 1814, awarded their 
 gold medal. This lady obtained a patent 
 of fifteen years for her process, which con- 
 sisted in promoting fermentation in the 
 most liquid portion of the excrementitious 
 substances, and treating them with slaked 
 lime afterwards, so as to form a powder, 
 which has been found to be very superior 
 to the first-named poudrette upon cold, 
 light, or moist soils. Its action is very 
 powerful, and it extends its influence oyer 
 the soil for several years, without requiring 
 during that period a repetition of the ma- 
 nuring process. This is not the case with 
 the poudrette of Bridet, the influence of 
 which over any soil is only annual. " M. 
 Hermstadt gave, in the Monthly Journal 
 of the Economic Society of Potsdam for 
 August, 1838, as the result of his experi- 
 ments instituted with the view of ascer- 
 taining the comparative fertilising powers 
 of farm-yard manure and poudrette, that 
 poudrette is a complete substitute for coin- 
 800 
 
 mon dung, whether with respect to price or 
 quality." (Quart Journ. of Agr. No.xlvi. 
 p. 285.) 
 
 In 1818, a company was formed near 
 Paris (Messrs. Donat and Co.), for the 
 manufacture of another kind of manure 
 from night-soil. The name of " urate " 
 (from the principal ingredient used) was 
 given to it, and the Royal Society of Agri- 
 culture deemed it an object of sufficient 
 importance to deserve being submitted to 
 the examination of a joint committee of 
 chemists and agriculturists, in which were 
 included the names of Vanquelin, Dubois, 
 &c. The report made by these distinguished 
 men is full of interest to the agriculturist. 
 Urine is the active ingredient, and plaster of 
 Paris (gypsum), so common in the neighbour- 
 hood of that capital, the other constituent. 
 This mixture is reported by the joint com- 
 mittee to be so powerful in its effects upon 
 the dullest soil, that they recommend that 
 it should only be employed by skilful and 
 discriminating farmers. For this discovery 
 the inventor received the gold medal from 
 the government. A powerful manure of 
 the same name is now extensively prepared 
 by the " London Manure Company," of 40. 
 New Bridge Street. It abounds with the 
 salts of ammonia, phosphate of lime, and 
 the animal matters of urine. It appears, 
 also, from the fine dry state of powder in 
 which the " urate " is delivered, that it is 
 admirably adapted for application by the 
 drill with the seed. The quantity applied 
 per acre is about five cwt. ; and, as it is al- 
 most entirely composed of organic matters, 
 phosphate of lime (earthy salt of bones), 
 sulphate of lime (gypsum), and various salts 
 of ammonia, it is evidently a most powerful 
 fertiliser, as well adapted for turnips as 
 for the grass and grain crops. I have had 
 an opportunity of inspecting the manu- 
 factory of this company, and from the 
 care displayed in its preparation, the 
 " urate " will, I think, be rapidly and ex- 
 tensively employed by the farmer. 
 
 In some recent reports of trials with this 
 manure upon turnips,. I observe that Mr. 
 Anderson, of Oakley, Bedfordshire, describes 
 it as proving " itself quite equal if not su- 
 perior to the farm-yard manure. The land 
 I used it on was a sharp gravel, and was 
 much out of condition previous to the pre- 
 sent crop. The six tons were drilled with 
 Swedish turnip-seed, eighteen inches apart, 
 on eighteen acres." 
 
 Mr. Manning, of Elstow, says, " I drilled 
 a ton of urate upon three acres, in rows 
 seventeen inches apart, upon a very hot gra- 
 velly soil; each side abutting on this was 
 manured in the usual way, with good farm- 
 yard manure, about fourteen loads per acre. 
 
MANURES. 
 
 The turnips on the urate were fit to hoe 
 seven days before the manured part ; from 
 their first appearance, a stranger could point 
 out the spot where it commenced and ended ; 
 the difference is still evident and in its 
 favour. Both the manured and urate pieces 
 were sown the same day, about the 14th of 
 June. I certainly consider it a good arti- 
 ficial dressing, and its fertilising properties 
 great." 
 
 In 1820, another patent was granted to 
 a M. Loques, by the French government, 
 for a manure called " stercorat," consisting 
 of a mixture of both the solid and liquid 
 parts of the excrementitious matters, and 
 some earthy substance. It is said to be 
 particularly efficacious, and sells at a very 
 high price. 
 
 M. Parmentier, a celebrated French agri- 
 cultural writer, some years since expressed 
 his surprise at the tardiness of his country- 
 men in adopting the practice of their Flemish 
 neighbours, and in continuing so long to 
 pay money for getting rid of that which 
 other nations first, and the French them- 
 selves afterwards, found to be so productive 
 of wealth. He quotes the case of an indi- 
 vidual who in former times had amassed 
 great wealth by the sale of a manuring 
 powder, which he manufactured from the 
 very soil he was annually paid by govern- 
 ment to remove out of the extensive mili- 
 tary barracks of Lisle. 
 
 There existed at one time much public 
 prejudice against this mode of rendering 
 the land more productive, on the wild sup- 
 position that the obnoxious principles of 
 such a manure would form part of the 
 plants raised by means of it ; but the most 
 accurate experiments have proved, that not 
 the least vestige of such animal substances 
 is to be detected either in the ascending 
 sap, or in the more solid parts of the plants 
 so cultivated. A great extent of the rich 
 plains of Normandy are fertilised every 
 year by the manure powder manufactured 
 at present out of the cess-pools of Paris. 
 
 The poudrette sells for eight francs the 
 sestier on the premises, and the whole is 
 fetched away at that price as soon as ready, 
 and principally distributed within twelve 
 leagues of Paris. Now, as there are 7^ 
 sestiers in a ton, it is evident that the value 
 of the latter is 60 francs, or 21. 10s. ; and 
 yet the comparative agricultural value of 
 this compost is not so great as that of the 
 " Flemish manure." Messrs. Payen and 
 Company, the patentees of the " engrais 
 animalize," or disinfected night-soil, sell 
 their "poudrette" at 2^ francs per ton 
 under the market price of that of Mont- 
 faucon, and they have rarely any left on 
 the premises. 
 
 801 
 
 The engrais animalize, or disinfected 
 night-soil, has recently been introduced 
 into this country by M. Poittevin, and a 
 manufactory of it established in White - 
 chapel, near London. It is there produced 
 by mixing the night-soil of the metropolis 
 with a considerable quantity of recently 
 prepared charcoal powder, and drying the 
 mass in a very gentle heat. As thus pre- 
 pared, its appearance somewhat resembles 
 that of the friable rich vegetable mould of 
 an old hot-bed ; it is of a very dark colour, 
 and totally devoid of smell. Its intro- 
 duction into this country has been too re- 
 cent for any very extensive trials to have 
 been yet made with it ; my own are only 
 now carrying on ; these, however, promise 
 well. In some comparative experiments 
 made last year with bones, they were found 
 to answer very completely. These results 
 have been confirmed by several communi- 
 cations with which I have been recently 
 favoured, stating that, to use the words of 
 Col. Challoner, " this manure, in its effects 
 upon the turnip crop, was fully equal to 
 bones." And Mr. Beach, of Oakley Hall, 
 near Basingstoke, who had applied it by the 
 drill with the seed, at the rate of fourteen 
 bushels per acre to a portion of a field of 
 turnips ; and, on another portion, drilled 
 three sacks per acre of crushed bones, 
 mixed with turf ashes ; and, on a third 
 portion, with ordinary stable manure, says, 
 in February last, " It is impossible to dis- 
 tinguish any difference between the three, 
 some persons fancying one part, and some 
 another, to be superior. In their early 
 growth, the night-soil had a decided advan- 
 tage. The seed came up as thick as rows 
 of mustard-seed in a hot-bed, and the tur- 
 nips were hoed out within a month." Mr. 
 Beach adds a suggestion, which I think 
 highly worthy of the attention of the turnip 
 cultivators, — "lam so well satisfied with 
 it for turnips, that I shall use a large 
 quantity of the night-soil powder this sea- 
 son. I shall also mix ten or twelve bushels 
 with a quarter of crushed bones, which I 
 am inclined to think will answer well." I 
 have recently been shown a letter from Mr. 
 Robert M'Crea, of Grange House, near 
 Londonderry, in which he speaks of this 
 manure in the highest terms, as a dressing 
 for turnips; those thus treated having 
 carried off last year the first prize offered 
 by the Londonderry Farming Society. 
 
 A preparation of night-soil has been 
 lately imported into Scotland and the north 
 of England from Copenhagen, under the 
 name of Owen's Animalised Carbon, which 
 has answered, when applied by the manure 
 drill, very well for turnips. Mr. James AVal- 
 die, in his recent prize communication to 
 3f 
 
MANURES. 
 
 the Ayrshire Agricultural Society, describes 
 it as an useful auxiliary manure, and as 
 likely, in a great measure, to supersede the 
 use of bones, now that the latter have risen 
 to the enormous rate of at least 35. per 
 bushel. He says, " One ton of carbon, the 
 cost of which is 3/., is sufficient for an acre 
 of land; and from experiments which I 
 have made this year, conjoined with what I 
 have observed of two successive crops on 
 a farm in this neighbourhood, where com- 
 parative trials were made with different 
 manures, on a very extensive scale, it may 
 be inferred, that one ton of carbon is equal 
 to 25 bushels of crushed bones." These 
 experiments are supported by the observ- 
 ations of Mr. M. Milburn, of Thorpefield, 
 near Thirsk, when describing, in his re- 
 port to the Yorkshire Agricultural Society, 
 the various fertilisers advantageously em- 
 ployed on light lands in the cultivation of 
 turnips ; for, he observes, " Animalised 
 carbon has been used advantageously ; 
 16 bushels per acre, when drilled, is the 
 quantity generally employed. Pigeons' dung 
 is most valuable ; rape-dust has been used 
 successfully ; malt -dust is useful as a top- 
 dressing." {Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iv. N. 
 S. p. 85.) There is a chemical " seed 
 manure" prepared by Messrs. Hodgson 
 and Simpson, near Wakefield, which is 
 applied, mixed with water, as a liquid ma- 
 nure, or steep to the seed-corn, and seems, 
 from a communication, with which they 
 favoured me in -March, 1840, to be a kind 
 of secret preparation, composed principally 
 of saccharine matter, ammonia, common 
 salt, and nitre. This seed manure is ap- 
 plied according to the following direc- 
 tions, — instructions which might be advan- 
 tageously followed in the use of other 
 fertilisers : " Dissolve 28 lbs. of this manure 
 in a pail, by adding water in small quan- 
 tities, stirring it at the same time, until 
 the mixture is of the consistence of thick 
 cream ; it is then to be poured over the 
 quantity of seed intended to be sown on 
 an acre of land, and the whole repeatedly 
 turned over, so that it appears one uniform 
 mixture ; it is then to be spread out thin on 
 the floor to dry for ten or twelve hours, and 
 mixed with a sufficient quantity of soot, or 
 any kind of dry ashes, to render it suffi- 
 ciently friable to be sown by the hand or 
 by the drill." The quantity thus directed 
 to be applied per acre, is certainly very 
 small, and yet, according to the testimonials 
 which I have seen, the effect it produces is 
 considerable. Mr. Milburn, of Thorpefield, 
 in one of these, tells us : "A new principle 
 in the application of manure has been deve- 
 loped in the use of the chemical seed manure, 
 which, by applying a chemical composition 
 802 
 
 to the seed itself, not only secures imme- 
 diate effect in the precise situation re- 
 quired, but highly economises the quantity 
 necessary. I have great pleasure in detail- 
 ing a very successful experiment with it on 
 a barley crop. The field had grown a 
 corn crop the preceding year — part of the 
 field was dressed with a coating of fer- 
 mented farm-yard dung — the remaining 
 part with the chemical seed manure, at the 
 rate of 28 lbs. per acre. The result was, 
 that the barley sown with the chemical 
 manure exhibited a decided superiority 
 over the rest of the field, in colour, healthi- 
 ness, and general appearance, and main- 
 tained that superiority to the time of cut- 
 ting, so much so, that it lodged considerably 
 more than the rest of the field." 
 
 Various modes besides those to which I 
 have alluded, have, at different times, been 
 suggested, by which night-soil might be 
 rendered more concentrated and more 
 portable. Simply drying it has been at- 
 tempted with some success ; but though by 
 this means about 70 per cent, of water is* 
 driven off, yet, at the same time, a con- 
 siderable portion of ammoniacal and other 
 gaseous matters are vaporised : thus the 
 manure is impoverished, while the stench 
 of the operation is intolerable. Then, 
 again, it has been mixed with lime, in the 
 way recommended by Davy; but judging 
 by my own experiments, and those of my 
 neighbours, I am fully persuaded that this is 
 not the most economical way of using night- 
 soil. The lime certainly dissolves, and par- 
 tially decomposes it, but the fertilising effect 
 of a given weight of night-soil mixed with 
 lime is clearly not so great as when a similar 
 weight of it is used either by itself, or mixed 
 with some merely drying odour- absorbing 
 substance. There are several preparations 
 of this kind made in large quantities in 
 London, such as those of Mr. Clarke, and 
 of Mr. Lance, the author of the Golden 
 Farmer, all of which, I believe, are excellent 
 manures ; but I have not had an oppor- 
 tunity of examining any of their manufac- 
 tories except those of the London Manure 
 Company, and of the Messrs. Poittevin. The 
 preparation of these gentlemen is the same 
 as that so successfully carried into effect by 
 M. Payen at Paris : it combines, and suc- 
 cessfully too, the great object of driving 
 off the water of urine and night-soil by a 
 gentle heat, after all its gaseous matters 
 have been absorbed, by mixing with it a 
 portion of newly prepared carbon, in the 
 finest possible state of division, than which 
 no known substance has such great powers 
 of absorption of all gaseous matters like 
 those which abound in and impart the dis- 
 agreeable odour to night-soil. These puri- 
 
MANURES. 
 
 fying powers of charcoal have been long 
 known : the medical man applies it in pu- 
 trescent cases, the housewife rubs it pow- 
 dered over her tainted meat, and the sailor 
 chars the inside of his water-casks for a si- 
 milar purpose. The presence of the carbon 
 in the manure thus prepared is valuable in 
 two ways ; it gradually combines with the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere, forming in the 
 state of carbonic acid gas the food of plants; 
 and, at the same time, all the gaseous mat- 
 ters of putrefaction with which it is satu- 
 rated are thus preserved, stored up, as it 
 were, for the service of the roots of the 
 cultivator's crops ; nothing is lost, the emis- 
 sion of the gases from the slowly dissolving 
 charcoal being so gradual, as to be almost, 
 if not entirely, imperceptible to the senses. 
 
 Such, then, are the principal facts already 
 ascertained with regard to the fertilising 
 uses of night-soil, and other decomposing 
 manures, in their ordinary form, and when 
 reduced by various processes to such a 
 state of dryness, so as to be easily applied 
 in the state of powder to the soil by the 
 drill. In thus investigating the advantages 
 of rendering manures more concentrated, I 
 have been induced chiefly to confine my 
 attention to one only of the organic ma- 
 nures, night-soil, because, from its nature, 
 cheapness, and powerful effect, it affords, 
 perhaps, greater facilities for accomplishing 
 this important object, than any other ex- 
 crement, and is, besides, more commonly 
 wasted than any other fertiliser. I hardly 
 deem it necessary to make any remarks 
 upon the importance of all researches which 
 tend to the better understanding of the 
 powers and best mode of employing ma- 
 nures, for with such investigations is in- 
 separably connected the gradual and steady 
 increase of the productiveness of our coun- 
 try. Such improvements, too, are full of 
 interest, not only to the cultivator, but to 
 every one to whom the vegetable kingdom 
 is an object of importance. And, as I have 
 elsewhere had occasion to remark, it is 
 hardly possible, in reflecting upon the es- 
 sential use of organic fertilisers in the 
 production of our food, to avoid being im- 
 pressed with the wisdom and beneficence of 
 the Creator, in thus making decomposing 
 noxious organic substances the nutriment 
 of vegetation, rendering the very animal 
 substances which the grass once formed, its 
 food when dead. This interchange of their 
 elements, so essential to each, is equally in- 
 cessant and remarkable, the death and de- 
 composition of the one ever imparting 
 fresh food and life to the other. Thus the 
 same gases, which are at one moment con- 
 stituting the noxious products of putrefac- 
 tion, are in the next existing in the exquisite 
 803 
 
 aroma of the flower. These facts are, in- 
 deed, too apparent to escape our observ- 
 ation, and the marvellous rapidity and 
 advantage to us of these magic vegetable 
 combinations cannot but excite both our 
 curiosity and our gratitude. (Quar. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. x. p. 142.) 
 
 Manures, History of. See the heads 
 Ashes ; Farm Yard Manure ; Bones ; 
 Chalk ; Lime, &c. The application of ma- 
 nures became one of the sustaining arts of 
 life as soon as man was ordained to earn 
 his bread by the sweat of his brow. From 
 that time to the present, the art of manur- 
 ing the soil has been steadily improving ; 
 and there is no doubt but that it will go on 
 advancing, as long as mankind continue to 
 increase. 
 
 The first manure used by man, as soon 
 as he began to dwell in fixed habitations 
 and till the land around him, would, of 
 course, be that of his domesticated animals ; 
 but he is naturally averse to labour, and 
 consequently this operation would be post- 
 poned until the rich alluvial soils, which 
 would be certainly the first selected, were 
 exhausted by over-cropping, and by the in- 
 crease of population the poorer descriptions 
 forced into cultivation ; the occupier of the 
 land would naturally avoid, if possible, the 
 trouble of spreading the dung of his farm- 
 yards over his fields. Instances of this kind 
 have not been wanting in recent periods in 
 the newly settled rich prairies of America, 
 in which many cases have occurred where, 
 in consequence of the enormous accumula- 
 tion of dung around the farmer's sheds, he 
 has been induced to remove his buildings to 
 a new spot, rather than undertake the 
 greater labour of removing the masses of 
 fermenting manure, which so deeply incum- 
 bered his old farm-yard. The first rude 
 mode in which this was conveyed to the 
 land, was naturally by hand baskets, or by 
 sledges or barrows ; the use of beasts of 
 burden was necessarily a later agricultural 
 improvement ; and, at first, there is no doubt 
 but that manure was carried on their backs 
 to the fields, as is even now practised in the 
 mountainous districts of the Continent, and 
 in some parts of the north of England, and 
 in Devonshire. Dung-carts were a much 
 later improvement, and the preparation of 
 compost heaps, and exciting and regulating 
 their fermentation by the use of the fork, 
 has been a much more modern discovery 
 than is usually believed. 
 
 Irrigation, which is a mode of applying 
 the weakest of liquid manure, by the use of 
 the waters of rivers, is of a very ancient 
 date. It has been used from a very early 
 period in Italy and the East; in fact, in many 
 warm sandy countries, as in China, a copious 
 3 f 2 
 
MANURES. 
 
 supply of water is an essential requisite for 
 the successful cultivation of the earth. Water 
 meadows were first constructed in England, 
 on a tolerably regular system, about the ter- 
 mination of the seventeenth century ; some 
 of the most excellent of those in Wiltshire, 
 such as those in the Wyley Bourne, were 
 made between the years 1700 and 1705 {Da- 
 vis s Agr. of Wiltshire, p. 116.) ; and about 
 half a century afterwards, the celebrated 
 Craigintinny meadows were formed near 
 Edinburgh, by which the town drainage is 
 rendered available in the production of the 
 most luxuriant crops of grass. These mea- 
 dows were considerably enlarged towards 
 the end of the eighteenth century, and again 
 in 1 82 1 . {Stephen's Practical Irrigator, p.75.) 
 These might be very advantageously imitated 
 in the neighbourhood of other large towns. 
 
 Amongst the Egyptians and Israelites, 
 whose climates were hot, a plentiful supply 
 of moisture was necessary for a healthful 
 vegetation ; and the simile of desolation, em- 
 ployed by Isaiah (chap.i. 30.), is, " a garden 
 that hath no water." In Egypt they irri- 
 gated their lands, and the water thus sup- 
 plied was by an hydraulic machine, worked 
 by men, in the same manner as the modern 
 tread-wheel. To this practice Moses al- 
 ludes, when he reminds the Israelites of 
 their sowing their seed in Egypt, and wa- 
 tering it with their feet, a practice still pur- 
 sued in Arabia. {Deut. xi. 10. ; Niebuhrs 
 Voyage en Arabie, i. p. 12L) 
 
 Of their knowledge of manures we know 
 little. Wood was so searce that they con- 
 sumed the dung of their animals for fuel. 
 {Parkhurst, p. 7 64.) Perhaps it was this 
 deficiency of carbonaceous matters for their 
 lands, that makes an attention to fallowing 
 so strictly enjoined. {Levit. xix. 23. ; xxv. 
 3. ; Hosea, x. 12.) 
 
 Agriculture was too important and be- 
 neficial an art not to demand, and the Greeks 
 and Romans were nations too polished and 
 discerning not to afford to it, a very plentiful 
 series of presiding deities. They attributed 
 to Ceres, as the Egyptians did to Isis, the 
 invention of the art of tilling the soil. Su- 
 perstition is a prolific weakness ; and con- 
 sequently, by degrees, every operation of 
 agriculture, and every period of the growth 
 of crops, obtained its presiding tutelary 
 deity. The goddess Terra was the guardian 
 of the soil ; Sterculius presided over ma- 
 nures, &c. 
 
 Xenophon recommends green crops to be 
 ploughed in, and leguminous plants to be 
 raised for the purpose ; " for such," he says, 
 " enrich the soil as much as dung." He also 
 recommends earth that has been long under 
 water to be put upon land to enrich it. 
 Theophraatus, who nourished in the fourth 
 804 
 
 century b. c, is still more particular upon 
 the subject of manures. He states his con- 
 viction, that a proper mixture of soils, as 
 clay with sand, and the contrary, would 
 produce crops as luxuriant as could be ef- 
 fected by the agency of manures. He de- 
 scribes the properties that render dungs 
 beneficial to vegetation, and dwells upon 
 composts. {Hist. Plant, ii. c. 8.) He also 
 recommends the stubble at reaping time to 
 be left long, if the straw is abundant ; " and 
 this, if burned, will enrich the soil very 
 much, or it may be cut and mixed with 
 dung." 
 
 From the outline which we can draw from 
 ancient authorities of the agriculture of the 
 Romans, we shall be surprised to find how 
 little they differed from the methods we now 
 employ. We are superior to them in our 
 implements, and consequently in the facility 
 of performing the operations of tillage ; but 
 of the fundamental practices of the art they 
 were as fully aware as ourselves. No mo- 
 dern writer could lay down more correct 
 and comprehensive axioms than Cato did, 
 in the following words, and whoever strictly 
 obeys them will never be ranked among the 
 ignorant of the art. " What is good til- 
 lage ? " says this oldest of the Roman teachers 
 of agriculture. " To plough. What is the 
 second ? To plough. The third is to ma- 
 nure." {Cato, 61.) In his fourth chapter 
 he thus expresses his conviction of the 
 utility of manure : " Study to have a large 
 dunghill, keep your compost carefully ; when 
 you carry it out, scatter it and pulverise it ; 
 carry it out in the autumn. Lay dung 
 round the roots of your olives in autumn." 
 And in his twenty-ninth chapter : " Divide 
 your manure, carry half of it to the field 
 when you sow your provender, and if there 
 are olive-trees, put some dung to their roots." 
 In his thirty-seventh chapter he advises the 
 use of pigeons' dung for gardens, meadows, 
 and corn lands, as well as amerca, or dregs 
 of oil; and recommends the farmer to pre- 
 serve carefully the dung of all descriptions 
 of animals. This was advice given 150 
 years before the Christian era; and now, 
 after the lapse of 2000 years, the direction 
 must be still the same. We learn from Co- 
 lumella (i. 6.), and Pliny (xvii. 9., xxiv. 
 19.), that they collected their manure and 
 stored it in covered pits, so as to check the 
 escape of the drainage; and sowed pul- 
 verised pigeons' dung, and the like, over 
 their crops, and mixed it with the surface 
 soil, by means of the sarcle or hoe. {Colum. 
 i. 16. ; Cato, 36.) They were aware of the 
 benefit of mixing together earths of opposite 
 qualities, and sowing lupines, and plough- 
 ing them in while green. ( Varro\ i. 23.) 
 
 Virgil is very particular in describing 
 
MANURES. 
 
 fertilisers. With common manure he men- 
 tions ashes (Georg. lib. i. 80.), pumice- 
 stone, and shells. (Lib. ii. v. 346. 50., and 
 in v. 250. 8.) He advises the seeds of corn 
 to be mixed with saltpetre and the dregs of 
 olive oil, to make the grain swell. (Lib. i. 
 195.) Irrigation was employed in his days. 
 (Lib. i. 106. 9.) The Italian farmers also 
 fed down over-luxuriant crops (lib.i. 3.), 
 and burnt the stubble. (Lib. i. v. 84. 8.) 
 
 Varro (lib. i. c. 38.) mentions many 
 kinds of animal manure, and is particularly 
 minute in his enumeration of the dung of 
 birds, and includes even that of blackbirds 
 and thrushes kept in aviaries. 
 
 Columella (lib. ii. c. 5.) advises the culti- 
 vator not to carry out to the field more 
 dung than the labourers can cover with the 
 soil the same day, as the exposure to the 
 sun does it considerable injury ; and he 
 enumerates (lib. ii. c. 15.) as well-known 
 fertilisers, night-soil, the excrements of 
 birds and sheep, urine (especially for apple- 
 trees and vines), dregs of oil, the excre- 
 ments of cattle, the ass, the goat, of pigs ; 
 ashes, chopped stalks of the lupine (or hop), 
 leaves of trees, brambles, &c, and mud 
 from sewers or ditches. Pliny also men- 
 tions that lime was employed as a fertiliser 
 in Gaul, and marl in the same country and 
 Britain ; but we can only surmise thence, 
 that they were also probably employed by 
 the Romans. (Pliny, xvii. 5.) 
 
 Liquid manure is not a mode of fertilising 
 the land altogether of modern origin. For 
 a fermented mixture of water and night- 
 soil has from a very early period been em- 
 ployed by the Chinese farmers. Those of 
 Italy certainly practised irrigation in the 
 days of Virgil (Georgic. lib. i. v. 106. 9.) ; 
 and Cato adds, they employed a mixture of 
 grape-stones and water to fertilise their 
 olive-trees. (Lib. xxxvii.) Columella praises 
 very highly the use of stale putrid urine 
 for vines and apple-trees (lib. ii. c. xv.) ; 
 commending also the lees of oil for the 
 same purpose. More modern agricultural 
 authors have united in praising various 
 liquid preparations ; thus Evelyn (whose 
 ingredients most of these authors recom- 
 mend), in his Treatise on Earth (p. 123 — 
 160.), gives several recipes, some of which 
 have served as the basis for recent modes 
 of preparing liquid manure ; such as the 
 dung of cattle, urine, salt, and lime, nitre. 
 
 The employment of crushed bones as a 
 manure is but a very modern improvement ; 
 it is not one of the fertilisers even men- 
 tioned by the early agricultural writers ; 
 and to this neglect of bones several causes 
 contributed. The necessary machinery for 
 crushing them was, in the early ages of 
 agricultural efforts, totally unknown; and 
 805 
 
 bones when unbroken dissolve in the soil 
 much too slowly to be of any apparent 
 value as a fertiliser. The use of bones is 
 an improvement, for which agriculture is 
 entirely indebted to the enterprise of the 
 English farmers. The refuse matters pro- 
 duced by the ivory and bone turners and 
 cutlers of Sheffield, which speedily accu- 
 mulated in very considerable heaps around 
 their manufactories, first drew the York- 
 shire farmers' attention to bone manure. 
 The cultivators of the poor soils in the 
 neighbourhood of that town, towards the 
 conclusion of the last century, began to 
 carry away these refuse matters with some 
 readiness, and the turners were at first too 
 glad to be relieved from this bone-rubbish, 
 to think of charging them anything for the 
 valuable manure they had been the first to 
 employ. As, however, the Yorkshire farmers 
 soon began to scramble for these bone- 
 turnings, the manufacturers of Sheffield 
 speedily made a small charge for them, 
 which has since gradually increased in 
 amount. It required, however, some time 
 to bring about this great and successful im- 
 provement. Mr. T. Ellin, late master cut- 
 ler of Sheffield, well remembers, some fifty 
 years since, the bone refuse carted into 
 Sheffield Moor, and buried in pits as worth- 
 less rubbish ; these old deposits, often found 
 in digging foundations, are now carried off 
 with much alacrity to the bone-crushing 
 mills. The farmers at first gave sixpence a 
 bushel for these parings and turnings ; of 
 these about 600 tons are annually sold in 
 Sheffield. By the sole use of this fertiliser, 
 great breadths of very poor land have been 
 successfully brought into cultivation, and 
 maintained in a state of the greatest fertility 
 in the north and east of England and Scot- 
 land. Their effects upon the wolds of Lin- 
 colnshire has been magical. The first person, 
 perhaps, who successfully used the roughly 
 broken bones from the dog kennel as a 
 manure was General St. Leger, in 1775. 
 (Evelyn's Sylva, by Dr. Hunter.) 
 
 Manuring with Jish was necessarily an im- 
 provement of an advanced state of agricul- 
 ture ; we have no mention of them as thus 
 used in the early agricultural authors ; the 
 immense shoals of sticklebacks, and other 
 small fresh-water fish, which once tenanted 
 the fen counties of England, first gave the 
 farmers of Lincolnshire an opportunity of 
 using this rich oily manure ; they were to- 
 wards the latter end of the eighteenth cen- 
 tury sold by the fen fishermen at about six- 
 pence a bushel ; and Arthur Young tells us, 
 that at one village on the borders of Cam- 
 bridgeshire, 2000Z. have been taken for these 
 fish in one season. It is not often that a glut 
 of herrings, pilchards, or other valuable fish, 
 3 f 3 
 
MANURES. 
 
 enables the farmer to obtain them at a rate 
 sufficiently reasonable for his land, a pur- 
 pose for which they have often, however, 
 been employed with the most luxuriant 
 effect on the coasts of Scotland and Corn- 
 wall. Sprats, and the fish called five-fingers, 
 are used to a great extent by the Essex 
 farmers ; the demand for these has of late 
 years been fully equal to the supply, al- 
 though from the evidence given before a 
 Committee of the House of Commons in 
 1833, it seems that during the season more 
 than 400 boats are employed in catching 
 these fish, for the purpose of selling them as 
 manure. 
 
 Manuring with calcareous sand was prac- 
 tised very early in the middle ages by the 
 English farmers. This they obtained not 
 only from inland pits, but from the sea- 
 shore, especially in Norfolk and Cornwall. 
 The privilege of freely taking it from the 
 sea-shore, the West of England farmers en- 
 joyed under a grant from Richard Duke of 
 Cornwall, confirmed by another of 45 th of 
 Henry III., a. d. 1261. {Camden, Britt.) 
 This is expressed in the preamble of the 
 act of the 6th James II. c. 18., a. d. 1609, 
 which says, " Whereas the sea-sand by long 
 trial and experience hath been found. to be 
 very profitable for the bettering of land, 
 and especially for the increase of corn and 
 tillage within the counties of Cornwall and 
 Devon, where the most part of the inhabit- 
 ants have not commonly used any other 
 worth for the bettering of their arable 
 grounds and pastures." This act, which em- 
 powers the farmers to take this sand free 
 from any toll, was, after being several times 
 renewed, made perpetual by the 16th 
 Charles I. c. 4. This wise encouragement 
 of the use of manures by the legislature of 
 England has not been confined to the sea- 
 land of Padstow harbour : thus, uncrushed 
 bones passing through a turnpike to be 
 crushed for manure are exempt from toll 
 under the 3 G. 4. c. 126. s.32., and 5 & 6 
 W. 4. c. 18. s. 1. {Pratt v. Brown, 8 C. & P. 
 244.) ; and carts loaded with common ma- 
 nure are equally free {Rex v. Adams, 6 M. 
 & S. 52.) ; or even when going empty to 
 fetch it {Harrison v. James, 2 Chitty, 547.) ; 
 but this exception does not extend to lime. 
 {King v. Gough, 2 Chitty, 655.) And in 
 authorising the construction of railways, 
 parliament has carefully provided, that the 
 tolls levied upon the manures conveyed by 
 them shall be much smaller than those de- 
 mandable for any other description of goods : 
 dins, in the Birmingham and Gloucester 
 Railway Act, the authorised toll is, for ma- 
 nure of all kinds, only one penny per ton 
 per mile ; while coals, &c. are to pay three- 
 bftlfpenoe, sugar twopence, cottons and 
 806 
 
 other manufactured goods, threepence per 
 mile. The same proportionate rate of tolls 
 are authorised to be taken on several other 
 railways, such as the Birmingham and Der- 
 by, the Midland Counties ; and on the East- 
 ern the difference in favour of the farmer 
 is still greater; for while limestone, sand, 
 and clay are to pay a penny, and all other 
 manures three-halfpence, coals are to pay 
 twopence, sugar, &c. fourpence, and ma- 
 nufactured goods sixpence per mile. 
 
 Saltpetre is, perhaps, the most ancient of 
 all the saline manures, and its introduction 
 is not, as is commonly believed, a modern 
 improvement. It is commended by Virgil 
 as a steep with olive oil, to make the seed- 
 grain swell. To this knowledge of the fer- 
 tilising powers of saltpetre the early cul- 
 tivators of the earth were probably assisted 
 from noticing that those soils which natu- 
 rally produce saltpetre are ever found to be 
 of the most fertile description, and that all 
 those rich eastern fields which are so ce- 
 lebrated in Palestine for their fertility, 
 abound in this salt. Three centuries since, 
 according to Googe, it was employed by the 
 German farmers. " Some saie coleworts 
 prospereth best in salt grounde, and there- 
 fore they use to cast upon the grounde salt- 
 petre or ashes." In 1676, Evelyn, in his 
 Discourse on Earth, tells us, " rains and 
 dews, cold and dry winters, with store of 
 snow, which I reckon equal to the richest 
 manures, impregnated as they are with ce- 
 lestial nitre ;" which, although an error, yet 
 displays his opinion of the fertilising power 
 of nitre. " I firmly believe," he adds, " that 
 were saltpetre, I mean fictitious nitre, to be 
 obtained in plenty, we should need but lit- 
 tle other composts to meliorate our grounds." 
 Evelyn recommends saltpetre to be used in 
 solution, three pounds of this salt to fifteen 
 gallons of water mixed with earth. And in 
 this way Sir Kenelm Digby made some bar- 
 ley grow very luxuriantly by watering it 
 with a very weak solution. 
 
 It would be, perhaps, difficult to name 
 any other substance in the catalogue of mo- 
 dern fertilisers whose powers have been so 
 often disputed as common salt. For this 
 controversy many reasons may be assigned. 
 It has been generally employed with little 
 scientific accuracy, has been tried in a man- 
 ner far too careless for any reliance to be 
 placed upon the majority of the reports 
 which have been furnished to us, and for 
 many years a prohibitory duty rendered it 
 inaccessible to the farmer; an impost which 
 has not very long been removed, and which 
 yet was the occasion of a great variety of 
 blundering trials, miscalled experiments. 
 The duty on salt was indeed one of long con- 
 tinuance. It originated, as a war tax, in the 
 
MANURES. 
 
 ninth year of the reign of William the 
 Third, and was not removed until after an 
 arduous debate at the end of that of George 
 the Third. The price of salt, thus raised to 
 more than 20s. a bushel, was in consequence 
 too expensive a fertiliser to be employed by 
 the English farmers. During that long 
 period it was known only in their traditions. 
 Through these they were told that it was 
 formerly used to kill worms and to destroy 
 weeds, that it cleansed fallows, increased 
 the produce of light arable soils, and sweet- 
 ened grass. These reported advantages 
 were rendered more probable by certain 
 facts that had been forced as it were upon 
 their attention. Every gardener was aware 
 that the brine of the pickling tubs, when 
 poured over his heaps of weeds, not only 
 killed those weeds and their attendant seeds 
 and grubs, but that these heaps were then 
 converted into so many parcels of the most 
 fertilising manure, whose good effects, espe- 
 cially upon potatoes and carrots, were very 
 decided. It was well known, too, that a sin- 
 gle grain of salt, placed upon an earth-worm, 
 speedily destroyed it; that if brine was 
 poured upon a lawn, from that spot all 
 the earth-worms were immediately ejected ; 
 and that if it was sprinkled over a portion 
 of the grass, on this salted portion all the 
 deer, or sheep, or horses of the park con- 
 stantly repaired, in preference to any other 
 part of the field. Salt evidently therefore 
 destroyed weeds and worms, and rendered 
 grass more palatable to live stock ; and upon 
 consulting the old agricultural writers, it 
 was found that the notices of salt as a ma- 
 nure were many and important, and that 
 salt had been employed in various agricul- 
 tural operations from a very early period. 
 Thus, it is referred to by St. Luke, chap. xiv. 
 34. ; Virgil reprobates a salt soil ; Cato re- 
 commends it for cattle, hay, straw, &c. ; 
 as does Virgil. (Lib. iii. v. 394.) The early 
 German farmers knew of its value for sheep ; 
 and for the same purpose, in Spain, it has 
 been employed from the earliest ages. In 
 1750, Conrad Herebasch commends it as 
 a certain prevention of the " murrain or 
 rotte." In 1653 Sir Hugh Piatt speaks of 
 salt as a fertiliser, in his usual visionary man- 
 ner, and details the result of a very success- 
 ful experiment on a " patch of ground" at 
 Clapham, from which some late writers upon 
 the uses of salt have led their readers into 
 great blunders, by stating this experiment 
 to have been performed upon an acre of 
 land. 
 
 The use of salt by the cultivator, since 
 the repeal of the duties in 1823, has been 
 considerable, however, in many districts of 
 England, in spite of these blundering in- 
 structions, ill-contrived experiments, and 
 807 
 
 ignorant conclusions. If to this be added 
 the natural difficulty of obtaining correct 
 results in any experiments in which vegeta- 
 ble life is concerned, we need no longer be 
 surprised that many contradictory state- 
 ments have been made with regard not only 
 to salt, but to all other fertilisers. 
 
 A mixture of salt and lime was recom- 
 mended as a manure by the celebrated 
 German chemist Glauber, in his " Hints for 
 the Prosperity of Agriculture," more than 
 two centuries since. He at some length 
 described the mode of preparing it, and 
 characterised the compound of soda and 
 chloride of calcium produced as " most fit 
 for dunging lands, and to be used instead of 
 the common beasts' dung." (Prosperity of 
 Germany, vol. i. p. 417.) Christopher 
 Packe, who, in 1688, published a huge folio 
 translation of Glauber's works, enforces the 
 value of this fertilising compound with 
 much earnestness, in his preface, describing 
 it " as the cheapest of all mixtures for the 
 enriching of poor and barren land." The 
 want of scientific knowledge amongst farm- 
 ers, and the hindrance to the use of salt 
 through the duties which were so long im- 
 posed upon it, naturally prevented any ex- 
 tensive use of this fertiliser; yet there have 
 been many accidental or occasional notices 
 of its value. Thus, for a great many years, 
 it has been the practice of the farmers of 
 Essex, and other English maritime coun- 
 ties, to steep their seed-wheat in sea-water, 
 strengthened with salt;,, until it is of a suffi- 
 cient gravity to float ^an egg, and then roll 
 the brined seed in lime. This, they con- 
 sider, not only prevents smut in the corn, 
 but promotes the general health and vigour 
 of the plant. The Essex farmers have a 
 tradition that this plan was discovered by 
 the accident of a farmer's labourer dropping 
 a sack of seedr wheat from the boat in which 
 he was crossing the mouth of the River 
 Crouch. It was long, however, the super- 
 stitious belief of the district, that the salt- 
 water wetting must be the result of accident, 
 to produce a good effect. The Cornish 
 farmers have for centuries used the saline 
 calcareous sand of the coasts of Devon, 
 which contains 64 per cent, of lime, fetch- 
 ing it for some miles from the shore, in 
 preference, says Dr. Paris, to the unsalted 
 sand, which they can procure at their own 
 doors. The very mixture of salt and lime 
 was successfully employed in Ayrshire 
 many years since. (Aitoiis Ayrshire (181 1), 
 p. 385.) And George Sinclair (Sinclai?-^ 
 Scotland, vol. i. p. 2 11.), in 1818, very nearly 
 demonstrated at Woburn the value of this 
 application. He unfortunately, however, 
 applied the salt and the lime separately ; 
 yet still with considerable benefit. (My 
 3 f 4 
 
MANURES. 
 
 Essay on Salt, p. 40.) The use of salt and 
 lime was noticed, in the year 1800, by Mr. 
 Hollingshead, of Chorley, in Lancashire, 
 who observes : — " Lime prepared for ma- 
 nure should be slacked with salt springs or 
 salt water; lime so slacked will have a 
 double effect." (Hints to Farmers, p. 20. 
 Edit. 1800.) In 1804, in the experiments 
 of the late Rev. Edmund Cartwright, upon 
 potatoes, of twenty-five manures, or mix- 
 tures of manures, salt and lime were found 
 superior, in their product of potatoes, to 
 nineteen others. (Com. to Board of Agr. 
 vol.iv. p. 370.) And in 1816, Mr. James 
 Manley, of Anderton, in Cheshire, when 
 giving his evidence before a Committee of 
 the House of Commons on the salt duties, 
 mentioned, that in getting marl (which is a 
 mixture of carbonate of lime, alumina, and 
 silica), he had found that, by mixing it 
 with brine instead of water, the portion 
 of the field on which the brined marl was 
 used yielded five bushels of wheat per acre 
 more than that portion on which the watered 
 marl was employed. 
 
 The use of ashes as manure may be traced 
 to a very early age. The Roman farmers 
 were well acquainted with paring and burn- 
 ing. Cato recommends the burning of the 
 twigs and branches of trees, and spreading 
 them on the land. Palladius says, that 
 soils thus treated would not require any 
 other manure for five years. They also 
 burnt their stubbles; a practice common 
 amongst the Jews in Palestine. The an- 
 cient Britons, according to Pliny, were used 
 to burn their wheat straw and stubble, and 
 spread the ashes over the soil ; and Con- 
 rad Herebasch, a German counsellor, in his 
 Treatise on Husbandry, published in 1575, 
 which was translated by Googe, tells us 
 (p. 20.), " In Lombardie, they like so well 
 the use of ashes, as they esteem it far above 
 doung, thinking doung not meete to be 
 used for the unwholsomness thereof." 
 
 Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, when em- 
 ployed as it exists in an impure state in 
 ashes, which owe all their virtues to the 
 gypsum they contain, was used by the early 
 Italian farmers. Virgil (Georg. i. 1. 80.) 
 gives the following injunction : — 
 
 " Neve 
 
 Effcetus cinerem immundum jactare per agros." 
 
 " Nor hesitate to scatter the dirty ashes over 
 the exhausted soils." And he also recom- 
 mends, in addition to ashes, two other reme- 
 dies for sterility of soil, viz. stercoratio (or 
 manuring), and glebarum cum stipulis in- 
 censio (the turning up and burning the stub- 
 ble). Robert Ainslie, steward to the cele- 
 brated John Earl of Stair, at Culhorn, in Wig- 
 townshire, had very nearly discovered the 
 agricultural advantages of gypsum in 1728; 
 
 for in that year the earl sent from London se- 
 veral hogsheads of peat-ashes, which abound 
 in sulphate of lime, with directions for their 
 use, describing them to Ainslie as being 
 much employed in the south of England as 
 an admirable top-dressing for grass, and 
 even tillage lands. These ashes were used, 
 according to his lordship's directions, with 
 great success, on both barley and grass 
 lands. Ainslie, convinced of their fertilising 
 properties, immediately began to burn turf, 
 moss, and peat, for the use of the farm 
 under his care, in considerable quantities ; 
 he, moreover, submitted these ashes to 
 what he very ludicrously calls an analysis, 
 and gravely tells us, that " with a great 
 proportion of earthy substances, they con- 
 tained many particles of lime or shelly mat- 
 ter." This was most probably the gypsum. 
 
 The use of the mineral gypsum as a ma- 
 nure was discovered in 1768, according to 
 Kirwan, by M. Meyer, a German clergy- 
 man of great talents ; but as in those days 
 the chemical composition of gypsum was 
 totally unknown, he naturally confounded 
 it with other calcareous earths which it re- 
 sembled in appearance. His merit con- 
 sisted in discovering the use of a certain 
 mineral substance existing in his own 
 neighbourhood, which was long afterwards 
 shown to be sulphate of lime, but of which 
 fact Meyer was entirely ignorant. Even as 
 early as 1792, gypsum was tried very suc- 
 cessfully by Mr. H. Smith of Highstead, 
 near Sittingbourne, who first noticed, what 
 has since been confirmed by numerous ob- 
 servations, that clover manured with gyp- 
 sum is always preferred by horses and 
 cattle to all other clover. 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks recommended this sub- 
 stance as a fertiliser to Lord Leicester, and, 
 at his suggestion, it was tried at Holkham, 
 many years since ; but, owing to mismanage- 
 ment in its application, it did not then ap- 
 pear to answer the intended purpose. Some 
 years afterwards, owing to the warm re- 
 commendation of Mr. Grisenthwaite, it was 
 again employed pretty extensively by the 
 same nobleman, and with great success ; 
 and so satisfied was this great friend of 
 agriculture with the result, that he pre- 
 sented Mr. Grisenthwaite with a piece of 
 plate for his exertions in its introduction. 
 In a letter with which I was favoured from 
 the Rev. R. Collyer, dated Holkham, Oc- 
 tober 17th, 1837, that gentleman tells me, 
 " Lord Leicester wishes me to say, in regard 
 to gypsum, that its effects, when applied to 
 clover and sainfoin, have been invariably 
 such as to induce him to speak from his 
 own experience in favourable terms of that 
 fertiliser." It has since been gradually 
 creeping into use in the east and south of 
 
MANURES. 
 
 England. Mills have been erected for 
 grinding it, and considerable quantities 
 have been brought from the northern coun- 
 ties ; but still not one thousandth part of 
 the quantity is employed in agriculture 
 that would be used if its correct mode of 
 application were more generally known ; 
 since, from the small quantity used per 
 acre, and the low price of the article, it con- 
 stitutes one of the cheapest of the artificial 
 manures. 
 
 From this sketch of the history of the 
 chief manures, and of the steady improve- 
 ment in the mode of applying them, we 
 may safely conclude, that, as regards the 
 cultivation of even the most barren soils, 
 the drifting lands of Norfolk, the heath 
 lands of the north of England and Scotland, 
 and even the shingle of its sea- coast, much 
 will yet be effected by improved modes of 
 applying manures. Let such improvements 
 proceed ; let science go hand in hand with 
 practice ; let the naturalist discover new cul- 
 tivatable vegetables, or new varieties of 
 those already known ; let the chemist yield 
 his magic aid to demonstrate the best mode 
 of promoting their growth, and increasing 
 the fertility of the soil ; and then I fear- 
 lessly assert that .many more than the pre- 
 sent inhabitants of Britain may be amply 
 supported by the produce of the land of 
 our birth. " Nature," said Davy, " amidst 
 all her changes, is continually directing her 
 resources towards the production and mul- 
 tiplication of life, and in the wise and 
 grand economy of the whole system, even 
 the agents that appear injurious to the 
 hopes and destructive to the comforts of 
 man, are, in fact, ultimately connected with 
 a more exalted state of his powers and his 
 condition. His industry is awakened, his 
 activity kept alive, even by the defects of 
 climates and seasons. By the accidents 
 which interfere with his efforts, he is made 
 to exert his talents to look farther into fu- 
 turity, and to consider the vegetable king- 
 dom, not as a secure and unalterable inhe- 
 ritance, spontaneously providing for his 
 wants, but as a doubtful and insecure pos- 
 session, to be preserved only by labour, 
 and extended and perfected by ingenuity." 
 (Lectures, p. 267.) 
 
 Manure, Law with regard to. — In most 
 farm leases there are covenants introduced 
 with regard to manure, which are often 
 worse than useless ; encumbering the efforts 
 of the skilful cultivator, and rarely im- 
 proving the practice of the ignorant, lazy, 
 and unprincipled. Thus, by some leases, 
 the farmer is allowed, on certain conditions, 
 to sell his straw and hay, and bring on 
 to the farm in its stead a given weight of 
 manure (commonly two tons of stable dung 
 809 
 
 for a load of straw, and three tons for a 
 load of hay) ; in others, he is restrained 
 from selling either ; in others, from liming 
 or chalking his land. In most leases he 
 covenants to spread the manure on the 
 farm, and to leave it, in the concluding 
 year of his term, properly laid up in heaps, 
 if it is not already employed on the land. 
 
 The mere relation of landlord and tenant 
 is a sufficient consideration for the tenant's 
 promise to manage a farm in a husbandlike 
 manner, and not to carry away any straw, 
 dung, compost, &c. (Bowley v. Walker 
 (1793), 5T.R.373.); but to promise to 
 spend 60/. worth of manure every year, is 
 not in law an obligation arising out of the 
 bare relation of landlord and tenant. 
 (Brown v. Crump (1815), 1 Marsh, 567.) 
 A tenant from year to year, under a notice 
 to quit, cannot remove manure, except ac- 
 cording to the custom of the country, and 
 if necessary he may be restrained by an in- 
 junction. (Onslow v. (1800), 11 Ves. 
 
 jun. 173.) The custom of the country is 
 usually followed with regard to the manage- 
 ment and sale of manure ; but in case there 
 is a written agreement, no inquiry can be 
 made as to the custom of the country 
 (Liehenrood v. Vines (1815), 1 Mer. 15.) ; 
 and when an express stipulation is made, 
 the custom of the country is excluded en- 
 tirely. (Roberts v. Barker (1833), 1 C. & 
 M. 808.) In this case Lord Lyndhurst 
 said, " The off-going tenant was bound by 
 the custom of the country to leave the ma- 
 nure on the premises, and was entitled to 
 be paid for it by the landlord, or the suc- 
 ceeding tenant ; but in this case they did 
 not rely on the custom. The lease con- 
 tained a covenant that the tenant, on quit- 
 ting the farm, should not sell or take away 
 the manure which should be in the fold, 
 but should leave it to be expended on the 
 land by the landlord or his succeeding 
 tenant. It is to be left for their use, and 
 there is no provision as to any payment in 
 respect of it. We are of opinion, therefore, 
 that the plaintiff is not entitled to be paid 
 for the manure." But where an agreement 
 is silent as to the question of manures, then 
 the custom of the country is valid in law. 
 (Senior v. Armytage (1816), Holt, 197.) 
 If the out-going tenant has covenanted with 
 his landlord to sell the manure to the in- 
 coming tenant at a valuation, and to leave 
 it on the farm, the out-going tenant has a 
 right of on- stand on the farm ; and if the 
 in-coming tenant remove the manure be- 
 fore such valuation, he is answerable to the 
 out-going tenant in an action of trespass. 
 (Beaty v. Gibbons (1812), 16 East, 116.) 
 A tenant may sell or assign over ma- 
 nure to an assignee, although he thereby 
 
MANURES. 
 
 MAPLE. 
 
 subjects himself to an action of covenant. 
 (Burbago v. King (1813), 2 Chitty, 246.) 
 And it is a reasonable custom for the land- 
 lord to pay the out-going tenant the ex- 
 pense of manuring. (Dalby v. Hirst ( 18 1 9), 
 3 Moore, 536. If a tenant, during his te- 
 nancy, removes a dunghill, and at the same 
 time digs into and removes virgin soil that 
 is beneath it, his landlord may maintain 
 either trespass, de bonis asportatis, or trover, 
 for the removal of the virgin soil. (Higgon 
 v. Mortimer (1834), 6 C. & P. 616.) But 
 if a tenant covenants to sufficiently muck 
 and manure the land, with two sufficient 
 sets of muck, within the last six years of his 
 tenancy, the last mucking to be within the 
 last three yeers, this covenant is satisfied 
 by the tenant laying on two sets of muck 
 within the last three years of his term, if he 
 shall think fit to do so. (Pownall v. Moores 
 (1822), 5 B. & A. 416.) 
 
 In valuing manure to an in-coming te- 
 nant, much depends upon the custom of 
 the country, which is usually followed in 
 these cases. Land which has been rendered 
 perfectly clean by a year's fallowing, is de- 
 nominated a full tillage, and by tillages the 
 valuation is commonly made. 
 
 In estimating the value of manure in 
 arable land, it is done by allowing a full 
 tillage after a fallow or crop of turnips fed 
 off ; after a white crop, half a tillage ; but 
 after two white crops no allowance is 
 made. 
 
 For bones one tillage more is valued 
 than for dung, on arable soils ; two thirds 
 of the value of the bones, and labour of 
 procuring and spreading them, being al- 
 lowed after one white crop, and. one third 
 of the value after two white crops. Soot, 
 rape-cake, oil, sprats, &c, which are quickly 
 exhausted in the soil, are allowed for as 
 one full tillage before a crop grown, or 
 after turnips, &c. eaten off ; but if the 
 turnips, &c. have been carried off, then only 
 one third of the cost of procuring, carrying, 
 and spreading is allowed. 
 
 For earthy manures more is allowed in a 
 valuation than for those of a perishable na- 
 ture. Thus, on pasture land, lime, chalk 
 or marl are commonly valued for six years 
 after they have been spread on the land. 
 This includes prime cost, carriage, and 
 labour in spreading in full, when laid on 
 not more than a year; two thirds of the 
 value if spread within two years ; one half 
 in three years ; one fourth in four years ; 
 and one sixth in five years : but when lime 
 is used on arable lands, it is commonly 
 v. ilucd in the same way as farm-yard ma- 
 nure. 
 
 When compost is in the heap, it is usu- 
 ally valued in cubic yards, the value of 
 810 
 
 which necessarily varies; it may be esti- 
 mated, however, commonly as of the same 
 value as half a bushel of wheat. (Wood/all, 
 by Harrison, p. 529. ; Bayldon on Rents ; 
 Grainger and Kennedy on Tillage.} 
 
 The custom of the in-coming tenant pay- 
 ing for the dung varies in different coun- 
 ties. In the following counties he wholly 
 pays for all dung on the farm ; viz. Essex, 
 Kent, Northumberland, (Nottingham, arti- 
 ficial manure,) Rutland, Stafford, Suffolk, 
 Surrey, Sussex, Westmoreland, and the 
 West Riding of York. In the other English 
 counties the dung is usually left free of 
 charge to the in-coming tenant. This, in 
 Scotland, is called holding in steel-bow. See 
 Customs or Counties. 
 
 MAPLE. {Acer, from the Celtic ac, a 
 point, the wood having formerly been much 
 sought after for manufacturing into heads 
 of pikes and lances.) The maples are for 
 the most part beautiful trees, of consider- 
 able size, generally employed in forming 
 avenues or the back of shrubberies. The 
 soil they delight most to grow in is open 
 sandy loam, in which also cuttings will 
 strike freely in the open air ; or they may 
 be increased by layers put down in the 
 autumn : but all the best plants are ob- 
 tained from seed, which should be sown 
 soon after gathering. From the sap of the 
 sugar maple (A. saccharinum), the North 
 Americans make a very good sort of sugar, 
 in considerable quantities ; other species pos- 
 sess, more or less, in the sap, this saccharine 
 property. There are a great many species 
 of maple ; but two only, with some varieties, 
 are common to Britain. 
 
 1. The greater maple or sycamore (A. 
 pseudo-platanus), which grows in hedges 
 and about houses, common, but not truly 
 wild. It is a large handsome tree, of quick 
 growth, with a smooth ash-coloured bark, 
 and round spreading branches. Leaves on 
 long footstalks four or five inches broad, 
 palmate, with five acute variously serrated 
 lobes; the middle one largest, two outer- 
 most very small; veiny, smooth, except a 
 little hairy tuft at the base ; pale or glau- 
 cous beneath. Clusters pendulous, axillary, 
 many-flowered, downy. Flowers green, the 
 size of a currant blossom. Capsules with 
 two or three broad spreading wings above 
 an inch long. The wood is white and soft, 
 useful for many purposes, such as making 
 musical instruments, cheese and cider 
 presses, tables, mangles, and some parts of 
 machinery ; but is chiefly employed by 
 coopers. The sap is said to yield some 
 portion of sugar, and to be made into wine 
 in the Highlands of Scotland. The syca- 
 more is propagated entirely by seed. The 
 principal cultivated varieties are, the yd- 
 
MAR. 
 
 MARCH. 
 
 low variegated sycamore, or Costorpliine 
 plane {Ac. p. fiavo-variegata, Loudon), the 
 white variegated leaved sycamore (A. p. 
 variegata, Loudon), and the purple leaved 
 variety. 
 
 2. The common or field maple (A. cam- 
 pestre.) This is a common tree in hedges 
 and thickets, but is rather rare in Scotland 
 and the north of England. It is of much 
 more humble growth than the preceding, 
 with more spreading branches ; the bark 
 corky and full of fissures; that of the 
 branches smooth. Leaves about 1£ inch 
 wide, downy while young, like their foot- 
 stalks, five-lobed, obtuse, somewhat cut. 
 Racemes corymbose, erect, the wings of the 
 fruit "much divaricated. The wood is com- 
 pact, of a fine grain, sometimes beautifully 
 veined, celebrated among the ancient Ro- 
 mans for tables, though now superseded by 
 mahogany, and even by our native oak. 
 
 The Norway maple (A. platandides) has 
 latterly been classed among our British 
 forest trees. It is a tree of the first rank, 
 thrives well in our climate, and attains a 
 height equal to that of the sycamore within 
 a like period of years ; it is a decided ac- 
 quisition to our park and woodland scenery, 
 and its wood promises to be of more value, 
 and adapted for a greater variety of pur- 
 poses, than that of the sycamore, being 
 white, close-grained, firm, susceptible of a 
 fine polish, and frequently exhibiting the 
 beautiful appearance in the direction and 
 disposition of the fibre, for which the bird's- 
 eye maple of America is so highly prized 
 and sought after. The foliage, though not 
 so heavy and massive as that of the syca- 
 more, is umbrageous ; the leaves, which in 
 shape bear a striking resemblance to those 
 of the Ptatanus occidentalis, are large with 
 slender petioles, and, when fully expanded, 
 of a fine shining light green ; in an early 
 or half-expanded state, they are of a deli- 
 cate yellowish green, and in autumn, before 
 they fall, become of a rich warm yellow. 
 {Paxlons Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 229. ; Phillips's Shrub, vol. ii. 
 p. 71. ; Selbys Brit. Forest Trees, vol. i. 
 p. 14—30.) 
 
 MAR. A provincial term signifying a 
 river or small lake. 
 
 MARC. The matter which remains after 
 the pressure of fruit ; or any substance 
 which yields oil ; or, in fact, any fluid mat- 
 ter for the separation of which the action of 
 the press is required. What remains in the 
 press is the marc. 
 
 MARCESCENT. In botany, a term ap- 
 plied to leaves, &c. which are permanent, 
 and when withered do not fall off. 
 
 MARCH. The third month of the year. 
 Farmer s Calendar. Spring is now break- 
 811 
 
 ing on the farmer. If any beans, peas, or 
 winter vetches remain unsown, this is the 
 latest period when the work can be suc- 
 cessfully accomplished. Now it is that, for 
 sowing spring corn, fine weather is so va- 
 luable to the cultivator : the value of March 
 dust is known to a proverb. Oats, barley, 
 flax, and hemp-seed should be sown this 
 month, and clover and other grass seeds 
 with the spring corn, or amongst wheat. In 
 all cases, we should advise the farmer to 
 use a steep of some kind for the seed, — 
 a weak solution of saltpetre (or nitrate of 
 soda for barley) or common salt ; and these 
 may be rolled in lime to dry them suffi- 
 ciently for the drill. For the smaller grass 
 seeds the solution should be weaker, and 
 be dried with gypsum powder. On all 
 those soils which are said to be tired of 
 clover, or clover sick, we would earnestly 
 recommend the application of gypsum, at 
 the rate of 1| to 2 cwt. per acre with the 
 seed ; it answers admirably on moist soils, 
 especially on those where the sulphate of 
 lime does not exist naturally, Many simple 
 observations will indicate to the farmer the 
 probable success of gypsum. If common 
 coal or peat ashes, when spread on his clover, 
 sainfoin, or lucern, promotes their growth, 0 
 then he may securely apply gypsum, for 
 the ashes owe all their enriching properties 
 to the presence of gypsum. Nitrate of soda 
 may also be applied either as a steep for 
 barley (for this grain usually contains a small 
 proportion of that salt), or it may be sown at 
 the rate of li cwt. per acre, as soon as the 
 spring corn makes its appearance above the 
 ground. If saltpetre is used, 1 cwt. per 
 acre is sufficient. Both these salts do best 
 on light dry soils, such as sands, gravels, 
 chalks, or light loams ; and upon such poor 
 grass lands, these are perhaps the only ma- 
 nures which can be profitably employed. 
 During this month carrots and parsnips are 
 generally sown on the light lands of Nor- 
 folk. These valuable crops would be much 
 more extensively cultivated if only some 
 labour were previously bestowed in deepen- 
 ing the soil, by either the spade or the sub- 
 soil plough. This is a good time to top- 
 dress wheat with either soot, ashes, lime, 
 or salt and lime. The farmer will find, in 
 using soot, that its powerful effect is ma- 
 terially increased by adding to it from 8 to 
 10 bushels of salt. The mixture of these 
 enrichers, at the rate of from 10 to 15 
 bushels of each per acre, trenched, or deeply 
 ploughed in, is one of the most powerful of 
 all manures for carrots. The nutritive 
 matters of the carrot are very considerable, 
 1 000 parts containing 98 of nutritive mat- 
 ter ; the same proportion of parsnips con- 
 tain 99 parts, the Swedish turnip 64, the 
 
MARCH. 
 
 common turnip only 42 parts. The Flemish 
 farmers sow carrots with their spring corn. 
 It is a good practice to facilitate the ve- 
 getation of the carrot-seed by steeping it 
 in water, and still better to add to the steep 
 1 lb. of saltpetre to every 6 quarts of water. 
 Sow lucern towards the end of the month. 
 
 Prepare your potato ground, and plant 
 towards the end of this month. This root 
 delights in fresh soils, such as old pastures 
 or stack-yards. If you need any manure, 
 use sea- weed, ploughed in. as green and 
 wet with the salt-water as possible. In 
 Cheshire they carry, in the autumn, for a 
 mile or two, and spread on their potato 
 fields, the salt mud of the shores of the 
 Mersey, at the rate of 20 or 30 cubic yards 
 per acre. If you cannot get these, use 
 ditch- scrapings, pond-mud, or weed-heaps, 
 with which, a month previous to using it, 
 mix a bushel of common salt (the refuse of 
 bacon is excellent) with each cubic yard. 
 I have found on the gravelly soils of Essex 
 no manure superior to this for potatoes. 
 Plant hops. Alders are now cut. Water 
 meadows may be fed for the first time. 
 This is a good period to destroy moles. 
 Top-dress young wheats. Soot, malt-combs, 
 , lime, and salt and lime, are all powerful 
 manures for this purpose. 
 
 Look steadily to your ewes ; provide 
 them warm, dry, sheltering places ; give 
 them your best turnips or carrots, mangel 
 wurzel, and hay ; regard also their cleanli- 
 ness. The same remarks apply to all breed- 
 ing animals ; to cows and to mares. 
 
 Attend to your poultry ; cleanse and 
 lime-wash their houses ; let their boxes be 
 often replenished with hay or straw. If 
 you would be successful with them, never 
 set them with their own eggs for stock 
 birds ; procure these from a distance. The 
 advantages of an incessant change of stock 
 is a secret little understood by housewives. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. Kitchen Gar- 
 den. — Alexanders, sow, earth up those 
 sown in autumn. Angelica, sow or plant. 
 Artichokes, spring, dress e., plant, force in 
 hot-bed, dress established beds. Balm, 
 plant. Basil, sow. Beans, plant, earth up 
 advancing. Beet (red, white, and green), 
 sow. Borage, sow. Borecole, sow e. Broc- 
 coli, sow e., of that now in production mark 
 some for seed. Burnet, plant and sow. 
 Cabbages, plant, earth up, &c. former plant- 
 ations, sow. Carraway, sow. Carrots, sow. 
 Cauliflowers, plant out from frames, attend 
 to those under glasses, prick out spring 
 raised, sow b. Capsicum, sow e. Celery, 
 sow, dress and earth up autumn planted. 
 ( 'hamomile, plant. Chives, plant. Celeriac, 
 BjDW. Chivy, sow. Cress, American, sow. 
 ( 'he mil, sow. Composts, prepare and turn 
 
 over. Coriander, sow e. Corn salad, sow. 
 Cucumbers, sow, prick out, ridge out, at- 
 tend to the impregnation, &c. of those in 
 forcing. Dill, sow. Dung, prepare for hot- 
 beds. Earthing up, attend to. Fennel, sow 
 or plant. Garlic, plant. Hot-beds, make, 
 attend to linings, &c. Hyssop, sow e. Horse 
 radish, plant. Hoeing, attend to in dry 
 weather. Herbray, clean and dress in dry 
 weather. Jerusalem artichokes, plant. Kid- 
 ney beans, sow e., attend to in hot-beds. 
 Kale (sea), plant or sow, force. Leeks, sow. 
 Lettuces, plant from frames e., sow, prick 
 out early sown. Lavender, plant. Liquorice, 
 plant, b. Marjorams, sow and plant. Melons, 
 sow, prick out, ridge out, attend to those in 
 forcing. Mint, plant, clean old beds. Mari- 
 golds, sow. Mushroom beds, make, attend 
 to those in production. Mustard and cress, 
 sow. Nasturtium, sow. Onions, sow main 
 crop, those raised in autumn transplant for 
 bulbing, plant for seed b. Onions (potato), 
 plant. Orach, sow. Parsnips, sow. Peas, 
 sow, earth up and stick, attend to those 
 in hot-beds. Pompions, sow e. Purslane, 
 sow e. Parsley, sow. Hamburgh ditto, 
 sow. Potatoes, plant, attend to those in 
 forcing and on borders. Pennyroyal, plant. 
 Radishes, sow thin, &c. those advancing. 
 Rochambole, plant. Rosemary, plant. Rue, 
 plant. Rampion, sow. Rape, for salads, 
 sow, edible rooted, sow e. Rhubarb, sow b. 
 Spinach, sow, attend advancing. Shalols, 
 plant. Small salading, sow. Sage, plant. 
 Savoys, lay in old stocks to produce sprouts, 
 Salsafy, sow. Scorzonera, sow. Skirrets, 
 sow. Sorrels, plant and sow. Savory, plant 
 and sow. Succory, sow. Tree-onion, plant. 
 Tetragonia, sow e. Tansey, plant. Tar- 
 ragon, plant. Thyme, sow. Tomatos, sow e. 
 Turnips, sow b., e. Vacant ground, dig, 
 manure. Weeding in general attend to. 
 Wormwoods, sow. 
 
 Feower Garden. — Now plant away. 
 Evergreens cannot be moved at a better 
 period. Deciduous flowering shrubs may 
 also be still planted, such as Althaea frutex, 
 Syringas, roses, honeysuckles, mezereons, 
 sumach, laburnums, lilacs, jasmines, candle- 
 berry myrtles, guelder-roses, &c. Where 
 the borders require filling up, the follow- 
 ing plants may still be moved, but do it 
 early in the month. Lychnis, campanulas, 
 Canterbury bells, tree-primroses, rockets, 
 sweet-williams, wallflowers, columbines, 
 monk's hood, rose campions, perennial 
 asters, sunflowers, foxgloves, &c. Sow 
 perennial and biennial flower-seeds about 
 the last week in this month. Stake your 
 hyacinths, when the flower-stems are tall. 
 Plant out layered carnations of last year, 
 into the places where they ought to remain. 
 Give fresh earth to any plants in pots, sue U 
 
MARCH. 
 
 MARIGOLD. 
 
 as carnations, pinks, auriculas, double sweet- 
 williams, double stock gillyflowers, rockets, 
 &c. Sow annuals of all hardy kinds ; 
 transplant any hardy roses which you may 
 wish should blow late in the year ; plant 
 box for edging still ; and roll the lawn and 
 grass walks. Transplant any tender kinds 
 of annuals, which you may have been at 
 the pains of raising in or procuring from a 
 hot-bed. Keep the garden quite free from 
 weeds and dead leaves. 
 
 General Monthey Notices. — March, 
 the first month of the Roman year only 
 during the reign of Rome's first monarch, 
 received its name in honour of Mars, the 
 tutelary deity of that city. In this they 
 departed from the custom of their credited 
 forefathers, the Greeks, who named it in 
 honour of Diana. Romulus assigned to it 
 thirty-one days, which it has ever since re- 
 tained. Our Saxon forefathers called it 
 Rhed-monath, because the rites of the god- 
 dess Rheda were celebrated in it, and Lent- 
 monath, which is literally the spring month. 
 Lent is synonymous with length in our lan- 
 guage, and was probably applied to the 
 Spring season, because in its days the hours 
 of light begin perceptibly to exceed those 
 of darkness. The later Israelites called this 
 month Nisan, most probably from the He- 
 brew word signifying to flee away at a given 
 signal, in commemoration of their escape 
 from Egypt. By their forefathers this month 
 was named Abib, or the month of green 
 corn, because, in the climate of Palestine 
 and Egypt, the corn, especially barley, had 
 completely developed its ears in their green 
 state. It is worthy of remark, that most 
 nations in their early stages of society de- 
 signate their months and seasons after some 
 natural phenomena usual to it in their cli- 
 mate. The Hurons and other tribes of 
 North America distinguish the year into 
 twelve lunar months. March is their Worm 
 Moon, because Avorms with them begin then 
 to appear on the earth's surface ; April is 
 their Moon of Plants ; May, their Moon of 
 Swallows. The Flemings call February 
 Snoeimaand, the pruning month ; April 
 they call Grasmaand, because in it they 
 mow their meadows. This, with justice, 
 may be called the Proteus of the months, 
 for not one of them exhibits such a variety 
 of aspects — such versations of clouds and 
 sunshine — of genial warmth and frosty 
 winds. 
 
 Our walks have now many temptations 
 to induce us to extend them. If, passing 
 from our garden-gate, we ramble into the 
 wood down upon which we are looking, we 
 find the leaves of the woodbine to be almost 
 of their full size ; the buds of the larch and 
 hawthorn nearly expanded : in the marshy 
 813 
 
 parts of their inclosures, the spurge-laurel, 
 the daffodil, and the rush are now in bloom. 
 If we wander rather in some of the warm 
 lanes which stretch to the south of our vil- 
 lage hill, the common whitlow grass on some 
 dry rubbishy banks, the primrose, and the 
 sweet violet, may already be met with. In 
 more completely animated nature, we are 
 amused with watching the habits of the 
 rooks, who now are detained by the process 
 of incubation ; to watch for the first ap- 
 pearance of the wheat-ear, the brimstone- 
 coloured butterfly, the black ant, and 1 lie 
 bat ; to listen for the first aspirations of the 
 skylark, the first notes of the thrush, the 
 woodlark, the linnet, the blackbird, and the 
 golden-crested wren; for these are much 
 surer indications of confirmed spring than 
 any dictum of the almanac. Whilst some 
 birds are thus as it were arriving to us, 
 many are actually leaving us, and following 
 the winterly temperature they delight in to 
 its more northern haunts. The fieldfare, 
 the redwing, the various palmipedes, the 
 woodcock, and others, are now steering their 
 aerial voyages to Siberia, Russia, Norway, 
 the shores of the Baltic, and even to the 
 Canadas. {Farmer's Almanac.} 
 
 MARCHES. The name given to the 
 borders or frontiers of any district, but 
 more especially applied to the boundaries 
 between England and Wales, and England 
 and Scotland. 
 
 MARE. The female of the horse. See 
 Horse. 
 
 MARE'S TAIL. (Hippuris vulgaris.) A 
 curious indigenous aquatic, growing in 
 marshy situations, and in ditches, pools, and 
 the borders of slow streams. The root is 
 creeping; stem a foot or more above the 
 water ; round, juicy, polished, reddish, with 
 many whorls of spreading, linear, entire, 
 smooth, single, spreading leaves ; the lower 
 ones, deep under water, are long, thick-set, 
 pellucid, and pale ; the herb in winter bear- 
 ing no other. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 4.) 
 
 MARIGOLD. (Calendula, named from 
 calendar, the first day of the month ; there 
 being flowers almost any month in the 
 year.) A genus of showy plants, among 
 which is the old and well-known common 
 marigold (C. officinalis.) This species was 
 formerly used in soups and broths, but is 
 now little regarded. The green-house spe- 
 cies thrive well in loam and peat mixed, and 
 cuttings root freely in sand under a glass. 
 The half-hardy annuals it is recommended 
 to sow in a gentle heating hot-bed, from 
 whence they must be transplanted into the 
 open ground ; the hardy kinds merely re- 
 quire to be soavii in the flower borders of 
 the garden. (Paxton's Bot. Diet.) 
 
- MARIGOLD, CORN. 
 
 MARJORAM. 
 
 There are several varieties of the com- 
 mon marigold, among which are — 
 
 1. Single. 2. Common double. 3. Largest 
 very double. 4. Double lemon-coloured. 
 5. Great Childing. 6. Small Childing. 
 
 The single-flowered, and those which 
 have the darkest orange colour, are most es- 
 teemed, as possessing the best flavour. The 
 soil best suited to them is one that is light, 
 dry, and poor. In rich ground they grow 
 larger and more luxuriant, but lose much of 
 their flavour and medicinal quality. The 
 situation cannot be too open and exposed. 
 The marigold is raised from seed, which may 
 be sown from the close of February until 
 June ; or it may be performed in autumn, 
 during September. If left to themselves, 
 they will never fail to multiply innume- 
 rously, from the self-sown seed. They are 
 usually sown broadcast, and raked in, or in 
 drills, ten inches apart ; the plants are best 
 left where raised, being thinned to ten or 
 twelve inches asunder ; but when the seed- 
 lings are two or three inches in height, they 
 may be removed into rows at similar dis- 
 tances as above. Water must be given mo- 
 derately every other day, until established. 
 The flowers, which the spring-raised plants 
 will produce in the June of the same year, 
 but those of autumn not until that of the 
 following one, will be fit to gather for keep- 
 ing in July, when they are fully expanded, 
 as well as for use when required. Before 
 storing, they must be dried perfectly, other- 
 wise they become mouldy and decay. For 
 the production of seed, plants of each variety 
 must be grown as far distant from each 
 other as may be. The two Childing, and 
 the largest double marigolds, are especially 
 liable to degenerate, if the seed is not care- 
 fully taken from the largest and most dou- 
 ble flowers. (G.W. Johnsorift Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 MARIGOLD, CORN. See Corn Ma- 
 rigold. 
 
 MARIGOLD, AFRICAN. See African 
 Marigold. 
 
 MARIGOLD, The MARSH. See Marsh 
 Marigold. 
 
 MARJORAM. (Origanum, from oros, 
 a mountain, and ganos, joy ; the delight of 
 the mountain, in allusion to the habitation 
 of the plants.) A genus of well-known 
 pungent and gratefully aromatic herbs. The 
 plants are all of easy cultivation; the 
 shrubby kinds are increased by cuttings or 
 slips ; the herbaceous species by dividing 
 at the roots. There are as many as eight 
 species, besides numerous varieties. 
 
 The only truly indigenous species is the 
 coin) non or pot marjoram (O. vulgare), 
 which grows wild in bushy places, on a 
 limestone or gravelly soil. The root is 
 creeping ; herb a loot high, with a warm aro- 
 814 
 
 matic flavour, somewhat like that of wild 
 thyme. The plant is too well known to 
 need description. The flowers are light 
 purple, in dense convex tufts, with in- 
 volucral leaves of a darker purple ; blowing 
 in July and August. The other generally 
 cultivated species are sweet or summer mar- 
 joram (O. majorana), and bastard or winter 
 marjoram (O. heracleoticum.) , 
 
 A light, dry, and moderately fertile soil 
 is required for their healthy growth ; and if 
 it is one that has not been cropped for a 
 considerable time, it is the more favourable 
 for them. If the soil is wet or rich, they 
 are deficient in their essential qualities, and 
 the perennials are unable to withstand se- 
 vere weather. The situation cannot be too 
 open. The sweet marjoram is propagated 
 solely by seeds ; the two perennials by seed, 
 as well as by parting their roots, offsets, and 
 slips of their branches. Sowing may be per- 
 formed of all the species, from the conclusion 
 of February, if open weather, to the com- 
 mencement of June ; but the early part of 
 April is the usual time for performing it. 
 Portions of the rooted plants, slips, &c. may 
 be planted from February until May, and 
 during September and October. 
 
 The sowing is performed either in drills, 
 six inches apart, or broadcast ; in either 
 case the seed being buried not more than 
 half an inch deep. When the seedlings have 
 attained a height of two or three inches, 
 they must be thinned to six inches, and 
 those removed may be pricked in rows at a 
 similar distance apart each way. Those of 
 the annual species are to remain ; but of 
 the perennials, to be finally removed during 
 September, at the distances directed below, 
 when raised from offsets, &c, water being 
 given at every removal, and until the plants 
 are established. The slips, offsets, and 
 partings of the root are inserted in rows 
 ten or twelve inches apart, where they are 
 to remain ; they must be watered mode- 
 rately every evening, and shaded during the 
 day, until they have taken root, which they 
 soon do, and acquire a stocky growth. 
 
 The only after cultivation that any of 
 the species require is "the frequent applica- 
 tion of the hoe. In October the decayed 
 parts of the perennials are cut away, and 
 some mould scattered over the bed about 
 half an inch in depth, the surface of the 
 earth between the stools being previously 
 stirred gently. 
 
 The tops and leaves of all the species arc 
 gathered when green, in summer and au- 
 tumn, for use, in soups, &c. ; and a store of 
 the branches are cut and dried in July or 
 August, just before the flowers open, for 
 winters supply. There is little difficulty 
 in obtaining the seed of the pot marjoram ; 
 
MARKHAM, GERVASE. 
 
 if a plant or two are left ungathered from, 
 it unfailingly ripens in the course of the 
 autumn. But the exotic species seldom 
 ripen the seed in this country; consequently 
 it is usually obtained from the south of 
 France or Italy. In favourable years, how- 
 ever, they sometimes perfect it late in 
 autumn. When the green tops are much 
 in request, a small quantity of seed of the 
 summer marjoram is sown in January or 
 February, in a moderate hot-bed. (G. W. 
 Johnsons Kitchen Garden ; PaxlorHs Bot. 
 Diet; Engl. Flor. vol. Hi. p. 106.) 
 
 MARKHAM, GERVASE (GERVAS 
 or JAR VISE), was born at Gotham in Not- 
 tinghamshire, the younger and portionless 
 son of Robert Markham, Esq., about the 
 middle of the sixteenth century, as we are 
 assured by the circumstance of his being, 
 when in the prime of life, champion and 
 gallant of the Countess of Shrewsbury in 
 1591, and in whose cause he was danger- 
 ously wounded in a duel by Sir John Holies. 
 {Collins Hist. Col. of the Fam. of Cavendish, 
 Holies, Sec.) He served as a captain in the 
 royal army during the civil wars, and, ac- 
 cording to Bromley, died in 1636. He was 
 a very voluminous writer, and appears to 
 have been the first Englishman who, de- 
 pending upon the produce of his pen for 
 subsistence, became a hackney author. 
 (Harte's Essays on Hush. vol. ii. p. 32.) I 
 shall not attempt to notice all his works, or 
 even to examine all in the following list, 
 for several are mere copies from each other. 
 Besides these, he wrote on horsemanship, 
 the diseases of cattle, vermin, &c. 
 
 1. The English Husbandman, in two parts. London. 
 1613. 4to., and again enlarged in 1635. 2. Maison Rus- 
 tique, or the Countrey Farmer, translated from the 
 French ; and the Husbandrie of France, Italie, and 
 Spaine, reconciled and made to agree with ours here in 
 England. London. 1616. folio. 3. Farewell to Hus- 
 bandry, or the Enrichment of all Sorts of Barren 
 Grounds. London. 1620, 1621, 1625, 1631, 1649; all in 
 quarto. 4. Enrichment of the Weald of Kent, or a Di- 
 rection to the Husbandman for the true Ordering, Ma- 
 nuring, and Enriching of all the Grounds within the 
 "Wealds of Kent and Sussex, and may generally serve for 
 all the Grounds in England of that Nature. London. 
 1631, 1649, 1675, 4to. 5. The Country Huswife's Garden. 
 1623, 1648. 4to. 6. The Way to get Wealth, in six parts. 
 1648. The editions of 1660 and 1664 are said in their 
 title-pages to be the tenth and eleventh. 
 
 His " Farewell to Husbandry, or the en- 
 riching of all sorts of barren and sterile 
 grounds in our kingdome, to be as fruitful 
 in all manner of graine, pulse, and grasse, 
 as the best grounds whatsoever, together 
 with the annoyances and preservation of all 
 graine and seede from one yeare to many 
 yeares," is Gervase Markham's best work, 
 and the-*one on which it is evident he had 
 bestowed the greatest pains. His direc- 
 tions, however, are generally rude, and 
 much too sweeping in their nature : thus 
 he directs all barren lands to be first hackt 
 or ploughed, and then dressed with sea- 
 815 
 
 sand ; then limed, and then manured with 
 farm-yard comfort " in very plentiful man- 
 ner, so farre forth as your provision will 
 extend, for it is to be understood that 
 barren and hard earths can never be over- 
 loded with good meanure or compasse, since 
 it is only the want of warmthe and fatnesse 
 which meanure breedeth that causeth all 
 manner of fruitfulnesse." The rotation of 
 crops in his day for such newly-enclosed 
 lands was very ill understood ; for he directs 
 the first two years wheat or rye, then fold- 
 ing with sheep, then barley ; " the next 
 three yeares you may sowe it withe oates ;" 
 the seventh year " pease or beanes, accord- 
 ing as you shall finde the strengthe and 
 goodnesse of the grounde;" then he adds, 
 " for three or four yeares following the 
 seven, you may let it lye at rest for grasse, 
 and doubtlesse it will yielde you either as 
 good pasture, or as good medow as you can 
 reasonably require," and he very sagely 
 predicts that by following these directions 
 " hee that is master of the most fruitfullest 
 and richest soyle shall not boast of any 
 greater increase than you shall." 
 
 Markham was aware of the fertilising 
 powers of salt, but then he mistook the 
 amount of the necessary quantity to be ap- 
 plied per " aker." He was more correct in 
 his directions for steeping the seed-wheat 
 in brine, made " so strong that it will beare 
 an egge," of which recipe he very reason- 
 ably predicts, " that the use therof will 
 never be layde downe in this kingdome." 
 His directions to use all kinds of manures 
 are frequent and fervent; he notices the 
 burning of earth and weedes, which he calls 
 " burning of baite," — the dung of live 
 stock, rotten straw, " mudde of ponds and 
 ditches," " the spyteling of house-floores," 
 street sweepings, sea weeds, pigeons' dung ; 
 he even had the wisdom, in that early day 
 for the progress of agricultural discoveries, 
 to plead earnestly for the use of manure 
 drilled with the seed. He says, " Take 
 pigeons' dung, or pullens' dung (that is, any 
 kind of lande fowle whatsoever, but by no 
 means any water fowl), or pigeons' dung 
 and pullens' dung mixt together, and allow- 
 ing to every acre two or three bushells 
 thereof, which is the true quantitie of seede 
 proportioned for the same, and this dung 
 being broken and masht into small pieces, 
 you shall put into your sydlop or hopper, 
 and in the same manner as you sowe your 
 corne, you shall sowe this clung upon the 
 ground, and then immediately after it you 
 shall sowe your wheate, either steept in 
 brine or salt sea water, or unsteeped, as you 
 shall think good ; but in case you can 
 neither get salt sand nor sea rocke weedes, 
 then you shall by no means omit the steepe- 
 
MARKHAM, 
 
 ; GERVASE. 
 
 ing of your seede, neither shall you faile 
 before you sow your seede to mixe withe 
 your pigeons' and pullens' dung a full equal 
 part of bay salt well dried and broken." 
 
 For the improvement of sandy lands he 
 directs the use of " marie" and " chalke." 
 He also has some advice to the farmer on 
 the formation of fish-ponds, and very rea- 
 sonably concludes that if these are stored 
 with " fish of best esteeme, as carpe, tench, 
 breame, pearch, and such like, and keeping 
 it from weeds, filth, and vermine, there is 
 no doubt of the daily profit." 
 
 The following directions addressed to 
 cottagers show the good feeling with which 
 he was actuated. " If the former direc- 
 tions and instructions which I have shewed 
 thee appear either too difficult or too costly 
 (for now I speake to the plaine, simple, 
 poore husbandman), and yet thou art mas- 
 ter of none but barren earth, then thou 
 shall by thyne own industry, or the indus- 
 trie of thy children, servants, and such like, 
 or by contracting with taylers, botchers, or 
 any poore people that will deserve a pennie, 
 gather up, get, or buy all the ragges, shreds, 
 and base peices of woollen cloth whatso- 
 ever that are cast out, and fit for nothing 
 but the dunghill, and of these if thou canst 
 composse but a sackefull, or a sackefull and 
 an halfe, it is sufficient for the dressing of 
 an aker of arable land (all Markham's pre- 
 scribed quantities of manure are too small 
 in amount ; it should be at least five times 
 this quantity). These ragges and shreds, 
 torn small, thou shalt thinly spread over the 
 land before fallowing time ; then coming to 
 fallow, plough them into the land." Then 
 he advises the poor cottager to steep his 
 seed in liquid manure made with cow-dung, 
 and advises him, " if he cannot get a suffi- 
 cient supply of ragges, to manure his barren 
 land with the horns and hoofes of cattle, 
 soap, ashes ; " he further recommends that 
 the sewerage of the house should be mixed 
 with the dunghill ; and urges the employment 
 of hair, fern, leaves, furze, malt-dust, pil- 
 chards, and garbage of fish; and lastly, "the 
 blood, entrals, and offal of any beast, espe- 
 cially for the vine," as fertilisers. At p. 67. he 
 has some excellent directions for the reco- 
 very of barren lands by the use of water ; 
 instructions which, in many places, modern 
 cultivators might adopt with equal advan- 
 tage to themselves and to their country. 
 Tliis he advises to be done by " channels, 
 ditches, furrows, sluices, and the like :" he 
 even has some observations on the mixture 
 of earths. 
 
 The most curious of all Markham's works 
 is, perhaps, " The Seconde Boole of the 
 "English Husbandman, contayning the or- 
 dering of the Kitchen Garden, and the 
 81G 
 
 Planting of Strange Flowers, &c, &c. : 
 whereunto is added, a treatise called Good 
 Men's Recreation, contayning a Discourse 
 of the general Art of Fishing, with the. 
 Angle and otherwise, and of all the hidden' 
 Secrets belonging thereunto, together with 
 the choyce, ordering, breeding, and dyeting 
 of the Fighting Cocke. A work never writ- 
 ten before by any Author." 
 
 This book commences with certain rules 
 whereby " the husbandman shall judge and 
 fore-know all kinde of weathers, and other 
 seasons of the yeere." In this he gives va- 
 rious " signes of rayne from the moone, 
 sunne, fowle, beasts." But in this there is 
 nothing very remarkable to a modern ob- 
 server, every one of whom knows that 
 " when flees and small gnats bite sharpe 
 and sore," or " the cat shall washe behinde 
 her eare," or " the tasel at any time close 
 up her pricks," " the popular opinion in- 
 clineth to believe in the approach of rain." 
 The following may not be uninteresting to 
 the corn-dealer and the farmer. It is the 
 way our author prescribes to ascertain 
 whether " corne shall be cheape or deare." 
 
 " Take twelve principali graynes of 
 wheate out of the strength of the eare, upon 
 the first day of January, and when the 
 harth of your chimney is most hot, sweepe 
 it cleane, then make a stranger lay one of 
 the graynes on the hot hearth, then marke 
 it well, and if it leape a little, corne shall 
 be reasonably cheape, but if it leape muche, 
 then corne shall be exceeding cheape, but 
 if it lye still and move not, then the price 
 of corne shall stand and continue still for 
 that moneth ; and thus you shall use your 
 twelve graines, the first day of every moneth 
 one after another, that is to say, every 
 moneth one graine, and you shall know the 
 rising and falling of corne in every moneth 
 all the yeare following." The second chap- 
 ter treats of " the choyce of ground for the 
 kitchen garden ; " the third chapter, of the 
 sowing and ordering of all manner of 
 "Pothearbs;" the fourth, of "Medicinal 
 Hearbs;" the fifth, of " Sallet Hearbes ;" 
 the sixth, " of Flowers, Forraignc and 
 Home-bred;" the seventh, of the preserva- 
 tion of " all manner of Seedes." 
 
 The second part into which this volume 
 is divided, treats — Chapter I. Of Woods ; 
 Chap. II. Of Underwoods ; Chap. III. Of 
 Timber Plantations; Chap. IV. Of their Pre- 
 servation and Sale ; Chap. V. Of Lowland 
 Woods : Chap. VI. Of Hedges and Lop- 
 pings ; Chap. VII. Of Pastures; Chap. VIII. 
 Of the Diseases of Cattle. In none of these 
 do I observe anything very remarkable; but 
 they abound with good plain sense, strangely 
 intermixed, however, with the credulities 
 and crude conclusions of the age. 
 
MARKHAM, 
 
 [, GERVASE. 
 
 Lastly, our author treats of the " fighting 
 cocke," and " of the choyce ordering, breed- 
 ing, and dyeting of him for battell." Of 
 this brutal, nearly exploded sport, Markham 
 was evidently an ardent admirer ; he eu- 
 logises it as " delightsome and voyde of 
 cozenage ;" and tells us that many of " the 
 best wisdomes of our nation have been 
 pleased to participate with the delights 
 therein ;" and that he is induced to publish 
 his book as " being worthy a general know- 
 ledge as any delight whatsoever." He 
 warms in his description of these noble 
 birds, with an eloquence which shows his 
 enthusiasm ; for, when describing the game 
 cock, he says, " For his courage you shall 
 observe it in his walke, by his treading, and 
 the pride of his going." " He should be of 
 a proud and upright shape, with a small 
 head, like unto a sparrow-hawke, a quicke 
 large eye, and a strong beak, crookt and 
 bigge at the setting on. For the sharpness 
 of his heele, that cocke is sayd to be sharp 
 heeld or narrow heeld which every time he 
 riseth hitteth and draweth blood of his ad- 
 versary, guilding (as they tearme it) his 
 spurres in blood, and threatening at every 
 blow an end of the battell." 
 
 The minute directions which he gives for 
 the trayning, " dyetting," and matching of 
 these poor animals, very clearly shows the 
 barbarities to which in all ages they have 
 been exposed, in what Markham is pleased 
 to call, in the concluding words of his book, 
 " his best use in the pleasure of princes." 
 
 Markham's " Cheape and good Husbandry 
 for the well ordering of all Beastes and 
 Fowles, and for the general Cure of their 
 Diseases," is merely the matter contained in 
 his other works, expressed in somewhat dif- 
 ferent language. This work is another in- 
 stance of the closely- crowded title-pages of 
 the books of the age of Gervase Markham ; 
 it is almost a complete table of contents — 
 is stated to treat of the breeding of live 
 stock (all set forth by name), of the art of 
 swimming, of poultry, the use of bees, and 
 seven lines, in conclusion of the title, laud- 
 atory of the author's abilities. The volume 
 contains a strange mixture of culinary re- 
 ceipts, agricultural directions, and remedies 
 for the cure of diseases, most of which are 
 contained in other portions of his pub- 
 lished works. 
 
 The love of Markham for horses is shown 
 in his book entitled " How to chuse, ride, 
 traine, and dyet both Hunting Horses and 
 Running Horses ; with all the secrets thereto 
 belonging discovered, an arte never heere- 
 to-fore written by any authour ; also a Dis- 
 course of Horsemanship, wherein the breed- 
 ing and ryding of horses for service, in a 
 briefe manner, is more methodically sette 
 817 
 
 downe then hathe beene heretofore, withe a 
 more easie and direct course for the igno- 
 rant to attaine to the sayd arte or know- 
 ledge, together with a new addition for the 
 cure of horses' diseases, of what kinde or 
 nature soever. At London, printed by 
 James Roberts, 1599." It is dedicated 
 " to the right worshippful, and his singular 
 good father, Mr. Robert Markham of Go- 
 tham, in the countie of Nottingham, Es- 
 quire," by his " obedient sonne Gervis 
 Markham." 
 
 In this work the directions of Markham 
 are plain and practical enough. In his first 
 chapter he gives the breeder advice as to 
 keeping good fences for his fields, and 
 avoiding low-lying grounds for his brood 
 mares, which he recommends " to be on 
 the knole or height of a hill," lying " open 
 on the east, that the morning sunne may 
 rise thereon;" and he adds, "colts bredde 
 in low grounds will alwaies be weake pas- 
 terned, and fat chauld, the one through his 
 wette treading and uncertain foot-hold, and 
 the other through his grosse foode in som- 
 mer, and the abundance of his sower fogge 
 in winter ; whereas the freshe ay re, which is 
 alwayes pure on the height of hills, will adde 
 much lyfe and spirit to your coltes," &c. He 
 then gives a variety of directions as to the 
 management of the stallions, mares, &c, 
 which are totally opposed to the practice of 
 modern breeders. Chap. II. is on the 
 " Arte of ryding." He wisely advises the 
 use of .the most gentle treatment for the 
 management of this noble v though too often 
 abused, animal ; he says, " lette all things be 
 done with lenitie and discretion, and yet not 
 so voyde of correction, but that if hee be a 
 stubborn jade, which through will and 
 churlishness will withstande hys ryder, you 
 may with a sharpe rodde correct hym, 
 making him as well understande when hee 
 offendeth as when hee pleaseth." Chap. HI. 
 is entitled " How to choose a Horse for 
 Hunting; how to traine him thereunto, 
 and also how to dyet him, having made 
 some great Match or Wager." Chap. IV. 
 is on " The Secrets and Art of Trayning 
 the Race-horse," of which the following 
 paragraph is the odd conclusion of some 
 rather lengthy and long since chiefly ex- 
 ploded directions. " When the howr is 
 come in which you must leade him out, 
 gyrd on his cloathes handsomely, bridle 
 him up, and then take your mouth full of 
 strong vinegar and spirt it into your horse's 
 nosethrills, the strength whereof will search 
 and open his pypes, making them apt for 
 the receite of wind. This done, lead him 
 to the race, and when you come to the 
 ende therefore, where you must uncloathe 
 him, having the vinegar carried after you 
 
MARKHAM, GERVASE. 
 
 MARL. 
 
 doo the like, and so bequeathe him and 
 yourselfe to God and good fortune." Chap. 
 V. is on " The approved Cure of Horses' 
 Diseases," in which, like that of Mascal's, 
 there is nothing that is remarkable for either 
 knowledge or elegance of treatment. 
 
 Markham was evidently a gallant cour- 
 tier, and a lover of all kinds of rural 
 masculine sports. This he evinces very 
 clearly in his " Countrey Contentments, in 
 two books," the first containing the " whole 
 art of riding great horses in very short 
 time, with the breeding, dyeting, and order- 
 ing of them, and of running, hunting, and 
 ambling horses, with the manner how to 
 use them in their travel. Likewise, in two 
 newe treatises, the artes of hunting, hawk- 
 ing, courseing of greyhounds ; with the lawes 
 of the heath-shooting, bowling, tennis, ba- 
 loone," &c. The second, entitled "The Eng- 
 lish Huswife, containing the inword and out- 
 word virtues which ought to be in a coni- 
 pleate woman, as her phisicke, cookery, 
 banquetting stuffe, distillation, perfumes, 
 wool, hemp, flaxe, dairies, breweing, bake- 
 ing, and all other things belonging to an 
 householde ; a work very profitable, and 
 necessary for the general good of this king- 
 dome. Printed at London for R. Jackson, 
 at his shop, neere Fleet Street Conduit, 
 1615." Having defined what "hunting is, 
 the colour, shape, diversity, and proportion 
 of houndes, and composition of kennels," he 
 next touches upon their " sweetnesse of 
 cry ; " and, to this end, he tell us, that " if 
 you would have your kennel for sweetnesse 
 of cry, then you must compound it of some 
 large dogges that have deep solemne mouthes, 
 and are swift in spending, which must, as it 
 were, beare the base in the consort ; then a 
 double number of roaring and loud ringing 
 mouthes, which must beare the meane or 
 middle part ; and so with these three parts 
 of musique, you shall make your cry per- 
 fect : and heerin you shall observe, that 
 these hounds, thus mixt, doe runne just and 
 even together, and not hang off loose one 
 from another, which is the vilest sight that 
 may bee ; and you shall understand that this 
 composition is best to be made of the swiftest 
 and largest deep-mouthed dog, the slowest 
 middle-sized dog, and the shortest legged 
 slender dog ; and if amongst these you cast 
 in a couple or two of small slinging beagles, 
 which, as small trebles, may warble amongst 
 them, the cry will be a greate deal the 
 sweeter." 
 
 Markham was a warm advocate for hav- 
 ing larger and faster hounds than those 
 which composed the slow-moving packs of 
 In- day ; an opinion whose correctness mo- 
 dern practice seems to confirm. 
 
 The chapters which include the " English 
 818 
 
 Housewife " are long and dull narratives of 
 medical and culinary receipts, which last 
 our author, however, held to be " the first 
 and most principal knowledge," — in fact, 
 he thought an ignorance in this respect 
 should operate as a bar to marriage, " be- 
 cause, indeed, she can then but perform 
 half her vow, for she may love and obey, but 
 she cannot cherish, serve, and keep him with 
 that true duty which is ever expected." 
 
 The " Inrichment of the Weald of Kent, 
 or a Direction to the Husbandman, for the 
 true ordering, manureing, and enriching 
 of all the Groundes within the Wealdes of 
 Kent and Sussex," by Markham, contains 
 nothing except what he hath already more 
 at length stated in his " Farewell to Hus- 
 bandry," when speaking of applying earth 
 and other manures to barren lands. (Quar. 
 Jour. Ag. vol. xii. p. 209.) 
 
 MARK. A term applied to a horse, 
 which is said to mark when he shows his 
 age by a black spot, like the eye of a com- 
 mon bean, which appears at about five and 
 a half years old, in the cavities of the corner- 
 teeth, and is gone when he is eight years 
 old. When he ceases to mark it is said he 
 has rased. See Age of Animaxs. 
 
 MARK OF LAND. See Landmark. 
 
 MARKET. In law, the liberty or fran- 
 chise, whereby a town is enabled to set up 
 and open shops, &c. at a certain place within 
 its limits for buying and selling, and better 
 provision of such victuals as the subject 
 wanteth. The establishment of a market, 
 with the grant of the tolls thereunto belong- 
 ing, is one of the king's prerogatives ; and 
 can only be effected by virtue of the king's 
 grant, or supported on long and immemorial 
 usage and prescription, which presuppose 
 such grant. The general rule of law is, that 
 all sales and contracts of any thing vendible 
 in fairs or markets, overt (i. e. open), shall 
 not only be good between the parties, but 
 valid against all claim by others having any 
 right or property in the subject. See Fairs. 
 
 MARL, as a manure. Marl, which is 
 a mixture of chalk, clay, and sand, was 
 much used by our forefathers as a ma- 
 nure ; and no one can read the account 
 given by Pliny of the agricultural opera- 
 tions of the early Britons, without being 
 struck with the minute discrimination, the 
 evident result of long attentive practice, 
 which was displayed by them in the appli- 
 cation of marl to particular soils ; and from 
 a very early period, the Cornish farmers 
 have been used to employ, extensively, the 
 sea sand of Padstow Harbour (which con- 
 tains 64 per cent, of carbonate of lime), for 
 the same purpose, carrying it from the sea 
 shore, either in carts, or even on horses' 
 backs, some miles up the country. 
 
MARL. 
 
 Marl was certainly used by the early Ita- 
 lian cultivators, as a valuable addition to 
 the soil of their fields. It is thus spoken of 
 by Columella : — " If, nevertheless, you are 
 provided with no kind of dung, it will be 
 of great advantage to it to do, what I re- 
 member Marcus Columella, my uncle, a 
 most learned and diligent husbandman, was 
 frequently wont to do ; viz. to throw chalk 
 or marl upon such places as abound in 
 gravel, and to lay gravel upon such as are 
 chalky, and too dense and stiff"; and thus 
 he not only raised great plenty of excellent 
 corn, but made most beautiful vineyards ; 
 for this most skilful husbandman denied that 
 dung ought to be applied to vines, because 
 it would spoil the taste of the wine ; and 
 thought that stuff gathered together out of 
 thickets, and from among briars and thorns, 
 or, in a word, any other sort of earth 
 fetched from any other place, and carried 
 to them, was much better for making a 
 plentiful vintage." 
 
 The mixture of soils, we find from Theo- 
 phrastus, was a practice common in his 
 days : they found, it seems, the advantage 
 of uniting the light with the heavy, the fat 
 with the lean, and, in fact, any that were of 
 a contrary nature. This mixture, he tells 
 us, not only supplies what shallow soils 
 need in depth, but adds to the power of 
 both ; so that a worn-out soil, thus treated, 
 begins again to bear crops with renewed 
 energy : thus barren clays, when thus fer- 
 tilised, again become fruitful ; in truth, this 
 mode of cultivation he deemed a complete 
 substitute for manure. The inhabitants of 
 Megara, besides practising this system, were 
 used every fifth or sixth year to trench 
 their land, digging as deep as they imagined 
 the rain to penetrate, and bringing the 
 under soil to the top ; for it was an axiom 
 with the Megarean cultivators, that the 
 lighter portions of earth proper for the 
 nourishment of plants are always washed 
 downwards as far as the influence of the 
 surface water extends ; so that we see from 
 this that the advantages of deep ploughing, 
 or subsoiling, is not a very modern dis- 
 covery. {Col. lib. xi. c. 16. ; Theop. 1. iii. 
 c.25.) 
 
 The right of sinking marl pits is men- 
 tioned in the Chartce Forests, a.d. 1285; 
 and in the Statum Wallice, 12 Edward I., 
 marl pits are mentioned as being dug close 
 to common roads. " It is one of the duties 
 of the sheriff and coroner," says Daines Bar- 
 rington, " to inquire de fossatis et marleris 
 levatis juxta iter publicum" which shows that 
 this kind of manure was very commonly used. 
 When a marl pit was sunk in ground that did 
 not belong to the king, but which happened 
 to be in the purlieus or neighbourhood of a 
 819 
 
 forest, prosecutions were instituted in the 
 forest, which imposed heavy fines for the 
 offence, as the pit occasioned both inconve- 
 nience and danger to the hunter. {Observ- 
 ations on Statutes, p. 36.) 
 
 Marl is found in many parts of England ; 
 and any earthy substance in which the pro- 
 portion of calcareous matter is apparent, 
 mixed with sand or clay, is styled, in popular 
 language, a marl. Of this there are three 
 principal varieties : 1. Clay marl; 2. Sand 
 marl ; 3. Slate or stony marl ; 4. Shell 
 marl. Of these the last is commonly the 
 richest in calcareous matter. In some shell 
 marl examined by Sir George Mackenzie, 
 he found {Farmer's Mag. vol. v. p. 271.) — 
 
 Lime - 41-45 
 
 Carbonic acid - - 32 
 
 Silex _ - - 14 
 
 Argil - - - 14 
 
 Oxide of iron - - 2 '5 
 
 Inflammable matter - 2 
 
 Loss - 4-70 
 
 100 
 
 Clay marl usually contains from 68 to 
 80 per cent, of clay, and from 32 to 20 per 
 cent, of calcareous matter. Silicious sand 
 often contains 75 per cent, of sand {Kirwin 
 on Manures, p. 13.). But there are endless 
 varieties of marl. Thus, M. Thaer found in 
 that of Oldenburgh {Prin. d'Agri. vii. 
 p. 423.) — 
 
 Fine sand - - 36 
 
 Clay - - - 44 
 
 Mould - - - 5 
 
 Carbonate of lime' - 14 
 
 Gypsum - - 1 
 
 100 
 
 The quantity of marl applied per acre 
 necessarily varies with the kind of soil and 
 the quality of the marl ; it is usual to em- 
 ploy it in very considerable quantities, and 
 it is often some years before it is sufficiently 
 incorporated with the soil to produce an 
 evident improvement; but then that ad- 
 vantage is almost always, sooner or later, 
 not only decided, but permanent. 
 
 The clay marls render light sandy soils 
 more tenacious ; the sandy marls materially 
 improve the friability of the heavy clays. 
 In Cheshire, they often apply 128 cubic 
 yards of clay marl per acre to light sandy 
 soils, and about half that quantity to their 
 heavy lands. {Agr. Rep. of Cheshire, p. 222.) 
 In many parts of Scotland, it is spread on 
 grass lands, and suffered to remain for two 
 or three winters exposed to the frost, before 
 it is ploughed in, in about the same propor- 
 tions per acre. {Survey of Morayshire, 
 p. 320. ; Ibid. Forfarshire, p. 407.) 
 
 3 g 2 
 
MARRAM. 
 
 MARSH-CINQUEFOIL. 
 
 " The beginning of all improvements in 
 Germany," says Mr. S. S. Carr, in his Prize 
 Essay, " is, to give a dressing of marl (con- 
 taining on an average 60 per cent, of car- 
 bonate of lime), at the rate of 164 cubic 
 feet per acre : by this means, land, not 
 worth cultivation previously, yields excel- 
 lent crops for eight or ten years ; and if the 
 straw produced during that time is care- 
 fully converted into manure, the productive- 
 ness does not materially decrease. Should 
 that, however, be the case, the deposits of 
 ponds, and even plots of peat moss, which 
 not unfrequently occur, are carried upon 
 the fallows in winter, where these sub- 
 stances, when broken down by the frost, 
 prove a valuable alterative to the texture 
 of the soil, especially where the pulse, rape, 
 and clover crops are gypsumed." 
 
 On the heathy sands of Norfolk, much 
 improvement might be effected by the ap- 
 plication of marl. Mr. Kiddle, of Mars- 
 ham, in that county, made many experi- 
 ments with marl ; he preferred from long 
 experience the variety denominated "clayey 
 marl," which he thought the best for sandy 
 lands, even if brought from a considerable 
 distance. {Com. Board of Agr., vol. iv. 
 p. 124.) " A few years since," said General 
 Vavasour, " I purchased, with other lands, 
 a field of ten acres ; it had been part of a 
 common inclosed about fifteen years before, 
 and was tithe free, the soil sandy, mixed 
 with moory earth. I ploughed and sowed 
 it in divisions with various crops, most of 
 which failed. Having discovered a stratum 
 of rich clay marl, within 400 yards of the 
 field, I carted on 75 cubic yards per acre, 
 at \0d. per yard, or SI. per acre." The re- 
 sult was, that the value of the land increased 
 from 6s. to 11. Is. per acre. (Com. to Board 
 of Agr., vol. iii. p. 520. ; Johnson on Ferti- 
 lisers, p. 268.) See Mixture or Soils, 
 Lime, Chalk, Earths, &c. 
 
 MARRAM. One of the common names 
 of the sea matweed or sea reed (Arundo 
 arenaria.) See Reed. 
 
 MARROWS. A provincial word used 
 to signify fellows or equal pairs in speaking 
 of cattle, as oxen, &c. 
 
 MARSH (Sax. meppc, a fen.) A flat sur- 
 face, the soil of which is so far saturated 
 with water throughout the year as to be 
 unfit for culture by the spade or plough ; 
 but not so much as to prevent it from pro- 
 ducing coarse grasses, and other kinds of 
 herbage. Marshes are generally situated 
 in bottoms, where they are kept moist by 
 the water which descends from the sur- 
 rounding lands; or along the banks of 
 rivers or lakes, where their humidity arises 
 f rom their being nearly on the same level 
 with the adjoining water. Where a marsh 
 
 is situated so as to be occasionally over- 
 flowed by the sea, or by a river up which 
 the tide flows, it is called a salt marsh ; and 
 the herbage produced by such lands is 
 found highly conducive to the health of ani- 
 mals which pasture on them for a certain 
 portion of the year, from the alterative effect 
 of its saline properties. In other seasons, 
 especially during the heat of summer, salt 
 marshes are productive of intermittent fe- 
 vers ; and this is not confined to one country 
 or climate, but extends over most of the 
 countries^ of Europe. This arises from the 
 putrefactive process being favoured by sa- 
 line matter. The fact here alluded to is 
 demonstrated by the fevers, which are so 
 prevalent on the banks of the Thames, near 
 the Reculvers, although they are covered 
 twice every day by the tide. Hence the 
 advantages in one point, as in all sublunary 
 things, are balanced by opposing evils. See 
 Bog ; Waste Land ; Peat Soils ; Grass 
 Lands ; and Irrigation. 
 
 MARSHALL, WILLIAM, was a na- 
 tive of Yorkshire. He began life as a 
 merchant, and was a planter for some years 
 in the West Indies, but returned to Eng- 
 land about 1775, and took a farm in Sur- 
 rey. In 1780 he resided at Gunton, in 
 Norfolk as agent of the estates of Sir Har- 
 bord Harbord, which situation he resigned 
 in 1784, and settled at Stratfold, where he 
 remained two years, occupied in printing 
 some of his writings, and in collecting ma- 
 terials for his " (Economical Surveys," which 
 he pursued without deviation until his death, 
 having formed a plan to collect the agricul- 
 tural practices of each English county, for the 
 composition of two great works — " On Land- 
 ed Property," and " A System of Agricul- 
 ture ;" the first of which he published, but the 
 latter he did not live to complete. From 
 1786 to about 1808, he resided at Clement's 
 Inn, London, during the winters, but was 
 travelling in various parts of the country 
 during the summers. He finally purchased 
 a large estate in the Vale of Cleveland of 
 his native county, in 1808, in which retire- 
 ment he lived eleven years, dying at a very 
 advanced age in 1819. He was author, in 
 addition to the works I have mentioned, 
 and many county surveys, of the following: — 
 
 1. On Planting and Rural Ornament. London. 1785. 
 8vo. A second edition in 2 vols., in 1796, without his 
 name. 2, A Review of " The Landscape," a Didactic 
 Poem ; also an Essay on the Picturesque; together with 
 Practical Remarks on Rural Ornament. London. 1796. 
 8vo. 
 
 MARSH-CINQUEFOIL (Comarum 
 palustre.) This is an interesting little plant, 
 growing in any moist soil, and increased by 
 divisions. The fruit resembles that of the 
 arbutus. In its wild state it is found in 
 spongy muddy bogs. See Cinque foil. 
 
MARSH-CLEAVER. 
 
 MARTINS. 
 
 MARSH-CLEAVER. See Trefoie- 
 
 BlJCKBEAN. 
 
 MARSH LANDERS. A term provin- 
 cially applied to neat cattle of the short- 
 horned breed, or such as are bred on lands 
 of the marsh kind. 
 
 MARSH-LOCKS, THE PURPLE. See 
 
 ClNQUEFOIL. 
 
 MARSH-MALLOW. (Althaa, derived 
 from altheo, to cure ; from the medicinal 
 qualities of some of the species.) This is a 
 genus of tall free-flowering plants : the bien- 
 nial and annual kinds should be sown in the 
 open border in spring, and transplanted when 
 sufficiently strong, The herbaceous kinds 
 may be increased by dividing the roots or 
 by seeds. A. rosea, the parent of the many 
 beautiful varieties of holly-hock, yields a 
 blue colouring matter equal to indigo. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 The common marsh-mallow (A. offici- 
 nalis) is an indigenous perennial, growing 
 abundantly in marshes, especially towards 
 the sea. The root is perennial, tap- shaped, 
 rather woody. The herbage of a hoary 
 green, peculiarly soft and downy, with a 
 fine starry pubescence. Stems several, about 
 a yard high, simple, round, leafy, tough, 
 and pliant. Leaves ovate or heart-shaped 
 at the base, various in breadth, soft and 
 pliable, slightly five-lobed. Flowers (which 
 blow from July to September) in very short, 
 dense, axillary panicles, rarely solitary, of 
 a delicate uniform blush-colour, not in- 
 elegant. Bees are very fond of its melli- 
 ferous flowers. The whole plant, especially 
 the root, yields in decoction a plentiful, 
 tasteless, colourless mucilage, besides a fatty 
 oil, uncrystallizable sugar, starch, and phos- 
 phate of lime. It is emollient, and salutary 
 in cases of internal irritation. A syrup made 
 with the root, as well as the decoction, is 
 an officinal preparation of the Pharmaco- 
 poeias. It is used in the coughs of children. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol.iii. p. 224.) See 
 Maleow and Hoely-hock. 
 
 MARSH-MARIGOLD. (Caltha,a sy- 
 nonyme of kalathos, a goblet ; in allusion to 
 the likeness of the form of the corolla to a 
 golden cup.) The species of this genus are 
 showy, and do best in a moist situation, but 
 will grow and flower in a common border. 
 They may be increased by seeds or divi- 
 sions. The indigenous species are two in 
 number, viz. : — 
 
 1. The common marsh-marigold (C. 
 palustris), which grows in marshy mea- 
 dows, and about the margins of ponds, 
 rivers, and brooks, almost every where. It 
 is perennial in habit, blowing in March and 
 April. The root is thick and somewhat 
 tuberous, with many simple fibres. Stem 
 twelve or eighteen inches high, round, hol- 
 821 
 
 low, leafy, branched, furrowed. Leaves 
 variously heart-shaped, rounded. Flowers 
 from three to five, large, bright yellow, 
 on alternate solitary stalks. The flower- 
 buds pickled serve for capers, which they 
 resemble, except in having numerous ger- 
 mens. A double variety is frequent in gar- 
 dens. 
 
 2. Creeping marsh-marigold (C. radi- 
 cans). This species is found by the sides 
 of lakes and rivulets in Scotland, and is 
 scarcely half the size of our common C 
 palustris. The recumbent stems send forth 
 roots from several of the lower joints creep- 
 ing to a considerable extent. Leaves from 
 one to two inches broad, more triangular 
 than heart-shaped, sharply crenate ; the 
 radical ones on very long slender footstalks. 
 Petals the colour of the last-noticed species, 
 about half as large, more obovate, or some- 
 times obliquely wedge-shaped. A double 
 variety of this is cultivated near London. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 59.) 
 
 MARSH THISTLE, or RED THISTLE . 
 (Carduus palustris.) See Trustee. 
 
 MARSH-TREFOIL. See Buck-bean. 
 
 MARTYN, THOMAS, F.R.S., &c, was 
 elected Professor of Botany at Cambridge, 
 as his father's successor, in 1761. He took 
 his degree of Bachelor of Arts, while of 
 Emanuel College, in 1756. He was after- 
 wards elected a Fellow of Sidney Sussex 
 College, subsequent to which he took his 
 degree of Master of Arts in 1759 ; and that 
 of Bachelor of Divinity in 1766. He died 
 the 3d of June, 1825, in the ninetieth year 
 of his age. The following are a portion of 
 his literary works : — 
 
 1. An edition of Philip Miller's " Gardener's Dic- 
 tionary," corrected and newly arranged. This appeared 
 between the years 1803 — 1807, in four volumes folio. 
 2. Flora Rustica ; a Description of Plants in common 
 cultivation, pointing out such as are useful or injurious 
 in Husbandry, &c. With coloured plates, from drawings 
 by Nodder. London. 8vo. In 4 vols. ; commenced pub- 
 lishing in 1792, completed in 1794. 
 
 MARTINS. (Hirundo.) Well-known 
 birds of passage, which make their annual 
 appearance in Britain from the beginning 
 of April to the middle of May, according 
 to the state of the weather. They leave 
 this country in large flocks about the middle 
 of October. The common house martin 
 (H. urbica) is well known ; it fixes its mud 
 nest under the eaves of houses, or in the 
 upper angle of windows. The eggs are 
 four or five in number, smooth and white, 
 measuring nine lines and a half in length, 
 and six lines in breadth. Incubation lasts 
 thirteen days. These birds frequently de- 
 sert their young. The plumage of the 
 upper surface of the body and tail is black, 
 shaded with a rich glossy blue ; the chin 
 and under surface of the body are white. 
 3 g 3 
 
MARUM. 
 
 MASCAL, LEONARD. 
 
 The whole length of the martin rather ex- 
 ceeds five inches and a quarter. * 
 
 The sand or bank martin (H. riparid) is 
 the smallest in size, and probably the least 
 numerous, of the three species of Hirundo 
 visiting this country. It makes its appear- 
 ance here a little earlier than the swallow 
 or house-martin ; but, not frequenting the 
 habitations of man, its annual return is not so 
 regularly or so generally noticed. It scoops 
 out a nest in high banks of rivers, sand- 
 pits, and other vertical surfaces of earth 
 that are sufficiently soft in substance to 
 enable the bird to perforate it to the depth 
 necessary for its purpose. The eggs are 
 four to six in number ; white like those of 
 the house martin, but smaller. They feed 
 on gnats, dragon-flies, and other small in- 
 sects. The plumage of the head, back, 
 wings, &c. is uniform hair-brown or mouse- 
 brown ; the throat, breast, belly, &c. are 
 pure white ; legs, toes, &c. dark brown. 
 The whole length of the bird is four inches 
 and three quarters. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. pp. 222 — 232.) See Swallow and 
 Swift. 
 
 MARUM. Bitter. In botany, the term 
 is used to signify a herb with a strong 
 smell. 
 
 MARVEL -OF-PERU. (Mirabilis, won- 
 derful ; alluding to the flowers.) Few 
 plants make a more handsome appearance 
 when in flower, either in the green-house 
 or open border, than -those of this genus. 
 They grow well in any light rich soil, and 
 are increased by seeds. They may be 
 planted out in the open border in spring, 
 where they will do as well as in the green- 
 house. At the approach of winter the roots 
 must be taken up, and kept dry and free 
 from frost. (Paxtorfs Bot. Diet.) 
 
 MASCAL, or MASCHAL, LEONARD, 
 an agricultural writer. His works are — 
 
 1. On the Government of Cattle, 4to., with his portrait, 
 1596, 1662. 2. (and this appears to have been a trans- 
 lation from the French) " A Booke of the Art and 
 Manner how to graff and plant all sortes of Trees, how 
 to set Stones and sow Pepins, to make wilde Trees to 
 graffe on, as also Remedies and Medicines, with other 
 new Practices, by one of the Abbey of St. Vincent, in 
 France, with the addition of certain Dutch Practices, set 
 forth and englished, by L. M. London. 1572, 4to. and 
 12mo; 1578, 4to ; 1580, Black Letter; 1580, 1582, 1590, 
 1592, 1652, 1656, all in 4to. 3 The Countryman's Jewel, 
 in three books. 1680. 8vo. (Johnson's Hist. Gard. p. 69.) 
 
 It is impossible, in reading the work of 
 Leonard Mascal, to avoid being impressed 
 with the ignorance, the superstitions, and 
 the barbarities practised in those days, in 
 the management of domestic animals ; and 
 no one can meet with his work without 
 feeling strongly that the present improved 
 and increasing veterinary knowledge of our 
 country is a subject for great congratula- 
 tion. And, moreover, no reader can rise 
 from the perusal of some of the direc- 
 822 
 
 tions of Mascal (who was, by the by, the 
 royal farrier to James I., and resided at 
 Plumstead, in Sussex), without pitying the 
 wretched animals which were treated, when 
 diseased, in the way that our author so 
 gravely recommends. As James L had a 
 very sincere and fervent belief in witch- 
 craft, so his farrier (p. 120.) has a section, 
 " to know the difference between a horse 
 bewitched, and other soreness." In which, 
 as might be reasonably anticipated, he by 
 no means makes any very important dis- 
 closures with regard to these dreaded en- 
 chantments. The remedies, too, which he 
 prescribes, even for real disorders, are com- 
 monly either very harmless or very absurd. 
 Thus, one could hardly anticipate that any 
 man could have been found, after the age 
 of Elizabeth, pretending to a knowledge of 
 medicine, who would direct, as a cure for 
 " the bloody flux " in cattle, such a mode 
 of treatment as this : " Ye shall take but 
 a frog, and cut off his left leg, and so put 
 him alive in the beast's mouth ; but then 
 you must have ready a handful of salt 
 mixed with a pint of good strong ale, and 
 so soon as you can after the frog, give the 
 beast to drink, and make him swallow all 
 down together !" And again he says, 
 page 188., when speaking of the same dis- 
 ease in other cattle, " Some do take a loch 
 fish quick, and put it down the beast's 
 throat," or certain herbs, with " a quart of 
 milk of a one-coloured cow." 
 
 The other more plain and practical di- 
 rections, however, of Mascal were of a far 
 superior description to his medicinal ; and 
 he on all occasions seems to have been, 
 wisely, an advocate for cleanliness and gen- 
 tleness in the management of live stock ; 
 and, in the three books into which his work 
 is divided, omits no occasion to urge these 
 careful observances on the attention of the 
 farmers of those days. The title of the 
 work explains pretty clearly its objects ; 
 for in those primitive days of book-making, 
 they had little idea of the elegant brevity 
 of modern title pages : that in my posses- 
 sion is of the date of 1680, being a reprint, 
 and much enlarged by Richard Ruscam. 
 It is entitled " The Countryman's Jewel, or 
 the Government of Cattel, divided into three 
 books : the first discoursing of the Govern- 
 ment of Horses, with approved Medecines 
 against most Diseases. The second treating 
 of Oxen, Kine, and Calves, how to use Bulls 
 and other Cattel to the yoke or fell. The 
 third discoursing the ordering of Sheep, 
 Goats, Hogs, and Dogs, with true Remedies 
 to help the Infirmities that befall any of 
 them." 
 
 In this work Mascal sets out with certain 
 directions to the farrier or " farrier and 
 
MASCAL, LEONARD. 
 
 horse leach," which he gives, both in prose 
 and in verse, with great zeal. Even Mascal, 
 who never seems to prefer the dark side of 
 a question, had a suspicion that horse- 
 dealers were in his time rather roguishly 
 inclined ; for he tells us, by way of a pro- 
 verb, 
 
 To trust all current horse-coursers, 
 
 I 'vise thee to beware, 
 For truth amongst the most of them 
 
 Is found to be full rare. 
 
 Yet he had faith in stranger things than 
 the honesty of horse-dealers ; for he tells 
 us, " It is most true, in the high mountains 
 of Spain, which lie towards the Occident 
 seas, many jennets and young mares have 
 colts without the covering of the horse." 
 
 Mascal's directions for the management 
 of cattle, swine, and sheep, and the remedies 
 he proposed for their care, are of the most 
 hoinely and often useless description; he 
 almost paraphrases Fitzherbert in the fol- 
 lowing account of the origin of the rot in 
 sheep : — " It is very good for all men to 
 understand, but especially shephards, what 
 things do hurt or rot sheep. Whereby 
 they may avoid the danger the better, ye 
 shall understand there is a grass or weed 
 called spearwort, the leaves are long and 
 narrow like the point of a spear, hard and 
 thick, the stalk hollow, growing a foot and 
 more high, with a yellow flower, which is 
 commonly in wet places, and there will it 
 grow most, or where water hath stood in 
 the winter. There is also another weed 
 called penniwort or pennigrass, and it will 
 commonly grow in moist and marsh grounds, 
 and it groweth low by the ground, and half 
 a leaf on both sides of the stalk, like unto 
 a penney thick, and round and without 
 flower ; yet some do say it beareth a yel- 
 low flower, which will (as they say) kill 
 sheep if they do eat it ; also all manner of 
 grass that land flouds do overrun before a 
 rain, it is not good for sheep, because of 
 sand and stinking filth lying thereon ; and 
 all manner of marish grounds is evil for 
 sheep ; and the grass that groweth amongst 
 fallows is not very good for sheep, for 
 amongst it is much earth and the other ill 
 weeds ; also knot grass is not good for 
 sheep, for (as some do say) it will cause 
 them to foam at the mouth, and so will be a 
 scab ; likewise all mildew grass is not good, 
 which ye shall know two manner of waies, 
 — the one is, by leaves upon trees in a 
 morning, and chiefly on the oak tree ; if ye 
 lick the leaves, ye shall find a taste thereon 
 like honey. And whereby the mildewes and 
 rimes on the ground kill many sheep ; then, 
 if the shepherd do well, he should not let 
 them go abroad untill the sun have dried 
 up all those dews. In like manner, evil water 
 823 
 
 is not good, and a hungar rot is the worst 
 rot of all, for there is neither good flesh 
 nor skin ; and being hungar-starved, they 
 do eat such as they can come by ; but in 
 pastures they seldom have the rot but when 
 hurt with mildews ; yet then they have 
 much tallow, and likewise flesh, and also a 
 good skin. They say little white snails be ill 
 for sheep, either in pastures or fields. There 
 is a rot called the pellet, which cometh of 
 great wet, especially in wood-grounds or 
 fallow-fields, where they cannot well dry 
 them. These are the chief things that do 
 rot sheep, as the shepherds have found, 
 commonly by experience, from time to 
 time." 
 
 A few, however, of Mascal's directions 
 for the cure of diseased horses have re- 
 mained till our time. Thus he advises the 
 use of bay-salt for the bots, and attention 
 to the food and water of broken-winded 
 steeds, rather than medicine. But, then, 
 he soon wanders again amidst the veterinary 
 absurdities of that day. " If," he says, " he 
 be bit by an adder or snake, ye shall take 
 a live cock and cleave him in the midst, 
 and clap it hot to the wound, — some take 
 but a pigeon, and open her, and clap it to. 
 Also, if the horse have eaten in his meat 
 any lien's or chicken's dung, it will cause 
 him to have the bloody flux ; therefore, 
 keep poultry from your stables if you love 
 your horses. Salt was a favourite condi- 
 ment for sheep in his days ; for he says, 
 " salt will keep them longer safe and sound 
 without sickness ;" and he adds, in another 
 place, a very rough remedy or prevention 
 for the rot, viz. of keeping the sheep for 
 three days in a house without meat or 
 drink ; " then give to every hundred a 
 bushel of bran mixed with as much salt 
 laid in troughs, and hunger will make them 
 to eat it ; then drive them to the water, and 
 let them drink their fill ; then let them be 
 chased with a cur a good space after, and 
 then put them into what ground ye will 
 for one quarter, and they shall take no 
 hurt : then must you take them up the next 
 quarter to serve them so again ! " " Some 
 shepherds," he adds, " use, when they fear 
 the rot, to take them up and give each 
 sheep he suspecteth a little milk mixed with 
 salt, and so set water by them, and keep 
 them so for certain days." His ideas of 
 the fertilising effect produced by folding 
 sheep were excellent ; but then the mode 
 he recommends of making the most of their 
 services in this way, was hardly more en- 
 larged than we should expect from a village 
 blacksmith. He says very gravely, " In 
 folding of sheep, to the opinion of some 
 husbands hold, that the urine of sheep doth 
 heat, help, and comfort the land as much, 
 3 g 4 
 
MASH. 
 
 MASTER AND SERVANT, LAW OF. 
 
 or rather more, than doth their dung; there- 
 fore, some do will their servants or shep- 
 herds to raise all the sheep in the fold 
 before they let them forth in winter, once 
 every night, and to go about the sides of 
 the fold with a dog, for commonly, when 
 sheep do see any dog come nigh unto them, 
 they will dung and water, and when they 
 have so done, let them out of the fold ; and 
 this order is very good for your land." 
 (Quar. Journ. Agr. vol. xii. p. 179.) 
 
 MASH. A soft sort of diet occasionally 
 given to horses. It is prepared by pouring 
 boiling water upon a small quantity of 
 ground malt, bran, or other similar sub- 
 stance, in a pail, so as just to wet it well. 
 After this has been done, it should be well 
 stirred about, till it is thoroughly mixed and 
 sweetish to the taste, when, after becoming 
 lukewarm, it is in a proper state to be given 
 to the animal. It is frequently used after 
 purges to increase their operation as well 
 as after hard labour, and in the time of 
 disease. Mashes are very useful for restor- 
 ing animals in these circumstances. 
 
 MASHELSON. A local term used to 
 signify a mixture of wheat and rye, or what 
 is sometimes called meslin. See Mesiin. 
 
 MASON, WILLIAM, was born on the 
 23d of February, 1725, at Hull, where his 
 father resided as vicar of St. Trinity, one of 
 its churches : he died on the 7 th of April, 
 1797, at Aston. 
 
 In 1772 appeared the first book of his " English Gar- 
 den," and the other three followed separately in 1777, 
 1779, and 1782. London. 4to. Another edition was pub- 
 lished in 1785. London. 8vo. ; with Notes and a Com- 
 mentary by W. Burgh, LL.D. (G.W. Johnson's Gard.) 
 
 MAST. The nuts or seeds of the beech- 
 tree which are the food of hogs, squirrels, 
 &c. In some districts the term is applied 
 to acorns ; and it is occasionally pronounced 
 mess. See Acorns and Beech. 
 
 MASTER AND SERVANT, LAW OF. 
 A general hiring for a year, and so on, par- 
 ticularly of clerks and respectable servants, 
 can only be put an end to at the end of the 
 current year, where no misconduct is im- 
 puted.. (Beeston v. Collyer, 4 Bingham, 
 309.) And where, as in this case, a clerk's 
 salary was paid for some years quarterly, 
 but afterwards monthly, it was held to be 
 evidence of a hiring from year to year. 
 
 Duty of a Master to a Servant. — An 
 action will not lie at the suit of a servant 
 against his master, for not giving him a 
 character. (Carroll v. Bird, 3 Espinasse, 
 201.) \ A master is not liable for the me- 
 dical expenses of a servant who has met 
 with an accident in his service. (Wennall 
 v . A dney, B. & P. 247.) But if the master 
 calls in his own medical attendant, the 
 master can not, without a special contract, 
 be allowed to deduct the charge for medi- 
 824 
 
 cine and attendance out of the servant's 
 wages. (Sellen v. Norman, 4 C. & P. 80.) 
 And if a servant, as a waggoner, meet with 
 an accident while in his masters service, 
 he must be maintained and cured by the 
 parish in which the accident happened (as 
 a casual pauper), and not at that of his 
 master. (Newby v. Wiltshire, 4 Douglas, 
 284.) 
 
 Dismissal of Servants. — If a master turns 
 away a domestic servant without previous 
 notice or warning, the servant is entitled 
 (without some fault or misconduct to war- 
 rant the refusal) to a month's wages. (Robin- 
 son v. Hindman, 3 Espinasse, 235.) But 
 a person dismissed under justifiable circum- 
 stances — such as, for instance, an assault 
 with intent to ravish a maid-servant — is 
 not entitled to wages even for the time 
 during which he has served. (Athin v. 
 Acton, 4 C. & P. 208.) Neither is he entitled 
 if he is dismissed before the year expires 
 for either moral misconduct, such as being 
 the father of a bastard child (Rex v. Wel- 
 ford, Caldicott, 57.), wilful disobedience, or 
 habitual neglect. (Callo v. Brouncker, 4 
 C. &P. 518.) 
 
 Rights of Master. — A master may main- 
 tain an action for debauching his servant, 
 though he is no way related to her in blood 
 (Fores v. Wilson, Peake, 55.) ; or for beat- 
 ing his servant by which he lost his services 
 (Ditcham v. Bond, 2 M. & S. 436.) ; or for 
 seducing him away (Hart v. Aldridge, Cow- 
 per, 54.) ; and it makes no difference if he 
 was merely hired by the piece (Anon. LofFt. 
 493.) ; or for continuing to employ him 
 after notice. (Blake v. Langton, 6 T. R. 
 221.) 
 
 Liability of Master for the Acts of his 
 Servant. — A master is liable to another for 
 any damage which his servant may acci- 
 dentally cause while in the performance of 
 his master's work ; but not for any wilful 
 damage. (M'-Manus v. Crickett, 1 East, 
 106.) For Goods supplied. — If a master has 
 been used to procure goods of a tradesman 
 on credit by a servant, he is liable for all 
 goods that servant may procure in his 
 name. (Busby v. Scarlett, 5 Espinasse, 
 76.) And if he has been used to thus take 
 credit, he can only exonerate himself from 
 his liability by giving the tradesman per- 
 sonal notice. (Greatland v. Freeman, 3 
 Espinasse, 85.) 
 
 Settlement of Disputes between Masters 
 and Servants. — By the statute 4 G. 4. 
 c.34. any justice of the peace is empowered 
 to summon or issue warrant for the appear- 
 ance of any servant, master, or mistress, 
 and to hear and determine any such com- 
 plaint as may be made before him, and to 
 order the sum in question to be paid (pro- 
 
MASTERWORT. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 vided it does not exceed 10?.). The ma- 
 gistrate is also authorised to abate the 
 wages, or to commit apprentices to the 
 house of correction for any period not ex- 
 ceeding three months. And, by sect. 3., in. 
 case any servant in husbandry shall refuse 
 to commence, or neglect, or leave, his work, 
 the magistrate is authorised to issue a war- 
 rant for his apprehension, and commit him 
 to the^ House of Correction for any time not 
 exceeding three calendar months. And, by 
 sect. 4., during the absence of the master 
 from home, the magistrate may, on com- 
 plaint, order the labourer's wages to be 
 paid by the steward, agent, bailiff, foreman, 
 or manager of the estate. 
 
 MASTERWORT. (Imperatoria, named 
 by Linnseus from its supposed powerful 
 medicinal qualities.) Plants of no great 
 beauty, and of the simplest culture, in- 
 creased by divisions. 
 
 The common or great masterwort (/. 
 Ostruthium) is an indigenous perennial, grow- 
 ing in damp meadows in Scotland, and flower- 
 ing in June. The root is fleshy, tuberous, 
 somewhat creeping, of an aromatic and acrid 
 quality, long supposed a counter-poison, 
 and celebrated as a powerful external as well 
 as internal remedy in numerous disorders. 
 But, like many other remedies of the olden 
 times, it has outlived its celebrity, and is 
 now deservedly neglected. The stem is 
 one to two feet high, hollow, round, striated, 
 smooth, slightly branched. Leaves twice 
 ternate, undivided or three-lobed, rough- 
 edged; leaflets two or three inches long. 
 Flowers small, white or pale flesh-coloured ; 
 flowerstalks alternate. (Paxton's Pot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 78.) 
 
 MASTICATION". The process of grind- 
 ing or chewing the solid parts of food be- 
 tween the teeth, by the united motion of 
 the jaws, tongue, and lips, in consequence 
 of which it is broken into small pieces, 
 mixed with the saliva, and thus adapted for 
 deglutition as well as more easy digestion ; 
 although it is, perhaps, not more essential 
 for the latter purpose than water. Leuchs 
 and Schwan, two German physiologists, 
 have, however, proved that saliva has the 
 property of changing starch into sugar ; 
 and it is a well-known fact that the process 
 of digestion in the stomach converts starch 
 into gum, and gradually into sugar. (Mid- 
 ler's Elements of Physiology, vol. i. p. 577.) 
 Mastication, in the animal economy, is so 
 essential to the prosperity of the individual, 
 that old horses, &c, whose teeth are im- 
 paired, always require to have their food 
 broken, chopped, or crushed for them. 
 
 MATTELLOISr. A provincial name ap- 
 plied to the corn blue-bottle, a field weed, 
 and occasionally to the greater knapweed. 
 825 
 
 MAT-GRASS, or HEATH MAT- 
 WEED. (Nardus stricta.} An insignificant 
 species of grass growing on barren, sandy, 
 moist heaths and moors, in many parts of 
 Britain. The root consists of numerous very 
 strong downy fibres. Stems and leaves fur- 
 rowed, roughish, with minute bristles, rigid, 
 four or five inches high, remaining bleached 
 through the winter. Spikes solitary, pur- 
 plish, bristle-shaped, straight, of many slen- 
 der flowers. Schrank celebrates this deep- 
 rooted grass as a safe support to the hands 
 of the Alpine botanist, in precipitous situa- 
 tions, though it renders his path very slip- 
 pery. The hard and wiry foliage of the 
 mat-grass is eaten by horses and goats, but 
 disliked by cattle and sheep. This species 
 is often a troublesome weed on arable lands 
 and pastures, where it affords but coarse 
 food to cattle. As it, however, forms large 
 and thick tufts, which resist the action of 
 the scythe, it may be usefully transplanted 
 to loose sandy lands, where its spreading 
 horizontal roots will tend to consolidate the 
 soil, and increase the stratum of vegetable 
 mould, for the reception of more useful 
 plants. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 70. ; 
 Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 288.) 
 
 MATH. An old term for crop ; hence 
 lattermath is the last mown crop of grass. 
 
 MATRIX. The womb, or place where 
 any thing is generated or formed. In Mi- 
 neralogy, it implies the earth or stone in 
 which the mineral is imbedded. 
 
 MATWEED, THE SEA. One of the 
 names of the sea-reed (Arundo arenaria). 
 See Reed. 
 
 MAUDLIN-WORT. See Ox-eye 
 Daisy. 
 
 MAUKS. A local name in some places 
 for maggots or larvae. 
 
 MAUL. A provincial word, variously 
 applied to a beetle, a mallet, and the mallow, 
 in different localities. 
 
 MAUM. A country term signifying a 
 dry mellow quality in land. 
 
 MAUND. A provincial name for a bas- 
 ket or hamper with handles. 
 
 MAW-SKUST. A word used in some 
 places to signify the stomach of the calf 
 prepared for cheese-making. See Rennet. 
 
 MAY. The fifth month of our year. 
 Farmers Calendar. — This is really a joyous 
 month for the cultivator ; his crops now 
 begin in earnest to prosper ; his live stock 
 are no longer confined to the farm-yard. 
 Turnips, and even mangel wurzel, being 
 exhausted, they are suffered to graze either 
 in the pastures or water meadows. Finish 
 sowing barley, and grass seeds ; weed and 
 hoe your wheat ; pole and tie hops : attend 
 to your fallows. Finish in this month un- 
 derdrawing land, either with the mole- 
 
MAY. 
 
 plough or by the spade ; you may use either 
 stones, brush-wood, or tiles ; be careful to. 
 construct these so deep that the subsoil 
 plough will not disturb them. There is no 
 money so well and so certainly spent on a 
 farm as in under-draining, for nothing is 
 so pernicious to the commonly cultivated 
 grasses as stagnant water. Get your land 
 ready for Swedish turnips ; sow these in 
 drills ; always have a good stock of young 
 cabbage plants to fill up the vacancies in the 
 rows of your Swedes. Cleanse your beans 
 and peas ; if you have sown these in wide 
 drills, this will facilitate the operation of the 
 hoe : do not be afraid of hoeing in very dry 
 weather ; the vulgar idea of " letting in the 
 drought," by stirring the land, is fast ex- 
 ploding ; so far from letting out the mois- 
 ture of the land, the hoe lets it in ; the 
 more you pulverise the soil the greater is 
 the quantity of watery vapour absorbed by 
 it from the atmosphere. Carry out dung 
 from your compost heaps ; in doing this, 
 mix as well as you can in the heap the dung 
 from different yards, the product of dif- 
 ferent animals ; mix also that of your fatten- 
 ing cattle with that from your straw -yard ; 
 if you can get any night-soil, urine, or 
 sprats, to add to it, it will much enrich the 
 compost ; you may also mix turf, saw-dust, 
 or peat with it : this adds to the quantity, 
 without seriously reducing the quality : 
 you may also add chalk, or common salt, if 
 you suspect the presence of grub ; but do 
 not mix lime with it, or sea-weed ; the first 
 injures the quality of the manure, and the 
 second is grossly wasted by being mixed 
 and fermented in the heap. Sea-weeds 
 should be ploughed in as green and fresh 
 as possible ; they contain no seeds or in- 
 sects that can prosper in inland soils. Buck- 
 wheat may be sown towards the end of this 
 month, or as soon as the late frosts are over. 
 Lucern may be sown ; there is no grass 
 more useful than this to a farmer on deep 
 soils, or any that cattle prefer to it ; the 
 chief things to be attended to with lucern 
 are, to deepen your soil as much as possible, 
 either by the spade, the common or the 
 subsoil ploughs ; sow it in drills about nine 
 inches apart ; do not believe those who 
 say it is as well sown broadcast. Ashes or 
 gypsum are the best dressings for it ; hoe 
 it well after every mowing, even in the 
 driest weather ; the earlier you sow it the 
 better it will escape the fly. Gypsum is an 
 excellent fertiliser for sainfoin. "On the 
 17th of May, 1839," says Mr. Barton, of 
 Threxton, in a recent obliging communica- 
 lion to the author, "three bushels per acre 
 Of gyjpsum was sown on a portion of a field 
 oi sainfoin ; this was cut and weighed green 
 OH the 21st of June, when the gypsumed 
 826 
 
 portion of the field (a light gravelly soil) 
 produced the best crop by one ton per acre ; 
 the aftermath was also superior, and alone 
 equal to the cost of the gypsum." Potatoes, 
 carrots, and cabbages should be hoed this 
 month ; newly planted hop-grounds may be 
 dug. Attend to the soiling of your live stock ; 
 take your sheep out of the water meadows, 
 and shut them up for hay ; do not attempt 
 to feed the second crop with sheep, or even 
 to soil them with its grass : if you do, you 
 will certainly give them the rot. 
 
 This is a good month to form water mea- 
 dows. Winter tares and lucern may now 
 be cut for soiling. Oak stripping, the first 
 harvest of the year, is now going on ; see 
 that the bark is kept set up ; have plenty 
 of hands, for the bark is in its prime only 
 for a few days. Commence sowing Swede 
 turnips the beginning of the month ; those 
 sown early produce the most certain and 
 heaviest crops ; and the larger the roots the 
 better for feed, both as regards nutriment 
 and consumption by the stock ; the ripest 
 roots have the most saccharine matter. By 
 early sowing, too, the young plant has fewer 
 insect enemies to encounter ; and, in case 
 of failure, time is given for renewed sow- 
 ing. This is the best month for mares to 
 foal, both on account of the abundance of 
 grass and the mildness of the weather. 
 Rape and turnips for autumn feed, prepara- 
 tory for wheat, are sown towards the end 
 of the month ; at this time the mixed arti- 
 ficial grasses, in some seasons, will be on 
 early soils ready for the scythe : these are 
 generally left much too long, for they are 
 in their prime when the rye-grass is in 
 flower ; after this the valuable juices of the 
 stem are lost. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. — Kitchen Gar- 
 den. Angelica, sow. Artichokes, plant b., 
 clean beds of. Asparagus, beds weed, come 
 now into production. Beans, plant, hoe, 
 top, &c. those advancing. Beet, red, thin, 
 &c. advancing crops ; green, white, sow. 
 Basil, plant out. Borecole, plant out, sow 
 b., prick out, attend to advancing crops, 
 and leave some for seed. Broccoli, plant, 
 sow b., plant, prick out, and leave for seed. 
 Burnets, sow and plant. Borage, sow. 
 Balm, plant. Cabbages, sow, plant, earth, 
 &c. advancing crops. Cauliflowers, attend 
 to such as are protected, and take off 
 glasses, &c, sow e. Carrots, thin advancing, 
 sow e. Capsicum, plant out. Celery, plant, 
 crops failed, replace without delay, prick 
 out old, leave for seed, sow b. Cucumbers, 
 sow, prick out, plant, attend to those in 
 production. Coriander, sow, leave for seed. 
 Chervil, sow, leave for seed. Chamomile, 
 plant. Chives, plant. Cress, American, sow, 
 water, plant. Dung for hot-beds, prepare. 
 
MAY. 
 
 MEAD. 
 
 Dill, sow and plant. Endive, sow, leave 
 earthing up, attend to, where necessary. 
 Fennel, sow, and plant. Finochio, sow, 
 clean, &c. advancing crops. Hot-beds, at- 
 tend to coatings, &c. Hyssop, sow, and 
 plant. Kidneys, beans, dwarfs, sow b. ; 
 runners, sow, transplant from hot-beds. 
 Kale, sea, attend to blanching, forcing, &c. 
 Lettuces, plant out, sow, tie up, &c. those of 
 full growth. Leeks, thin, &c. those of ad- 
 vancing crop, sow b., leave for seed. La- 
 vender, plant. Melons, sow b., prick out, 
 ridge out, attend to those advancing. Mint, 
 plant. Marjoram, sow, and plant. Mari- 
 golds, sow. Mushroom beds, make b., attend 
 to those in production. Mustard and Cress, 
 sow, and leave for seed. Nasturtiums, sow b. 
 Onions, weed, &c. ; Welsh, leave for seed, 
 sow for planting again in the spring. Po- 
 tatoes, plant b. Pompions, ridge out, sow b. 
 Parsley, sow, leave for seed. Hamburgh, 
 thin. Parsnips, thin, &c. Purslane, sow, 
 leave for seed. Pennyroyal, plant. Ra- 
 dishes, sow, leave for seed. Rosemary, 
 plant. Rape, edible, rooted, sow e. for. 
 Salading, sow. Rue, plant. Salsafy, thin, 
 &c. Scorzonera, thin, &c. Spinach, sow. 
 thin advancing, leave some for seed. Sage, 
 plant. Savoys, plant, sow b., prick out. 
 Salading, small, sow. Savory, sow, and 
 plant. Sorrels, sow, and plant. Tomatos, 
 plant out. Tarragon, plant. Turnips, sow, 
 thin, &c. advancing, leave for seed. Turnip, 
 Cabbage, sow. Thyme, sow, and plant. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Propagate perennial 
 fibrous-rooted plants by cuttings ; increase 
 double wall-flowers by slips of the young 
 shoots of the heads. Sow annuals for suc- 
 cession : such as sweet peas, nasturtiums, 
 lavatera, lupines, flos adonis, &c. ; take up 
 those hyacinths, tulips, &c. which have done 
 flowering, and dry them in the shade to 
 put away. 
 
 Weeds grow quickly now ; hoe them up 
 wherever you see them ; support all flowers 
 with sticks : train them upright, clear away 
 all the dead leaves from your carnations, 
 and gently stir the earth round with your 
 smallest trowel. Look round the borders 
 now, and take off irregular shoots. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — The He- 
 brews named the month of their calendar 
 which is synonymous with the fifth of our 
 own, Sivan, from a Chaldaic word, signify- 
 ing "to rejoice;" the Romans called it 
 Maia, in honour of Rhea, the goddess of 
 the earth, it being one of her epithets, ac- 
 cording to Macrobius ; though Plutarch 
 says it was named after Maia, the mother 
 of Mercury; and Ovid maintains it was 
 designated in honour of the patricians (a 
 majoribus) : neither of which appears so 
 appropriate as the derivation assigned by 
 
 Macrobius. The Anglo-Saxons knew it as 
 Tri-milchi, because their cows, stimulated 
 by the fresh herbage, were so productive of 
 milk as to enable the proprietors to bring 
 them with advantage to the pail three times 
 a day. The name of May was introduced 
 by the Normans. Romulus made it com- 
 prise thirty-one days, which have never 
 been diminished. 
 
 Well might the Easterns consider this as 
 the rejoicing month of nature, and the Ro- 
 mans dedicate it to the earth; for in our 
 hemisphere, during its days, the earth is in 
 its gayest, happiest appearance — it is her 
 own high festival of beauty and delight, and 
 had been known as the " merry " month in 
 every age to which our records reach. In 
 days of more simple manners, the first of 
 May was in every village the merriest day 
 in " merry England ; " for every hamlet had 
 a May-pole on its green, around which the 
 village population gathered, — the elderlies 
 to share a cup of neighbourship, and to talk 
 of by -gone Mayings, when they danced 
 as joyously round "The May column" as 
 their children were now tripping before 
 them. The custom is almost extinct, and 
 with it one incentive to rustic virtue and 
 amiability ; for that maiden was usually se- 
 lected Queen of the May, who was most 
 generally beloved among her village asso- 
 ciates, and no esteem is general but such as 
 is merited. For a particular account of all 
 the pastimes which in those days were pe- 
 culiar to this season, we must refer our 
 readers to Bourne, Hutchinson, Strutt, and 
 Brande. One gawd or shew had such an 
 elegance in its allusion, that it tempts us to 
 narrate it. "May-day," says Brande, " was 
 considered the boundary-day between win- 
 ter and summer, allusively to which there 
 was instituted a sportful war between two 
 parties ; the one in defence of the continu- 
 ance of winter, the other for bringing in 
 the summer. The youths were divided into 
 troops, the one in the livery of winter, the 
 other in the gay habit of the spring. The 
 spring was sure to obtain the victory, which 
 they celebrated by carrying triumphantly 
 green branches and May flowers. It was 
 always a sham fight." {Farmer's Almanac.} 
 
 MAY-DAY. See May. 
 
 MAY-TREE. See Hawthorn. 
 
 MAY-WEED, THE SCENTLESS. 
 See Corn Feverfew. 
 
 MAY-WEED, THE STINKING, or 
 MATHER. See Camomile. 
 
 MEAD. (Dutch, meede.) An agreeable 
 vinous liquor made from honey. The use 
 of this substance as one of the ingredients 
 in drink is of very ancient date. When fer- 
 mented, honey-water obtains the name of 
 mead, which is, in fact, honey-wine : indeed 
 
MEAD. 
 
 MEADOW. 
 
 the Germans call it by that name (Honig- 
 weiri). Mead is said to have been the prin- 
 cipal beverage of the Britons before the use 
 of malt liquor among them ; and long after 
 the introduction of the latter beverage, mead 
 was a favourite drink. Under the name of 
 metheglin, it was frequently alluded to by 
 old writers. Mead formed the ancient, and 
 for centuries the favourite, beverage of the 
 northern nations. It is frequently men- 
 tioned in Ossian. Dryden has a couplet : — 
 
 " T' allay the strength and hardness of the wine, 
 Let with old Bacchus new Metheglin join." 
 
 Queen Elizabeth was so fond of mead, as 
 to have had it made every year for her. 
 Her receipt for it has been preserved, and 
 is given by Dr. Bevan, in his interesting 
 little volume on the Honey Bee ; — Take of 
 sweet-briar leaves and thyme each one 
 bushel, rosemary half a bushel, bay leaves 
 one peck. Seethe these ingredients in a 
 furnace full of water (containing probably 
 not less than 120 gallons) : boil for half an 
 hour : pour the whole into a vat, and when 
 cooled to a proper temperature (about 75° 
 Fahr.), strain. Add to every six gallons of 
 the strained liquor a gallon of fine honey, 
 and work the mixture together for half an 
 hour. Repeat the stirring occasionally for 
 two days ; then boil the liquor afresh, skim 
 it till it becomes clear, and return it to the 
 vat to cool : when reduced to a proper tem- 
 perature, pour it into a vessel from which 
 fresh ale or beer has just been emptied ; 
 work it for three days and tun. When fit 
 to be stopped down, tie up a bag of beaten 
 cloves and mace (about half an ounce of 
 each), and suspend it in the liquor from the 
 bung-hole. When it has stood for half a 
 year, it will be fit for use. Such was the 
 receipt. 
 
 In Wales, in ancient times, mead was 
 held in very high repute ; as appears from 
 an ancient law, which has been given by 
 Dr. Bevan, that — " There are three things 
 in court which must be communicated to 
 the king before they are made known to 
 any other person: 1st, every sentence of 
 the judge ; 2d, every new song ; 3d, every 
 cask of mead." The mead-maker was the 
 eleventh person in dignity at court, and 
 took precedence of the physician. Besides 
 the preparation of mead, our forefathers 
 were accustomed to flavour their usual 
 grape wines with honey and other ingre- 
 dients. ^ There were two kinds of spiced 
 wines in use in England in the thirteenth 
 century, called Hippocras and Clary. The 
 first consisted either of white or red wine, 
 the latter of claret, both mingled with 
 honey and spices. Dr. Henderson, in his 
 History of Wines, speaks of a receipt still 
 existnig, which gives directions how " to 
 828 
 
 make ypocrasse for lords with gynger, syna- 
 mon, and graynes, sugour, and turesoll; 
 and for comyn pepull, gynger, canell, longe 
 peper, and claryffyed honey." Mead formed 
 the nectar of the Scandinavian nations, and 
 was celebrated by their bards: it was the 
 drink which they expected to quaff in 
 heaven out of the skulls of their enemies ; 
 and was, as might be expected, liberally 
 patronised on earth. The Scandinavian 
 mead is flavoured with primrose blossoms. 
 (Penny Magazine.} 
 
 MEADER, JAMES, was gardener to 
 the Duke of Northumberland at Sion 
 House, and afterwards to the Empress Ca- 
 therine at PeterhofF, near Petersburgh. He 
 published the following works : — 
 
 1. The Modern Gardener, or Universal Calendar, con- 
 taining monthly directions for all the operations of Gar- 
 dening, to be done either in the Kitchen, Fruit, Flower, 
 or Pleasure Gardens, as likewise in the Green-house and 
 Stove ; with the method of performing the different 
 works, according to the best practice of the most eminent 
 Gardeners. Also an Appendix, giving full instructions 
 for forcing Vines, Peach, Nectarine Trees, &c.,in a new 
 manner, never before published : selected from the diary 
 MSS. of the late Mr. Hitt. Revised, corrected, and im- 
 proved, by J. M. ; London. 1771. 12mo. 2. The Planter's 
 Guide, or Pleasure Gardener's Companion ; giving plain 
 directions, with observations for the proper disposition 
 and management of the various Trees and Shrubs for a 
 Pleasure Garden Plantation. To which is added, a List 
 of Hardy Trees and Shrubs for ornamenting such Gar- 
 dens. Embellished with Copperplates. London. 1779. 
 royal 8vo. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Eng. Gard.) 
 
 MEADOW. A field under grass cul- 
 tivation, generally situate on the banks of a 
 river or lake ; but so far above the surface 
 of the water as to be considerably drier 
 than marsh land, and, consequently, pro- 
 ducing grass and herbage of a superior 
 quality. The soil of meadow lands is gene- 
 rally alluvial, and more or less mixed with 
 sand; and it is kept in a state of fertility 
 by the depositions made on its surface, in 
 consequence of being occasionally over- 
 flowed by the adjoining waters. The pro- 
 duce of meadows is generally made into 
 hay, which though not equal in quality to 
 that produced on drier grass lands, is yet 
 superior to what is obtained from marshes. 
 See Grass, Hay, Irrigation, and Marsh. 
 
 Some meadows of great extent, belong- 
 ing to a community or district in which 
 every inhabitant has a right to send his 
 cattle to graze under certain regulations, 
 are never mown. When the number of 
 those who have a right of common pasture 
 is not very great, they frequently agree 
 among themselves to abstain from depastur- 
 ing the meadows in spring, and, dividing 
 them into portions, each makes hay of his 
 share ; after which the cattle are admitted 
 in common for the remainder of the season. 
 Thus a common meadow is converted into 
 a Lammas meadow, that is, a meadow which 
 becomes a common meadow after the 1st of 
 August, this being the time when it is sup- 
 
MEADOW 
 
 MEADOW RUE. 
 
 posed that all the hay has been made and 
 secured. 
 
 Low alluvial land, or that which can be 
 irrigated at pleasure, is usually left for the 
 scythe, either from its productiveness from 
 the rich deposits which are periodically laid 
 upon it, or from its being too wet for cattle 
 to graze on it in winter without poaching 
 the surface. In a proper rotation system, 
 upland is also occasionally devoted to the 
 production of grass for the scythe. In up- 
 land situations meadows are either alter- 
 nately mown and pastured, or broken up 
 for oats or wheat, after they have yielded a 
 crop of hay, and been grazed during the 
 preceding year. The practice of leaving 
 young leys in pasture one year after the 
 first mowing, and then ploughing them up, 
 is very general in England and Ireland. 
 Grass land kept constantly for meadow, 
 ought never to be depastured except in 
 dry weather, as the breaking of the surface 
 by the feet of the cattle, not only injures 
 the grasses of the sward, but, by causing 
 the stagnation of the water in holes, pro- 
 motes the growth of rushes and other 
 coarse aquatic plants, besides killing the 
 finer grasses, and rendering the surface un- 
 even for the scythe. A dressing of sand, 
 even of the worst kind, and the use of cal- 
 careous manures, or salt, will be found 
 excellent for coarse, rushy meadows, by 
 tending to render the texture of the grasses 
 finer ; but as the rankness and inferiority of 
 the herbage proceeds from a superabun- 
 dance of water, draining will be found the 
 most certain remedy, and effectual means 
 of improvement. The meadows which are 
 to be mown should be shut up early in 
 spring, and those which are soft and wet 
 should have nothing larger than a sheep 
 admitted into them from November till 
 after hay-making time the next year. 
 
 Of late years the practice of soiling has 
 been extensively adopted. By this means 
 all the advantages of mowing for hay are 
 obtained, besides an abundant supply of 
 rich manure, which can be applied to the 
 land in a liquid and diluted state, when its 
 effect is powerful and certain. So much 
 more fodder is produced from the land by 
 the system of soiling, that arable fields are 
 converted into artificial and temporary 
 meadows, in which the different species of 
 grasses are sown, in order to be cut green 
 or made into hay ; and when, from the na- 
 ture of the soil, the herbage degenerates, 
 the field is ploughed up again, greatly im- 
 proved by this change of cultivation. 
 
 When a natural meadow has been neg- 
 lected, and the grass is of an inferior 
 quality, and mixed with rank weeds and 
 moss, it requires much care to restore it to 
 829 
 
 its original fertility. In most cases (says 
 a writer in the Penny Cyclopoedia) the 
 shortest method and the best is to plough 
 it up, clean and manure it during a course 
 of tillage, without taking very exhaust- 
 ing crops from it, and then to lay it down 
 again, in a clean and enriched state, by 
 sowing the best sort of grass seeds ; or, 
 which is preferable, by inoculating or 
 planting in it small tufts of grass from 
 some rich meadow, which will soon in- 
 crease, and produce a new and improved 
 sward. But when the soil is a very stiff 
 clay, with only a small depth of good mould 
 over it, there is some danger in breaking 
 the old sward, for it will take a long time 
 and much manure to re-produce a proper 
 covering of sward. In this case it is a pre- 
 ferable practice to scarify the meadow, by 
 means of instruments which do not go 
 deep, but only tear up the surface. If this 
 is done in early spring, when the ground is 
 moist, and the whole surface is brought to 
 resemble a fallow field, good grass seeds 
 may be immediately sown. If rich ma- 
 nure, mixed with lime or chalk, is then 
 evenly spread over the land, and the whole 
 well harrowed and rolled, the old and 
 young grass will spring up together, and 
 show a wonderful improvement in a very 
 few months. Great Britain and Ireland 
 are reputed to possess the most verdant 
 pastures and the finest natural grasses in 
 the vegetable creation. 
 
 In extent of meadow and pasture land, 
 as well as in flocks, Great Britain and Ire- 
 land (says a French statistical account) are 
 the most favoured countries in Europe. 
 They contain 5572 square leagues (more 
 than two thirds of their territory), in mea- 
 dow and pasture land. Germany comes 
 next, having one quarter of its surface in 
 this description of land. Prussia, Holland, 
 and Belgium have a fifth ; Austria and 
 Switzerland a sixth. France does not 
 reckon in this respect more than a seventh 
 part, namely, 4000 square leagues. Italy, 
 Naples, Sicily, and Portugal have only a 
 tenth. {Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 485. ; Pract. 
 Hush. ; Penny Cyclo. vol. xv. p. 34.) See 
 Pasture. 
 
 MEADOW BOUTS. See Marsh-Ma- 
 rigold. 
 
 MEADOW FOXTAIL. See Aeope- 
 curus and Grass. 
 
 MEADOW-GRASS. See Poa, Couch, 
 and Grasses. 
 
 MEADOAV OAT- GRASS. See Ave>a. 
 
 MEADOW PEPPER-SAXIFRAGE. 
 See Pepper-Saxifrage. 
 
 MEADOW RUE. {Thalictrum, from 
 thallo, to grow green, in allusion to the 
 bright colour of the young shoots.) An 
 
MEADOW- SAFFRON. 
 
 MEAT. 
 
 extensive genus, the greater part of the 
 species of which are hardy herbaceous 
 perennial plants, adapted for the back of 
 flower borders ; any light soil suits them, 
 and they are readily increased by division. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet) The indigenous 
 species are as follows : — 
 
 I. Alpine meadow-rue (T. alpinum), 
 which flourishes in elevated moist alpine 
 pastures. The root consists of a few long 
 cylindrical fibres. Herb quite smooth, from 
 three to six inches high. Leaves chiefly 
 radical, on long, slender, upright footstalks, 
 twice ternate, somewhat pinnate; leaflets 
 dark green, and shining above ; glaucous 
 and concave beneath. Stem perfectly sim- 
 ple, and almost naked, with a simple ter- 
 minal cluster of drooping whitish-yellow or 
 rather tawny flowers, which blow in June. 
 
 2. Lesser meadow-rue (T. minus). This 
 species is perennial, grows in chalky pas- 
 tures, especially such as are rather moun- 
 tainous; or in shell sand on the coast. 
 Root creeping. Stem from four to twelve 
 inches high, glaucous, smooth, somewhat 
 angular, more or less zigzag on the lower 
 part. Leaves doubly pinnate, then ternate ; 
 leaflets various in figure and size ; glaucous 
 on both sides. Flowers, which appear in 
 June, purple, with white edges, and pale, in 
 compound panicles, pendulous ; stipules 
 rounded ; seeds furrowed. 
 
 3. Greater meadow-rue (T. majus). This 
 species is twice or thrice the size of the 
 last, and grows on bushy hills in the north 
 of England. It is also perennial, and 
 flowers in June and July. The stem is 
 three feet high, or more, purplish, angular 
 in the upper part. Leaves triply pinnate ; 
 leaflets ternate, lobed, of a dark shining 
 green on the upper side, glaucous beneath. 
 The flowers appear in branched panicles, 
 aggregate, and somewhat umbellate. Flowers 
 purplish-green, on long stalks, drooping. 
 Stipules crescent- shaped, notched. 
 
 4. Common meadow-rue (T. flavum). 
 This species is found very common in wet 
 meadows, and about the banks of rivers and 
 ditches. The plant is perennial, and flowers 
 in June and July. The root is fibrous, 
 yellow. Stem three or four feet high, erect, 
 furrowed, leafy. Leaves doubly pinnate, 
 partly three-lobed ; leaflets smooth, veiny, 
 deep grass-green, or slightly glaucous above, 
 paler beneath. Panicle compound, close, 
 corymbose of cream-coloured flowers. 
 Flowers and stamens erect. This is an 
 acrid herb, raising blisters on the skin ; but 
 cattle frequently feed upon it, as on the 
 crow-foot tribe, mixed with grass. Its acri- 
 mony is lost by drying. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 40.) 
 
 MEADOW-SAFFRON. (Colchicum.) 
 830 
 
 An ornamental genus of bulbs, growing best 
 in a light loamy soil, and increased by off- 
 sets, or from seeds. One species only is 
 indigenous. See Colchicum. 
 
 MEADOW-SAXIFRAGE. (Seseli, the 
 Greek name of an umbelliferous plant.) The 
 species of meadow-saxifrage are of very 
 little interest. A sandy or chalky soil suits 
 them, and they are readily increased by 
 seeds. See Saxifrage. 
 
 MEADOW-SWEET, or QUEEN OF 
 THE MEADOWS. (Spiraea Ulmaria.) An 
 indigenous perennial plant, growing in moist 
 meadows, and about the banks of rivers and 
 ditches ; flowering in June and July. The 
 root is fibrous, without knobs; the stems 
 are herbaceous, three or four feet high, 
 leafy, branched, furrowed, angular, smooth. 
 Leaves interruptedly pinnate ; downy be- 
 neath; the terminal leaflets largest, and 
 lobed. Flowers extremely numerous, cream- 
 coloured, with a sweet, but oppressive, haw- 
 thorn-like scent, in dense compound cymose 
 panicles, with many styles. The taste of 
 the herbage, like the scent of the flowers, 
 is aromatic, not unlike the flavour of orange- 
 flower water. The distilled water is said 
 to be used by wine-merchants to improve 
 the flavour of made wines. Hogs devour 
 the roots with avidity ; goats and sheep also 
 relish the herb ; but horses and cattle re- 
 fuse it. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 368.) 
 See Spiraea. 
 
 MEADOW THISTLE. See Thistle. 
 
 MEAL. (Dutch, meet) The edible part 
 of wheat, oats, rye, barley, and pulse of dif- 
 ferent kinds, ground into a species of coarse 
 flour. See Flour. 
 
 MEASURES. See Weights and Mea- 
 sures. 
 
 MEAT. (Sax. nicete, food.) A general 
 appellation for the flesh of animals when 
 prepared for human food. See Beef, Bacon, 
 Cattle, Mutton, Pork, Sheep, Swine, &c. 
 
 " In whatever manner meat is cooked," 
 observes Mr. Donovan, " there is a consi- 
 derable diminution of substance, the loss 
 consisting chiefly of water, juices, soluble 
 matter, and fat. In an economical point of 
 view, a comparison of the loss incurred in 
 the two most usually employed processes, 
 roasting and boiling, is interesting, yet it has 
 not occupied the attention of the public as 
 much as the importance of the subject seems 
 to demand. Professor Wallace, of Edin- 
 burgh, has given us the results of some ex- 
 periments made to determine the loss which 
 meat undergoes in cooking. It is to be re- 
 gretted that it is not more in detail, and 
 that the weight of the bone in each joint 
 was not ascertained ; but still it is of great 
 value. The results, reduced to 100 pounds 
 of meat, are as follow : — 
 
MEAT. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 100 pounds of beef lost in boiling - 2G£ 
 100 pounds of beef lost in roasting - 32 
 100 pounds of beef lost in baking - 30 
 100 pounds of legs of mutton, averaging 
 
 about 91 pounds eacb, lost in boiling 2 1 £ 
 100 pounds of shoulders of mutton, 
 averaging 10 pounds each, lost in 
 roasting - - - - 31^ 
 
 100 pounds of loins of mutton, averaging 
 8 pounds 12 ounces each, lost in 
 roasting - - - 35| 
 
 100 pounds of necks of mutton, averaging 
 10 pounds each, lost in roasting - 23£ 
 
 Thus, the loss in boiling beef or mutton was 
 less than in roasting. And it appears that 
 meat loses by the cooking about one fifth to 
 one third. A few years since, I undertook 
 the superintendence of some experiments" 
 of the same tendency, with the view of in- 
 serting the results in this volume. These 
 trials were made on several parts of the 
 different animals, with as much attention 
 to accuracy as the nature of the subject 
 permitted. They were made on different 
 qualities of the same kind of meat, at vari- 
 ous seasons, both in England and Ireland. 
 Such experiments are exceedingly trouble- 
 some, and occasion no small inconvenience ; 
 it is, therefore, the less surprising that the 
 subject has been so little investigated ; and 
 the following results, in the absence of any 
 others so particularly detailed, will, perhaps, 
 prove interesting. Allowance must be made 
 for the nature of such processes, as the dif- 
 ficulty of fixing an average price of meat, 
 fish, and poultry, owing to variations occa- 
 sioned by the supply and the season, the 
 want of uniformity in the prices of the city, 
 and by the exorbitant demands of some 
 vendors of these articles. The degree of 
 fatness was in all cases brought to a stand- 
 ard by cutting off all excess, and leaving the 
 meat in a proper state for housekeepers' 
 use. The meat was in all cases cooked as 
 nearly as possible to the same degree, and 
 the weights were determined with exact- 
 ness : avoirdupois weight throughout is in- 
 tended. The bones were entirely stripped 
 of their meat previously to their being 
 weighed. The only cost taken into account 
 is that of meat, leaving out fuel, &c. 
 
 " Experiment 1 . — A piece of beef, roasted. 
 It consisted of four of the largest ribs, and 
 was not remarkably fat : its weight was 
 H_i F lbs. During the process of roasting it 
 lost 2 lbs. 6 oz., of which 10 oz. were fat, 
 and 28 oz. were water dissipated by evapora- 
 tion. When the meat was dissected off with 
 the utmost care, the bones weighed 16 oz. 
 Hence, the weight of meat, properly roasted 
 and fit for the table, was but 7 lbs. 1 1 oz., out 
 of 1 1 T V lbs. originally submitted to experi- 
 831 
 
 ment. This beef would cost in London 
 S^d. per lb. The roasted beef cost, there- 
 fore, 12jrd. per lb. In another trial, a piece 
 of beef of the same description, the tops of 
 the ribs having been rejected with their 
 meat, was submitted to the same mode of 
 trial; the weight of bone in 1 Of lbs. was 
 1G oz., and the fat 11 oz., which agrees with 
 the former estimate." 
 
 Other parts are submitted to similar tests, 
 and we learn, of mutton — 
 
 "Experiment 17. — A leg of mutton, 
 weighing 9-^ lbs., when boiled gave lib. of 
 bone, shank included ; it lost in the boil- 
 ing 1 lb. 2 oz. : the meat weighed 7 lbs. 2 oz. 
 If the butcher's price was Hd. per lb., the 
 meat cost about I0\d. per lb. 
 
 "Experiment 18. — A similar leg, weigh- 
 ing 9 lbs. 6 oz., afforded 15 oz. of bone, and 
 lost 12 oz. in the boiling: the meat weighed 
 
 7 lbs. 1 1 oz. At 8d. per lb. butcher's price, 
 the boiled meat would cost 9§c?. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 19. — A leg of small Scotch 
 mutton, weighing 6 lbs., afforded lOioz. of 
 bone, lost 5£ oz. in the boiling, and the meat 
 weighed 5 lbs : cost 9±d. per lb., if butcher's 
 price be 8c?." 
 
 The following are miscellaneous : — 
 
 "Experiment 28. — A fore quarter of 
 lamb, weighing 9 lbs., afforded, when roast- 
 ed, 20 oz. of bone, and lost If lb. in the 
 roasting : the meat weighed 6 lbs. If the 
 butcher's price be S^d. per lb., the roasted 
 lamb costs 12|c?. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 31. — A hand of salt pork, 
 weighing 4 lbs. 5 oz., lost in boiling 1 1 oz. 
 The bone weighed 9 oz. : the meat was 
 
 8 lbs. 1 oz. If the first cost of the pork 
 was 7 ±d. per lb., the meat, when duly boiled, 
 cost 1 0\d. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 34. — A knuckle of veal 
 weighing 6 lbs., when duly boiled, lost half 
 a pound. Its bones, perfectly cleared of 
 meat, weighed 2 lbs. 6 oz. ; the meat weighed 
 3 lbs. 2 oz. Hence, if the butcher's price 
 was 5i <s?., the boiled meat cost 10±d. 
 per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 35. — A goose, properly 
 trussed, weighed 4£ lbs. : in this state it was 
 roasted, and, when sufficiently done, was 
 found to have lost 18 oz. The skeleton 
 weighed 12 oz. : the meat weighed 3 lbs. 
 This goose would cost, in London, 4s. 6d. 
 Hence the roasted meat amounted to Is. 8±d. 
 per lb. 
 
 "Experiments. — A turkey, with its liver 
 and gizzard, weighing 4 lbs. 14 oz., was boil- 
 ed : it lost 12 oz. The skeleton weighed 
 13£ oz. ; the meat, 3 lbs. 4i oz. If this turkey 
 cost 35. 6c?., the boiled meat amounted to 
 Is. Id. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 43. — A young duck, weigh- 
 ing 20 oz., lost 5 J oz. in roasting. Its bones 
 
MEAT. 
 
 weighed 2 T l g oz. : the meat was 12£ oz. It 
 cost 2«. 6e?. : hence the flesh amounted to 
 35. 3±d. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 46. — A fowl, with its liver 
 and gizzard, weighing 1^ lb., was roasted. 
 It lost 3 oz. : the skeleton weighed 4|. oz., 
 and the flesh, 16ioz. If such a fowl cost 
 2s. 6c?., its meat, when roasted, would cost 
 2s. 4fd. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 47. — A chicken, weighing 
 1 lb. 4^ oz., when roasted lost 3^ oz. The 
 bones weighed 3 oz., the flesh, 13-i-oz. If 
 the chicken cost 2s. 4c?., the meat, roasted, 
 was worth 2s. 8d. per lb. 
 
 " Experiment 56. — A fine mackerel, 
 which, when trimmed, and ready for boil- 
 ing, weighed 23^ oz. (including the weight 
 of the roe, 2£oz.). It cost 10c?. It lost 
 If oz. in the boiling. The skeleton, care- 
 fully collected, along with gills, fins, and 
 tail, weighed 4| oz. Hence, the cost of the 
 eatable parts of the boiled fish was 9±d. 
 per lb. 
 
 It will now be necessary to collect the 
 results of all these experiments into a kind 
 of conspectus, for the sake of more easy 
 comparison ; and it is to be understood, 
 that, in the following estimates, when the 
 butcher's price is mentioned, it of course 
 comprises meat and bone in the usual man- 
 ner. But, when the ultimate cost of the 
 cooked meat is specified, it refers to the 
 price cost of the meat only, the bone being 
 considered valueless : and it is supposed that 
 the fatness of the meat was such as good 
 meat is expected to have, without any 
 redundancy being left on it. From an 
 average of five experiments, it appears 
 that, when the butcher's price of ribs of 
 beef is 8±d. per lb., the cost of the meat, 
 when duly roasted and fit for the table, is 
 ll±d. per lb., and that the average loss of 
 weight arising from the liquefaction of the 
 fat, and the evaporation of water from the 
 juices, is 18 per cent. From an average of 
 six experiments, it appears that, when the 
 butcher's price of sirloins of beef is 8±d. 
 per lb., the cost of the meat, when duly 
 roasted and fit for the table, is Is. l±d. per 
 lb., and that the average weight lost during 
 the roasting is 20i per cent. From an 
 average of other experiments, it appears 
 that when the butcher's price of salted 
 briskets of beef is 6e?. per lb., the cost of 
 the meat, when duly boiled and fit for the 
 table, is 8±d. per lb., and the loss incurred 
 in boiling, arising from the extraction of fat 
 and juices, is 18 per cent. From an aver- 
 age of two experiments, it appears that 
 when the butcher's price of salted flanks of 
 beef is Vul. per lb., the cost of the meat, 
 when duly boiled, is 7%d. per lb., and the 
 loss in boiling is 134 per cent. From an- 
 832 
 
 other experiment, it appears that, when the 
 butcher's price of salted tail-ends of beef is 
 7c?. per lb., the cost of the meat, duly boiled, 
 is 8±d. per lb., and the loss in boiling is 13JL. 
 per cent. From an average of experiments 
 17, 18, 19, and two others, it appears that, 
 when the butcher's price of legs of mutton 
 is 8cZ. per lb., the cost of the meat, when duly 
 boiled and fit for the table, is lOd. per lb., 
 and that the average weight lost during the 
 boiling is 10 per cent. From an average 
 of two experiments it appears that, when 
 the butcher's price of legs of mutton is 8d. 
 per lb., the cost of the meat, when duly 
 roasted, is Is. per lb., and the loss incurred 
 by roasting is 27 T 7 F per cent. From an aver- 
 age of two experiments, it appears that, when 
 the butcher's price of shoulders of mutton is 
 fd. per lb., the cost of the meat, duly roasted, 
 is lie?, per lb., and the loss incurred by 
 roasting is 28 per cent. From an average 
 of experiments it appears that, when the 
 butcher's price of the fore-quarter of lamb 
 is 8±d. per lb. , the cost of the meat, duly 
 roasted, is Is. l±d. per lb., and the loss by 
 roasting is 22 £ per cent. From experi- 
 ment 30, it appears that, if the first cost of 
 hams be 10c?. per lb., the meat, duly boiled, 
 skinned, and browned will amount to Is. lie?, 
 per lb., and the loss by boiling is 12£ per 
 cent. From experiments 31 and 32, it ap- 
 pears that, when the hand and leg of salt 
 pork average 8c?. per lb., the boiled meat 
 amounts to 10^c?. per lb., and the loss in 
 boiling is 13i per cent. From an ex- 
 periment it appears that, if the first cost of 
 bacon is 8c?. per lb., the meat, when duly 
 boiled, skinned, and browned, amounts to 
 10ic?. per lb., the loss in boiling alone being 
 6^ per cent. From experiment 34, it ap- 
 pears that, when the butcher's price of 
 knuckle of veal is 5±c?. per lb., the meat, 
 duly boiled, costs lO^e?. per lb., the loss in 
 boiling being 8i per cent. From an aver- 
 age of experiments 35, 36, 37, it appears 
 that, at the prices of geese quoted, which 
 average 12ic?. per lb. for the raw flesh, the 
 cost of the roasted flesh is Is. 7c?. per lb., 
 and the loss per cent 19^. From an 
 average of three experiments, it appears 
 that, at the prices of turkeys quoted, which 
 average 10c?. per lb., the cost of the roasted 
 flesh is Is. 2±d. per lb., and the loss per 
 cent is 20i. From an average of expe- 
 riments 41 and 42, it appears that, when 
 turkeys are sold at the last-mentioned price, 
 the cost of the boiled flesh is Is. l^d. per 
 lb., and the loss per cent, is 16. It appears 
 also, that the roasted flesh of turkeys 
 sometimes amounts to 4s. 2c?. per lb. From 
 experiments 43, 44, and 45, it appears that, 
 at the prices of ducks quoted, which average 
 Is. l^c?. per lb. in the raw state, the cost of 
 
MEAT. 
 
 the roasted flesh is 2s. 8d. per lb., and the loss 
 per cent, is 27£. From experiments 40, 47, 
 and 48, it appears that, at the prices of 
 chickens quoted, which average Is. 6±d. per 
 lb. in the raw state, the roasted flesh amounts 
 to 2s. 7d. per lb., and the loss per cent, is 
 14f. From an average of six experiments, 
 it appears that, at the prices of chickens 
 last quoted, the average cost of the boiled 
 flesh is 25. 8d. per lb., and the average loss 
 is 13i per cent. From an experiment it 
 appears that, when turbot in the raw state 
 is sold at 9±d. per lb., the boiled fish costs 
 11 hd. per lb. ; the loss in boiling is 5% 
 per cent. From experiment 56, it ap- 
 pears that, when mackerel sells in the raw 
 state at 6§flf. per lb., the boiled fish costs 
 9$d. per lb., the loss in boiling being 7f 
 per cent. From an experiment, it ap- 
 pears that the roasted flesh of a woodcock 
 sometimes costs 16s. per lb., and sometimes 
 2s. But the flesh of the quail is still more 
 expensive. This bird, when fattened, is 
 sold at the enormous price of 3s. ; and, 
 when allowance is made for the loss in 
 cooking and the bones, the meat may be 
 estimated at 2 oz., which brings the cost of 
 the cooked flesh to 11. 4s. per lb. ! Those 
 to whom such morsels are necessary are not 
 to be envied. A haunch of venison, weigh- 
 ing 26 lbs., will cost 3^ guineas. The meat 
 of this, when roasted and detached from 
 the bone, will amount to about 3s. lOd. per 
 lb. ; and if the animal was more than usually 
 fat, to 4s. The following statement gives 
 the results in a still more abstract form; 
 but the prices apply to London only. The 
 articles are arranged in the order of their 
 costliness in the London market : — 
 
 Names of the A rticles of Food 
 estimated. 
 
 Cost 
 per lb. 
 raw. 
 
 Cost 
 per lb. 
 cooked. 
 
 Loss per 
 cent, in 
 cooking. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 Salted flank of beef, boiled 
 
 6 
 
 
 13 1- 
 
 5 
 
 Salted tail end of beef, do. 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 13 7- 
 
 10 
 
 Salted brisket of beef, do. 
 
 6 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 Mackerel, do. 
 
 6| 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 Legs of mutton, do. 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 
 Bacon, best part, do. 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 Hand and leg of salt pork, do. 
 
 8 
 
 10I 
 
 131 
 
 
 Knuckle of veal, do. 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 28 
 
 
 Shoulders of mutton, roasted 
 
 ? 
 
 15* 
 
 
 Ribs of beef, do. 
 
 
 11| 
 
 18 
 
 
 Turbot, boiled 
 
 
 
 5 5 
 
 9 
 
 Legs of mutton, roasted 
 
 P 
 
 12 
 
 21 7 
 
 10 
 
 Turkeys, boiled 
 
 10 
 
 13 1-9 
 
 16 
 
 
 Sirloin of beef, roasted 
 
 8-J- 
 
 13| 
 
 20i 
 
 
 Fore-quarter of lamb, do. - 
 
 8* 
 
 13i 
 
 22| 
 
 
 Hams, boiled 
 
 10* 
 
 m 
 
 12A 
 
 
 Legs of mutton, over-roasted 
 
 8 
 
 14 
 
 27 4 
 
 -10 
 
 Turkeys, roasted 
 Hamburg hung-beef, ribs . 
 
 10 
 
 1 4 £ 
 
 204 
 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 9 1 
 
 .5 
 
 Geese, roasted 
 
 12i 
 
 19 
 
 19* 
 
 
 Woodcocks, do. , cheap season 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 Chickens, roasted 
 
 }4" 
 
 31 
 
 14 3 
 
 
 Chickens, boiled 
 
 14 
 
 32 
 
 13i 
 
 
 Ducks, roasted 
 
 
 32 
 
 27 1 
 
 -6 
 
 Haunch of venison, do. 
 
 
 46 
 
 
 
 Turkeys, large, crammed 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 Woodcocks, scarce season - 
 
 
 192 
 
 
 
 Quails, fattened 
 
 
 283 
 
 
 
 833 
 
 It appears from the experiments, that 
 
 The loss per cent, on roasting beef, viz. 
 
 sirloins and ribs together, is - 19£ 
 
 Do. on roasting mutton, viz. legs and 
 
 shoulders together, is - - 24| 
 Do. on roasting lamb, viz. the fore- 
 quarter, is - 22^ 
 Do. on roasting geese, is - l ( Jf, 
 Do. on roasting turkeys, is - - 20| 
 Do. on roasting ducks, is - 27£ 
 Do. on roasting chickens, is - 14j 
 
 Thus, the loss on roasting varies from I4f 
 to nearly double that rate. The average 
 loss on roasting butchers' meat is 22 per 
 cent., and on roasting domestic poultry 
 is 20£. 
 
 The loss per cent, on boiling mutton, 
 
 viz. legs, is - - - 10 
 
 Do. on boiling hams, is - - 12A 
 
 Do. on boiling salt beef, is - 1 5 
 
 Do. on boiling salt pork, is - 13£ 
 
 Do. on boiling bacon, is - 6\ 
 Do. on boiling knuckles of veal, is - 8^ 
 Do. on boiling turkeys, is - - 16 
 
 Do. on boiling chickens, is - - 13^ 
 
 Thus, the loss on boiling varies from 6£ to 
 16. The average loss on boiling butchers' 
 meat, pork, hams, and bacon, is 12, and on 
 boiling domestic poultry is 14|. These 
 estimates of butchers' meat do not agree 
 with those of Professor Wallace. I shall 
 select for contrast all those cases that can 
 be compared. 
 
 Wallace. My trial. 
 100 pounds of beef lost in boil- 
 ing - - 26^ 15 
 Do. in roasting - - 32 19± 
 100 pounds of legs of mutton 
 
 lost in boiling - - 21^ 10 
 
 100 pounds of shoulders of 
 
 mutton lost in roasting 31^ 28 
 
 The average loss in boiling and roasting 
 together is, according to Professor Wallace, 
 28 per cent. ; according to my trials, it is 
 but 18. I know not how to reconcile these 
 results otherwise than by supposing a dif- 
 ference in the meat, or its fatness, or in the 
 duration of the heat. I used meat of suf- 
 ficient, but not unprofitable fatness, such 
 as is preferred in families ; the meat was in 
 all cases a little rare at its centre, and the 
 results were determined with the utmost 
 care. In great public institutions, where 
 economy is studied, and every thing is re- 
 gulated by weight and measure, tables of 
 this kind do not afford a guide that is to be 
 implicitly relied on. It is obvious that 
 another element must be taken into the 
 calculation, to insure true results ; the ratio 
 in which each article of food satisfies the 
 appetite, which varies with almost every 
 individual. 
 
 Butchers' meat, taking one kind with 
 3 H 
 
MEAT. 
 
 another, averages 35 per cent, of real nu- 
 tritive matter ; at least, such was the es- 
 timate presented by MM. Vauquelin and 
 Percy to the French minister of the interior. 
 Adopting this determination, we are pre- 
 pared to appreciate the quantity of real 
 nutritive matter received into the stomach, 
 when a meal of plain meat and vegetables 
 has been eaten : it is not practicable to come 
 to any conclusion -when made dishes are 
 used. It is a subject of interest, and par- 
 ticularly so to the inhabitants of the British 
 Isles, who are said by foreigners to make use 
 of more animal food than is necessary or 
 wholesome. 
 
 In order, then, to equalise the animal 
 and vegetable matter, and to increase the 
 total quantity, the ratio should be 8£ oz. of 
 boiled mutton, 10 oz. of potato, and the 
 same of turnip; the total amount of food 
 swallowed will be 28^ oz., but the quantity 
 of real nutriment will be but 6oz., half 
 being animal and half vegetable matter. 
 This is certainly a sufficient meal for most 
 persons who have but little laborious occu- 
 pation ; for, if a pint of liquid be drunk at 
 the same time, the load on the stomach will 
 weigh 3 lb ; and this will be increased to 
 4^ lb. if a pint of wine be swallowed. Now, 
 the difference between 8£ oz. of boiled meat 
 and 10 oz. appears very trivial; but, if the 
 greater of the two quantities be persevered 
 in regularly every day for the term of a 
 a man's adult life of half a century, it may 
 excite a little surprise in the person who 
 practises it, to learn that he will have con- 
 sumed a flock of sheep, consisting of about 
 fifty-three head, in excess above what he 
 ought to have made use of. In a life of 
 sixty-five years, allowing 8± oz. per day for 
 fifty years, two thirds of that quantity for 
 ten years, and 3 oz. a day for three years of 
 childhood, the total animal food amounts to 
 350 sheep. If to this be added the excess 
 above mentioned, the number of sheep, the 
 cooked meat of which is devoured by one 
 man during a life of sixty-five years, is 
 about 400 ; along with five tons of potatoes, 
 about the same of turnips or other vege- 
 table, nine tons weight of common drink, 
 and six tons weight of wine, at one pint per 
 day for thirty years only : thus, for dinner 
 alone, above thirty tons weight of solids 
 and liquids must have passed through the 
 stomach. Inordinate work will wear out 
 any machinery before its time, especially if 
 the work performed be of a peculiar wear- 
 ing; character. Whether it is advisable to 
 add the fifty-three unnecessary sheep to 
 one's dinner, is a question which every 
 reader will answer to himself as he thinks 
 proper. The food (.fold Tan-, who died at 
 153 years of age, eonsisted of cheese, coarse 
 
 bread, milk, and small beer. Would it have 
 made no difference in the duration of his 
 life if he had swallowed 1050 sheep, for 
 about this number would have been his 
 share at the usual rate, along with his 
 twenty tons of wine? It may assist in 
 drawing a conclusion, to recollect that when 
 he was brought to London, and lived in 
 splendour, " fed high, and drank plentifully 
 of the best wines," he soon died ; and his 
 death was generally attributed to that 
 cause, for he had vigour of body " to have 
 lived a good while longer," as the reporter 
 says. {Lardner's JEncyclo.) 
 
 As the conducting of the stock trade in 
 a proper manner is so intimately connected 
 with the prosperity of those who embark in 
 it, and the character of the country as a 
 nursery of good stock, I shall, for the far- 
 mer's information, give from the Quarterly 
 Journal of Agriculture, a few instructions, 
 derived from experience, in the selection of 
 live stock and meat, and the preparation of 
 both for the London market. 
 
 1. Selection of Cattle and Beef. — In the 
 selection of cattle to be sent alive, they 
 should invariably possess fine symmetry and 
 small bone, carrying the greatest weight of 
 beef on the most valuable points, such as 
 rumps, loins, and crops ; the back well co- 
 vered, the buttocks and flanks well filled 
 up, and the whole carcass exhibiting a ful- 
 ness of flesh, excepting the necks and coarser 
 parts. They should handle hard and firm, in 
 order to stand well the voyage, and handle 
 and look well in the market. Firm handlers, 
 whether heifers or oxen, always cut well up. 
 A good coat of hair, too, is of great use in 
 a sea voyage on deck, and also in enabling 
 cattle to stand the vicissitudes of weather 
 in the markets, and it enables them to be 
 turned out in safety, in case they should 
 not be disposed of on the first market day. 
 Thin- coated cattle always look tender, and 
 are, in fact, so under any circumstances. 
 Cattle only possessing these requisite pro- 
 perties should be sent to Smithfield market, 
 and any others will assuredly incur loss to 
 the shipper. An ox or heifer of these 
 properties, weighing eighty stones per Smith- 
 field stone of 8 lb., will actually realize 
 more money than a coarse ox or heifer 
 weighing 100 stones. Heavy cattle, how- 
 ever, do not take readily in Smithfield, ex- 
 cept for a month about Christmas, unless 
 they are remarkably handsome ; nor do very 
 light cattle, under forty stones, for two or 
 three months in summer, unless they are 
 really neatly shaped, and thick on the hacks 
 and best points. The most saleable weights 
 are from fifty stones to fifty-five stones. ( )f 
 the Scottish breeds, the Galloway and W est 
 Highlanders fetch generally the top price; 
 
MEAT. 
 
 fine Angus and Aberdeenshires, of fine 
 points and thick backs, take well ; and 
 handsome, well-bred short horns also take 
 readily, but do not realise so much money 
 as Galloways or West Highlanders. Fine 
 crosses are also very saleable. 
 
 The meat intended to be sent to the 
 carcass market in London should be taken 
 from such cattle as we have described. It 
 is not large quantities of lean and fat that 
 are wanted there, but both well mixed. 
 Ox and heifer beef of equal quality com- 
 mand the same prices. Rumps, loins, crops, 
 and other fine parts fitted for roasting and 
 steaks, are more in demand than the boiling 
 pieces, and realize comparatively higher 
 prices, and therefore they alone should be 
 sent. Coarse beef always fetches low prices 
 in London, and therefore should be pur- 
 chased (to use a sporting phrase) at a low 
 figure in the country to return any profit, 
 for the best buyers look more to quality 
 than quantity ; and as this quality of beef 
 is rather cheaper in London than in Scot- 
 land, shippers should be cautious in sending 
 any such thither. 
 
 2. Selection of Sheep and Mutton. — Ripe, 
 compact sheep, of light weights, carrying a 
 large proportion of lean on the back, loins, 
 and shoulder, with a full round leg and 
 handsome carcass, are admirably suited for 
 Smithfield. Such, from 14 lb. to 20 lb. 
 per quarter, will take readily ; but they 
 are most valuable from 16 lb. to 18 lb. 
 The nearer the form and quality approach 
 those of South Downs the more likely are 
 they to command the top prices ; for the 
 Downs have long been unrivalled favourites 
 in Smithfield. True bred Cheviots and the 
 black-faced Linton breed approach nearly to 
 the qualities of the South Downs, and com- 
 mand as high a price. Half-breeds from 
 Leicester rams and Cheviot and black-faced 
 ewes, which resemble the true breeds in form 
 and quality, form saleable sheep in London. 
 The old black-faced breed are too thin in 
 the leg and back, and are in London termed 
 "goaty" There are by far too many of 
 this kind sent from Scotland, and they are 
 generally, besides, only hatt'-meated, or half 
 fat, and of course only fetch middling prices. 
 They, however, generally please the con- 
 sumer for flavour. Pure bred Leicesters 
 are too fat, unless they are sent young, and 
 do not exceed 20 lb. per quarter ; when 
 above that weight they fetch inferior prices. 
 A fine South Down or Scotch sheep, of 
 18 lb. per quarter, will fetch 7d. per lb. by 
 the carcass, whereas a heavy Leicester, 
 Gloucester, Lincoln, or Kent, of 24 lb. a 
 quarter and upwards, will realise no more 
 than 6d. 
 
 The carcasses of mutton to be sent to 
 835 
 
 London should, of course, be those of sheep 
 such as are here recommended to be sent 
 alive. Large quantities of fat are not so 
 desirable as a proportionable mixture of fat 
 with the lean. In using the loins and other 
 parts of very fat mutton for chops, much 
 of it has to be pared away, and sold for the 
 price of raw fat, perhaps 4d. a pound ; 
 whereas well mixed chops may be sold for 
 7c?. or 8d. a pound. This shows the nature 
 of the mistake committed in sending fat 
 heavy mutton to London. The great point 
 is, to select ripe mutton and sheep ; for the 
 latter will stand the voyage better than half 
 fat, and will not lose half the quantity of 
 flesh in three days as the latter. No over- 
 grown animals, having masses of fat on one 
 place and not on another, would therefore 
 command the top price : but those having 
 plump carcasses, well mixed with fat and 
 lean, firmly and equally laid on, with fine 
 symmetry and valuable points, will always 
 command the top price, both at Smithfield 
 and the carcass markets. 
 
 3. Selection of Lambs. — Lambs are a 
 favourite stock to send to London, and they 
 are always sent alive. Leicester lambs are 
 admirably adapted for the London market. 
 They are handsome, compact, thick on all 
 the points, and although they might become 
 too fat when grown to sheep, they cannot 
 be too fat as lambs. Their flesh is white, 
 a property much admired in London, and 
 every joint of them looks well on the table. 
 The lambs of the cross between the Lei- 
 cester and the Cheviot and black-faced 
 ewes are next best for fat and lean, and cut 
 well into joints, although they have not the 
 handsome figures of the pure Leicester. 
 True Cheviot and black-faced lambs, unless 
 very fat, do not take so well in Smithfield, 
 not being so compact, taking longer time to 
 come to maturity, not cutting up so thick, 
 and presenting small joints on the table ; 
 but they make very delicate and high- 
 flavoured chops. No lambs should be sent 
 to Smithfield until they are at least three 
 months old, and have obtained the weight 
 of 91b. or 10 lb. a quarter; and if they are 
 not fat enough, and have not attained that 
 weight at that age, they should be kept on. 
 Shippers may calculate on a loss of 1 lb. a 
 quarter on the voyage : unless, therefore, 
 lambs are from 91b. to 10 lb. a quarter, they 
 would be too small after that loss, and they 
 then become unsaleable except at low prices. 
 Ewe lambs are preferred, being more de- 
 licate than wethers, which are next in value, 
 for ram lambs are very unsaleable. All 
 wether lambs, therefore, intended for Smith- 
 field, should be castrated when a few days 
 old, and their tails cut short, leaving not 
 more than three inches. The docking gives 
 3 h 2 
 
MEAT. 
 
 them a very compact form, and it causes 
 the flesh to grow up towards the back, 'long 
 tails giving a contrary tendency. 
 
 4. Selection of Pigs and Pork. — Much 
 caution is requisite on the part of the shipper 
 of pigs for London. A very mistaken no- 
 tion prevails among many shippers, and the 
 notion has been contracted in ignorance of 
 the nature of the London market, that pigs 
 must be fat to suit the English taste. The 
 fact is quite the reverse, for the larger the 
 pig is fattened, the less money per pound it 
 fetches. Pigs are worth the most money 
 when their weight ranges from 35 lb. 40 lb.; 
 and from this weight up to 60 lb. or 70 lb., 
 they are termed dairy fed porkers. If at 
 the former weight, they are of good sym- 
 metry, fine quality, delicate and white in 
 the flesh, and not more than 1 inch or li 
 inch thick of fat on the back, they will fetch 
 the top price of the day. Pigs of the average 
 weight of 60 lb. will give about Id. per lb. ; 
 from 70 lb. to 100 lb., averaging 851b., and 
 
 2 inches thick of fat, 6d. per lb. ; from 100 lb. 
 to 1501b., averaging 130 lb., and about 2i 
 inches of fat, 5d. to 5\d. per lb. ; from 1501b. 
 to 2001b., averaging about 170 lb., and about 
 
 3 inches of fat, 4c?. to A\d. per lb. ; and all 
 above the last weight and thickness of fat, 
 only about 2>\d. per lb. Besides the large- 
 sized, a very small fat pig is not relished in 
 London. Indeed, we need not be surprised 
 at this preference, when we consider that 
 only the small lean and fat porkers are used 
 for roasting, chops, and pickled pork, and 
 the large fat pigs are chopped down for 
 sausages. No pigs, therefore, should be sent 
 to London exceeding 100 lb., exclusive of 
 head and feet, but which are only mode- 
 rately fat and of fine quality ; all other qua- 
 lities should be cured as flitch bacon and 
 hams. Pigs, if possible, should be sent alive 
 to London. Occasionally they arrive in 
 pretty good order in carcass ; but in carcass, 
 in thick weather, the flesh becomes very 
 soft, and the skin dry ; and in dry weather 
 the skin becomes quite hard and brown- 
 coloured. Of equal qualities, the live pig 
 will draw from a halfpenny to a penny a 
 pound more than in carcass. Feeders of pigs 
 should be careful on what they feed their 
 pigs, especially fish. The retail butchers 
 are such nice judges of pork, that on buying 
 a carcass at Newgate or Leadenhall market, 
 and cutting a slice, they can detect the 
 least peculiarity in taste, which, if they do, 
 they will return it again, and cause the 
 carcass to be resold for what it will bring, 
 rather than send any such pork to their 
 customers. 
 
 ( 'utting up Meat—Ike mode of cutting 
 up meat is more diversified even than the 
 slaughtering, almost every town having its 
 
 own. But as London is the great empo- 
 rium of the export meat trade of Scotland, 
 the method of cutting up meat in the me- 
 tropolis should constitute the particular 
 study of the shippers of meat. To acquire 
 this necessary information, the shippers 
 should have a few of the most expert but- 
 chers in London to slaughter and cut up 
 the carcasses of the various sorts of animals. 
 They should never consider themselves 
 above acquiring such information, when 
 their own interest will be benefited by its 
 adoption. Whether the London method of 
 cutting up meat is really the best of any, 
 and we think it is, it must be admitted that 
 the London butchers must have the most 
 extensive and varied experience ; and any 
 one has only to witness the operation per- 
 formed by expert London butchers, to be 
 satisfied that they display great skill in 
 their art, and execute their work with the 
 utmost precision. Indeed, the precision 
 with which they divide the different qua- 
 lities of meat from the same carcass shows 
 their thorough knowledge of the qualities 
 of meat ; and the variety of prices which 
 diiferent parts of the same carcass fetch 
 shows with what accuracy they can gratify 
 the tastes of the various grades of their 
 customers. 
 
 In practising this precision, they not only 
 make the best use of the carcass, but realise 
 the highest value for it, and at the same 
 time gratify the taste of the greatest num- 
 ber of customers. In the carcass of any 
 animal, an ox, for instance, there are differ- 
 ent qualities of meat, and these qualities 
 are situated in different parts of the carcass. 
 All the best parts are in London used for 
 roasting and steaks, and the inferior for 
 boiling, either in pieces, or making stock for 
 soups, or minced meat, in the various forms 
 of pies, sausages, &c. 
 
 The carcass of an ox is cut up. into the 
 following pieces, as may be seen on refer- 
 ring to the numbers on the annexed cut, 
 
 The relative value of these different cuts 
 of an ox may be stated at their current value, 
 viz., when the rumps, loins, and fore ribs of 
 a fine ox fetch 8d. a pound, the thick flank, 
 buttock, and middle rib will fetch 6d. ; the 
 itch or adze-bone, thin flank, chuck rib, 
 brisket, and leg of mutton piece, 5d. ; the 
 clod and sticking, and neck, 3d. ; and the 
 legs and shins, 2d. a pound. Such is the 
 difference in value of the different cuts of 
 an ox in the meat markets in London. 
 
 As an object of comparison, Ave shall 
 also give a figure of an ox cut up in the 
 Edinburgh method, as in fig. 2., and the 
 great difference between both methods may 
 be seen at a glance. 
 
MEAT. 
 
 It is therefore obvious, that, 
 of the two methods of cutting 
 up beef, the London affords 
 much more of roasting and steak, 
 that is, the more valuable pieces, 
 out of the same carcass; and 
 of course more money would 
 thereby be realised from it. 
 
 Much of what we have said 
 on the management requisite in 
 sending beef to the London mar- 
 ket will apply equally to send- 
 ing mutton, veal, or lamb to 
 the same market. The best 
 pieces only should be sent to 
 London, and the remainder kept 
 for the home market : and were 
 this recommendation attended 
 to, the expenses of exportation 
 would be diminished on what 
 was sent ; for the best pieces 
 would pack well together in 
 a comparatively small space, 
 whereas whole carcasses of mut- 
 ton, by the roundness of the 
 rib, occupy much unnecessary 
 room, for which freight must be 
 paid. 
 
 Mutton is also cut up differ- 
 ently in London and Scotland, 
 as may be seen on referring to 
 the figures at the top of next 
 page, of which the first repre- 
 sents the London method. 
 
 In the fore quarter, No, 1 is 
 the shoulder, 2 and 2 the neck, 
 after the shoulder has been 
 taken off, and 3 the breast ; and 
 in the hind quarter, 4 is the 
 loin, which, when cut double, 
 that is, partly from both sides 
 of the carcass, is called a chine 
 or saddle, and 5 is the leg. A 
 leg of mutton in London is cut 
 short; a haunch is cut long, 
 taking in the hook-bone, similar 
 to a haunch of venison. The 
 flap of the loin is left attached to that part 
 of the fore quarter called the breast. The 
 Scotch mode of cutting up mutton is re- 
 presented by fig. 2., in which, in the hind 
 quarter, No. 1 is the gigot, and 2 the loin ; 
 and in the fore, 3 the back ribs,- and 4 the 
 breast and shoulders. The gigot is cut about 
 halfway between the leg and haunch of 
 the London method ; and the fore quarter 
 is cut right through the shoulders in two 
 places, called back ribs and breast. Shoul- 
 ders of mutton are never cut off in Scot- 
 land before being cooked, except by keepers 
 of eating-houses ; but the London plan of 
 cutting mutton is decidedly the best, the 
 shoulder forming an excellent roast, and 
 837 
 
 fv 
 
 3 N. 
 
 rrrn 
 
 1 \ 8 \ 9 \ 10 
 
 1 4 / 
 
 
 \ ,2 J), 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 I PI 
 
 3. Itch or adze-bone. 
 
 4. Buttock. 
 
 5. Hock. 
 
 Fore Quarter. 
 
 8. Fore rib. 
 
 9. Middle rib. 
 
 10. Chuck rib. 
 
 11. Brisket. 
 
 12. Leg of mutton piece. 
 
 13. Clod and sticking and neck. 
 
 14. Shin. 
 
 Hind Quarter. 
 
 1. Sirloin or back sye. 
 
 2. Hock-bone. 
 
 3. Buttock. 1„, mn 
 
 4. Large round j rum P- 
 
 5. Small round. 
 (3. Hough. 
 
 7. Thick flank. 
 
 8. Thin flank. 
 
 Fore Quarter. 
 
 9. Nine holes. 
 
 10. Large runner. 
 
 11. Small runner. 
 
 12. Spare rib, or fore sye. 
 
 13. Brisket. 
 
 14. Shoulder Iyer. 
 
 15. Nap or shin. 
 
 16. Neck. 
 
 17. Sticking piece. 
 
 the best end of the neck piece being admi- 
 rably suited for chops. 
 
 The different joints of mutton almost 
 vary as much in price in London as pieces 
 of beef. The leg is sometimes sold as high 
 as 10c?. a pound, whilst the breast of the 
 same sheep will only fetch 4c?. or 5d. ; and 
 if, in the wholesale market, the whole car- 
 cass is sold at 6d. a pound, the hind quarter 
 will be worth 7d. and the fore only 5d. 
 From these facts it is obvious, that it is the 
 interest of the shipper only to send hind 
 quarters of mutton to London, for which 
 7d. a pound may be easily obtained, and a 
 ready market for them in the west end 
 butchers, who seldom deal in fore quarters. 
 3 h 3 
 
MEAT. 
 
 The fore quarters could be sold at home ; 
 hence thus realising as much for them as 
 they could fetch in London, besides saving 
 on them the freight, commission, and 
 wharfage. They form excellent joints for 
 tradesmen's families, and are, in fact, gene- 
 rally preferred by them to the hind quar- 
 ters, which are considered dry eating, and 
 certainly do not make so good broth as the 
 fore quarter. Besides the saving of room 
 in packing the hind quarters, they would 
 run no risk of being stained when sent by 
 themselves, as the staining generally arises 
 from blood oozing out of the veins in the 
 fore quarter. 
 
 Lamb is cut up in London in much the 
 same manner as mutton, excepting that the 
 neck and breast, when the shoulder is 
 taken off, is roasted whole, and the piece is 
 called ribs of lamb. In Scotland lamb is 
 cut up exactly as mutton. 
 
 Veal is cut up in London in a different 
 way from any other meat. The knife is 
 drawn between the buttock and itch-bone, 
 and through the pope's eye, taking a sloping 
 direction through the coarse end of the 
 buttock, leaving a flap. The piece thus 
 cut out is called a fillet of veal. It is like a 
 round of beef with a part of the thin flank 
 left to be skewered around it. The round 
 bone is taken out, and stuffing put into its 
 place. When the itch-bone and hook-bone 
 are cut from the loin, the piece is called a 
 chump of veal. The hind quarter of veal 
 thus consists of fillet, chump, loin, and leg. 
 The fore quarter is cut in the same manner 
 as mutton, having shoulder, breast, and 
 neck. In Scotland, veal is cut very much 
 like mutton. 
 
 The London mode of cutting up pork is 
 the same as the Scotch method of cutting 
 up mutton, so fig. 2. will illustrate the 
 mode ; in which, in the hind quarter, No. 1 
 838 
 
 MEDICK. 
 
 is the leg, and 2 is the loin ; in the fore, 
 3, back- rib, chine or hand ; and 4, breast 
 and shoulders, spring or belly. The spring is 
 used for pickling, and the hand for roasting, 
 and for chops, or sausages. In Scotland, 
 the hind quarter consists of leg and loin, 
 and the fore of back-ribs and breast. For 
 pickling or roasting, pork is cut in the hind 
 quarter like that of English mutton, and in 
 the fore like that of Scotch. In both coun- 
 tries, the ham is cut out alike. (Donovans 
 Dom. Econ. ; Quart. Jour, of Agr. vol. viii. 
 p. 241 — 281.) See Cattle and Salting. 
 
 MEDICK. (Medicago.) An extensive 
 genus of herbaceous, mostly procumbent, 
 plants. The perennial herbaceous species 
 are sometimes cultivated for ornament ; they 
 will grow in any common garden soil, and 
 are increased by dividing the roots of the 
 plants in spring. The shrubby kinds grow 
 in a similar soil, and are readily increased 
 by cuttings. The seeds of the annual spe- 
 cies require to be sown in the open border 
 in spring. There are six indigenous species. 
 
 1. Purple medick, or lucern (M. sativd). 
 See Lucern. 
 
 2. Yellow sickle medick, or button-jags 
 (M.falcatd). This perennial species grows 
 on dry gravelly banks and old walls. The 
 root is long and woody. In habit it very 
 closely resembles lucern, but the numerous 
 stems are procumbent, spreading every way, 
 hairy. The clusters are upright, usually 
 shorter, and more dense than those of M. 
 sativa, but this varies according to exposure 
 or luxuriance. The flowers, which blow in 
 June and July, are generally pale yellow, 
 but occasionally violet, and more frequently 
 green, evidently from a combination of these 
 two colours. The legumes are black, downy, 
 sickle- shaped, not twisted in a screw, as in 
 lucern. This species is, perhaps, as good 
 fodder as lucern, though less succulent, and, 
 from its position, less accessible to the scythe. 
 It withstands severe winters better than 
 lucern, and is eaten eagerly by cattle and 
 horses, though its stalks are hard and woody. 
 
 3. Black trefoil medick, or nonsuch (M. 
 lupulina). This annual species is very com- 
 mon in meadow pastures and cultivated 
 fields, where it flowers from May till August. 
 The black medick has the habit of some of 
 the procumbent yellow trefoils, and has such 
 general resemblance to the proper trefoils 
 or clovers, that it is often mistaken for some 
 of the smaller species. The form and colour 
 of the seed-pods afford a ready distinction. 
 The root is tapering, and somewhat fibrous. 
 Stems angular, trailing, about a foot long, 
 not branched except at the bottom. Lea ves 
 obovate, or wedge-shaped. Flowers small, 
 yellow, from thirty to forty and upwards in 
 each spike, which is at first roundish, after- 
 
MEDLAR. 
 
 MELIC-G11ASS. 
 
 wards ovate. Legumes kidney-shaped, 
 rugged and veiny, single-seeded, turning 
 black when ripe. Sir J. E. Smith speaks of 
 this as " one of the most valuable of artificial 
 grasses, affording excellent fodder for 
 sheep ;" but this good opinion is hardly borne 
 out by experience, for though Arthur 
 Young makes favourable mention of it, Sin- 
 clair, in his more recent experiments on the 
 grasses, observes that it is only fit for light 
 soils, and these must be deep, as the root pe- 
 netrates to a considerable depth. It does 
 not appear to be fit for separate cultivation, 
 nor even to be employed in any large pro- 
 portion in a mixture of" other seeds ; and the 
 root being annual, its use is, therefore, con- 
 fined to the alternate husbandry. 
 
 4. Spotted medick (M. maculatd). This 
 is another annual species, growing on a 
 gravelly soil in the southern parts of Eng- 
 land. The root is fibrous, beset with little 
 fleshy knobs. Stems prostrate, various in 
 length. Leaflets inversely heart-shaped, 
 spotted. Stipules dilated, sharply toothed. 
 Flowers yellow, rather small, two or three to- 
 gether. Legumes spiral, depressed, fringed 
 with long spreading bristles ; when ripe, 
 brown, not black. This has been mentioned, 
 but not much recommended as a fodder for 
 cattle. 
 
 5. Flat-toothed medick (M. muricata). 
 This is a doubtful native, growing on the 
 sea coast. It is an annual, and flowers in 
 June and July. The stems are, however, 
 bent ; annual ; stipules deeply toothed, hairy, 
 as well as the obovate somewhat rhomboid 
 leaflets. Legumes even, with short de- 
 pressed radiating teeth, in a single row. 
 
 6. Little bur medick (M. minima). This 
 is a little prostrate annual species, growing 
 in sandy fields, but rare, clothed in every 
 part with fine soft rather silky hairs. Sti- 
 pules half ovate, nearly entire. Leaflets 
 obovate. Flowers, blowing in June and 
 July, are four, five, or more in each cluster ; 
 yellow, with a hairy calyx. Legumes or- 
 bicular, with a double row of hooked spines, 
 spreading in opposite directions. (Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 317.; Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 324.) 
 
 MEDLAR. (Mespilus.) A genus of 
 large-growing fruit trees, which are very 
 ornamental, and therefore worth a place in 
 every shrubbery. Any common soil suits 
 them, and they are readily increased by 
 budding or grafting on the common haw- 
 thorn, or they may be increased by seeds, 
 which do not vegetate till the second year 
 
 The common medlar (M. germanica) is 
 indigenous, growing wild in hedges. The 
 branches of this tree are spreading, and 
 thorny in a wild state ; but the thorns dis- 
 appear by culture, and are not to be seen 
 839 
 
 in gardens. Leaves deciduous, lanceolate, 
 four or five inches long, a little downy. 
 Flowers solitary, nearly sessile, terminal, 
 large, with white undulated petals, in- 
 odorous. Styles five. Fruit depressed, con- 
 cave at the top, somewhat hairy ; austere, 
 not eatable till it is mellowed by keeping. 
 Cultivation has produced many varieties, 
 differing in size and flavour. The Dutch 
 medlar is the finest as to size, and the Not- 
 tingham the most delicate in flavour. 
 
 The wood, being hard and tough, resem- 
 bling that of the pear tree, is useful for 
 various domestic vessels, as well as for the 
 smaller implements of husbandry. {Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 360. ; Phillips Fruits, p. 
 228.) 
 
 MEDULLA, or MEDULLIN. (Lat. 
 marrow.) In botany that tissue which con- 
 stitutes the pith of certain plants, as the 
 pith of the sun-flower. Medullary rays are 
 the vertical plates of cellular tissue, which 
 radiate from the centre of the stem of exo- 
 genous plants, through the wood to the bark. 
 They cause that appearance in timber which 
 carpenters call silver grain, or flower of the 
 wood. The medullary sheath is a thin layer 
 of vessels, which surround the pulp of exo- 
 genous plants, and thence extend into the 
 leaves and parts of fructification. 
 
 MELIC-GRASS. (Melica, from mel, 
 honey ; the Italian name of the great mil- 
 let.) A genus of perennial harsh grasses, 
 with slender oblong panicles of elegant, 
 often drooping, flowers, greatly varied in 
 the different species. There are three in- 
 digenous species. 
 
 1. Wood melic-grass (M. unifiora), which 
 is found frequent in groves and thickets. 
 The root is creeping ; stem eighteen inches 
 high, smooth, slender, unbranched, leafy. 
 Leaves deep green, flat, thin, taper-pointed, 
 with fine rough ribs and edges. Sheaths 
 nearly, or quite smooth, half as long as the 
 leaves. Panicle branched, drooping towards 
 one side. Flowers erect, tremulous, ele- 
 gant, variegated with green, white, and 
 deep reddish-brown. Spikelet with only 
 one perfect floret. 
 
 2. Mountain melic-grass (M. nutans). 
 This species, as its name implies, inhabits 
 mountainous woods in the north of Eng- 
 land and Scotland. Root creeping, as in 
 the preceding. Leaves smoother, and rather 
 narrower, w r ith an extremely short stipule. 
 Panicle close, drooping, nearly simple, of 
 the colour of the last-described species. 
 Spikelet with two perfect florets. Petals 
 beardless. In the Isle of Ramsay this grass 
 is manufactured into twine for fishing-nets, 
 which are remarkable for their durability. 
 
 3. Purple melic-grass (M. ccerulea). This 
 is a hard, coarse, reedy grass, varying 
 
 3 h 4 
 
MELILOT. 
 
 MELON. 
 
 greatly in luxuriance, and growing in bar- 
 ren, sandy, boggy ground, especially about 
 turfy pools on mountainous heaths. The 
 root consists of many strong fibres, often 
 twisted. From six inches to two feet high, 
 according to the depth of soil it grows in. 
 Culms rather bulbous at the base, with 
 a single joint near the bottom. Leaves 
 taper-pointed, rough, except at the back. 
 Panicle close, drooping^ nearly simple. 
 Flowers pendulous, dull violet- coloured or 
 brown. Petals beardless. Spikelet with 
 two perfect florets. 
 
 For the purposes of pasture or hay, this 
 grass is comparatively of no value. The 
 country people make of the tough straws a 
 neat kind of besoms, which they sell to the 
 neighbouring inhabitants as a cheap, and 
 no despicable substitute, for hair brooms : 
 they are even made into baskets where 
 better materials are rare. This grass is 
 useful to point out the fitness of deep peat 
 soils that are dry the chief part of the year 
 for the production of ash, alder, and willow 
 trees, &c. ; and it will be found that on such 
 parts of the peat as are destitute of this 
 grass, they will not succeed so well, if at 
 all. Mr. George Sinclair made some expe- 
 riments on an exotic species, the fringed or 
 or ciliated melic-grass (M. ciliata), which 
 grows wild in Germany on hilly grounds, 
 downs", and by the margins of woods ; but 
 the result of his observations only went to 
 prove that it was one of the inferior grasses 
 with respect to produce, nutritive qualities, 
 and reproductive powers. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 1 1 1 . ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. 
 p. 208. 286.) 
 
 MELILOT, COMMON, Melilot Tre- 
 foil, King's clover, Hart's clover. (Trifo- 
 lium officinale.) This indigenous plant is 
 very nearly allied to the long-rooted clover : 
 the tapering root, however, appears to be 
 strictly annual. The lower leaves are ob- 
 long, wedge-shaped ; the upper ones ellip- 
 tical : they are more serrate, and smaller in 
 every respect than those of the long-rooted 
 clover. The flowers are smaller and more 
 drooping. The legume contains often more 
 than two seeds, which is seldom or never 
 the case in the long-rooted clover. 
 
 The common melilot grows wild in thick- 
 ets, hedges, and the borders of fields, 
 sometimes among corn. Stem two or three 
 feet high, erect. Clusters unilateral, two 
 inches or more in length, on long axillary 
 footstalks. Flowers numerous, all drooping 
 towards one side, of a full yellow, veiny. 
 Stipules awl-shaped. Legumes prominent, 
 acute, transversely wrinkled, hairy. 
 
 All the species of live stock are said to 
 eat I his clover. The whole plant in drying 
 acquires a scent like new hay, but .far 
 840 
 
 stronger. The seeds, when mixed with 
 bread corn, give it a nauseous flavour. 
 This plant is used in making the Swiss 
 cheese called schabzieger. It is ground in a 
 mill, and mixed with the curd into a kind 
 of paste, which is put into conical moulds, 
 and there dried. 
 
 From the experience of Sinclair and 
 others, this plant appears to be very much 
 inferior to the long-rooted clover, and can- 
 not be put to any use for which that species 
 is not equally good or superior : it grows 
 chiefly in clayey soils. In very exposed 
 situations it attains only to a small size ; 
 while in such as are sheltered it sometimes 
 reaches to the height of six feet. It ripens 
 an abundance of seed, and flowers in the 
 third or last week of June. Melilot is out 
 of use in medicine, though it served too 
 long to give a green colour and an odious 
 scent to a sort of blister plaster, called by 
 its name, of no use whatever. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 297'. ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. 
 p. 393.) See Clover and Trefoil. 
 
 MELILOTUS. (Lat. mel, honey, and 
 lotus, a leguminous plant.) The plants are 
 similar to the lotus, and are the favourite 
 haunt of bees. These are, for the most 
 part, honey-scented plants, with upright 
 stems, and long erect racemes of small yel- 
 low or white flowers, resembling those of 
 clover, of which they were formerly con- 
 sidered distinct species. In some parts of 
 Europe two or three varieties are cultivated 
 as annual fodder plants. 
 
 MELON, THE COMMON, or MUSK. 
 (Cucumismelo.) An herbaceous, succulent, 
 climbing, or trailing annual, cultivated for 
 its fruit in hot eastern countries from time 
 immemorial. The varieties of the melon 
 are numerous ; yet few of them compara- 
 tively are worthy of cultivation. The larger 
 varieties especially are deficient in flavour 
 and richness. Mr. Knight says, that who- 
 ever is acquainted with the green-fleshed, 
 and Salonica, or white-fleshed, will culti- 
 vate no other. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 263.) 
 
 The Cantaloups are varieties character- 
 ised by their rinds being universally co- 
 vered with reticulations. With the excep- 
 tion of the green, or oblong-ribbed, these 
 bear round fruit, more or less approaching 
 a flattened spheroid. Their common name 
 is derived from that of one of the country 
 seats of the Pope, where they are much 
 cultivated. 
 
 The soil, of course, is one of the principal 
 points to be attended to ; consequently, it 
 is one which has received considerable in- 
 tention, and the formulas for its preparation 
 are proportionately numerous. I am per- 
 fectly confident that they are almost uni- 
 
MELON. 
 
 versally too rich in their composition ; and 
 entirely agree with Mr. Howison of Cross- 
 burn House, Scotland, who considers mouldy 
 earth from a pasture, without any addition, 
 much better than a compost. From several 
 years' experience, he finds the latter makes 
 the vines luxuriant and the fruit large, but 
 neither so abundant nor high-flavoured. 
 {Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. p. 213.) 
 If, however, the earth is to be obtained 
 from a less fertile source, the practice of 
 Mr. Flanagan, gardener to the Marquis of 
 Northampton, may be advantageously 
 adopted. He forms his soil of three parts 
 rich loam, and one part well rotted dung. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 188.) 
 The Dutch and German horticulturists 
 form their composts one or two years be- 
 fore it is employed, of one third hazel loam, 
 one third scouring of ditches, and one third 
 well-rotted dung. Miller recommends, as 
 better suited to our climate, two thirds of 
 fresh gentle loam from the surface of an old 
 rich pasture, and one third rotten neat's- 
 dung : whilst Abercrombie directs it to be 
 formed of two thirds of the top-spit from a 
 sheep common, adding sharp sand, if the 
 earth contains but little, until it is half sili- 
 cious matter, one sixth vegetable mould, 
 one sixth well-decayed horse-dung, or, if 
 the earth is not obtained from a pasture, 
 sheep-dung. 
 
 In any case, even if simple earth is em- 
 ployed, it is of considerable advantage to 
 have it procured two or three months at 
 least before required; and being kept be- 
 neath a dry shed, to be frequently turned, 
 pulverised, and the largest stones removed, 
 no weeds being suffered to grow upon it, or 
 to shed their seeds in its neighbourhood. 
 Although a common hotbed is generally 
 used for this plant, yet a pit, as it is tech- 
 nically termed, is more economical ; and, by 
 enabling a more regular temperature to be 
 sustained, renders the fruit in greater per- 
 fection. The pit is a rectangular frame or 
 bin, built of nine-inch brickwork, in pre- 
 ference to boards (which have to be re- 
 newed every five or six years, if employed), 
 three feet high at the back, lessening to two 
 in fronts six or eight broad, and of any 
 length required, but not less than ten feet. 
 This is to contain the tanners' bark, leaves, 
 or stable-dung employed, and inclosed by a 
 glass case of the necessary dimensions. Mr. 
 Smith, gardener to A. Keith, Esq. of Ra- 
 velstone, N. B., has suggested a mode of 
 building a pit, which renders the renewal of 
 the heat in it easy, and, as the committee 
 appointed to examine it report, is the means 
 of considerable saving, compared with the 
 common mode of forming an open bed. But 
 the facility with which linings may be ap- 
 841 
 
 plied is its best feature ; for if by any 
 chance the heat failed, there was seldom 
 any alternative, in the old pits, but to break 
 them up. 
 
 If a common hotbed is employed, fifteen 
 barrow-loads of dung is the usual allow- 
 ance to each light, which make it about six 
 inches higher than is allowed for the cu- 
 cumber-bed of largest dimensions. The 
 melon is propagated by seed, which may be 
 sown about the middle of January ; but 
 the usual time is about the same period of 
 the succeeding month, or not even until its 
 close, if severe weather : to be repeated to- 
 wards the end of March, and lastly, in the 
 first weeks of April and May. The length 
 of time that elapses between the sowing 
 and readiness of the fruit for cutting, of 
 course depends in chief upon the variety 
 employed. But, at all events, little time is 
 gained by sowing before February is well 
 advanced, and much more risk of failure 
 incurred. On the average, fifteen weeks 
 elapse ; in the shortest and coldest days of 
 winter, eighteen. As the spring advances, 
 it decreases to eleven or twelve ; these pe- 
 riods necessarily varying in different years. 
 The mode of sowing, managing the seed- 
 lings, pricking out, &c, being the same as 
 with cucumbers, only that a few degrees 
 higher temperature is required, I shall re- 
 fer the reader to that head to avoid repeti- 
 tion. It may be remarked in addition, that 
 the pots in which the seed is sown should 
 be three or four inches deep. Each sowing 
 is best performed at twice, four or five days 
 being allowed to elapse before the second 
 insertion is made ; this guards, as much as 
 possible against failure. The pots should be 
 plunged by degrees, and not at once, down 
 to the rim. Those for pricking plants into 
 must be about five inches in diameter. The 
 first stopping is usually performed in the 
 seed-beds. The bed being formed, and the 
 heat become temperate, so that the mould 
 can be applied without danger of being 
 scorched, it must be spread over about two 
 inches thick, and a tumulus, with a flat top, 
 fifteen inches in height, and of the same 
 breadth at the base, formed in the centre of 
 each light. In two or three days the plants 
 may be inserted, care being taken to remove 
 them with as little injury as possible to the 
 roots ; for in proportion as these are injured, 
 are the plants retarded. The removal should 
 take place as soon after the attainment of 
 the rough leaves as possible, or, at the latest, 
 immediately on the appearance of the lateral 
 runners. If the bed is not at this time ready, 
 those from the earth of the seed-beds must 
 be moved into pots, and those already in 
 them turned into larger ones, from whence 
 they may be finally removed at a farther 
 
MELON. 
 
 advanced stage of growth, without detri- 
 ment : one plant only should be allowed to 
 remain, for no more are required for each 
 light. Water must be given with the pre- 
 cautions enumerated for cucumbers, and 
 especial care taken not to wet the foliage, 
 or to apply it too abundantly, and repeated 
 two or three times until the plants are esta- 
 blished. When completely rooted, the bed 
 may be earthed by degrees to its full depth, 
 sixteen inches, it being first added imme- 
 diately round the cones, and pressed mode- 
 rately firm as it is laid on. The pruning 
 and training must be performed the same 
 as in cucumbers, as also the same precau- 
 tions taken to admit air and light, and to 
 shade and cover, &c. It is in the training 
 and management of the foliage in parti- 
 cular, that the generality of gardeners are 
 careless, although the labours of the physio- 
 logist and chemist have demonstrated how 
 important it is that every leaf should be 
 kept in its natural posture and vigour. So 
 convinced was Mr. Knight of the little at- 
 tention paid to this point, that he took some 
 melon plants under his especial care. He 
 placed one under each light, the glass of 
 which was six feet by four; the branches were 
 trained regularly, and secured by pegs in 
 every direction ; and still further to present 
 the largest possible surface of foliage to the 
 light, the leaves were held erect at equal 
 distances from the glass. As great injury 
 is sustained by these from the common 
 mode of watering, it was so performed as 
 not to touch them. By this simple addi- 
 tional care, the other routine of their ma- 
 nagement being the same as usual, the fruit 
 attained an extraordinary degree of perfec- 
 tion, and ripened in an unusually short space 
 of time. Mr Knight further directs, how- 
 ever, that whenever a sufficient quantity of 
 fruit is set, the production of more leaves 
 is to be prevented, if they cannot be ex- 
 posed to the light without overshadowing 
 the fruit, by pinching off the laterals as 
 soon as formed. No part of full-grown 
 leaves, however, should be destroyed, though 
 far distant from the fruit. (Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 262. ; Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Lond. vol. i. p. 223.) If the plants suc- 
 ceed well, they will spread over the entire 
 bed in about five or six weeks ; at which 
 time a coating of fresh fermenting matter 
 is generally required : if of dung, and ex- 
 posed to the air, it must not be less than 
 three feet wide on each side of the bed, 
 firmly trodden down, commencing at its 
 vty bottom, digging a trench, if it was 
 originally constructed in one. Earth must 
 also be put on to the same depth as in the 
 interior of the frame; if this is neglected, 
 as is too often the case, the root often ex- 
 842 
 
 tends to the edge of the bed, and becomes 
 dry before all the fruit is matured. The 
 temperature requires particular attention 
 at the time of setting and ripening, though 
 neglect at all the stages of growth is fatal. 
 It must never fall below 70° or rise above 
 80°. The seed or nursery bed may con- 
 tinue about the minimum, but neveF below 
 it ; and the fruiting one as constantly ap- 
 proximating the maximum as possible. 
 
 Impregnation must be performed as di- 
 rected for cucumbers. 
 
 When the runners completely touch the 
 side of the frame, if the season is genial, it 
 must be raised three or four inches by means 
 of bricks, otherwise they must be pruned. 
 From this the propriety of having only one 
 plant to a light is evident ; for the runners 
 being often six or seven feet long, and very 
 numerous, require, if there is not room for 
 training, the frame to be lifted long before 
 the season will allow it. 
 
 As soon as the fruit is set, they must be 
 looked over three or four times in a week, 
 to observe which is the most vigorous and 
 finest; of these, one that has the largest 
 footstalk, and the nearer the main stem the 
 better, must be left on each runner, and 
 all others nipped off, the runner at the 
 same time being broken away at the third 
 joint above it. Eight melons on one plant 
 of the large varieties, and about twelve of 
 the smaller ones, is quite sufficient to be 
 left; if more are suffered to remain, they 
 will either be of inferior size and quality, 
 or not ripen at all. By this pruning, fresh 
 runners are often induced ; but these must 
 in like manner be stopped, and any fruit 
 they may produce removed. If a super- 
 abundance are produced, which, especially 
 if new seed is employed, will sometimes 
 happen, it is necessary to thin them ; and 
 in doing this, the weakest and most luxu- 
 riant must alike be rejected, those of an 
 average size being the most fruitful. It 
 must always be kept in mind, that air 
 should be admitted as much and as often 
 as circumstances will allow. During mild 
 and serene afternoons and evenings, the 
 glasses may be entirely removed, but on no 
 consideration left off all night. In very 
 warm weather they may be kept off from 
 ten in the morning until five, a shade being 
 afforded to the plants during the meridian, 
 if they flag at all. It is necessary, both for 
 melons and cucumbers, that something 
 should be laid between the fruit and the 
 earth of the bed, otherwise it will be 
 specked and injured in appearance; clean 
 straw and reeds, spread in thin but regular 
 layers, are often employed for this purpose. 
 If tiles or pieces of board are made use of, 
 it is of considerable service in forwarding 
 
MELON. 
 
 the ripening, lo have them painted or 
 charred black ; but what would be still 
 better, is coal-ashes spread over the sur- 
 face of the bed, two or three inches deep, 
 and beat smooth. This, I am of opinion, 
 is preferable, from its power of absorbing 
 and retaining heat, and inferior in no other 
 quality to drifted sea or river sand, recom- 
 mended by Mr. Henderson of Brechin 
 Castle, N.B., which, he observes, extirpates 
 the slater or wood-louse, by preventing it 
 concealing itself from the rays of the sun ; 
 it keeps down the steam ; affords a bed for 
 the fruit as warm and as dry as tiles or 
 slates ; retains the moisture longer, whilst 
 it becomes dry itself sooner than those 
 coverings, and is a powerful preventive of 
 that evil, the mildew. {Mem. Ceded. Hort. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 117.) If tiles or slates are 
 employed, they must be put under the fruit 
 as soon as it has attained the size of a wal- 
 nut ; the other materials immediately after 
 the plants are well established. A regular 
 moisture should be kept up by moderate 
 waterings, applied with all the precaution 
 intimated for cucumbers ; but when the 
 fruit is becoming ripe, water must be 
 either altogether withheld, or applied very 
 sparingly. About thirty or forty days usu- 
 ally elapse between the setting and full 
 ripeness of the fruit ; but this varies in the 
 same bed, and even on the same plant. As 
 it approaches to ripeness, it must be gently 
 turned twice or three times during a week, 
 otherwise that side which lies constantly on 
 the ground will be blanched and disfigured. 
 Its maturity is intimated by a circular 
 crack near the footstalk, sometimes becom- 
 ing yellowish ; but more decidedly by the 
 emission of a fragant smell. The cutting 
 should be performed early in the morning, 
 and the fruit kept in a cool place until 
 wanted, either in an ice-pail, or certainly 
 in cold water. The whole of the stalk is 
 left pertaining to it when cut. For the 
 production of seed, some fruit of the ear- 
 liest raised crops must be left ; of these, 
 the finest and firmest should be selected, 
 the choice being guided by the same cir- 
 cumstances as are mentioned for cucum- 
 bers. No two varieties should be grown in 
 the same frame, either when the seed is an 
 object, for then it would be contaminated, 
 or if the fruit is alone required, for their 
 growth and vigour almost always differing, 
 different treatment is required by each. 
 Neither should cucumbers or gourds be al- 
 lowed to vegetate in such a situation as to 
 risk mutual impregnation by insects. Both 
 of the melon and cucumber, such seed only 
 should be kept as sinks freely to the bottom 
 of water. Seed is best for sowing when 
 three or four years old ; if less than two, 
 843 
 
 the plants raised from it are apt to produce 
 a super-luxuriance of vine, and a multi- 
 tude of male blossoms. If new seed is un- 
 avoidably employed, it should be hung in a 
 paper or phial near the fire, until wanted, 
 or be carried in the pocket for three or 
 four weeks. If, on the contrary, the seed 
 is very old, it should be soaked in milk- 
 warm water for two or three hours before 
 sowing. When twenty years old, it has 
 been known to produce fruitful plants. 
 For hand-glass crops, plants are required 
 from sowings of the middle of March, April, 
 or early in May, and whose fitness for plant- 
 ing out is marked by the rough leaf, &c, 
 as intimated before. 
 
 The bed must be four and a half feet 
 wide ; in length proportionate to the num- 
 ber of glasses, which must be at least four 
 feet apart ; and eight barrow-loads of dung 
 being allowed to each glass, it will be about 
 two and a half feet high. It may be founded 
 in a trench, if the soil is dry ; but it is best 
 constructed on the surface. 
 
 The earthing, planting, and other points 
 of management, are precisely the same as 
 for the frame crops. The temperature 
 need not, however, be so high, the maxi- 
 mum required being 70° ; but it must 
 never sink below 65°, which may easily be 
 accomplished by linings, &c. The runners 
 must not be allowed to extend from be- 
 neath the glasses until June, or the weather 
 has become genial and settled, but be kept 
 within, as noticed for cucumbers. When 
 allowed to escape, all dwindled or super- 
 vigorous shoots must be removed, and the 
 training be as regular as for those in the 
 frames. The glasses raised upon props 
 must, however, be kept constantly over the 
 centre, as a shelter to the capital parts. 
 The bed requires to be hooped over for the 
 support of mats in cold or wet weather, 
 and at night. If, from deficiency of glasses, 
 papered frames are employed, the most un- 
 remitting attention is required, the plants 
 being very apt to spindle under them. 
 They may, however, be employed with ad- 
 vantage in the place of mats for sheltering 
 and shading. If the weather is at all un- 
 favourable at the time the fruit is approach- 
 ing maturity, it is highly advantageous to 
 place hand-glasses over those that are 
 growing exterior to the original one. The 
 latest fruit seldom ripen even with the 
 greatest care and attention unless there are 
 spare frames to inclose them entirely ; those 
 which do not are employed in pickling. 
 
 For a tolerable supply throughout the 
 season, a small family requires one three- 
 light frame and three hand-glasses : these 
 together will yield, on the average, thirty 
 or forty melons. The largest establishment 
 
MELON PUMPKIN". 
 
 METEOROLOGY. 
 
 will not require more than four times as 
 many. 
 
 Melons, like cucumbers, may be propa- 
 gated by cuttings. Plants thus raised 
 produce their fruit rather sooner than if 
 raised from seed. 
 
 In conclusion, it may be remarked, that 
 the directions and observations that have 
 been elicited whilst treating of the culti- 
 vation of these two plants reciprocally ap- 
 ply, and repetition has therefore been, as 
 much as possible, avoided ; three variations 
 of importance only being required — a 
 freer admission of air, a higher tempera- 
 ture, and much less water to the melon. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 MELON PUMPKIN, or SQUASH. 
 (Cucurbita melopepo.) See Gourd. 
 
 MEMBRANE. In anatomy, is an ex- 
 pansion of any tissue in a thin and wide 
 layer. Since the time of Bichat, the mem- 
 branes have been generally enumerated as 
 of three kinds : the serous, the mucous', and 
 the fibrous. The mucous membranes are 
 those which line the canals of the body 
 which are exposed to the action of air or 
 foreign matters, such as the lining of the 
 nose, the trachea, sesophagus, stomach, in- 
 testines, &c. The serous membranes form 
 the lining of the sacs, or closed cavities, as 
 of the chest, abdomen, &c. The fibrous 
 membranes are tough, inelastic, and of a 
 tendinous character ; such as the dura mater, 
 the pericardium, the capsules of joints, &c. 
 {Penny Cyclo. vol. xv. p. 88. ; Brande's 
 Diet, of Science.} 
 
 MENDING. A country term used to 
 signify the improving the quality or texture 
 of land by the application of manure. 
 
 MENZIESIA. Two species of this ever- 
 green shrubby heath are now indigenous, 
 both of which flower in June and July. 
 
 1 . Scottish Menziesia (M. ccerulea), which 
 is rare, but grows on dry heathy moors. 
 The stem is determinately branched, four 
 or five inches high, decumbent in the lower 
 part, leafy above. Leaves crowded, linear, 
 obtuse, bright shining green, not half an 
 inch long. Flower-stalks terminal, aggre- 
 gate, simple. Flowers five-cleft, decan- 
 drous, of a pale bluish-red. 
 
 2. Irish Menziesia (M. polifolia). This 
 shrub grows on mountains in the west of 
 England, on a boggy soil. The bushy stem 
 rises from twelve to eighteen inches high, 
 with many simple upright leafy branches, 
 at length decumbent and spreading. Leaves 
 numerous, rather crowded, ovate, half an 
 inch long, slightly revolute ; downy and 
 white beneath. Flowers revolute, large, 
 handsome, drooping, purplish-red, four- 
 cleft, octandrous, in terminal leafy clusters. 
 The cultivated varieties are very numerous. 
 
 844 
 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 222.) See 
 Irish Heath. 
 
 MERCURY. (Mercurialis.) These are 
 regarded as mere weeds, possessing narcotic, 
 fetid, and dangerous qualities. 
 
 1. Perennial mercury (M.perennis) grows 
 very common on banks, and in bushy places 
 or groves. The root is widely creeping ; the 
 herb rough, fetid, very poisonous, though, 
 as appears from the accounts of ancient 
 writers, it may be eaten, boiled as a pot- 
 herb, if mixed with mucilaginous plants 
 and oily substances. Instances are, how- 
 ever, recorded of the fatal consequences of 
 its use occasionally in this country. The 
 stems are imbranched, square, a foot high, 
 leafy in the upper part. Leaves ovate, 
 acute, serrated, two or three inches long. 
 Flowers on axillary stalks, in interrupted 
 erect spikes, the barren ones most nume- 
 rous. See Dog's Mercury. 
 
 2. Annual mercury (M. annua). This 
 species is found both in waste and cultivated 
 ground ; but not very frequent. The root is 
 much branched, simple at the crown. Herb 
 from six to twelve inches high, erect, bushy, 
 smooth, of a bright shining green, disposed 
 to turn bluish after drying, like M.perennis. 
 Branches numerous, crossing each other. 
 Leaves ovate-lanceolate, less copiously ser- 
 rated. Flowers green ; the barren ones in 
 small tufts, ranged in interrupted spikes ; 
 fertile ones fewer, stalked, axillary. The 
 qualities of this are like the last described 
 species, though supposed rather less viru- 
 lent. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 248.) 
 
 MERCURY, THE COMMON ENG- 
 LISH. See Goosefoot. 
 
 MERINO SHEEP. See Sheep. 
 
 MERLIN. See Hawks. 
 
 MERLIN'S GRASS. One of the com- 
 mon names of the European quillwort. 
 (Isoetes lacustris.) See Quillwort. 
 
 MESHES. In botany, the openings in 
 any tissue. Among fishermen, it signifies 
 the space between the threads of a net. 
 
 MESLIN-CORN. A term applied to 
 wheat and rye produced in a state of mois- 
 ture. 
 
 MET. A provincial measure, which con- 
 tains a strike, or four pecks. 
 
 METEOROLOGY. The science of me- 
 teors, or the science which explains the 
 various phenomena which have their origin 
 in the atmosphere. Under the term me- 
 teorology, it is now usual to include not 
 merely the observation of the accidental 
 phenomena to which the name of meteor is 
 applied, but every terrestrial as well as at- 
 mospherical phenomenon, whether acci- 
 dental or permanent, depending on the 
 action of heat, light, electricity, and mag- 
 netism. In this extended signification, 
 
METEOROLOGY. 
 
 MEU. 
 
 meteorology comprehends climatology, and 
 the greater part of physical geography ; and 
 its object is to determine the diversified and 
 incessantly changing influence? of the four 
 great agents of nature now named, on land, 
 in the sea, and in the atmosphere. It is 
 the object of meteorology to investigate 
 and discover the modes of operation, and 
 the causes instrumental, as well as final, of 
 the multitude of interesting phenomena 
 which exercise an influence on the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms. To this science 
 belongs the examination of the force of ra- 
 diation from the sun, or the temperature 
 directly produced by his beams ; the in- 
 quiry into the constitution, mechanical as 
 well as chemical, of that intimate intermix- 
 ture of gaseous bodies which is the subject 
 of what are called atmospheric changes ; the 
 scrutiny of the laws governing the vari- 
 ations of climate ; that also of those which 
 regulate the diminution of heat in the at- 
 mosphere, in proportion to the altitude ; 
 the developement of the principles deter- 
 mining the quantity and state of* the aque- 
 ous portion of the atmosphere; and the 
 acquirement of knowledge, in short, on 
 every subject of science presented by the 
 atmosphere itself, or by its modes of re- 
 lation to the aqueous and mineral king- 
 doms, and the general laws of its influence 
 on organised matter. This branch of na- 
 tural history also comprehends the exam- 
 ination of two great series of phenomena, 
 not strictly comprised by the foregoing 
 enumeration ; by which, on the one side, its 
 boundaries are united with those of phy- 
 sical geography, and on the other side with 
 those of astronomy. The temperature of 
 the interior of the earth itself, and that of 
 the ocean, as well at the surface as at every 
 accessible depth — subjects of the greatest 
 interest, with respect not only to the pre- 
 sent state of the earth, but also to its former 
 physical condition — are so intimately con- 
 nected with the temperature and other af- 
 fections of the atmosphere, that the study 
 of them becomes, in fact, a department of 
 meteorology. And the various kinds of 
 luminous and igneous meteors which appear 
 Avithin the atmosphere, though some of them 
 originate, in all probability, in distant regions 
 of the solar system, — such as the zodiacal 
 light, the polar lights, or aurora borealis 
 and australis ; the meteors called shooting 
 stars, and the stupendous masses of matter 
 in combustion called fire-halls, which cast 
 down upon the earth immense blocks of 
 red-hot iron, or showers of heated stones, — 
 constitute another wide field of meteorolo- 
 gical inquiry. The Meteorological Society 
 of London has tended much to enlarge our 
 stock of information on this interesting 
 84-5 
 
 branch of science, which must ever command 
 the especial consideration of the shepherd, 
 the farmer, and the cultivator of the soil in 
 general. This society has, in the course of 
 years, accumulated a vast fund of evidence 
 from all parts of the world; and as it is 
 from an attentive observance of the various 
 meteors, and the apparent causes which in- 
 fluence and regulate them, that we can 
 alone hope to arrive at any correct data 
 and inferences on the important subjects of 
 climate, temperature, and the change of the 
 weather in general, it is gratifying to find 
 that the society is now periodically publish- 
 ing some portions of that body of facts 
 which have been collected by the assiduity 
 of its members, in a Quarterly Journal. 
 This work, with those of Howard and Whis- 
 tlecraft on the Climate of England, we re- 
 commend to all desirous of increasing their 
 stock of knowledge on climatology, &c, and 
 who wish to acquire some useful hints for 
 predicting the probable character of the 
 weather. Among subjects connected with 
 meteorology which are treated in separate 
 articles, we may notice Atmosphere, Ba- 
 rometer, Hygrometer, Weather, and the 
 various terms referred to under Meteors. 
 (Brande's Diet, of Science; Mag. Nat. 
 Hist. vol. i. p. 150. ; Penny Cyclo. vol. xv. 
 p. 141.) 
 
 METEORS. A name given to any phe- 
 nomena of a transitory nature originating 
 in the atmosphere. Meteors are of various 
 kinds : some are produced simply by a dis- 
 turbance of the equilibrium of the atmo- 
 spheric fluid, and are called aerial meteors ; 
 such are Winds, Whirlwinds, &c. A 
 second class arise from the deposition of 
 the aqueous particles which the atmosphere 
 holds in solution, and which are precipitated 
 in consequence of a diminution of pressure 
 or temperature, sometimes in a fluid and 
 sometimes in a concrete form. These are 
 called aqueous meteors, as Dew, Fogs, Haix, 
 Rain, Snow, Vapour, &c. A third class 
 of meteors or atmospheric phenomena are 
 caused by the action of the aqueous par- 
 ticles dispersed in the atmosphere, or the 
 rays of light. These are called luminous 
 meteors, and comprise fata morgana, halo, 
 mirage, parhelia, and rainbow, &c. A fourth 
 class are the igneous meteors, comprehend- 
 ing those which present the phenomena 
 distinctive of combustion. See Aerolite, 
 Northern Lights, Lightning, Shooting 
 Stars, &c. 
 
 METHEGLIJST. (Germ, meth, mead.) A 
 beverage made of honey and water, fer- 
 mented by the addition of yeast. See 
 Mead. 
 
 MEU, or MEUM. See Baedmoney and 
 Fes nee. 
 
MEZEREON. 
 
 MILDEW. 
 
 MEZEREON, or SPURGE OLIVE. 
 {Daphne mezereum.) This is a pretty in- 
 digenous shrub, which grows wild in woods, 
 but is not common. The stem is bushy, four 
 or five feet high, with upright, alternate, 
 smooth, tough and pliant branches; leafy 
 while young. Leaves scattered, stalked, 
 lanceolate, smooth, deciduous, two inches 
 long, appearing after the flowers, and soon 
 accompanied by flower-buds for the next 
 season. The flowers are pale garnet-co- 
 loured, highly, and to many persons too 
 powerfully fragrant, seated in little tufts 
 on the smaller branches. The scarlet berries, 
 which are the favourite food of some species 
 of finch (Loxia) are poisonous to many ani- 
 mals. There are varieties with pink and 
 white flowers ; and the berries also vary to 
 a yellow or orange hue. The bark of the 
 root is employed in medicine. It is excitant 
 and sudorific. The active principle is a 
 fixed acrid aloe resin. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 228. ; Sylva Flor. vol. ii. p. 75.) 
 See Spurge Laurel. 
 
 MICE. (Mus.) A very destructive sort 
 of vermin to many of the cultivator's grow- 
 ing and housed crops, and which should, 
 therefore, be destroyed as soon as possible. 
 Cats, dogs, owls, and hedge-hogs are the 
 natural enemies of rats and mice, and 
 should, therefore, be encouraged about the 
 farm. See Field-Vole, Harvest Mouse, 
 and Vermin. 
 
 To destroy Rats and Mice in Corn 
 Stacks. — The following method was adopted 
 by the late Mr. John Gibson of Millbeck 
 Hall, Keswick, and is still continued by his 
 son, Mr. Joseph Gibson of the same place, 
 with never-failing success. It is accom- 
 plished by simply driving in a few hedge- 
 stakes at about four feet distance round the 
 stack intended to be housed, and having a 
 woollen or linen web of about six-fourths or 
 seven-fourths wide upon the stakes, so as 
 to be perfectly close at the bottom, of which 
 particular care must be taken, in order that 
 none of the vermin may creep under the 
 folds. It is certain that none will attempt 
 to climb over the top, and it matters not 
 whether there are fifty or a hundred within 
 the enclosed area, they will be quite safe. An 
 active lad and a dog may easily destroy any 
 number, and he must be a clumsy fellow if 
 he lose one in a hundred. A few neighbours, 
 by subscribing about 2s. 6d. each, might get 
 an article at 10<Z. a yard that would serve 
 them all for about twenty years. If the 
 above simple method were generally adopted 
 !<>r a short time, those destructive enemies 
 to the stack-yard would soon be considerably 
 reduced. A correspondent of the Mark 
 Lane Express suggests the following plan for 
 the destruction of these obnoxious vermin. 
 846 
 
 Feed with flour and a few sweet almonds 
 bruised and mixed together, with a small 
 quantity of treacle, to form a paste (add a 
 few drops of oil of aniseed), for five or six 
 nights, until they take it freely, never lay- 
 ing more of the mixture than they will eat 
 up clean; then add a teaspoonful of car- 
 bonate of barytes to about a pound of the 
 paste. I prefer the barytes to arsenic, it 
 being free from the sour taste of the arsenic, 
 which the rats will never take a second time. 
 By using the above composition, I have kept 
 my premises clear, without employing a 
 rat-catcher, at the expense of a few shillings 
 a year. 
 
 MID-RIB. In botany, the middle vein 
 of a leaf, which passes from the petiole to 
 the apex. 
 
 MIDDLE-HORNS. See Cattle. 
 
 MIGNONETTE. (Reseda, to calm or 
 appease ; the Latins considered its applica- 
 tion useful in external bruises.) The sweet 
 mignonette (JR. odoratd) is an old and uni- 
 versal favourite, on account of the very 
 pleasant odour emitted by the flowers. In 
 summer it merely requires the treatment 
 of other hardy annuals ; but to obtain flower- 
 ing plants through the winter and spring- 
 months, two other sowings must be made, 
 and the plants potted, and plunged in old 
 tan or ashes, with the protection of a frame. 
 The suffruticose, or shrubby species, may 
 be increased by cuttings or seeds. (Pax- 
 ton's Bot. Diet.) Though usually annual, 
 by care in a green-house and constantly 
 pruning, the cultivated mignonette may be 
 rendered perennial, and even shrubby. 
 
 MIGNONETTE, THE WILD. (Re- 
 seda luteal) See Rocket. 
 
 MILCH COWS. See Alderney Cows, 
 Cattle, Dairy, Milk, Butter, &c. 
 
 MILDEW, or RUST. Of all the many 
 diseases which attack our cultivated plants, 
 not one is so destructive as the mildew. It 
 is the " plague " of our wheat crops ; and as 
 that fatal distemper is always lurking in 
 some district of climes warmer than our 
 own, so the mildew is. always in our fields, 
 waiting for circumstances favourable to its 
 outspread, and ready to destroy the ex- 
 pected harvest of the husbandman. So 
 constantly present is this destructive dis- 
 order, that in the fairest fields of wheat, 
 grown in the richest corn districts of Eng- 
 land, and in the most genial years, I never 
 saw a single acre entirely uninfected. Every 
 year the farmer is more or less injured by 
 this disease, for the produce of each acre of 
 wheat is unquestionably reduced annually 
 several bushels. Yet those who Buffer 
 most by the loss, the farmers themselves, are 
 almost universally ignorant of the fact ; and 
 their attention is rarely arrested by it till 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 a year occurs in which their crop of wheat 
 is nearly annihilated. 
 
 Its prevailing injurious nature was well 
 known in an age as distant as that of the 
 Hebrews ; and it had not spared the Greeks 
 and Romans. Even the poets, as Horace 
 in his Odes, speak of it as the " sterile Ru- 
 bigo " (Carmin. lib. 3. ode 23.) ; and warning 
 voices have not been since wanting to speak 
 loudly of its ravages. Mr. Marshall says, 
 " a certain preventive of the mildew wouldt 
 be a discovery worth millions to this coun- 
 try;" and many others have coincided in 
 this estimate of it s injuries. 
 
 This disease is known to be the effect 
 produced by a minute fungus belonging to 
 a genus closely allied to that which causes 
 the smut. The roots of this fungus pene- 
 trate the vessels of the plant, and are nou- 
 rished by the sap intended for perfecting 
 its seed ; consequently, if the fungi are so 
 numerous in each stem, as to make it a 
 marked " mildew year," the grain is either 
 partially or totally shrivelled, owing to the 
 roots of these parasites intercepting the sap 
 in its upward passage. 
 
 The ignorance relative to this disease is 
 not a consequence of its novelty. It is not, 
 like the American blight, a malady recently 
 occurring in our crops, but was known and 
 dreaded in the earliest ages to which our 
 knowledge extends. Thus, when God held 
 out as a warning to the Israelites the afflic- 
 tions he would bring on them if disobedient , 
 he enumerated the pestilence and the sword 
 to destroy their persons, " with blasting and 
 with mildew," to lay waste their fields 
 (Deut. xxviii. 22. ; 1 Kings, viii. 37. ; 2 
 Chron. vi. 28.) ; and when the same Al- 
 mighty Being had punished that rebellious 
 people, he reminded them by his prophet ; 
 " I have smitten you with blasting and mil- 
 dew ; when your gardens and your vine- 
 yards, and your fig-trees, and your olive- 
 trees increased, the palmer- worm destroyed 
 them."- (Amos, iv. 9.) " I smote you with 
 blasting, and with mildew, and with hail, in 
 all the labours of your hands." (Haggai, ii. 
 17.) The Hebrews called it yarcoon, im- 
 plying a yellow pallidness arising from mois- 
 ture. To the Greeks it was known as 
 crusibe epvaiSr) ; and Theophrastus, who 
 wrote his History of Plants about 320 
 years before the Christian era, observes 
 (lib. viii. c. 10.) that it occurs more fre- 
 quently to corn than to pulse ; that in the 
 climate of Greece barley was more subject 
 to it than wheat, and particularly a variety 
 then known as achillurn barley. Experience 
 had taught them, that the crops on high- 
 lying lands were seldom attacked by this 
 disease; but that the hollows surrounded by 
 hills, where winds could not get at the crops 
 847 
 
 they bore, were most frequently infected. 
 It is chiefly generated, concludes Theo- 
 phrastus, during the full moon. 
 
 By the Romans the mildew was deno- 
 minated " Rubigo." Pliny informs us, in 
 his History of Plants (lib. viii. c. 28 and 
 29.), that it was the prevailing opinion that 
 this disease arises from certain dews settling 
 upon the corn, and obtaining a caustic or 
 burning quality from the intense heat of 
 the sun. This naturalist himself thought, 
 on the contrary, that the disease arises from 
 cold, considering that infection first occurs 
 during the sun, and always about the new 
 or full moon. Pliny, and the still later 
 writers of the Gcoponica (for this work is 
 composed of fragments of Roman writers 
 living after the removal of the seat of 
 empire to Constantinople, though written 
 in the Greek language), considered that 
 the best remedies were stinking pungent 
 smokes ; hence they recommend fish, horns, 
 goat's dung, &c. to be burned on such side 
 of the field as would enable the wind to 
 diffuse the smoke over and throughout the 
 crop. They evidently had the same pre- 
 judice as is now entertained by our own 
 farmers, that the mists which frequently 
 prevail during mid-day in the hottest pe- 
 riods of summer are the cause of the mil- 
 dew ; for they direct those fumigations to 
 be performed at such time as it is seen in 
 the atmosphere. They also thought that if 
 branches of the laurel were fixed among 
 their corn, the mildew would pass from the 
 crops to those branches. (Geopon. lib. v. 
 c. 33. ; Plinii Hist. Plant, lib. xvii. c. 17., 
 &c.) One of their practices recommended 
 is much more rational, namely, to bruise the 
 leaves or roots of the colocynth, to mace- 
 rate these in water, and before the sun has 
 risen, to sprinkle the infected crop with the 
 liquor thus obtained. It is possible that 
 the juice of the colocynth, which is violently 
 purgative to the human system, may be 
 destructive to the fungus constituting the 
 disease. It approaches to that which, in 
 modern times, has been found the only 
 effectual curative treatment ; and the direc- 
 tion that the application should be per- 
 formed in the morning evinces that it was 
 a direction suggested and confirmed by 
 experience. Columella (lib. ii. c. 12.) says, 
 that hoeing corn during wet weather is apt 
 to induce mildew. 
 
 Some modern writers have considered 
 that the rubigo of the Romans is the dis- 
 ease known to us as the smut ; but, inde- 
 pendent of the name, which evidently re- 
 ferred to the red or rusty hue of the disease, 
 and which is not a characteristic of the last- 
 named disorder, we have the direct tes- 
 timony of Virgil {Geor. I. 150.), that the 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 rublgo was a disease of the straw ; his words 
 are, " Mox et frumentis labor additus ; ut 
 mala culmos esset rubigo," &c. 
 
 Horace (Carminum, lib. iii. ode xxiii.) and 
 Ovid (Fast. iv. 907.) speak of the same 
 vegetable epidemic. The Greeks and Ro- 
 mans were as conscious as the Hebrews of 
 the destruction it would inflict on their 
 crops. They considered it as the instrument 
 of vengeance directed by a particular deity, 
 to whom they applied the same appellation 
 as to the disease itself. (Schneiders Scrip- 
 torum Rei Rustics, vol. i. pt. ii. p. 246.) To 
 propitiate this presiding deity, a festival 
 entitled Rubigalia, was instituted by N"uma 
 in the eleventh year of his reign, that is, 
 704 years before the birth of Christ. It 
 was celebrated annually on the 25th of 
 April, in the neighbourhood of a grove, at 
 the fifth milestone on the Claudian Way, 
 and comprised sacrifices, races, and ob- 
 scenities. Reddish-coloured bitches (rufce 
 canes) were sacrificed, because the lesser 
 dog-star was then in the heavens, and was 
 considered unpropitious to corn. (Plinii 
 Hist. Plant, lib. xviii. c. 29. ; Varii Flacci 
 Facti. p. 63.) 
 
 Ovid, who enters fully into the religious 
 performances of tjae festival, says, that the 
 limbs of a sheep and the entrails of a dog 
 were offered as a sacrifice on the occasion ; 
 and that the priest informed him that he 
 knew of no reason for the latter animal 
 being sacrificed, but that its name coincided 
 with that of the constellation which at that 
 season was apparent in the sky. The prayer 
 addressed by the priest to the presiding 
 deity marks so strongly their knowledge of 
 the extent and inducements of the disease, 
 that I shall give a nearly literal translation 
 of a part : — 
 
 " Oh blighting Rubigo, spare the corn plants, 
 
 And let the ear wave gently o'er the surface of the 
 earth ; 
 
 Suffer the crops which have been nourished by the 
 propitious 
 
 Stars of heaven, to grow until they become fit for the 
 sickle. 
 
 Thine is no small power : the crops thou hast marked 
 The dispirited cultivator reckons as lost. 
 Neither winds, nor showers, so much injure the corn ; 
 Neither when bitten by the frost does it acquire a hue 
 so pallid, 
 
 As if the sun fervently heats the moist stalks ; 
 Then, oh ! dread goddess, is the opportunity for thy 
 wrath ; — 
 
 Be merciful I pray, and withold your rusting hands 
 
 from the crops ; 
 Nor harm the cultivated land : it is sufficient to be able 
 
 to do harm." 
 
 The misty weather, mistaken by the Roman 
 cultivators as actually a cloud of mildew, is 
 only one of many numerous instances which 
 might be quoted where causes of the dis- 
 ease have been considered to be the disease 
 itself. To enumerate these would form a 
 long catalogue of mistakes; yet these I 
 should not hesitate to detail, because the 
 848 
 
 refutation would incidentally introduce 
 much useful information, but that they 
 will for the most part be noticed among the 
 circumstances which promote the occur- 
 rence and aid the progress of this epidemic. 
 
 The first person, I believe, who correctly 
 pointed out the nature of mildew, was 
 Felice Fontana, who, in the year 1767, pub- 
 lished at Lucca a very particular descrip- 
 tion of the fungus occasioning it, in a work 
 entitled " Osservazione sopra la Ruggine 
 del Grano" Since then it has engaged 
 the attention of many botanists, and the 
 results of their researches have been to es- 
 tablish it as a distinct species of fungus, 
 though they differ as to the genus to which , 
 they attach it. It is the Puccinia graminis 
 of Persooiis Disp. t. 3. f. 3. ; Mong. and 
 Nestler, n.675. ; Grevilles Flora Edinensis, 
 p. 433. ; Hookers Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. v. 
 pt. ii. p. 363. : and it is the TJredo frumenti 
 of Sowerby's Hot. t. 140. ; Banks in Annals 
 of Hot. vol. ii. p. 5 1 . ; Purton's Midland Flora, 
 vol.ii. p. 1128. 
 
 It grows on the leaves and stems of 
 wheat, &c, appears in dense diffuse tufts, 
 often confluent, forming long parallel lines 
 on the culms ; at first brownish-yellow, but 
 changing to black. Sporidia elongated, 
 clavate, very slightly constricted at the sep- 
 tum ; upper cell the shortest ; stipes filiform. 
 It must not be confounded with another 
 parasitical fungus, which is common upon 
 the wheat leaves and culms, but which is 
 not so injurious, namely, Uredo rubigo, 
 Decandolle 1 s Flora Franca,vo\.\\. p. 83.; Ca- 
 coma Rubigo, Lk. Sp. ii. p. 4. ; Hooker's 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. v. pt. 2. Spots yel- 
 low ; heaps oval, scattered, generally epi- 
 guous ; epidermis at length bursting longi- 
 tudinally ; sporidia sub-globose, red-brown, 
 easily dispersed. Those who would like to 
 consult drawings of the Puccinia graminis, 
 may find them in Sowerbys Botany, already 
 quoted, and in a pamphlet published in 
 1806 by Sir Joseph Banks, entitled "A 
 Short Account of the Disease called ths 
 Blight, the Mildew, and the Rust," from 
 which almost all subsequent drawings have 
 been copied. If the straw of wheat be ex- 
 amined with the assistance of a magnifying 
 glass, its striped surface will be seen to 
 arise from longitudinal partitions of the 
 outer bark or epidermis. The depressed 
 partitions are furnished throughout their 
 length with one or two rows of pores or 
 orifices, which seem capable of emitting or 
 imbibing moisture as the wants of the plant 
 may require. Similar pores, though vary- 
 ing in form and arrangement, pervade the 
 leaves and chaff, or glumes ; and it is in 
 these pores that the seeds of the parasitical 
 Puccinia obtain admission, and vegetating 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 in the cavities to which they lead, doubt- 
 less thrust their minute roots into the cel- 
 lular texture beneath the bark, and intercept 
 for their own nourishment that sap which 
 should proceed to the grain for its deve- 
 lopement and completion. The corn neces- 
 sarily becomes shrivelled, proportionally as 
 the fungi are more or less numerous on the 
 plant : and as it is the nutriment that would 
 have perfected the interior of the grain, 
 which is chiefly extracted by the fungi, for 
 the exterior form is nearly completed before 
 the mildew occurs, the proportion of flour 
 to bran is always much reduced. Sir J. 
 Banks observed, in 1804, which was a 
 "mildew year," that some of the wheat 
 would not yield from a sack so much as a 
 stone of flour. 
 
 Sir Humphrey, then Mr., Davy, placed 
 the loss caused by this fungus beyond a 
 doubt, by chemical analysis. He found that 
 1000 parts of 
 
 Flour. 
 961 
 
 Bran. 
 
 39 
 
 Thin-skinned Sicilian wheat afforded of Gluten 239 T 
 Starch 722 J 
 
 Middlesex wheat, average crop, Gluten - - 190\ 45 
 
 Starch - - 765 ( 
 Spring wheat, Gluten - 240 1 g 4 Q 
 
 Starch ... - 700 J 
 Mildewed wheat of 1804, Gluten - -1301 fi e n ,r n 
 
 Starch - -520J 6j0 3o0 . 
 
 Mildewed wheat of 1806, Gluten - - 521 91fl 7qn 
 
 Starch - -178 J 210 790 
 
 Showing, in one instance, a loss of 31 per 
 cent, of flour in the mildewed when com- 
 pared with the average English wheat, and 
 in the other of nearly 74 per cent. {Elem. 
 of Agr. Chem. p. 150.) Mr. W. Jones of 
 Wilmington, Somerset, found that wheat 
 particularly mildewed produced one fifth 
 less of flour than that not affected. {Com. 
 to Board of Agr. vol. v.) 
 
 I have almost always been able to detect 
 the Puccinia upon the lower part of the 
 culms, generally on the shoot-blade {folia 
 vaginans), early in June ; but it is not till 
 the following month that the season deter- 
 mines whether the ravages of this fungus 
 will be more than ordinarily extensive. 
 Throughout July the farmer should scru- 
 pulously, and almost daily, examine his 
 wheat crop, especially that which appears 
 strongest and most luxuriant ; and if he 
 detects any considerable number of tufts 
 of the fungus upon the stems, must lose no 
 time in using those curative measures which 
 will be detailed in the close of this article. 
 If July is hot and dry, it may be concluded, 
 without much fear of disappointment, that 
 there will be but little injury incurred by 
 the mildew. The reason of this is very 
 apparent ; for in such a season no fungus 
 will vegetate vigorously. This order of 
 plants invariably delights and flourishes in 
 a moist atmosphere, and in a subdued light, 
 accompanied by gentle warmth. A muggy 
 season is the most expressive term to de- 
 849 
 
 scribe that wherein the mildew vegetates 
 most rapidly. In such seasons likewise it 
 unfortunately happens that the wheat plants 
 remain longest succulent, their pores ex- 
 panded, and their fibres relaxed; circum- 
 stances peculiarly favourable to the admis- 
 sion of the seeds of the fungus, to their 
 vegetation, and to the penetration of their 
 roots. That it is in such seasons the Puc- 
 cinia vegetates most rapidly and extensively, 
 is supported by the observations of others ; 
 for, although they consider such a season 
 as the actual cause of the mildew, their 
 testimony is equally valuable, though from 
 it they have drawn erroneous conclusions. 
 Thus, M. Duhamel says, that the mildew is 
 caused by mild, hazy, or gloomy weather, 
 while the corn is at the height of its vege- 
 tation ; that is, about the time of its bloom- 
 ing. When a hot sun has succeeded such 
 weather, be observed the wheat crops mil- 
 dewed in a few days. He always observed 
 wet springs very productive of this disease ; 
 but it rarely occurs in clear, dry, hot years. 
 One or two writers have given most incom- 
 prehensible theories of the cause of mildew. 
 Thus, " A Lincolnshire Farmer," in the 
 Annals of Agr., says, the cause is " mild 
 winters and the inflammation of oxygen gas 
 at the eve of harvest ; " and Dr. Lewis, in 
 the same work, considers that corn is mil- 
 dewed probably by the atmosphere being 
 " phlogisticated ; " and, proceeding in his 
 explanation, he adds, " The atmosphere, par- 
 ticularly in summer, being loaded with 
 putrid effluvia, so as to be incapable of 
 attaining the height necessary to undergo 
 the chemical process of putrefaction by the 
 action of the vitriolic, nitric, and muriatic 
 particles with which the air of the lighter 
 regions is charged, and therefore it descends 
 in that undepurated and unwholesome fluid 
 we call mildew." Did the Doctor under- 
 stand what he meant himself? 
 
 Mr. R. Somerville concluded that the 
 mildew originates from the attacks of in- 
 sects introduced with the manure {Com. to 
 Board of Agr. vol. ii. p. 200.) ; but he evi- 
 dently intended by his descriptions the mi- 
 nute acarus (a species of louse) which is 
 almost always to be found upon decaying 
 vegetable matter ; and in the cases of mil- 
 dews, this insect is the follower, not the 
 introducer, of the disease. The Abbe 
 Rozier, in his " Dictionary," observes that 
 it is " caused by the drops of fog or dew, 
 dissipated by a hot sun ; " an opinion which 
 is the echo of Ovid's verses forming part 
 of the Flamen's prayer for the preserv- 
 ation of the Roman crops from this dis- 
 ease — 
 
 " Quantum, si culmos Titan incalfacit udos ; 
 Tunc locus est irae Diva tremenda tua?." 
 
 3 i 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 And such a season, as I have before ob- 
 served, has a damp atmosphere, which, 
 above all other states of the air, is favour- 
 able to the vegetation of this Puccinia. 
 There is no doubt, also, that in such seasons 
 vegetables are more than ordinarily weak, 
 and prone to disease, in which condition 
 they are likely to become the prey of pa- 
 rasitic plants. " The application of cold 
 water to the plant," says Mr. Knight, " on 
 which the sun is shining strongly, is very 
 injurious to its health, and therefore likely 
 to give increased activity to any disease to 
 which the plant is subject." This observ- 
 ation follows the detail of an experiment, 
 in which he found that sprinkling wheat 
 plants growing on ground very dry with 
 cold water in the afternoon of a warm 
 bright day, caused them to be extensively 
 mildewed. " A considerable absorption, 
 therefore, probably took place ; and to this 
 absorption," says he, " and the effects of a 
 sudden change of temperature, as secondary 
 causes, I am disposed to attribute the ap- 
 pearance of the disease ; but whether the 
 seeds of the mildew were carried into the 
 pores of the plants by the water, or existed 
 there before, is a question which I shall not 
 attempt to solve." (Banks, On the Blight 
 in Corn, p. 30.) There is no difficulty in 
 accounting whence the seeds of the fungi 
 came ; for Mr. Knight records, in the pre- 
 vious page, that other wheat plants close by 
 were extensively mildewed. 
 
 The observations of Mr. Marshall, which 
 were the results of long experience in many 
 counties in England, coincide with the pre- 
 ceding opinions. " In a dry warm summer," 
 he remarks, "which is well known to be 
 favourable to the health, vigour, and pro- 
 ductiveness of the wheat crop, the seeds of 
 the fungi are harmless, so long as the fine 
 weather continues. On the contrary, in a 
 cold wet season, which gives languor and 
 weakness to the wheat plants, few crops 
 escape entirely. A succession of cold rains, 
 while the grain is forming, is very indu- 
 cive." Mr. Marshall previously concludes 
 that " The fungi are an effect, not the cause, 
 of the disease ; " an error which is at once 
 refuted by the fact, that if all the fungi are 
 removed from a plant it is speedily cured. 
 
 Of other circumstances favourable or 
 unfavourable to the occurrence or ex- 
 nsjx ration of mildew, little need be said, 
 because they have comparatively little in- 
 fluence upon its occurrence. All soils and 
 situations are liable to its incursions ; for 
 i1 i - in the fullest sense of the term, epi- 
 demic. The soil on which it appears the 
 most rarely is a tenacious clay; and that 
 on which, when it does occur, its ravages 
 are the most extensive and destructive, is 
 
 the light, calcareous, and rich. (Chatterton, 
 a Lincolnshire Farmer, Annals of Agr. vol. 
 xliv. ; A. Young ; Marshall, 8fc.) " As far 
 as my observations extend," says Mr. Egre- 
 mont, " the soils wherein clay predomi- 
 nates have yielded crops the least affected by 
 the mildew. The soils most liable to have then- 
 crops injured, particularly that of wheat, 
 are the following, and in the order stated : — 
 Peat or moor, calcareous, calcareous loams, 
 sand, sandy loams, and another kind not 
 found in any great breadth, but in patches, 
 chiefly but not exclusively in clayey soils. 
 The practical farmer calls it grey earth." 
 (Egremonfs Obs. on the Mildew, p. 93.) 
 
 The slightly superior power of clayey 
 soils to protect the crop growing upon 
 them from being the most severely affected 
 by the mildew, probably arises from the 
 temperature of such soils being less liable 
 than lighter ones to sudden vicissitudes 
 of temperature. Dr. Hales found, in the 
 month of August, when the temperature of 
 the air and of the surface of the soil were 
 88°, that the temperature of the soil sixteen 
 inches below the surface was 70°. In Oc- 
 tober, when the air and surface were at 
 35°, the temperature at sixteen inches be- 
 neath was 48°, and at twenty-four inches 
 50°. This statement led me to make a few 
 experiments upon the comparative rapidity 
 of cooling, or, in other words, the power 
 of conducting heat of various soils ; and I 
 invariably found, that the mercury in a ther- 
 mometer, whose bulb was buried equally 
 deep in a silicious, as those of others were 
 in a calcareous and in an aluminous soil, 
 rose most rapidly, and that in the last 
 named most slowly. Their rapidity of 
 cooling followed the same order. Some 
 experiments substantiating the same fact 
 will be found in Sir H. Davy's Agricultural 
 Chemistry, p. 179. Every gardener knows 
 the injury his plants sustain from sudden 
 vicissitudes of temperature. " Whatever has 
 a tendency to check a quick and great loss of 
 heat in the substances which surround such 
 vegetables, particularly their roots, will be 
 best calculated to save them from that injury, 
 and from vegetable death ; consequently, 
 those earths which are the worst conduc- 
 tors of heat, or, in other words, are the 
 longest in heating or cooling, will be most 
 favourable in resisting any sudden alter- 
 ation, and the vegetables growing on them 
 will be the least injured when so assailed." 
 {Egremonfs Observations on the Mildew, 
 p. 30.) 
 
 Situation appears to have rather more tu- 
 telary power than the soil, since I have in- 
 variably found the wheat growing in fields 
 lying in closely enclosed valleys more fre- 
 quently and more seriously injured by mil- 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 dew than those upon elevated exposures. "A 
 Lincolnshire Farmer," Mr. Lambeth, and 
 other writers in the forty-fourth vol. of the 
 Annals of Agriculture, agree in this observ- 
 ation, and it is no more than might be 
 anticipated from our knowledge of the habits 
 of the fungus tribe ; such situations being 
 always more damp, and subject to a moist, 
 foggy atmosphere. 
 
 All varieties of wheat are liable to the 
 disease, but the white is always the earliest 
 affected, and the bearded or rivet the last. 
 This may arise from the latter variety 
 having a firmer epidermis, arising from its 
 containing a little more silex, and thence 
 having its pores less easily acted upon by 
 atmospheric changes, and consequently less 
 liable to the entrance of the seeds of this 
 fungus. Moreover, the hardness of the 
 epidermis checks their rapid outspread when 
 vegetating. Mr. Sirs considered spring 
 sown wheat not liable to this disease of the 
 mildew, and that is the general opinion in 
 South Holland. (Com. to Board of Agr. 
 vol. v. p. 182.) Other authorities deny that 
 spring wheat is exempted from it ; and to 
 this opinion I incline, in the absence of any 
 thing like decisive knowledge on the point. 
 
 Early sowing is advisable, because the 
 wheat plants, by this means, have a chance 
 of passing the time of blooming before they 
 are extensively attacked ; and the more 
 advanced the growth of the seed, the more 
 it is out of the power of this parasite to 
 check its perfection. Another reason sug- 
 gested by Mr. W. Jones of Wilmington, 
 Somerset (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. v.), 
 is, that, when sown late, the plants are 
 green and sappy in July, and even at the 
 commencement of August, the season in 
 which the cold and frosts occur that are so 
 inducive of the disease ; and this green state 
 necessarily renders them more than ordi- 
 narily liable to suffer by such a reduction 
 of temperature. On this account it is that 
 in super-luxuriant crops, and plants grow- 
 ing upon dunghills, the former are liable 
 to, the latter almost always are infected by, 
 mildew. Yet the time for sowing is no 
 unfailing preventive ; for in " mildew years," 
 all crops are attacked; and instances have 
 occurred where, in fields sown in Sep- 
 tember, October, and November, the first 
 and the last have been most injured. 
 
 The berberry has been anathematised as a 
 source of this vegetable pest ; but I have 
 never yet met with any facts which establish 
 the charge. It is true that Rolesbury in Nor- 
 folk is locally known as " mildew Roles- 
 bury," and that the berberry abounds in 
 the neighbourhood of that village ; but I 
 know many low-lying arable districts, pro- 
 verbially liable to the mildew, having no 
 851 
 
 berberries in their vicinity. It is true that 
 a band of mildew has been traced across a 
 field of wheat from a berberry bush grow- 
 ing in one of its hedgerows ; but then I 
 have seen a similar track of the disease 
 commencing from an oak. It is also true 
 that Mr. Knight, the late excellent Presi- 
 dent of the London Horticultural Society, 
 found wheat, sprinkled with water, in 
 which berberry branches had been washed, 
 speedily become infected with the mildew ; 
 but he also ascertained that wheat, sprink- 
 led with clear water, became similarly dis- 
 eased. I have tried many experiments, 
 with a view to ascertain the truth or error 
 of this supposition, but have not succeeded. 
 However, I am convinced that the parasite 
 which affects the berberry is not the Puc- 
 cinia graminis : the sporidia are dissimilar, 
 and the colour totally unlike ; but it may 
 be, and certainly much resembles, the 
 Uredo rubigo. It is no objection to say 
 that the identity is unlikely, because the 
 plants attacked are so widely distant ; for, 
 as already noticed, these parasites will ve- 
 getate on very various and even dead ve- 
 getable matters. The parasite which infects 
 the leaves of the berberry is JEcidium ber- 
 beridis : it is a beautiful minute gastro 
 mycus, and there is no resemblance between 
 it and the rust of wheat except in clover. 
 It is a vulgar error to suppose that an 
 JEcidium on the berberry could produce a 
 Puccinia on wheat." See Berberry. 
 
 The age of the seeds, the thickness of 
 sowing it, and previous or subsequent cul- 
 tivation, appear to have no preservative 
 influence; therefore, it now only remains 
 to consider whence the seeds of the fungi 
 come to the crop, which will lead to a con- 
 sideration of the modes of prevention ; and, * 
 lastly, whether there is any practicable 
 cure. There seems to me little doubt that 
 the fungus is communicated from the soil 
 to the crop. It is certainly not conveyed 
 thither with the seed-corn, for no washing, 
 no cleansing, nor pickling of this has ever 
 been observed to have any effect. In " mil- 
 dew years," all fields of any infected dis- 
 tricts are affected; and when it is only 
 partial, one end, or a breadth across the 
 middle of a field, of which the seed has 
 all been treated alike, will be grievously 
 injured, whilst the other parts suffer little 
 more than ordinarily ; for I have previously 
 noticed, every year and in all fields, the 
 mildew is partially present. There is little 
 difficulty in accounting for this. Every Puc- 
 cinia sheds some hundreds of seeds, more 
 minute and lighter even than those of the 
 puff-ball ; and as every wheat crop annually 
 produces some, these are wafted over neigh- 
 bouring closes by every wind during their 
 3 i 2 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 seeding- time, which is chiefly in the months 
 between May and October. In the soil 
 upon which those seeds alight, they attach 
 themselves to the stubble or other matters, 
 and vegetate, reproducing seeds, or re- 
 maining without germination until the fol- 
 lowing spring. This fungus has also the 
 characteristic of spreading by stooling, or 
 throwing out offsets. This may be seen if 
 its progress is watched upon any culm which 
 it affects. I once placed in a paper box 
 some pieces of straw that were more com- 
 pletely mildewed than any I had before 
 observed; this was left during the whole 
 winter in a closet, which at this season is 
 unusually damp. Upon opening the box, 
 in the spring following, I found the Puc- 
 cinia had grown, and spread in various 
 rectilinear forms, upon one of its sides, and 
 upon the bottom, a fact which I remember 
 to have seen confirmed in one of the vo- 
 lumes of the Quarterly Journal of Science. 
 The fungus, then, though its natural ha- 
 bitat is the culm of the wheat, will vegetate 
 upon other vegetable bodies ; and this satis- 
 factorily explains the mode in which it 
 may, after being preserved through the 
 winter, be conveyed to the succeeding 
 year's crop, — to say nothing of those seeds 
 which may be attached to the straw of the 
 preceding year, and be conveyed to the 
 next year's crop by various modes. 
 
 These facts demonstrate that prevention 
 is impossible : for however careful a farmer 
 may be to avoid every source whence the 
 seeds of the Puccinia may arrive, yet every 
 summer wind may waft them to his crops 
 from other, even far distant, lands. To 
 prevent the communication to the wheat 
 from the soil by the stooling, or spreading 
 power of the fungus, it will be well to 
 sprinkle the surface with salt, immediately 
 after sowing, at the rate of five or six 
 bushels to the acre ; and in the spring, early 
 in May, to apply, in a similar manner, 
 about the same quantity of caustic fresh- 
 slacked lime, — applications of which are 
 not only destructive of the Puccinia, but 
 also of slugs, and promote the general 
 health of the crop. 
 
 For testimonies to the power of common 
 salt to prevent, in some instances, the oc- 
 currence of mildew, I would refer the 
 reader to my brother's Essay on the Uses 
 of Salt, p. 50—60., where will be found 
 the concurrent testimony of Sir John Sin- 
 clair, Mr. Sickler, Rev. R. Hoblyn, Mr. S. 
 Robinson, Mr. Wood, and Dr. Paris. Mr. 
 Prevost, quoted by Sir John Sinclair, states 
 thai the sulphate of copper, if dissolved in 
 water at the rate of 3£ oz. to the gallon, 
 forms a solution which will prevent the at- 
 tack of mildew upon the wheat plants 
 
 arising from seed which has been steeped in 
 it. I am afraid it has no such power. 
 
 Salt, if not a complete preventive, is an 
 effectual cure of the mildew. Mr. Chatter- 
 ton, a Lincolnshire farmer, says, in the 44th 
 vol. of the Annals of Agric, that " on the 
 sea- side the wheat is little damaged by the 
 mildew, yet within three miles inland the 
 crops are as much affected as those still 
 further from the sea." This fact can be 
 supported by the experience of most farmers 
 whose fields skirt our native shores ; and un- 
 questionably it is owing, not only to the 
 soil containing a greater proportion of com- 
 mon salt than is found in more inland soils, 
 but because the sea haze, which rises al- 
 most nightly in the summer season, bathes, 
 as it were, the crops in the immediate vi- 
 cinity of the coast ; and this haze holds in 
 solution a portion of salt. 
 
 The following well attested communica- 
 tion from the late Rev. Edmund Cartwright 
 of Hollenden House, near Tunbridge, is 
 conclusive on this subject, and gives full 
 directions to the farmer how to apply, and 
 at what expense, a practical remedy. 
 
 " It gives me great pleasure to have it 
 in my power to furnish you with some in- 
 formation respecting the application of salt, 
 which, perhaps, you are not aware of. I and 
 a neighbour of mine have applied it as a 
 remedy for the mildew in wheat, with the 
 most unequivocal success. I first made the 
 discovery two years ago ; my experiments at 
 that time were upon a very limited scale ; 
 they have this year extended only over an 
 acre and a half, but under circumstances 
 that leave not a shadow of doubt of salt 
 being an absolute specific for mildew, in the 
 most aggravated stages of the disorder ; of 
 this I will state to you a convincing proof. 
 In the year 1818, I found a few ears of 
 wheat, which I conceived to be a new and 
 improved variety ; from these ears I raised 
 as much wheat as last year planted a land 
 four feet wide and 100 yards in length : 
 the produce I had promised to Mr. Coke ; 
 and to augment that produce, I had the 
 ground, previously to planting, highly ma- 
 nured ; and as soon as the wheat came up 
 I gave it a good dressing with soot, and this 
 dressing was repeated once or twice ; in 
 consequence of this superabundant dressing, 
 the wheat, as might indeed have been ex- 
 pected, was as rank as the wheat you may 
 observe growing accidentally upon a dung- 
 hill, which never fails to rot upon the 
 ground, without bringing a single grain to 
 maturity. The mildew made its appearance 
 on this particular part of my field, while the 
 straw was quite green and the grain in a 
 milky state; notwithstanding the danger 
 that might be apprehended to the wheat 
 
MILDEW. 
 
 MILE. 
 
 itself, from its being thus succulent, I ven- 
 tured to give it a dressing with salt and 
 water ; as a heavy shower of rain fell a few 
 hours afterwards, the dressing was repeated 
 the next morning. The proportion of salt 
 to the water, one pound in a gallon, laid on 
 with a plasterer's brush, the operator bear- 
 ing a pail of the mixture in one hand, and 
 the brush in the other, making his casts as 
 when sowing corn, or else with a common 
 watering-pot, which, being swung with great 
 force, throws the water very rapidly ; two 
 men will get over about four acres a day, 
 the one to spread, the other to supply the 
 mixture. The result was, that the mildew 
 was completely subdued, and the wheat 
 went forward to maturity ; and although the 
 sample was not so bold as it might have 
 been, it was sound and marketable. In 
 other parts of the field where the mildew 
 shewed itself, not under the aggravated 
 circumstances described above, but as it 
 usually appears, the wheat was not in the 
 least injured by it, after the salt and water 
 was applied ; it was, indeed, as fine a sam- 
 ple as could be grown. Both mine and my 
 neighbours wheat was examined by many 
 practical farmers, who are so decidedly con- 
 vinced of the efficacy of my remedy, that 
 they intend never to be without a reserve 
 of salt ready to meet the enemy the moment 
 he appears. The effect of the salt upon 
 the mildew, to those who do not consider 
 the manner of its operation, is truly asto- 
 nishing ; I believe it to be instant death to 
 the fungus ; this, however, is certain, in less 
 than forty-eight hours the straw nearly re- 
 covers its original colour and brightness. 
 The certainty and celerity of its operation 
 I account for thus : the mildew, it is now 
 well ascertained, is a parasitical plant of the 
 fungus tribe, the principal constituent of 
 which tribe is water ; when salt, therefore, 
 is applied to them, the aqueous particles are 
 immediately absorbed, and their vitality 
 destroyed. The action of salt upon mush- 
 rooms, as in making mushroom catsup, con- 
 firms this theory." (Johnsons Essay on 
 Salt, 3d ed. p. 52—54.) 
 
 I can afford decided testimony to the 
 efficacy of the cure recommended by Mr. 
 Cartwright ; but I would add these precau- 
 tions. The safest quantity of salt per gal- 
 / Ion is 8 oz., and then the application may 
 be rendered more effectual by frequent re- 
 petition, without any danger of injury to 
 the plants. If the application is not made 
 during a clouded day, it is best to defer it 
 until the evening. Some have recommended 
 a rope, held at its extremities by two men 
 to be drawn up and down each ridge of the 
 infected crop to remove the fungus ; and 
 there is no doubt that this treatment is par- 
 853 
 
 tially effectual, for the parasite is removed 
 whenever it comes in contact with the rope, 
 but the points of contact necessarily are 
 limited. (Essay by G. W. Johnson, Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 253.) 
 
 Prof. Henslow (Journ. of Roy. Eng. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. ii. p. 220.) endeavours to prove 
 (by strengthening with additional evidence 
 his previously expressed opinions), the spe- 
 cific identity of the fungi producing rust 
 and mildew. See Rust, Ergot, Dry 
 Rot, &c. 
 
 Mr. John Baker of Leeds, in comment- 
 ing upon my brother's essay, is of opinion 
 that the berberry has a considerable influ- 
 ence in the communication of the mildew 
 to wheat, and gives several instances which 
 seem to support his view of the case. But 
 the distinction between the parasite of the 
 berberry has already been mentioned, and 
 it is scarcely necessary to repeat that the 
 one cannot produce the other. 
 
 MILE. (Lat, mille pasuum, a thousand 
 paces.) The Roman pace being 5 feet, 
 the Roman mile was consequently 5000 
 feet : but a Roman foot being equal to 
 11-6496 modern English inches, it follows 
 that the ancient Roman mile was equiva- 
 lent to 1618 English yards, very nearly 
 ll-12ths of an English statute mile, or 142 
 yards less than the English statute mile. 
 The English statute mile was defined (inci- 
 dentally, it would seem) by an act passed 
 in the thirty-fifth year of the reign of Queen 
 Elizabeth, by which persons were forbidden 
 to build within three miles of London ; and 
 the mile was declared to be 8 furlongs of 
 40 perches of 16£ feet each. The statute 
 mile is therefore 1760 yards, or 5280 feet. 
 See Measures. 
 
 The mile is used as an itinerary measure 
 in almost all countries of Europe, particu- 
 larly those which were formerly under the 
 sway of the Romans ; but it is very difficult 
 to conjecture the causes which have given 
 rise to the great diversity of its values. It 
 has been supposed that in some countries 
 the Roman mile was confounded with the 
 ancient Celtic league. 
 
 The following table, given on the authority 
 of Kelly s Cambist, shows the length of the 
 modern mile, and also the league, of various 
 countries, and their relation to the English 
 statute mile. 
 
 Yards. Stat. mile. 
 Modern Roman mile - 1628 -925 
 English statute mile - 1760 1*000 
 Tuscan mile - - 1808 1*027 
 
 Ancient Scottish mile - 1984 1-127 - 
 Irish mile - - 2240 1 273 
 
 French posting league - 4263 2-422 
 Spanish judicial league - 4635 2-634 
 Portugal league - - 6760 3*841 
 
 3 i 3 
 
MILFOIL. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Stat. mile. 
 
 German short mile 
 
 6859 
 
 3-897 
 
 Flanders league - 
 
 6864 
 
 3-900 
 
 Spanish common league - 
 
 7416 
 
 4-214 
 
 Prussian mile 
 
 8237 
 
 4-680 
 
 Danish mile 
 
 8244 
 
 4-684 
 
 Dantzic mile 
 
 8475 
 
 4-815 
 
 Hungarian mile - 
 
 Ql l q 
 
 yiio 
 
 0 1 /o 
 
 Swiss mile 
 
 9153 
 
 5-201 
 
 German long mile 
 
 10126 
 
 5-753 
 
 Hanoverian mile - 
 
 11559 
 
 6-568 
 
 Swedish mile 
 
 11700 
 
 6-648 
 
 According to the same 
 
 authority, the 
 
 Arabian mile is 2148 yards, the Persian 
 parasang 6086 yards, the Russian worst 
 1167 yards, and the Turkish berri 1826 
 yards. The English geographical mile is 
 l-60th of a degree of latitude, or about 
 2025 yards ; the geographical league of 
 England and France is 3 such miles, or 
 6075 yards ; and the German geographical 
 mile is equal to 4 English geographical 
 miles, or 8100 yards. (See an excellent dis- 
 quisition on the history of the English mile 
 in the Penny Cyclopedia, vol. xv. p. 210. ; 
 Brande's Diet, of Science.} 
 
 Distances were marked by stones, mil- 
 liaria, by the Romans ; the London Stone, 
 in Cannon Street, is supposed to have 
 marked the centre of the Roman roads in 
 Britain. See League. 
 
 MILFOIL, THE HOODED. SeeBLAD- 
 
 DERWORT. 
 
 MILFOIL, THE WATER. See Water- 
 Milfoil. 
 
 MILFOIL, THE WOOLLY YEL- 
 LOW. See Yarrow. 
 
 MILIARY. In botany, a term signify- 
 ing granulated ; resembling many seeds. 
 
 MILITIA. A body of citizens, trained to 
 martial exercises, generally called into ser- 
 vice only in periods of war, and not liable to 
 serve out of their own country. Such bodies 
 of soldiers exist, under some name or other, 
 in most European countries, as the National 
 Guard of France, the Landwehr of Germany. 
 In this country the militia is subdivided into 
 regular and local militia : then, again, there 
 are volunteer corps and yeomanry cavalry. 
 The militia originated in England soon after 
 the abolition of military tenures, in the 
 reign of Charles II. And upon the 13 Car. 2. 
 c. 6., 14 Car. 2. c. 3., and other statutes of 
 that reign, the present order in which the 
 militia stands in law, was founded. There 
 are numerous statutes in existence with 
 regard to this valuable branch of the military 
 service. By the 42 G. 3. c. 90. the lord 
 lieutenants of counties are empowered to 
 appoint the officers of militia, who are to 
 take rani immediately after the officers of 
 the same rank belonging to the regular army. 
 By the 46 (i. 3. c.90. the qualification of 
 854 
 
 the officers of the militia is determined and 
 declared to be — a colonel an estate of 600/. 
 per annum, a lieutenant-colonel 400/., a 
 major 200/., a captain 150/., and a lieute- 
 nant 30/., an ensign 20/. per annum. By 
 the 42 G. 3. c. 90. the chief constahle of every 
 hundred is to cause every parish constable 
 to return a list of every male person in his 
 parish, between the ages of eighteen and 
 forty-five ; and by sect. 29. a power of appeal 
 by any person improperly placed in the list 
 is given. By sect. 43. certain persons are 
 exempted from serving in the militia : these 
 are peers, commissioned officers, resident 
 members of the universities, clergymen, li- 
 cenced teachers of registered congregations, 
 constables, articled clerks, seamen, appr en- 
 tices, members of the watermen's company, 
 volunteer corps, yeomanry cavalry, and dis- 
 senting jilergymen. All others are liable to 
 be ballotted for and to serve for five years, 
 unless they find a substitute (sect. 41.). An 
 appeal is directed for those who are impro- 
 perly ballotted for. By sect. 94. the con- 
 stables are to find carriages and horses for 
 the conveyance of the militia ; and for these 
 are to be allowed Is. per mile for a waggon 
 with five horses or six oxen, and 9c?. for a 
 cart with four horses. The ballotting for 
 the militia is now annually suspended by 
 act of parliament. 
 
 MILK. (Germ, milch.) A well known 
 fluid, secreted by animals for the nourish- 
 ment of their young. See Lactometer, 
 Butter, Cheese, Dairy, Cattle, &c. 
 
 Cow's milk is that principally used by 
 Europeans ; that of the goat, and even of 
 the sheep, is used in some parts of our 
 island ; that of the mare is a favourite be- 
 verage in Tartary when it is fermented. If 
 milk be left at rest, the fatty globules sepa- 
 rate, rise to the surface, and form cream ; 
 if it be long agitated they attract oxygen, 
 coalesce, and form butter. Cow's milk is 
 heavier than water; its specific gravity is 
 1-03 ; its constituents are : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Caseine, with fatty matter - 2-600 
 
 Sugar of milk - - - 3'500 
 
 Extract, lactic acid, and lactates 0*600 
 Chloride of potassium - - 0-170 
 
 Alkaline phosphate - - 0*625 
 
 Phosphate of lime and other salts 0*200 
 Water - 92*875 
 
 100-000 
 
 For the analysis of cream and butter, see 
 Butter. 
 
 The number of cows kept in London ami 
 its environs for the supply of milk is esti- 
 mated by Mr. Macculloch to amount to 
 9000, and their annual produce of milk to be 
 equal to 78,800,000 quarts. For this purpose 
 
MILK. 
 
 the Yorkshire cow-is preferred to all others. 
 The daily average of milk yielded by one 
 of this breed is estimated, according to Mr. 
 Youatt, at twenty-two or twenty-four quarts. 
 The produce of a celebrated cow, however, 
 belonging to Mr. Cramp of Lewes, was not 
 equal to this. {Com. Board of Agr. vol. v. 
 p. 122.) The quantity and quality of the 
 milk produced by a cow is materially in- 
 fluenced by the food and distance from 
 calving. Some interesting experiments to 
 determine this were made by MM. Bous- 
 singault and Le Bel. They observe, " In 
 the observations, of which the following table 
 presents the abstract, it will be seen that 
 the quantity of milk given by the cows pro- 
 gressively diminished. This diminution can- 
 not be attributed to the regimen to which 
 the cows were subjected, since, in again 
 putting them on the food on which they had 
 previously fed, the same quantity of milk 
 was not obtained as at first ; the diminu- 
 tion continued. The distance from the 
 period at which the cow has calved seems 
 to be the principal cause of the decrease of 
 the milk. This cause is so strongly marked, 
 that it may even prevent the influence that 
 the nature of the food exercises over it 
 from being seen Indeed, this re- 
 sult permits us to state, that the nature of 
 the food consumed does not exert so very 
 
 sensible an influence on the quantity and 
 chemical composition of milk (we do not 
 say on its quality), if the cows receive equal 
 nutrition from the different kinds of food. 
 It is very evident, that if the weight of the 
 feeds were not calculated according to that 
 of the equivalents, great variations would 
 be observed in the products of milk ; but 
 then those variations would be principally 
 caused by the augmentation or diminution 
 of the nutritive matter. We know, for 
 example, that cows, which, during winter, 
 are reduced to simple feeding on chopped 
 straw, cease almost entirely to produce 
 milk, and with difficulty recover their or- 
 dinary rate of production ; in cognizance 
 of such a fact, we are led to ascribe the re- 
 turn and abundance of milk exclusively to 
 the properties of the green food in spring, 
 whilst that effect is in a great part produced 
 by a real increase in the feeds. 
 
 " In establishments where a regular rota- 
 tion is followed, healthy and abundant nou- 
 rishment to cattle in winter is in a manner 
 assured, the difference, if any exist, betwixt 
 the feeding in winter and summer, being 
 in all cases much less considerable. These 
 are the results of experiments made during 
 a year on eight cows constantly fed to- 
 gether on a great variety of food." {Quart. 
 Joum. of Agr. vol. x. p. 344.) 
 
 First Series of Experiments, — Country Cow. 
 
 Number of 
 days since 
 Calving. 
 
 Milk given Solid Mat- 
 in 24 ters in 100 
 hours. lb. of Milk. 
 
 Food given equivalent to 15 
 Kilogrammes, or about 30 lb. 
 of Hay. 
 
 Composition of Milk. 
 
 Cheese. 
 
 Butter. 
 
 Sugar i 
 Milk. 
 
 Salts. 
 
 Water. 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 24 
 35 
 200 
 207 
 215 
 229 
 240 
 270 
 290 
 302 
 
 Litres. 
 5-0 
 7-5 
 10-6 
 12-0 
 
 5- 6 
 
 6- 0 
 5-6 
 5-0 
 3-6 
 3'4 
 35 
 2-8 
 
 21-6 
 
 11- 2 
 13'1 
 
 12- 3 
 12-4 
 12-9 
 135 
 
 12-5 
 13'2 
 
 Potatoes, hay 
 
 Ditto 
 Hay, green clover 
 Green clover 
 Hay 
 Turnips 
 Red beet 
 Potatoes 
 Hay 
 Potatoes 
 
 Jerusalem artichokes 
 Hay and oil-cake 
 
 15*1 
 
 3-0 
 3-1 
 3-0 
 3-0 
 3-4 
 3-4 
 
 3-3 
 3'4 
 
 2- 6 
 
 3- 5 
 5'6 
 
 4- 5 
 4-2 
 4*0 
 4-0 
 
 3-5 
 3-6 
 
 3- 6 
 
 4- 5 
 4 2 
 
 4- 7 
 
 5- 0 
 5*3 
 5-9 
 
 5- 5 
 
 6- 0 
 
 0-3 
 
 0*2 
 0-3 
 0-1 
 0-2 
 0-2 
 0-2 
 
 0-2 
 0-2 
 
 78-4 
 
 88-8 
 88-9 
 87-7 
 87-6 
 87-1 
 86-5 
 
 87-5 
 86-8 
 
 Second Series of Experiments, — Swiss Cow. 
 
 176 
 
 9-3 
 
 13-5 
 
 Potatoes, hay 
 
 3-3 
 
 4-8 
 
 5-1 
 
 0-3 86*5 
 
 182 
 
 8'9 
 
 12-8 
 
 Hay, green clover 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-5 
 
 4-0 
 
 0-3 87-2 
 
 193 
 
 9-8 
 
 11-2 
 
 Green clover 
 
 4-0 
 
 2-2 
 
 4-7 
 
 0-3 88-8 
 
 204 
 
 7-8 
 
 12-6 
 
 Clover in flower 
 
 3-7 
 
 3-5 
 
 5-2 
 
 0-2 | 87-4 
 
 There is a paper on the adulteration of 
 milk, by M. Barruel. (Quar. Jour, of Agr. 
 vol. ii. p. 304.) He states that the sub- 
 stances used to adulterate milk in London 
 855 
 
 and Paris are usually flour, sugar-candy, 
 potash, and sometimes iodine, to give it its 
 bluish colour. 
 
 3 i 4 
 
MILK-FEVER. 
 
 MILK-VETCH. 
 
 Statement of the comparative Quality of Milk 
 from Eight Alderney and Eight Kerry 
 (Irish) Cows, upon the Farm at Oakley 
 Park, in May, June, July, and August 
 1840, by Mr. R. White, tested from a Lac- 
 tometer holding one Pint of Milk, and di- 
 vided into 100 Parts by Index. 
 
 Cows. 
 
 Portion 
 of Cream 
 in 100. 
 
 May. 
 Alderneys 
 Kerrys 
 
 25 
 10 
 
 June. 
 Alderneys 
 Kerrys 
 
 20 
 10 
 
 July. 
 Alderneys 
 Kerrys 
 
 23 
 10 
 
 August. 
 Alderneys 
 Kerrys 
 
 16 
 13 
 
 Observations. 
 
 In favour of Alderney 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Butter churned from three pints of cream 
 from each : — 
 
 Alderneys 
 Kerrys 
 
 I \ 4! ozj 16 OZl to the p° und - 
 
 This was taken in August, when the Al- 
 derneys' produce of cream was at the lowest. 
 (Jour. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 421.) 
 
 MILK-FEVER. Cows in high condition 
 are most subject to puerperal fever. This 
 inflammatory disease sometimes appears as 
 early as two hours after parturition ; if four 
 or five days have elapsed, the animal may 
 generally be considered safe. On the ap- 
 pearance of this fever, from six to ten quarts 
 of blood should be taken, according to the 
 age and size of the animal. The bowels 
 must be opened, or the disease will run its 
 course ; and purging once established in an 
 early stage, the fever will, in the majority 
 of instances, rapidly subside, leaving the 
 strength of the constitution untouched. 
 (Youatt on Cattle, p. 547, 548.) 
 
 MILK-HOUSE. See Dairy. 
 
 MILKING. In the operation of milk- 
 ing the great rules to observe are regu- 
 larity, gentleness, and cleanliness. The 
 following observations are taken from an 
 American periodical : " When you go to 
 milk, take a vessel of cold water and sponge. 
 Wash the udder and teats clean, dashing on 
 the cold water. This will prevent the teats 
 from becoming sore, and the udder hot and 
 feverish, besides rendering the process of 
 milking much neater. Milk with clean 
 hands. The whole business of milking is 
 frequently conducted in such a slovenly 
 manner that the milk is entirely unfit for 
 food. The cow should be milked while 
 I - ; 1 1 1 1 » her fodder at morning and evening. 
 She should always be milked and fed at the 
 .same time in the day, and uniformly by the 
 866 
 
 same person. Milk without interruption. 
 Be sure to milk the cow as dry as possible. 
 To be milked by different hands, at different 
 times in the day, in a slow, interrupted, 
 gossiping manner, and leaving part of the 
 milk in the udder, will ruin the best cow in 
 the world." If the cow has sore teats, fo- 
 ment them before milking with warm water, 
 and after milking, dress them with the fol- 
 lowing salve : Melt together one ounce of 
 yellow wax, and three ounces of lard, and 
 as these begin to get cool rub in a quarter 
 of an ounce of sugar of lead, and a drachm 
 of finely pounded aloes. (Youatt on Cattle, 
 p 552 ) 
 
 MILK-PARSLEY. (Selvnum, from se- 
 linor, the Greek name for parsley ; applied 
 to this genus on account of the resemblance 
 in the leaves.) This is a hardy genus of 
 plants of no interest. The only indigenous 
 species is the marsh milk-parsley (S. pa- 
 lustre), which is perennial, or, as some have 
 it, biennial, growing in wet and boggy mea- 
 dows. Root tapering, simple, with many 
 long fibres. Stem solitary, erect, four or 
 five feet high, hollow, deeply furrowed; 
 branched and corymbose at the upper part ; 
 deep purple at the base. Leaves about five 
 or six on the stem, alternate, triply pin- 
 nate ; leaflets deeply pinnatifid, dark green, 
 withel liptic-lanceolate segments. Umbels 
 large, horizontal, of numerous rough rays. 
 Flowers white, numerous, uniform. The 
 root serves the Russians for ginger ; and the 
 whole herb abounds with a white, bitter, 
 fetid juice, of the consistence of cream, 
 which soon dries to a brownish acrid resin. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 97.) 
 
 MILK-VETCH. (Astragalus.) This 
 is an extensive genus of herbaceous and 
 shrubby plants ; many of the species are 
 very handsome, and well suited for the 
 flower garden. The herbaceous kinds merely 
 require planting in the open air ; the an- 
 nual kinds may be sown where they are to 
 flower. A. lotoides is the handsomest, and 
 should be sown in a moderately heating hot- 
 bed, and planted out in the borders when 
 sufficiently strong. (Paxton's Pot. Diet.) 
 The common indigenous species are four, 
 namely — 
 
 1. Sweet milk- vetch, or wild liquorice 
 (A. glycyphyllos), which grows in shady 
 places on a chalky or gravelly soil, flower- 
 ing in June. The root is perpendicular, 
 running deep into the earth, simple at the 
 crown. Stems several, two or three feet 
 long, prostrate among grass or other plants. 
 Leaves a span long, of nine or eleven uni- 
 form oval bright-green leaflets, about an 
 inch in length. Flowers pale sulphur-co- 
 loured, in ovate spikes. Legumes full an 
 inch long, obscurely triangular, with a slight 
 
MILKWORT. 
 
 MILLER, PHILIP. 
 
 longitudinal furrow, incurved. The leaves 
 have at first a sweetish taste, soon changing 
 on the palate to a nauseous bitter. Cattle 
 are not fond of them, nor is this plant ap- 
 plied to any agricultural use. 
 
 2. Purple mountain milk-vetch (A. hy- 
 poglottis). This species grows wild on open 
 mountainous heaths, on a chalky or sandy 
 soil, and on the sea coast. Root creeping, 
 woody, though slender. Stems zigzag, pros- 
 trate, hairy, from two to five inches long. 
 Leaves compounded of small dark green, 
 ovate, blunt, leaflets, hairy on both sides, 
 with ovate stipules. Flowers few, variegated 
 with purplish-blue and white, in round 
 heads. Legumes ovate, deeply channelled 
 along the black, compressed, hairy, hooked 
 at the point. 
 
 3. Hairy mountain milk-vetch (A. ura- 
 lensis). A less common species, found on 
 the Scottish mountains, in a sandy soil. 
 The root is woody, and the whole herb re- 
 markable for its shining silky hairiness. 
 Stem none. Leaves stalked, all radical ; 
 leaflets ovate, acute, all over silky like the 
 calyx. Flowers on stalks longer than the 
 leaves, of a rich bluish-purple, rarely white, 
 in round dense heads. Legumes oblong, 
 tumid, pointed, shaggy, erect. This is a 
 very handsome species even in its dry state, 
 the flowers often retaining much of their 
 colour, and the herbage all its brilliancy. 
 
 4. Yellowish mountain milk-vetch {A. 
 campestris). This species grows on rocks 
 in the highlands in Scotland. In size and 
 habit it is much like the last ; but the 
 leaflets are narrower, lanceolate, acute, more 
 numerous, much less silky, being only be- 
 sprinkled with shining hairs, and often quite 
 smooth, except the midrib. Flower- stalks 
 ascending, sometimes recumbent. Flowers 
 cream- coloured, or buff. Legumes more 
 ovate, inflated, hairy, erect. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 294.) 
 
 MILKWORT. (Polygala, from poly, 
 much, and gala, milk ; reputed effects of the 
 plant on cattle that feed upon it.) All the 
 species of this genus are very showy. The 
 annual kinds require sowing in the open 
 ground, preferring a peat soil. Some of 
 the species possess useful medicinal qualities. 
 Decandolle enumerates above 160 species 
 in this genus, but only one is British. 
 
 The common milkwort (P. vulgaris) thrives 
 on gravelly and heathy pastures. The root 
 is tough and woody. Herb smooth, of a 
 dark shining green, with several procum- 
 bent, or partly ascending simple leafy an- 
 gular stems, from three to six inches high. 
 Leaves linear-lanceolate, scattered, nearly 
 sessile. Flowers in a simple terminal clus- 
 ter, usually blue, but frequently pink, 
 white, or purple ; always marked with green 
 857 
 
 lines. It is hard to say why this plant ob- 
 tained the name of Polygala, or milkwort ; 
 and indeed that name has been given by 
 some authors to several truly papilionaceous 
 herbs or shrubs more deserving the reputa- 
 tion of yielding good food for cows. Our 
 Polygala, like some other European species 
 of the same genus, is bitter, and when given 
 in infusion is said to promote expectoration, 
 and to be good catarrhs : but its influence 
 is too little to give it importance as a me- 
 dicinal agent. (Paxtoris Pot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 258.) 
 
 MILKWORT, THE SEA, or BLACK 
 SALTWORT. See Sea Milkwort. 
 
 MILLER, PHILIP, F.R.S., was born in 
 1691. His father is stated by Professor 
 Martyn, Dr. Plunket, &c, to have been 
 gardener at the Apothecaries' Company's 
 Garden at Chelsea, and the subject of this 
 notice succeeded him in that employment 
 in 1722. He died December 18th, 1771. 
 The Horticultural Society erected an obelisk 
 over his grave in 1810. 
 
 Switzer and other contemporaries give 
 evidence of his open, generous character ; 
 and Professor Martyn observes, " He was of 
 a disposition too generous, and careless of 
 money, to become rich, and in all his trans- 
 actions paid more attention to integrity and 
 honest fame than to any pecuniary advan- 
 tages." The following is a list of his writ- 
 ings : — 
 
 1. The Gardener's and Florist's Dictionary, or a Com- 
 plete System of Horticulture. 1724. 2 vols. 8vo. Miller 
 published an Abridgement of his Dictionary in 1735, 
 2 vols. 8vo. A second edition in 3 vols. 1741. A third 
 edition in 1748. A fourth edition in 1754. A fifth edition 
 in 1 vol. 4to. in 17G3 ; and a sixth, of similar size, in 1770. 
 It was published in Dutch in 1746, and in German in 
 1750. In French in 1785. 2. A Method of raising some 
 Exotic Seeds which have been judged almost impossible 
 to be raised in England (this appeared in the " Philo- 
 sophical Transactions," vol. xxxv. p. 485. No. 403.), by 
 germinating them in a Bark Bed, and transplanting them 
 into Earth. 1728. 3. An Account of Bulbous Roots 
 flowering in Bottles filled with Water (vol. xxxvii. p. 81. 
 No. 418.). This practice was then lately discovered. 
 4. A Catalogue of Trees, Shrubs, and Flowers, which 
 are hardy enough to bear the Cold of our Climate and the 
 open air, and are propagated in the Gardens near London . 
 1730. folio. Plates coloured. Arrangement Alphabetical. 
 Without his name. 5. Catalogus Plantarum Officinalium 
 quae in Horto Botanico Chelseiano aliuntur. 1730. 8vo. 
 6. The Gardener's Kalendar. 8vo. 1731. This has been 
 a popular work, and passed through many editions. To 
 an edition in 1761 was prefixed a " Short Introduction to 
 the Knowledge of the Science of Botany," which was 
 afterwards printed as a separate work. The fourteenth 
 edition is dated 1765. 7. Figures of Plants to illustrate 
 his Dictionary. These commenced in folio numbers in 
 1755, and were completed in 300 tables, forming 2 vols., 
 in 1760. 8. The Method of cultivating Madder, as it is 
 practised by the Dutch in Zealand. 1758. 4to. 9. A 
 Letter to Mr. Watson relating to a Mistake of Pro- 
 fessor Gmelin, concerning the Spondylium vulgare hir- 
 sutum, in the " Philosophical Transactions," vol. xlviii. 
 p. 153. 10. Elements of Agriculture, from the French of 
 Duhamel. 1764. 2 vols. 8vo. 11. A Letter to the Rev. 
 Thomas Birch, D.D., Secretary to the Royal Society 
 (Phil. Trans, vol. xlix. p. 161.). 12. Remarks upon the 
 Letter of Mr. John Ellis, F.R.S., to P. C. Webb, Esq. 
 (Phil. Trans, vol. i. p. 430.). {Johnson's Hist. ofGard.). 
 
 MILLER'S THUMB. See Bull's 
 Head. 
 
MILLET. 
 
 MILLS. 
 
 MILLET. Panicum. (From panicula, a 
 panicle, or panis, bread.) A useful genus of 
 grasses. P. miliaceum is frequently sown 
 for feeding poultry, and is sometimes used 
 as a substitute for rice. P. arborescens is 
 said by Linnaeus to equal in height the 
 loftiest trees in the East Indies, though the 
 culm is little thicker than a goose's quill : 
 there are many species of this plant, of 
 which the principal are the Polish, the com- 
 mon or German, and the Indian millet 
 {Sorgium vulgare) ; it grows in the woods 
 and jungles. In cultivation, the species 
 grow in any common soil, and are increased 
 by dividing at the root or by seed. {Pax- 
 tori s Bot. Diet.) The common millet (P. 
 miliaceum) grows several feet high, and is 
 terminated by a large branched panicle 
 hanging to one side. It is very prolific in 
 seeds. These are small and smooth, in some 
 sorts brown, and in others yellow. The 
 straw produced is bulky, and valued for 
 provender. {Low's Prac.Agr. p. 261.) 
 
 MIL LET- GRASS. Milica. (Ft. millet; 
 Lat. milium, from mille, a thousand, in allu- 
 sion to the immense number of seeds pro- 
 duced by it.) These are hardy, annual, and 
 perenial grasses ; but our climate is seldom 
 warm enough to ripen the seed, or to allow 
 of their being cultivated to advantage here. 
 The hardened corolla, forming a coat to the 
 seed, affords a mark of distinction between 
 this genus and Agrostis, no less obvious than 
 important, as those most deeply versed in 
 grasses will most readily allow. 
 
 There are two native species : — 
 
 1. Spreading millet-grass (M. effusum). 
 Growing very common in moist shady 
 places. The root is perennial and fibrous, 
 with several creeping shoots. Stems erect, 
 slender, generally three and four feet high, 
 with about four joints, leafy, smooth. Leaves 
 bright green, flat, very smooth, thin and 
 weak. Flowers solitary, slightly drooping, 
 ovate, in a loose spreading panicle, without 
 awns ; panicles from four inches to foot in 
 length. Mr. Curtis observes, that it is dis- 
 tinguished from the panic grasses, to which 
 it has the greatest affinity, by having a 
 calyx of two valves only. The produce of 
 this grass is very light in proportion to its 
 bulk, and it is but little nutritive. Birds 
 are remarkably fond of the seeds ; so much 
 as to raise a doubt, whether, for the sake of 
 the seed only, it could be cultivated to 
 advantage on the farm. But, in covers 
 where game is preserved, there cannot be 
 a better grass encouraged : it will save the 
 corn fields. About the beginning of August 
 is the best season for sowing the seed. The 
 surface of the ground, near the roots of the 
 tushes, should be lightly stirred, and the 
 seeds scattered over it and raked in ; a few 
 
 of the decaying leaves that cover the ground 
 should afterwards be thrown over. It 
 flowers in the second week or latter end of 
 June, and the seed is ripe in the middle of 
 July and beginning of August. 
 
 2. Panic millet-grass {M. lanigerum). 
 This annual species is less common, and 
 grows principally in fields where water has 
 stagnated, especially towards the sea. The 
 stem is branched from the bottom, smooth. 
 Flowers in a dense, spiked, erect panicle, 
 pale green, bristly, corolla awned. {Pax- 
 ton's Bot. Die. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 186. ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 403.) 
 
 MILL-MOUNTAIN. See Flax, Purg- 
 ing. 
 
 MILNE, COLIN, L.L.D., was born at 
 Aberdeen, and educated at Marischal Col- 
 lege, in that town, under Dr. Campbell, his 
 uncle. He died in 1815. He was a good 
 naturalist, and published several botanical 
 works, of which we shall only notice his 
 Botanical Dictionary, 1770, 8vo. Again in 
 1778, and 1806. It contains many dis- 
 cussions interesting to gardeners. {G. W. 
 Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 MILLS. (Lat. mola.) The term mill 
 seems to have signified originally an engine 
 for grinding corn, but it is now used in a 
 general sense to denote a great variety of 
 machines, whose action depends chiefly on 
 circulai motion. The particular purpose is 
 usually indicated by a prefix : thus, bark- 
 mill, cotton-mill, flour-mill, oil-mill, saw- 
 mill, spinning-mill, &c. 
 
 The machinery by which it is necessary 
 to accomplish the ultimate objects of the 
 mill must obviously vary almost indefinitely. 
 Many voluminous works on this subject 
 have been published, as well as separate 
 accounts of particular structures. See 
 Brewster's edition of Ferguson's Lectures ; 
 Gray's experienced Millwright; Buchanan 
 on Millwork, by Tredgold ; Banks on Mills ; 
 The Repository of Arts, Sfc. A catalogue of 
 the principal works on the subject of mills 
 is given in Gregory's Mechanics, vol ii. 
 See Windmill. 
 
 The Kibbling Mill is well worthy of no- 
 tice. It is composed of a small iron cylin- 
 der, usually about eight or nine inches wide, 
 and six inches in diameter, tapering slightly 
 to one end, and fluted on the inside. Within 
 this a barrel of the same form, but a size less, 
 and fluted on the outside, revolves by the 
 turning of a spindle on which it is fixed. 
 The meal is rendered finer or coarser in 
 proportion as the working barrel is set 
 nearer to or farther from the small end. 
 This mill is made entirely of iron and steel, 
 and is usually attached to a post. It is 
 provided with a hopper, and is worked by 
 a crank fixed at one end of the spindle, 
 
■MILLS, JOHN - . 
 
 MISSELTOE. 
 
 while a fly-wheel revolves at the other. It 
 is used for beans, peas, and other pulse, for 
 malt and various kinds of grain, and is a 
 very useful and ingenious contrivance, but 
 requires care in its adjustment and general 
 management. 
 
 Bean Mill. A mill for grinding beans, 
 constructed by Seaman and Bryant of Mel- 
 ton, in Suffolk, is as simple and effective an 
 implement of the kind as any we have seen. 
 It is placed on a wooden stand, with crank, 
 fly-wheel and hopper ; and consists of a 
 coarsely-fluted barrel, working against a 
 front cutting plate ; the latter being set at 
 the proper distance from the barrel by 
 means of a screw. It is used chiefly for 
 beans and peas, but may be employed for 
 grinding malt, by exchanging the barrel and 
 cutting plate for a pair of rollers. A plate 
 of a bean mill is given under the nead 
 Beans. 
 
 The Norfolk Crusher is similar in ap- 
 pearance to the foregoing, and is worked 
 by two rollers of equal dimensions, each 
 being flanged at one end, and reversed so as 
 to prevent the grain from falling off at the 
 side. The rollers are perfectly smooth, 
 and consequently, as its name implies, it 
 crushes the grain instead of cutting it. 
 
 The Suffolk Crusher is simply a variety 
 of the above, and differs from it in having 
 its hind roller finely grooved, and of half 
 the dimensions of the front one ; this has 
 no flange, but works within the flanges of 
 the front roller, which are attached at both 
 ends. To render these mills effective for 
 crushing oats, the rollers should be left 
 rough as they come from the lathe, to draw 
 in the kernels, as the latter are apt to start 
 back at the moment of entering between 
 the rollers, if they are polished. A grooved 
 or fluted roller has not been found adequate 
 to the perfect bruising or cutting of oats, 
 and a mill that shall effect this object may 
 be considered a desideratum in agricultural 
 mechanics. A cut of the Suffolk Crusher 
 will be found under the head Crusher. 
 
 MILLS, JOHN, F.R.S., was author of 
 the following works. 
 
 1 . Practical Treatise on Husbandry, from the French 
 of Duhainel. 1759. 4to. With additions, Plates, &c. 
 2. A new and complete System of Practical Husbandry. 
 1762. 5 vols. 8vo. This was published in weekly numbers, 
 and completed in 1763. It was twice translated into Ger- 
 man in 1764. 3. The Natural and Chemical Elements 
 of Agriculture, from the German of Gillenborg. 12mo. 
 1770. 4. Essays on Agriculture. 8vo. 1772. 
 
 MILLSTONE GRIT. A geological term 
 applied to a group of strata which occur 
 between the mountain limestone and the 
 superincumbent coal formations ; it is a 
 coarse-grained quartzose sandstone. 
 
 MILLSTONES. (Germ, muhlsteine.) The 
 large circular stones, which, when put in 
 motion by machinery, grind corn and other 
 859 
 
 articles. The diameter of common mill- 
 stones is from five to seven feet, and their 
 thickness varies from twelve to eighteen 
 inches. These stones have been principally 
 imported from Rouen and other parts of 
 France ; the burr-stones of that country be- 
 ing supposed more durable than our own. 
 Millstones are, however, found at Conway, 
 in North Wales, and in some parts of Scot- 
 land, which are said to equal any imported 
 from foreign countries. In order to grind 
 the corn, the millstones have channels cut in 
 them, proceeding from the centre to the 
 circumference, perpendicularly on one side 
 and obliquely on the other. Both stones 
 are cut in the same way, so that when they 
 are placed upon one another, the furrows 
 run crossways to each other, and by this 
 means crush or grind the corn. When the 
 furrows become blunt, the upper stone is 
 taken up, and both stones are dressed with 
 a chissel. Good millstones usually last thirty- 
 five or forty years. (M l CullocKs Com. Diet.) 
 
 MINT. Mentha. The poets celebrate 
 Minthe, a daughter of Cocytus, as being- 
 transformed into mint by Proserpine in a 
 fit of jealousy. Ovid Metam. 10. v. 729.) 
 This is an extensive and well-known genus 
 of useful herbs, with the culture and pro- 
 pagation of which every one is familiar. 
 There are more than a dozen native species, 
 besides numerous cultivated varieties. The 
 roots are perennial, creeping widely. Stems 
 ascending or erect, branched, leafy, acutely 
 quadrangular. Leaves stalked, mostly ovate, 
 serrated, undivided, without stipules. Flowers 
 numerous, light purple, in stalked very dense 
 whorls, often crowded into leafless heads or 
 spikes. All the herbage is more or less hairy, 
 but variable in that respect ; rarely woolly 
 or finely downy ; full of pellucid dots, lodg- 
 ing a copious essential oil, which is pungently 
 aromatic, cordial and stimulant, and is thence 
 used in medicine as an excitant and sto- 
 machic for promoting digestion. The fol- 
 lowing are the indigenous species. Horse 
 mint (M. sylvestris), round-leaved mint 
 (M. rotundifolia), spear or green mint (M. 
 viridis), black or peppermint (M. piperita), 
 bergamot mint (M. citrata), hairy mint 
 (M. hirsuta), fragrant sharp-leaved mint 
 (M. acutifolia), tall red mint (M. rubra), 
 bushy red mint (M. gentilis), narrowed- 
 leaved mint (M. gracilis), corn mint (M. 
 arvensis), rugged field-mint (M. agrosiis), 
 and penny-royal (M. pulegium). (Paxton's 
 Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 72 — 88. ; Trans. Lin. Soc. vol. v. p. 171 
 — 217.) See Cat-Mint, Corn-Mint, Horse- 
 Mint, Peppermint, Penny-Rotax, Spear- 
 Mint, &c. 
 
 MISSELTOE. ( Viscum; from vescus, bird- 
 lime, on account of the sticky nature of the 
 
MIXEK 
 
 MIXTURE OF SOILS. 
 
 berries.) The misseltoe is a well-known 
 parasite, readily propagated by sticking the 
 berries on thorn or apple trees, after a little 
 of the outer bark has been cut off, and tying 
 a shade or net over them, to protect them 
 from the birds. Sheep eagerly devour this 
 plant, which is frequently cut off the trees 
 for them during the severe winters, nay it 
 is even said to preserve them from the rot. 
 Its branches are much sought after at Christ- 
 mas to hang up in houses, along with other 
 evergreens. It was one of those plants 
 held sacred to the Druids. 
 
 MIST. See Fog. 
 
 MITE. See Cheese Mite. 
 
 MITHRIDATE MUSTARD. See 
 Shepherd's Purse. 
 
 MITHRIDATE PEPPERWORT. See 
 Pepperwort. 
 
 MIXEN". A compost heap. 
 
 MIXTURE OF SOILS, in agriculture, 
 is the addition of one soil to another, to im- 
 prove its fertility. 
 
 There is perhaps no agricultural im- 
 provement more important in both its im- 
 mediate and permanent effects than the 
 careful, judicious mixture of soils, and there 
 is no question more likely to repay the cul- 
 tivator for the care he bestows upon it. 
 
 This mode of improving the land was one 
 which very early engaged the attention of 
 the farmer. Nature herself, in fact, pointed 
 out to him the means of producing the 
 richest of soils by earthy mixtures in very 
 intelligible language. The solid matters 
 brought down from the distant hills by the 
 flood waters, and deposited in the valleys 
 where the waters rested, evidently formed, 
 by the mixture of different strata, and by 
 their union only, the rich alluvial soils of 
 the old and the new worlds ; for that the 
 mere mechanical separation of the earth 
 into a fine state of division is not the sole 
 cause of the increased fertility is apparent 
 to every farmer. 
 
 It is useless, he well knows, to expect the 
 debris of the hills to produce fertilising 
 effects on soil of a similar composition. It 
 is the dissimilarity of the earths which en- 
 sures a maximum fertile mixture : thus, in 
 the soil of the rich marshes of the banks of 
 the Thames are found the clay of the Lon- 
 don Basin, the sands of Middlesex, and the 
 chalks of Oxfordshire and Kent ; and in a 
 similar manner are formed all rich alluvial 
 lands. This good effect of earthy deposits 
 naturally pointed out to the Italian farmers 
 the use of* earthy additions to the soil. Co- 
 lumella expressly notices the use of sand, 
 gravel, marl and chalk (book ii. c. 16. 
 p. 93.) ; and the people of Megara, accord- 
 ing to Theophrastus, had made similar ob- 
 servations upon the importance of mixing 
 8G0 
 
 together different strata of earth (lib.iii. 
 c. 25.) ; for every fifth or sixth year they 
 trenched the gravel to a depth equal to 
 that they imagined the rain had penetrated. 
 The early inhabitants of Britain employed 
 marl, as the people of Gaul did lime, for 
 spreading over their lands. And that this 
 was done to a very considerable extent is 
 shown by several facts. Thus, marl pits 
 are mentioned as early as 1285, in the 
 charter of the forest, and again in the Sta- 
 tute of Wales in the 12 Edward I. And 
 so early as the days of Richard Duke of 
 Cornwall the Cornish farmers had a grant 
 by which they were empowered to take the 
 calcareous sand of Padstow harbour, and 
 spread it over their clayey lands. The 
 successful mixture of the farmers' soils, 
 therefore, is not a modern improvement ; it 
 has evidently been practised with success 
 in all climates, in different ages, and on 
 every description of cultivatable land. 
 
 I have witnessed, however, even in soils 
 to all appearance similar in composition, 
 some very extraordinary results from their 
 mere mixture. Thus, in the gravelly soils 
 of Spring Park, near Croydon, the ground 
 is often excavated to a depth of many feet 
 through strata of barren gravel and red 
 sand, for the purpose of obtaining the white 
 or silver sand which exists beneath them. 
 When this fine sand is removed, the gravel 
 and red sand is thrown back into the pit, 
 the ground merely levelled, and then either 
 let to cottagers for gardens or planted with 
 forest trees ; in either case the effect is 
 remarkable : all kinds of either fir or de- 
 ciduous trees will now vegetate with re- 
 markable luxuriance ; and in the cottage 
 garden thus formed, several species of ve- 
 getables, such as beans and potatoes, will 
 produce very excellent crops in the very 
 soils in which they would have perished 
 previous to their mixture. These instances 
 are remarkable, and well worthy of the 
 careful consideration of the farmer ; for the 
 poverty of both the sand and the gravel, 
 which is thus so successfully mingled to- 
 gether, is very great. The appearance of 
 the soil here gave no indications of any 
 good being derived from the union of the 
 two. The black gravel and the red sand 
 were equally sterile; yet their mere mix- 
 ture yielded a productive soil. 
 
 The permanent advantages of mixing 
 soils, too, is not confined to merely those 
 entirely of an earthy composition, earths 
 which contain inert organic matter, such as 
 peat or moss earth, are highly valuable ad- 
 ditions to some soils. Thus, peat earth was 
 successfully added to the sandy soils of 
 Merionethshire by Sir Robert Vaughn n. 
 The Cheshire farmers add a mixture of 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 OF SOILS. 
 
 moss and calcareous earth to their " tight- 
 bound earth," the effect of which they de- 
 scribe as having "a loosening operation;" 
 that is, it renders the soil of their strong 
 clays less tenacious, and consequently pro- 
 motes the ready access of the moisture and 
 gases of the atmosphere to the roots of the 
 farmers' crops — their vigour is promoted, 
 their food better supplied. There are cer- 
 tain natural indications with regard to the 
 admixture of soils which are self-evident to 
 every cultivator ; and there are others which 
 are well understood in particular districts. 
 The Norfolk farmers consider that marl is 
 not far from the surface when the weed 
 coltsfoot {Tussilago forfard) abounds ; and 
 that all lands will be much benefitted by 
 marling which produce the weeds corn 
 marigold, or briddle {Chrysanthemum sege- 
 tum), and smart- weed, or pale-flowered 
 persicaria (Polygonum pennsylvanicum) . 
 
 In the transfer of the earths the farmer 
 will find it a profitable practice, especially 
 when the distance is great, to have them 
 previously dug in spits, and dried in the 
 sun. In this way the weight of either 
 chalk, marl, or clay is much more consider- 
 ably reduced than the cultivator would sup- 
 pose. I have found that when moist chalk 
 is dried in this way it loses from 20 to 24 
 per cent, of water. Strong adhesive clay, 
 under similar circumstances, loses from 32 
 to 41 per cent., and marl from 18 to 26 per 
 cent, of its weight; so that, supposing he 
 carts 100 cubic yards of each of these fer- 
 tilisers, by merely having them previously 
 dried, he saves in weight of carriage 
 
 Tons. 
 
 In the chalk - - 20 to 24 
 
 In the clay - - 32 to 42 
 
 In the marl - - 18 to 26 
 
 As there are only these earths present to 
 any extent in all cultivated soils, and as the 
 proportion which they bear to each other 
 makes the chief difference between fertile 
 and barren lands, I shall confine my atten- 
 tion in this paper to the application of 
 1. Chalk, 2. Clay, 3. Sand, to land which 
 is naturally deficient in them ; and in en- 
 tering upon the investigation, I shall sup- 
 pose that the farmer is aware that it is 
 merely the excess of one of these earths 
 which renders a soil unproductive, and that 
 the application of the deficient earths ope- 
 rates so advantageously by tending to ren- 
 der the composition more similar to those 
 of richer soils, in which the earths are 
 mixed in a more fertile proportion. It is 
 of the first importance, however, that the 
 farmer should be aware of this fact; let 
 him, to this end, contrast the analysis of a 
 barren soil like that of Bagshot Heath, 
 which is composed of 
 861 
 
 Coarse silicious sand - - 380 
 
 Fine sand - - - 9 
 
 Iron, clay, and chalk - - 1 1 
 
 400 
 
 with that of the soil of a Lincolnshire pas- 
 ture, which contains, in the same weight, 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Fine calcareous sand and silicious sand 1 60 
 
 Soluble matters - - - 6 
 
 Organic matters - - - 40 
 
 Chalk - - - _ 32 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 8 
 
 Alumina (pure clay) - - - 25 
 
 Silex (earth of flint) - - - 65 
 
 Water and loss - - - 64 
 
 400 
 
 The soil of Bagshot, he will observe, contains 
 nearly twice as much silicious matters, and 
 only one fifth the proportion of chalk and 
 alumina, that is present in the pasture from 
 Croft in Lincolnshire. 
 
 Chalk and marl are both used for the 
 sake of the carbonate of lime they contain, 
 and they may, therefore, be treated of 
 under one head. The proportion in which 
 I have witnessed these applied per acre 
 naturally varied with the expense of the 
 carriage of the material. On the light 
 gravelly soils of the coast of Essex, I have 
 used, in common with my neighbours, about 
 20 to 25 tons of the chalk of Kent per 
 acre, at a cost of about 6s. per ton; but 
 of marl the quantity applied in the same 
 district is from 50 to 100 tons per acre, 
 which may be commonly procured for the 
 expense of carriage and spreading ; and this 
 addition to the soil is a very permanent 
 improvement. Chalking, the Essex far- 
 mers say, lasts for twenty years, and marl- 
 ing for a man's life. 
 
 Upon analysing a productive soil, worth 
 30s. per acre, which had been thus chalked 
 about five years previously, it was found to 
 contain 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Stones and gravel, principally si- 
 licious - - - 27 
 Vegetable fibres - - 1-5 
 
 28-5 
 
 Soluble matters, principally vege- 
 table extract - - - 3 
 Carbonates of lime and magnesia - 18 
 Oxide of iron - - - 4 
 Animal and vegetable matters - 1 
 Alumina - 4-5 
 Silica - - - . 40 
 Loss - - - . 1 
 
 100 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 OF SOILS. 
 
 A portion of the same field (which was 
 an enclosure from a poor common), not 
 chalked, being examined, was found to 
 yield nearly the same proportion of in- 
 gredients, but the chalk was almost entirely 
 absent. Now, before the addition of the 
 chalk, the land was too poor to yield any 
 thing except the fern and the furze. 
 
 In Dorsetshire, near Weymouth, and on 
 the Coomb Hills, which separate Berks from 
 Hampshire, where chalk is in many places 
 readily obtained by sinking a well, and 
 drawing it up by a windlass to the surface, 
 the quantity applied per acre is much more 
 considerable. I have seen from 50 to 100, 
 or even 150 tons per acre, spread on the 
 gravel and clay lands with decided suc- 
 cess. 
 
 The cultivator sometimes deludes him- 
 self with the conclusion that applying sand, 
 or marl, or clay to a poor soil merely serves 
 to freshen it for a time, and that the effects 
 of such applications are only apparent for a 
 limited period. Some comparative experi- 
 ments, however, which were made sixteen 
 years since on some poor hungry inert 
 heath land in Norfolk, have up to this time 
 served to demonstrate the error of such 
 a conclusion. In these experiments the 
 ground was marled with twenty cubic yards 
 only per acre, and the same of compost ; 
 it was then planted with a proper mix- 
 ture of forest trees, and by the side of it 
 a portion of the heath, in a state of na- 
 ture, was also planted with the same mix- 
 ture of deciduous and fir trees. Sixteen 
 years have annually served to demonstrate, 
 by the luxuriance of the marled wood, the 
 permanent effect produced by this mixture 
 of soils. The growth of the trees has 
 been there rapid and permanent ; but on 
 the adjoining soil, the trees have been 
 stunted in their growth, miserable in ap- 
 pearance, and profitless to their owner. 
 Time has made no alteration ; while the 
 marled soil has yielded an annual and lux- 
 uriant crop, the land left in its original 
 state has demonstrated by its produce that 
 something was wanting, some earthy in- 
 gredient only needed to render it no longer 
 barren, and the adjoining marled land has 
 further shown of what that addition was 
 composed. 
 
 The expense per acre of this marling, 
 and otherwise preparing the soil, was 
 
 £. s. 
 
 20 cubic yards of marl, at Is. 3d. - 1 5 
 20 cubic yards of compost, at 5s. - 5 0 
 Deep ploughing - - - 1 10 
 
 Trees, carriage, planting - - 7 10 
 
 15 0 
 
 862 
 
 > In this instance the marl had to be car- 
 ried about a quarter of a mile. 
 
 It is difficult to account for the want of 
 that general attention to the use of earthy 
 admixtures which so many successful ex- 
 periments with them would lead us to an- 
 ticipate. Mr. Rodwell of Livermere, in 
 Suffolk, successfully clayed and marled 820 
 acres of sandy heath not many years since, 
 using about 140,000 tumbril loads, which, 
 at 8^d. per cubic yard, cost him 4958Z. He 
 found, from experience, that clay was to be 
 preferred to marl on ail his sandy soils. 
 The result was highly satisfactory, 350/. 
 per annum was added to the value of the 
 estate. 
 
 This excellent farmer practised also the 
 system of hand-barrowing the clay. " The 
 men make good earnings at 10c?. a cubic 
 yard, wheeling it 30 rods ; and down to 
 7d. a yard at shorter distances;" and on 
 the whole, deemed this " the cheapest me- 
 thod of all others, especially on heavier 
 soils." But he did by far the greatest part 
 by tumbrils, the expense of which, by con- 
 tract carting, and labour, was 8c?. per cubic 
 yard. He found also, contrary to the com- 
 monly received opinion, that deep plough- 
 ing was the best for his marled and clayed 
 lands. " I have found," he said, " that the 
 clay and marl works the better, the more 
 soil it has to incorporate with." 
 
 One cause of the failures which have 
 sometimes taken place in the attempted 
 improvement of soils by their admixture' 
 arises from the want of a thorough union 
 of the heavy clays, added to the light sandy 
 soils. The earths were in these cases never 
 incorporated by the aid of the harrow, on 
 such frosty mornings as are best adapted 
 to the mixture, and, in consequence, the 
 more ponderous lumps of clay or marl were 
 allowed to gradually sink, as the farmers 
 say, into the sand ; and in some such soils 
 as these, the stratum of clay and marl 
 which was applied ten years since may 
 now be found in one unbroken seam, at a 
 depth of twelve or fourteen inches in the 
 soil. Such erroneous modes of applying 
 the earths are much to be lamented : they 
 decide no controverted question, — they 
 prejudice the unreflecting cultivator, — 
 they add nothing to the common stock of 
 agricultural knowledge. 
 
 This error was noted by the late Ge- 
 neral Vavasor : he told the farmers very 
 correctly, that under a poor sand, a stra- 
 tum of clay, marl, or other substance pecu- 
 liarly adapted to give fertility to the soil will 
 generally be found; that nature seems bo 
 have designed that no land should be un- 
 productive, and if any be unfruitful, the 
 cause is in the ignorance or indolence of 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 OF SOILS. 
 
 man. If clay marl, he thought, could be 
 had at a convenient distance, seventy-five 
 cubic yards per acre was a good covering ; 
 if of a shelly or soapy marl, twenty or 
 twenty-five yards will be sufficient. The 
 marl, after being spread, should be repeat- 
 edly rolled and harrowed, to divide and 
 pulverise it the better. 
 
 The application of sand to the farmers' 
 heavy clay soils is a practice which, in 
 several districts of this country, is attended 
 with very decided success. Thus, in that 
 part of Suffolk which is bounded on two 
 sides by the rivers Orwell and Stour, there 
 is found a fine red sand abounding with 
 shells, both in their perfect and broken 
 state, which, when applied to the clay soils 
 at the rate of twenty to thirty tons per 
 acre, is productive of very excellent per- 
 manent good effects. 
 
 In the valley of the Kennett, in Berkshire, 
 in similar proportions, I have witnessed the 
 use of the gravelly debris of the Bath Road 
 used upon the peaty soils of that district 
 with excellent effect, and with equal success 
 on some stiff clay meadow land ; the result 
 of dressing it with about thirty tons per 
 acre with the same road sand is equally 
 decided. The land is not only prevented 
 from cracking in the summer months, but 
 the produce of grass is very materially 
 increased. 
 
 The employment of sea-sand is a very an- 
 cient custom in the west of England ; it is 
 one, in fact, to which no one can assign 
 the period of its commencement : many 
 thousand tons per annum are carried away 
 by the farmers who cultivate the lands in 
 the neighbourhood of Padstow Harbour, 
 even on horses' backs, and they think it 
 well worth their while to carry this sand 
 some miles into the interior of the country. 
 In a similar manner the farmers of Devon 
 dredge for the sand at the mouth of the 
 Tamar, and when they have filled their 
 barges carry it up the river. They deem 
 the fine-grained sand the most immediate 
 in its effects, but both are very durable, 
 and decided improvements to the soil. The 
 coarse sand, they say, lasts for many years. 
 
 The composition of the sands of Padstow 
 Harbour, and of the estuary of the Tamar, 
 are very similar ; they contain from sixty to 
 seventy per cent, of carbonate of lime, and 
 are both preferred by the farmers, when 
 they can be obtained, mixed with the sea 
 water. 
 
 Another, but the least commonly practised 
 mode of improving the staple of a soil by 
 earthy additions, is claying ; a system of fer- 
 tilising, the good effects of which are much 
 less immediately apparent than chalking, and 
 hence one of the chief causes of its disuse. 
 863 
 
 It requires some little time to elapse, and 
 some stirring of the soil, before the clay is 
 so well mixed with a sandy soil as to pro- 
 duce that general increased attraction and 
 retentive power for the atmospheric mois- 
 ture which ever constitutes the chief good 
 result of claying poor soils. Clay must be, 
 moreover, applied in rather larger propor- 
 tions to the soil than chalk ; for not only is 
 its application rarely required as a direct 
 food for plants, for the mere alumina which 
 it contains, since this earth enters into the 
 composition of plants in very small propor- 
 tions, but there is also another reason for 
 a more liberal addition of clay being re- 
 quired, which is the impure state in which 
 the alumina exists in what are commonly 
 called clay soils. For instance, chalk usually 
 contains, when perfectly dry, about 98 per 
 cent, of carbonate of lime. Mr. Kirwan 
 found in a specimen of chalk two per cent, 
 of alumina, or 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Lime - - - - 53 
 
 Carbonic acid - - -42 
 
 Water - - - 3 
 
 Alumina - - 2 
 
 100 
 
 But the heaviest clay soils seldom contain 
 more than 20 per cent, of alumina ; in the 
 stiff clays of Sussex and the Weald of Kent 
 are found only about 28 per cent, of this 
 earth : even the adhesive clays employed by 
 the potter yield only about 33 per cent, of 
 alumina, porcelain earth only 47 per cent. 
 
 The following is the analysis of a heavy 
 Sussex clay soil : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - 
 
 - 54 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 28 
 
 Carbonate of "lime 
 
 3 
 
 Oxide of iron - 
 
 5 
 
 Organic matters 
 
 - 4 
 
 Loss, chiefly moisture - 
 
 3 
 
 
 100 
 
 The farmer, therefore, who applies 50 
 tons per acre of such a clay to a sandy field, 
 only adds about 14 tons of alumina to the 
 soil ; but if he applies 50 tons of chalk, he 
 adds 49 tons of carbonate of lime. 
 
 Hence is the. reason why, in all efforts to 
 alter the earthy constituents of a soil, a much 
 smaller quantity of chalk produces more de- 
 cided effects than the addition of a much 
 larger proportion of the most tenacious clay. 
 Chalk, too, when merely spread on the surface 
 of the soil, and exposed to the action of frost, 
 speedily crumbles to powder, and becomes 
 intimately combined with the other earths of 
 the soils. The clay, however, is too adhesive 
 to be thus readily, and without some little 
 
MIXTURE 
 
 OF SOILS. 
 
 labour, so intimately mixed with the soil : its 
 effects, however excellent, are. much more 
 slowly apparent ; but patience and judicious 
 management of clay will do wonders, even 
 on the most unlikely soils ; and I could not, 
 perhaps, state any more complete cases of 
 the recovery of an absolutely barren soil by 
 means of clay and chalk, and that, too, at a 
 reasonable profitable rate, than those suc- 
 cessful experiments which have recently 
 been made on the shingle of the sea coast 
 near Eastbourn, in Sussex, consisting en- 
 tirely of silicious pebbles, varying in size 
 from that of hazel nuts to hen's eggs, and 
 that extending to a depth of many feet. 
 
 In this case the clay was drawn in hand 
 carts by three men, rather better than a 
 quarter of a mile. The cart contained about 
 880 lb. of clay, or about 13 cubic feet. 
 Eight of these cart loads, or about 3% tons, 
 were spread on each square rod of 16^ feet, 
 which, when first spread loosely and in 
 lumps, made the soil five or six inches deep, 
 and when it had become settled and solid, 
 about four inches; each cart took back a 
 load of shingle to fill up the hole made by 
 the excavation of the clay. The work was 
 laborious, but the men readily earned about 
 Is. 6d. per day, and were contented. They 
 did their work by contract, receiving 3s. per 
 square rod for the shingle they thus co- 
 vered, or 241. per acre ; and for this sum 
 they carried 520 tons of clay. The clay is 
 of the ordinary red description, so common 
 in Sussex, and though not particularly ad- 
 hesive, is yet sufficiently so to form a plate, 
 on which in wet weather the water stands, 
 although this superstructure of clay is 
 resting on a mass of coarse shingle stones, 
 fifteen feet in depth. This experiment was 
 made on a small field of about three acres 
 in 1839, and promises as well as a similar 
 effort made with the same clay in 1832. 
 
 In this instance an acre and a quarter of 
 shingle was covered with the same clay to a 
 similar depth. But the clay being only di- 
 vided in this case from the shingle by the 
 Eastbourn and Hastings Road, the expense 
 was less ; the men digging, carrying, and 
 spreading the clay, for 2s. per rod, or 16/. 
 per acre. This land was let in 1834, for a 
 term of 14 years, at 405 per acre. The 
 tenant has succeeded in making it produce 
 excellent crops ; has added to it a con- 
 siderable quantity of muck and ditch scrap- 
 ings ; has paid his rent regularly, and is 
 contented with his bargain : it produced, in 
 1838, an excellent crop of rye, which was 
 cut green for horses ; this was followed by 
 a good crop of potatoes, and, in 1839, the 
 tares which it produced were a very heavy 
 « It is rated to the poor at 21a-. 8d. per 
 acre. 
 
 8G4 
 
 It would be hardly possible, I think, to 
 produce a more complete case of the abso- 
 lute formation of a soil, by means of claying, 
 than these valuable experiments; the soil 
 (if utterly barren boulder stones or large 
 shingle thrown up by the sea can be called 
 soil) not affording a single substance of any 
 kind which could, to any extent, be profit- 
 ably mixed with the clay. The attempt, 
 therefore, was one of much more difficulty 
 than any case which usually presents itself 
 to the notice of the cultivator. It was not 
 a mere claying a poor sand or chalk, or 
 peat, either of which would assist in form- 
 ing a mould, but the entire soil had to be 
 formed ; and this, it will be seen, was ac- 
 complished successfully and profitably, and 
 by manual labour only. 
 
 Some valuable observations and experi- 
 ments upon claying a light sand are con- 
 tained in the prize essay of Mr. Linton. 
 The description of land he improved " was 
 a light barren sand ; the substratum a white 
 sand, from one to four feet deep ; the sur- 
 face of the same texture, but darker in its 
 colour, through the decomposition of ve- 
 getable matter upon it. Beneath the bed 
 of sand lay a yellowish kind of clay, about 
 one foot thick ; under it a rich marl, about 
 eighteen feet deep. The land generally being 
 very wet, my first object was to underdrain 
 it thoroughly with tiles ; unless this is first 
 done, where necessary, marling is a waste 
 of capital. I cut my drains about twenty- 
 four inches deep, and nine yards apart." 
 As to the choice of clay, Mr. Linton tested 
 it with vinegar and water : the descrip- 
 tion he used " effervesced nearly as tar- 
 taric acid and carbonate of soda do when 
 mixed together in water ; this was my test, 
 that it contained a quantity of carbonate 
 of lime, which rendered it fit for my pur- 
 pose, and worthy of the name of marl. I 
 consider, that on the proper testing and se- 
 lection of the clay or marl chiefly depends 
 the success of marling operations. All clay 
 will do good, there is no doubt, but on the 
 quality used must rest the amount of benefit 
 obtained." In these experiments " the land 
 was made completely level by the plough- 
 harrows, and in some places the spade, 
 after which it was ready for the marl being 
 laid on, which was done at all times of the 
 year ; " he prefers, however, doing this when 
 the land is in seeds. The quantity laid on 
 " varied from 100 to 200 cubic yards per 
 acre, the average 150 yards. Where the 
 land was very light and barren (which was 
 mostly the case on elevated parts), a larger 
 quantity was laid on, but where it was a 
 better soil, a much less quantity answered 
 the same purpose, my object being to lay 
 on just as much as would grow wheat after 
 
MIXTURE OF SOILS. 
 
 MOLASSES. 
 
 seeds ; to do more than this would have 
 been an injury to the land, for eating 
 turnips upon it with sheep, and for the 
 barley crop ; when sufficiently clayed to 
 grow wheat after seeds, a point requiring 
 close attention, I always found it effectually 
 done for any other crop. 
 
 " The way in which it was done. It was 
 necessary, in the first place, to fix upon the 
 most favourable situation for the pit, keep- 
 ing three objects in view. 1. The most 
 convenient place for carting to the plot of 
 ground intended to be marled. 2. The 
 best situation for a pond to answer for a 
 permanent watering-place, cutting, if pos- 
 sible, across a fence, so as to water two 
 fields, one from each mouth of the pit. 
 3. Where the clay could be got with the 
 least difficulty. After the place was fixed 
 upon, the work was carried on by five 
 diggers, a driver, four horses or beasts, and 
 two carts (which are of the Scotch kind, 
 with short bodies, and broad wheels) ; the 
 pit was dug with a gradual descent, so that 
 three horses could draw out about a ton, 
 which was shot out where wanted, the last 
 returning by the time the other was loaded : 
 thus, three horses were always ready for 
 the loaded cart : the clay was spread by the 
 diggers, at broken times after being ex- 
 posed to the action of the air ; rain, after 
 either frosty or droughty weather, would 
 cause it to fall to pieces, sufficiently for 
 harrowing and ploughing in. The expense 
 I paid for digging, filling the carts, and 
 spreading, was from 4c?. to 5d. per cubic 
 yard (full one ton), varying according to 
 the quantity of stones imbedded in the 
 clay; the total expense per acre was as 
 follows : — 
 
 Digging and spreading 150 yards, £ s. d. 
 
 at 4%d. per yard - - 2 16 3 
 Four horses four days, at 2s. 6d. 
 
 each, 10.<?. per day - - 2 0 0 
 
 Driver four days, at 2s. 6c?. per day 0 10 0 
 
 Other expenses (wear and tear) - 0 3 0 
 
 Total expenses in marling one acre 5 9 8 
 
 Mr. Linton marled eighty acres in this way ; 
 but by employing a windlass to draw the 
 carts out of the pit, he reduced the ex- 
 penses per acre 7.9. As regards the im- 
 provement of the land by marling, the value 
 of the produce in four years before marling 
 was 
 
 £ s. d. 
 14 7 0 
 
 In four years after draining : — 
 
 When marled upon fallow - 22 15 0 
 AVhen marled upon seeds - 24 16 6 
 
 Balance in favour of marling upon 
 
 seeds - - - - 2 1 6 
 
 865 
 
 " The land," Mr. Linton adds, " is never 
 so productive the first two years (or until 
 the clay has got well pulverised and mixed 
 with the sand) as it is afterwards, and it 
 will not grow a good crop or a fine sample 
 of barley for five or six years after the clay 
 is laid on, I have therefore sown oats in- 
 stead. If people (he concludes) would im- 
 prove the land they have, particularly light 
 land, by draining, marling, &c, they would 
 realize a far greater return for the outlay 
 than by purchasing more." (Joum. Hoy. 
 Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 67.) 
 
 From these facts the cultivator, I think, 
 will arrive at the conclusion, that the ju- 
 dicious admixture of soils, and other appli- 
 cations of manual labour, for the purpose 
 of increasing their productiveness, can 
 hardly fail, sooner or later, to amply repay 
 him for the labour he thus employs. It is 
 an improvement, let him remember, that, 
 when once accomplished, lasts for ever, 
 since the very character of the soil is 
 changed ; his organic manures, such as farm- 
 yard compost, oil cake, and even bones, are 
 gradually dissolved or decomposed, and dis- 
 appear from the land, are absorbed by his 
 crops, or evolved in the gases of putre- 
 faction ; but no such results arise from either 
 deepening the soil or the addition of the 
 earths, they, when once united to the soil, 
 remain there to increase the crops, to lessen 
 the toils, and to add to the profits of suc- 
 ceeding cultivators, even in distant periods. 
 And to effect these important, these national 
 results, let him, too, remember, that no 
 neighbouring lands are impoverished, no 
 organic matters are drawn from one field 
 to enrich another ; the dead, the deep 
 buried earth is merely brought to the sur- 
 face, and that which is utterly profitless in 
 the mass diffuses riches and gladness when 
 spread over the farmer's fields. 
 
 MOENCHIA, THE UPRIGHT. {Mo- 
 enchia erecta.) An elegant little indigenous 
 herbaceous plant, growing in pastures and 
 heathy ground, growing on a barren gra- 
 velly soil. The root is small, fibrous, and an- 
 nual in habit. The whole herb is glaucous, 
 and very smooth. Stems several, three or 
 four inches high, round, leafy. Leaves 
 opposite, sessile, linear-lanceolate, entire, 
 single-ribbed. Flowers white, erect, soli- 
 tary, blowing in May. {Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol.i. p. 241.) 
 
 MOLASSES. (Port. Melasso.) The 
 saccharine principle in the dregs or refuse 
 drainings from the casks, &c, of sugar, and 
 the uncrystallisable part of the juice of the 
 cane separated from the sugar during the 
 process of granulation. It consists of sugar 
 prevented from crystallising by acids, saline 
 and other matters. All cattle are fond of 
 3 K 
 
MOLE. 
 
 MOLE-CRICKET. 
 
 sweets, and thrive well upon substances 
 which yield a large proportion of saccha- 
 rine juice, of which no better proof can be 
 afforded than the condition of the cattle 
 and swine of the West India Islands, which 
 are fed mainly on the tops and refuse of 
 the cane after the juice has been expressed 
 for sugar. Mr. E. Waters {Com. to Board 
 of Agr. vol. vi. p. 30.) gives the result of a 
 very satisfactory experiment as to the ad- 
 vantage of feeding live stock with molasses. 
 There can be no doubt that when this sub- 
 stance can be had cheap, its use must prove 
 very beneficial in improving the condition 
 of cattle. 
 
 MOLE. A species of the genus Talpa, 
 common in this country and other parts of 
 Europe. This quadruped exhibits in per- 
 fection that modification of structure by 
 which the mammiferous animal is adapted 
 to a subterranean life. Its head is long, 
 conical, and tapering to the snout, which is 
 strengthened by a bone, and by strong 
 gristles worked by powerful muscles. The 
 body is almost cylindrical, thickest behind 
 the head, and gradually diminishes to the 
 tail. There is no outward indication of a 
 neck, that part being enlarged to the size 
 of the chest by the massive muscles which 
 act upon the head and fore legs. These, 
 which are the principal instruments by 
 which the mole excavates its long and in- 
 tricate burrows, are the shortest, broadest, 
 and strongest, in proportion to the size of 
 the animal, which are to be met with in 
 the mammiferous class. The food of the 
 mole consists of worms, insects, and the 
 roots of plants ; its voracity is great, and it 
 soon perishes if food be scarce or wanting. 
 The sense of sight is very feeble, the eyes 
 being minute and rudimental ; but the other 
 faculties of smell and hearing, as being more 
 serviceable in its dark retreat, are extremely 
 acute. The female prepares a nest of moss, 
 dry herbage, roots, and leaves, in a chamber 
 commonly formed by excavating and en- 
 larging the point of intersection of three or 
 four passages. The young are brought 
 forth to the number of four or five in April, 
 and sometimes later. 
 
 The farmer views the operations of the 
 mole as destructive to his crops, by expos- 
 ing and destroying their roots, or by over- 
 throwing the plants in the construction of the 
 mole-hills ; his burrows, moreover, become 
 the haunts and hiding-places of the field 
 mouse and other destructive animals. The 
 mole is also accused of piercing the sides 
 of dams and canals, and letting out the 
 water, and of carrying off quantities of 
 young corn to form its nest. Hence every 
 paeans are devised to capture and destroy 
 it, and men gain a livelihood exclusively by 
 8GG 
 
 this occupation. Some naturalists, how- 
 ever, plead that the injury which it per- 
 petrates is slight, and that it is more than 
 counterbalanced by the benefit which it 
 produces by turning up and lightening the 
 soil, top-dressing pasture land, and espe- 
 cially by its immense destruction of earth- 
 worms, slugs, grubs, wire-worms, and many 
 other noxious" animals and insects which 
 inhabit the superficial layer of the ground, 
 and occasion great injury to the roots of 
 grass, corn, and many other plants. The 
 soundest practical conclusion lies probably 
 in the mean of these opinions ; and the en- 
 lightened agriculturalist, while he takes 
 prompt measures to prevent the undue in- 
 crease of the mole, would do well to reflect 
 on the disadvantages which might follow its 
 total extermination. The Ettrick Shepherd 
 (James Hogg), from a course of thirty 
 years' hard-earned experience and observ- 
 ation, speaks of the pernicious effects of 
 destroying the moles on sheep pasture. He 
 alleges, that besides the inferior pasturage 
 which the soil affords when moles have been 
 exterminated, the pining and the foot-rot, 
 two baneful diseases, come in their place to 
 annihilate the stock. 
 
 There can be no question that moles do 
 much injury to gardens, by destroying the 
 neatness of the beds, rooting up onions, 
 tulips, and other tubers ; but in the wide- 
 spread surface of the field it is a question 
 whether he does not do more good by his 
 teeth than injury by his sount. {Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. i. p. 640. ; Brande s Diet, 
 of Science.) 
 
 MOLE-CRICKET. {Gryllotalpa vul- 
 garis. Acheta gryllotalpa.) This destruc- 
 tive insect is known in different localities 
 under the several names of churrworm, 
 jarrworm, eve-churr, and earth-crab. The 
 mole-cricket measures two inches in length, 
 and four lines in breadth. Its colour is 
 dark-brown. The most remarkable feature 
 in the insect is the size and strength of its 
 fore arms. The power which is requisite 
 to move them is great. The cavity of the 
 main trunk is divided lengthways by a 
 double gristly partition, surmounted by a 
 bony frame, with an inferior condyle, with 
 which the inner part of the base of the 
 clavicle of the arm is hinged ; and by this 
 mechanism the arms are moved The mole- 
 cricket burrows under ground, and devours 
 the roots of plants. The female hollows 
 out a place for herself in the earth about 
 half a foot from the surface in the month 
 of June, and lays her eggs in a heap, which 
 often contains from two to three hundred. 
 They are shining yellowish-brown, and of 
 the size and shape of a grain of millet. The 
 young, which are hatched in J uly or August, 
 
MONADELPHOUS. 
 
 MOORBAND PAN. 
 
 greatly resemble black ants, and feed, like 
 the old ones, on the tender roots of grass, 
 corn, and various culinary vegetables. They 
 betray their presence under the earth by 
 the withered yellow patches in the meadows, 
 and by the withering decay of culinary ve- 
 getables in the gardens. In October or 
 November they bury themselves deeper in 
 the earth, as a protection from cold, and 
 come again to the surface in the warm 
 days in March. Their presence is disco- 
 vered by their throwing up the earth like 
 moles. The best method of destroying 
 them is to dig up the young brood ; but 
 boiling water or oil of any kind poured 
 over their holes will be found effectual. 
 (Kollar on Insects, p. 144.) 
 
 MOLE-PLOUGH. See Draining and 
 Ploughs. 
 
 MONADELPHOUS. In botany, having 
 the filaments cohering into a tube, or one 
 bundle. 
 
 MONANDROUS. A botanical term 
 applied to plants having only one stamen, 
 or male organ. 
 
 MONEYWORT. See Loosestrife. 
 
 MONILIFORM. In botany, formed 
 like a necklace ; that is to say, articulated 
 with alternate swellings and contractions, 
 resembling a string of beads. 
 
 MONKEY-FLOWER. (Mumulus.) 
 ShoAvy exotic plants, well worth cultivating, 
 particularly the hardy herbaceous kinds, 
 which are admirably suited for ornamenting 
 flower borders. They thrive in any com- 
 mon garden soil, and are readily increased 
 by division of the roots or from seeds. The 
 leaves of M. guttatus are eatable as a salad. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet) 
 
 MONK'S HOOD. See Wolf's-bane. 
 
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS. In botany, 
 having only one seed-leaf or cotyledon. 
 
 MONTAGU'S HARRIER. (Circus 
 Montagui.) This is a name given by Mr. 
 Yarrell to a species of harrier, which is dis- 
 tinguished from the hen harrier by being 
 much more slender in shape and not so 
 heavy, the average weight of Montagu's 
 harrier being about nine and a quarter 
 ounces, that of the hen harrier about thir- 
 teen ounces. Its food is small birds and 
 reptiles. The nest is placed on the ground, 
 generally among furze ; the eggs, seldom 
 exceeding four in number, are very similar 
 to those of the hen harrier. ( YarrelTs Brit. 
 Birds, vol.i. p. 100.) 
 
 MOONBLIND. See Blindness. 
 
 MOON-FLOWER. See Ox-eye. 
 
 MOON-TREFOIL. A name for one of 
 the species of medick (Medicago arborea). 
 
 MO ON WORT. (Botrychium, from 
 botrys, a bunch ; in reference to the form 
 of the fructification, which is much like a 
 867 
 
 bunch of grapes.) The species of this genus 
 of ferns are curious and interesting plants; 
 one only is indigenous, the common moon- 
 wort (B. lunaria), which is a perennial, 
 growing in mountainous pastures or mea- 
 dows. The root consists of several simple, 
 cylindrical, clustered or whorled fibres. 
 The herb is very smooth, a little succulent, 
 of a pale opaque green, erect, not a span 
 high. Leaf solitary, pinnate ; leaflets fan- 
 shaped, notched. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 328.) 
 
 MOOR. An uncultivated surface of 
 country, without trees, and with few grasses 
 or other herbage fit for pasture ; and 
 usually containing scattered plants of heath, 
 with a dark peaty soil. Moor lands are 
 generally the least fitted for culture of any 
 description of surface, not rocky or moun- 
 tainous. Moors are covered Avith a very 
 thin layer of soft, black, sterile soil ; and 
 the subsoil is generally gravel or retentive 
 ferruginous clay. By the destruction of 
 the heath or other bad herbage, and by 
 soAving down with grass seeds, they may be 
 improved. In many cases, also, trees will 
 grOAV on drained moors ; in Avhich case the 
 soil ultimately becomes ameliorated by the 
 shade they afford, and the fall and decay of 
 their leaves. See Heath, Morass, Peat 
 Soils, and Waste Lands. 
 
 MOORBAND PAN. This is a name 
 given in Scotland to an indurated com- 
 bination of clay, small stones, and iron in a 
 particular state, situated either immedi- 
 ately, or at some distance beloAv the path of 
 the plough, and Avhich is nearly impervious 
 to Avater. All indurated incrustations, hoAV 
 ever, formed under the sole of the plough, 
 says a Avriter in a valuable agricultural 
 journal, are not moorband pan. In good 
 alluvial loam of greater depth than the 
 plough furroAv, and rendered adhesive by 
 pressure, an incrustation or firming of the 
 subsoil, that is, the bottom upon Avhich the 
 plough moves, is frequently formed by the 
 sole of the plough rubbing constantly on 
 the soil at the same depth. This inci-ustated 
 earth can retain Avater, but its effects on 
 soils and plants are innocuous compared 
 to those of moorband pan. Ne\ r erthe- 
 less, its disruption by deep ploughing is 
 of benefit to the soil, and we have expe- 
 rienced it in very fine deep mould. From 
 an analysis by Mr. John Gray of Dilston, 
 of tAvo portions of moorband pan obtained 
 from My Infield Plain, 120 parts of one Avere 
 found to contain 34 of oxide of iron, 74 of 
 silex, and 6 of alumina or clay and loss ; 
 the other contained 43 parts of oxide of 
 iron, 64 of silex, and 8 of alumina and loss. 
 (Qnar. Journ. of Agr. vol. x. p. 131. 272., 
 vol. xi. p. 86.) 
 
 3 k 2 
 
MOOR-GRASS. 
 
 MORTIMER, JOHN. 
 
 MOOR-GRASS. (Sesleria, named in 
 honour of M. Sesler, a physician and bo- 
 tanist of the eighteenth century.) These 
 are uninteresting grasses in an agricultural 
 point of view. One species, the blue 
 moor -grass (S. ccerulea) is indigenous, 
 growing on moist alpine limestone rocks. 
 The root is perennial, long and strong, 
 forming dense tufts. The culms are from 
 four to twelve inches high, without branches 
 or joints, smooth, for the most part naked. 
 Leaves linear, somewhat obtuse, keeled, be- 
 tween sea-green and bluish. Spike ovate, 
 oblong, imbricated, about an inch long, 
 of a lead colour, sometimes inclining to a 
 purple, with notched or jagged, short al- 
 ternate bractes. This is an elegant and 
 singular grass, flowering too early (April 
 to June) to be often seen by mountain 
 travellers. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 114.; 
 Sinclair s Grasses, p. 303.) 
 
 MORASS. Moor lands saturated with 
 water to such an extent as not to bear the 
 tread of cattle. A morass is to a moor 
 what a marsh is to a meadow. It is evi- 
 dent that the drainage of morasses and 
 moors by lessening the evaporation of water 
 from their surfaces, must tend to improve 
 the local climate. -See Peat and Plant- 
 ations. 
 
 MORDANT. Any substance used to fix 
 dyes or colouring matters upon different 
 stuffs. 
 
 MOREL. (Germ, moscliel.) The Mos- 
 chella esculenta is - one of the few edible 
 fungi found in this country, which may be 
 used as food with safety. It occasionally 
 occurs in woods and orchards, whence it 
 finds its way ,to the markets ; but it is of 
 comparatively ..rare occurrence. It has a 
 hollow stalk an inch or two high, and a yel- 
 lowish or greyish indented head two or three 
 inches deep. See Fungi and Mushrooms. 
 
 MORTAR. A well known cement em- 
 ployed for building purposes, which is thus 
 described by Dr. Thomson : " It is com- 
 posed of quicklime and sand, reduced to a 
 paste with water. When dry it becomes 
 as hard as stone, and as durable ; and ad- 
 hering very strongly to the surface of the 
 stones which it is employed to cement, the 
 whole wall in fact becomes nothing else 
 than one single stone. But this effect is 
 produced very imperfectly unless the mor- 
 tar be very well prepared. The lime ought 
 to be pure, completely free from carbonic 
 acid, and in the state of a very fine powder ; 
 the sand should be free from clay, and 
 partly in the state of fine sand, and partly 
 in that of gravel; the water should be pure, 
 and if previously saturated with lime, so 
 much the better." The best proportions, 
 according to the experiments of Dr. Hiff- 
 8G8 
 
 gins, are three parts of fine sand, four parts 
 of coarse sand, one part of quicklime re- 
 cently slacked, and as little water as pos- 
 sible. The stony consistence which mortar 
 acquires is owing partly to the absorption 
 of carbonic acid, but principally to the 
 combination of part of the water with the 
 lime. This last circumstance is the reason 
 that if to common mortar one fourth part 
 of lime, reduced to powder without being 
 slacked, be added, the mortar, when dry, ac- 
 quires much greater solidity than it other- 
 wise would do. This was first proposed by 
 Loriot (Jour, de Phy. iii. p. 231.) ; and after- 
 wards Morveau found the following pro- 
 portions to answer best : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Fine sand - - - 3 
 
 Cement of well baked bricks - 3 
 Slacked lime - - -2 
 
 Unslacked lime - - -2 
 
 10 
 
 The same advantages may be obtained by 
 using as little water as possible in slaking 
 the lime. Higgins found that the addition of 
 burnt bones, in the proportion of not more 
 than one fifth of the lime employed, im- 
 proved mortar by giving it tenacity, and 
 rendering it less apt to crack. 
 
 When a little clay is added to mortar, it 
 acquires the important property of harden- 
 ing under water ; so that it may be em- 
 ployed by the farmer in those edifices 
 which are constantly exposed to the action 
 of water. Limestone is found not unfre- 
 quently mixed with clay ; and in that case 
 it becomes brown by calcination instead of 
 white. These native limestones are employed 
 for making water mortar ; but good water 
 mortar may be made by the following pro- 
 cess : Mix together four parts of blue clay, 
 six parts of black oxide of manganese, and 
 ninety parts of limestone, all in powder. 
 Calcine this mixture to expel the carbonic 
 acid ; mix it with sixty parts of sand, and 
 form it into a mortar with a sufficient 
 quantity of water. (Ann. de Chim. xxxvii. 
 259.) The best mortar for resisting water 
 is made by mixing lime with puzzolano, a 
 volcanic sand brought from Italy. Morveau 
 informs us that basaltes, which is very com- 
 mon in this country, may be substituted for 
 puzzolano. It must be heated in a furnace, 
 thrown while red-hot into water, and then 
 passed through a sieve. (Thomson's Chem. 
 vol. ii. p. 63.) 
 
 MORTIMER, JOHN, was a merchant 
 on Tower Hill, London, in 1693. He was 
 fond of agricultural pursuits, and in that 
 year became possessed of an estate in Essex, 
 Filiols, or, as it is now called, Toppingo 
 Hall. He much improved this place ; the 
 
MOSCHATELL. 
 
 MOSS-LAND. 
 
 beautiful cedars still flourishing there were 
 planted by him. He is mentioned here on 
 account of his having written 
 
 The Whole Art of Husbandry, or the Way of Ma- 
 naging and Improving of Land, being a full collection 
 of what hath been writ either by Ancient or Modern 
 Authors ; wuh many Additions of new Experiments and 
 Improvements not treated of by others ; as also an Ac- 
 count of the Particular Sorts of Husbandry used in se- 
 veral Countries, with Proposals for its further Improve- 
 ment. To which is added, the Countryman's Kalendar. 
 2 vols. 1707. 8vo. Again in 1709, 1712, and 1714. The 
 fifth edition is dated 1721. The last edition, with im- 
 provements, was in 1761 . This work was approved of in 
 the age in which it appeared, and was even translated 
 into the Swedish language, and published at Stockholm 
 in 1727. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Gardening.) 
 
 MOSCHATELL. (Adoxa Moschatellina; 
 derived from a privative, and doxa, glory ; 
 alluding to the want of show in the flowers ; 
 these being of the same colour as the leaves, 
 a greenish yellow.) This is an interesting 
 dwarf, indigenous plant, flourishing best 
 under the shade of trees ; it is increased by 
 offsets. In its wild state it grows in groves, 
 thickets, and under shady hedges. The root 
 is perennial, of several white, fleshy, im- 
 bricated concave scales, producing fibres 
 and runners from their interstices. Stem 
 solitary, erect, simple, angular, three or four 
 inches high. Leaves broadly and unequally 
 cut and lobed ; the radical ones twice ternate 
 The flowers have a musky scent when moist, 
 and are formed into a round terminal head. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 242.) 
 
 MOSSES, in common language, are any 
 minute, small-leaved, Cryptogamic plants. 
 Thus, club-moss is a lycopodium ; Iceland 
 and reindeer mosses are lichens ; and the 
 numerous species of Jungermannia are all 
 comprehended under the same term. But in 
 systematical botany no plants are considered 
 mosses, except such as belong to the natural 
 order, Bryacece or Musci. Such plants are 
 simple-leaved ; without spiral vessels or 
 stomata ; with a distinct axis of growth ; 
 and with the sporules, or reproductive matter 
 enclosed in cases called sporangia or theca?, 
 covered by a cap or calyptra. The struc- 
 ture of the sporangia is as complex as that 
 of the stems and leaves is simple. Each 
 sporangium is closed by a lid or operculum ; 
 below which is a transverse membrane, 
 closing up the rim left after the fall of the 
 operculum. The edge of the rim is fur- 
 nished with one or more rows of teeth, in 
 all cases some multiple of four ; in the 
 centre is a columilla or column, and be- 
 tween the latter and the sides of the same 
 are the sporules. It is not a little singular 
 that such plants should have cases called 
 staminidia, containing powdery matter ; 
 among which are found animacules, not dis- 
 tinguishable from such as are called sper- 
 matic, and which swim about freely in 
 water. None of the mosses are of any 
 known use, except for the purpose of pack- 
 869 
 
 ing plants, and surrounding their roots when 
 they, are sent to a distance. They are bad 
 conductors of heat, and might be employed, 
 instead of straw, to guard delicate-growing 
 plants from the influence of frost. (Brandes 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 MOSS LAND. Land abounding in peat 
 moss, but not so much saturated with water 
 as to become peat bog or morass. Many 
 remedies have been prescribed for the de- 
 struction of moss. A good scarifying or 
 harrowing, with short sharp tines, succeeded 
 by a top-dressing of salt or soot, is probably 
 the most efficacious : lime in any form is 
 less powerful, though (especially when com- 
 bined with sand) it remarkably promotes 
 the growth of trefoil tribes and other grasses, 
 highly palatable to cattle, but does not avail 
 to the exclusion of moss. Mr. Bishop of 
 Perthshire, who has obtained from the 
 Highland Society of Scotland a prize for 
 an essay " On the Management of Pasture 
 in regard to the Destruction of Musci," sug- 
 gests as the most certain remedy, that a 
 great portion of the summer's grass should 
 remain unconsumed on the ground until 
 the following winter, when the barer it is 
 eaten before the new growth of spring, the 
 finer will be the following summer's grass. 
 Breaking up the land, and sowing appro- 
 priate grasses after a course of culture, is 
 a certain remedy, but often a very incon- 
 venient one. Mr. W. Bell (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 147.) gives an account of cer- 
 tain experiments which he carried on very 
 successfully for converting moss into ma- 
 nure by the application, of whale oil. 
 
 Mr. A. Blackadder, speaking of the ma- 
 nures for decomposing moss (Quart. Journ. 
 of Agr. vol. vi. p. 484.), says : Adjacent rock 
 strata ought to be carefully expLored, as in 
 general they have each their corresponding 
 earthy covering more or less adapted to the 
 purposes of vegetation. Where the rocks 
 are of the primitive class, or of the coal 
 formation, their disintegrated portions, and 
 ofttimes their superficial covers, are of in- 
 ferior value as a soil ; but even the rock- 
 earth of the latter, as also of clay-slate, 
 lime, or even the old red sandstone, though 
 not previously mingled nor superimposed 
 in the moss, are yet valuable as ingredients 
 of composts for top-dressing, as are also 
 those of the finer sandstone, green-stone, 
 and sea-sand, containing calcareous matters 
 in a state of decomposition, or even where 
 these are absent. While sand laid over 
 moss produces rapid decomposition, and 
 consequent vegetation, no such effect is 
 produced by the purer clays. Putrescent 
 matters, whether animal or vegetable, pos- 
 sess the most powerful influence. Lime, un- 
 less in compost, seems to have no such effect 
 3 k 3 
 
MOTHERWORT. 
 
 MOULTING. 
 
 on simple mosses ; and its effects on mixed 
 mosses, or those in a state of partial de- 
 composition, must depend on the quantity 
 of foreign matter and other circumstances. 
 The value of moss greatly depends on local 
 circumstances, and particularly with re- 
 gard to the supply of operatives at the com- 
 mencement of improvements ; access to 
 putrescent manures ; markets for the sale 
 of the produce ; soils affording materials for 
 top-dressing ; and turf suitable for wedge- 
 drains ; or for drain-tiles, or stone for drains, 
 or clean gravel, if found preferable, the ex- 
 pense at which these can be laid down at 
 the moss must enter into the calculation. 
 Or, again, if the moss is to be entirely re- 
 moved, whether an adequate supply of 
 water can be obtained, with access to a 
 river or to the sea, into which it may be 
 floated off. Nothing adds more to the in- 
 trinsic value of moss than mixtures of other 
 soils during the progress of its formation, 
 either by means of the winds carrying drift 
 sand, or by water transporting earthy par- 
 ticles. When, again, a considerable quantity 
 is thus superimposed, the soil ceases to be 
 a moss, properly so called, and is an alluvial 
 soil upon a moss subsoil. In either case, 
 little more is required than thorough drain- 
 ing, in order to the production, by the 
 ordinary means, of the best crops ; and such 
 is the description of the greater part of the 
 mosses hitherto successfully improved in 
 Scotland. The same writer {Ibid. vol. vii. 
 p. 169.) furnishes some causes of the failure 
 in moss improvements. 
 
 In the seventh volume of the Com. to the 
 Board of Agr. p. 438., there is an account, 
 by Mr. Roscoe, of the drainage and improve- 
 ment of an extent of several miles of Chat- 
 moss, in the county of Lancaster. See 
 Bog Draining, Peat Soils, and Waste 
 Lands. 
 
 MOSS RUSH, or GOOSE CORN. 
 (Juncus sqvarrosus.) See Rush. 
 
 MOTH. See Corn Moth and Insects. 
 
 MOTH MULLEIN. See Mullein. 
 
 MOTHERWORT. (Leonurus ; from 
 leo, a lion, and oura, a tail, in allusion to 
 the appearance of the spike of flowers.) 
 The herbaceous species of this genus grow 
 freely in common garden soil, and increase 
 readily by seeds. The other kinds require 
 to be treated like other hardy and semi- 
 hardy annuals and biennials. One species 
 only is indigenous, the common motherwort 
 (Z. Cardiaca), which flourishes about hedges 
 on a gravelly or calcareous soil. The herbage 
 is perennial, bitter, with a pungent, dis- 
 agreeable smell. The stems are two or 
 three feel high, wand-like, minutely downy, 
 acutely quadrangular, beset with very nu- 
 merous pairs of long-stalked, dark green 
 
 leaves ; the lowermost broadest and deeply 
 jagged, the upper ones lanceolate, either 
 three-lobed or undivided. Whorls numer- 
 ous, axillary, many-flowered, purplish. The 
 reputed tonic powers of this herb, or its 
 use in palpitation of the heart (whence 
 originated its specific appellation), or in 
 that disease of the stomach called heart- 
 burn, are now properly little regarded. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 104.) 
 
 MOTTLED. In botany, signifies marked 
 with blotches of colour of unequal intensity 
 passing insensibly into each other. It is 
 synonymous with maculated ; as, for in- 
 stance, in the stems of common hemlock 
 (Conium maculatum). 
 
 MOULD. A general name for the finely 
 divided earthy substance that forms the 
 upper stratum or surface soil of land, and 
 in which all kinds of vegetables strike root 
 and thrive. See Analysis or Soils, Earths, 
 and Humus. 
 
 MOULD-BOARD. See Plough. 
 
 MOULD ON HOPS. A vegetable dis- 
 ease, which is liable to affect the hop plant, 
 in the more advanced periods of its growth, 
 and produce much mischief to the crop. 
 See Mildew and Hops. 
 
 MOULDEBAERT. This implement of 
 Flemish husbandry resembles a large square 
 malt-shovel : it is strongly prepared with 
 three bars of iron on the lower side, secured 
 by twelve bolts, and is drawn by a pair 
 of horses with swingle trees. It is used for 
 transporting compost, mould, &c, from one 
 spot to another. Its usual dimensions are 
 as follows : breadth across 3 feet 6 inches ; 
 length 3 feet ; height of back 1 foot 6 inches ; 
 length of handle 4 feet. The person who 
 drives, with long reins, by pressing mode- 
 rately on the handle as the horses go for- 
 ward, collects and transports about five cwt. 
 of earth to the place where it is to be laid 
 down, which is done in the most expeditious 
 manner, by his letting go the handle ; this 
 causes the front edge of the implement to 
 dip and catch against the ground, whereby 
 it is at once turned over and emptied of its 
 load. The extremity of the handle, tc 
 which a rope is affixed, by this upsetting- 
 strikes against, and rests upon, the swingle- 
 tree bar, and in this manner the moulde- 
 baert is drawn along towards the heap of 
 earth or compost ; the driver then, by taking 
 up the rope, draws back the handle, collects 
 his load as before, proceeds to the spot 
 which is to receive it, and the horses are 
 never for a moment delayed. (Pract. Husb. 
 p. 314.) 
 
 MOULTING. The fall of the plumage 
 of birds. It maybe either partial or total : 
 the complete moult, generally takes place 
 annually; the partial moult, occurs at the 
 
MOULTAIN-EBONY. 
 
 MUGWORT. 
 
 change of plumage, to which some species 
 of birds are subject at the breeding season. 
 The moult is always accompanied by the 
 development of a new plumage, which may 
 be of a different colour from that which is 
 lost, 
 
 MOUNTAIN ASH. See Rowan Tree. 
 
 MOUNTAIN-EBONY. (Bauhinia; in 
 memory of John and Caspar Bauhin, bo- 
 tanists of the sixteenth century.) A genus 
 of showy and interesting evergreen shrubs, 
 which will succeed well in a mixture of 
 sand, loam, and peat. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 MOUNTAIN FINCH. See Finch. 
 
 MOUNTAIN PARSLEY. (Selinum 
 oreoselinum.) A species of wild parsley. 
 
 MOUNTAIN LINNET. See Linnets. 
 
 MOUNTAIN-SORREL. (Oxyria reni- 
 formis; from oxys, acid.) The mountain-sorrel 
 is found wild in elevated bogs, rills, and the 
 moist clefts of rocks. It grows well in com- 
 mon garden soil, and is increased by dividing 
 at the roots or by seeds. The root is strong, 
 running deep into the ground, subdivided 
 and tufted at the crown. Stems solitary, 
 erect, a span high, roundish, striated, pa- 
 nicled, almost leafless. Leaves almost all 
 radical, stalked, kidney- shaped, bright 
 green, undivided, with radiating ribs. Pa- 
 nicle erect, branched, twice as tall as the 
 leaves. Flowers small, green, drooping, on 
 capillary, whorled, simple stalks. The 
 whole herb is powerfully and gratefully 
 acid, with some astringency. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol.ii. p. 188.) 
 
 MOUSE. See Mice, Fieldvole, and 
 Harvest Mouse. 
 
 MOUSE-EAR CHICKWEED. See 
 Chickweed. 
 
 MOUSE-EAR SCORPION-GRASS. 
 See Scorpion -Grass. 
 
 MOUSE-TAIL. (Myosurus. It derives 
 its common and generic name from the 
 circumstance of the seeds being seated on a 
 spiked receptacle, and appearing exactly 
 like the tail of a mouse.) In the flower- 
 garden this species should be sown in a 
 moist situation. This small annual herb, 
 without a stem, grows wild in our corn- 
 fields, on a gravelly soil. The root is small 
 and fibrous. The herbage is smooth, vary- 
 ing in luxuriance. Leaves numerous, nearly 
 erect, from one to two inches long, linear, 
 entire. Flowers small, upright, pale yel- 
 lowish, solitary, on simple radical stalks. 
 {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 124.) 
 
 MOUSE-THORN. {Centaurea myacan- 
 tha.) A species of cantamy, native of 
 France, blowing a purple flower in August. 
 
 MOW. A pile or> heap of corn, straw, 
 or hay placed together for the purpose of 
 being kept dry. See Stack and Rick. 
 MOW-BURNT. A term applied to such 
 871 
 
 substances as are over-heated in the mow 
 by the process of fermentation. 
 
 MOWING. The act of cutting down 
 corn, grass, &c. by the scythe. There are 
 some differing opinions by several parties, 
 in the fourth volume of the Com. to Board 
 of Agr. p. 207., as to whether it is best to 
 feed or mow the grass in the first year 
 after laying down to grass. See Hay- 
 making. 
 
 MUCILAGE. A turbid slimy fluid, pro- 
 duced by treating some vegetable substances 
 with cold water, others with hot. It re- 
 sembles Gum, but is distinguished from it 
 by not forming a thick curd with the solu- 
 tion of Goulard's extract. Sec Starch, 
 Linseeb, Marsh Mallow, &c. 
 
 MUCK. A farming term for any sort of 
 material, such as dung, straw, &c, that is 
 moist, or in a fermenting or decomposing 
 state. 
 
 MUD. The mechanically suspended 
 matters of water deposited at the bottom of 
 rivers, ponds, ditches, &c. As much of this 
 kind of material should be collected as pos- 
 sible, and be thrown up into heaps in order 
 to become mellow. It contains much car- 
 bonaceous matter, and is an excellent ma- 
 nure either in the simple or compound 
 state, mixed with compost, or with a bushel 
 of lime or salt to each cubic yard. 
 
 MUD WORT. (Limosella; from limos, 
 mud, in allusion to the habitation of the 
 species ; whence, also, the English name.) 
 The common mudwort (L. aquatica) is an 
 indigenous annual subaquatic plant, grow- 
 ing in muddy spots, where water has stag- 
 nated during winter. The herb is dimi- 
 nutive and quite smooth. Root fibrous, 
 throwing out naked runners, which fix 
 themselves at the ends by fresh fibres, and 
 form new plants. The leaves are lanceolate, 
 somewhat spatulate, erect or spreading, an 
 inch long, on footstalks twice that length, 
 sheathing at the base. Flowers flesh-co- 
 loured, on shortish, crowded, axillary stalks, 
 about half an inch long or more, recurved 
 after the blossoms are past. The mudwort 
 flowers in July and August. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 145.) 
 
 ' MUGWORT. (Artemisia vulgaris.) This 
 species of Artemisia grows very common 
 about hedges, in waste ground, and the 
 rough borders of fields. The root, like 
 most of the species, is woody. Stems three 
 or four feet high, erect, branched, panicled, 
 leafy, furrowed, smooth, often reddish. 
 Leaves alternate, flat, deeply pinnatifid 
 and cut, somewhat lyrate ; dark green and 
 smooth above, downy and snow-white un- 
 derneath ; the lower ones stalked, upper 
 sessile. Clusters upright, leafy, simple, of 
 reddish or brown ovate woolly flowers, more 
 3 k 4 
 
MULBERRY TREE. 
 
 MULLEIN. 
 
 or less drooping, partly sessile, variously 
 disposed. This species is weakly aromatic, 
 and bitterish; and- has, from remote an- 
 tiquity, been esteemed an active warm me- 
 dicine in decoction. 
 
 2. The bluish or lavender-leaved mug- 
 wort (A. ccerulescens) is scarcely a native. 
 The plant is rather shrubby, with round 
 slender leafy branches, downy when young. 
 Leaves lanceolate, undivided, tapering at 
 the base, of a bluish hoary hue, finely silky 
 in an early state; lower leaves variously 
 divided. Flowers erect, cylindrical. (Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 409.) 
 
 MULBERRY TREE. (Morus; from 
 the Celtic word mor, signifying black, in 
 allusion to the colour of the fruit.) The 
 species of Morus, or mulberry, grow from 
 ten to thirty feet high. A moist situation 
 and loamy soiL with a free exposure to the 
 sun, suit them best. 
 
 1. The common mulberry (M. nigra) is 
 in general cultivation for the sale of its 
 fruit, which is well known. 
 
 2. The white mulberry (M. alba) is ex- 
 tensively cultivated in many countries for 
 its leaves, which form the chief food of silk- 
 worms. 
 
 The mulberry tree may be propagated by 
 layers, cuttings, or grafting. The principal 
 use of the fruit of the black mulberry is for 
 the dessert; but from its cooling and laxative 
 properties, its juice, diluted with water, is 
 sometimes used as a beverage in fevers. It 
 is also employed in the form of syrup for 
 medicinal purposes, chiefly to colour other 
 fluid medicines. The juice is also used to 
 give a dark tinge to liquors and. confections. 
 When properly fermented and prepared, 
 the fruit yields a pleasant vinous liquor, 
 known under the name of mulberry wine. 
 In the cider counties they are sometimes 
 mixed with apples, to form a beverage 
 known as mulberry cider. The bark of the 
 root has an acrid bitter taste, and is a 
 powerful cathartic ; hence it has been suc- 
 cessfully used as a vermifuge, in doses of a 
 scruple, in powder. The wood of the tree 
 is yellow, tolerably hard, and may be ap- 
 plied to a variety of uses in turning and 
 carving. It is, however, necessary to steep 
 it in water before it is worked, in order to 
 remove the tough and fibrous bark, which 
 is capable of being converted into strong 
 cordage, ropes, and brown paper. (Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet. ; Phillip's Fruits, p. 237.) 
 
 MULCH. In husbandry, signifies par- 
 tially decomposed straw or long dung. It 
 
 is also a gardeners term for the placing 
 
 mail are about the roots of trees, on the 
 
 surface of the ground. 
 
 MULE. This is the well-known offspring 
 
 of the ass and the mare, or of the she-ass 
 872 
 
 and the horse. In the latter case, the pro- 
 duce is called a jennet, and is much less 
 hardy, and therefore rarely bred. The term 
 mule is generally applied in the animal 
 creation in the same sense with hybrid in 
 the vegetable world, signifying the inter- 
 mixture of two distinct species. Mules 
 are very hardy animals, and therefore much 
 used in warm climates, where they are pre- 
 ferred to horses, either for the purposes of 
 draught or carriage. Considerable numbers 
 are likewise employed in Ireland, and in 
 some of the northern counties of Britain, 
 on account of their great strength and du- 
 rability. No animal is more sure-footed 
 or more hardy ; but the pace of the mule 
 is disagreeable to those unaccustomed to its 
 action. The diseases to which the mule is 
 liable are few. He attains double the age 
 of the horse, and is much more easily main- 
 tained. The mules of the south of Europe 
 are frequently very fine animals, sixteen or 
 seventeen hands in height, active, hand- 
 some, and peculiarly patient of labour ; 
 but very inferior in beauty to the horse, 
 particularly about the head and tail. The 
 importation of Spanish asses into this coun- 
 try has tended greatly to improve our 
 mules, many of which, when bred with care, 
 are sufficiently thick-set and heavy for all 
 those purposes in which our largest draught 
 horses are employed. 
 
 To have large and handsome mules, the 
 mare should be of a large breed, well pro- 
 portioned, with rather small limbs, a mode- 
 rate-sized head, and a good forehead ; and 
 the ass should be of the large Spanish breed. 
 ( WillicKs Dom. Fncyclo. ;■■ Doyle's Pract. 
 Husb.; Penny Cyclo. vol.xv. p. 470.; Blaine's 
 Fncyclo. of Rur. Affairs.) See Ass, Horse, 
 and Hybrid. 
 
 MULLEIN. (Verbascum ; said to be 
 from barbascum, bearded, in allusion to the 
 bearded filaments.) The species of Ver- 
 bascum are strong robust-growing plants, 
 producing an abundance of showy yellow 
 flowers, and on that account they are well 
 adapted for planting in the- garden at the 
 back of flower borders, or in shrubberies. 
 They grow freely in any soil, and are 
 readily increased by seeds ; some of the 
 perennial kinds by divisions of the root. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) There are as many 
 as six wild species common to Britain ; viz. 
 great mullein, or high taper ( V. thapsus) ; 
 white mullein ( V. lychnitis) ; yellow hoary, 
 or Norfolk mullein ( V. puloerulentum) ; dark 
 or black mullein ( V. nigrum) ; large-flowered 
 primrose-leaved mullein (V. virgatum) ; and 
 moth mullein (V. blattaria). The dark 
 black mullein is a perennial, the moth mul- 
 lein annual, and the rest are biennial in 
 habit. They mostly grow to the height of 
 
MULLOCK. 
 
 MUSEUM. 
 
 three to five feet, in fields and waste places, 
 on chalky and gravelly soils. (Smitlis Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 307.) 
 
 MULLOCK. A local term for dirt or 
 rubbish. 
 
 _ MULTIFID. A botanical phrase, sig- 
 nifying cleft into many parts. 
 
 MURICATE. In botany, implies co- 
 vered with short sharp points. 
 
 MURRAIN". A contagious malignant 
 epidemic, which frequently prevails in hot 
 dry seasons among cattle, carrying off vast 
 numbers. It once used to sweep off the 
 horned stock of whole districts, and there 
 are few years in which it is not now seen 
 in some part of the kingdom. It principally 
 appears in marshy and woody districts, or 
 where under- draining has been neglected, 
 or the cattle have been exposed and half 
 starved. The disease is known by the ani- 
 mals hanging down their heads, which are 
 swollen, by short and hot breathing, cough, 
 palpitation of the heart, staggering, an 
 abundant secretion of viscid matter in the 
 eyes, rattling in the throat, and a slimy 
 tongue. The early stage of murrain is one 
 of fever, and the treatment should cor- 
 respond with this : bleeding and small doses 
 of purgative medicine will be serviceable. 
 The peculiar fetid diarrhoea must be met 
 with astringents, mingled also with vegeta- 
 ble tonics. In combating the pustular and 
 gangrenous stage, the chloride of lime will 
 be the best external application ; while a 
 little of it, administered with the other me- 
 dicines inwardly, may possibly lessen the 
 tendency to general decomposition. Above 
 all, the infected animal should be imme- 
 diately removed from the sound ones. 
 (Youatton Cattle, p. 379.) 
 
 MUSCLE. (Fr. muscle ; Sax. murcula.) 
 Fleshy fibres, susceptible of contractions 
 and relaxations. Muscles are aggregates of 
 minute muscular fibres, which appear to be 
 composed of small globules ; but we are, in 
 fact, ignorant of the ultimate structure of 
 the muscles, and of the causes on which 
 their wonderful powers depend. They con- 
 stitute the most nutritious species of animal 
 food. See Flesh and Gelatin. 
 
 MUSEUM. (Gr.) A collection of 
 curious objects in nature and art. It is 
 obvious, that an agricultural museum, open 
 to all who may be desirous of visiting it, 
 must prove of considerable advantage to 
 cultivators ; and it would be very desirable 
 to connect a museum with each of the prin- 
 cipal county agricultural societies, where 
 they have a convenient library room, or 
 larger building. The beneficial effects of 
 such exhibitions have been exemplified in 
 Edinburgh, in the interest produced by the 
 collection made by Professor Low for his 
 873 
 
 class in the University. There are now 
 several very important agricultural museums 
 in different parts of the kingdom. The in- 
 terest excited by the exhibition of agri- 
 cultural seeds, roots, and plants at the an- 
 nual shows of the Highland and Agricultural 
 Society of Scotland, together with the bene- 
 ficial results of the establishment of the 
 Messrs. Drummond at Stirling, suggested 
 to Mr. Lawson the propriety of exhibiting 
 a collection of a similar nature in Edin- 
 burgh. He accordingly fitted up apart- 
 ments adjoining to his premises in Hunter's 
 Square, and having stocked them with 
 suitable materials, procured by himself or 
 supplied by the liberality of his friends, and 
 of persons interested in agricultural pur- 
 suits, opened them to the public in Novem- 
 ber 1833. In 1838, the Highland Society 
 instituted a museum of its own, on a large 
 scale, in connection with its establishment 
 in Edinburgh. And this -museum, a fine 
 building, situated on George the Fourth's 
 Bridge, is now one of the chief collections in 
 the kingdom. It is impossible to enumerate, 
 and it is difficult even to classify, the various 
 objects of interest which are here displayed. 
 I may mention, however, that it contains 
 models of all known agricultural imple- 
 ments and agricultural machinery. An 
 assortment of seeds, grains, and grasses 
 adapted for British culture ; specimens of 
 the various kinds of timber produced by 
 forest trees ; a collection of insects and 
 grubs known in this country as inimical to 
 trees and plants ; samples of dyes derived 
 from native shrubs, with specimens of the 
 shrubs themselves ; specimens of minerals, 
 ores, and rocks existing in Scotland, and 
 adapted for useful purposes. Not the least 
 valuable part of the materials already col- 
 lected, and illustrative of the physical cha- 
 racter and riches of the country, consists 
 of the reports and maps, with relative sec- 
 tions, explaining the geological structure of 
 different counties, and showing those parts 
 of Scotland where coal, lime, ironstone, 
 and other valuable mineral products abound. 
 Abstracts of these have been published 
 from time to time in the Society's Trans- 
 actions. But the original maps and sections, 
 drawn on a much larger scale than can 
 appear in an octavo volume, are displayed 
 in the museum, and afford a mass of prac- 
 tical as well as scientific information no 
 where else to be met with. Another im- 
 portant and very interesting part of the 
 collection is a series of models and portraits 
 of different varieties of stock of the most 
 approved breeds, exhibiting their respective 
 points and characters. Messrs. Longmans 
 have recently given a more extended sphere 
 of usefulness to these beautiful and cele- 
 
MUSHROOMS. 
 
 - brated portraits, in an elegant and valuable 
 work, entitled Illustrations of the Breeds of 
 Domestic Animals ; the letterpress de- 
 scriptions being furnished by Professor Low. 
 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land have commenced a museum at the 
 Society's Rooms, 5. Cavendish Square, Lon- 
 don. The Royal Agricultural Improve- 
 ment Society of Ireland, instituted in 1841, 
 have also commenced an agricultural mu- 
 seum, at the Society's Chambers, 37. Upper 
 Sackville Street, Dublin. A long descrip- 
 tion of Messrs. Lawson's museum at Edin- 
 burgh will be found in the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. v. p. 418.; and a notice of the 
 Highland Society's museum, Ibid. vol. ix. 
 p. 305. The Royal Botanical Society of 
 London have set apart a portion of the 
 garden, now in progress in the Regent's 
 Park, for the cultivation of agricultural 
 plants ; and it is the intention of that society 
 to institute a museum illustrative of agri- 
 cultural botany. 
 
 MUSHROOMS. (Fr. mouscheron; Lat. 
 Agaricus, from Agaria, a city, or Agarus, 
 a river of Sarmatia, now Malamonda.) A 
 more extensive genus than this is not known 
 in the whole vegetable kingdom. Some 
 species, as the common mushroom (A. cam- 
 pestris, A. vaginatus, &c, are well known for 
 the wholesomeness of the food which is pre- 
 pared from them. Others, as A. muscarius, 
 A. necator, the whole genus Amanita, and 
 many others, &c, are very dangerous poi- 
 sons : indeed, the latter quality exists more 
 or less in so many species, and these re- 
 semble those that are wholesome so nearly, 
 as to render it advisable to be exceedingly 
 cautious in the use of fungi, for the most 
 dreadful effects are well known to have re • 
 suited from want of caution in this respect. 
 
 The edible mushroom (A. campestris) is 
 nearly inodorous, but has a grateful flavour. 
 The crown or hat is at first hemispherical, 
 then convex, and at last flat ; fleshy ; about 
 two to five inches broad; white, or very 
 light brown, slightly scaly, the scales soft 
 and fibrous ; gills pink, changing to fus- 
 cous black ; the flesh, when divided, usu- 
 ally changes to a reddish hue. The use of 
 the mushroom, as an article of diet, was 
 known to the ancients. See Fungi. 
 
 To produce mushrooms artificially, beds 
 variously constructed are employed; and 
 from the numerous modes which have been 
 invented and adopted for their production, 
 some accompanied with extraordinary ex- 
 pense, it is obvious that this " voluptuous 
 poison" is with us, as it was with the Romans, 
 in high estimation. Beds may be constructed 
 from January until the beginning of May, 
 for spring and summer production ; and 
 from July to the close of the year, for au- 
 
 tumn and winter. A bed is usually con- 
 structed of stable dung, made in the form of 
 the roof of a house, four or five feet wide 
 at the base, narrowing to an apex, which 
 should be rather rounder, of three or four feet 
 high ; the length as required, from ten to 
 fifty feet. The dung being laid in alter- 
 nate rows, with clayey loam, from which the 
 largest stones have been sorted, each layer 
 of dung to be a foot thick, and of mould 
 four inches, so that three layers of each will 
 be sufficient to complete the requisite height. 
 The dung must be well separated and mixed, 
 and beat, but not trodden down. When 
 completed, the bed must be covered with 
 litter, or other light covering, to keep out 
 the wet, as well as to prevent its drying ; 
 clean dry straw will do, but sweet hay, or 
 matting, is to be preferred. 
 
 The bed should be made in a dry shel- 
 tered situation, and on the level ground, in 
 preference to founding it in a trench, which 
 prevents the spawning being performed 
 completely to the bottom, and guards against 
 the settling of water, which may chill it. 
 If the site is not dry it must be covered with 
 stones, clinkers, &c, to act as a drain, for 
 nothing destroys mushrooms sooner than 
 excessive moisture, except an extreme of 
 heat or cold. To obviate the occurrence 
 of these unfavourable circumstances, it is 
 preferable to construct it under a shed. 
 If it is constructed in a shed, it may be 
 built against one side, sloping downwards 
 from it ; this is the practice of Mr. Ro- 
 gers, who makes it two feet high at the 
 back, and one in front. To proceed with 
 greater certainty during the winter, a fire 
 flue may pass beneath the bed ; but it is by 
 no means absolutely necessary, for by the 
 due regulation of covering, it may always 
 be kept of sufficient temperature. The 
 spawn must not be inserted before the tem- 
 perature has become regular and moderate. 
 The minimum in 50° and the maximum 60°. 
 As soon as the violence of the heat has 
 abated, which it will in two or three weeks, 
 though sometimes it will subside in eight or 
 ten days, the large lumps of spawn, being 
 broken into moderately small pieces, are to 
 be planted on both sides of the bed and ends, 
 if it is hipped ; each fragment, just beneath 
 the surface of the dung, in rows six or eight 
 inches apart each way. Some gardeners 
 erroneously scatter the spawn irregularly 
 over the surface. Fine rich loam, rather 
 light than otherwise, is then to be put on 
 two inches deep, the stones being carefully 
 separated. Some gardeners, endeavouring 
 to imitate the natural mode of growth, spread 
 an inch in depth of mould over the beds, in 
 which they set the spawn, and then gently 
 cover it with half an inch more. Others 
 
✓ 
 
 MUSHROOMS. 
 
 lay a ledge of mould, four inches high and 
 two thick, all round the bed ; upon this, 
 close to the dung, they lay the spawn ; then 
 a second ledge, six inches, of similar thick- 
 ness, on this they set another row of spawn, 
 and so proceed until the bed is finished ; 
 but this has no advantage over the first 
 mode described, and is much more tedious. 
 Lastly, a covering of straw, six or twelve 
 inches thick, according to the temperature, 
 is to be laid on, and continued constantly. 
 When the earthing is finished, the surface 
 must be gently smoothed with the back of 
 the spade, which fixes it properly, and if in 
 the open air throws off any excessive rain. 
 If after the bed has been spawned and co- 
 vered up, the heat appears to be renewed in 
 any considerable degree, the greatest part 
 of the covering must be removed, but re- 
 stored again during rain, if the bed is not 
 under cover ; and to guard against this con- 
 tingency it is a good practice to mould over 
 only two thirds of the bed at first, leaving 
 the top uncovered, to serve as a vent for 
 the heat and steam, but when all danger is 
 passed it may then be completed. 
 
 In four or five weeks after spawning, in 
 spring and autumn, the bed should begin to 
 produce, but not until much later in sum- 
 mer, and winter ; and if kept dry and warm, 
 will continue to do so for several months. 
 A gathering may take place two or three 
 times a week, according to the productive- 
 ness of the bed. It sometimes happens that 
 beds will not come into production for five 
 or six months, they should not, therefore, be 
 impatiently destroyed. In autumn the bed 
 will not require water until the first crop is 
 gathered, but it is then to be repeated after 
 every gathering : a sprinkling only is re- 
 quired. In spring and summer, during dry 
 weather, the same course is to be pursued. 
 As excessive or unequal moisture is stu- 
 diously to be avoided, the best mode of 
 applying the water is to pour it through a 
 rose pan on to a thin layer of hay, which 
 has previously been spread over the bed, 
 and thus allowed to percolate by degrees. 
 In winter, as waterings are not allowable, 
 to keep the mould moist, hot fermenting 
 mulch may be put on outside the covering. 
 If the bed is in the open ground, in a warm 
 day succeeding to wet weather, it may be 
 left uncovered for not more than two or 
 three hours. During excessive rains the 
 additional covering of mats, &c. must be 
 afforded ; and on the other hand, if a mo- 
 derate warm shower occurs during summer 
 after excessive droughts, it may be fully 
 admitted by taking off the covering. In 
 gathering, the covering- being carefully 
 turned off, only such are to be taken as are 
 half an inch or more in diameter, before 
 875 
 
 they become flat, but are compact and firm. 
 Old mushrooms especially should be re- 
 jected for the table, as it is found that some 
 which are innoxious when young, become 
 dangerous when tending to decay ; they also 
 then lose much of their flavour. Each in- 
 dividual is detached by a gentle twist com- 
 pletely to the root; a knife must never be 
 employed, for the stumps left in the ground 
 decay and become the nursery of maggots, 
 which are liable to infect the succeeding 
 crop. Some gardeners merely vary from the 
 preceding, by building entirely of dung, 
 without any layers of earth. A third mode 
 is as follows : a sufficient quantity of the 
 droppings of hard fed horses, entirely free 
 from litter, and well dried, being collected, 
 is to be laid, of the requisite length and 
 breadth, four or six inches thick, in a dry 
 sheltered situation, and suffered to remain 
 for eight or ten days open to the air, as fer- 
 mentation is to be avoided ; then earth is 
 laid on two inches thick ; a second and third 
 layer of each, with similar precaution, are 
 added, contracting either to a pyramidal or 
 rounded top gradually : no spawn is em- 
 ployed. Being left to itself it will produce 
 mushrooms in four or five weeks later than 
 if spawn was employed, but is in general 
 more productive and lasting ; and although 
 it of course will occasionally fail in produc- 
 ing at all, yet it must not be hastily broken 
 up. No water must be given until spawn 
 is observable, and then with the requisite 
 precautions. 
 
 Many gardeners grow mushrooms in the 
 same bed with their melons and cucumbers. 
 The following is the mode adopted by the 
 Rev. W. Williams of Westbere, near Can- 
 terbury : he obtains, he says, good crops 
 without detriment to either. The spawn is 
 inserted in the mould and on the hills of 
 the beds as soon as the burning heat is 
 passed. In September or October, when 
 the bines of the plants decay, the bed is 
 then carefully cleaned, the glasses put on 
 and kept close; and when the mould becomes 
 dry, water is frequently but moderately 
 given, as well as every gentle shower ad- 
 mitted when necessary. A gentle heat is 
 thus caused, and the produce extraordinarily 
 abundant, frequently two bushels from a 
 frame ten feet by six ; and individuals have 
 been produced two pounds in weight. Mush- 
 rooms are thus produced without any trouble 
 but the giving moderate waterings, until 
 frost prevents their vegetation ; the glasses, 
 if wanted, are then removed, and the beds 
 covered lightly with straw, but not other- 
 wise. The warm showers of the ensuing 
 spring will again cause an abundant pro- 
 duction, as also in the autumn, if left ; but 
 the beds are generally broken up for the 
 
MUSHROOMS. 
 
 sake of the dung, and the spawn collected and 
 dried. ( Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 6.) 
 
 Mr. W. Wales, gardener to Col. Duff of 
 Fetteresso Castle, Scotland, employs ^ ham- 
 pers or boxes, containing about four inches 
 depth of fresh dry stable dung, or, in pre- 
 ference, of a mixture of three barrow loads of 
 horse-dung, and one pefectly dry cow-dung, 
 well pressed in, and set in some situation 
 where neither damp nor frost can enter. 
 After two or three days, or as soon as heat 
 is generated, the spawn may be inserted ; a 
 mushroom brick to be broken into three 
 equal parts, and each fragment to be laid 
 four inches asunder on the surface of the 
 dung : after six days an inch and a half 
 depth of fresh dung to be beaten down as 
 before. In the course of a fortnight, or as 
 soon as it is found that the spawn has run 
 nearly through the whole of the dung, mould 
 must be applied two inches and a half thick, 
 and the surface made level. This mould 
 must be prepared six months before wanted, 
 by laying alternate layers of six inches depth 
 of fresh stable dung, and three inches of 
 light mould, to such an extent as may be 
 deemed necessary for the supply of a year ; 
 in six months the dung will be sufficiently 
 decayed, and the whole may then be broken 
 together, and passed through a garden sieve 
 for use. In five or six weeks the mush- 
 rooms will begin to come up, and, if the 
 mould appear dry, may then be gently 
 watered ; the water being slightly heated. 
 Each box will continue in production six 
 or eight weeks. Another mode mentioned 
 by Mr. Wales produces them more slowly, 
 and more sparingly, yet of superior flavour : 
 — he has boxes, or hampers, having rather 
 more than an inch in thickness of the com- 
 post laid on their bottom ; on this are laid 
 fragments of the bricks, each being broken 
 into ten pieces, as thick as they can lie ; 
 these are then covered with three and a 
 half inches of the above described mould, 
 well pressed down. When the surface ap- 
 pears dry, tepid water must be applied, but 
 in nearly double the quantity required in 
 the preceding mode. The mushrooms will 
 appear in four or five weeks. {Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 436., et seq.) 
 
 Mr. J. Oldaker, late gardener to the Em- 
 peror of Russia, has introduced a house pur- 
 posely constructed for the growth of the 
 mushroom, which he first erected at Peters- 
 burg, and in this country at Spring Grove, 
 the seat of 'the late Sir J. Banks; in both 
 instances with signal success, and in the 
 latter instance it has called forth the un- 
 qualified recommendation of the Committee 
 of i lie Horticultural Society. In Russia the 
 mush room could hardly be obtained with- 
 out the regular protection and warmth of 
 
 such a structure, and for cleanliness and cer- 
 tainty of success it is equally superior in 
 this country; but with proper care there is 
 not much doubt, that, with the protection 
 of a shed, as abundant and fine crops may 
 be obtained without this expensive building 
 and management. The house is found of 
 great use in storing brocoli during the win- 
 ter, from the severe climate of Northern 
 Europe, &c. ; but as this can readily be ef- 
 fected in this country by other means, the 
 hint that it is otherwise useful is sufficient. 
 It is usually built against the back wall of a 
 forcing-house; but if built unconnected with 
 another building, the only necessary alter- 
 ation is to have a hipped instead of a lean- 
 to roof. 
 
 As the compost, the formation of the 
 beds, &c, are very different from the com- 
 mon practice, I shall give a connected view 
 of Mr. Oldaker's directions. The compost 
 employed is fresh horse-dung, which has 
 neither been subject to wet nor fermenta- 
 tion, cleared of the long straw, but one 
 fourth of the short litter allowed to remain, 
 with one fourth of dry turf mould, or other 
 fresh earth : this enables the bed to be 
 made solid and compact, which is so con- 
 genial to the growth of mushrooms. The 
 beds are to be made by placing a layer of 
 the above compost three inches thick on the 
 shelves and floor, which must be beat as 
 close as possible with a flat mallet, fresh 
 layers being added and consolidated until 
 the bed is seven inches thick and its sur- 
 face as level as possible. If the beds are 
 thicker the fermentation caused will be too 
 powerful, or, if much less, the heat will be 
 insufficient for the nourishment of the 
 spawn. As soon as the beds intimate a 
 warmth of 80° or 90° they are to be beat a 
 second time to render them still more solid, 
 and holes made with a dibble three inches 
 in diameter and nine apart through the 
 compost in every part of the beds; these 
 prevent too great a degree of heat arising, 
 and causing rottenness. If the beds do not 
 attain a proper heat in four or five days 
 after being put together, another layer two 
 inches thick must be added : if this does not 
 increase the heat, part of the beds must be 
 removed, and fresh horse droppings mixed 
 with the remainder. The spawn is to be 
 inserted in three or four days after making 
 the holes, when the thermometer indicates 
 the desired degree of heat, the insides of 
 the holes are dry, and while the heat is on 
 the decline. Every hole is to be filled either 
 with lumps or small fragments, well bea t on 
 in, and the surface made level. In a fort- 
 night, if the spawn is vegetating freely, 
 which it will if not damaged by excess of 
 heat or moisture, and the beds are required 
 
MUSHROOMS. 
 
 for immediate production, they may be 
 earthed over, but those for succession left 
 unearthed three or four weeks in summer, 
 and four or five in winter. If the spawn is 
 introduced in hot weather, air must be ad- 
 mitted as freely as possible until it has 
 spread itself through the beds, otherwise 
 these will become spongy, and the crop be 
 neither good nor abundant. • The mould 
 employed should be maiden earth, with turf 
 well reduced, neither too dry nor too wet, 
 otherwise it will not be capable of being 
 beat solid ; it must be laid regularly over 
 the beds two inches thick. From the time 
 of moulding the room is to be kept at a 
 temperature of 50° or 55° : if higher, it will 
 weaken or destroy the spawn.; if lower, it 
 will vegetate slowly, and if watered in that 
 state, numbers of mushrooms will be pre- 
 vented attaining perfection. Water must 
 be applied with extreme caution, being 
 nearly as warm as new milk, and sprinkled 
 over the beds with a syringe or small water- 
 ing-pot. Cold water destroys both the crop 
 and the beds ; if suffered to become dry, it 
 is better to give several light than one 
 heavy watering. Beds thus managed will 
 bear for several months, and a constant 
 supply kept up by earthing one bed or 
 more every two or three months. If when 
 in full production the mushrooms become 
 long-stemmed and weak, the temperature is 
 certainly too high, and air must be propor- 
 tionately admitted. As the beds decline, to 
 renovate them the earth must be taken off 
 clean, and, if the dung is decayed, they 
 must be re-formed, any good spawn being 
 preserved that may appear ; but if the beds 
 are dry, solid, and full of good spawn, a 
 fresh layer of compost, three or four inches 
 thick, must be added, mixed a little with 
 the old, and beat solid as before. Mush- 
 rooms may be grown in a cellar, or other 
 vaulted place, with equal success, and not 
 unfrequently with a greater advantage, the 
 same rules being adopted ; but no fire is ne- 
 cessary, and less water. (Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Lond. vol. ii. p. 336.) Spawn is constituted of 
 masses of white fibres, arising from the seeds 
 of mushrooms, of which it has the exact 
 smell, that have fallen into situations suit- 
 able for their germination. These situ- 
 ations, from which it is to be obtained, are 
 stable dung-hills ; dungy horse-rides in 
 stable-yards ; horse-mill tracks ; dry spongy 
 composts ; the droppings of hard-fed horses 
 produce it in greater abundance than the 
 dung of any other animal ; in the neigh- 
 bourhood of old privies ; more sparingly 
 under sheds where horses, oxen, or sheep 
 have been kept. The dung of the two latter 
 affords it in greater perfection than that of 
 grass-fed horses ; it has also been found in 
 877 
 
 pigeons' dung. (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. iv. p. 473.) But the most certain mode 
 of obtaining it is to open the ground about 
 mushrooms growing in pastures, though it 
 is said not to be so productive. 
 
 It must be collected in July, August, 
 and September, being reckoned in the 
 greatest perfection in this last month ; it 
 may be found, however, and should be col- 
 lected when it appears, in the spring. It 
 generally occurs spread through the tex- 
 ture of cakes, or lumps of the dry rotted 
 dung, or in lumps of the earth. These 
 must be collected as entire as possible, and 
 preserved in a heap under cover, and en- 
 veloped with straw or mats. It must espe- 
 cially be a very dry situation, and, if the 
 spawn itself is damp, be gradually dried 
 before heaping ; a current of air passing 
 through the shed is of great utility. If 
 kept dry, spawn may be preserved three or 
 four years ; if damp, it will either vegetate 
 before being planted, or putrefy. Spawn 
 must not be so far advanced in vegetation 
 as to appear in threads or fibres, for when 
 in this state it is no longer applicable to a 
 mushroom bed ; it may produce a mush- 
 room if left to itself, but otherwise is use- 
 less. Spawn proper for inserting in a bed 
 should have the appearance of indistinct 
 white mould. (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. iv. p. 474.) Mr. Wales, who has been 
 before mentioned, always obtains spawn 
 artificially ; that it is capable of being so 
 raised has been long known and practised. 
 (Hist, de V Acad, for 1707, p. 47.) The fol- 
 lowing is the manner in which he obtains 
 it. Two barrow loads of cow-dung, not 
 grass-fed, one load of sheep's dung, and one 
 of horse's, well dried, and broken so small 
 as to pass through a coarse sieve, are well 
 mixed and laid in a conical heap, during 
 March, in a dry shed, being well trod as it 
 is formed, to check its heating excessively; 
 this heap is covered with hot dung four 
 inches thick, or only with mats if the shed 
 is warm, for here, as in all the stages of 
 growth, the heat should only range between 
 55° and 60°. In about a month the heap 
 is examined, and if the spawn has not be- 
 gun to run, which is shown by indistinct 
 white fibres pervading its texture, another 
 covering of equal thickness to the first is 
 applied over the old one ; in another month 
 it will indubitably make its appearance : 
 the time varies from three to ten weeks. 
 (Caled. Hort. Mem. vol. ii. p. 431.) If a 
 small quantity of spawn only can be col- 
 lected, it may be increased in either of the 
 two following manners, the first of which 
 is chiefly recommendable on account of its 
 simplicity and facility of adoption. Small 
 pieces of the spawn may be planted a foot 
 
MUSHROOMS. 
 
 MUST. 
 
 asunder, just beneath the surface of the 
 mould of a cucumber bed constructed in 
 the spring. In about two months the sur- 
 face of the spawn will assume a mouldy 
 appearance ; it may then be taken up with 
 the earth adhering to it, and, when dried, 
 stored as before directed. 
 
 The second mode is variously practised. 
 In the course of May a heap of the drop- 
 pings of cows, sheep, and horses, or any 
 one or two of them, without the admixture 
 of any undecomposed straw, is to be col- 
 lected, and one fifth of road- scrapings, with 
 one twentieth of coal ashes, added, the 
 whole being mixed together with as much 
 of the drainings from a dunghill as will 
 make it of the consistency of mortar ; being 
 well incorporated, it is then to be spread 
 in a dry, sheltered, airy place, on a smooth 
 surface, six inches thick, beat firm and 
 smooth with a spade. When become of 
 the consistency of clay, it is to be cut into 
 slabs about eight inches square, a hole 
 punched half through the middle of each, 
 and piled to dry, an opening being left be- 
 tween every two bricks. When perfectly 
 dry, a fragment of spawn is to be buried 
 in the hole previously made : it will shortly 
 spread through the whole texture of the 
 slabs, if kept in a warm dry place, when 
 each may be broken into four or five 
 pieces, and when quite dry laid on shelves 
 separate, and not in heaps, otherwise a bed 
 will be formed for the spawn to run in. 
 (Mawe's Abercrombie.) Mr. Wales recom- 
 mends the composition to consist of three 
 parts horse-dung, without litter, two of 
 rotten tree leaves, two of cow-dung, one 
 of rotten tanners' bark, and one of sheep- 
 dung. These being mixed to the con- 
 sistency of mortar, are moulded in small 
 frames like those used by brickmakers, six 
 inches long, four broad, and three deep. 
 Three holes to be made half through the 
 bricks, an inch apart, with a blunt dibble, 
 for the reception of the spawn : they should 
 be put on boards, for the convenience of 
 moving abroad during fine days, as they 
 must be made perfectly dry, which they 
 often appear to be on the outside, when 
 they are far otherwise internally. Before 
 they are perfectly dry they require great 
 care in handling and turning, from their 
 aptitude to break ; but in about three 
 weeks, if dry weather, when perfectly ex- 
 siccated, they become quite firm. To per- 
 vade them with the spawn, a layer of fresh 
 horse litter which has laid in a heap to 
 sweel en as for a hot-bed, must be formed six 
 inches thick in a dry shed; on this a course 
 Of the bricks is to be laid, and their holes 
 completely filled with spawn, and, as the 
 bricks arc laid in rows upon each other, the 
 €78 
 
 upper side of each is to be scattered over 
 with some of the same : the bricks are not 
 placed so as to touch, so that the heat and 
 steam of the dung may circulate equally 
 and. freely. _ The heap is to terminate with 
 a single brick, and, when completed, co- 
 vered with a layer six inches thick of hot 
 dung, to be reinforced with an additional 
 three inches, after a lapse of two weeks. 
 The spawn will generally have thoroughly 
 run through the bricks after another fort- 
 night ; if, however, upon examination, this 
 is not found to be the case, they must re- 
 main for ten days longer. The bricks being 
 allowed to dry for a few days before they 
 are stored, will then keep for many years. 
 (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 433.) 
 Mr. Oldaker recommends the bricks to be 
 made of fresh horse droppings mixed with 
 short litter, to which must be added one 
 third of cow's dung, and a small portion of 
 earth to cement them together. The spawn 
 to be inserted when they are half dry. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. ii. p. 345.) 
 One bushel of spawn is required for a bed 
 five feet by ten, two bushels for one double 
 that length, and so on in proportion. 
 (Mawes Abercrombie ; G. W. Johnsons 
 Kitch. Gard.) See Fungi. 
 
 MUSK- ORCHIS. (Herminium.) The 
 species of this genus are pretty, and grow 
 freely in chalky soil or in a mixture of loam, 
 peat, and sand ; they increase by divisions 
 of the roots. One species is indigenous ; 
 the green musk-orchis (H. monorchis), 
 which grows on chalky banks and hillocks, 
 flowering in June and July. The root con- 
 sists of several thick woolly fibres, and one 
 globular hairy knob, the size of a large pea, 
 which is the source of the plant of the pre- 
 sent year. One of these apparent fibres, 
 rarely more, bears at its extremity a small 
 young knob, destined to enlarge afterwards, 
 and to flower in the following summer. 
 The stem is four or five inches high. Ra- 
 dical leaves two, rarely three, lanceolate, 
 sheathing ; spike dense, an inch and a half 
 or two inches long, of numerous small yel- 
 lowish flowers, smelling like musk and 
 honey, especially in an evening. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 27.) 
 
 MUSSELS, or MUSCLES. (MytUtB 
 edilis.) A species of shell-fish, which abound 
 on the rocky shores on the borders of the 
 sea, in many parts of these islands, adhering 
 the rocks. Muscles are also found in im- 
 mense beds, both in deep water and above 
 the low-water mark in the British sens. 
 Where they can be collected in large quan- 
 tities, they may be made use of as an ex- 
 cellent manure, either alone or in the state 
 of compost, with earthy substances. 
 
 MUST. A term applied to new wine 
 
MUSTARD. 
 
 MUSTARD, CULTIVATED. 
 
 and wort before it is fermented. It is also 
 given to the saccharine juice of several fruits 
 susceptible of the vinous fermentation, and 
 particularly to the expressed juice of the 
 grape before its conversion into wine. 
 
 MUSTARD. (Fr. moutarde ; Lat. Sin- 
 apis ; from mvan, on account of its making 
 the eyes water, aivu W7rac.) A genus of up- 
 right, branching, annual or biennial herbs, 
 often hairy or bristly. There are five wild 
 species common to our islands : — 
 
 1. Wild mustard (S.arvensis). A very 
 troublesome annual weed in corn fields ; 
 also abundant in waste ground, newly dis- 
 turbed. The seeds serve as an inferior 
 kind of mustard, or, rather, to adulterate that 
 made from the common mustard. See 
 Charlock. 
 
 2. White mustard ($. alba), 3. Common 
 mustard (S. nigra), are annuals, in general 
 cultivation, but are also found wild on waste 
 ground and by road-sides, &c. See Cul- 
 tivated Mustard. 
 
 4. Narrow-leaved wall-mustard (S. te- 
 nuifolia). This perennial species is found 
 growing on old walls and heaps of rubbish 
 about most ancient cities. The root is 
 tapering, rather woody. Herb for the most 
 part entirely smooth, and more or less 
 glaucous all over, fetid when bruised. Stem 
 bushy, erect, one and a half or two feet 
 high, with numerous round leafy branches, 
 occasionally besprinkled with a few hairs. 
 Leaves scattered, a little fleshy of a glau- 
 cous green, very smooth, irregularly lobed 
 and cut, the lower ones stalked, once or 
 twice pinnatifid ; uppermost lanceolate, un- 
 divided, and sessile. Flowers large and 
 handsome, but unpleasantly scented, light 
 lemon-coloured. Pods erect, on spreading 
 stalks, linear, compressed, slightly beaked. 
 Seeds two-ranked. 
 
 5. Sand mustard (S. muralis). This an- 
 nual species flourishes on sandy barren 
 ground near the sea. The root is small and 
 tapering. Stem branching from the bot- 
 tom, about a span high, spreading, leafy in 
 the lower part, clothed all over with reflexed 
 bristly hairs. Leaves usually quite smooth, 
 of a lightish green, not glaucous, varying 
 much in form, sinuated, always acute, not 
 rounded at the extremity, and tapering at 
 the base into a footstalk. Flowers lemon- 
 coloured, smaller and paler than the last, 
 in dense abrupt corymbose clusters, greatly 
 elongated after flowering. Pods ascending, 
 on spreading stalks, linear, compressed, 
 slightly beaked. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol.iii. 
 p. 220—4.) 
 
 MUSTARD, CULTIVATED. The 
 species of Sinapis generally grown in the 
 kitchen-garden for domestic purposes are 
 the white mustard (S. alba) and the com- 
 879 
 
 mon or black mustard (S. nigra). The 
 first is the one grown for salads ; but the 
 seed of both is employed in the manufac- 
 ture of mustard. 
 
 The soil they succeed in best is a fine 
 rich mouldy loam, in which the supply of 
 moisture is regular : it may much rather 
 incline to lightness than tenacity. If grown 
 for salading, it need not be dug deep ; but 
 if for seed, to full the depth of the blade of 
 the spade. In early spring and late in 
 autumn, the situation should be sheltered ; 
 and, during the height of summer, shaded 
 from the meridian sun. For salading, the 
 white may be sown throughout the year. 
 From the beginning of November to the 
 same period of March, in a gentle hot-bed 
 appropriated to the purpose, in one already 
 employed for some other plant, or in the 
 corner of a stove. From the close of Feb- 
 ruary to the close of April, it may be sown 
 in the open ground on a warm sheltered 
 border ; and from thence to the middle 
 of September, in a shady one. Both the 
 white and black, for seed, may be sown 
 at the close of March, in an open compart- 
 ment. 
 
 For salading, it is sown in flat-bottomed 
 drills, about half an inch deep and six inches 
 apart. The seed cannot well be sown too 
 thick. The mould which covers the drills 
 should be entirely divested of stones. Water 
 must be given occasionally in dry weather, 
 as a due supply of moisture is the chief in- 
 ducement to a quick vegetation. The sow- 
 ings are to be performed once or twice in a 
 fortnight, according to the demand. Cress 
 (Lepidium sativum) is the almost constant 
 accompaniment of this salad herb ; and as 
 the mode of cultivation of each is identical, 
 it is only necessary to remark, that, as cress 
 is rather tardier in vegetating than mustard, 
 it is necessary for the obtaining them both 
 in perfection at the same time, to sow it 
 five or six days earlier. See Cress. 
 
 It must be cut for use while young, and 
 before the rough leaves appear, otherwise 
 the pungency of the flavour is disagreeably 
 increased. If the top is cut off, the plants 
 will in general shoot again, though this 
 second produce is always scanty, and not so 
 mild or tender. For the production of 
 seed, whether for the manufacture of mus- 
 tard or future sowing, the insertion must 
 be made broadcast, thin, and regularly 
 raked in. When the seedlings have attained 
 four leaves, they should be hoed, and again 
 after the lapse of a month during dry wea- 
 ther, being set eight or nine inches apart. 
 Throughout their growth they must be kept 
 free from weeds ; and if dry weather occurs 
 at the time of flowering, water may be ap- 
 plied with great advantage to their roots. 
 
MUSTAKD, FLOUR OF. 
 
 MUTTON. 
 
 The plants flower in June, and are fit for 
 cutting when their pods have become de- 
 void of verdure. They must be thoroughly 
 dried before threshing and storing. For 
 forcing, the seed is most conveniently^ sown 
 in boxes or pans, even if a hot-bed is ap- 
 propriated to the purpose. Pans of rotten 
 tan are to be preferred to pots or boxes of 
 mould. But whichever is employed, the 
 seed must be sown thick, and other restric- 
 tions attended to, as for the open-ground 
 crops. The hot-bed need only be moderate. 
 Air may be admitted as abundantly as cir- 
 cumstances will allow. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 MUSTARD, FLOUR OF. The seeds 
 of both black and white mustard are em- 
 ployed in making the ordinary flour of mus- 
 tard for dietitical use. In the dry state 
 mustard is inodorous, and, were it possible 
 to taste without the aid of moisture in the 
 mouth, it would, also, be tasteless ; the prin- 
 ciple of its odour and taste not existing 
 ready formed in the mustard, but requiring 
 water for its development. The principles 
 which exist in the mustard are two : one 
 an acid, which has been named myronic 
 acid, and is a compound of carbon, sulphur, 
 hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen ; the other 
 a substance resembling vegetable albumen, 
 which has been named emulsin, or myro- 
 syne. When the myrosyne and the myrenic 
 acid, which is united with potassa in the 
 form of a myronate of potassa in the mus- 
 tard, act upon each other by the aid of 
 water, the volatile oil of mustard is formed, 
 and odour and pungency given to the mus- 
 tard. It is the volatile oil which reddens 
 and blisters when mustard poultices are 
 used : and it is important to know that 
 vinegar checks the acrimony of the poul- 
 tice, and should not be used. Tepid water 
 only is required. 
 
 MUSTARD, HEDGE. See Hedge- 
 Mustard. 
 
 MUSTARD, MITHRIDATE. See 
 Shepherd's Purse. 
 
 MUSTARD, TOWER. See Tower- 
 Mustard. 
 
 MUSTARD, TREACLE. See Treacle- 
 Mustard. 
 
 MUTABLE. In botany, a term signi- 
 fying changing, inconstant. 
 
 MUTTON. (Fr. mouton.) The flesh 
 of the sheep. Although, by recent extensive 
 improvements, the breed of sheep have been 
 diminished in size, yet the smallness of bone 
 and symmetry of form which the animals 
 have thus acquired, have considerably de- 
 creased the quantity of offal, and added 
 largely to the dead weight of marketable 
 flesh. Before that time the mutton of those 
 880 
 
 coarse sheep rarely amounted to more than 
 one half of their live weight ; whereas now, 
 the common average is more than two 
 thirds; and Dishley wedders, when well 
 fattened, are said to be in the proportion of 
 an ounce of bone to a pound of flesh. The 
 best and most nutritive mutton is that of 
 sheep which are at least three, but not more 
 than six years old, and which have been 
 reared on dry sweet pastures. The meat 
 afforded by such as have been fed on salt 
 marshes, or near the sea-coast, is likewise 
 sweet and wholesome; for they have ac- 
 quired both firmness and a fine flavour from 
 the saline particles abounding in such situ- 
 ations. 
 
 A sheep, to be in high order for the 
 palate of an epicure, should never be killed 
 earlier than when five years old, at which 
 age the mutton will be found firm and suc- 
 culent, of a dark colour, and full of the 
 richest gravy : whereas, if only two years 
 old, it is flabby, pale, and savourless. To 
 ascertain the age of mutton, Mr. Ellman 
 directs : "To observe the colour of the 
 breast-bone when a sheep is dressed, that 
 is, where the breast-bone is separated : which 
 in a lamb, or before it is one year old, will 
 be quite red ; from one to two years old, 
 the upper and lower bones will be changing 
 to white, and a small circle of white will 
 appear round the edge of the other bones, 
 and the middle part of the breast-bone will 
 yet continue red ; at three years old, a very 
 small streak of red will be seen in the 
 middle of the four middle bones, and the 
 others will be white ; and at four years old 
 all the breast-bones will be of a white or 
 gristly colour." South Down wether mut- 
 ton, in point of delicacy and flavour, is 
 thought equal to any that is killed ; and in 
 summer as preferable to some other fine- 
 flavoured breeds, especially Norfolk mut- 
 ton. This circumstance is attributed to 
 the closeness of the grain, or the specific 
 gravity being greater, rendering it more 
 impermeable to the' air than coarser and 
 looser fleshed mutton, which is, of course, 
 more subject to putridity. The older the 
 mutton, the finer the flavour. 
 
 It is almost unnecessary to remark that 
 wedder-mutton is always considered so far 
 preferable to that of the ewe that the flesh 
 of the latter, although more commonly kept 
 to a mature age, always sells at an inferior 
 price. Connoisseurs, however, assert that 
 a spayed or maiden ewe, kept until five 
 years old before she is fattened, produces 
 mutton superior to that of any welder. 
 
 The live weight, with the offal, of a large 
 fat wedder, and the joints when cut up for 
 market, were as follows : — 
 
MUZZLE. 
 
 NARCISSUS. 
 
 Live weight - 13 st. 10 lbs. 
 
 Offal. lbs. oz. 
 
 Blood and entrails - 13 0 
 
 Caul and loose fat - 21 4 
 
 Head and pluck - - 8 1 2 
 
 Pelt - - - 15 12 
 
 Carcass. 
 
 First fore quarter - 29 0 
 
 Second - - - 28 12 
 
 First hind quarter - 33 8 
 
 Second - - - 32 0 
 
 Joints of one side. 
 Haunch - - - 23 0 
 
 Loin - - - 10 4 
 
 Neck - - - 12 0 
 
 Shoulder - - - 10 12 
 
 Breast - - - 4 8 
 
 Loss - - - 0 12 
 
 {Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 485. ; Sussex Report, 
 p. 331.; WillicKs Dom. Encijclo.) See 
 Meat and Sheep. 
 
 MUZZLE. The nose of a horse or other 
 animal. It also signifies a kind of halter 
 put upon the nose of a horse or mule, to 
 prevent eating or biting. 
 
 MUZZLE OF A PLOUGH. A term 
 sometimes applied to the copse or part to 
 which the draught is attached. See Plough. 
 MYRRH. See Sweet Cicely. 
 MYRTLE. (From myros, perfume; 
 myrtos of the Greeks, myrtus of the Dutch, 
 and of almost every other European lan- 
 guage.) The myrtle, from the delightful 
 perfume, the delicacy of its blossoms, and 
 the glossy green of its perpetual foliage, is 
 a favourite and well-known genus of plants, 
 which grow well in sandy loam and peat ; 
 and cuttings, if not too ripe, will root freely 
 either in sand or soil under a glass. There 
 are nearly a dozen distinct species, besides 
 numerous varieties. The Myrtus pimenta 
 yields the allspice or Jamaica pepper. 
 
 The common myrtle (M. communis) is a 
 native of the south of Europe, growing five 
 or six feet high, with very fragrant leaves, 
 and blowing small white flowers in summer. 
 Being a tender shrub, the myrtle should 
 have a southern or south-western aspect, 
 with protection in winter. (Paxtons Bot. 
 Diet. ; Phillips's Sylva Flor. vol. ii. p. 88.) 
 
 MYRTLE BILBERRY. See Whortle- 
 berry. 
 
 MYRTLE, THE DUTCH, or SWEET 
 GALE. (Myrica gale ; from myrio to flow, 
 being found on the banks of rivers.) This 
 is an ornamental aromatic indigenous shrub, 
 growing wild in bogs and marshes, espe- 
 cially on a gravelly soil. The stem is up- 
 right, bushy, three or four feet high, with 
 numerous alternate branches. Leaves lan- 
 ceolate, acute, serrated in their upper part, 
 one inch and a half long, deciduous, green 
 and smooth on both sides. Catkins nume- 
 rous, sessile, formed during summer in the 
 881 
 
 bosoms of the leaves, and remaining through 
 the winter. In the following March they 
 are full-grown, expanding in May. Scales 
 of a red shining brown, pointed. Berries 
 very small, covered with resinous dots, ex- 
 haling a delightful fragrance when rubbed 
 between the fingers. The leaves are aro- 
 matic from the same cause. This plant, 
 perhaps one of the more innocent substi- 
 tutes for hops, is used for brewing by the 
 poor in Sweden. Linnaeus says the berries 
 boiled in water yield wax like those of the 
 candleberry myrtle (M. cerifera). (Smith's 
 Engl. Flor. vol. iv. p. 239.) See Candle- 
 berry Myrtle. 
 
 N. 
 
 NAG. A provincial term applied to a 
 horse of a small size for the saddle ; such a 
 borse is very useful for many purposes, where 
 light labour is required. 
 
 NAIL. (Sax.) A small spike of iron, 
 wrought into different forms, for fastening 
 j wood or other materials together. The 
 i nails used for fixing the shoes of horses on 
 with are thinner than those used for car- 
 penter's work, and have a thick compressed 
 bead. The word nail is very commonly 
 applied to the talons of birds and the claws 
 on the paws of beasts ; and is also a mea- 
 sure of length, two inches and a quarter. 
 
 NAKED. (Sax. nacob.) In botany, 
 applied to stems, leaves, &c, implies without 
 hairs, leaves, or branches. 
 
 NAKED BARLEY. See Barley. 
 
 NAPE. A provincial term applied to a 
 piece of wood used for supporting the fore 
 part of a loaded wain. 
 
 NAPIFORM. Formed like a turnip, 
 tuberous. 
 
 NARCISSUS. (From narke, stupor, on 
 accouni of the effects produced by the smell 
 upon trie nerves.) This is an old and very 
 popular flower of great beauty, and some 
 of the species are highly fragrant. They 
 are all of very easy culture, growing well 
 in any light sandy soil, or in glasses of 
 water, and increased by offsets from the 
 bulbs. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) The genus 
 is a very extensive one, but only two or 
 three of the species are natives. 
 
 1 . Poetic narcissus. (N. poeticus.) This 
 is found growing in healthy elevated open 
 fields, on a sandy soil. The bulb is ovate, 
 perennial, with a dark brown skin. Leaves 
 twelve to eighteen inches long, nearly erect, 
 half an inch broad, of a rather glaucous 
 deep green, bluntly keeled, their edges acute, 
 reflexed ; the disk slightly concave, striated 
 with numerous longitudinal veins. Stem 
 about as tall as the leaves, straight, hollow, 
 3 L 
 
NARCOTIC. 
 
 NECTARINE. 
 
 two-edged, rounded at the sides. Flowers 
 mostly solitary, pure white, large, and very 
 beautiful, powerfully fragrant, blowing in 
 May. A noble double variety is frequent 
 in gardens, as well as the more elegant 
 single kind. The real narcissus of the 
 Greek writers, clearly described by Dios- 
 corides, N. poeticus, and one or two more, 
 are well known to be emetic. 
 
 2. Pale narcissus, or primrose peerless. 
 (N. biflorus.) This species grows in sandy 
 fields, and is readily distinguished from the 
 foregoing by the acute keel and straight 
 sides of the leaves ; whose edges moreover 
 are inflexed, not recurved. The flowers 
 are smaller, usually two, sometimes three, 
 of a pale sulphur colour, blowing in April 
 and May. The scent is less agreeable than 
 the former. Both are almost equally com- 
 mon in gardens, but the biflorus is seldom 
 seen double. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 131.) See Daffodil. 
 
 NARCOTIC. (Fr. narcotique.) Sub- 
 stances having the double property of ex- 
 citing in the first instance, and afterwards 
 stupifying and producing sleep or torpor. 
 In medicine the term comprehends opiates, 
 anodynes, and other drugs which induce 
 sleep, and allay pain. 
 
 NASTURTIUM. (From nasus, the nose, 
 and to?*tus, tormented-) The acridity of N. 
 officinalis affects the muscles of the nose. 
 Few of these plants are worth cultivating ; 
 they are of the simplest culture. The seed 
 of the annual kinds has only to be sown in 
 the open ground in spring. (Paxton's Bot. 
 Diet.) See Cress. 
 
 NATT. A provincial term applied to 
 the hornless breeds of animals of the sheep 
 and cattle kind. Thus we have the natt 
 or Devonshire breed of sheep. It is some- 
 times written nat. 
 
 NAVE OF A WHEEL. The short 
 thick block in the centre of the wheel 
 which receives the end of the axletrie, and 
 from which the spokes radiate : it is bound 
 with hoops, called nave bands, to strengthen 
 it. It has likewise in each end of the hole 
 through which the axle tree passes a ring 
 of iron called the washer, which saves the 
 nave from wearing. 
 
 NAVEL-GALL. See Back and Galls. 
 
 NAVEL-ILL. See Calf, Diseases of. 
 
 NAVEL-WORT. Cotyledon, (from ko- 
 tyle, a cavity ; in allusion to the cup-like 
 leaves.) A numerous and rather orna- 
 mental genus of succulent herbs or shrubs, 
 with very thick, juicy, alternate, simple, 
 entire, or jagged leaves. The native species 
 are two in number: both are perennial in 
 habit, flowering about June and July. 
 
 1. The common navel-wort (C. um- 
 bilicus), which grows on moist dripping 
 882 
 
 rocks, and old walls in mountainous situa- 
 tions. The root consists of a roundish 
 knob or tuber, with several woolly fibres. 
 Stem a span high, purplish, simple or 
 branched ; leafy in the lower part. Leaves 
 scattered on longish stalks, peltate, un- 
 equally notched or lobed, smooth, very suc- 
 culent and brittle ; the upper ones less 
 peltate, and more deeply cut. Clusters of 
 several pale yellow, cylindrical, crowded, 
 drooping, inodorous flowers, with small so- 
 litary entire bractes. The leaves applied 
 externally, like the houseleek, are refresh- 
 ing, detersive, cooling, and useful in in- 
 flammations of the skin. 
 
 2. Greater yellow navel-wort. (C. lutea.) 
 This is a very rare species. The root is 
 fleshy and creeping. Herb smooth, taller 
 than the foregoing, a foot or more in height. 
 Leaves deeply toothed ; the lowermost 
 slightly peltate. Flowers numerous, twice 
 the size of the last, erect; of a full yel- 
 low ; in a leafy, simple, or branched spike, 
 rather than cluster, the partial stalks being 
 very short. 
 
 In the garden the species of navel-wort 
 succeed best in a sandy loam ; and the pots 
 must be well drained, as they do not thrive 
 with too much water at their roots. Cut- 
 tings taken off and dried in the sun for a 
 few days root freely. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 313.) 
 
 NAVEW. The common wild navew 
 (Brassica eampestris) belongs to the cab- 
 bage tribe, and is an annual plant, found in 
 corn-fields, marshes, and about the banks of 
 ditches and rivers. The root is tapering ; 
 stem erect, two feet high, leafy, branched, 
 glaucous ; rough in the lower part, with 
 small bulbous spreading bristles ; smooth 
 upwards. Radical leaves lyrate, toothed, 
 and jagged, rough ; stem-leaves smooth, 
 clasping, oblong, partly pinnatifid ; all 
 somewhat glaucous. Flowers blowing in 
 June and July, yellow, corymbose, almost 
 as large as those of the turnip. Pods on 
 longish stalks, an inch and a half long, nearly 
 cylindrical, beaked. The roots are nou- 
 rishing, containing a sweet juice, which is 
 sometimes domestically used in coughs and 
 asthma. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 218.) 
 
 NAVICULAR. A botanical phrase, sig- 
 nifying boat-shaped. 
 
 NEAT CATTLE. See Cattle. 
 
 NECK. That part of an animal to which 
 the head is attached. The upper tapering 
 end in bulbs or other plants is also called 
 the neck. 
 
 NECTARY, in botany, is applied to 
 those parts of a flower which secrete honey. 
 
 NECTARINE. (Amygdalus Persica, 
 var. Nectarina.) A variety of the common 
 peach, from which the fruit differs only in 
 
NEEDLE CHERVIL. 
 
 NICKING. 
 
 having a smoother rind and finer pulp. The 
 culture is in every respect the same as the 
 peach. The varieties of nectarines are nu- 
 merous, nearly seventy being described in 
 the catalogue of the Horticultural Society 
 of London. Forsyth recommends for a 
 small garden the following sorts: — Fair- 
 child's early, Eldrige's scarlet, Newington, 
 red Roman, and Temple's. Nectarines, like 
 peaches, are subdivided into free stones and 
 cling stones. (Loudon's Encyclo. of Gard. ; 
 Phillips's Fruits.) 
 
 NEEDLE CHERVIL, or Shepherd's 
 Needle. See Shepherd's Needle. 
 
 NEP. See Catmint. 
 
 NERVES. In botany, the strong ribs 
 upon leaves or flowers, which are bundles 
 of vessels, chiefly spiral. Besides convey- 
 ing the sap to the leaf, and returning the 
 proper juice to the bark, they often afford 
 distinctive characters to the leaf. 
 
 NET. (Germ, netz.) A textile fabric 
 of notted meshes for catching fish and 
 other purposes. The formation of a mesh 
 is too simple a matter to require description 
 in this dictionary. Nets are useful to the 
 gardener for protecting his fruit trees from 
 the depredations of birds. They are fre- 
 quently used to snare birds, rabbits, &c. 
 See Fishing Net. 
 
 NETTED. A botanical term, implying 
 that the veins or membranes are articulated 
 to the leaf, or variously intersected. 
 
 NETTLE. Urtica, (from uro, to burn ; in 
 reference to the stinging properties of most 
 of the species.) An extensive genus of her- 
 baceous or shrubby plants of little beauty, 
 and which are justly looked upon in the eyes 
 of the agriculturist as mere weeds. The 
 herbage in all our species is copiously armed 
 with venomous perforated bristles, each of 
 which has a bag of liquid poison at its base. 
 This liquor, by the slight pressure required to 
 pierce the skin, is transmitted into it, causing 
 great irritation. Many of the numerous 
 exotic species have not this stinging pro- 
 perty ; but the sting of our common nettles is 
 not to be compared with that of some of the 
 Indian species grown in the gardens of this 
 country. These are, however, all surpassed 
 in virulence by one which in Timor is called 
 duoun setan, or devil's leaf, the effects of 
 which are said by the natives in many cases 
 to cause death. The indigenous species of 
 nettle are three ; viz. 1. Roman nettle (U. 
 pilulifera), an annual plant, growing in 
 waste ground amongst rubbish, chiefly 
 near the sea. The herb is armed all over 
 with peculiarly venomous stings. The stem 
 is branched, leafy, bluntly quadrangular, 
 often purple, about two feet high. Leaves 
 opposite, of a dull greyish green, ovate, 
 sometimes heart-shaped, coarsely serrated 
 883 
 
 with many transverse ribs. Flowers axil- 
 lary on twin stalks ; that of the barren ones 
 loosely panicled ; of the fertile simple, much 
 the shortest, bearing a dense, globular, sting- 
 ing head of tumid flowers. 2. The small 
 nettle (U. urens) is found to be in all cul- 
 tivated ground a troublesome weed, espe- 
 cially on a light soil. It is annual in habit, 
 flowering from June till October, smaller 
 than the last, and of a much brighter green ; 
 its copious stings hardly less virulent. The 
 several parallel ribs of the leaves form its 
 distinguishing character. Clusters oblong, 
 scarcely branched, each bearing many bar- 
 ren as well as fertile flowers. The whole 
 plant being refused by every kind of cattle 
 should be carefully extirpated from pas- 
 tures. 3. The common or great nettle (U. 
 dioica), which is a noxious perennial weed, 
 growing almost everywhere, and flowering 
 in July and August. The root is branch- 
 ing and creeping, with fleshy roots, and many 
 fibrous radicles. The herb is of a duller 
 green than the last, erect, three feet high, 
 with less irritating stings. Leaves large, 
 heart-shaped, spreading, pointed, strongly 
 serrated, veiny. Clusters numerous, much 
 branched, in pairs, many-flowered, mostly 
 dioecious. Flowers on one root chiefly bar- 
 ren, on another mostly fertile. The leaves 
 are employed for feeding poultry, especially 
 in the winter ; when boiled, they are said to 
 promote the laying of eggs. Asses devour 
 nettles eagerly, but all other live stock refuse 
 them, unless they are dried. In the Western 
 Islands of Scotland, a rennet is prepared by 
 adding a quart of salt to three pints of a 
 strong decoctipn of nettles ; a tablespoonful 
 of which is said, to be sufficient to coagulate 
 a bowl of milk. The young tops of the 
 common and smaller nettles may be boiled 
 as potherbs during spring, and eaten as a 
 substitute for greens ; being not only 
 nourishing, but mildly aperient. The tough 
 fibres of the stem may be manufactured 
 like hemp, and are often found in winter 
 naturally separated and bleached. The 
 roots are astringent and diuretic. (Paxtons 
 Pot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 133. ; WillicKs Dom. Encyclo. ; HoldicKs 
 Weeds.) See Dead-Nettle, Archangel. 
 
 NETTLE- HEMP. See Hemp-Nettle. 
 
 NETTLE-TREE. (Celtic). This is an 
 ornamental genus of trees and shrubs, vary- 
 ing in height from six to fifty feet. The 
 most of them do very well in any common 
 garden soil, and are very suitable for the 
 back of shrubberies and plantations. They 
 are increased by seeds or layers. (Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 NEWING. A provincial name for barm 
 or yeast. 
 
 NICKING. In farriery, an operation 
 3 l 2 
 
NICOL, WALTER. 
 
 NIGHTSHADE. 
 
 performed on the tails of horses to make 
 them carry them well. 
 
 NICOL, WALTER, was the son of the 
 gardener who planned and executed the 
 grounds of Raith, near Kirkaldy, in Fife- 
 shire, and the kitchen garden of Wemyss 
 Castle in the same county, both of which 
 are excellent performances. # He died sud- 
 denly in March, 1811. His works are of 
 first authority, and rank as the equals of 
 those of Abercrombie, being the result of 
 long practice during an enlightened era of 
 our art. He was author of the following 
 works : — 
 
 1. The Scotch Forcing Gardener; together with In- 
 structions on the Management of the Greenhouse, Hot- 
 walls, &c. Illustrated with plates. Edinburgh, 1798, 
 8vo. 2. The Practical Planter ; or a Treatise on Forest 
 Planting : comprehending the Culture and Management 
 of planted and natural Timber ; also the Management 
 of Hedges, Fences, and the Construction of Stone Walls, 
 &c. Edinburgh, 1799, 8vo. 3. The Villa Garden Di- 
 rectory ; or Monthly Index of Work to be done in the 
 Town and Villa Gardens, Shrubberies, Parterres, &c. 
 Edinburgh, 1809, 8vo. 4. The Gardener's Kalendar ; 
 or Monthly Directory of Operations in every Branch of 
 Horticulture. Edinburgh, 1810, 8vo. 5. The Planter's 
 Kalendar; or the Nurseryman and Forester's Guide in 
 the Operations of the Nursery, the Forest, and the 
 Grove. Edinburgh, 1812, 8vo. {Johnson's Hist. Gard.) 
 
 NIDIFICATION. (Lat. nidus, a nest ; 
 facio, I make.) The process by which birds 
 construct their nests. 
 
 NID UL ANT. A botanical term, imply- 
 ing nestling or resting as a bird in its nest. 
 
 NIGHTINGALE. (Philomela luscinia.) 
 In ornithology, a well-known songster, which 
 is a bird of passage, arriving in this country 
 about the middle of April, the male pre- 
 ceding the female by about fourteen days. 
 It is only found in certain of the English 
 counties, and is never heard so far west as 
 Cornwall, nor in Wales or Ireland. It 
 frequents the eastern and midland counties ; 
 but has not been found further north than 
 the neighbourhood of York. And yet it 
 visits Sweden, and even Russsia and Si- 
 beria; passing the winter in Northern Africa 
 and Syria. 
 
 It is described by Mr. Yarrell, in his 
 excellent and exquisitely illustrated His- 
 tory, " as having a hf own beak. The head 
 and upper part of the body and wings of a 
 uniform rich brown, tinged with reddish 
 chestnut. The chin and lower part of the 
 breast of a lighter tint than the throat and 
 chest. Legs, toes, and claws brown. The 
 whole length of the bird is six inches and 
 three eighths. Its nest is usually made in 
 the ground in a hollow, with some oak or 
 hornbeam leaves, dried bents, and rushes, 
 lined with fibrous roots. The eggs, four or 
 I've in number, of a uniform olive-brown 
 colour, are laid in May and hatched in 
 June, when the nightingale ceases to sing. 
 They feed their young on insects." 
 " The nightingale," adds Mr. Yarrell, u is 
 884 
 
 admitted, beyond dispute, to possess in a 
 higher degree than any other British bird 
 each of the three requisites necessary to 
 form by their combination a first-rate song. 
 The volume, quality, and execution of its 
 voice are unrivalled in this country ; and, 
 when the diminutive size of the musician is 
 considered, its powers are certainly very ex- 
 traordinary. The song of the nightingale has 
 accordingly been the theme of writers of all 
 ages, and few have expressed their admiration 
 in more fervent or more natural terms than 
 honest Isaac Walton, who loved birds almost 
 as well as he loved fish ; and says, ' But the 
 nightingale, another of my airy creatures, 
 breathes such sweet loud music out of her 
 little instrumental throat, that it might 
 make mankind to think that miracles are 
 not ceased.' " {Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 27 4.) 
 
 NIGHT- JAR. (Caprimulgus Euro- 
 pceus.) The name of a remarkable British 
 bird, the type of the genus Caprimulgus, 
 distinguished by the wide gape of its beak ; 
 whence, perhaps, has arisen the popular idea 
 of its sucking the teats of cattle, and its 
 other common name of " goat-sucker," the 
 equivalent of which it has received in most 
 European languages, and which Linnseus 
 has continued in its generic designation. 
 It is scarcely necessary to observe that the 
 structure of the bill renders the act of 
 sucking impracticable in the night-jar or 
 any other bird. The night-jars are most 
 active, and hunt their prey in the dark ; 
 they have the same light and soft plumage 
 as other nocturnal birds. Our common 
 species is remarkable for the loud sound it 
 emits, like the burr or jarring of a spin- 
 ning-wheel. The night-jar, like the swallow, 
 comes to this country from Africa. It is the 
 latest arrival in order of date, except the 
 spotted flycatcher, not making its appear- 
 ance here till the middle of May, and ge- 
 nerally leaves again by the end of August 
 or the middle of September. The night-jar 
 appears to prefer moors, heaths, and com- 
 mons that are partially covered with bushes 
 and patches of fern. The female deposits 
 two eggs early in June, in a slight depres- 
 sion of the ground. The eggs are white, 
 clouded, and veined with bluish grey, one 
 inch two lines long, by ten lines and a half 
 broad. The general colour of the plumage 
 is yellowish brown ; wings and tail barred 
 and speckled with white, grey, and dark 
 brown ; legs, toes, and claws orange brown. 
 The whole length of the night-jar is ten 
 inches and a half. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 242. ; Brando's Diet, of Science.) 
 
 NIGHTSHADE. (Solanum.) A very 
 numerous, principally tropical genus ^ of 
 shrubs or herbs, more or less narcotic ; 
 though in some cases rendered eatable by 
 
NIGHTSHADE, DEADLY. 
 
 NIGHT-SOIL. 
 
 cookery, as in our common potato. Some 
 of* the genus are very dangerous and highly 
 virulent poisons. Two species only are in- 
 digenous : — 1 . The woody nightshade (S. 
 dulcamara). See Bittersweet. 
 
 2. The common or garden nightshade (S. 
 nigrum). This is common everywhere in 
 waste as well as cultivated ground. The 
 root is fibrous, annual in habit, occasionally 
 perennial. Herb fetid, narcotic, bushy, 
 with numerous angular or winged leafy 
 branches. Stem herbaceous, without thorns. 
 Leaves undivided, ovate, lengthened at the 
 base, smooth. Umbels from the interme- 
 diate spaces between the leaves, lateral, 
 drooping, solitary, stalked, simple, downy. 
 Flowers white, with a musky scent. The 
 berries globular, black ; sometimes, as it is 
 reported, yellow. A grain or two of the 
 dried leaf has sometimes been given to 
 promote various secretions. Both its poi- 
 sonous and medicinal powers depend on an 
 alkaline principle, which can be procured 
 in a separate state, and has been called 
 solania. It is a powerful narcotic, and the 
 poisoning principle of the Solanums. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol.i. p. 318.) 
 
 NIGHTSHADE, DEADLY, or 
 Dwale. (Atropa belladonna.) An indi- 
 genous plant, with narcotic and dangerous 
 qualities, found growing in hedges and 
 waste ground on a calcareous soil, fre- 
 quently about ancient ruins. The root is 
 fleshy and creeping. Stems herbaceous, an- 
 nual, three feet high, round, branched, leafy, 
 slightly downy. Leaves lateral, mostly two 
 together of unequal size, ovate, acute, un- 
 divided. Flowers solitary, stalked, droop- 
 ing, dark dull purple in the border, paler 
 downwards, about an inch long. Berry of 
 a shining violet black, partially enveloped 
 in the calyx, which is persistent, the size 
 of a small cherry ; sweetish, and not nau- 
 seous, so that children have often been 
 tempted to eat it to their own destruction. 
 The poisonous principle is an alkali named 
 atropia. (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 116.) See 
 Belladonna. 
 
 NIGHTSHADE, ENCHANTER'S. See 
 Enchanter's Nightshade. 
 
 NIGHT-SOIL. In agriculture, a power- 
 ful manure. This valuable fertiliser has 
 not been employed in this country to the 
 same extent as on the Continent, although 
 it is certainly one of the most valuable of 
 the organic manures ; and to this neglect 
 many causes have contributed. Its dis- 
 agreeable odour, certain vexatious fiscal re- 
 gulations with regard to its removal, and 
 erroneous modes of applying it, either in 
 excessive quantities, or mixed with other 
 composts in such proportions that its powers 
 could not be distinguished in the mass, its 
 885 
 
 semifluid nature requiring for its removal 
 carriages of a peculiar construction, the ex- 
 tent and completeness of the sewerage of 
 our large cities, and several other minor 
 obstacles, have rendered its use not nearly 
 so extensive as, even in a national point 
 of view, is desirable. Davy, however, de- 
 scribed it, five and twenty years since, as 
 " a very powerful manure, and very liable 
 to decompose : a part of it is always soluble 
 in water ; and, in whatever state it is used, 
 whether recent or fermented, it supplies 
 abundance of food for plants." (Lectures, 
 p. 229.) " The disagreeable smell," he adds, 
 " may be destroyed by mixing it with quick- 
 lime ; and if exposed to the atmosphere in 
 thin layers in fine weather, and mixed with 
 quicklime, it speedily dries, is easily pul- 
 verised, and, in this state, may be used in 
 the same manner as rape-cake, and de- 
 livered into the furrow with the seed." 
 
 Night-soil is a mixture of urine and faeces ; 
 and these have been found to contain the 
 following substances. Faeces were analysed 
 by M. Berzelius : the products were — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - 73-3 
 Vegetable and animal remains - 7* 
 Bile - - - - 0-9 
 
 Albumen - - - - 0-9 
 
 Peculiar and extractive matter - 2*7 
 Salts - - - 1-2 
 
 Slimy matter, insoluble residue, &c. - 14- 
 
 100- 
 
 The salts detected in this analysis, equal 
 to 1*2 parts, were carbonate of soda, muriate 
 of soda, sulphate of soda, ammonia, phos- 
 phate of magnesia, and phosphate of lime. 
 (Gehlens Journal, vol. vi. p. 536.) To the 
 same great chemist we are indebted for an 
 analysis of human urine. He found 1000 
 parts to contain — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Water - 
 
 933- 
 
 Urea (peculiar animal matter) 
 
 30-10 
 
 Sulphate of potash - 
 
 371 
 
 Sulphate of soda - 
 
 3-16 
 
 Phosphate of soda - 
 
 2-94 
 
 Muriate of soda (common salt) 
 
 4-45 
 
 Phosphate of ammonia 
 
 1-65 
 
 Muriate of ammonia 
 
 1-50 
 
 Acid matter 
 
 
 Acetate of ammonia > - 
 
 17-14 
 
 Animal matter and urea J 
 
 
 Earthy phosphates and fluate of lime 
 
 1* 
 
 Mucus - 
 
 0-32 
 
 Silica (earth of flint) 
 
 0-03 
 
 Annals of Philos. vol. xi. p. 423. 
 
 1000- 
 
 The very chemical composition, therefore, 
 of this compost would indicate the powerful 
 fertilising effects which it is proved to pro- 
 duce. The mass of easy soluble and de- 
 3 l 3 
 
NIGHT-SOIL. 
 
 composable animal matters and salts of 
 ammonia with which it abounds, its phos- 
 phate of lime, its carbonate of soda, are all 
 by themselves excellent fertilisers, and must 
 afford a copious supply of food to plants. 
 
 The history of the use of night-soil, as a 
 manure, is attended with difficulties; for 
 the very nature of the fertiliser predisposes 
 every experimentalist, especially in this 
 country, to be silent as to his knowledge of 
 its powers. Many absurd prejudices are 
 entertained by the labouring classes ; such 
 as to the imaginary taste it imparts to 
 vegetables, when added to the soil ; and, in 
 the earliest of all authorities, it is mentioned 
 with becoming reserve. The warmth of 
 the climate would ensure a regular atten- 
 tion to the removal of excrements of every 
 kind. Thus we find that, amongst the Jews, 
 the dung of the bullock slain in sacrifices 
 was directed to be burned (Exod. xxix. 14.; 
 Lev. iv. 11., viii. 17., xvi. 37. ; Numb. xix. 
 5.), and used as fuel; and, in periods of 
 distress, even human dung (Ezekiel, iv. 
 12 — 15.). Dunghills were evidently formed 
 (Daniel, ii. 5., iii. 29.; Luke, xiv. 35.), and 
 carried away (1 Kings, i. 10.), to be spread 
 on the surface of the earth (Psalm lxxxiii. 
 10. ; Jer. viii. 2., xvi. 14., xxv. 33.; Zeph. i. 
 17.) ; and straw was spread to increase the 
 quantity of it (Isa. xxv. 10.). And Jerusa- 
 lem had even a gate called the Dung Port, 
 or Gate (Neh. ii. 13., iii. 13, 14., xii. 31.). 
 The inhabitants certainly applied dung to 
 their fruit trees (Luke, xiii. 8.). 
 
 The account of eastern customs, furnished 
 by modern travellers, illustrates very re- 
 markably the notices of the sacred his- 
 torians. " In Arabia," says Niebuhr, (vol. i. 
 p. 91.), " the dung of asses and camels is 
 chiefly used for fuel, because these are the 
 most numerous and common. Little girls 
 go about gathering dung in the streets, and 
 in the highways ; they mix it with cut straw ; 
 and of this mixture make cakes, which 
 they place along the walls, or upon the de- 
 clivity of some neighbouring eminence, to 
 dry them in the sun." Tournefort, speak- 
 ing of Georgia, says, " All this fine country 
 yields not a single tree ; and they are forced 
 to burn cows' dung." (Tournefort, vol. iii. 
 p. 137.) And again, when speaking of 
 Ezeroon, he says, " You see neither tree 
 nor bush, and their common fuel is cows' 
 dung." And Le Bruyn speaks of the same 
 custom as occurring in Persia : — " Wood is 
 very dear, and is sold by weight ; whence 
 it is that they are obliged to make use of 
 turf made of camels' dung, cows' dung, 
 sheep's dung, horses' dung, and asses' dung. 
 They use it more particularly for heating 
 of ovens, in which they bake most of their 
 meats in this country. They even apply 
 
 human dung in this way." (Le Bruyn, 
 p. 228. ; see also Sandy s Travels, p. 85. ; 
 Calmet, p. 106.) 
 
 Long experience has taught many nations 
 the value of this manure. In China it is 
 preserved with the greatest care, mixed 
 with a fat marl; and, according to Sir 
 George Staunton, made into cakes, which, 
 after being dried in the sun, constitute a 
 regular article of traffic between the citizens 
 and the cultivators of that singular empire. 
 The same useful practice is carried on in 
 Belgium. What we throw into our rivers 
 the more thoughtful Belgians turn to ac- 
 count ; what is a nuisance in London is a 
 source of revenue at Brussels. To a re- 
 port of my friend, Dr. Granville, I am 
 indebted for a pretty copious account of 
 the value assigned to this manure in the 
 northern states of the Continent ; and this 
 I will give chiefly in his own language. 
 When describing a Continental tour, made 
 chiefly for the purpose of examining the 
 mode of employing this description of ma- 
 nure in Germany, he says (Rep. to Thames 
 Imp. Comp.), " The kingdom of Wiirtem- 
 burg is so overstocked with population, 
 and land, consequently, is of such value, 
 that every inch of it is progressively brought 
 into a state of culture by dint of labour 
 and manuring, no matter how ungrateful 
 the soil, or its situation, may at first sight 
 appear. The cultivation of the vine is one 
 which requires, in certain arid and moun- 
 tainous soils, a liberal use of the human 
 manure. Wishing to ascertain this fact 
 from my own observation, I undertook a 
 journey through the principality of Nassau, 
 and along both banks of the Rhine, ex- 
 amining many of the vine districts, as I 
 descended that river for the purpose of 
 visiting Holland. On my return, I took 
 French Flanders in my way, looking par- 
 ticularly to the great flax districts of Tour- 
 nay, Lille, Valenciennes, and Cambray, 
 where the surprising results obtained from 
 the application of human manure, like those 
 obtained in Belgian Flanders by similar 
 means, have induced agriculturists, within 
 the last few years, to give to that species of 
 manure the name pf ' Flemish Manure.' " 
 
 And, when speaking of the little care 
 taken in England of this fertiliser, he con- 
 tinues : — "In no part of France, Wiirtem- 
 berg, Bavaria, Bohemia, Prussia, Saxony, 
 the Confederated States of Germany, Hol- 
 land, and Belgium, is there a city in which, 
 as in London, the general mass of filth, of 
 every description, created by a vast popu- 
 lation, is first allowed to enter the river 
 which may happen to traverse that city, 
 and is then returned, diluted with the water 
 of that river, to the houses of the inhabit- 
 
NIGHT-SOIL. 
 
 ants, to be used either for domestic or 
 culinary purposes; although, by avoiding 
 the latter disgusting alternative, foreign 
 cities are less free from unpleasant smells 
 than London is. In this respect, it may be 
 truly said that foreigners smell the filth of 
 their cities, but do not swallow it ; whereas 
 the Londoner swallows it, but seldom 
 smells it. 
 
 " In no large city of that part of Europe 
 which I have recently visited, possessing a 
 river, is any portion of the contents of 
 closets and cesspools suffered to find its 
 way or to be emptied into it, except at 
 Amsterdam, Antwerp, Brussels, Stuttgard, 
 and Leipzig ; and even there only in a 
 partial manner. In Paris the Seine is con- 
 taminated by one large drain only, convey- 
 ing the urine from the large reservoirs of 
 night-soil at Montfaucon, and by two 
 smaller ones proceeding from cesspools. To 
 convey generally, or to empty even partially, 
 any such matter into the river, is a practice 
 against which the laws have provided by 
 heavy fines and incarcerations. And such 
 is the present feeling of all the governments 
 on that subject, even in the great cities I 
 have just enumerated as exceptions, that 
 the superior authorities are seriously en- 
 gaged in devising plans for preventing in 
 future every possible infraction of those 
 laws ; not because it is desirable to preserve 
 pure the water of such rivers (since no do- 
 mestic use is made of it), but on account 
 of the loss of a material, deemed most valu- 
 able, which such infractions must necessarily 
 entail. 
 
 " Night-soil is husbanded in every part 
 of the Continent I have - visited, without 
 exception, with a jealousy and care which 
 prove how valuable it is considered by the 
 people. In most of the cities of the second 
 order, and the smaller capitals, night-soil is 
 a source of profit, first, to the householder ; 
 next to a middleman; and thirdly to the 
 farmer, who is the last purchaser, and em- 
 ploys it. 
 
 " In all the towns of the Grand Duchy of 
 Baden, of the kingdom of Wiirtemberg, of 
 Bavaria (except Munich and Wurtzburgh), 
 of the province of Salsburg, of Bohemia 
 (except Prague), of Saxony (except Dres- 
 den), in some of the minor cities of Prussia, 
 in all the confederated principalities, in all 
 the cities on both banks of the Rhine, par- 
 ticularly Strasburg, Mayence, Coblentz, 
 Bonn, Cologne, Dusseldorf, Nimeguen, &c, 
 the householder disposes of the contents of 
 his cesspool for a certain sum of money, 
 besides getting the operation of emptying 
 it performed gratuitously. By comparing 
 the returns of the different prices paid in 
 those cities for the commodity in question, 
 887 
 
 one year with another, and equalising them 
 by an average price, the inhabitants appear 
 to be benefited to the amount of four francs 
 a head yearly, and the middleman to at 
 least 40 per cent, more on the sum he pays 
 to the original seller. I will cite Strasburg 
 as an example, since most of the other 
 cities of the same extent (on the Rhine, and 
 in many parts of Germany), and a few cities 
 even larger, presented the strongest analogy 
 to the case I have selected. At Strasburg, 
 a company of middlemen engage to empty 
 the cesspools, of which every house has at 
 least two (built air and water tight), once 
 a year for nothing, and pays, moreover, six 
 francs per charette, containing ninety-six 
 haquets, of the capacity of four gallons each. 
 This quantity the company sells afterwards 
 to the farmers for ten francs. (The capacity 
 of the charette being to that of a ton as 
 28,772 ounces are to 35,840, it follows that 
 the price of a ton at Strasburg would be 
 10s.) Now, as there are 14,000 houses in 
 Strasburg, 10,000 of which have cesspools 
 affording the soil in question (which is 
 always semi-liquid), supposing the latter to 
 be emptied only once a year, and to furnish 
 each three charettes only, at six francs, we 
 have 10,000x6x3 = 180,000 francs, which 
 the company pays yearly to the inhabitants 
 of a town having a population of 70,000 
 souls. But as the company resells to the 
 farmer the said soil for manuring purposes, 
 at ten francs per charette, it follow that this 
 article of traffic produces yearly at Stras- 
 burg 300,000 francs, or just about 4^ francs 
 for each inhabitant." 
 
 The high prices paid for this manure by 
 the Continental farmers betrays the estima- 
 tion in which they hold it. " The con- 
 tractor at Brussels, M. Champon," says Dr. 
 Granville, "sells his manure for 13s. 4d. 
 per ton — 400 florins or 331. 6s. for a barge- 
 load of fifty tons. M. Smet, the greatest 
 trafficker, perhaps, in this material in East 
 Flanders, gets for some of his 10s., and for 
 the best and larger portion of it 15s. per 
 ton ; while the contractor at Antwerp dis- 
 poses of all he has of Flemish manure at 
 52 florins the put, or 624 florins the barge - 
 load, equal to 52Z., or 11. 10s. 9d. per ton. 
 But if we look to what takes place every 
 day at Montfaucon, near Paris, where 200 
 cart-loads of the contents of the cesspools 
 are daily deposited, to be converted into 
 poudrette, we find the latter (a dry and 
 compound manure made from night-soil) 
 to fetch a much higher price than all the 
 rest. 
 
 " But by far the most important point of 
 practical knowledge in this matter, put for- 
 ward by the same great authorities, and 
 the truth of which was afterwards con- 
 3 l 4 
 
NIGHT-SOIL. 
 
 firmed to me by more than one great farmer 
 in East Flanders, is, that while the manur- 
 ing with human soil has produced fourteen 
 times the quantity sown, where horse-dung 
 has only yielded ten, the proportion of the 
 human or Flemish manure employed was, 
 to that of the horse-dung, as one to five 
 only ; so that with one ton of the Flemish 
 a larger produce is obtained than with five 
 tons of stable manure." See Manures ap- 
 plicable by the Drill. 
 
 In Sweden the value of night-soil has 
 been long well understood by the farmers. 
 Nearly half a century since the Baron de 
 Schulze, when writing to Sir John Sinclair, 
 observed, " They have now ceased to spoil 
 the fine harbour of Stockholm with nui- 
 sances of every kind. The contents of the 
 privies are now collected by undertakers, in 
 barrels, of which they are obliged to have 
 a double quantity to replace those deposited 
 in the reservoirs, from whence they are 
 carried to the country. My eldest son, 
 who has changed the sword for the plough- 
 share, has particularly attended to this ma- 
 nure, being favourably situated on the 
 Lake Malar, forty-eight English miles from 
 the capital ; he conveys it in a covered 
 boat, each loading of which is sufficient to 
 dress about three acres of spring corn, and 
 between four and five of winter corn and 
 meadow ground. This manure, by the 
 motion of the boat,, becomes more liquid; 
 and it is conveyed from the hold of the 
 vessel by a bucket at the end of a lever, 
 through a spout into a close cart on shore 
 drawn by two oxen. These carts are pro- 
 vided with a moveable funnel, and with a 
 strainer so regulated by means of a pole 
 that the manure can be administered at 
 pleasure by the driver, without further at- 
 tention to spreading. That the land may 
 not be overdunged, and the crop conse- 
 quently lodged, care must be taken not to 
 lay above forty such cart-loads on the 
 Swedish acre for spring corn; each cart 
 containing 180 gallons English, or 1920 lbs. 
 Except that other powerful manure pro- 
 duced by refuse of the herring oil-works, 
 none can come into competition, for richness, 
 with the contents of the privy mixed with 
 urine. The effects of this manure, no doubt, 
 diminish gradually ; yet its operation may be 
 plainly perceived in the fourth successive 
 crop. When clover is meant to be sown 
 with the spring corn, this species of manure 
 is unsuitable; for although the seed be 
 diminished to one third, the straw becomes 
 so thick and strong as to choke the clover. 
 A mixture of lime is sometimes recom- 
 mended for this manure, in order to dry it 
 and correct the smell; but besides that 
 Jime u not plentiful here, the process would 
 888 
 
 be found to require a considerable time and 
 expense. A little addition to the wages of 
 the labourers or cottagers soon reconciles 
 them to the inconvenience of the smell, 
 and it becomes still less offensive to them if 
 they are allowed to use part of it on their 
 own little fields. If any particular impedi- 
 ment occurs, such as harvest work, this 
 manure is then from the vessel conveyed 
 to great pits, to be, after a mixture with 
 other substances, driven to the field at a 
 more convenient season." {Com. Board 
 of Agr. vol. i. p. 326.) The prejudice which 
 some English labourers entertain against 
 the employment of night-soil is readily 
 overcome by a little management. The 
 stream which flows through the village of 
 Eastbourn, in Sussex, had become, a few 
 months since, much contaminated through 
 the night-soil which had been deposited in 
 it from the adjoining cottages, and it was 
 in vain that their owners were advised to 
 use it for their gardens ; until an excellent 
 lady of the place, who is ever ready to pro- 
 mote the comfort of her poorer neighbours, 
 desired her bailiff to go round and propose 
 to purchase it of them. His offer was, how- 
 ever, universally rejected ; and ever since 
 they have no longer suffered the contents 
 of their privies to be wasted, but have care- 
 fully applied them, and with the best re- 
 sults, to their own gardens ; remarking, 
 that if it was worth a farmers while to buy 
 it of them, it must be worth more to them 
 for their gardens. 
 
 " By this term, night-soil," remarked the 
 indefatigable Arthur Young, " at London, 
 is to be understood the collections there 
 made of what a French marquis calls 
 ' l'espece de fumier que la politesse empeche 
 de nommer ; ' from which trait of him, one 
 would not have expected he should know 
 so much of the value of it as he really did. 
 An Englishman says, 'tis more decent and 
 better to let it alone ; but as I conceive 
 it perfectly decent and efficient, I shall con- 
 sider human ordure as the very best manure 
 that can be procured. But here, I shall 
 first consider the farmer's conduct at home, 
 where his great object is to raise as much 
 manure as possible without being obliged 
 to depend on purchases, which are only to 
 be made in certain situations. If the farmer 
 manages his necessary house in such a man- 
 ner as to suffer nothing to run off from it, 
 and frequently throws malt-dust, saw-dust, 
 fine mould, or sand into it, he may, every 
 year, manure from one to two acres of 
 land. 
 
 " If the farm is within reach of any con- 
 siderable town, and there are scavengers or 
 people who will collect this manure and keep 
 it separate, the farmer can hardly purchase 
 
NIGHT-SOIL. 
 
 it at too high a price. In the last century, 
 the ordure of the galley slaves at Marseilles 
 was all saved, and sold to the farmers as a 
 dressing for grapes, olives, and figs ; the last 
 of which produced by it were the best in 
 the world. At Nice it sells high, and every 
 peasant has an house of office for pas- 
 sengers. In China it seems to be a ma- 
 nure, of all others, in the most request ; 
 and in Italy they are well acquainted with 
 its value. At London it sells at from 3s. to 
 6s. a load ; at seventeen miles distant, with 
 turnpikes and all expenses, it costs 25s. a 
 waggon load ; yet it answered greatly. It 
 should be laid by the scavengers in very 
 light swamps (not too deep) in a grass 
 field, and in summer trenches cut through 
 it to drain ; and then being thrown in heaps, 
 it is of very light carriage. Three waggon 
 loads, or from 240 to 300 bushels, are enough 
 for an acre of grass land, upon which I 
 think it answers best ; but mixed with 
 marl, loam, turf, or dry pond mud, its use 
 for that application is excellent. I have 
 compared it with all other manures, and 
 found that none of them I could procure 
 equalled it by many degrees. It is a 
 vulgar error to imagine that manuring a 
 field with this substance will give a bad 
 taste to plants. I dressed part of a pasture 
 with it, fed the whole of that year with 
 horses, cows, and young cattle, and I re- 
 marked to various gentlemen that saw it 
 how close into the ground that part was 
 constantly eaten, while there was much 
 longer grass, &c. in every other part of 
 the field." (Annals of Agr. vol. xxxiii. 
 p. 602.) 
 
 " On October 20th, 1772," adds Arthur 
 Young, " I marked divisions each of four 
 square perches on a summer fallow ; the 
 soil a poor blue pebbly gravel, and manured 
 these compartments as follows : — 
 Produce of Wheat per Acre. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Soil simple - - - 12^ 
 
 Bushels of night-soil - - 320 37£ 
 
 Do. - - - - 240 32^ 
 
 Do. - - - - 160 31£ 
 
 Cubic yards of farmyard com- 
 post - - - 60 25 
 Do. - - - - 30 23f 
 Do. and 1 cubic yard of chalk 30 25 
 
 " The effect of night-soil," he continues, 
 " was prodigious ; it just trebles the pro- 
 duce. In all the experiments I have made 
 with this manure, I have ever found this 
 result almost uniform." (Annals of Agr. 
 vol. iii. p. 79.) It is evident, also, from the 
 experiments of Arthur Young, which are 
 entirely confirmed by those of the Essex 
 farmers, and my own, that night-soil is an 
 excellent manure for potatoes. The fol- 
 889 
 
 lowing table contains the results of A. 
 Young's trials. The soil on which these 
 experiments were made was a poor gravelly 
 loam. 
 
 Produce per Acre. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Soil simple produced - - 120 
 
 Night-soil 1 0 waggon loads, each 96 bush. 600 
 
 — 6 — — 650 
 
 — 2 — — 500 
 Bones 10 — — 650 
 
 — 6 — _640 
 
 — 2 — — 560 
 Hog dung 60 one-horse cart loads 480 
 
 — 30 — 480 
 Yard compost 60 one-horse cart loads 300 
 
 — 120 — 480 
 
 — 30 — 140 
 (Survey of Hertfordshire, p. 177. ; Brit. 
 Hush. vol. i. p. 267.) 
 
 These experiments are useful, as indicat- 
 ing the comparative value of each fertiliser, 
 although the quantities employed were evi- 
 dently excessive. Mr. Hewett Davis, of 
 Spring Park, near Croydon, finds six tons 
 of night-soil, mixed with peat, to be amply 
 sufficient for an acre of ground. He thinks 
 this manure the best for turnips. Night-soil 
 is, however, in spite of all the obstacles of 
 prejudice and inattention, much more ex- 
 tensively used in the neighbourhood of the 
 large manufacturing towns of the north of 
 England than it was formerly. Mr. Dixon, 
 of Hathershaw, in Lancashire, thus de- 
 scribes his mode of using it. (Journ. Eng. 
 Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 135.) " For the con- 
 veyance of night-soil and urine, we have 
 the largest and strongest casks, such as oils 
 are imported in ; the top of which is pro- 
 vided with a funnel to put the matters 
 through, and the casks are fixed on wheels 
 like those of a common dung-cart. I am 
 fully aware that there are many localities 
 where neither peat nor night-soil can be 
 readily obtained ; but it is worth a farmer's 
 while to go even more than twenty miles 
 for the latter substance, provided he can 
 have it without deterioration : the original 
 cost is often trifling. On a farm where 
 turnips or mangel-wurzel are cultivated to 
 some extent, the system here recommended 
 will be almost incalculably advantageous. 
 A single horse is sufficient for one carriage ; 
 mine holds iipwards of a ton each ; six tons 
 of this manure in compost with peat, or, if 
 that is not convenient, any other matters, 
 such as ditch scourings, or high headlands 
 which have been properly prepared and laid 
 dry in a heap for some time, would be amply 
 sufficient for an acre of turnips or mangel. 
 This manure is by far the most invigorat- 
 ing of any I have ever yet tried. Bones in 
 any state will bear no comparison as a help 
 for any crop ; but it must be remembered 
 
NIPPERS. 
 
 NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 that I write on the supposition that it has 
 not been reduced in strength before it is 
 fetched." 
 
 There have been various patents granted 
 in France for the preparation of manure 
 from night-soil, several of which have proved 
 very successful. The poudrette, or dried 
 night-soil, first prepared by M. Bridet, was 
 found, after repeated trials, to be a very 
 powerful dressing for land ; 240 lbs. of this 
 powder producing effects equal to eight 
 loads of stable manure. (Brevets, vol. i. 
 p. 371.) This substance has been recently 
 examined by Professor Hermstadt, who re- 
 ports it to be a perfect substitute for com- 
 mon dung ; that it is most efficacious in wet 
 seasons ; and that in dry seasons it is less 
 useful upon sandy soils than upon greasy 
 clays. (Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. x. p. 285.) 
 There is no doubt but that very excellent 
 composts may be made from night-soil ; and, 
 in fact, several are now prepared in Lon- 
 don, on a very bold scale, for the service 
 of the farmer; but the success of these is 
 usually impeded by the preparers profess- 
 ing that their preparations may be used in 
 quantities much too small. Then, again, 
 one or two patents have been taken out in 
 this country for artificial manures, by per- 
 sons who were evidently very grossly igno- 
 rant of what they professed to understand. 
 (Johnson on the Fertilisers, p. 92.) See 
 Farm- Yard Manure ; Manures appli- 
 cable by the Drill ; Urine. 
 
 NIPPERS. A term applied to the four 
 teeth in the fore part of a horse's mouth, 
 two in the upper and two in the lower jaw : 
 they are put forth between the second and 
 third years. Nippers, in farriery, are the 
 pincers which the smiths use in shoeing. 
 
 NIPPLE-WORT. Lapsana (from la- 
 pago, to purge ; in allusion to its once sup- 
 posed medicinal virtues). A genus of plants 
 of little interest, and of the commonest cul- 
 ture. There are two indigenous species, 
 both annual plants, belonging to the natural 
 order Compositce. 
 
 1. Common nipple- wort, or dock cresses 
 (L. communis), is met with very frequently 
 in waste as well as cultivated ground. 
 The root is branching, with many fibres, 
 simple at the crown. Stem solitary, two or 
 three feet high, round, branched, leafy, 
 almost solid, nearly or quite smooth. Leaves 
 deep green, a little hairy ; radical one, 
 lyrate ; upper alternate, stalked, ovates 
 acute, toothed. Panicle repeatedly divided, 
 erect, of very small bright yellow flowers. 
 Flower-stalks cylindrical, even. The young 
 and tender leaves of this plant have the 
 flavour of radishes, and may be eaten raw 
 as salad. Though possessing a bitter taste, 
 they are a wholesome vegetable, and in 
 890 
 
 some parts of England the country people 
 boil them as a substitute for greens. 
 
 2. Dwarf nipple-wort, or swine's succory 
 (L. pusilla). In this species the root is 
 small and tapering. Leaves all radical, de- 
 pressed, obovate, rough-edged, toothed. 
 Stalks several, radical, leafless, subdivided ; 
 swelling and tubular at the summit, slen- 
 der and purplish below. (Paxtoris Bot. 
 Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 377.) 
 
 NITHERED. A provincial word used 
 to signify perishing with cold. 
 
 NITRATES OF POTASH AND SO- 
 DA. Two salts lately much employed in 
 agriculture. The first (nitrate of potash) 
 is known in commerce under the name of 
 saltpetre, and is principally procured from 
 the East Indies, where it is found on the 
 surface of the ground, especially in the dis- 
 trict of Tirhut in Bengal. It also abounds 
 in Ceylon, Persia, Egypt, and even in 
 Spain ; but that which is brought to Eng- 
 land comes chiefly from India in an impure 
 state, and contains about seventy per cent, 
 of pure nitre. It, however, varies in qua- 
 lity ; but the average loss in the purification 
 is generally about 15 to 20 per cent. Nitre 
 is also formed by artificial composts in 
 various parts of Europe. When pure, nitre 
 is composed of nitric acid 54' 15 parts, or 
 one equivalent ; and potash 4715 parts, or 
 one equivalent ; or 52*9 per cent, of acid + 
 47-1 of alkali = 100. 
 
 Nitrate of soda, which is known as cubic 
 petre, is obtained chiefly from Peru, where 
 it is found in a thick stratum, at an eleva- 
 tion of 3500 feet above the level of the 
 Pacific Ocean. (Darwin's Researches, p. 
 443.) It is sold, it seems, at the ship's side 
 on the coast of Peru at 14*. per cwt. It 
 is composed of nitric acid 62*1 parts, and 
 potash 37'9 parts. (Eichter, p. 100. ; Stat. 
 Chem. vol. i. p. 39.) 
 
 It is only in modern days that saltpetre 
 has been extensively employed as a fer- 
 tiliser ; for it is not long that the nitre of 
 commerce has been produced in quantities 
 sufficiently large and reasonable to enable 
 the farmer to profitably use it as a manure. 
 That the knowledge of its enriching qua- 
 lities, however, is not a modern discovery, 
 is too self-evident to be doubted. Virgil 
 (Georgics, lib. i. v. 193. 195.) recommends 
 it to the Italian farmers as an excellent 
 addition to the dregs of olive oil, to form a 
 steep to cause the seed grain to swell and 
 vegetate with vigour ; and from his days to 
 our own, hardly an agricultural writer has 
 omitted to notice its powers. The very 
 first English author who wrote upon hus- 
 bandry, in 1532, Sir Anthony Fitzherbert, 
 describes it as having the power to ensure 
 to the farmer the most abundant crops. 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 And in 1570, a learned German counsellor, 
 Herebaschius, in his Treatise upon Rural 
 Affairs, describes the use of this salt as not 
 an uncommon dressing in his time for cole- 
 worts. A century afterwards, Evelyn, in 
 his Discourse on Earth, told the farmers of 
 his age that if they could but obtain a 
 plentiful supply of saltpetre, they would 
 " need but little other compost to meliorate 
 their ground." And even Jethro Tull, in 
 the early part of the last century, who 
 denied very zealously the necessary use of 
 manures of all kinds — even Tull placed 
 nitre at the head of his list of those sub- 
 stances which he deemed to be the essential 
 food of plants. 
 
 Saltpetre, therefore, must not be regarded 
 as a modern introduction into agriculture ; 
 for it has long been used in limited quan- 
 tities by previous generations of cultivators, 
 who, like us, were content to notice the 
 effects which it produces, without being 
 able to exactly comprehend its mode of 
 action. 
 
 It is idle to merely substitute words in 
 explanation of unknown effects, and to say 
 that saltpetre is a stimulant, or that it yields 
 nitrogen to the plant ; and there is little 
 evidence of its entering into the compo- 
 sition of any of the more commonly culti- 
 vated crops : there is, therefore, but a slight 
 probability of its being a direct food of the 
 plants to which the farmer usually applies 
 it. The only common exception is that of 
 barley, in which a minute portion of cubic 
 petre (nitrate of soda) is found to exist. 
 
 But although these nitrates have not 
 been detected in the farmer's crops, yet 
 they are known to exist in many plants, 
 most likely as essential ingredients. Thus 
 saltpetre is found in the common horse- 
 radish, in the nettle, and the sunflower. 
 M. Chevalier discovered it in the Chenopo- 
 dium olidum, M. Vauquelin in the deadly 
 nightshade. Dr. John found it in the Me- 
 sembryanthemum crystallinum, M. Chev- 
 reul in woad. The growth of the sunflower 
 is materially promoted by watering it with 
 a weak solution of this salt. It languishes 
 in soils which do not naturally contain it ; 
 but when the salt is added to the earth, 
 then it immediately makes its appearance 
 in the plant in the usual proportions. 
 
 And although we are not aware of its 
 existence in the ordinary field crops, yet 
 still it may beneficially exist in them, and 
 exert a considerable influence at certain 
 periods of their growth, although in minute 
 proportions ; and notwithstanding we have 
 no direct evidence of the fact, it is not 
 unlikely that its presence may tend to vary, 
 in the vegetable world, the essentially pre- 
 sent combinations of nitrogen in a way 
 891 
 
 which the skilful investigations of the che- 
 mist have not yet succeeded in tracing. 
 Such researches, however, have already 
 proved that nitrogen (which, with oxygen, 
 the acid of saltpetre is formed) performs a 
 much more important part in vegetable 
 economy than was once supposed ; and 
 many facts are already apparent which 
 should encourage us to persevere in the 
 examination. For instance, it has been 
 observed by the farmer that these two 
 nitrates (the base of whose acid is nitrogen) 
 have a very powerful effect in adding to 
 the deep green colour of plants. Now this 
 is precisely the effect produced by other 
 fertilisers, which also contain nitrogen ; 
 such as gelatine, urine, oils, blood, soot, 
 fish, &c. In fact, I am not aware of any 
 manure producing this rapid, darkly green, 
 luxuriant growth, from which nitrogen is 
 absent. Saltpetre is naturally generated on 
 the earth's surface under favourable cir- 
 cumstances, and in situation much more 
 frequent than the farmer is wont to suspect. 
 Wherever ammonia is copiously generated, 
 as in stables, farm-yards, &c, and wherever 
 the nitrogen, which forms a component 
 portion of ammonia, at the moment of its 
 extrication has access to potash or cal- 
 careous matter, there saltpetre is usually 
 formed. This is naturally done so copi- 
 ously, in some- of those situations in which 
 the farmer is placed, as to form fine crys- 
 talline exudations on the walls ; and it is 
 in such places that those plants which 
 abound in saltpetre, as the nettle, the 
 horse-radish, &c. commonly flourish with 
 uncommon luxuriance. It has been proved 
 by those who gather the saltpetre from the 
 earth's surface in southern Africa and Hin- 
 dostan, as well as by those who prepare the 
 artificial saltpetre beds in Spain from the 
 sweepings of the streets of Madrid, that 
 nothing more is requisite for the forma- 
 tion of saltpetre in these beds of earth, than 
 the presence of a certain proportion of de- 
 composing animal and vegetable matters, 
 with some potash, and calcareous mat- 
 ter. Now all these essentials for the form- 
 ation of saltpetre must in many situa- 
 tions be afforded by the farmer's own soils. 
 There are, in fact, many lands in the cul- 
 tivator's possession where, especially in dry 
 summers, the formation of saltpetre in 
 minute proportions is continually taking 
 place ; where the putrefaction of animal 
 matters must in small proportions be pro- 
 ductive of ammonia ; and where an abun- 
 dance of potash is already existing in the 
 soil, to neutralise the nitric acid produced, 
 and form with it nitrate of potash or salt- 
 petre. For it has been ascertained that if 
 at the moment when nitrogen is evolved it is 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 presented with oxygen gas, that it com- 
 bines with it, and forms nitric acid. Here, 
 then, we have explained to us the origin of 
 the acid of the nitre, and we know that its 
 base or potash is to be found in some form 
 or other in all cultivated soils. And if we 
 admit that this must in some instances be 
 the case, then we shall be furnished with 
 a ready explanation of many of the diffi- 
 culties and discordant results which have 
 attended the recent very general applica- 
 cation of these two nitrates, since the fact 
 that saltpetre has commonly been found to 
 produce the least results upon those deep 
 rich alluvial soils which must abound in 
 decomposing organic matters in some 
 degree countenances the conclusion, as does 
 the smallness of the quantity of saltpetre 
 applied; for if once we concede the pos- 
 sibility of the soil, under favourable circum- 
 stances, being able to generate this salt, 
 then it will be allowed that one hundred 
 weight per acre is not a large crop for the 
 soil to produce. That in this way it is ge- 
 nerated in some of the richest soils of the 
 East, to such an extent as to cover the sur- 
 face with a white incrustation, is known to 
 every oriental traveller. To a still greater 
 extent is the land in those countries im- 
 pregnated in many situations with the ni- 
 trate of lime, a salt which, possessing the 
 same acid as nitre and cubic nitre, has 
 lime instead of potash or soda for its base ; 
 and from some experiments which I have 
 made, I have little doubt but this nitrate, 
 which is of much less cost than either the 
 nitrates of potash or soda, will be found a 
 valuable agent for the use of the cultivator. 
 For its excessive deliquescent or moisten- 
 ing properties, which render it so unma- 
 nageable for many manufacturing purposes, 
 make it more valuable to the cultivator of 
 the poor, dry, thirsty soils, where artificial 
 fertilisers are most in request. If nitrate 
 of lime was imported at a reasonable rate, 
 the farmer could readily, if he wished, make 
 his own cubic petre, at a very low price, by 
 mixing the nitrate of lime with glauber 
 salts (sulphate of soda), by which means a 
 rapid decomposition takes place, the result 
 of which is nitrate of soda (cubic petre), 
 and sulphate of lime (gypsum). The in- 
 ferior impure refuse glauber salts, made by 
 the cotton bleachers in the preparation of 
 their bleaching powder, would answer for 
 this purpose very well. 
 
 My experience of the enriching powers 
 of saltpetre extends over several years. 
 My earliest experiments were made in the 
 kitchen and flower garden, in which I 
 found very considerable advantage in in- 
 i a easing the beauty and in prolonging the 
 bloom of several of the tenants of the 
 892 
 
 latter ; and in the former I found excellent 
 results from applying it at the rate of two 
 cwt. per acre to my beds of horse-radish, 
 and in very small proportions, as one eighth 
 of an ounce per gallon, to the water with 
 which I watered, to prevent mildew, &c, 
 my early and late crops of pease, wall fruit 
 trees, &c. My experience with it as a field 
 crop has been principally confined to the 
 gravels of Essex and the chalks of Hamp- 
 shire and Berkshire, in which, especially 
 upon grass, I have obtained results ex- 
 ceedingly satisfactory. In 1840, I tried it 
 upon the old clay grass soils of Knitbury, 
 in Berkshire, with various other manures : 
 1st, at the rate of l'cwt. per acre; 2d, ni- 
 trate of soda li cwt. per acre; 3d, Poi- 
 terin's manure 14 bushels per acre; 4th, 
 gypsum 1^- cwt. per acre ; 5th, nitrate of 
 soda li cwt. and gypsum 1^ cwt. per acre. 
 These were all applied by hand in the 
 month of April ; but although they all pro- 
 duced a better crop than the soil simple, 
 yet the extreme dryness of the season 
 operated very materially against the suc- 
 cess of almost all artificial dressings, and 
 the produce of the whole plot was much 
 below an average crop. Nos.1.4. and 5. 
 were decidedly the best, producing at the 
 rate of rather more than two tons of hay 
 per acre ; while the produce of the soil sim- 
 ple was less than twenty-two cwt. per acre. 
 The grasses were of the ordinary kind te- 
 nanting the upland pastures, mixed with 
 a considerable portion of nearly worn-out 
 roots of lucern, which in the plot No. 4. 
 gypsum alone, and in No. 5. gypsum and 
 cubic petre mixed, was revived by the ap- 
 plication to a very remarkable degree ; its 
 plants nearly doubling in height any other 
 portion of the land. 
 
 In some experiments, at which I was pre- 
 sent, on the barley and wheat land of the 
 chalk formation in the neighbourhood of 
 Winchester, the effect of the saltpetre was 
 excellent ; the green colour of the crops was 
 rendered much more deep, and the in- 
 creased produce far more than compensated 
 for the expense of the saltpetre. And the 
 same success attended its application to 
 both red clover and sainfoin on the down 
 lands; but when I tried saltpetre at the 
 same rate per acre on the lawn of a rich 
 old garden, whose earth was also principally 
 chalk, there was no perceptible effect pro- 
 duced even in the colour of the grass. This 
 soil abounded in decomposing organic mat- 
 ters, was within reach of the soot and other 
 ammoniacal matters of the city of Winches- 
 ter, and I have little doubt in minute pro- 
 portions already contained saltpetre. In 
 fact almost all the successful experiments 
 with saltpetre have been made on light 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 poor land. Those of Mr. Lightfoot were on 
 the gravels of Hertfordshire, which have a 
 substratum of chalk ; and yet he produced 
 with one cwt. per acre of saltpetre effects 
 more than equal to those produced by fold- 
 ing the land with sheep. And when Mr. 
 Beadel of Witham tried it on the Essex 
 clays, it produced hardly any effect, except 
 increasing the colour of the wheat; but 
 when he used the same quantity (one cwt. 
 per acre) on his light barley land, after 
 Swedish turnips, the increase was fifteen 
 bushels of barley and 640 lbs. of straw per 
 acre ; and on a sandy field of oats, the in- 
 crease from its application was twenty 
 bushels of oats and half a load of straw. 
 The successful experiments of Mr. Kimber- 
 ley of Trotsworth on clover, in which he pro- 
 duced with one cwt. per acre of nitre results 
 fully equal to that from twenty-five cubic 
 yards of horse-dung, were upon the sandy 
 lands of Surrey " of moderate quality." 
 Mr. Everitt of North Creake bears out en- 
 tirely these conclusions, when he applauds 
 its use " upon all light warm soils," but 
 predicts that " on cold clay land on an 
 average of seasons it will not more than 
 repay the outlay ;" and yet this excellent 
 farmer had no reason to be dissatisfied with 
 his success, having obtained from an appli- 
 cation of one cwt. per acre of saltpetre to 
 " good light land" an increase of six bushels 
 and a half of wheat. The experiments of 
 Mr. R. Harvey of Harlstone entirely con- 
 firm those of Mr. Everitt ; and in the Re- 
 port of the Harlstone Farmers' Club, in 
 1839, it is stated to be " the unanimous 
 opinion of the meeting " that saltpetre was 
 excellent in its effects on heavy clover 
 layers, but that on light land it was highly 
 beneficial to " wheat, clover, and other 
 layers and tares." 
 
 One of my neighbours too, an excellent 
 farmer of Essex, in 1839, found on the fine 
 light barley soils of his farm the following 
 results from top-dressing his barley with 
 one cwt. per acre of saltpetre, compared 
 with the soil undressed, dressed with night- 
 soil, with sprats, and with farm-yard ma- 
 nure : — 
 
 Qrs. Bushels. 
 The soil simple yielded - - 5 4~ 
 Dressed with 1 cwt. of saltpetre 6 6 
 Dressed with 50 bushels of sprats 
 
 per acre, ploughed in - - 7 1 
 Dressed with 20 bushels per acre 
 
 of disinfected night-soil (Port- 
 
 terius) ----64^ 
 Dressed with 10 loads of farm 
 
 manure per acre - - - 5 6 
 
 I have noticed, also (and the same remark 
 applies to cubic petre), that the effect of 
 saltpetre is the soonest apparent when it is 
 893 
 
 finely powdered, and spread on the land in 
 moist weather. The explanation of this 
 must, perhaps, be found in the superior 
 rapidity with which, in such seasons, it 
 mixes with the soil. The cultivator will 
 remember that moist weather is also the 
 best adapted for the application of other 
 top-dressings, such as gypsum and soot. I 
 have found in the application of crushed 
 bones to grass lands, that they never pro- 
 duce such good effects as when rolled into 
 the soil by a heavy roller, when the ground 
 is softened by wet weather. The Stafford- 
 shire farmers will readily attest the same 
 fact. If long-continued dry weather suc- 
 ceeds the application of the nitrates to 
 clover, the leaves of the grass, wherever the 
 powdered nitrate has fallen, become covered 
 with yellowish spots. 
 
 The application, too, of either nitre or 
 cubic nitre to grass renders it much more 
 attractive to live stock, who, if turned into 
 a grass field only partially dressed with 
 either, will almost invariably resort to the 
 portion of the land dressed with the nitrates. 
 This is one argument in favour of the con- 
 clusion that these salts are in minute pro- 
 portions absorbed by the crops to which 
 they are applied. We know that this is the 
 case with other saline manures, such as 
 gypsum (sulphate of lime) and common 
 salt; and every cultivator who has dressed 
 his grass with either salt or gypsum will at- 
 test how decidedly his live stock prefer the 
 grass so treated to every other portion of 
 the same field. 
 
 The effect of cubic petre, as a fertiliser 
 for heavy soils, seems to be rather more 
 favourable, as far as my observations ex- 
 tend, than that of saltpetre ; and in this I 
 am confirmed by the observations of many 
 of my neighbours. Yet still I am of opi- 
 nion that, in the great majority of instances, 
 both the cubic petre and the saltpetre will 
 be found much more valuable top-dressings 
 for light lands than for the heavier soils ; 
 and I am not much inclined to alter my 
 opinion from the results of many of the 
 carefully observed experiments of the very 
 dry season of 1840 ; for in such periods it 
 is almost hopeless to expect that any kind 
 of top-dressing will produce results such as 
 may serve to guide us in our future prac- 
 tice. Thus, in seasons such as the last, I 
 have repeatedly witnessed the failure of 
 top- dressings of all kinds ; not only of the 
 salts, such as lime and salt, gypsum and 
 soot, and malt coombs, but even of the 
 richest manure. My neighbours in Es- 
 sex know very well that if a dry summer 
 follows the application of their sprats (per- 
 haps the most powerful of all animal ma- 
 nures), the application is entirely useless. 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 In my own experiments with nitrate of 
 soda I have invariably found the most ex- 
 cellent effects produced by its application 
 to barley at the rate of 1^ cwt. per acre, 
 sown broadcast, as finely divided as pos- 
 sible, soon after the young plants were be- 
 ginning to show themselves above ground. 
 The soils on which these experiments were 
 made were the barley soils of Hampshire and 
 Essex ; and the same increase to the green 
 colour of the crop, and a similar large in- 
 crease to the produce of seed which my 
 neighbours experienced, resulted from my 
 own experiments. The clover also, which 
 was sown with the barley in most instances, 
 seemed to derive a considerable benefit 
 from the dressing ; and I have noticed, on 
 more than one occasion, the advantage of 
 sowing the cubic petre in moist weather. 
 In the dry summer of 1840, the effect of 
 the cubic petre was very inferior to that 
 produced by it on similar land and crops 
 in 1838 and 1839 — an effect which entirely 
 supports my conclusions with regard to the 
 inefficacy of all top-dressings in periods of* 
 long-continued dry weather. Of this opi- 
 nion, too, is a very excellent and extensive 
 farmer of Surrey. 
 
 Mr. Hewitt Davis noticed too the effect 
 on some of the clays as well as the sands of 
 Surrey in 1840, — that the effect of cubic 
 petre upon young wheats at the rate of 1^ 
 cwt. per acre was excellent, not only in 
 producing a very deep green colour, but in 
 inducing a very considerable rankness of 
 growth. But then, in his experience and 
 observations, he has noticed that the wheat 
 thus dressed has a stronger tendency to 
 blight than that growing on the adjoining 
 lands. On his farms, however, this rank- 
 ness of growth is not felt as an evil ; for on 
 all soils, heavy as well as light, he practises 
 an excellent system of thin sowing, the ef- 
 fect of which, as I can attest, is excellent in 
 producing most abundant crops ; either on 
 the poor hungry black gravels and sands 
 of Addington in Surrey, or on the tena- 
 cious clays of Sussex, he never drills more 
 than five pecks of seed wheat per acre at 
 intervals of twelve inches. It is true that 
 by this plan the appearance of the wheat 
 during the winter months is not so vigor- 
 ous as many farmers would at first sight 
 approve ; but the plants gradually get toge- 
 ther, stool out very abundantly, have all 
 their ears of an uniform length ; the pro- 
 duce is abundant ; the sample generally ex- 
 cellent, and rarely subject to blight. 
 
 These valuable experiments of Mr. Davis 
 entirely confirm those which I have been 
 induced to make on several occasions, and 
 may, in a groat measure perhaps, serve to 
 explain some of the discordant results of 
 894 
 
 the recent extensive, and in the majority of 
 instances successful experiments, with ni- 
 trate of soda and saltpetre, as a top-dress- 
 ing for wheat, barley, and oats. For in a 
 great many instances where the cubic petre 
 has failed to produce advantageous results, 
 the seed has been sown in rather large 
 quantities ; the corn, therefore, by the ac- 
 tion of the salt becomes darkly green, grows 
 with great luxuriance — is perhaps too thick 
 on the ground ; and the farmer, as a natural 
 consequence, finds that the nitrated corn 
 has a tendency to mildew. In the first 
 number of the second volume of the Journal 
 of the Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land, there is a mass of valuable inform- 
 ation, collected by Mr. Barclay, which illus- 
 trates very considerably these observations 
 on the advantages of thin sowing ; such as 
 the experiments of Mr. Barker, Mr. Hyett, 
 and others. And although I am not pre- 
 pared to contend that the effects of these 
 two powerful salts will be in all cases the 
 most apparent on thin-sown corn, yet I 
 am much inclined to think that the farmer 
 will find that this is very often indeed the 
 case. 
 
 In most soils there is to be found a 
 certain proportion of carbonate of potash, 
 and in many it exists in sufficient quantity 
 to decompose the nitrate of soda, and form 
 nitrate of potash and carbonate of soda. 
 This may, perhaps, serve to account, in 
 some instances, for the varying results ob- 
 tained in some apparently similar soils from 
 the application of the nitrate of soda, and 
 may be one reason amongst others why 
 moisture is found to be so essentially ne- 
 cessary for the beneficial action of cubic 
 nitre ; for it is a chemical axiom, that to 
 produce any chemical action between two 
 substances one of them must be in a fluid 
 state, perfectly dry substances hardly ever 
 producing any chemical action on each 
 other. 
 
 Such, then, are the results of the long- 
 continued experiments and observations 
 upon nitre and cubic nitre which I have 
 been able to make, and to suggest to others 
 to re-examine and verify,- and such, too, 
 are, I think, the reasonable conclusions to 
 be derived from our united experience. 
 
 In pursuing a path so novel, and so ex- 
 tensive, it need hardly astonish us that 
 there are yet several sources of error to be 
 avoided, deceptive appearances to be scru- 
 tinised, and additional experiments needed, 
 before we can expect to arrive at the know- 
 ledge of the. best and most economical 
 modes of applying these two valuable ni- 
 trates. The soils to which they are best 
 adapted, and the causes of their not always 
 producing even on apparently similar soils 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 the same powerful effects, are amongst the 
 objects of inquiry to which I have alluded 
 in this paper. The advocates, however, of 
 these saline manures have no need to com- 
 plain of the progress which they have made ; 
 for admitting that in may instances they 
 have apparently produced but trifling effects, 
 and other soils hardly any, yet still in the 
 multitude of instances they have amply re- 
 paid the farmer for his outlay. There is 
 no other instance, perhaps, of such a rapid 
 introduction of a saline manure into agri- 
 culture as that of the modern, extensive, 
 and increasing use of cubic petre by the 
 farmers of Great Britain ; and if we only 
 pause to remember the difficulties of ex- 
 jDerimental researches like those, exposed, 
 as all examinations of the process of ve- 
 getation of necessity are, to innumerable 
 sources of error, we shall find no reason to 
 complain of the success of its introduction, 
 or of the talent and enterprise with which 
 the farmers of our country have conducted 
 their valuable experiments. 
 
 There are many experiments with these 
 two salts to be met with in the agricultural 
 journals of the last few years. In the Journ. 
 Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 275—278—280, 28 1 . 
 423. ; Ibid. vol. cxvii. to cxxxix. ; Quart. 
 Journ. Agr. vol. i. p. 208. ; Ibid. vol. xii. 
 p. 277.; Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 195.; 
 and Ibid. vol. ,ix. p. 269. ; are some trials 
 of saltpetre and nitrate of soda, as dress- 
 ings for various crops at Rozelle, in 1840, 
 by Captain Hamilton, of Carcluie, Ayr- 
 shire. 
 
 1. Memorandum of saltpetre, nitrate of 
 soda, and common salt, used as top-dress- 
 ings in the south-east garden park, of a 
 lightish land well drained, 11th April, 
 1840, on pasture laid down with grain in 
 1839 : one acre sown with 1^ cwt. of nitrate 
 of soda, measured and marked as such ; 
 then a piece of one rood, without any 
 dressing; again, one acre sown with l^cwt. 
 of saltpetre ; next to this half an acre dressed 
 with three fourths of a hundred weight of 
 common salt. 
 
 Result. — In little more than a fortnight 
 after this, having had some favourable 
 showers, there was an extraordinary change 
 on the two distinct acres dressed with salt- 
 petre and nitrate of soda, as compared with 
 the rest of the field. The grass continued 
 to grow on these divisions much stronger, 
 close, and of an infinitely richer and darker 
 colour ; and the cattle lying much upon it, 
 seemed very fond it. This superior appear- 
 ance continued through May and June, 
 and perhaps later. The grass was, after 
 this., eaten so close that no difference could 
 be noticed, if any existed ; it was particularly 
 and frequently observed in September, Octo- 
 895 
 
 ber, November, and now 8th December ; and 
 no difference was then or is now perceptible 
 between the ground dressed with the salt- 
 petre and what was not so dressed. The 
 pasture seemed equally benefited by the 
 nitrate of soda as by the saltpetre ; and as 
 the latter cost in proportion to the former 
 as 30.9. to 20*. per cwt., there can be no 
 question of preferring the nitrate of soda. 
 No improvement could be perceived to 
 have taken place from the dressings with 
 common salt. 
 
 2. Another trial was made on pasture 
 of the second year, in the lawn, on light 
 land and dry, 14th April, 1840; one acre, 
 measured and marked, sown with 1£ cwt. of 
 saltpetre ; adjoining this, one acre sown with 
 1^ cwt. of common salt ; and next one acre, 
 measured and marked, sown with l£ cwt. of 
 nitrate of soda. 
 
 Result. — Every remark applicable to the 
 experiments in the south-east garden park 
 applies equally to this. In both, in the 
 different breadths sown by the cast of the 
 hand where the two breadths joined, and 
 the ground had got an extra quantity, the 
 grass was richer and darker, showing that 
 1| cwt. per acre is not an over- dressing, 
 whether of saltpetre or of nitrate of soda. 
 
 3. Memorandum of dressings of salt- 
 petre, common salt, and of nitrate of soda, 
 on the 16th of April, on oats already 
 brairded in Stott's Fauld, partly on well 
 drained dry and partly on light land ; one 
 acre and fifteen falls, measured and marked, 
 sown with saltpetre at the rate of 1^ cwt. 
 per acre ; next to this, one acre and fifteen 
 falls, dressed with common salt in the same 
 proportion ; next to this, one acre and fif- 
 teen falls, sown at the same rate with the 
 nitrate of soda. 
 
 Result. — It was long before any effect 
 was perceived on any of the oats dressed 
 as above. About the end of June a differ- 
 ence was perceived on the acre and fifteen 
 falls sown with saltpetre, which had pre- 
 viously shown worming, and then came 
 away darker and stronger, and became a 
 heavy crop of oats and straw. The acre 
 and fifteen falls dressed with nitrate of soda 
 never seemed to be benefited by the dress- 
 ing. Being an inferior light sandy soil, 
 with a red irony bottom, it was injured by 
 the early drought, and never recovered ; the 
 salt here, as on the pastures, seemed to have 
 no effect. 
 
 4. Memorandum of dressings of saltpetre 
 and nitrate of soda, in Laughlan Glenfield, 
 principally strong clay, thorough-drained, 
 and subsoil-ploughed, 26th AprS, 1840, on 
 red clover, &c. for green cutting : one acre, 
 measured and marked, sown with saltpetre, 
 at the rate of l£ cwt, and 2f cwt. of ni- 
 
NITRATES OF POTASH AND SODA. 
 
 trate of soda, was sown here in the same 
 proportion. 
 
 Result. — The clover, &c. seemed equally 
 benefited by the saltpetre and by the ni- 
 trate of soda ; and compared with what was 
 not dressed, the improvement was very per- 
 ceptible in about a fortnight, and it became 
 a much darker, stronger, and heavier crop 
 than in that part of the field not dressed, 
 and it was ready for cutting fully ten 
 days earlier. It was not weighed, but it 
 is believed there was from one third to 
 one half more on the ground dressed than 
 where it was not. The second cutting did 
 not show a better crop than where it was 
 not dressed. Nearly an acre was dressed 
 with nitrate of soda after the first cutting, 
 on the 10th of August, where one had before 
 been applied, but it did not seem to do much 
 good. 
 
 5. Memorandum of dressing of saltpetre 
 and nitrate of soda on some winter- sown 
 wheat in Bridge Park, on clay land, thorough- 
 drained, and subsoil-ploughed, 20th April, 
 1840. 
 
 First Lot. — Twenty falls, measured and 
 marked, dressed with 28 lbs. of nitrate of 
 soda. Produce : Wheat 7 bushels, 17^ lbs., 
 or per acre (by an acre a Scotch acre is 
 meant throughout, and a Scotch acre is 
 about one fifth longer than a statute acre ; 
 and by " a fall " a perch of land), 58 bushels, 
 26 lbs. ; straw 64 stones, 18 lbs., or per 
 acre 518 stones. Weight of wheat per 
 bushel 157£ lbs. Sold to baker for 28s. 
 
 Second Lot. — Twenty falls, measured and 
 marked, sown with 28 lbs. of saltpetre. Pro- 
 duce : Wheat 6 bushels, 38 lbs., or per acre 
 52 bushels, 24 lbs. ; straw 95 stones, 12 lbs., 
 or per acre 764 stones. Weight per bushel 
 58 lbs. Sold to baker for 285. 
 
 Third Lot. — Forty falls adjoining, mea- 
 sured and marked, without any dressing. 
 Produce : Wheat, 1 1 bushels, 1 lb., or per 
 acre 44 bushels, 4 lbs. ; straw 79 stones, or 
 per acre 316 stones. Weight 59 lbs. Sold 
 for seed at 35s. per boll. 
 
 Fourth Lot. — A small quantity of oats 
 adjoining to this winter wheat was dressed 
 with saltpetre, which produced a great effect 
 on the strength and colour of the oats ; but 
 the produce was not weighed or measured 
 after being cut. 
 
 Fifth Lot. — Trial of nitrate of soda on 
 six drills of potatoes, at the rate of 1£ cwt. 
 per acre, sown over the stems when 5 inches 
 long, on 10th June. Result: The shaws 
 (tops) seemed much finer and richer than 
 those not thus treated; but the potatoes 
 being sold, the comparative produce was 
 not ascertained. 
 
 Six drills of Swedish turnips, dressed at 
 the same rate, 10th June, on a healthy 
 896 
 
 braird, followed by fine showers and warmth. 
 Result : Both shaws and turnips much im- 
 proved, as compared with those near them 
 not thus dressed ; in appearance improved 
 by several tons to the acre, but no compara- 
 tive weights were taken. 
 
 In the trial with nitrate of soda, in the 
 same proportions, on mangel wurzel and 
 carrots, Walls, the overseer, could not ob- 
 serve any difference between those so dressed 
 and those which were not; and saltpetre 
 and cubic petre were also mixed in small 
 proportions with the compost from an old 
 hot-bed, and used in the garden for turnips, 
 spinach, carrots, cauliflowers, asparagus, 
 and onions, but without any apparent ad- 
 vantage. 
 
 Mr. S. Martin of Warbleton, in Sussex, 
 has given, in the Sussex Express, the fol- 
 j lowing details of his experiments with ni- 
 trate of soda as a top-dressing for corn, on 
 a four acre field in his occupation : — " The 
 soil of the field selected is a thin gravelly 
 loam with a substratum of sandstone, and 
 was a rye-grass ley, fed with sheep and 
 beasts until the last week in May, 1839, 
 when it was ploughed up, and afterwards 
 twice stirred and harrowed, and manured 
 with 120 bushels of lime per acre, previously 
 to its being sown with the wheat "golden 
 drop " in the autumn. In the last week 
 of April this year, I applied 1 cwt. of nitrate 
 of soda per acre over the whole field (with 
 the exception of two lands in the middle of 
 the field) ; in the second week in May, I 
 applied to two lands adjoining those upon 
 which none had been sown an additional 
 1 cwt. per acre. Previously to the applica- 
 tion of the nitrate the plants had a very 
 sickly appearance, getting yellow in patches, 
 and looking as we call it here " speary ; " 
 but in a very few days subsequent its 
 appearance was much altered, it having 
 (with the exception of the two lands upon 
 which none had been sown, and which re- 
 mained in a very sickly state) changed from 
 a faint yellow to a luxuriant green ; the 
 two lands upon which the 2 cwt. per acre 
 was sown, were much darker in appearance 
 than the other, and easily distinguishable 
 from the remainder at a very considerable 
 distance. 
 
 " At harvest I measured off exactly 8 rods 
 of each, and had it reaped (leaving a stub- 
 ble about 16 inches high) and carted and 
 thrashed separately ; the result was as un- 
 der : — 8 rods without soda produced 1 
 bushel, 3 galls. 1 pint, or 27 bushels, 6 galls. 
 4 pints per acre ; weight, 61 lbs. per bushel ; 
 straw, 89 lbs., or 49 trusses, 16 lbs. per acre ; 
 8 rods with 1 cwt. of soda per acre, 2 
 bushels, 1 gall., or 42 bushels 4 galls, per 
 acre ; weight, 60£ lbs. per bushel ; straw, 
 
NODI. 
 
 NOTICE TO QUIT. 
 
 155 lb., or 86 trusses 4 lb. per acre ; 8 
 rods with 2 cwt. of soda per acre, 2 bushels 
 2 galls. 7 pints, or 47 bushels 1 gall. 4 pints 
 per acre ; weight, 60^ lb. per bushel ; 
 straw, 156 lb., or 86 trusses, 24 lb. per acre. 
 
 " On another piece of land, soil very thin 
 and gravelly, sown with Talavera wheat in 
 the autumn, I applied one cwt. per acre in 
 the first week in May, and the result was 
 equally satisfactory, the produce good, and 
 weighed 64 lb. per bushel. 
 
 " in an adjoining field of precisely the 
 same description of soil, but which had 
 been in hops for eleven years previously, 
 and amply manured every year, I sowed on 
 two rods at the end of one of the lands 
 nitrate equal to li cwt. per acre, which had 
 a very prejudicial effect; the part with 
 nitrate of soda being much mildewed and 
 totally unfit for bread, while the straw on 
 the remainder of the field was very bright 
 and clean, and the grain full and handsome. 
 I also used nitrate of soda on a meadow, 
 1 cwt. per acre, applied the last week in 
 April ; produce very trifling. 
 
 " As far as my experience goes, and from 
 the effect of nitrate of soda on my neigh- 
 bours' lands, I am of opinion that it is a 
 very valuable manure for their light soils, 
 exhausted by repeated croppings, particu- 
 larly in districts where the arable lands 
 have been repeatedly manured with lime ; 
 but I have great doubts whether it would 
 answer for wheat on newly broken up or 
 other land in a high state of* cultivation and 
 full of manure. In my experiment on the 
 old hop ground, although the straw was 
 much longer, with a blade broad and flaggy, 
 the yield was miserably deficient, both in 
 quantity and quality, compared with the 
 rest of the field. 
 
 " In respect to its effect on the second 
 crop, I can only observe, that a very thin 
 worn-out field of eighteen acres, with wheat 
 in 1839, on which 1 cwt. per acre was 
 used (one land of which had a double quan- 
 tity), was sown this year half with oats and 
 half with seeds, that both oats and seeds 
 were fully equal to any I ever grew on that 
 field ; and that the land where the 2 cwt. 
 per acre was sown produced fully as many 
 plants, with longer straw and more grains, 
 and was, as far as I could judge from ap- 
 pearances (I did not keep it separate), 
 much superior to the other." 
 
 NODI. In botany, the knots or swelled 
 articulations of stems ; the place where one 
 joint is articulated with another. 
 
 NONE-SO-PRETTY. One of the 
 names of the London-pride Saxifrage. See 
 Saxifrage. 
 
 NONESUCH, or Black Medick. See 
 Medick. 
 
 897 
 
 NOONINGS. A term provincially used 
 v to signify working during dinner hours. 
 
 NORFOLK PLOUGH. See Ploughs. 
 
 NORTHERN LIGHTS, or AURORA 
 BOREALIS. See Lights, Northern. 
 
 NOSE-BAND. That part of the head- 
 stall of a bridle which comes over a horse's 
 nose. It is sometimes termed maserole. 
 
 NOTICE TO QUIT. A notice to 
 quit of six months, in the case of a yearly 
 tenant, is in all cases necessary, in the 
 absence of any special agreement or cus- 
 tom to the contrary, and the corresponding 
 period of quitting must in all cases be di- 
 rected by the notice being the same as 
 when the tenant entered upon the premises. 
 There are several cases, however, where 
 notice is unnecessary, as when a pauper has 
 left a parish house for a time, in which he 
 has been on sufferance ( Wildbore v. Rains- 
 forth, 2 M. & R. 185.), or where a lease is 
 to end on a precise day (Cobb v. Stokes, 
 8 East, 358.), or under an agreement for a 
 lease where the party occupies for the whole 
 term specified in the agreement. (Doe v. 
 Stratton, 4 Bingham, 446.) But if, after the 
 lessee's term is expired, he continue in pos- 
 session for a year, or rent is received of him, 
 then it is necessary to give him notice, for 
 he has become a yearly tenant. (Hollings- 
 worth v. Stennett, 2 Espinasse, 217.) And 
 the executor or administrator of a yearly 
 tenant is entitled to the same notice. (Doe 
 v. Porter, 3 T. R. 16.) 
 
 Form of Notice. — Parol notice is suffi- 
 cient if the tenant holds under a parol 
 lease. (Timmins v ■. Rawlinson, 3 Burroughs, 
 1603.) But in all cases the notice should 
 be in writing, and an examined copy kept. 
 The rent being paid quarterly makes no 
 difference ; the tenant is still entitled to six 
 months' notice to quit. (Spirley v. New- 
 man, 1 Espinasse, 266.) The notice may 
 be given to end the tenancy on one of two 
 days, if there is any doubt as to the day on 
 which the term ends, if served six months 
 before either (Doe v. Wightman, 4 Espin- 
 asse, 5.) ; or if no day is known, then it 
 will do to say " at the end and expiration 
 of the current year of your tenancy, which 
 shall expire next after the end of one half 
 year from the date hereof." (Doe v. Butler, 
 2 Espinasse, 589.) 
 
 The following is the form given in Har- 
 rison's Woodfall of a notice to quit by the 
 landlord to a yearly tenant. 
 " Mr. C. D. 
 
 " I hereby give you notice to quit and 
 deliver up the premises which you now hold 
 
 of me, situate at , in the county of 
 
 , on day of next, or at the 
 
 expiration of the current year of your te- 
 nancy. A. B.'* 
 3 M 
 
NOVEMBER. 
 
 If a landlord receives rent, or distrains 
 for rent due after the expiration of the no- 
 tice to quit, this is a waiver of the notice. 
 
 NOVEMBER. The eleventh month of 
 the year. 
 
 Farmers Calendar. Whatever out- door 
 work remains unfinished must, with all 
 convenient speed, be completed in this 
 month. Wheat sowing is now pretty ge- 
 nerally concluded even in the lightest soils ; 
 and where the farmer has fed off cole- 
 seed or turnips for this crop, the same re- 
 mark applies : the sooner the seed is in the 
 better. The heavy rains which commonly 
 attend this month require the vigilant at- 
 tention of the farmer. The corn fields 
 should be especially watched ; for on most 
 farms, after very heavy rain, some water- 
 courses will be sure to be filled up, and 
 water will be found lying somewhere on the 
 farmer's land. The cattle, too, require an 
 attention to their warmth, and regular feed- 
 ing. The flail should be therefore kept 
 steadily at work for the use of the straw-fed 
 stock, and the littering of their yards care- 
 fully attended to. The manure of the 
 stables should be mixed with that of the 
 farm-yard, regularly and evenly, and on no 
 account allowed to collect and ferment in 
 heaps around the doors. In the leisure time 
 of this month, and during the other winter 
 months, the farmer will do well to consider 
 what heavy manures are to be procured and 
 carted, and what are the covenants of his 
 lease in this respect. 
 
 This is a leisure month for erecting dry 
 walls for fences, for hedging and ditching. 
 The leaves are pretty completely fallen. 
 Water-meadows may now be flooded, and 
 under-draining carried on, especially in the 
 heavy soils. Wood cutting commences this 
 month. Plantations of trees may be formed 
 in open weather : to this end do not be con- 
 tent with the old fashion of digging a hole, 
 and thrusting the roots in ; but if you would 
 have good thriving, early productive plan- 
 tations, plough the land as deep as you can ; 
 if you subsoil it, it will be beneficial ; and if 
 you give the land a dressing with any kind 
 of earth in which the soil is naturally defi- 
 cient, such as lime, chalk, or marl, that will 
 be better still. Do not plant Scotch firs, 
 they are only fit to burn ; the larch will 
 grow well wherever the Scotch fir can 
 exist : the Spanish chestnut and the larch 
 are very good neighbours. Drain your 
 young plantations, and keep the sheep out 
 of them. Take care of your sheep when 
 feeding on turnips ; this is commonly a try- 
 ing month with them. Hay, straw, and oil- 
 cake are now invaluable additions to their 
 green food. During this and the succeed- 
 ing winter months, the subsoil plough may 
 
 be advantageously used during open wea- 
 ther ; a very valuable practice for most 
 soils. The chemical effect of pulverizing 
 and breaking up a subsoil is certainly ad- 
 vantageous to the land in two ways, be- 
 sides others with which we are very likely 
 at present unacquainted ; first, it renders 
 the soil pervious to a much greater depth 
 by the roots, or minute fibres of the plant, 
 and consequently renders more available 
 any decomposing matters, or earthy ingre- 
 dients, which that substratum may contain ; 
 and secondly, it renders the soil more 
 freely permeable by the atmosphere, afford- 
 ing, in consequence, a greatly increased 
 supply, not only of oxygen gas to the roots 
 of the plants, but also yielding more mois- 
 ture, not only from the soil, but from the 
 atmospheric air, — which moisture, let it be 
 remembered by the cultivator, is in all wea- 
 thers as incessantly absorbed by the soil as 
 it is universally contained in the atmosphere, 
 abounding most in the latter, in the very 
 periods when it is most needed by the plants, 
 that is, in the warmest and dryest weather. 
 This property possessed by the soil of ab- 
 sorbing moisture from the atmosphere, and 
 the importance of increasing that power by 
 pulverizing the soil, is not nearly so well 
 understood as is desirable, although the far- 
 mer has the means of convincing himself of 
 the fact by the most simple experiments. 
 It is, in truth, an almost unfailing test of 
 the comparative value of soils, as was long 
 since observed by Sir H. Davy, a conclusion 
 in which I have often had occasion to agree. 
 And this absorbent power is not only an in- 
 herent property in all fertile soils, and a pro- 
 perty which is increased with their depth, and 
 by their pulverization, but it exists in a still 
 more remarkable degree in the commonly 
 employed manures of the cultivator, and that, 
 too, nearly proportionate to their usually 
 assigned value. Use the sub-turf plough. 
 This instrument, by merely loosening the 
 soil under old turf, will very materially in- 
 crease its produce. Sir Edward Stracey, 
 to whom we are indebted for this instru- 
 ment, tells us (Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 253.), " It is used to loosen the turf about 
 ten inches and a half deep below the surface, 
 without turning over the flag. There are 
 no marks left by which it can be known that 
 the land has been so ploughed, except from 
 the straight lines of the coulter, about four- 
 teen inches from each other. In about three 
 months, these lines totally disappear, and the 
 quantity of aftermath, and the thickness, 
 have been the subject of admiration of all 
 my neighbours." The air cannot penetrate 
 copiously to the roots of the grasses in close- 
 trodden old meadows, and yet the more 
 readily the atmospheric air penetrates to 
 
NOVEMBEK. 
 
 NUISANCES. 
 
 the roots of all plants the better they grow ; 
 this, too, is the real explanation of the be- 
 nefits derived from the horse-hoe hus- 
 bandry. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. Kitchen Gar- 
 den. — Artichokes, winter, dress. Asparagus 
 beds, dress, plant to force, attend to that 
 in forcing. Beans, plant e. Beet, red, dig 
 up for storing, leave or plant out seed. 
 Cabbages, plant, plant out for seed. Car- 
 doons, earth up b. Carrots, dig up and 
 store b., leave or plant out for seed. Cauli- 
 flowers, prick out b., attend to under glasses, 
 &c. Celery, earth up, plant. Coleworts, 
 plant. Cucumbers, attend to in forcing. 
 Composts, prepare. Dung, prepare for hot- 
 beds. Drain vacant ground. Earthing up, 
 attend to. Endive, blanch, &c. Horse- 
 radish, dig up and store. Hot-beds, make, 
 salading, &c. Jerusalem artichokes, dig up 
 and store. Lettuces, plant in frames, attend 
 to those advancing ; leaves, &c. continually 
 clear away. Mint, plant, force in hot-bed. 
 Mushroom beds, make, attend to those in 
 production. Onions, in store, look over ; 
 winter-standing thin, plant for seed b. Po- 
 tatoes, plant. Parsley, cut down b. Pars- 
 nips, dig up and store b., leave or plant out 
 for seed. Peas, sow b. Potatoes, dig up e. 
 Radishes, sow e., sow in hot-bed. Shallots, 
 plant b. Salsafy, dig up and store. Scor- 
 zonera, dig up and store. Savoys, plant for 
 seed b. Small salading, sow in hotbeds. 
 Spinach, thin, &c. Seeds, dress and store. 
 Trench, ridge, &c. vacant ground. Thin- 
 ning, attend to. Weeds, destroy con- 
 tinually. 
 
 Flower Garden. — Prepare compost for 
 a new year, by raking dead leaves, soil, 
 sand, &c. in a heap, to turn over occasion- 
 ally. Pour the brine, soap-suds, &c. from 
 the house into it. Transplant still all hardy 
 kinds of flowering shrubs, suckers, &c. 
 Clear the borders from dead annuals, leaves, 
 stumps, &c. ; shelter the choice bulbs and 
 double flowering plants. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — The 
 early Saxon inhabitants of England called 
 this Blott Monath, or slaughter month ; be- 
 cause, in those primitive days, winter feed 
 was so scarce in England, that it was usual 
 to kill and salt the greatest part of their 
 winter meat in this month : they called it 
 also Wint Monath, or wind month, from the 
 tempestuous weather with which it is com- 
 monly accompanied. Its name is derived 
 from the Latin Novem, nine, and Imber, a 
 shower. It was so called in the Alban 
 Calendar, and has preserved its name both 
 in our island and on the Continent. 
 
 In this commonly wet and gloomy month, 
 a few flowers continue to open upon us : 
 even towards its close, the sweet coltsfoot 
 899 
 
 (Tussilago fragrans) comes into flower, as 
 do some of the verlthemia. The birds now 
 begin to come nearer to our dwellings : the 
 goldfinch locates himself in our gardens ; 
 the lloyston crow is seen nearer to towns ; 
 the woodcocks arrive in numbers; the field- 
 fare comes over about the 12th of this 
 month. (Farmer's Almanac.} 
 
 NOWT. A provincial word sometimes 
 applied to neat cattle. 
 
 NUCLEUS. (Lat.) Literally, any thing 
 round which matter has accumulated, or to 
 which it is affixed. In botany, it is used 
 in various significations : — 1 . The central 
 fleshy pulpy mass of an ovule. 2. That part 
 of a seed contained within the testa, and 
 consisting of either the embryo and albu- 
 men or of the embryo only. 3. In lichens, 
 the disk of the shield, which contains the 
 sporules and their cases. 4. In the lan- 
 guage of the older botanists, what is now 
 termed by gardeners a clove; that is, the 
 secondary bulb of a bulbous plant. 
 
 NUISANCES, in law, are of two kinds : 
 public or common, which annoy the king's 
 subjects in general ; and private, which are 
 defined " any thing done to the hurt or an- 
 noyance of the lands, tenements, or heredi- 
 taments of another." A nuisance may be 
 defined to be any act done which renders 
 the lives of the neighbours less comfortable 
 than they were before. The remedies allowed 
 by the law are in some cases summary, as 
 when a gate is erected across a public high- 
 way, or cattle trespass on the land ; and in 
 which cases the passenger or owner of the 
 land is justified in removing the nuisance : 
 or in other cases, the general legal re- 
 medies are, indictment or presentment, for 
 public nuisances ; or by an action on the 
 case for damages, for private nuisances. 
 
 Indictable Nuisances. — Of the number of 
 public nuisances which are punishable by 
 indictment are setting spring-guns and man- 
 traps, which, by the 7 & 8 G. 4. c. 18., is 
 declared to be a misdemeanour ; but the act 
 allows such to be set " from sun-set to sun- 
 rise in dwelling-houses for the protection 
 thereof." Other indictable nuisances are 
 for erecting a privy or placing putrid car- 
 rion near a highway, or keeping hogs, and 
 feeding them with offal near to a street ; for 
 keeping a dangerous bull in a field through 
 which there is a public pathway (if the 
 bull or other dangerous animal is purposely 
 placed there to stop a disputed path, and 
 death ensues, it is a murder) ; for keeping 
 unmuzzled a ferocious dog ; for baiting on 
 the Queen's highway a bull, &c. The punish- 
 ment in any case of nuisance is fine or im- 
 prisonment, or both; and the court may 
 order the defendant to pay the prosecutor 
 his costs. It is no defence to prove that the 
 3 m 2 
 
NURSERY. 
 
 NUTS. 
 
 nuisance has existed for a number of years 
 (Rex v. Cross, 3 Campbell, 227.) ; but in 
 some cases the facts of the case may be 
 taken into consideration by the jury, who 
 are to determine whether the benefit de- 
 rived by the public exceeds the annoyance. 
 (Rex v. Russell, 6 B. & C. 566.) But in 
 indictments for obstructing the highway by 
 placing on it for a length of time carriages 
 while loading and unloading, it is no defence 
 to show that space was always left for two 
 carriages to pass and repass on the other 
 side of the street. (Rex v. Russell, 6 East, 
 427.) The non-repair of a road or a bridge 
 are also well-known nuisances, which are 
 indictable. 
 
 Nuisances on which an Action on the 
 Case is maintainable. — Accidents from the 
 negligent use of loaded guns (Dixon v. Bell, 
 5M.&S. 198.) ; placing baited traps so near 
 to the premises of another, or the highway, 
 that dogs are attracted into them and in- 
 jured. (Townsend v. Wathen, 9 East, 277.) 
 For an injury by a vicious bull ; and it is 
 no defence by the owner of an animal that 
 he has had notice of having done an injury, 
 and has taken every precaution to pre- 
 vent it doing so again. (Blackman v. Sim- 
 mons, 3 C. & P. 138.) No action, however, 
 lies for an injury by a dog let loose on the 
 owner's closed premises at night for their 
 protection (Brock v. Copeland, 1 Espinasse, 
 203.) ; or on land on which the injured 
 party has no right to go. (Larch v. Black- 
 burn, M. & M. 505.) If a person harbour 
 a dog, or allows it to resort to his premises, 
 he is liable for any damage it may cause. 
 (M.Kone v. Wood, 5 C. & P. 1.) And the 
 owner of a dog that destroys or injures sheep 
 is, of course, liable to their owner. (Hartley 
 v. Harrimen, 1 B. & A. 620.) If the owner 
 catch the dog in the act of worrying his fowls 
 or sheep, he is justified in shooting him. 
 (Janson v. Brown, 1 Campbell, 41.) ; but 
 he must not follow the dog some distance, 
 and then shoot him ( Wells v. Head, 4 C. 
 & P. 568.) ; nor may he shoot a dog merely 
 trespassing (Corner v. Champneys, 2 Mar- 
 shall, 584.) ; but he may if the dog is chas- 
 ing deer in a park. (Protheral v. Matthews, 
 5 C. & P. 581.) And if any man do any 
 thing on his own soil which is a nuisance to 
 another, as by stopping a rivulet, and so 
 diminishing the water used by him for his 
 cattle, the party injured may enter on the 
 soil of the other and abate the nuisance ; 
 and this right of abatement is not confined 
 merely to nuisances to a house, to a mill, 
 or to land. (Raikes v. Townsend, 2 Smith, 9.) 
 
 CTURS E R Y. In horticulture, a piece of 
 Land set apart and appropriated for rearing 
 and preserving young plants and trees of 
 different kinds, with a view to supply both 
 900 
 
 gardens and plantations. The situation 
 ought to be open and airy, and the soil 
 of an average quality, neither too heavy 
 nor too light, so as to be adapted to the 
 majority of plants ; but in a complete nur- 
 sery there ought also to be shady borders 
 for plants requiring shade, and beds or com- 
 partments of peat soil or other peculiar 
 earths, for such plants as are not readily 
 increased and grown in ordinary soils. 
 Where tender plants are propagated, or 
 where hardy plants are to be raised from 
 seeds or struck from cuttings, which are 
 not easily germinated or rooted in the open 
 ground and in the ordinary manner, hot- 
 beds, frames, and hand-glasses are also re- 
 quisite. Every private garden of any extent 
 requires a nursery to raise and bring for- 
 ward young plants, as a reserve for supplying 
 failures by disease or accident in the general 
 garden ; and in every country where private 
 gardens or plantations of trees are frequent, 
 public or commercial nurseries are formed 
 by persons who adopt nursery gardening as 
 a business. 
 
 NUSHED. A provincial term applied 
 to young animals, to signify their being 
 stinted or starved in bringing up. 
 
 NUT, BLADDER. See Bladder- 
 Nut. 
 
 NUT, THE EARTH. See Earth- 
 Nut. 
 
 NUTHATCH. (Sitta Europcea.) This 
 well-known bird inhabits woods, planta- 
 tions, and parks, particularly such as con- 
 tain old oaks, and other large forest trees. 
 It is resident here all the year, approach- 
 ing orchards and gardens in winter, but is 
 not equally numerous in every district 
 The names of nuthatch and nutjobber 
 have been given to this bird from its habits 
 of feeding on the kernels of nuts, which, 
 however thick or hard the shells may hap- 
 pen to be, are broken with equal ease and 
 dexterity. Besides nuts, this birds feeds 
 on caterpillars, insects, berries, hard seeds, 
 and bush-nuts or mast. The nuthatch 
 makes a slight nest, or rather a collection 
 of dead leaves, moss, bits of bark and wood, 
 and lays from five to seven eggs ; these 
 are nine lines in length and seven lines in 
 breadth, white, with some pale red spots. The 
 general colour of the plumage of the back 
 and wings, &c, is slate grey ; of the throat, 
 breast, and belly, buff colour ; legs, toes, 
 and claws, light brown. The whole length 
 of an adult male is about six inches. ( Yar- 
 relVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 174.) 
 
 NUTRITION. The matter by which 
 an animal or plant is supported, and its 
 growth increased. See Food and Meat, 
 Gases, Earths, Salts, Water, &c. 
 
 NUTS. (Lat. nux.) In botany, seeds 
 
OAK. 
 
 covered with hard shells ; but in the general 
 acceptation of the word, signifies the fruit 
 of different species of hazel (Coryli). The 
 kernel consists of two cotyledons, between 
 which the embryo lies. It has a mild, 
 farinaceous, oily taste, agreeable to most 
 palates ; a kind of chocolate has been pre- 
 pared from them, and they have sometimes 
 been made into bread. The expressed oil 
 of hazel nuts is little inferior to that of 
 almonds. Besides those raised at home, 
 nuts are imported from different parts of 
 France, Portugal, and Spain; but chiefly 
 from the latter. The Spanish nuts in 
 highest estimation, though sold by the name 
 of Barcelona nuts, are snipped from Tarra- 
 gona, whence the average annual export is 
 estimated at from 25,000 to 30,000 bags, 
 fourteen to the ton. The annual entries 
 of nuts for home consumption amount to 
 from 100,000 to 125,000 bushels; the duty 
 of 5s. a bushel yielding from 10,0007. to 
 12,000Z. nett. (M'CullocKs Com. Diet. ; 
 Inglis's Spain, vol. ii. p. 362.). 
 NYMPH. See Pupa. 
 
 O. 
 
 OAK. (Germ, eiche; Dut. eik; Dan. eeg ; 
 Sw. ek ; Lat. Quercus ; from the Celtic quer, 
 fine, and cuez, a tree ; others derive it from 
 the Greek word choiros, a pig, because 
 those animals feed on the acorns.) There are 
 several species of this valuable genus, but 
 the common British oak (Q. Robur, Linn.; 
 Q. pedunculata, Willd.) claims precedence 
 of every other. It is a large, umbrageous, 
 very handsome tree, with round, smooth, 
 leafy, more or less wavy, horizontal branches. 
 Leaves deciduous, bright green, on short 
 stalks, oblong, broadest towards the apex ; 
 their sinuses rather acute ; lobes obtuse. 
 Barren flowers in numerous pendulous, 
 stalked, yellowish, downy, deciduous catkins, 
 two to three inches long, from lateral scaly 
 buds. Fertile flowers on axillary simple 
 stalks, few, scattered, sessile or stalked, 
 greenish, tinged with brown; their outer 
 calyx subsequently much enlarged and 
 hardened, constituting the well-known per- 
 manent cup of the smooth finally decidu- 
 ous nut, or acorn, which last is crowned by 
 the small, chaffy, converging inner calyx. 
 
 The sessile-fruitedbay oak ( Q. sessilijlord) 
 is also an indigenous species, abundant in 
 several parts of England, particularly in the 
 north. The wood of this species being far 
 inferior to the true Q. Robur in quality, it 
 is highly important to distinguish them, 
 though long considered as varieties. The 
 leaves of the present species have longer, 
 more slender footstalks, and are more 
 901 
 
 equally and regularly pinnatifid. The most 
 clear and indisputable specific character, 
 noticed by the older writers, consists in the 
 fertile flowers having no stalks, which dif- 
 ference exists likewise in the acorns. Those 
 writers, however, do not appear to have 
 been aware of the inferior value of the 
 timber. Professor Martyn, in his Flora 
 Rustica, has given some remarks on this 
 subject highly worthy of notice. 
 
 The wood of this species is said by Tred- 
 gold to be darker, heavier, harder, and 
 more elastic than the common oak ; tough, 
 and difficult to work ; and very subject to 
 warp and split in seasoning. Mr. Tredgold 
 -seems disposed to regard this species as 
 superior to the common oak for ship-build- 
 ing. But other, and also very high au- 
 thorities, are opposed to him on this point ; 
 and, on the whole, it is sufficiently well 
 established, that, for all the great practi ai 
 purposes to which oak timber is applied, and 
 especially for ship-building, the wood of the 
 common oak deserves to be preferred to 
 every other species. A well-informed writer 
 in the Quarterly Review remarks, on the 
 point in question, "The Quercus Robur 
 affords a close-grained, firm, solid timber, 
 rarely subject to rot; the Q.sessiliflora, more 
 loose and sappy, very liable to rot, and not 
 half so durable. It may be thus discri- 
 minated from the true old English oak : — 
 The acorn stalks of the Robur ar&.long, and 
 its leaves short ; whereas the sessiliflora has 
 the acorn stalks short, and the leaves long : 
 the acorns of the former grow singly, or 
 seldom two on the same footstalk ; those of 
 the latter in clusters of two or three, close 
 to the stem of the branch." Although, as 
 is well observed by Mr. Selby, " Of this 
 numerous and most important genus, the 
 various species of which are distributed 
 throughout the temperate regions of the 
 globe, Britain can only claim two as truly 
 indigenous to her soil, these two are by 
 far the most important of their kind, sur- 
 passing all other known species, not only in 
 grandeur of form, bulk, and duration of 
 life, but in the strength, durability, and 
 general excellence of their timber ; which, 
 for all purposes where these two qualities 
 are essentially requisite, if equalled, at all 
 events is not surpassed, by that of any other 
 European tree. Our navy attests its supe- 
 riority in the construction of ships ; while 
 the sound and uncorrupted state in which 
 it is found in buildings and other works of 
 ancient date is a proof of its general utility 
 and fitness for every purpose where dura- 
 bility and strength are required. The rest 
 of the oaks, evergreen as well as deciduous, 
 amounting, we believe, to upwards of 150 
 botanical species, are all of exotic origin, 
 3 m 3 
 
OAK. 
 
 and are distributed in the various regions 
 of the globe, either where these are ren- 
 dered temperate by their latitudinal posi- 
 tion, or in tropical climates by their eleva- 
 tion." 
 
 We now proceed to such observations as 
 apply to both the British oaks, for their 
 statistics are too closely interwoven to allow 
 of being separately treated, and what we 
 have to say in regard to the culture, ma- 
 nagement, and properties of the one is 
 equally applicable to the other. 
 
 The oak is indigenous throughout Britain, 
 and in former ages, before the clearing 
 away of the forests had commenced, appears 
 to have covered a very large portion of its 
 surface ; for, even in districts where the na- 
 tural or self-sown oak is now rarely seen, the 
 remains of noble and gigantic trees are fre- 
 quently met with, sometimes in the alluvial 
 deposits on the margins of our rivers, or in 
 boggy places covered with a layer of peat 
 moss, which has been generated around 
 them by the stagnation of the water caused 
 by their fall. 
 
 To give a detailed account, or even to 
 enumerate all the various oaks remarkable 
 for their size and other peculiarities, which 
 have existed, or do still exist, would occupy 
 more space than the limits of this work will 
 allow ; th ; s circumstance, however, we re- 
 gret the less, as it may induce the reader 
 to turn to the interesting pages of the 
 Amcenitates Quernce of the late Professor 
 Burnet, in which work the historical facts, 
 legends, &c, connected with the history of 
 individual oaks of ancient date, are amply 
 discussed ; to the magnificent Sylva Britan- 
 nica of Strutt ; or to the Arboretum Britan- 
 nicum, in which work the counties being 
 ranged alphabetically, an account is given 
 of all the most celebrated oaks that have 
 existed, or are now living in each of them. 
 All the species of this very important genus 
 have a highly ornamental appearance, either 
 on the lawn or in the forest, A fine oak is 
 one of the most stately and picturesque of 
 trees ; it conveys to the mind associations 
 of strength and duration, which are very 
 impressive. The oak stands up against the 
 blast, and does not take, like other trees, a 
 twisted form from the action of the winds. 
 Except the cedar of Lebanon, no tree is so 
 remarkable for the stoutness of its limbs ; 
 they do not exactly spring from the trunk, 
 and thus it is sometimes difficult to know 
 which is stem and which is branch. Mr. 
 Strutt, whose delineations of British trees 
 and forest scenery stand unrivalled for their 
 truth, beauty, and artist-like effect, in some 
 valuable remarks on the picturesque beauty 
 of the oak, contained in the Mag. of Nat. 
 But., after pointing to the division of the 
 90'2 
 
 European trees into four forms or classes; 
 viz., the round, the spiry, the shaggy, and 
 the slender-topped, thus speaks of the oak. 
 
 " In the first of these classes (the round - 
 topped), foremost in dignity and grandeur, 
 the oak stands pre-eminent, and, like the 
 lion among beasts, is the undoubted lord of 
 the forest. Beauty, united with strength, 
 characterizes all its parts. The leaves, 
 elegant in their outline, are strongly ribbed, 
 and firmly attached to the spray, which, 
 although thin and excursive, is yet bold and 
 determined in its angles ; whilst the abrupt 
 and tortuous irregularity of its massive 
 branches admirably contrasts with the ge- 
 neral richness and density of its clustered 
 foliage." 
 
 The knotty oak of England, or, as Shak- 
 speare calls it, the " unwedgeable and 
 gnarled oak," when cut down at a proper age 
 (from fifty to seventy years), affords the best 
 timber known. There may be some timber 
 which is harder, more difficult to rend, and 
 less capable of being broken across, but 
 none contains all the three qualities in so 
 great and equal proportions ; and thus for 
 at once supporting a weight, resisting a 
 strain, and not splintering by a cannon 
 shot, the timber of the oak is superior to 
 every other. The colour of oak wood is a 
 fine brown, and is familiar to every one ; it 
 is of different shades, that inclined to red is 
 the most inferior kind of wood. The larger 
 transverse septa are in general very distinct, 
 producing beautiful flowers when cut ob- 
 liquely. Where the septa are small and 
 not very distinct, the wood is much the 
 strongest. The texture is alternately com- 
 pact and porous ; the compact part of the 
 annual ring being of the darkest colour, 
 and in irregular dots, surrounded by open 
 pores, producing beautiful dark veins in 
 some kinds, particularly pollard oaks. Oak 
 timber has a peculiar smell, and the taste is 
 slightly astringent. It contains tannic acid, 
 and is consequently blackened by contact 
 with iron when it is damp. The young 
 wood of English oak is very tough, often 
 cross-grained, and difficult to work. Foreign 
 wood, and that of old trees, is more brittle 
 and workable. Oak warps and twists much 
 in drying, and in seasoning shrinks about 
 ^nd of its width. This wood is more 
 durable than any other timber in water ; and 
 in a dry state it has been known to last 
 nearly 1000 years. The more compact it 
 is, and the smaller the pores are, the longer 
 it will last ; but the open, porous, and foxy- 
 coloured oak, which grows in Lincolnshire 
 and some other places, is not near so durable. 
 The bark, leaves, and fruit of all the species 
 abound in astringent matter, and in tannic 
 acid. The bark in the spring contains more 
 
OAK-APPLE. 
 
 OAT. 
 
 tannic acid, and is more easily separated, 
 than at any other season : hence oaks are 
 usually barked in May, June, and the be- 
 ginning of July. "When separated, the 
 bark is dried by being set up in ranges, 
 which are called loftes. See Oak Bark. 
 
 Q. Suber is very valuable, on account of 
 its being the only tree which produces in 
 any quantity that very important article, 
 cork. This oak succeeds best in a deep, 
 loamy soil, and in a somewhat low situa- 
 tion. The various species are generally 
 increased from seed; and it is only when 
 particular varieties are to be perpetuated, 
 that grafting is resorted to. The seeds 
 may either be sown when they drop from 
 the tree, or they may be thoroughly dried 
 and preserved till the following March. 
 Previous to sowing the soil should be well 
 prepared, and after the drills are opened 
 or the earth drawn off the beds, the acorns 
 may be scattered along the drills or over 
 the beds, keeping them about two inches 
 apart ; before covering, the acorns must, if 
 sown in beds, be patted down with the 
 back of a spade, or the back of a wooden- 
 headed rake if sown in drills. They should 
 be covered from half an inch to an inch 
 and a half deep, according to the size of 
 the acorn, with finely broken soil. The 
 after culture of the oak does not in any 
 respect differ from that of the fir, and other 
 timber trees. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 148—150. ; Paxtoris Bot Diet ; Tred- 
 golcFs Princip. of Carp. ; Timber Trees and 
 Fruits ; Selbys Brit For. Trees, p. 238— 
 288. ; Loudon s Arb. Brit.; Phillips's Fruits; 
 M'-CullocKs Com. Diet) See Acorns, 
 Dry Rot, and Plantations. 
 
 OAK-APPLE. This is not to be con- 
 founded with those beautiful little ex- 
 crescenses so common upon the under side 
 of the leaves of the oak, and known by the 
 name of galls and spangles ; they are the nidi 
 of different species of Cynips, produced by 
 the puncture of the ovipositor of the female, 
 upon the different parts where they are 
 found. The oak-apple is also formed by 
 the puncture of a cynips, upon the twigs of 
 Q. pedunculata. It rises rapidly, is usually 
 spheroidal, in size about one to two inches 
 in diameter. Its texture is spongy. It has 
 some resemblance to the Bedeyuar of the 
 Eglantine, but is not so rough and fibrous 
 on the surface. The oak-apples are very 
 astringent, containing tannic acid, and 
 may be used in dyeing, making ink, and 
 staining. 
 
 OAK BARK. The cortical layer stripped 
 from the oak tree. Oak bark is preferred 
 to all other substances in the tanning of lea- 
 ther, and brings a high price afterwards as 
 a manure. The exhausted bark is used by 
 903 
 
 gardeners to produce a slight equable heat 
 by its fermentation, and may be advan- 
 tageously used as a manure. The tan balls, 
 or muddy sediments of tan pits, are used 
 for summer fuel. The bark contains dif- 
 ferent quantities of tannic acid, according 
 as it is near to or distant from the wood. 
 Thus, the inner part, or liber, according to 
 Sir H. Davy's experiments, yields about 
 77 per cent, of tannic acid ; the cellular 
 layer, lying upon the liber, yields only 56 
 per cent. ; and the cuticle little or none. 
 Dr. Higgins obtained 108 parts of tannic 
 acid from the bark of an oak felled in the 
 spring, and only 30 from an oak felled in 
 winter. When the bark is set up to dry, 
 the air, aided by moisture, acting upon the 
 tannic acid, converts a portion of it into 
 gallic acid, which is not originally a con- 
 stituent of oak bark. See Bark and Tan. 
 
 OAK- WEBB. A local name for the 
 May bug. See Cockchafer. 
 
 OAMY. A provincial term applied to 
 such ploughed lands as are light, porous, 
 and floury. 
 
 OAT. (Russ. owes ; Pol. owies ; Dutch, 
 haver ; Fr. Avoine ; Lat. avena.) A very 
 valuable cereal grass, of which several vari- 
 eties are cultivated for their seeds : the 
 chief of these are — 1. The Avena sativa, 
 or common oat. 2. The A. orientalis, or 
 Tartarian oat. 3. A. strigosa, or bristle- 
 pointed oat. 4. A. brevis, or short oat. 
 5. A. nuda, or naked oat. 
 
 The common oat is far the most important 
 of these species. Its spikelets contain two 
 or three seeds. Its florets are sometimes 
 furnished with awns, and at other times are 
 awnless. The oat is a native of cold cli- 
 mates : it flourishes in the temperate lati- 
 tudes, but it degenerates, and at last re- 
 fuses to yield profitable crops as it ap- 
 proaches the equator. It is, however, cul- 
 tivated with success in Bengal, as low as 
 the 25° of latitude. It flourishes remark- 
 ably well in Ireland and in Scotland, and 
 constitutes the principal food of the inhab- 
 itants. In England it is cultivated to a 
 very considerable extent in the fen districts 
 of the eastern counties, as well as in the 
 northern border districts, in which last the 
 oats are considered to be very superior. 
 By cultivation, difference of soil and cli- 
 mate, and other causes, the common oat 
 (A. sativa) has produced several varieties, 
 which have been divided by some authors 
 into three classes, the black, the grey, and 
 the white. Those of the first class are 
 commonly hardy, have small seeds, become 
 early ripe, and are hence well adapted for 
 cold hungry soils, such as those which are 
 usually found on considerable elevations. 
 The grey, or dun-coloured oats, although 
 3 m 4 
 
OAT. 
 
 possessing more valuable qualities than the 
 black oat, are still inferior in quality to the 
 white, but on some soils yield very remu- 
 nerative crops. 
 
 The third and most valuable class of oats 
 is the white. " The most improved of these," 
 says Professor Low (Elem. Agricul. p. 257.), 
 " are without awns. They are the least 
 hardy kinds, but they are of the greatest 
 weight to the bushel, and the most produc- 
 tive of meal. In this class the potato oat 
 is that which has possessed the greatest 
 reputation for a time in the districts where 
 it is cultivated. It is not so well suited 
 to inferior soils as some of the other white 
 and darker- coloured kinds : it is also less 
 productive of straw, though the grain is 
 more plump, weighs heavier, and yields a 
 greater weight of meal. The hardier kinds, 
 however, are better suited to certain situa- 
 tions than the finer, just as the hardier red 
 wheats are better suited to certain situa- 
 tions than the thin-chaffed and white va- 
 rieties. The potato oat was the discovery 
 of accident, and the produce of a single 
 plant. It has, in many cases, shown a ten- 
 dency to degenerate, by the husks becoming 
 thicker and the body less plump, and by 
 the partial appearance of awns." 
 
 The Poland oat is another valuable cul- 
 tivated variety of the white oat. It comes 
 early to maturity, and is a prolific bearer. 
 Its defects are a tendency to be deficient 
 in straw, and a liability to shed its seeds. 
 
 Besides these, there are several other 
 varieties of the white oat, as the Dutch, or 
 Friesland oat, the Hopetoun oat of East 
 Lothian, &c. 
 
 The Hopetoun oat was produced in 1824, 
 by Mr. P. SherrifF of Mongewell, in the 
 way he thus describes. " Having fre- 
 quently had occasion to pass the gateway of 
 a crop of potato oats, in the summer of 
 1 824, a stalk of remarkable height attracted 
 my attention, When the crop was reaped, 
 the grains supported by this stalk, and 
 those upon a short one proceeding from the 
 same root, were gathered and sown in the 
 following spring. The crop from the grains 
 of the gigantic stalk was again conspicu- 
 ously tall, and after the crop of 1827 the 
 new variety established its superiority." 
 {Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 352.) In some 
 comparative trials by Mr. Boswell (Ibid, p. 
 354.), " on a good free black soil," the 
 Hopetoun exceeded the potato oat in pro- 
 duce, as, in some experiments by Mr. For- 
 syth of Elgin, "on a rich loam," it exceeded 
 the late Angus oat, and in those of Mr. 
 Howden, at Traprain, in East Lothian, it 
 proved superior to the grey Angus, the 
 potato, and the early Angus oats. 
 
 The early Angus oat is well known for its 
 904 
 
 early ripening, and the late Angus, says 
 Mr. SherrifF, is also well known for its fine 
 straw and grain ; and although late in ri- 
 pening, is the most esteemed species of oat 
 in the early districts of Scotland, such as 
 East Lothian and Morayshire. There is 
 a difficulty, however (Mr. SherrifF very 
 justly adds), of ascertaining the merits of 
 different varieties of grain by experiment, 
 from the many contingencies affecting the 
 results, the most powerful of which is the 
 nature of the season. Some kinds of oats 
 grow rapidly in the early part of the sea- 
 son, and some attain their full height, such 
 as the Polish and Georgian oats, both of 
 which are stunted. Others grow slowly, 
 and are later in arriving at their full height, 
 such as the potato, Flemish, and early Angus 
 oats, which are also short. Others continue 
 to grow through the season, and are still 
 later in arriving at their full height, as the 
 Hopetoun and late Angus oats, which are 
 taller than the others. When the early part 
 of the summer proves wet, and is followed 
 by drought, the Polish and Georgian oats 
 have an advantage over other kinds, as they 
 attain their full height before the drought 
 commences. When the earby part of the 
 summer is very dry, and moisture succeeds, 
 the Hopetoun and Angus oats benefit by the 
 moisture, while the others mentioned do 
 not. When the season proves wet through- 
 out, and the different oats in consequence 
 reach an extreme height, the smaller spe- 
 cies have frequently an advantage over the 
 larger in grain produce, in consequence of 
 the straw of the latter becoming too lux- 
 uriant." (Ibid. p. 358.) 
 
 The Cumberland early oat, so named from 
 being raised from a single head by a Cum- 
 berland gentleman, is of a longish grain, 
 more like the early Angus variety than the 
 potato ; colour dark and dull. It is as much 
 earlier than the potato oat as the latter is 
 earlier than the Hopetoun, being ripe nearly 
 a fortnight sooner than the Hopetoun. 
 (Quart. Jour. Agr. vol. vii. p. 436.) 
 
 Red Oat. — There is a peculiar variety 
 of oat (classed with the grey oats), called 
 the red oat, which is a favourite in some 
 districts, and is thus described by the ce- 
 lebrated William Dawson of Frogdon, in 
 1791 ; — " Happening to be at Linton, in 
 Tweeddale, which is about the highest land 
 kept in cultivation in the south of Scot- 
 land, I found the farmers complaining much 
 of the loss they had by late harvests, and 
 I asked if they had tried the Dutch oats, 
 which were so much earlier than the com- 
 mon kinds. They told me that they had 
 tried the Dutch oats, but that they had a 
 kind in their own country which were as 
 early as the Dutch, and were superior in 
 
OAT. 
 
 several respects ; they were not so apt to 
 shake, even as the common oat, they suited 
 every sort of soil if in good condition, and 
 they yielded well in meal; that they had 
 been sown in that country for fifty years, 
 but no one knew where they came from. 
 Upon this information I commissioned a 
 boll for a trial, and found them answer so 
 well, that I have sown no other sort for 
 several years. They do not produce much 
 straw, but what they do produce is very 
 good. I saw a second crop of these oats 
 upon the same land last year, which was 
 good. I have found that they answer the 
 character given of them at Linton fully. 
 That they answer best upon land in good 
 condition, but that they produce very little 
 straw upon poor land ; yet the produce of 
 corn is not even in these situations inferior 
 to any other oats. These properties give 
 them a great superiority over every other 
 kind known in this country, and grown in 
 high situations, and cold climates and soils." 
 {Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 136.) 
 They are a kind of oat much relished by 
 horses, who if used to them do not readily 
 take to other, even richer kinds. Carters 
 accustomed to them give them a decided 
 preference. 
 
 The Georgian Oat was introduced about 
 the year 1824, but it has not made much 
 progress. In 1826, Mr. Wilson of Pres- 
 ton reported the following comparative 
 trials between it and the potato oat 
 {Trans. High. Soc. vol. i. p. 153.), " upon 
 two English acres of equal land. The 
 quantity sown upon an acre was six bushels, 
 and of the potato four bushels. The 
 Georgian was reaped ten days earlier than 
 the potato, but they might have been four- 
 teen days. The appearance of the Georgian 
 was by far the most luxuriant during the 
 summer, till the end of July, when the po- 
 tato shot out considerably longer in the 
 straw. They were carefully cut down, 
 stacked, and thrashed in March 1826; the 
 result was in 
 
 Stones, lb. 
 
 Weight of straw of the potato oats 
 
 per acre - 317 6 
 
 "Weight of straw of the Georgian oats 
 
 per acre - 238 12 
 
 The produce of the potato oats per acre 
 was sixty-nine Winchester bushels, and the 
 Georgian sixty-eight. 
 
 Stones, lb. 
 
 Weight of meal from six bushels of 
 
 the potato oats - - - 11 5 
 
 Weight of meal from six bushels of 
 
 Georgian oats - - - 10 6 
 
 The Tartarian Oat is cultivated to some 
 extent in England, but much more exten- 
 905 
 
 sively in some portions of the Continent. 
 " Its fascicle is contracted, and nods to one 
 side, which distinguishes it from the com- 
 mon oat. The colour of its corolla is ge- 
 nerally dark, but the plant improves by 
 culture in a good soil, losing its awns, and 
 that darkness of colour which appears to 
 distinguish the oat in its less improved 
 state." (Low's Pract. Agr. 256.) The 
 breadth of this oat annually cultivated in 
 England has much increased within the last 
 few years. It is the best description for 
 the poorest exhausted soils, producing the 
 most straw on those sorts of any other 
 variety. The oat can be profitably culti- 
 vated upon, perhaps, a greater variety of 
 soils than any other of the cereal grasses. 
 It may be grown, too, successfully with less 
 preparation of the soil, and less manure. 
 The oat plant, however, succeeds best in 
 fresh soils, in newly broken up old pastures, 
 and in those abounding in organic matters. 
 
 The organic manures by which the oat 
 crop is best nourished appear to be green 
 manures ; fish, especially those, like sprats, 
 abounding in oil, and, in fact, all those of a 
 readily decomposable description. Recently 
 drained marshes, peaty soils after being 
 dressed with lime, newly enclosed commons 
 after being chalked, all usually yield large 
 crops of oats. 
 
 The land intended for oats should be 
 ploughed, if possible, especially on clay soils, 
 in the previous winter, or at least as early 
 in the spring as possible : this is a practice 
 almost always adopted by the best farmers 
 of our island. A still more common course 
 of cropping is to sow oats after turnips, or 
 other green crops, and especially on the 
 four-shift system with grass seeds. 
 
 A miserable custom still prevails in some 
 parts of England, of taking two crops of 
 oats in succession, or an oat crop after 
 wheat or barley. Arthur Young lonj 
 since denounced this as bad husbandry. 
 After observing, that white oats should be 
 sown in March in preference to any other 
 season, he remarked that " in the general 
 conduct of them the farmer should by all 
 means avoid the common error of sowing 
 after other corn crops, by which they ex- 
 haust the land. They should always re- 
 ceive the same preparation as barley, nor 
 ought a good husbandman to think of their 
 not paying him as well for such attention 
 as that crop. It is a very mistaken idea to 
 suppose it more profitable to sow barlev on 
 land in good order than oats. He was, from 
 divers experiments, inclined to think that 
 oats will equal, and in many cases exceed, 
 barley. The superior quantity of the pro- 
 duce will ever be found to more than coun- 
 terbalance the inferiority of the price; 
 
OAT. 
 
 which, however, sometimes exceeds that of 
 barley. 
 
 " What good reasons are to be offered," he 
 adds, " for sowing oats on land in such bad 
 order that barley is not to be ventured in, 
 I know not. The common argument is 
 their hardiness, which will give a middling 
 produce, about sufficient to pay expenses, 
 and leave a trifling profit, when no other 
 crop will do the like. But this is only prov- 
 ing them to be assistants of bad husbandry ; 
 nor is such a paltry profit, granting false 
 premises (for I am well persuaded that 
 common oat crops, among bad farmers, are 
 but so much loss), an object that ever 
 ought to influence good husbandmen. Why 
 should a good farmer be at all solicitous to 
 gain 10s. an acre profit by oats after bar- 
 ley ? Suppose," he continues, " his course to 
 be, 1. turnips ; 2. barley ; 3. oats : or, 
 1. fallow ; 2. wheat ; 3. oats : in either of 
 these courses, or in any other, where the 
 oats follow another crop of corn, the profit 
 of them must be small. What comparison 
 with sowing clover with the barley, which 
 will pay far more profit, and at the same 
 time prepare, in the best manner, for that 
 most beneficial crop, wheat ! What but a 
 fallow, or a fallow crop, can succeed the 
 oats ? How unprofitable, compared to the 
 clover system ! For these reasons I can- 
 not but recommend that oats should be 
 considered in the same light as barley, and 
 never sown unless the land be in proper 
 order for barley, or to sow them after a fal- 
 low crop, and clover with them, in the same 
 manner as barley." 
 
 And to the practice of sowing them after 
 turnips the same " observations which have 
 been made on barley are equally applic- 
 able. The farmer should," he says, " in 
 the distribution of his farm, consider which 
 of these two crops is likely to pay him best. 
 This will very much depend on his soil. 
 Warm forward sands yield as many quar- 
 ters of barley, perhaps, as of oats ; but upon 
 various other soils, the produce of oats, 
 compared with that of barley, will be as 
 four to three, and on some as five to three. 
 He should also take into consideration," he 
 adds, " the greater steadiness of price which 
 oats have generally yielded, in comparison 
 of the price of barley ; circumstances which 
 may rasonably induce him to sow them in 
 a larger proportion than is common among 
 his neighbours. On the other hand, it 
 is not to be forgotten that they exhaust 
 more." 
 
 In the method of putting in oats on lays, 
 which, continues he, " is very common hus- 
 I Kindry both on one ploughing of old grass, 
 and on layers of shorter duration ;" — "the 
 method is to plough the land before 
 DOG 
 
 the frosts, and to dibble in the spring, as 
 soon as the weather is dry enough ; but the 
 soil must, from its nature or from roll- 
 ing, be in such temper as to permit the holes 
 to stand, and not to moulder in, when the 
 dibble is removed. In some cases, the 
 safe way is to plough, roll, and dibble imme- 
 diately. 
 
 " But in very many cases (possibly in 
 all) it is better," he thinks, " to put pease in 
 on light land, beans on stiff soils, and to 
 follow these with oats or wheat according 
 to circumstances : he has known oats which 
 had produced inferior crops followed by 
 oats again the next year, and produce 
 largely, which proved that they wanted 
 tilth. Pease or beans will rather improve 
 than exhaust land when put in thus in 
 layers, whereas two crops of oats will 
 scourge the land too much. Let it, how- 
 ever, be well remembered," says he, " that 
 these observations are made (so far as they 
 relate to old grass) on the supposition that 
 the farmer will not or is not allowed to 
 pare and burn, a method vastly superior, 
 and which ought to be pursued in all cases 
 where it is practicable." (Farmers Calen- 
 dar.) 
 
 Oats are commonly sown from March to 
 April, but it is very probable that they 
 might be advantageously sown much earlier 
 in many situations, and when on grass leys 
 generally broadcast : from four to six 
 bushels per acre of seed is the ordinary 
 quantity. By the drill, after turnips, a 
 much less quantity will be sufficient. I 
 have known from ten to eleven quarters 
 per acre grown year after year from only 
 two bushels of seed. 
 
 They are usually cut in the south by the 
 scythe, in the north and western portions 
 of Britain by the sickle ; and they should 
 never be allowed to become perfectly ripe 
 before they are cut. The usual produce 
 varies from twenty-five to sixty bushels per 
 acre. In the fens of Lincolnshire, and in 
 Essex and Suffolk on land previously dressed 
 with thirty-five or forty bushels of sprats 
 per acre, the yield is usually much more 
 considerable. 
 
 The weight of a bushel of oats varies 
 from thirty-five to forty-five pounds, and 
 fourteen pounds of oats commonly yield 
 about eight pounds of meal. 
 
 " The following table will show the quan- 
 tity of meal that is usually extracted from 
 certain weights of oats ; and though dif- 
 ferent results may be obtained by various 
 qualities and seasons, yet the progressive 
 ratio of the produce will generally be found 
 nearly similar." (Brit. Hart, vol. i. p. 146. ; 
 Farm. Mag. vol. xvi. p. 188. ; Survey of 
 Antrim, p. 183.) 
 
OAT. 
 
 OATMEAL. 
 
 Weight 
 
 
 Produce 
 
 Produce of 
 
 per Bushel* 
 
 
 in Meal. 
 
 Husk. 
 
 42 lb. 
 
 25 lb. 2 oz. 
 
 16 1b. 
 
 14 oz. 
 
 40 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 10 
 
 38 
 
 21 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 36 
 
 20 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 34 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 17 
 
 5 
 
 14 
 
 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 5 
 
 Oatmeal is a well known article of food ; 
 it is the flour from which, In the northern 
 portion of our island, the bread of the work- 
 ing classes is procured. The oat seed was 
 examined by Sir H. Davy ; he found in 
 1000 parts of Scotch oats 743 of soluble or 
 nutritive matter, composed of 641 mucilage 
 or starch, 15 saccharine matter, and 87 glu- 
 ten or albumen. In 100 parts of oats from 
 Sussex, 59 parts of starch, 6 of gluten, and 
 2 of saccharine matter, 33 husk. {Elem. of 
 Chem. p. 143.) 
 
 The principal demand for oats in Great 
 Britain is for horses. Its use for bread is 
 chiefly confined to the northern districts. 
 Meal is employed also for various domestic 
 purposes, feeding pigs, dogs, &c. ; and it 
 has been used in brewing ale, and in the 
 malt distilleries ; but for this purpose its 
 value is much inferior to that of barley. 
 
 The seeds were analysed by Schraeder; 
 he found in 227*8 grains of ashes, obtained 
 from 2 lb. of oats (Gehleris Jour. p. 3. 
 —525.), — 
 
 Silica 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) 
 Carbonate of magnesia 
 Alumina (clay) 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 Grains. 
 144-2 
 33-75 
 339 
 4-5 
 6-95 
 4-5 
 
 227-8 
 
 The analysis of M. Vauquelin rather 
 differs from this ; he found in 100 parts of 
 the ashes of the oat — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silica - - - 60-7 
 
 Phosphate of lime - - 39-3 
 
 100- 
 
 But by burning the whole plant, stalk 
 and seed, together, he obtained a residuum 
 composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 - 55 
 
 - 15 
 
 - 20 
 
 5 
 
 Silica 
 
 Metallic oxide 
 Loss 
 
 Parts. 
 
 - 60 
 
 0-25 
 
 - 14-75 
 
 100- 
 
 Average price of oats in England, per 
 Winchester quarter. (M'CullocKs Com. 
 
 Diet.) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 *. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 1771 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 1810 - 
 
 - 1 9 4 
 
 1775 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1815 - 
 
 - 1 3 6 
 
 1780 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 Per Imperial Quarter. 
 
 1785 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 1820 - 
 
 - 1 4 9 
 
 1790 - 
 
 - 0 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 1825 - 
 
 - 1 5 8 
 
 1795 - 
 
 - 1 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1830 - 
 
 - 1 4 5 
 
 1800 - 
 
 - 1 
 
 19 
 
 10 
 
 1835 - 
 
 -12 0 
 
 1805 - 
 
 - 1 
 
 8 
 
 0 
 
 1840 - 
 
 
 The account, in imperial quarters, of the 
 foreign oats and oatmeal entered for home 
 consumption every five years since 1815 
 was — 
 
 Qrs. Qrs. 
 1815 - - 214,000 1830 - - 900,319 
 1820 - - 726,848 1835 - - 176,142 
 1825 - - 15,000 1840 - - 510,836 
 
 The annual average of oats, in Winches- 
 ter quarters, imported into England from 
 1801 to 1825 was, from 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 - 46,652 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 - 2,446 
 
 Denmark 
 
 - 30,672 
 
 Prussia 
 
 - 39,209 
 
 Germany 
 
 - 75,828 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 - 84,269 
 
 France and Southern Europe - 1,953 
 
 America 
 
 4 
 
 From Ireland were 
 
 imported into this 
 
 country, of oats and oatmeal, in Win- 
 chester quarters, — 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1810 - - 493,231 
 1815 - - 597,537 
 1820 - - 916,250 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1825 - - 1,629,856 
 1830 - - 1,471,252 
 1835 - - 1,822,766 
 
 Silica - 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 Potash 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 And some oxide of iron. 
 
 M. Saussure obtained from 100 parts of 
 the ashes of the seeds of the oat — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Soluble salts - 1 
 
 Earthy phosphates - - 24 
 
 907 
 
 OAT CAKE. See Oatmeal. 
 
 OAT GRASS. See Avena. 
 
 OATMEAL. The meal or flour of the 
 oat is used to make porridge, gruel, bread, 
 and poultices. In the mealing process, the 
 oats, after being previously dried in a kiln, 
 are made to pass through the mill-stone to 
 divest them of their coarser husks or 
 " shealings " before being ground. The ker- 
 nels are then named " grits " or " groats ; " 
 and are next ground over again into a 
 coarse rough meal, varying in its fineness 
 according to the custom of different dis- 
 tricts. This is afterwards either baked 
 upon a heated iron, called a gridle in Scot- 
 land, into thin flat cakes, or made up with 
 water into loaves, and baked. When gradu- 
 ally stirred into boiling water, and boiled into 
 
OCTOBER. 
 
 a thick consistence, it forms the porridge of 
 Scotland. It is eaten either with skimmed 
 milk, butter, molasses, or ale. It is thus 
 very generally used as the common por- 
 ridge for breakfast and supper of the greater 
 portion of the peasantry of the northern 
 parts of England, Scotland, and Ireland, 
 and forms a very nutritive and healthy 
 food. It is, however, apt to prove acescent 
 in some stomachs, and to cause cutaneous 
 diseases. (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 184.) See 
 Groats. 
 
 OCHRE. See Fuller's Earth. 
 
 OCTOBER. The tenth month of the 
 year. Farmer's Calendar. Most of the 
 business of the last month may be continued 
 in October. Seed wheat, winter beans, and 
 tares for a second crop, may be sown, corn 
 thrashed, and lands ploughed for wheat, 
 but this operation should be concluded by 
 the last days of this month. Plough or 
 fork up potatoes ; protect these from frosts. 
 Look now carefully to your water-courses. 
 Do not consider wheat sowing completed 
 until your land drains and ditches are 
 thoroughly scoured. Look to your fences. 
 Finish dressing your meadows. Collect 
 stubble, and plough your winter fallows. 
 Begin to feed your fatting sheep on tur- 
 nips ; do not omit to give them salt ; they 
 will be all the better with some dry food, 
 such as hay, or oil-cake ; your land will 
 also benefit materially, by their dung being 
 considerably enriched by the latter food. 
 Keep the sheep as much as possible on 
 your wettest land, that your dry soils may 
 be kept back for the rainy season. Many 
 difficulties attend these animals, from the 
 unnatural food on which we feed them, and 
 the stranger soils on which they are often 
 folded. Natives of the high sandy districts, 
 browsing on the heath, and its hard, dry, ve- 
 getation, tenants of the highest table lands, 
 we force them down into the rich alluvial 
 bottoms, feed them upon the most succu- 
 lent, rapid-growing food, enclose them on 
 wet lands, and in yards full of wet fer- 
 menting dung, and then are surprised at 
 their becoming diseased ; the instinct of the 
 animal points this out to the cultivator ; 
 suffered to range abroad, they are sure to 
 locate themselves on the highest portions of 
 the field. We have no doubt that the sys- 
 tem of shed feeding, even in moveable 
 board sheds, will rapidly increase. 
 
 This is commonly the season when farms 
 are entered upon, and stocks bought in. 
 In this much must be left to the custom of 
 the county, and the farmer's own good 
 sense. The landlord will do well to grant 
 libera] leases to good farmers, and not re- 
 strain his exertions by many covenants. A 
 great many are often inserted into leases, 
 908 
 
 which restrain the efforts of a good tenant, 
 and rarely improve that of the lazy and the 
 unprincipled. Towards the end of the 
 month your horses will require dry meat ; 
 if you can give them their hay and straw 
 mixed, cut into chaff, it will be the most 
 economical way of feeding them. The 
 saving of the hay will more than pay for 
 the labour bestowed in the cutting. Cows 
 must now be taken into the yard, and soiled. 
 Cattle may also be put up to fat ; and pigs 
 may be shut up for the same purpose. Dig 
 up parsnips and carrots, and carry Swedes 
 and mangol wurzel for store. Dress and 
 plough your land intended for beans and 
 peas towards the end of the month ; if the 
 weather is open, it will be all the more pro- 
 fitable for the operation being performed 
 early ; and if a wet February ensues, you 
 will be in a better situation for having got 
 your work forward. This is the period 
 when apples and pears are gathered, wood- 
 stacks formed for the coming winter, and 
 last — not least — the good old October 
 brewed, the Christmas ale, and the labour- 
 ers' beer. All the general out- door work of 
 the farm should be done as much as possible 
 now. Reserve what barn and other in-door 
 labour you can, to employ your men with 
 in the wet fogs of November, and the snows 
 of f the close of the year. Complete your 
 liquid manure tanks. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. Kitchen Gar- 
 den. — Angelica, sow. Asparagus beds, 
 dress e. Beet, red, take up for storing e. 
 Borecole, plant b., earth up, &c. Broccoli, 
 plant b., earth up, &c. Balm, plant. Bur- 
 net, plant. Cabbages, prick out, &c, plant 
 for seed. Cardoons, earth up. Carrots, 
 take up, to store, <?., leave or plant out for 
 seed, thin young crops. Celery, plant, earth 
 up. Coleworts, plant. Cauliflowers, prick 
 out in borders, to stand the winter, and by 
 way of precaution in frames, &c, plant e. 
 Cucumbers, plant b. Chives, plant. Cress, 
 water, plant. Dill, sow. Dung, prepare for 
 hot-beds. Endive, attend to, blanch, and 
 earthing up attend to. Fennel, plant. Gar- 
 lic, plant e. Hebary, dress. Horse-radish, 
 plant. Hyssop, plant. Jerusalem artichokes, 
 store e. Leeks, plant b., hoe, &c, advancing 
 crops. Lettuces, plant b., prick out e. 
 Leaves, fallen, remove continually. Mint, 
 plant. Mushroom beds, make, attend to 
 those in production. Nasturtium berries, 
 gather as they ripen. Onions, attend to 
 those in store, thin, plant for seed. Potato, 
 plant. Parsley, cut down b. Hamburgh do. 
 is fit for use. Peas, sow e. Parsnips, take 
 up for storing e., leave or plant out for 
 seed. Pennyroyal, plant. Potatoes, dig up 
 e. Rosemary, plant. Rue, plant. Radishes, 
 sow b. Rhubarb, sow b. Shalots, plant e. 
 
OFFSETS. 
 
 OLEANDER. 
 
 Small salading,sovr. Sage, plant. Sorrel, 
 plant. Savory, plant. Savoys, plant for 
 seed. Salsafy is in perfection, take up for 
 storing. Scorzonera is in perfection, take 
 up for storing. Spinach, thin, &c, seeds 
 gather as they ripen, stir between rows of 
 plants. Tansey, plant. Tarragon, plant. 
 Tomatos, gather. Thyme, plant. Thinning, 
 attend to. Turnips, plant for seed, hoe 
 young crops. Vacant ground, trench, drain, 
 &c. 
 
 Flower Garden. — This is a very busy 
 month ; for the garden should now be 
 cleared and arranged for season. Trans- 
 plant all sorts of fibrous-rooted perennial 
 and biennial plants now where they are in- 
 tended to remain ; put the bulbs into the 
 ground again, and remove the different 
 layered plants into their respective places. 
 Prune flowering shrubs of all sorts. Plant 
 and transplant all hardy deciduous shrubs 
 and their suckers. Dig up and part the 
 roots of all flowers which require so doing, 
 and replant them. Plant cuttings of honey- 
 suckles, laurels, &c. Take up the roots of 
 dahlias, and put them carefully away till 
 May. Trim evergreens. Plant box-edg- 
 ings ; cut away the long sticky roots, and 
 trim the tops even. Mow grass walks and 
 lawns, and weed gravel walks. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — October 
 was called by our Saxon forefathers Wyn 
 Monath, or Wine Month ; and sometimes 
 Winter fylleth, from the approach of winter. 
 It was the eighth month of the Alban 
 Calendar, in which it had thirty-nine days. 
 Its name is derived from the Latin octo, 
 eight, and imber, a shower of rain. Romulus 
 reduced it to thirty-one days ; Numa to 
 twenty-nine ; Julius and Augustus each 
 added one, and this number has not since 
 been altered. 
 
 October lets loose the harriers and the 
 greyhound. The foxhound now begins to 
 be right earnestly busy. The flowers now 
 begin to arrive in rapidly diminishing num- 
 bers. The long-leafed starwort blossoms 
 about the first week of this month. The 
 marigold leaves us about the fifth, the swal- 
 low on the eighth or ninth. The golden rod 
 goes out of bloom near the tenth. Wood- 
 cocks begin to "drop in" from the thirteenth. 
 The leaves of the lime tree fall in the first 
 fortnight ; those of the elm speedily follow. 
 The oak changes its colour towards the 
 close. (Johnson and Shaw's Farmer's Al- 
 manac.) 
 
 OFFICES. See Farm Buildings. 
 
 OFFSETS. In gardening, young radical 
 bulbs, when separated or taken off from the 
 parent roots, are so called. One of the chief 
 methods of propagating plants is by offsets. 
 
 OIL-CAKE. The marc which remains 
 909 
 
 after the oil has been expressed from the 
 seeds of flax and rape. See Linseed Cake. 
 
 OILS (Ger. oel; Lat. oleum). This 
 term comprehends two substances that have 
 very distinct properties, namely, volatile 
 and fixed oils ; but, in general language, the 
 term oil is indicative of the latter. Fixed 
 oils are unctuous fluid bodies, which, when 
 dropped upon paper, sink into it, and 
 make it seem semitransparent, or give it 
 what is called a greasy stain. (Thomson's 
 Chem. vol. ii. p. 363.) They are composed 
 of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Train 
 oil has been sometimes used as a manure, 
 and is a powerful fertiliser. See Fish. 
 Linseed oil is a common food for live stock. 
 See Linseed Oil. 
 
 The following is the result of analysis of 
 100 parts of 
 
 Hydrogen. Oxygen. Carbon. 
 Olive oil 13-36 + 9-437 + 77'213 = 100 
 Train oil 16-1 + 15-03 + 68*87 = 100 
 
 Olive oil is chiefly imported into this 
 country from the Mediterranean. It is the 
 produce of the Olea europcea, a native of 
 Greece, Africa, and the South of Europe. 
 The oil is expressed from the ripe fruit, 
 which resembles a small purple plum in size 
 and appearance. The fruit is first bruised 
 in a mill, and then pressed : the first which 
 flows is termed virgin oil ; after obtaining 
 which the marc is broken up, moistened 
 with hot water, and again submitted to 
 the press to procure an inferior oil. The 
 oil is left for a considerable time, to enable 
 it to deposit the feculencies, before it is 
 ready for exportation or for use. Good 
 olive oil is of a pale straw-yellow colour, 
 perfectly inodorous and tasteless. There 
 are several kinds in the market : that which 
 comes from Provence is the best, next to it 
 that from Florence ; it is imported in flasks. 
 Lucca and Genoa oils are also good ; but 
 the greatest part of the olive oil brought 
 into England is the production of Naples 
 and Sicily, and known by the name Gal- 
 lipoli oil. Olive oil is used both dietetically 
 and medicinally. It is superior to butter 
 for many purposes of cookery for which the 
 latter is employed. 
 
 OLD RED SANDSTONE. See Ge- 
 ology. 
 
 OLEANDER. (Nerium from neros, hu- 
 mid ; alluding to the habitat of the plants.) 
 This is a genus of noble evergreen shrubs, 
 of easy culture, and flowering freely the 
 greater part of the year. N. Oleander and 
 its varieties bear forcing remarkably .well ; 
 and although treated as green-house plants, 
 yet they will not flower well unless they 
 are kept in the stove. They grow well in 
 any rich light soils, and young cuttings root 
 in any soil if kept moist. The leaves of N. 
 
OLEASTER. 
 
 ONIONS. 
 
 Oleander contain tannic acid, and the leaves 
 and bark of the root of N. odorum are ap- 
 plied externally as powerful repellants by 
 thelndian practitioners. N. tinctorium yields 
 indigo. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 OLEASTER. (Elceagnus from elaia, 
 an olive, and agnos, a chaste tree.) A genus 
 of ornamental large shrubs or trees of easy 
 culture, thriving in any open soil. They 
 are increased by layers or cuttings of the 
 ripened wood, planted in a warm situation 
 early in autumn. 
 
 OLIVE. (Olea.) This is a very im- 
 portant genus of plants, on account of the 
 oil, &c, which is obtained chiefly from the 
 O. europcea. It is an evergreen small tree, 
 with lanceolate leaves, of a deep green on 
 the upper, and nearly white or hoary on 
 the under surface. The flowers are small 
 and white. The fruit is an elliptical drupe, 
 of a bluish-purple colour when ripe. The 
 tree lives to an extreme old age, and con- 
 tinues to bear good olives. It is also much 
 admired for the fragrance of its flowers, 
 which render it worthy a place in every 
 green-house collection. They grow well in 
 loam and peat ; ripened cuttings root readily 
 in sand, under a glass. They may also be 
 increased by grafting on the common pri- 
 vet. The unripe fruit of the olive, pre- 
 served in salt and water, is a well-known 
 article for the dessert. (Paxtoiis Bot. 
 Diet;; Phillips's Fruits, p. 259.) See Ojxs. 
 
 OMY. A provincial term employed to 
 signify mellow, when spoken of land. It is 
 often written oamy. 
 
 ONIONS. (Allium cepa. Derivation un- 
 certain ; probably from ayXidtg, a head of 
 garlic, and cepa from caput, a head, on ac- 
 count of the form of the bulb.) Of this 
 genus, there are eight indviduals that de- 
 mand the gardener's care. 
 
 They all require a rich friable soil on a dry 
 substratum; a situation enjoying the full 
 influence of the sun, and entirely free from 
 trees, which are very inimical to them, espe- 
 cially to those which have to stand the 
 winter. If the soil be poor, or exhausted, 
 abundance of dung should be applied in the 
 preceding autumn or winter, and the ground 
 thrown into ridges. By these means it be- 
 comes well decomposed and incorporated 
 with the soil ; for rank unreduced dung is 
 generally injurious, engendering decay, and 
 inducing maggots ; if, therefore, the appli- 
 cation of manure is neglected until the 
 spring, it should be taken from an old hot- 
 bed, or other source whence it is to be had 
 in a thoroughly putrescent state, and turned 
 m only to a moderate depth. Sea sand, 
 pari Lcularly if the ground is at all tenacious, 
 is advantageously employed : coal ashes, and 
 especially soot, are applied with particular 
 
 benefit. In digging over the ground small 
 spits only should be turned over at a time, 
 that the texture may be well broken and 
 pulverised. A considerable degree of at- 
 tention is required from the difficulty of 
 giving the requisite degree of firmness to 
 light soils, which if rich are well suited to the 
 growth of these vegetables. Old, soft, or 
 light sandy soils, Mr. A.Gorrie of Rait recom- 
 mends to be dug rough in October, and about 
 January to have a top dressing of cow-dung 
 applied and left on, to have its fertilising 
 matters washed in until the time of sowing, 
 when as much as can be is to be raked off, 
 and, without digging, the seed sown, trod 
 in, and covered with earth from the alleys. 
 By this management soils will produce good 
 crops which before were annually destroyed 
 by the maggot. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 292.) Onions for pickling, as well 
 as those to stand the winter, should be 
 grown on light poorer soils, which cause the 
 first to be small in the bulb, and the latter, 
 not growing so luxuriant, to withstand the 
 winter better. 
 
 There are fourteen distinct varieties of 
 this vegetable, as appears from the descrip- 
 tion given by Mr. C. Strachan, gardener 
 to the Horticultural Society of London. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 371 — 
 376.) 
 
 1. Silver-skinned onion. 2. Early silver- 
 skinned. 3. True Portugal. 4. Spanish. 
 5. Strasburg. 6. Deptford. 7. Globe. 8. 
 James's keeping onion. 9. Pale red. 10. 
 Yellow. 11. Blood-red. 12. Tripoli. 13. 
 Two-bladed. 14. Lisbon. 
 
 The onion is raised from seed, which may 
 be sown for the first main crop towards the 
 close of February, if dry open weather, 
 otherwise only a small portion in a warm 
 dry situation. The principal crop, however, 
 must be sown during March, it being kept 
 in mind that the close of February is to be 
 preferred, for the earlier the seed is inserted 
 the finer will be the bulbs : main crops may 
 even be inserted as late as the beginning of 
 April, and, at its close, a small sowing to 
 draw young in summer, and for small bulbs 
 to pickle ; again in J uly and early in Au- 
 gust for salads in autumn ; and, finally, in 
 the last week of August, or early in Sep- 
 tember, to stand the winter for spring and 
 beginning of summer. The seed is sown 
 thinly, broadcast, and regularly raked in. 
 An ounce of seed is abundantly sufficient 
 for a rood of ground, especially for the main 
 crops, as they should never be allowed to 
 grow to a size fit for salads without thin- 
 ning. No other seed ought to be sown with 
 it ; for the practice of stealing a crop, unless 
 every spot of ground is an object, is detri- 
 mental to both crops, without the slightest 
 
ONIONS. 
 
 advantage to compensate. The beds should 
 be divided by narrow alleys into portions 
 about four feet wide, for the convenience of 
 cultivation. In about six weeks after sow- 
 ing, the plants will be of sufficient size to 
 allow the first thinning and small hoeing, by 
 which they are to be set out about two 
 inches apart : if this is performed in dry 
 weather, it will keep the beds free of weeds 
 for six weeks longer, when they must be 
 hoed a second time, and thinned to four 
 inches apart ; and now, where they have failed, 
 the vacancies may be filled up by trans- 
 planting some of those thinned out into the 
 places; the best time for doing this is in the 
 evening, and water must be given for several 
 successive nights. In transplanting, the root 
 only is to be inserted, and no part of the 
 stem buried; for there is very good reason 
 to believe that naturally the bulb grows 
 entirely upon the surface, and that growing 
 within the mould is a great cause of their 
 not keeping well. After the lapse of an- 
 other month they must be thoroughly gone 
 over for the last time, the weeds eradicated, 
 and the plants thinned to six inches asunder : 
 after this they in general only require to be 
 weeded occasionally by hand ; they must, 
 however, be kept completely free from 
 weeds, and the stirring of the surface which 
 the hoe effects is very beneficial. In order 
 to prevent their running too much to blade, 
 it is a good practice early in July, before the 
 tips change to a yellow hue, to bend the 
 stems down flat upon the bed, which not 
 only prevents the rapid growth of the 
 blade, but causes the bulbs to become much' 
 larger than they otherwise would be. The 
 bend should be made about two inches up 
 the neck. 
 
 About the close of August the onions will 
 have arrived at their full growth, which may 
 be known by the withering of the foliage, 
 by the shrinking of the necks, and by the 
 ease with which they may be pulled up. As 
 soon as these changes appear, they must be 
 taken, up, the bed being frequently looked 
 over ; for, if the whole crop is waited for, 
 the forwardest, especially in moist seasons, 
 are apt again to strike root. They should 
 be spread on mats, &c, in the sun, fre- 
 quently turned, and removed under shelter 
 at night. In two or three weeks, when the 
 roots and blades are perfectly withered and 
 void of moisture, and the bulbs become 
 firm, they are fit for storing, being housed 
 in dry weather, and carefully preserved 
 from bruising : previous to doing this, all 
 mould and refuse must be removed from 
 them, for these are apt to induce decay, and 
 spread contagion to all near them ; to pre- 
 vent this as much as possible, all faulty ones 
 should be rejected : in the store-house they 
 911 
 
 must be laid as thin as may be, and looked 
 over at least once a month. Notwithstand- 
 ing every precaution, many will decay, and 
 more sprout, especially in mild winters ; 
 therefore, to preserve some for late use, it 
 is useful to sear the roots and the summits 
 with a hot iron, care being taken not to 
 scorch the bulb. 
 
 For the winter standing crop the only 
 additional directions necessary are, to tread 
 in the seed regularly before raking, if the 
 soil, as it ought to be, is dry and light. 
 They must be kept constantly clear of 
 weeds, as well as of the fallen leaves of 
 trees, which cause them to spindle and be- 
 come weak, but they need not be thinned, 
 as they serve as protections for each other. 
 Early in spring they are to be weeded, and, 
 as may be necessary, transplanted for bulb- 
 ing. There are several modes of cultiva- 
 tion lately introduced or revived, which 
 produce onions of superior size and good- 
 ness. The great obstacle to the production 
 of fine onions in this country is the want of 
 a sufficient continuance of warm weather ; 
 or, at least, the inclemency of the early part 
 of the year prevents the insertion of the 
 seed until so late, that the most genial 
 season to vegetation passes away whilst the 
 plants are in their infancy ; it is the obvi- 
 ating this unfavourable circumstance that 
 causes the superiority of the several plans 
 hereafter detailed. 
 
 It is a practice that originated in Ame- 
 rica, and which has met with the decided 
 approval of Mr. Knight and others {Trans. 
 Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. i. p. 157., vol. iii. 
 p. 404.), to sow in May, to cultivate the 
 plants as in the other crops ; and, in Octo- 
 ber, the bulbs, being of the size of nuts, are 
 to be taken up, dried, and housed, as directed 
 for the full-grown bulbs. About the mid- 
 dle of the following March, they must be 
 planted out in rows six inches apart each 
 way, and afterwards cultivated in the same 
 manner as the other crops. If sown earlier 
 than May, they run to seed when trans- 
 planted. Another mode nearly as effica- 
 cious, and which, I understand, has been 
 practised for a great length of time in the 
 south of Essex, is to sow in the latter part 
 of August, to stand the winter, and in 
 March, early or late, according to the for- 
 ward growth of the seedlings, to be planted 
 out in rows at the before directed distance, 
 and cultivated as usual. 
 
 In Portugal they sow in a moderate hot- 
 bed during November or December, in a 
 warm situation, with a few inches of mould 
 upon it ; and the plants are protected from 
 frost by hoops and mats ; in April or May, 
 when of the size of a swan's quill, they are 
 transplanted into a light rich loam, well 
 
ONIONS. 
 
 manured with old rotten dung, to bulb. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. vol. iii. p. 68.) 
 
 It would seem, from the practice of Mr. 
 Macdonald, gardener to the Duke # of Buc- 
 cleugh, at Dalkeith, that transplanting alone 
 is of great benefit. " His soil," he says, " is 
 not very favourable to the growth of the 
 onion, being light and thin ; and it was not 
 until after many experiments he was able 
 to obtain fine bulbs, and which he at length 
 accomj^lished by sowing in the end of Fe- 
 bruary, and about April transplanting 
 them at the usual distance in drills, first 
 dipping the root into a puddle, consisting 
 of one part soot and three parts earth, 
 mixed with water ; the work being per- 
 formed in moist weather." (Mem. Caled. 
 Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 112.) The puddle, as 
 is observed by Mr. Sinclair, can be of no 
 other use than to assist the rooting of the 
 plants. 
 
 To obtain seed, some old onions must be 
 planted during February, or early in March. 
 The finest and firmest bulbs being selected, 
 and planted in rows ten inches apart each 
 way, either in drills or by a blunt-ended 
 dibble, the soil to be rather poorer, if it 
 differs at all from that in which they are 
 cultivated for bulbing. They must be bu- 
 ried so deep that the mould just covers the 
 crown. Early in spring their leaves will 
 appear. If grown in large quantities a 
 path must be left two feet wide between 
 every three or four rows, to allow the ne- 
 cessary cultivation. They must be kept 
 thoroughly clear of weeds, and when in 
 flower have stakes driven at intervals of 
 five or six feet on each side of every two 
 rows, to which a string is to be fastened 
 throughout the whole length, a few inches 
 below the heads, to serve as a support, and 
 prevent their being broken down. The 
 seeds are ripe in August, which is intimated 
 by the husks becoming brownish : the heads 
 must then be immediately cut, otherwise 
 the receptacles will open and shed their 
 contents. Being spread on cloths in the 
 sun, during the day, and taken under cover 
 every night and during inclement weather, 
 they soon become perfectly dry, when the 
 seed may be rubbed out, cleaned of the 
 chaff, and, after remaining another day or 
 two, finally stored. It is of the utmost 
 consequence to employ seed of not more 
 than one year old, otherwise not more than 
 one in fifty seeds will vegetate. 
 
 The goodness of seed may be easily dis- 
 covered by forcing a little of it in a hotbed 
 or in warm water, a day or two before it is 
 employed : a small white point will soon 
 protrude if it is fertile. 
 
 Potato, or under-ground Onion. — This 
 ppecies of Allium has received the above 
 912 
 
 appellations, on account of its producing a 
 cluster of bulbs or offsets, in number from 
 two to twelve, and even more, uniformly 
 beneath the surface of the soil. From 
 being first introduced to public notice in 
 Scotland by Captain Burns of Edinburgh, 
 it is there also known as the Burn onion. 
 There evidently appear to be two varietie's 
 of this vegetable, one of which bears bulbs 
 on the summit of its stems, like the tree 
 onion, and the other never throwing up 
 flower stems at all. (Mem. Caled. Hort. 
 Soc. vol. iii. p. 216.; Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol iii. p. 305.) One variety is much larger 
 than the other, and this vegetates again as 
 soon as ripe. 
 
 Both varieties are best propagated by 
 offsets of the root, of moderate size ; for if 
 those are employed which the one variety 
 produces on the summit of its stems, they 
 seldom do more than increase in size the 
 first year, but are prolific the next; this 
 also occurs if very small offsets of the root 
 are employed. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. iii. p. 216.) 
 
 They may be planted during October or 
 November, or as early in the spring as the 
 season will allow, but not later than April. 
 In the west of England, assisted by their 
 genial climate, they plant on the shortest 
 and take up on the longest day. (Trans. 
 Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 305.) They are 
 either to be inserted in drills, or by a blunt 
 dibble eight inches apart each way, not 
 buried entirely, but the top of the offset 
 just level with the surface. Mr. Maher, 
 gardener at Arundel Castle, merely places 
 the sets on the surface, covering them with 
 leaf mould, rotten dung, or other light com- 
 post. The beds they are grow^i in are 
 better not more than four feet wide, for the 
 convenience of cultivation. 
 
 The only cultivation required is to keep 
 them clear of weeds. The practice of earth- 
 ing the mould over them when the stems 
 have grown up is unnatural, and by so 
 doing the bulbs are blanched and prevented 
 ripening perfectly, on which their keeping 
 depends. So far from following this plan, 
 Mr. Wedgewood of Betley recommends the 
 earth always to be cleared away down to 
 the ring whence the fibres spring, as soon 
 as the leaves have attained their full size 
 and begin to be brown at the top, so that a 
 kind of basin is formed round the bulb. 
 (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 403.) 
 As soon as they vegetate, they intimate the 
 number of offsets that will be produced, by 
 showing a shoot for each. 
 
 They attain their full growth towards the 
 end of July, and become completely ripe 
 early in September ; for immediate use they 
 may be taken up as they ripen, but for keep- 
 
ONION, THE WELSH. 
 
 OPEN CUTS. 
 
 ing, a little before they attain perfect ma- 
 turity, which is demonstrated by the same 
 symptoms as were mentioned in speaking of 
 the onion. (Mem. Caled. Hurt. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 343.) 
 
 ONION, THE WELSH, or CIBOULE. 
 This is a perennial, which never forms a bulb, 
 but is sown annually to be drawn young 
 for sallads, &c. ; on account of its strong 
 taste it is greatly inferior to the common 
 onion for this purpose, but from its extreme 
 hardiness in withstanding the severest frost, 
 it may be cultivated with advantage as a 
 winter standing crop for spring use. In 
 France two varieties are in cultivation, the 
 white and the red ; the first of which is the one 
 in general use here. As it may be sown at all 
 times in common with the onion, and is 
 similarly cultivated, except that it may be 
 sown thicker and only thinned as wanted, 
 the directions given for that vegetable will 
 suffice. The blade usually dies away com- 
 pletely in winter, but fresh ones are thrown 
 out again in February or March. 
 
 To obtain seed, some of the roots must be 
 planted out in March, six or eight inches 
 asunder. The first autumn they will pro- 
 duce but little seed; in the second and 
 third, however, it will be produced abun- 
 dantly. If care is taken to part and trans- 
 plant the roots every two or three years, 
 they may be multiplied, and will remain 
 productive for many years, and afford much 
 better seed than that from one year old 
 roots. There is good reason for conclud- 
 ing, as Mi*. T. Milne, of Fulham, ingeniously 
 explains, that by a confusion of names, aris- 
 ing from similarity of appearance, this ve- 
 getable is the true scallion of Miller and 
 others, whilst the hollow leek of Wales is 
 the true Welsh onion ; for the description 
 of scallion as given by Miller accords ex- 
 actly with that of the Welsh onion ; and as 
 he describes it as a distinct variety, we are 
 reduced to the dilemma of receiving this 
 explanation or considering the variety as 
 lost, for from Miller's known accuracy it is 
 impossible to consider that he was deceived. 
 At present all onions that have refused to 
 bulb, and formed lengthened necks and 
 strong blades in spring and summer, are 
 called scallions. 
 
 ONION, THE TREE, or CANADA. 
 (Allium Canadense.) This, which is a very 
 hardy perennial species, like the ciboule, is 
 without a bulbous root, but throws out 
 numerous offsets. Its top bulbs are greatly 
 prized for pickling, being considered of 
 superior flavour to the common onion for 
 that purpose, as well as others in which that 
 species is employed. 
 
 It is propagated both by the root offsets, 
 which may be planted during March and 
 913 
 
 April, or in September and October, and 
 from the top bulbs, which are best planted 
 in spring, and not before the latter end of 
 April. The old roots are best to plant 
 again for a crop of bulbs, as they are most, 
 certain to run to stems. If the bulbs be 
 planted earlier than as above directed, they 
 are apt to push up the same season, and 
 exhaust themselves without producing either 
 good offsets or bulbs; but on the other hand, 
 by planting the old roots in the previous 
 autumn, or early in the spring, they will 
 produce good bulbs the same year. (Mem. 
 Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 350.) They 
 must be inserted in rows twelve inches 
 asunder, in holes six inches apart and two 
 deep, a single offset or bulb being put in each. 
 Those planted in autumn will shoot forth 
 leaves early in the spring, and have their 
 bulbs fit for gathering in June or the be- 
 ginning of July ; those inserted in th4 spring 
 will make their appearance later, and will 
 be in production at the close of July or 
 early in August ; they must not, however, 
 be gathered for keeping or planting until 
 the stalks decay, at which time, or in the 
 spring also, if only of one year's growth, the 
 roots may be taken up and parted if re- 
 quired for planting; but when of two or 
 three years' continuance, they must at all 
 events be reduced in size, otherwise they 
 grow in too large and sprindling bunches ; 
 but the best plan is to make a fresh planta- 
 tion annually with single offsets. The only 
 cultivation necessary is to keep them clear 
 of weeds; and when the stems run up, to 
 give them the support of stakes. 
 
 The bulbs, when gathered, must be gra- 
 dually and carefully dried in a shady place ; 
 and if kept perfectly free from moisture, 
 will continue in good state until the fol- 
 lowing May. ( G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 ON -STAND. A provincial term applied 
 to the rent paid by the out-going to the 
 in-coming tenant, for such portions of 
 ground as the former has rightly cropped 
 before his leaving the farm. See Custom. 
 
 OOLITE. A granular variety of car- 
 bonate of lime, frequently called roe-stone. 
 The frequency of the occurrence of this 
 particular form of limestone, in a great 
 series of deposits, lying between the sub- 
 cretaceous formations and the red sand- 
 stone, has caused English geologists to give 
 the whole series the name of oolite. It is 
 largely developed in England and France. 
 
 OPEN. A term frequently applied to 
 cows or heifers, signifying that they are not 
 in calf. 
 
 OPEN CUTS. Such drains or gutters 
 as are made in land by the spade, and left 
 without being covered in. They are used 
 in draining lands in particular cases. Open 
 3 N 
 
OPE-LAND. 
 
 ORCHARD. 
 
 cuts, if effectual, are the best of all for forest 
 draining, as they cannot be inconvenient, 
 from the plough not being employed after 
 the trees are planted. Cuts of this sort 
 are frequently found useful in the practice 
 of irrigation or watering of land. 
 
 OPE-LAND. Provincially, ground that 
 is loose or open, from its being ploughed up 
 every year. 
 
 OPEN FIELD LAND. Popularly, that 
 which is in the state of commonage. But, 
 in a more strict sense, it signifies arable 
 lands uninclosed by hedges or other fences, 
 and in the occupation of different indi- 
 viduals, or under different crops. In former 
 times only those parts of a farm which lay 
 around the farm-yard were inclosed, while 
 the more distant parts were open, and called 
 open fields, or out fields. See Commons. 
 
 OPHTHALMIA. See Sheep, Diseases 
 or. 
 
 OR ACHE. (Atriplex; from atir, black.) 
 A genus of herbaceous or shrubby strag- 
 gling plants of little beauty, and the simplest 
 culture and propagation. There are several 
 native species, viz. : 1. Shrubby orache, or 
 sea purslane (A. portulacoides) ; 2. Frosted 
 sea orache {A. laciniata) ; 3. Spreading hal- 
 berd-leaved orache (A.patula) ; 4. Spread- 
 ing narrow-leaved orache {A. angustifolia) ; 
 
 5. Upright spear-leaved orache (A. erecta) ; 
 
 6. Grass-leaved sea orache (A. littoralis) ; 7. 
 Stalked sea orache {A. pedunculate/). The 
 first is a shrub growing very common on 
 the muddy sea-coast, bearing spikes of 
 reddish-green mealy flowers. The whole 
 plant abounds with fossil alkali, carbonate 
 of soda. Its silvery glaucous hue is re- 
 markable, and not inelegant. The other 
 species are annuals, with herbaceous, mostly 
 upright, stems. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 255.) 
 
 A. hortensis is cooked and eaten in the 
 same manner as spinach, to which it is much 
 preferred by many persons, although it be- 
 longs to a tribe whose wholesomeness is 
 very suspicious. It flourishes best in a rich 
 moist soil, and in an open compartment. 
 Those, however, of the autumn sowing, re- 
 quire a rather drier soil. It is propagated by 
 seed, which may be sown about the end of 
 September, soon after it is ripe, and again in 
 the spring, for succession ; the sowing to be 
 performed broadcast, the seeds being scat- 
 tered thin. The plants soon make their 
 appearance, being of quick growth. When 
 they are about an inch high, they must be 
 thinned to four inches asunder ; and those 
 removed may be planted out at the same 
 distance in a similar situation, and watered 
 ocoa tionally until established. At the time 
 of thinning, the bed must be thoroughly 
 cleared of weeds, and if they are again hoed 
 914 
 
 during a dry day, when the plants are about 
 four inches high, they will require no further 
 attendance than an occasional weeding by 
 hand. 
 
 For early production, a sowing may be 
 performed in a moderate hotbed, at the 
 same times as those in the natural ground. 
 
 The leaves must be gathered for use 
 whilst young, otherwise they become stringy 
 and worthless. To obtain seed, some plants 
 of the spring sowing must be left ungathered 
 from, and thinned to about eight inches 
 apart. The seeds ripen about the end of 
 August, when the plants may be pulled up, 
 and when perfectly dry rubbed out for use. 
 (G. W.Johnson's Kitch. Gard) 
 
 ORANGE-TREE. (Citrus.) The genus 
 to which the orange-tree belongs consists 
 of ornamental species of fruit trees, growing 
 from three to fifteen feet high. The leaves 
 are on more or less dilated and winged 
 footstalks ; the flowers are large, white, and 
 odoriferous, existing at the same time as 
 the fruit, which is too well known to re- 
 quire description. Orange-trees thrive best 
 in a good loamy soil, mixed with a quantity 
 of rotten dung. They do not like much pot 
 room, nor too much water, when in a grow- 
 ing state. The different kinds are procured 
 by budding or grafting on common stocks, 
 which, as soon as operated upon, should be 
 placed in some close frame, in a moderate 
 dung heat. Stocks for working upon are 
 raised from any oranges, lemons, &c. They 
 are sometimes raised from cuttings, in which 
 case they produce fruit when very small 
 plants. (Paxton's Sot. Diet. ; Phillips's 
 Fruits, p. 266.) The flowers of the orange- 
 tree yield, by distillation, a fragrant volatile 
 oil, known by the name of oil of Neroli. 
 The fruit of the bignaroll or bitter orange 
 makes one of the best preserves which can 
 be eaten, namely, Scotch marmalade. The 
 unripe fruit is used for flavouring the 
 liquor called curacoa. The ripe fruit is 
 wholesome, and a useful refrigerant in 
 fevers. 
 
 ORCHARD. (Gr.) In horticulture, an 
 inclosure devoted to the culture of fruit 
 trees. The most productive orchards are 
 generally such as are situated on declivities 
 open to the south or south-east, and shel- 
 tered from the north, north-east,. and west. 
 The most suitable soil is a calcareous loam, 
 with a dry subsoil. The climate of or- 
 chards so situated is always warmer than 
 any other kind of situation which this coun- 
 try affords, and the subsoil is more certain 
 of being dry. The surface of the soil in 
 the case of orchards so situated is generally 
 kept under pasture ; which, while it pre- 
 vents the earth from being washed away by 
 rains, is favourable to the running of the 
 
ORCHID ACEiE. 
 
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
 
 roots immediately under the surface, by 
 which they are sooner called into action by 
 heat in spring, and sooner thrown into a 
 torpid state by cold in autumn. The prin- 
 cipal fruits grown in orchards of this de- 
 scription in Great Britain are the apple, 
 the pear, the plum, and the cherry ; and 
 wherever wheat can be ripened in the 
 plains, these fruits will arrive at perfection 
 on declivities such as we have mentioned. 
 
 ORCHID ACEiE. (Orchis one of the 
 genera.) A natural order of herbaceous 
 endogens, inhabiting all parts of the world, 
 excepting those climates situated upon the 
 verge of the frozen zone, or remarkable for 
 their exceeding dryness. They are well 
 known for the singular form of their flowers. 
 Some of them grow in the earth, others in- 
 habit rocks and the branches of trees, and a 
 few appear to be true parasites. They all 
 belong to the class Gynandria of Linnasus, 
 are often very agreeably scented, and 
 sometimes produce an aromatic fleshy fruit, 
 as in the case of vanilla, which contains a 
 large quantity of benzoic acid. The nutri- 
 tious substance called salep is prepared 
 from the amylaceous tubers of the male 
 orchis, by merely drying them in ovens. 
 They become semi-pellucid, and when pul- 
 verized, form a mucilage with boiling water. 
 They are usually grown in the frame or 
 hothouse, and thrive best in a mixture of 
 loam, peat, and chalk broken small. They 
 can only be increased from seeds. 
 
 It would be quite impossible to describe 
 the characters of each species. I must, 
 therefore, content myself with a bare enu- 
 meration of the different indigenous species. 
 
 t. Butterfly orchis (0. bifolia). 2. Py- 
 ramidal orchis (0. pyramidalis). 3. Green- 
 winged meadow orchis (0. Moris). 4. 
 Early purple orchis (0. mascula). 5. Dwarf 
 dark-winged orchis (0. ustulata). 6. Great 
 brown- winged orchis (O.fasca). 7. Mili- 
 tary orchis (0. militaris). 8. Monkey or- 
 chis (0. tephrosantos). 9. Lizard orchis 
 (0. hircind). 10. White cluster-rooted or- 
 chis (0. albida). 11. Frog orchis (0. vi- 
 ridis). 12. Marsh palmate orchis (0. lati- 
 folia). 13. Spotted palmate orchis (0. 
 maculatd). 14. Aromatic palmate orchis 
 (0. conopsia). Most of the native species 
 of orchis inhabit meadows and pastures, 
 and hilly chalky downs. The roots are 
 doubly tuberous, fleshy ; leaves chiefly ra- 
 dical ; flowers numerous, spiked, purple, 
 crimson or whitish, in some highly fra- 
 grant. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. pp. 8 — 
 24.) 
 
 ORCHIS, THE BOG. See Bog-Or- 
 
 CHIS. 
 
 ORCHIS, THE INSECT. See Insect- 
 Orchis. 
 
 915 
 
 ORCHIS, THE MAN. See Maw- 
 Orchis. 
 
 ORCHIS, THE MUSK. See Musk- 
 Orchis. 
 
 ORE WEED. See Kelp ; Sea Weed; 
 Green Manures. &c. 
 
 ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, is that por- 
 tion of the science of chemistry which 
 relates to animal and vegetable substances. 
 " The object of organic chemistry," says 
 M. Liebig, in the able work on this sub- 
 ject translated by Mr. Playfair, " is to dis- 
 cover the chemical conditions which are 
 essential to the life and perfect develop- 
 ment of animals and vegetables, and gene- 
 rally to investigate all those processes of 
 organic nature which are due to the opera- 
 tion of chemical laws." In this article I 
 shall confine myself principally to the re- 
 sults obtained by the analysis of vegetable 
 and animal substances. Under the heads 
 Atmosphere, Earths, Gases, Tempera- 
 ture, W ater, &c. will be found an account 
 of their respective uses to vegetation. 
 
 There is no branch of chemistry more 
 difficult, and yet more interesting, than that 
 of organic chemistry ; for in this the che- 
 mist finds, added to his ordinary difficulties, 
 and to his many sources of uncertainty, the 
 presence, and very often the controlling in- 
 fluence, of a living principle, which in some 
 instances seem to neutralise and overcome 
 even the most powerful chemical affinities. 
 " I would warn, therefore, the reader," to 
 use the words of Dr. Thomson, (Chem. 
 vol. iv. p. 303.), w not to expect complete 
 information in this branch of science : the 
 wonders of the vegetable creation are still 
 but very imperfectly explored ; many of 
 the organs of plants are too minute for our 
 senses, and scarcely a single process can 
 be completely traced. The multiplicity of 
 operations continually going on in vege- 
 tables at the same time, and the variety 
 of different and even opposite substances 
 formed out of the same ingredients, and 
 almost at the same time, astonish and con- 
 found us ; the order, too, and the skill with 
 which every thing is conducted, are no less 
 surprising ; no two operations clash ; there 
 is no discord, no irregularity, no disturb- 
 ance ; every object is gained, and every 
 thing is ready for its intended purpose. 
 This is too wonderful to escape our ob- 
 servation, and of too much importance not 
 to claim our attention. Many philosophers, 
 accordingly, distinguished equally by their 
 industry and sagacity, have dedicated a 
 great part of their lives to the study of 
 vegetation. But hitherto their success has 
 not been equal to their exertions. No per- 
 son has been able to detect the formative 
 agent in plants, nor even the principle 
 3 n 2 
 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
 
 which is always so busy in performing such 
 wonders, nor to discover him at his work; 
 nor have philosophers been much more 
 fortunate in their attempts to ascertain the 
 instruments which he employs in his opera- 
 tions." A great variety of curious and 
 interesting facts, however, have been dis- 
 covered. These I shall attempt to collect 
 and arrange, to point out their dependence 
 on each other, and to deduce such con- 
 sequences as obviously result from the dis- 
 coveries which have been hitherto made. 
 
 The farmer will, upon reflection, be able 
 to call to mind many circumstances, show- 
 ing the influence of the living principle 
 upon the chemical substances of organic 
 matter. He will remember, for instance, 
 that the living substance flourishes in the 
 very same position, and under the very 
 same circumstances, where, when dead, it 
 rapidly putrefies. Every plant growing on 
 the soil, or on a dunghill, testifies to the 
 fact. The living plants which flourish in 
 the same solution of a salt in which they 
 are dissolved, when dead, prove the same 
 thing in another way ; and these proofs may 
 be multiplied very easily on very slight re- 
 flection. And as regards animal life, the 
 very same results are obtained ; the very 
 gastric juice which the living stomach holds 
 for an age, dissolves that stomach when 
 dead. Animals can sustain a temperature 
 considerably greater than that where the 
 putrefaction of animal substances rapidly 
 proceeds ; and men even can exist for 
 a considerable period in an atmosphere 
 heated considerably above the boiling point 
 of water. 
 
 In this sketch of organic chemistry I 
 shall principally confine myself to the ve- 
 getable branch of it, and briefly follow the 
 progress of a plant through its several 
 stages of germination, its growth, and its 
 decay, leaving the reader to refer to other 
 heads of this work for the information he 
 may need. 
 
 Germination. That all plants arise from 
 seeds is now, I believe, undisputed by every 
 person, notwithstanding the very many 
 puzzling phenomena which occasionally oc- 
 cur ; such as the profusion of some of the 
 grasses, occasioned by the application of 
 certain manures. Thus, " by dressing cer- 
 tain soils with bones and wood ashes, the 
 white clover which contains this salt ap- 
 pears in great quantities. Now phosphate 
 of lime abounds in bones and in the ashes 
 of wood ; other plants, it is probable, re- 
 quire the same food. Thus, after the great 
 fire of London, says Mr. Playfair, large 
 quantities of the Erysimum latifolium were 
 obsen ed growing on the spots where a fire 
 had taken place. On :i similar occasion, 
 916 
 
 the Blitum capitatum was seen at Copen- 
 hagen, the Senicio viscosus in Nassau, and 
 the Spariium scoparium in Languedoc. 
 After the burnings of forest pine in North 
 America, poplars, according to Franklin, 
 grew on the same soil. (Liebegs Org. Chem. 
 p. 152.) 
 
 Seeds, therefore, the farmer may rest 
 assured, are essential to the production of 
 plants. Now, the first movement of the 
 seeds towards the production of plants is 
 denominated their germination. To this 
 certain requisites are essentially necessary ; 
 such as moisture, moderate heat, and oxygen 
 gas. That all seeds require a certain de- 
 gree of moisture before they will vegetate 
 is known to every one : where there is 
 no moisture, there can be no germination. 
 This, however, varies according to the nature 
 of the plant. Some of the mosses, for in- 
 stance, will germinate on walls and other 
 places where the supply is very limited ; 
 others, such as the water plants, will only grow 
 immersed in water. The rice of Hindostan 
 is grown in swamps abounding with water, 
 which would be destructive to all the grain 
 crops of the English farmer. The water- 
 meadow grasses of our own country illustrate 
 the same position. The plant, too, has the 
 power of decomposing water, and assimilat- 
 ing its hydrogen in the formation of its own 
 substances. Water is composed of hydrogen 
 and oxygen, and these substances are al- 
 ways essential ingredients in vegetables. 
 
 Heat is also necessary to germination : thus 
 few plants will vegetate below the freezing 
 point of water ; nevertheless, this low tem- 
 perature does not destroy their vitality, for 
 every farmer is aware that frozen seeds will 
 vegetate after they have been thawed. As, 
 however, there is a peculiar degree of 
 moisture on which every plant vegetates 
 with the greatest advantage, so there is a 
 temperature peculiarly favourable to the 
 growth of every plant. The ivy, the elder, 
 and the honey-suckle, for instance, invari- 
 ably produce their leaves long before any 
 other English plant has felt the warm re- 
 viving influence of spring. 
 
 And again, if the seed is not supplied 
 with oxygen gas, the most favourable sup- 
 plies of moisture and heat will not induce 
 it to germinate. Ray tried this in the 
 vacuum of an air-pump with some lettuce 
 seed ;' they did not germinate in vacuo, but 
 they grew very well when the atmospheric 
 air (which contains twenty-one per cent, of 
 this gas) was admitted. It is for this 
 reason that the farmer is careful not to 
 bury his seed-corn so deep in the ground, 
 as to be out of the influence of the oxygen 
 of the atmosphere. Beyond a certain depth, 
 which varies wi th different plants, no seeds, in 
 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
 
 fact, will vegetate. Seeds have been buried 
 deep in the earth for centuries, and -when, 
 afterwards, they have been accidentally 
 thrown upon the surface, have vegetated. 
 There is reason for believing that it is not the 
 entire atmospheric air, but only its oxygen, 
 which is essential to germination. In the 
 experiments of M. Saussure, the quantity of 
 oxygen consumed by various plants during 
 their germination varied very considerably 
 in amount. Wheat and barley, weight for 
 weight, consumed less oxygen than peas ; 
 and peas less than beans and kidney beans. 
 The oxygen consumed by wheat and barley 
 amounts to between Y^-oth and ^L^-th of 
 their weight, while that consumed by beans 
 and kidney beans may amount to T ^th part 
 of their weight. (Recherches, 13.; Thom- 
 son's Chem. vol. iv. p. 308.) The oxygen 
 absorbed by the seed is in all probability 
 combined with the carbon of the plant, and 
 emitted during its germination, in the state 
 of carbonic acid gas. This gas is composed 
 entirely of carbon and oxygen, in the pro- 
 portion of 6*12 parts of the former and 
 16 of the latter ; and the quantity of it 
 emitted is exactly equal in amount to the 
 quantity of oxygen absorbed by the seed, 
 that should unite with the carbon of the 
 plant, to form the carbonic acid gas, and a 
 certain quantity of carbon is always lost 
 by the seed during vegetation. 
 
 When once a plant has vegetated, its 
 growth proceeds with more or less rapidity ; 
 none that I am aware of remain station- 
 ary ; indeed, it cannot remain stationary, 
 and live. They increase in size, require a 
 supply of various substances as food, and 
 the examination of the nature of this nu- 
 triment constitutes one of the most valuable 
 branches of organic chemistry ; for under 
 this head are included the assistance af- 
 forded to plants by the gases, the earths, 
 and by water. In the examination of the 
 food of plants will also be illustrated the 
 important questions of rotation, of fer- 
 tilisers, and of various other important 
 questions, which in this work will be found 
 treated of under their respective heads ; 
 and it will be useless to repeat what I have 
 there at some length endeavoured to illus- 
 trate. That the atmosphere yields its car- 
 bon and its oxygen ; the soil its silica, 
 alumina, and magnesia, with various saline 
 matters ; and that water yields both hy- 
 drogen and oxygen for the service of the 
 plant, is pretty well established by many valu- 
 able experiments which I have there given : 
 and it is impossible to observe the results of 
 the analysis of a perfect plant without being- 
 struck with the number of its ingredients, 
 and perceiving at once the probable sources 
 from whence it drew its supply. Take, for 
 917 
 
 instance, the analysis by M. Cadet; of the 
 solid matters or ashes of the common garlic. 
 From 172 parts of these he obtained of 
 
 Potash - 
 
 Parts. 
 - 33- 
 
 Sulphate and muriate of potash 
 
 - 58- 
 
 Alumina - 
 
 2- 
 
 Phosphate of lime 
 
 - 15*6 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 1*5 
 
 - 9- 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 Lime - 
 
 - 14- 
 
 Silica - 
 
 8- 
 
 
 141-1 
 
 All these substances, there is little doubt, 
 were absorbed by the plant from the soil 
 in which it grew ; but in the fresh or un- 
 burnt garlic these are combined with about 
 eight times their weight of mucilage, albu- 
 men, sulphur, vegetable fibre, and water. 
 Now the three first of these must have 
 been formed during the growth of the plant, 
 from either the atmosphere or from water : 
 the first (the atmosphere) being composed 
 of oxygen, nitrogen, and carbonic acid; 
 and the latter (water) of hydrogen and 
 oxygen. Mucilage was found by M. Berze- 
 lius to be composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - 51-306 
 Carbon - 41-906 
 Hydrogen - - - 6-788 
 
 100- 
 
 Albumen contains, according to the analysis 
 of MM. Gay Lussac and Thenard, 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbon 52-883 
 
 Oxygen - - _ 28-872 - 
 
 Hydrogen - - 7 '540 
 
 Nitrogen - 15-705 
 
 100- 
 
 The same excellent chemists have shown 
 woody fibre to be composed of 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - - - 42-25 
 
 Carbon - - - 52- 
 
 Hydrogen - - 5-75 
 
 100- 
 
 The chief vegetable matters of the garlic, 
 therefore, the student will remark (and the 
 same conclusion applies to other vegetables), 
 are composed entirely of two or three chief 
 ingredients. The composition of all plants is, 
 in fact, much more similar than is com- 
 monly supposed. For instance, all the ve- 
 getable acids, such as vinegar (acetic acid), 
 sugar, gum, starch, woody fibre, &c, are 
 composed of three substances, viz., carbon, 
 oxygen, and hydrogen, arranged in differ- 
 3 n 3 
 
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ent proportions, as may be seen from the 
 following table : 
 
 Acetic acid (vinegar) 
 
 Citric acid (of lemons) - 
 
 Oxalic acid (of wild sorrel) 
 
 Sugar - 
 
 Starch 
 
 Gum 
 
 Woody fibre of the oak - 
 Woodyjibr e of the beech 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 50-224 
 
 44-147 
 
 5-629 
 
 33-811 
 
 59-859 
 
 6 330 
 
 26-566 
 
 70-689 
 
 2-745 
 
 42-47 
 
 50-63 
 
 6 90 
 
 43-55 
 
 49-68 
 
 6-77 
 
 42-23 
 
 50-84 
 
 6-93 
 
 52-53 
 
 41-78 
 
 5-69 
 
 51-45 
 
 42-73 
 
 5-82 
 
 The decomposition of vegetable substances. 
 — All dead vegetable substances, when left 
 to themselves, under favourable circum- 
 stances, speedily decay, or decompose, and 
 are resolved into their constituents. This 
 is commonly effected in two ways, either 
 by fermentation or by putrefaction : to 
 this last phenomenon several requisites are 
 necessary ; moisture must be present, and 
 the temperature must not be below 32° of 
 Fahrenheit : in fact, it proceeds with ex- 
 treme slowness at a temperature below 45°. 
 It is retarded in its progress by the absence 
 of the atmospheric air, but its presence is 
 not essential : when water, however, is en- 
 tirely absent, putrefaction cannot proceed. 
 
 The disagreeable odour which is emitted 
 during putrefaction is owing to the gaseous 
 substances which are generated. Those 
 plants which contain nitrogen emit ammo- 
 nia : onions produce phosphuretted hydro- 
 gen. By all of them carbonic acid gas and 
 carburetted hydrogen gas are emitted in 
 considerable quantities. These gases, being, 
 when presented to the roots and leaves of 
 plants, exceedingly invigorating, are one of 
 the causes of the increased luxuriance of 
 all crops manured with green vegetable 
 matters. When the putrefaction of the 
 vegetable substance is at an end, the car- 
 bon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which it is 
 composed, are gone, and nothing remains 
 but the earths and salts with which the 
 purely vegetable matters were once com- 
 bined in the plant. The ashes which are 
 left when putrefaction ceases, are in fact 
 nearly the same as those left after combus- 
 tion. . See Putrefaction. 
 
 Animal Substances. — The analysis of ani- 
 mal substances is attended with all the dif- 
 ficulties to which I have alluded as attendant 
 upon the examination of vegetable sub- 
 stances ; and the progress of chemical 
 philosophy has not yet succeeded in demon- 
 strating the composition of any great pro- 
 portion of the many substances met with in 
 ih" animal world. The great mass of ani- 
 mal matters contain nitrogen, and this is 
 the chief general chemical difference be- 
 tween animal and vegetable substances ; 
 bencej when animal substances putrefy, 
 918 1 J 
 
 ORTOLIN BUNTING. 
 
 ammonia is disengaged, for this alkali is 
 composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. 
 
 The following analysis of several animal 
 substances will show how generally present 
 is nitrogen in this class of substances : — 
 
 
 Carbon. 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Hydro- 
 gen. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Gelatin (glue, 
 
 
 
 
 
 isinglass, &c.) - 
 
 47-881 
 
 27-207 
 
 7-914 
 
 16998 
 
 Albumen (white 
 
 
 
 
 
 ofegg),&c. 
 
 52-833 
 
 23-872 
 
 7-540 
 
 15-705 
 
 Fibrin (fibre in 
 
 
 
 
 
 clots of blood) - 
 
 53-360 
 
 19-685 
 
 7-021 
 
 19-934 
 
 Urea (found in 
 
 
 
 
 
 urine) 
 
 20- 
 
 2666 
 
 6-66 
 
 46-66 
 
 These are the chief animal substances of 
 which most others are compounded. Thus 
 the principal solid matter of animal muscle 
 is fibrin. The outer skin or cuticle of ani- 
 mals is composed of from 93 to 95 per cent, 
 of albumen. The solid matter of the blood 
 is chiefly composed of the same substance. 
 Under the heads Animal Manures, Fish, 
 Bones, Gelatin, &c. the reader will find 
 all the animal chemistry bearing upon farm- 
 ing and rural affairs, with which I am ac- 
 quainted. 
 
 ORIOLE, THE GOLDEN. (Oriolus 
 galbida.) This bird is a chance summer 
 visiter to Britain, an occasional straggler 
 being now and then obtained ; but very little 
 is known of its habits in this country. The 
 general colour of the plumage of the head, 
 neck, and body is bright gamboge yellow ; 
 the wings, and portions of the tail feathers, 
 black ; legs and toes, lead colour. The whole 
 length of the bird is nine inches and a half. 
 (YarrolTs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 212.) 
 
 ORLEANS PLUM. This is a hand- 
 some but an indifferent fruit, which takes 
 its name from a district of France. It is 
 more cultivated than even the greengage, 
 which is not only the most agreeable but 
 also the most wholesome of all the plums. 
 See Plum. 
 
 ORNITHOLOGY. (Gr.) The science 
 which teaches the natural history and ar- ' 
 rangement of birds. See the different Bri- 
 tish birds, under their several heads. 
 
 ORPINE, or LIVE-LONG (Sedum Tele- 
 pliium, from sedere, to sit ; some of the plants 
 are found growing upon stones, rocks, walls, 
 and roofs of houses.) This is a perennial 
 plant, with smooth herbage, growing on the 
 borders of fields, hedges, &c, on a gravelly 
 or chalky soil. The root consists of several 
 oblong, tapering white knobs. Stems two 
 feet high, erect, round, spotted with red. 
 Leaves scattered, sessile, flattish, serrated, 
 with a stout mid-rib. Flowers crimson, 
 rarely white, in a dense leafy corymb. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 315.) 
 
 ORTOLIN BUNTING. (JBmberiza hor- 
 tulana). The green-headed bunting is only 
 
OSIER. 
 
 a very rare summer visiter to this country. 
 Its natural food is grain and seeds when 
 ripened, with insects during the early part 
 of the season. When fattened, these birds 
 are much esteemed by epicures, and fetch a 
 high price in the market. The whole length 
 of the bird is six inches and one quarter. 
 The adult male in summer has the head and 
 cheeks greenish grey ; chin, throat, and up- 
 per part of the breast yellowish green ; the 
 general character of the other part of the 
 plumage is rufous brown. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 455.) See Black-headed 
 Bunting, Cire Bunting, Lapeand Bunt- 
 ing, Snow Bunting, &c. 
 
 OSIER,. The name given to various 
 species of willow or salix, chiefly employed 
 in basket-making. Although, under the 
 heads sallow and willow, I shall notice 
 most of the species of this genus, it may be 
 well to describe in this place, a few of those 
 which are more generally known under 
 the name osier. Osiers differ from sallows 
 in their long, straight, flexible and mostly 
 tough twigs ; thin, generally sessile germens, 
 and elongated styles and stigmas. The osier 
 forms a hardy and useful hedge for exclud- 
 ing boisterous winds ; and as it flourishes 
 in wet situations, is frequently planted with 
 a view to prevent the banks of rivers being 
 washed away by the force of the current. 
 Osiers are divided into two classes, the first 
 is known by their blunt and downy or 
 mealy leaves, which in the other are more 
 pointed, smooth, and green, resembling the 
 myrtle. 
 
 The common osier (S. viminalis) is one 
 of the most abundant species. This tree is 
 found growing in wet meadows, osier-holts, 
 the banks of rivers, and other moist situ- 
 ations. The branches are straight, erect, 
 wand-like, very long and slender, round, 
 polished, downy when young, with fine 
 silky hairs. Leaves on short foot-stalks, 
 almost upright about a span long, and half 
 an inch wide, linear, inclining to lanceolate, 
 elongated, taper-pointed, entire, wavy ; the 
 upper side green, smooth, even ; the under 
 snow white and silky. Catkins numerous, 
 lateral, cylindrical, full an inch long, with 
 several small lanceolate bractes. The value 
 of the common osier for various kinds of 
 basket-work is universally known. There 
 is a variety much esteemed, called the vel- 
 vet osier, in which no external difference is 
 discernible, but the twigs are said to be 
 more pliant. There are also various species 
 as well as varieties comprehended under 
 the name of osiers, some of which, having 
 smooth leaves, are noticed under the articles 
 Saeeow and Wieeow. 
 
 The silky-leaved osier (S. Smithiana) is 
 a shrub found growing in meadows and 
 919 
 
 osier grounds, the branches of which are 
 brittle and unfit for basket-work. It ia 
 therefore important for cultivators of osiers 
 to distinguish carefully between this and 
 the velvet osier ; for while the latter is, for 
 some kinds of work, greatly esteemed, the 
 silky-leaved osier proves of no utility. 
 
 In S. Smithiana the leaves are lanceolate, 
 pointed, slightly wavy, minutely toothed, 
 delicately soft, and scarce visibly downy 
 above ; whitish and silky beneath. Stipules 
 crescent-shaped, minute ; catkins ovate ; 
 germen stalked ; style shorter than the 
 linear, deeply divided stigmas. 
 
 The auricled osier (S. stipulates) is a 
 common species in osier-holts, hedges, and 
 woods, and is easily known at first sight by 
 its coarse tall habit, and conspicuous sti- 
 pules, but not worthy of cultivation for any 
 economical purpose. The twigs are up- 
 right, tall, soft, and downy, of a pale red- 
 dish-brown, brittle, and of little or no use 
 as an osier. Leaves almost upright, nu- 
 merous, about a span long, lanceolate, 
 pointed, slightly wavy, obscurely crenate ; 
 soft and nearly naked above, white and 
 downy beneath. Footstalks stout, half or 
 three quarters of an inch long. Stipules 
 half heart-shaped, stalked, very large. Nec- 
 tary cylindrical. Germen ovate, nearly 
 sessile, as well as the linear, undivided stig- 
 mas. Catkins much earlier than the foliage. 
 
 The fine basket osier (S. Forbiana) is a 
 shrub grown in the meadows and osier- 
 holts of the eastern part of England. The 
 stem is erect, bushy, with upright, slender, 
 smooth twigs, very flexible and tough, of 
 a greyish yellow, not purple hue, highly 
 esteemed and much cultivated for the finer 
 kinds of basket-work. Leaves all alternate, 
 with small stipules, lanceolate- oblong with 
 shallow serratures, smooth ; rounded at the 
 base ; upper surface of a deep grass green, 
 glaucous beneath. Stamen one. Style 
 nearly as long as the linear, divided stig- 
 mas. 
 
 Green-leaved osier (S. rubra). This is a 
 small tree, with long, upright, smooth, 
 greyish or purplish, more frequently tawny 
 branches, very tough and pliant, this being 
 one of the most valuable osiers when cut 
 down annually. The very long and narrow 
 leaves of this rather rare species agree in 
 shape with the common osier (S. viminalis), 
 but wants its dense white pubescence. The 
 stamens are combined below. Leaves linear- 
 lanceolate, acute, smooth, with shallow serra- 
 tures, of a fine grass green and smooth on 
 both sides, being downy when young only. 
 Style short, with two ovate, thick, un- 
 divided stigmas. 
 
 In the fens of the east of England many 
 holts (as they are provincially called), or 
 3 n 4 
 
OSIER, GOLDEN. 
 
 OUSEL. 
 
 plantations of osiers, are raised, which 
 beautify the country, keep the stock warm 
 in the winter, . and provide much useful 
 wood for baskets, and all kinds of wicker 
 work. The mode of planting is very simple ; 
 it is, first, to dig the land from six to twelve 
 inches deep, and then to prick down cut- 
 tings of .four years' growth, and eighteen 
 inches long, at about three feet distance 
 from each other. The soil may be moor or 
 clay, or any that is low and wet. 
 
 These holts or osier plantations must be 
 fenced round, either with dikes, which are 
 most common, or with hedges. The proper 
 season for making them (they seldom fail 
 of growing at any time), is from the fall of 
 the leaf till very late in the spring. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. pp. 191. 228—230. ; 
 Loudon's Arb. Brit. p. 1490.) 
 
 OSIER, GOLDEN, or YELLOW 
 WILLOW. See Willow. 
 
 OSKIN. A provincial word used to 
 signify an ox-gang ; or a quantity or 
 share of common field land, proportioned 
 probably to the size of the fields and num- 
 ber of messuages in the given township, at 
 the time the fields were set out or appro- 
 priated among the houses. 
 
 OSMUND -ROYAL. (Osmunda regalis; 
 from Osmunda, one of the names of Thor, 
 a Celtic deity.) This is an ornamental 
 species of fern, growing wild in deep watery 
 bogs, woods, and meadows, but not very 
 common. The root is tuberous, hard, scaly, 
 beset with numerous fibres, and having in 
 the centre a whitish eore, which some per- 
 sons, according to Gerarde, have named the 
 heart of Osmund the waterman. The fronds 
 are several, erect, two or three feet high, 
 doubly pinnate, smooth, bright green ; the 
 primary divisions from six to ten, nearly 
 opposite, hardly a span long ; leaflets more 
 numerous, oblong, nearly entire, with one 
 rib and numerous transverse veins ; dilated 
 and somewhat auricled at the base. Clusters 
 panicled, terminal, of several light-brown 
 veins. Capsules appearing in June and 
 July. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 357.) 
 
 OSPREY. (Pandion halimetus.) The 
 osprey or fishing-hawk, from its habit of 
 feeding almost exclusively on fish, must be 
 looked for near the sea-shore, or about 
 rivers and large lakes, which may be ex- 
 pected to afford a plentiful supply of the 
 particular food it is known most to delight 
 in. This bird makes a large nest; some- 
 times on high trees, at others on rocks, or 
 about old ruins near large pieces of water, 
 and lays two or three eggs, which are ge- 
 nerally hatched in June. The eggs are 
 about two inches and four lines long, by 
 one inch ten lines in breadth, blotched and 
 spotted over the larger end with reddish- 
 920 
 
 brown on a white ground. The osprey 
 measures about twenty-two inches in length. 
 The top of the head and nape of the neck 
 are whitish, streaked with dark brown ; 
 the whole of the upper surface of the body 
 and wings dark brown ; the chin, throat, 
 under surface of the body, thighs, &c. 
 white ; legs and toes blue ; claws black. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 20.) 
 
 OST. A local name for a hop-kiln. It 
 is variously written oast and oust. 
 
 OSTLER. One who has the care of 
 horses at an inn or hostelry. 
 
 OTTER. An amphibious quadruped, 
 well adapted for its habits by its short, 
 strong, flexible, palmated feet, which serve 
 as oars to propel it through the water ; and 
 by its long and strong tail, which acts as a 
 powerful rudder, and enables the animal to 
 change its course with great ease and ra- 
 pidity. The otter used to be met with in 
 most of the British rivers and lakes; but 
 the increase of population, and the un- 
 intermitting hostility which its destruction 
 of the valuable fish of its native streams 
 have called down upon it, have greatly 
 thinned its numbers, and have exterminated 
 it from many of the localities where it was 
 formerly common. 
 
 The otter selects for its retreat some con- 
 venient excavation, concealed by the over- 
 hanging roots of the trees which grow from 
 the banks of rivers, or other natural screen. 
 The female goes with young nine weeks, 
 and produces from three to five cubs in 
 March or April. The usual weight of a full- 
 grown male is from twenty to twenty-four 
 pounds. The fur of the otter is remarkably 
 fine and close. It consists of two kinds of 
 hair; the longer and stiffer shining hairs 
 which are greyish at the base, and a rich 
 brown at the point, concealing an extremely 
 fine and soft fur of a whitish grey colour, 
 brown at the tip. The hair and fur of the 
 under part of the body, the cheeks, and the 
 inner parts of the legs, is of a brownish grey 
 throughout. 
 
 OURTS. A provincial term applied to 
 the fodder left by cattle. It is sometimes 
 written oughts. 
 
 OUSEL. A name in some parts for the 
 blackbird. The proper ring owzel (Merula 
 torquatd) is a summer visiter to the British 
 islands, arriving about April. It appears 
 to prefer the extreme western and northern 
 portions of these islands, visiting generally 
 the wilder and rocky mountainous districts. 
 The nest is usually built on or near the 
 ground, sometimes on banks by the sides of 
 streams, occasionally placed at tin- l>asr of 
 a stone, stump, or bush which serves as a 
 shelter. The eggs are four or five, of a 
 light blue, speckled and spotted with red- 
 
OUT-HOLLING. 
 
 OX-EYE. 
 
 dish brown ; the length one inch two lines, 
 and ten lines in breadth. Its food consists 
 of snails, insects, fruit, and strawberries, 
 before the birds leave us for the winter, 
 and ivy berries when they return in the 
 spring. The length of an adult male is 
 about eleven inches. The general colour 
 of the plumage is nearly uniform brown- 
 ish black, except across the chest, where 
 there is a broad crescentic stripe of pure 
 white. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol.i. p. 206.) 
 
 OUT-HOLLING. A term provincially 
 applied to the shovelling out a ditch for 
 the use of the manure it contains. 
 
 OUT-HOUSE. Strictly any building 
 which belongs to, or adjoins the dwelling- 
 house. But barns, sheds, stables, and other 
 outlying offices are frequently called out- 
 houses. 
 
 OUZE. A deposit made by the sea. 
 
 OVEN. A domestic furnace used for 
 baking bread, pies, tarts, &c. Ovens are 
 generally constructed of brick-work in a 
 semicircular form, with a very low roof, 
 and the bottom of which is laid with stone : 
 in the front is a small aperture and door, 
 by the shutting of which the heat is con- 
 fined while the bread is baking. They are 
 usually heated by means of dry faggots, 
 wood, &c. As these ovens, however, are 
 not calculated for small families, on account 
 of the quantity of fuel they consume, others 
 have been contrived, on a more diminutive 
 scale : these are usually formed of cast or 
 hammered iron, and may be heated by the 
 same fire which serves for the cooking of 
 other provisions ; but for baking bread these 
 ovens are inferior to the brick ovens. 
 
 OVERLAND FARM. A provincial 
 phrase usually applied to a parcel of land 
 without any building or house attached 
 
 OVER-REACH. See Clicking. 
 
 OVER- YEARS. A country term ap- 
 plied to such bullocks as are not finished 
 fattening at three years old when home- 
 breeds, or the first winter after buying in ; 
 but kept through the following summer to 
 be finished the next winter. 
 
 OVIPOSITOR. (Lat. ovum, an egg ; 
 and pono, I place.) In entomology, is the 
 instrument by which an insect conducts its 
 eggs to their appropriate nidus, and often 
 bores a way to it ; the same instrument is 
 in some genera used as a weapon of offence, 
 whence it is called the " aculeus." In the 
 gall insect, and some others, the ovipositor 
 is furnished at its root with a sac contain- 
 ing an acrid secretion, which is deposited 
 in the wound made by the ovipositor at the 
 same time as the eggs. 
 
 OWCE. A provincial name for the ox, 
 in some places. 
 921 
 
 OWER-GATE. A local phrase signi- 
 fying a stile place, or imperfect gap in a 
 hedge ; and also a stepping-place over a 
 brook. 
 
 OWLING. In law, so called from its 
 being generally committed during the night. 
 An offence consisting in conveying sheep or 
 wool to the sea side, in order to export them 
 clandestinely. This offence was formerly 
 capital, particularly if the offender neg- 
 lected to surrender after proclamation marie 
 for that purpose. 
 
 OWLS. A tribe of raptorial birds, in- 
 cluding those which fly by night, and have 
 the eyes directed forwards. The owl, al- 
 though frequently held in disrepute, should 
 never be destroyed by the farmer, to whom 
 he is a great friend ; for his diet consists 
 chiefly of field mice, of which he consumes 
 large numbers. The owls are usually ar- 
 ranged into two principal groups : one in 
 which all the species exhibit two tufts of 
 feathers on the head, which have been 
 called horns, ears, and egrets ; in the second 
 group, the heads are smooth and round, 
 without tufts. The principal species of 
 British owls are : the eagle owl {Bubo max- 
 imus), the scops-eared owl (Scops aldro- 
 vandi), the long-eared owl (Otus vulgaris), 
 the short-eared owl (Otus brachyotus), the 
 white or barn owl (Strix flammed), the 
 tawny owl (Syrnium aluco), the snowy owl 
 (Surnia nyctea), the hawk owl (Surnia 
 funerea), the little owl (Noctua passerina), 
 and Tengmalm's owl (Noctua Tengmalmi). 
 The last two can only be considered occa- 
 sional visiters to this country. 
 
 As I have already noticed under the 
 head Barn Owl the most common species 
 of owl, it is not necessary to go into any 
 lengthened description of the habits and 
 appearance of these well known birds. 
 Those who wish to study the specific; and 
 generic distinctions of the different kinds of 
 owls may consult YarrelVs British Birds, 
 vol. i. 
 
 OX. Synonymous with the generic name 
 Bos ; in a more restricted sense, it signifies 
 the castrated male of the domestic variety. 
 See Cattle. 
 
 OXALIC ACID. See Acids. 
 
 OX-BOOSE. Provincially, a stall or 
 place where oxen stand in the winter to be 
 fed or fattened. 
 
 OX-EYE. (Chrysanthemum, from chry- 
 sos, gold, and anthemum, a flower ; alluding 
 to the colour of some of the flowers.) The 
 great white ox-eye maudlin-wort, or moor 
 daisy (C. Leucanthemum), is very common 
 in our pastures, fields, and by way-sides. 
 The flavour of the whole plant is herba- 
 ceous, slightly, not pleasantly, aromatic. Its 
 properties are not important; like many 
 
OX-FEET. 
 
 OYSTER-CATCHER. 
 
 other herbs, mixed with grasses, it makes a 
 part Of the hay crop. The root is branched, 
 tough and woody, with many fibres. Stem 
 erect, simple, or branched, according to the 
 soil, from one to two feet high. Leaves 
 deep green, clasping the stem, oblong, ob- 
 tuse, cut, pinnatifid at the base ; radical 
 ones obovate, stalked. Flowers large, ter- 
 minal," solitary, not inelegant, with a broad 
 yellow disk, and brilliant white radius. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 449.) 
 
 Another wild indigenous species, the yel- 
 low ox-eye (C. segetuni), has already been 
 noticed under the head Corn Marigold. 
 
 OX-FEET. A term applied to the feet 
 of horses when the horn of the hind feet 
 cleaves just in the middle of the fore part 
 of the hoof, from the coronet to the shoe : 
 they are not common, but very trouble- 
 some. 
 
 OX- GANG. (Germ, ochs, an ox, and 
 gang, a walk.) A quantity of land mea- 
 suring fifteen acres, being as much as a single 
 ox was supposed to be capable of ploughing 
 in a year or season. It is sometimes written 
 Ox-gate. The ox-gang was contracted or 
 expanded, according to the quality of the 
 land ; forty acres constituting the maximum 
 and six the minimum of the measure. 
 
 OX-HARROW. A term applied to a 
 very large sort of harrow, called in some 
 counties a drag. 
 
 OX-LIP. See Cowslip. 
 
 OX-TONGUE. (Picris.) Of this genus 
 of plants there are two indigenous species. 
 
 1. Bristly ox-tongue (P. echioides), an 
 annual, growing about hedges, the borders 
 of fields, and ground newly cleared, on a 
 clay soil. The root is tapering, and, like 
 the whole of the plant, abounds with a 
 somewhat milky, extremely bitter juice. 
 The herbage is shining green, beset with 
 rigid very pungent bristles, each springing 
 from a white tubercle, or wart. The stem 
 is round, furrowed, solid, branched, leafy, 
 two or three feet high. The lower leaves 
 lanceolate ; upper heart-shaped, clasping 
 the stem. Flowers an inch broad, of a 
 bright golden yellow. Outer calyx of five 
 broad prickly scales. 
 
 2. Hawkweed ox-tongue (P.hieracioides). 
 This is a biennial species, of which the her- 
 bage is dark green, rough, with short, coarse, 
 not bristly or pungent, hairs. Stem three 
 feet high, with many spreading leafy 
 branches, furrowed, solid, often purplish ; the 
 alternate subdivisions unequally corymbose. 
 Leaves acute, wavy, lanceolate ; the radical 
 (mes tool lied. Flowers bright yellow, rather 
 larger than the last, solitary, on bracteated 
 stalks. Down sessile. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 339.) 
 
 OX^ GEN < I AS. A simple or undecom- 
 022 
 
 pounded substance, discovered in 1774 by 
 Dr. Priestley. It constitutes 21 per cent, 
 of the atmosphere, and is that portion of it 
 which supports animal life and combustion. 
 It is emitted by plants growing in the light, 
 and is absorbed by them during the night. 
 It is found in combination with hydrogen and 
 carbon, and less often with nitrogen, in all 
 vegetable and animal substances. It unites 
 with various bases, and forms alkalies, acids, 
 and metallic oxides. It is tasteless, and 
 soluble in water, which at a temperature of 
 60° absorbs about -^y of its bulk. 100 cubic 
 inches of this gas weigh about 34 grains. 
 (Davys Elem. of Chem. p. 230.) See 
 Gases, their Uses to Vegetation. 
 
 OYSTER. (Lat. ostrea.) A shell-fish 
 belonging *to a numerous genus, charac- 
 terized by an inequivalve shell, composed 
 of two irregular lamellated valves, of which 
 
 ! the convex or under one adheres to rocks, 
 piles, or to the shell of another individual. 
 Vast beds of oysters are artificially formed, 
 and attended to with great care, at the 
 estuary of the Thames and many other lo- 
 calities, where the temperature of the water * 
 is somewhat raised by a mixture of salt and 
 fresh water, in which they thrive best. 
 Certain restrictions and regulations are en- 
 forced in reference to the sale of oysters in 
 
 j the metropolis, in order to favour the mul- 
 tiplication and rearing of this valuable bi- 
 valve. Oysters differ in quality, accord- 
 ing to the nature of the soil or bed. The 
 best British oysters are found at Purfleet, 
 the worst near Liverpool. See Animals, 
 Stealing or. 
 
 OYSTER-CATCHER, or SEA-PIE. 
 (Hcematopus ostralegus.) This bird is 
 well known on the shores of our coast, and 
 is also common and indigenous in Ireland ; 
 it appears to prefer sandy bays and wide 
 inlets, bounded with banks of shingle, as 
 favourable localities for the production of 
 the various mollusca upon which it prin- 
 cipally subsists ; the vertical edge of its 
 truncated wedge-like beak seems admira- 
 bly adapted for insertion between the two 
 portions of a bivalve shell, and this bird is 
 said to be able to detach limpets from the 
 surface of a rock with ease and certainty. 
 Its food appears to be the mollusca gene- 
 rally, worms, and marine insects. It de- 
 posits its eggs, usually four in number, on 
 the bare ground on a shingly beach, above 
 high water mark : the eggs are of a yellow- 
 ish stone-colour, spotted with ash-grey and 
 dark brown ; two inches two lines in length, 
 by one inch six lines in breadth. The 
 whole length of the bird is rather more than 
 sixteen inches. The wings and upper sur- 
 face of the body and head are black ; the 
 belly, &c, pure white ; legs and toes purplish; 
 
OYSTER 
 
 SHELLS. 
 
 flesh-coiour. The beak is three inches long. 
 (YarreWs British Birds, vol. ii. p. 432.) 
 
 OYSTER SHELLS. As a manure, the 
 use of crushed oyster shells has never been 
 so extensive in this country as in Ireland ; 
 and for this neglect several causes have con- 
 tributed. They are composed principally 
 of carbonate of lime, chalk, and a mem- 
 branous substance ; are in consequence not 
 nearly so valuable as crushed bones, which 
 contain the phosphate of lime ; are not to 
 be obtained but at particular seasons of 
 the year; and, unless pulverised, are not 
 sufficiently quick in their effects to en- 
 courage the farmer to use them unbroken. 
 In this country they have been, therefore, 
 little employed ; even in those districts, 
 such as the clay and sand formation, where, 
 from the absence of carbonate of lime in the 
 soil, the calcareous matters of the oyster 
 shells would be a very valuable addition. 
 In Ireland, which is almost entirely de- 
 stitute of chalk, the use of the broken oys- 
 ter shells has been more considerable than 
 in this country ; and in Dublin, the parish 
 authorities, in bard seasons, are glad to set 
 the paupers to work to collect and break 
 the shells which are thrown away as rub- 
 bish; and I am informed that the money 
 received for the powdered shells affords a 
 very tolerable remuneration for the labour 
 bestowed in their preparation. The mother- 
 of-pearl with which the oyster shells are 
 lined is similar in composition to the outer 
 shell or crust. This has been analysed by 
 M. Merat Guillot, who found in 100 parts 
 of mother-of-pearl, — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Carbonate of lime (chalk) - 66 
 Membrane - - - 34 
 
 100 
 
 Powdered oyster shells should always, if 
 possible, be drilled in with the seed; for 
 by thus coming into close contact with 
 the plant, all the volatile and earthy con- 
 stituents of the decomposing shell are ab- 
 sorbed by its roots and leaves with the 
 greater readiness, from being placed more 
 immediately in contact with them. In this 
 way they have been found to answer very 
 well on the light sandy soils of Norfolk, 
 when drilled in with the turnip seed; as 
 will be seen from the following account 
 of Mr. Blaikie, in a letter to Sir John 
 Sinclair, dated Sept. 18, 1818: — "Oyster 
 shells pounded or bruised (without having 
 been burned) were first used upon Mr. 
 Coke's farm as a manure in the year 1816. 
 In the summer of that year, the experiment 
 was tried upon a hungry, light, sandy soil, 
 which had been cleaned for turnips. The 
 oyster shell dust, or powder, was drilled in 
 923 
 
 the usual way, upon twenty-seven inch 
 ridges, at the rate of forty bushels per acre 
 (without any other manure), was slightly 
 covered with earth, and the turnip seed 
 sown upon it. Another part of the same 
 field, quality of land equal, was manured 
 with farm-yard dung, at the rate of eight 
 tons per acre, put into the same sized ridges, 
 and sown with turnip seed as before de- 
 scribed, no other manure having been ap- 
 plied. The turnips proved a good crop on 
 both pieces ; nor was there any perceptible 
 difference in the bulk, but the produce 
 was not weighed. The turnips were all 
 eaten upon the ground by sheep ; and the 
 succeeding crop, barley, was good on both, 
 and apparently equal, but the produce was 
 not thrashed separate. The seeds or layer 
 crop of clover, in the present season, 1818, 
 is a good plant, and appears equally so. In 
 this experiment, so far as it goes, it appears 
 that forty bushels of oyster shell powder 
 are equal in virtue, as a manure, to eight 
 tons of farm-yard dung; at least for the 
 purpose for which it was applied. 
 
 " In the autumn of 1816, powdered oys- 
 ter shells were tried as a manure for wheat, 
 in competition with rape cake powdered. 
 The experiment was upon a one year's 
 clover layer ; the wheat sown after one 
 ploughing ; the soil a kind, light, gravelly 
 loam. Oyster shell powder, at the rate of 
 four cwt. per acre, was drilled with the 
 wheat seed on one part of the field ; and on 
 another part of the same quality, rape cake 
 dust was drilled with the wheat at the same 
 rate per acre as the shell powder ; no other 
 manure was applied to either part. The 
 crop of wheat was good, nor was there any 
 perceptible difference upon the ground ; but 
 the produce was not thrashed separate. A 
 similar experiment was tried upon the same 
 wheat field ; the manure applied at spring ; 
 the operation as follows : the wheat seed 
 was sown without any manure, in the au- 
 tumn of 1816, and in the spring of 1817 
 rape cake dust, at the rate of four cwt. per 
 acre, was drilled between the rows of wheat ; 
 at the same time an equal weight of shell 
 powder was applied in like manner to 
 another part of the field. The result of this 
 was similar to the autumn experiment, viz. 
 there did not appear to be any difference 
 in the crop produced upon the shell manure 
 from that on the rape cake. The field on 
 which these experiments were tried is now 
 in turnips, a good crop, and exhibits no 
 difference where the manure, as before 
 stated, had been applied for the wheat crop. 
 These experiments are satisfactory, so far 
 as they go, but certainly not conclusive ; 
 because the produce was in no one instance 
 either weighed or measured. This I very 
 
PACE. 
 
 PANICK-GRASS. 
 
 much regret ; but it appears to be almost 
 impossible to conduct such experiments 
 with a requisite degree of accuracy upon a 
 farm establishment of such magnitude as 
 that of Mr. Coke at this place. For during 
 the hurry incident to collecting the harvest, 
 the farm manager has so many important 
 concerns to attend to, that he cannot devote 
 any portion of his time to superintending 
 experimental objects; and were he to de- 
 pute the management of such concerns to 
 the labourers, it is not to be expected that 
 they would pay the attention requiste. 
 The oyster shells are here broken to pieces 
 by passing them through the oil cake 
 crusher ; or are bruised by repeatedly draw- 
 ing a heavy iron roller over them when 
 spread upon a stone, or hard-burned brick, 
 or edge floor. I give it as an opinion, that 
 oyster shell manure is likely to answer for 
 gardens, particularly to rake in with onions 
 and other small seed. I also think it may 
 prove beneficial as a top-dressing for grass 
 plants, to destroy moss, and prevent worms 
 from casting. If these ideas are well founded, 
 there will be no difficulty in disposing of any 
 quantity of this manure amongst the gar- 
 deners and the citizens, for their grass plats, 
 in the vicinity of London." {From the Edin- 
 burgh Farmer s Magazine, vol. xix. p. 404.) 
 
 Mr. Livingston of New York says (An- 
 nals of Agr. vol. xx. p. 87.}, " In April, 
 1791, I strewed seven bushels of ground 
 oyster shells over half an acre of rye, grow- 
 ing on a very poor soil ; and three bushels 
 of gypsum on another half acre adjoining; 
 sowed ten pounds of red clover seed over 
 both. The rye was not better than the rest 
 of the field ; the clover seed being bad, came 
 up but thinly ; that, however, dressed with 
 oyster shells, much better than that manured 
 with gypsum." 
 
 It is certain, therefore, that oyster shells, 
 when powdered or crushed, are an excellent 
 manure ; and, in many parts of England, 
 where they can be obtained in considerable 
 quantities, I have every reason to believe 
 that they will be found very useful to the 
 farmer. (Johnson on the Fertilisers, p. 368.) 
 
 P. 
 
 PACE. In horsemanship, the peculiar 
 manner of motion, or progression, in the 
 horse, or other animal. The natural paces 
 of the horse are, a walk, a trot, and a gal- 
 lop ; to which some add an amble, as some 
 horses have it naturally. See Canter, 
 Gallop, &c. 
 
 % PACK RAG-DAY. A provincial term 
 Bignifyins the day after Martinmas day, the 
 time of changing farm servants. 
 924 
 
 PACKWAY. A local name for a bridle- 
 road. 
 
 PADDLE-STAFF. An implement used 
 by ploughmen to free the share from stub- 
 ble, earth, clav, &c. 
 
 PADDOCK. A small field or inclosure. 
 It also signifies a large toad. 
 
 PAIGLE. A provincial name for the 
 cowslip. 
 
 PAIL. A wooden bucket in which milk, 
 water, or other fluids are commonly car- 
 ried. 
 
 PAIL-BRUSH. A hard brush furnished 
 with bristles at the end, to clean out the 
 angles of the vessels more fully. 
 
 PAINT. A common term for various 
 colours used for coating and preserving 
 wood and other substances. To the farmer 
 coats of paint for his carts and implements 
 of husbandry, his outbuildings and his gates, 
 &c, are very requisite, and tend much to 
 their preservation from the injurious effects 
 of the atmosphere and weather. 
 
 PAIT. A provincial name for the badger. 
 
 PALATE. (Lat. palatum.) In anatomy, 
 the roof of the mouth. In a flower it is the 
 convex base of the lower lip of a personate 
 corolla. 
 
 PALE-FENCES. See Fence. 
 
 PALM. An ancient measure of length 
 taken from the extent of the hand. The 
 English palm is understood to be three 
 inches. 
 
 PALMATE. In botany, divided so as to 
 resemble a hand spread open. 
 
 PALMS. A natural order of arborescent 
 endogens, chiefly inhabiting the tropics ; 
 distinguished by their fleshy, colourless, six- 
 parted flowers, enclosed within spathes ; their 
 minute embryo, lying in the midst of albu- 
 men, and remote from the hilum ; and rigid 
 plaited or pinnate inarticulated leaves, some- 
 times called fronds. 
 
 Palms is also a common name for the 
 male flowers of the willow. 
 
 PALSY. In the horse this nervous dis- 
 ease is usually confined to the hinder limbs. 
 Old carriage horses, and horses of draught 
 of every kind, although not absolutely 
 paralysed, have often great stiffness in 
 their gait, and difficulty of turning. These 
 are evident injuries of the spine. Bleeding, 
 physicking, antimonial medicines, and sti- 
 mulating embrocations are the most likely 
 means of cure for palsy. (Youatt on the 
 Horse, p. 108.) See Sheep, Diseases or. 
 
 PAN. A term applied to the bed or 
 flooring upon which the cultivated soil lies 
 or is placed. See Moorband Pan. 
 
 PANICK-GRASS. (Panicum.) This is 
 a very extensive genus of large coarse 
 grasses, mostly annual in Europe, of no 
 agricultural use: the inflorescence spiked 
 
PANICLE. 
 
 PARING AND BURNING. 
 
 or panicled ; the seeds in some instances 
 used for food. There are three indigenous 
 species ; the rough, the green, and the loose 
 panick-grass (P. verticillatum, viride, and 
 Crus-galli). (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 98.) See Muxet Grass. 
 
 PANICLE. In botany, a form of in- 
 florescence in which the primary axis de- 
 velopes secondary axes, which themselves 
 produce tertiary ; or, in other words, a ra- 
 ceme bearing branches of flowers, in place 
 of simple ones. 
 
 PANNAGE. An old manorial term ap- 
 plied to the food which swine consume in 
 woods, as acorns, and the mast of beech. 
 It also signifies the money taking by the 
 king's agistors, for the privilege of feeding 
 hogs in the king's forest. 
 
 PANSY. A term applied chiefly to the 
 garden varieties of Viola tricolor, and others 
 which are usually cultivated under the 
 name of hearts-ease. See Violet. 
 
 PARASITICAL PLANTS are those 
 which grow into the tissue of other species, 
 and feed upon their juices. Of this kind are 
 the misseltoe, the broom-rape (Orobanche), 
 the Lathroea, &c. Such species have no 
 proper roots. The term parasitical is, how- 
 ever, often applied to mosses, Orchid- 
 aceous plants, Tillandsias and the like, 
 which are mostly epiphytes, growing upon 
 the bark of trees, but deriving their food 
 from the air, by means of their own roots. 
 
 PARCHMENT. (Fr. parchemin.) A 
 material formed of the prepared skins 
 chiefly of goats and sheep, when intended 
 to be written upon. A similar preparation 
 of calves', kids', and lambs' skins is called 
 vellum. The skins are first prepared as for 
 tanning ; then stowed down and pumiced ; 
 and lastly stretched and carefully dried. 
 The parchment of drums is made from the 
 skins of asses, calves, and wolves ; ass- skin 
 is used for battledores, and goat-skin is pre- 
 ferred for sieves. (Tire's Diet, of Arts.) 
 
 PARING AND BURNING. This well 
 known operation of agriculture, once much 
 more extensively practised in this country 
 than at present, consists in paring off the 
 turf to a depth of two or three inches, ge- 
 nerally with a breast plough worked by a 
 labourer, or by a turf-paring plough drawn 
 by ahorse ; allowing it to dry, and then burn- 
 ing it in heaps. It is commonly best per- 
 formed in the months of April and May. 
 It is a practice now rarely adopted on sandy 
 or calcareous soils, although productive of 
 good results on peat, and some kind of 
 clay soil, but even there it is very doubtful 
 whether it is the best mode of treating the 
 land. 
 
 The practice is certainly as old as the 
 days of Virgil, who mentions it in the first 
 925 
 
 book of the Georgics. Endless have been 
 the theories brought forward to account for 
 its operation. Dr. Home thought it dis- 
 pelled " a sour juice" from the land. (Prin. 
 ofAgr.) Dr. Darwin considered it produced 
 " a nitrous salt," in the ashes. " Many 
 such obscure causes," says Davy, " have 
 been referred to for the purpose of ex- 
 plaining the effects of paring and burning, 
 but I believe they may be referred entirely 
 to the diminution of the coherence and 
 tenacity of clays, and to the destruction of 
 inert and useless vegetable matter, and its 
 conversion into a manure. All soils that 
 contain too much dead vegetable fibre, and 
 which consequently lose from one third to 
 one half of their weight by incineration, and 
 all such as contain their earthy constituents 
 in an impalpable state of division, such as 
 the stiff clays and marls, are improved by 
 burning ; but in coarse sands, or rich soils, 
 containing a great mixture of the earths, 
 and in all cases in which the texture is 
 already sufficiently loose, or the organiz- 
 able matter sufficiently soluble, the process 
 of torrifaction cannot be useful. All pure 
 silicious sands," adds Davy, " must be in- 
 jured by it ;" and here practice is found to 
 accord with theory. Arthur Young found 
 " burning injured sand;" and an intelligent 
 farmer in Mount's Bay told me that he had 
 pared and burned a small field, several 
 years ago, which he had not been able to 
 bring again into good condition. I examin- 
 ed the spot ; the grass was very poor and 
 scanty, and the soil a silicious sand. 
 
 The process of paring and burning, 
 therefore, seems to be most adapted for 
 peaty or clay lands ; for, as Davy continues, 
 " The process of burning renders the soil 
 less compact, less tenacious and retentive 
 of moisture; and when properly applied 
 may convert a matter that was stiff, damp, 
 and in consequence cold, into one powdery, 
 dry, and warm, and much more proper as a 
 bed for vegetable life." 
 
 Davy examined three specimens of the 
 ashes from different lands that had under- 
 gone paring and burning. (See Ashes, 
 ante, p. 136.) " The great objection," he 
 adds, " to this operation is that it destroys 
 vegetable and animal matter, or the manure 
 in the soil : but in cases in which the texture 
 of its earthy ingredients is permanently im- 
 proved, there is more than a compensation 
 for this temporary disadvantage. And in 
 some soils where there is an excess of inert 
 vegetable matter, the destruction of it 
 must be beneficial ; and the carbonaceous 
 matter remaining in the ashes may be more 
 useful to the crop than the vegetable fibre 
 from which it was produced." (Agr. Chem. 
 p. 344.) 
 
PARIS, HERB. 
 
 PARK. 
 
 Liebig thinks that all the benefit of burn- 
 ing the soil is attributable to its thus 
 obtaining increased powers for the absorp- 
 tion of ammonia. He says, " Soils which 
 contain oxides of iron, and burned clay, 
 must absorb ammonia, which is favoured 
 by their porous condition ; they further pre- 
 vent the escape of the ammonia once absorb- 
 ed by their chemical properties. The am- 
 monia absorbed by the clay, or ferruginous 
 oxides, is separated by every shower of rain, 
 and conveyed in solution to the soil. Pow- 
 dered charcoal possesses a similar action, 
 but surpasses all other substances in the 
 power which it possesses of condensing am- 
 monia within its pores, particularly when 
 it has been previously heated to redness. 
 Charcoal absorbs ninety times its volume of 
 ammoniacal gas, which may be a^ain sepa- 
 rated by simply moistening it with water." 
 ( Organic Chem. p. 90.) 
 
 And it is evident, from the experiments 
 which Liebig gives at p. 207., that char- 
 coal powder is a very fertilising appli- 
 cation to some plants. The practice, how- 
 ever, of paring and burning is evidently 
 one whose advantages the farmer and the 
 chemist admit with reluctance. And it is 
 very probable, that by other means, such 
 as the use of lime, &c, that most soils may 
 be cultivated with more advantage to the 
 farmer by the avoidance of this expen- 
 sive and destructive process. " My prac- 
 tice," remarks Mr. Pearson, " in the use of 
 turf for various purposes, convinces me 
 that all lands must be injured by paring 
 and burning, save those lands, which are 
 few and far between, that possess too much 
 inert vegetable matter ; or, in other words, 
 lands that grow their crops to such a state of 
 luxuriance, as to prevent the desired intent 
 of the cultivator. Those lands which 
 possess too much inert vegetable matter 
 might also be improved by having part of 
 their subsoils burned ; but not by burning 
 the turf even here, for that is the only thing 
 that can be commended on the spot that 
 will cause fermentation in the soil when it 
 is ploughed in." {Quart. Jour. Agr. vol. x. 
 p. 552.) There is also a paper by Mr. 
 Rennie (ibid. vol. v. p. 17.), on Paring and 
 Burning. See Peat Soils. 
 
 PARIS, HERB. {Paris, from par, 
 equal ; in allusion to the regularity of the 
 parts.) The common herb-paris {P. quad- 
 r if olid) is a perennial, met with occasionally 
 wild in groves and shady places. The root 
 is creeping. Stem about a foot high, round, 
 naked, except at the top. Leaves dull 
 green, about four, broadly ovate or elliptical 
 acute, pliant, smooth, with three principal 
 ribs and many veins, stalked, spreading 
 horizontally. Flower-stalk erect, angu- 
 92G 
 
 lar, single-flowered, about half the length 
 of the leaves. The anthers and styles are 
 yellowish ; germen violet. Every other part 
 of the flower is green, and its whole appear- 
 ance more singular than beautiful. The 
 purplish-black berries are reported to be 
 dangerous and narcotic, but their juice has 
 been used in inflammation of the eyes. 
 The roots are said to be emetic, acting like 
 ipecacuanha, but requiring double the 
 dose. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 241.) 
 
 PARISH. (Fr. Paroisse ; Sax. Ppeopz- 
 rcype; Preostshire, or Priestshire, the dis- 
 trict of which a priest had the care.) A 
 well known division of land in Great Bri- 
 tain. At what period England was divided 
 into parishes is uncertain. Sir Henry Ho- 
 bart thinks by the Council of Lateran, in 
 1379. Camden thought it was by Arch- 
 bishop Honorius, in 630. Parishes and 
 mother churches are certainly noticed in 
 the laws of King Edgar, about the year 
 970. It is most probable that they were 
 gradually formed, and that this improve- 
 ment commenced very soon after Christi- 
 anity was generally introduced. Clergymen 
 were appointed to certain districts, and tithes 
 established for their maintenance ; for, at 
 first, the payment of tithes, as Selden has 
 shown, might be to any priest that the 
 payor pleased, all that was required of him 
 being to pay to some church ; and from the 
 uncertainty which this created, not only of 
 what the clergyman was to receive for his 
 support, but as to whom he was to regard 
 within his district, led to the formation of 
 parishes, whose boundaries seem to have 
 been selected pretty generally from that of 
 manors ; for it is very rare to find a manor 
 extending into two parishes, although one 
 or two manors are often contained in a 
 parish. As to extra-parochial places, " Some 
 lands," says Blackstone, " either because 
 they were in the hands of irreligious and 
 careless owners, or were situate in forests 
 and desert places, or for other now un- 
 searchable reasons, were never united to 
 any parish, and therefore continue to this 
 day extra-parochial; and their tithes are 
 now by immemorial custom payable to the 
 king." {Com. vol. i. p. 113.) 
 
 PARK. A considerable extent of pas- 
 ture and woodland, surrounded or adjoin- 
 ing the country residence of a man of 
 wealth, devoted to purposes of recreation 
 or enjoyment, but chiefly to the support of 
 a herd of deer, though sometimes to cattle 
 and sheep. Parks were originally nothing 
 more than portions of forest scenery ap- 
 propriated by the lord of the soil for the 
 exclusive use of animals of the chase ; but 
 this is now become, in many cases, a se- 
 condary consideration, and the chief uses 
 
PARKINSON, JOHN. 
 
 PARSLEY, HAMBURGH. 
 
 of a park are as indications of wealth and 
 extent of territory, and as grazing ground 
 for domesticated animals. 
 
 PARKINSON, JOHN, born in 1567, 
 was by profession an apothecary, and so 
 eminent as to act in that capacity to James I. 
 He was also a distinguished horticulturist 
 and botanist, his Theatre of Plants obtain- 
 ing for him, from Charles I., the title of 
 " Botanicus Regius Primarius." He spent 
 nearly *forty years in travelling. (Cara- 
 disus, p. 63.) He was proprietor of a gar- 
 den well stocked with scarce plants. The 
 time of his death is not ascertained, but it 
 occurred between 1640 and 1656. His 
 first publication was, 
 
 Paradisi in sole Parradisus Terrestris ; or a Garden of 
 all sorts of Pleasant Flowers which our English Ayre 
 will permitt to be noursed up, with a Kitchen Garden of 
 all manner of Herbes, Rootes, and Fruites for Meate or 
 Sause, used with us, and an Orchard of all Sorte of Fruit- 
 bearing Trees and Shrubbes fit for our Land; together 
 •with the right Orderinge, Planting, and Preserving of 
 them, and their Uses and Vertues. 1629. folio. With 
 an engraved title-page representing the Garden of Eden, 
 a Portrait of the Author, and 109 wood-cuts of Fruits 
 and Flowers. The dedication to the Queen. A second 
 edition appeared, corrected and enlarged, after his death, 
 in 1656. In 1640 appeared his " Theatrum Botannicum 
 or Theatre of Plants, or an Herbal of large extent, &c." 
 The most extensive botanical work then extant. 
 
 PARK LEAVES, or TUTSAN. See 
 St. John's Wort. 
 
 PARNASSUS, GRASS OF. (Parnas- 
 sia, from Mount Parnassus, the fabulous 
 abode of poesy, grace, and beauty: these 
 plants, on account of their elegance, are 
 feigned to have first sprung up there.) 
 The common grass of Parnassus (P. palus- 
 tris) is one of our most elegant marsh 
 plants. The plants do best in a moist peat 
 soil and a shady situation, and may be in- 
 creased by divisions or by seeds, which 
 ripen plentifully. It is found wild on 
 spongy bogs and commons, especially in 
 mountainous countries. The stems are about 
 a span high, angular and twisted. Leaves 
 heart-shaped, more or less acute, with se- 
 veral longitudinal ribs. Footstalks three 
 or four times the length of the leaves. 
 Flowers white, about half an inch wide, 
 scentless, each petal marked with greenish 
 pellucid ribs. Filaments awl-shaped, each in 
 its turn incumbent over the pistil. Nec- 
 tary five fleshy scales attached to the petals, 
 fringed with a row of bristles, each bearing 
 a small transparent ball : these, in F. pa- 
 lustris, are yellow. It is common in Nor- 
 folk and in the Scotch glens, and flowers in 
 September and October. (Smith's Plug. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 114.) 
 
 PARSLEY, THE BUR. See Bur- 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSLEY BEAKED. See Beared 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSLEY, CULTIVATED. (Apium 
 petrosilinum.) There are two varieties of 
 927 
 
 this well known plant, the common plain- 
 leaved, and the curly-leaved. It is some- 
 what singular that the first should be most 
 cultivated, notwithstanding the superior 
 beauty of the latter, as well as by reason 
 of its curled leaves rendering it more easily 
 to be distinguished from the jEthusa, or 
 fool's parsley, a variety of the hemlock, often 
 occurring in gardens : it requires much 
 care in saving the seed, otherwise it dege- 
 nerates into the plain-leaved. Parsley is 
 raised from seed, which is recommended 
 usually to be sown annually ; but if never 
 permitted to run to seed, and the stalks 
 are cut down as often as they rise, it will 
 last for several years. It may be sown 
 from the close of February until the mid- 
 dle of June, and this is repeated about 
 the middle of September, for the supply of 
 winter and spring ; but this is unnecessary 
 if the plants are not allowed to seed. The 
 seed is to be inserted moderately thick, in 
 narrow drills barely an inch deep, twelve 
 inches apart if in a bed by itself, or in a 
 single one round the edge of a bed; the 
 mould being raked level, and the stones im- 
 mediately over them gathered off. The 
 plants will not make their appearance in 
 less than three or four, and sometimes six, 
 weeks. When two or three inches high, it 
 may be gathered from as required. In 
 early June, when the plants make a show 
 for seed, the stems should be cut down 
 close to the bottom, and again in September 
 if it has acquired a straggling rank growth ; 
 this will cause it to shoot afresh, and acquire 
 a strong growth before the arrival of severe 
 weather. On the approach of frost, if pro- 
 tection is afforded to the plants by means 
 of haulm or reed pannels, so supported as 
 not to touch them, it will preserve them in 
 much better state for use in winter and 
 spring. To save seed, nothing more is ne- 
 cessary than to allow some of the plants to 
 run up in June ; they should not, however, 
 be allowed to stand nearer than eighteen 
 inches to each other. The seed ripens in 
 early autumn, and, when perfectly dry, may 
 be beaten out, and stored. 
 
 PARSLEY, THE COW. For rough 
 cow -parsley, see Cicely. Smooth cow- 
 parsley, see Chervil. 
 
 PARSLEY, THE FOOL'S. See Fool's 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSLEY, THE HEDGE. See Hedge- 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSLEY, HAMBURGH. (Apium 
 latifolium.) This esculent is likewise known 
 by the name broad-leaved and large-rooted 
 parsley. It is cultivated for its root, which 
 attains the size of a middling parsnip, bo 1- 
 ing exceedingly tender and palatable. It is 
 eaten both as a sauce to flesh meat and in 
 
PARSLEY, MILK. 
 
 PARSNIP. 
 
 soups, &c. It is propagated by seed, which 
 may be sown at monthly intervals from 
 February until the middle of June. It is 
 sown either thinly in drills, nine inches 
 apart, or broadcast and raked in. The 
 plants appear in about a month after sow- 
 ing, and when of tolerable growth require 
 to be thinned to nine inches asunder, and 
 cleared from weeds either by hand or the 
 hoe ; which latter operation being performed 
 as often as weeds appear, is the only cul- 
 tivation required. By the end of July or 
 during August, the earliest sowings will 
 have acquired a sufficient size for occasional 
 use ; but they seldom attain their full growth 
 until Michaelmas ; and the latest crops not 
 until the following year. On the arrival of 
 frost some of them must be taken up, and 
 after the removal of the superfluous fibres, 
 decayed leaves, &c, buried in sand, in a dry 
 situation, under cover. 
 
 To obtain seed some plants must be left 
 where grown, and allowed to run in May ; 
 their produce will ripen in July or August, 
 when it must be cut, and, when perfectly 
 dry, beat out and stored. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 PARSLEY, THE MILK. See Milk- 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSLE Y-PIERT. See Ladies' Man- 
 tle. 
 
 PARSLEY, SMALLAGE, or WILD 
 CELERY. (Apium graveolens.) This 
 wild plant, the seeds and herbage of which 
 in its native ditches are acrid and dan- 
 gerous, with a peculiar strong taste and 
 smell, by culture becomes the mild and 
 grateful garden celery, for which and its 
 name we are indebted to the Italians, and 
 which has now supplanted our native Alex- 
 anders. It is biennial, and flowers in August 
 and September. The root is tap-shaped, 
 and the herbage smooth and shining. The 
 plant grows in ditches and marshy ground, 
 especially towards the sea. The stems are 
 widely spreading or floating, long, branched, 
 furrowed. Leaves bright green, pinnate, or 
 ternate ; leaflets wedge-shaped, entire at 
 their base, but variously notched above. 
 Flowers in terminal and lateral umbels, 
 small, numerous, greenish-white. Fruit 
 almost globular, with permanent wide- 
 spreading straight styles. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 76.) 
 
 PARSLEY, THE STONE. See Stone- 
 Parsley. 
 
 PARSNIP. (Pastinaca, from pastinum, 
 a dibble, in allusion to the form of the 
 root.) The common wild parsnip (P. sa- 
 tiva) is the well known culinary root ; the 
 other species are unworthy of cultivation. 
 The original is a biennial plant, and found 
 growing wild about the borders of fields, 
 
 on hillocks, and dry banks, in a chalky soil, 
 the root being spindle-shaped, white, aro- 
 matic, mucilaginous, and sweet, with a de- 
 gree of acrimony, which it loses by cultiva- 
 tion. The stem reaches to a yard high, 
 erect, branched, deeply furrowed. Leaves 
 oblong, simply pinnate, downy beneath ; 
 leaflets serrated and cut, bright green. 
 Umbels terminal, erect, of several unequal 
 angular downy rays. Flowers small, yel- 
 low, appearing in July. Fruit large, pale 
 brown when quite ripe. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 101.) 
 
 The Field Culture of the Parsnip. Colonel 
 Le Couteur describes this valuable field 
 crop as thriving in any deep land, whether 
 stiff or light. It succeeds in Jersey, ad- 
 mirably on soil resting on granite or sienite, 
 or argillaceous schistus, on red clay, or on 
 a gravelly bottom ; on almost pure sand, if 
 mixed with a light coating of earth, and on 
 soils derived from pudding-stone, or white 
 and red felspar. This includes most of the 
 British islands, exclusive of the chalky or 
 limestone ranges. Some persons cultivate 
 it on poor black heath soil, not above seven 
 or eight inches deep, and by means of heavy 
 dressings of manure raise a good crop ; 
 but the parsnip in such situations forms a 
 large shoulder, and forks away into fingers 
 when near the hard subsoil, whereas, in 
 very deep land, it will run down a foot or 
 two of a good size. 
 
 An old grass lay is broken up by some 
 persons in September, by others just before 
 the parsnip seed is sown ; the former I 
 consider to be the best mode. When the 
 turf is well rolled, twenty tons per acre of 
 stable manure are spread over the land. 
 A trench is then opened through the centre 
 of the field, between two and three feet 
 wide, and where the soil will admit of it, 
 from one foot to eighteen inches deep. A 
 small two-horse plough then turns the 
 manure and about three inches of soil into 
 the trench, and is immediately followed by 
 a large trench plough, with three or four, 
 and, in many cases, with eight or ten horses, 
 which turns a foot or more of clean soil 
 upon the manure and scurf when the land 
 has been recently skim-ploughed. The 
 soil is then harrowed, and the parsnip seed, 
 which should be new, is sown at the rate of 
 three or four pounds to the acre. The 
 plants, when they are an inch high, are 
 weeded, and are thinned out to six inches 
 apart, and, according to the soil, should be 
 again thinned out to nine inches or more 
 at the second hoeing. In September, when 
 the fine aftermath begins to appear, some 
 of this crop may be taken up for milch cows ; 
 as from twelve to twenty-five pounds of 
 them given at milking time will have a 
 
PARSNIP. 
 
 PARTRIDGE. 
 
 surprising effect on the cream, and produce 
 fine yellow butter which will keep admir- 
 ably, if properly salted and prepared, pre- 
 serving an excellent and superior flavour. 
 
 They are taken up with a fork, or ploughed 
 up in October or November. The average 
 produce, per statute acre, is nine to eleven 
 tons. The dry leaves of the parsnip are given 
 to cows. The parsnip will fatten pigs (or 
 poultry if boiled) in an extraordinary man- 
 ner, and it is certainly one of the best prepa- 
 ratory crops for wheat. It will keep in store 
 until April, and it is advisable to remove 
 the leaves before the roots are stored. The 
 parsnip being a very hardy vegetable, the 
 frost does not injure the seed or the young 
 plant ; and, if thought desirable, the former 
 may be sown as soon as they are ripe in 
 autumn. There are only one or two varieties 
 of parsnips, of which the common species is 
 the best for field culture. 1000 parts of the 
 parsnip yielded Davy 90 parts of saccha- 
 rine matter, and 9 parts of mucilage. 
 (Joum. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 419. ; Brit. 
 Husb. vol. ii. p. 228. ; Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 6. ; Malcolm's Surrey, vol. ii. 
 p. 493.) 
 
 Garden Culture. The soil in which the 
 parsnip succeeds best is a rich, dry, sandy 
 loam, and the deeper the better. The most 
 inimical to it are gravel or clay. It is al- 
 ways beneficial to trench the ground two 
 spades deep, a little manure being turned 
 in with the bottom spit. If the soil is suit- 
 able to them, they are not much benefited 
 by the general application of manure at 
 the time of sowing, but often injured, in 
 consequence of numerous fibres being in- 
 duced. Dr. Macculloch says, that in the 
 island of Guernsey, which has long been 
 celebrated for the fineness of its parsnips, 
 sea-Aveed is the manure chiefly employed. 
 (Caled. Hort. Mem.) Of excrementitious 
 manure, that of pigeons is the best. De- 
 cayed leaves are also very favourable to its 
 growth. The situation cannot be too open. 
 
 It is propagated by seed. The usual time 
 for sowing is from the end of February to 
 the beginning of April, but the earlier the 
 better. It has been recommended in field 
 cultivation to sow them in September ; in 
 the garden, when sown at this season, they 
 also obtain a finer flavour, but many of 
 them in general run to seed. In the isle of 
 Guernsey, they regulate their time of sow- 
 ing according to the soil ; in the most fa- 
 vourable soils they sow in January ; or if 
 the soil is wet or stiff, they do not insert the 
 seed until the latter end of March. 
 
 The seed is sown broadcast, rather thin, 
 and well raked in. The compartment being 
 laid out in beds, not more than four feet 
 wide, for the convenience of weeding, &c. 
 929 
 
 When the seedlings are two or three inches 
 high, they are carefully thinned to ten 
 inches apart, and the weeds removed both 
 by hand and small-hoeing. The beds re- 
 quire to be frequently looked over to re- 
 move all seedlings that may spring up 
 afresh, as well as to be frequently hoed, 
 until the plants so cover the ground as to 
 render it impracticable. The roots may be 
 taken up as wanted, in September, but 
 they do not attain maturity till October, 
 and which is intimated by the decay of the 
 leaves. In November, part of the crop may 
 be taken up, and the tops being cut close 
 off, laid in alternate layers, with sand, for 
 use in frosty weather. The remainder may 
 be left in the ground, and taken up as re- 
 quired, as they are never injured by the 
 most intense frost, but, on the contrary, 
 rendered sweeter. In February or March, 
 however, any remaining must be extracted, 
 otherwise they will vegetate. Being pre- 
 served in sand, they continue good until the 
 end of April or May. 
 
 For the production of seed, some of the 
 finest roots are best allowed to remain 
 where grown ; or else, being raised in Feb- 
 ruary, planted in a situation, open but 
 sheltered from violent winds. Seed should 
 never be employed that is more than a 
 twelvemonth old, as it has generally lost its 
 vegetative power when of a greater age. 
 (G, W. Johnsons Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 PARSNIP, THE COW. See Cow- 
 Parsnip. 
 
 PARSNIP, THE SEA. See Prickly 
 Samphire. 
 
 PARSNIP, THE WATER. See Wa- 
 ter-Parsnip. 
 
 PARTERRE. (Fr.) In gardening a sys- 
 tem of beds of different shapes and sizes, in 
 which flowers are cultivated, with interven- 
 ing spaces of gravel or turf for walking on. 
 
 PARTRIDGE. {Perdix.) The enlarged 
 demands (observes Mr. Yarrell) of an in- 
 creasing population, the tempting prices 
 of seasons of scarcity, or the progress of 
 science unfolding the nature of soils, have 
 each in turn induced the cultivation of va- 
 rious tracts of ground unploughed before ; 
 and as the labours of the agriculturist en- 
 croach upon the boundaries of the moor, 
 the grouse retires, and the partridge takes 
 its place upon the land. The districts best 
 cultivated, and producing the most corn, 
 frequently also producing the greatest num- 
 ber of partridges. Of a bird so universally 
 known, little that is new can be said ; with 
 its appearance and its habits almost all are 
 familiar. These birds pair in February, 
 but seldom begin to lay eggs till towards 
 the end of April or the beginning of May. 
 A slight depression in the ground, with a few 
 3o 
 
PARTURITION. 
 
 PASTURE. 
 
 dead leaves or dried grass bents scratched 
 together, serves for a nest. The eggs are 
 of a uniform olive brown colour, one inch 
 five lines in length, by one inch and half a 
 line in breadth, and from twelve to twenty 
 are produced by one female. The common 
 partridge (P. cinerea) is very generally dis- 
 tributed over this country. The whole 
 length of the male bird is twelve inches 
 and a half. The red-legged partridge (P. 
 rubra) is not so common as the last de- 
 scribed species, and, as an object of pursuit, 
 is not much esteemed by sportsmen, being 
 stronger on the wing than the common par- 
 tridge, usually more wild, and accordingly 
 much more difficult to get shots at. The 
 eggs are from fifteen to eighteen in number, 
 of a reddish yellow white, spotted, and 
 speckled with reddish brown, one inch 
 seven lines and a half long, by one inch 
 three lines broad. They feed, like other 
 partridges, on seeds, grain, and insects ; 
 they frequent turnip fields, but appear to 
 prefer heaths, commons, and other waste 
 land, interspersed with bushes. The whole 
 length of the red-legged partridge is thirteen 
 inches and a half. ( Yarrells Brit Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 333— 347.) 
 
 PARTURITION. See Calving or 
 Cows, Abortion, Gestation, Pregnancy, 
 &c. 
 
 PAR- YARD. A provincial name for 
 the straw or fold-yard. 
 
 PASQUE-FLOWER ANEMONE. See 
 
 Anemone. 
 
 PASSION-FLOWER. (Passiflora, from 
 passio, passion ; and flos, a flower ; in allu- 
 sion to the filamentous appendages or rays 
 bearing a resemblance to the cross ; the 
 emblem of the passion of Christ.) The 
 species of this interesting and elegant genus 
 are admirably adapted for stove and green- 
 house climbers, being of easy culture, free 
 growers, and, if allowed plenty of room, 
 producing abundance of beautiful flowers. 
 Many of the kinds produce fruit freely, 
 from which, through impregnation, several 
 fine hybrids have been raised. The fruit 
 of some, as P. edulis, P. laurifolia, and P. 
 quadrangular is, or granadilla, are eaten : the 
 succulent pulp which surrounds the seeds 
 is found to be fragrant, cooling, and plea- 
 sant, agreeably acid, and admirably adapted 
 for allaying thirst in hot climates. 
 
 All the species will thrive well in a mix- 
 ture of loam and peat, and are easily in- 
 creased by cuttings planted in sand. The 
 hardy kinds should be planted in sheltered 
 situations. (Paxtons Dot. Diet; Phillips's 
 Shrubbery, vol. ii. p. 100.) 
 
 TASTE. In angling, a compounded sub- 
 Btance used for bait. For chub a paste of 
 cheese, butter, and saffron is used, some- 
 1)30 
 
 times mixed with turpentine. For carp and 
 tench sweet pastes of new bread, with honey 
 or sugar, are used. See Izaak Walton's 
 Angler. 
 
 PASTERN OF A HORSE. The dis- 
 tance that intervenes between the joint of 
 that name and the coronet of the hoof. 
 
 PASTURE. (Fr.) Ground on which 
 cattle feed. I have, under the head Grass, 
 gone at some length into the question of the 
 grasses best adapted for different soils. The 
 pastures of England and Ireland exceed in 
 extent and productiveness those of any other 
 country of similar extent. " The excellence 
 of pastures," observes the author of The 
 British Husbandry, vol.i. p. 478., "depends 
 greatly both upon their position and the dif- 
 ferent species of animals for whose support 
 they are intended. Thus, uplands which are 
 elevated, open, and dry, are the best adapted 
 for the feeding of sheep. While a heavy 
 stock is fed with more advantage upon 
 ground which is lower in point of situation, 
 as well as better inclosed. The soil of up- 
 lands, particularly if it be of a chalky 
 nature, bears a sweet, though a short bite 
 of grass, which is so favourable to the pas- 
 turage of the smaller breeds of sheep, that 
 although it will support but a scanty stock, 
 it yet produces the finest species of mut- 
 ton." These flocks of sheep, too, by the 
 folding system, keep in cultivation many a 
 poor thin soil, which would otherwise be 
 worthless. There is an excellent paper, by 
 Mr. Magiliivray, on the natural pastures of 
 Scotland (Quart. Jour. Agr. vol. ii. p. 157.), 
 in which he traces the natural grasses which 
 are found on the highest elevations down 
 to the valleys and sea shore. " The bleak 
 summits of these mountains," he remarks, 
 " exposed to the depressing influence of a 
 low temperature, boisterous winds, and 
 abundant rains, covered for a great part of 
 the year with snow, and presenting either 
 bare rock or a shallow gritty soil, produce 
 few plants of any description, and hardly a 
 dozen of those which are selected by sheep 
 as their food. These latter consist of three 
 or four carices or hard-grasses, one or two 
 junci or rushes, some tufts of the common 
 club-rush, together with the Festucavivipara, 
 and one or two other grasses. The extreme 
 heights scarcely present any other vegeta- 
 tion than Silene acaulis, Salix herbacea, and 
 Statice armeria. Farther down the moun- 
 tains, extending downwards to about 3000 
 feet above the level of the sea, we find a 
 vegetation still poor and stunted, but by 
 no means deficient in beauty, and perhaps 
 affording better pasturage than some of the 
 lower grounds. We here find irregular 
 patches of verdure, consisting chiefly of Ca- 
 rices and Scirpus ccespitosus, which, how- 
 
PASTURE. 
 
 PEA, THE. 
 
 ever, are also eaten by sheep ; by the stream- 
 lets are several species of Alpine plants. 
 Farther down the mountains, Aira fiexuosa 
 grows in tufts, and of a large size. Several 
 earices form a tolerable sward in many 
 places; the Agrostis vulgaris, &c. occasi- 
 onally occurs. Calluna vulgaris, or common 
 heath, first makes its appearance. As we 
 proceed downwards, and arrive at the places 
 where the mountains begin to expand, we 
 enter upon a region, the predominant fea- 
 ture of which is the Calluna vulgaris, min- 
 gled with Erica cinerea (the grey-leaved 
 heath) ; the vegetation becomes more vi- 
 gorous ; various grasses present themselves. 
 The y allies of this region, in which flow the 
 streamlets, are generally more verdant than 
 the open ground. The heaths are less 
 abundant, and the pasturage consists chiefly 
 of earices and gramineae, intermingled with 
 many of the plants of ordinary pasture 
 ground, such as Lotus corniculatus, Polygala 
 vulgaris, &c. The general aspect of the 
 vegetation, however, is healthy, and con- 
 tinues so until we reach the vicinity of the 
 river." (See Temperature.) There is a 
 paper on the conversion of clay land into 
 permanent pasture, by Mr. G. Sinclair 
 (Quar.Jour.ofAgr. vol.iii. p. 974.); "On the 
 advantages of permanent Pasture over ara- 
 ble Husbandry, on the inferior Soils of Scot- 
 land" (Ibid. vol. viii. p. 409.); " On laying 
 down to permanent Pasture a Field of Moor- 
 ish Land," by Mr. Ferguson ;" Of Stiff Clay 
 Land," by Mr. Abercrombie ; " Of Swampy 
 Land," by Mr. Ball (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 205.) ; " Of dry Soil upon a porous 
 Rock or Gravel," by Mr. Belsher (Ibid. 
 vol. iii. p. 266.) ; " On the Grasses, and other 
 Plants best suited for Pasture during the 
 Winter," by Mr. George Sinclair (Ibid. 
 vol. iv. p. 32.); and by Mr. Hogg, p. 117. 
 " On laying down Land to permanent Pas- 
 ture," by Mr. Menzies, p. 131. "On the 
 Management of Pasture, with regard to the 
 Destruction of Musci (mosses)," by Mr. Bi- 
 shop (Ibid, vol.vi. p. 282.). The mode he 
 adopts on a heavy red loam is, drainage, 
 sowing the best natural grass seeds, and 
 top-dressings, such as bone dust twenty 
 bushels per acre in the spring (these should 
 be rolled in when the ground is soft from 
 moist weather) ; lime and soot ; salt (found 
 very efficient) ; and liquid manure. "The last 
 and most efficient remedy for the preven- 
 tion and destruction of musci, and the easiest 
 to have recourse to when the ground has 
 not become altogether exhausted, or in an 
 over damp state, is to allow a great portion 
 of the summer's grass to remain unconsumed 
 on the ground until the following winter, 
 when the barer it is eaten before the new 
 growth of spring, the finer will be the fol- 
 931 
 
 lowing summer's grass. But should the 
 repetition of this treatment fail to extirpate 
 the musci, it will be more profitable to put 
 the grass lands under a rotation of crops, 
 and sow them anew with a mixture of grass 
 seeds, suited to the soil and climate. For 
 every information, however, relating to the 
 formation of pastures, and the cultivation 
 of the grasses, the farmer cannot consult a 
 better authority than the Hortus Gram. 
 Woburnensis of the late Mr. George Sinclair. 
 
 In feeding pastures it is usual with those 
 fields which are shut up from stock, at Can- 
 dlemas, to graze them in the succeeding 
 May. Those which are fed until April 
 may, after being shut up, be grazed again 
 at Midsummer. If it is intended to feed a 
 pasture during the winter, it should be 
 allowed to rest in the months of October 
 and November. See Meadow and Grasses. 
 
 PATH, PUBLIC. See Highway, and 
 Way, Right or 
 
 PAUPERISM. See Poor Laws, Set- 
 tlement, Population, &c. 
 
 PEA, THE. (Pisum sativum, Fr. pois, 
 Span, pesoles. The English is evidently a 
 corruption of the Latin name.) This valu- 
 able plant is supposed to be a native of the 
 south of Europe, and was cultivated by the 
 Greeks and Romans. It is said by Acton 
 to have been brought to this country in 
 1548. There are only one or two kinds of 
 pea ; the grey pea (P. arvense), and the pea 
 cultivated as a vegetable in our gardens 
 (P. sativum). Of the last, however, the 
 varieties are endless. 
 
 Of field peas, the varieties are distin- 
 guished as the early, and the late, ripening. 
 The common early are small, and dark-co- 
 loured. The grey pea of this class is the 
 most common. 
 
 The later sown varieties are generally 
 similar in their characters to garden peas ; 
 they differ, however, from them in having 
 usually purple flowers. The most common 
 kinds are the white, the early Charlton, 
 and the pearl. Field peas, especially where 
 there is a considerable demand for them, 
 as in the neighbourhood of large towns, are 
 a very profitable crop to be gathered green ; 
 since there is time after the peas are ga- 
 thered, in the month of June, to prepare 
 the land for a crop of turnips. 
 
 Where they are grown for their seeds, the 
 white peas are those generally cultivated 
 for the purpose of boiling, the grey as food 
 for animals. 
 
 The pea will succeed pretty well on both 
 heavy and light soils ; but it certainly does 
 best on the latter, especially if the land 
 abounds with carbonate of lime. It is an 
 excellent crop to interpose between corn 
 crops, for it affords considerable facilities 
 3 o 2 
 
PEAS 
 
 to the cleansing of the land, and is not 
 otherwise an exhausting crop. In many 
 parts of England a pea crop is dibbled on 
 the clover and grass leys, and afterwards a 
 corn crop is taken with great advantage. 
 In others a crop of oats is taken, and then 
 a crop of peas. When this latter mode is 
 adopted, the land is commonly ploughed in 
 the autumn, and by cross ploughing and 
 harrowing in the spring brought into some 
 degree of tilste, and then the seed may be 
 sown with the ordinary drill. The quantity 
 of seed employed is about three bushels per 
 acre, and the rows are usually from nine 
 to twenty-seven inches apart. There is 
 every facility afforded for the use of the 
 horse hoe. This inducement, with the early 
 and occasional use of the hand hoe, will 
 cleanse the land ; to which end the crop of 
 peas will, as they approach maturity, mate- 
 rially assist, by overpowering and stifling 
 the weeds. 
 
 Peas are usually one of the most uncer- 
 tain of the farmer's crops. They are subject 
 to many casualties — to blight or mildew; to 
 the attacks of a variety of insects, such as the 
 grub, which devours the roots ; lice, aphides, 
 &c, which haunt the leaves ; and a small 
 beetle, the Bruchus granarius, lays its eggs 
 in the green pods, which produce a grub, 
 that devours its seeds. Then, again, it is 
 frequently injured by the weather, in very 
 dry, or in continued wet, or late harvests ; 
 and hence in the east of England it is often 
 designated by the farmers as " a gentleman 
 farmer's crop." This crop, however, is too 
 often mismanaged in the way to which Ar- 
 thur Young so well alluded when he told 
 the careless farmers of his day that they 
 were " too apt to sow this pulse when the 
 land would yield nothing else. They have 
 a proverb among them," he adds, " which 
 signifies that the season does as much for 
 peas as good husbandry ; and they from 
 thence take care that good crops shall be 
 owing to season alone. Hence arises the 
 general idea of peas being the most uncer- 
 tain crop of all others. This is owing to 
 their being scarcely ever sown on land that 
 is in good order. Let," he continues, " the 
 good husbandman lay it down as a maxim, 
 that he should sow no crop on land that is 
 not in good order ; not merely in respect 
 of fine tilth at the time of sowing, but also 
 of the soil being in good heart, and clear 
 of weeds. He would not, however, here be 
 understood to rank all these crops together; 
 because beans and peas will admit of clean- 
 ing while they grow. On that account, if 
 B farmer comes to a field which his pre- 
 decessor has filled with weeds, a horse-hoed 
 crop of beans Avill be expedient, when a 
 barley crop would be utterly improper; 
 
 and, after land has yielded one crop of 
 barley, certainly another should not be 
 sown, but one of pulse substituted. If 
 these ideas are well executed, the peas and 
 beans, in every course, will find the land in 
 heart enough for barley, the soil will always 
 be clean, and the crop good. Peas, when 
 managed in a spirited manner, will not 
 have the reputation of being so very un- 
 certain a crop, which character has, he 
 thinks, in some measure been owing to ill 
 conduct." 
 
 Peas do not need any particular dressings 
 with manure ; in fact, few crops require it 
 so little ; and in many situations manure 
 produces the ill effects of rendering the 
 plant too luxuriant. Von Thaer found by 
 several experiments, that the dung applied 
 to the pea crop is the most profitable when 
 used as a top dressing. And, moreover, he 
 contends, that on sandy loams it produces 
 in this way a much better effect in the suc- 
 ceeding crop. (Brit. Hush. vol. ii. p. 218.) 
 Lime and soot are, perhaps, the best dress- 
 ings for peas; and these may operate to some 
 degree by killing the insects of the soil 
 which might otherwise prey upon them ; 
 besides, the pea plant seems to delight in 
 every situation where it can have access to 
 calcareous matter. The crop is commonly 
 cut with a hook, at the end of a staff, or the 
 half of an old scythe set in a handle. By 
 these the peas are severed, and made up 
 into small bundles, called wads, or wisps, 
 and these remain on the ground until they 
 are sufficiently dry to be carried. {Lows 
 Pract. Agr. p. 278.) The straw of peas is 
 very useful for the stock of the farm-yard : 
 cows eat it, when it has been well gathered, 
 with considerable avidity. See Haulm. 
 
 1000 parts of peas grown in Norfolk af- 
 forded Davy 501 parts of starch, 22 of sac- 
 charine matter, 35 of albuminous matter, 
 and 16 parts of extract. (Chem. Phil. p. 
 143.) The ashes obtained by burning the 
 pea plant in flower and when ripe were ex- 
 amined by M. Saussure : he found in 100 
 parts of these ashes, procured from the 
 Piswm sativum in flower, of soluble salts 
 49-8 parts, of earthy phosphates 17*25, 
 earthy carbonates 6, silica 2*3, metallic 
 oxides 1, and loss 24*65 parts. And from 
 the ashes of the ripe plant, soluble salts 
 34*25 parts, earthy phosphates 22, earthy 
 carbonates 14, silica 11, metallic oxides 2*5, 
 and loss 17*25 parts. (Thortisoris Chan. 
 vol. iv. p. 194.) 
 
 The average price of peas per Winches- 
 ter quarter, was in 
 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 1792 - 1 12 8 1805 - 2 8 4 
 
 1795 - 1 18 4 1810 - 2 15 9 
 
 1800 - 7 5 1815 - 1 18 10 
 
PEAS 
 
 Per Imperial Quarter. 
 £ s. d. £ s. d. 
 
 1820 - 2 5 11 1835 - 1 1G 6 
 
 1825 - 2 5 5 1840 - 
 
 1830 - 1 19 2 
 
 The amount of the imperial quarters of 
 peas and beans entered for home consump- 
 tion in England every five years, from 
 1815 to 1835, was according to Mr.M'Cul- 
 loch : — 
 
 Qrs. Qrs. 
 1815 - 5i3 1830 - 63,664 
 
 1820 - 761,125 1835 - 94,540 
 1825 - 30,767 
 
 The annual average of peas and beans, 
 imported into England from 1801 to 1825 
 in Winchester quarters was from 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia - 
 
 - 785 
 
 Sweden and Norway 
 
 - 428 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 - 823 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 - 7,609 
 
 Germany - 
 
 - 7,144 
 
 Netherlands - 
 
 - 5,802 
 
 France and South of Europe 
 
 - 9,124 
 
 America - - - 
 
 - 898 
 
 Ireland - 
 
 - 4,922 
 
 Other countries 
 
 - 151 
 
 (M'Culloctis Com. Diet; Low's Prac. Agr.; 
 Phillips's Cultivated Veg.) 
 
 Garden Culture of the Pea. — Of the 
 numerous varieties which differ much in 
 their hardiness, yield, height, &c, we may 
 enumerate the following ; — Cormack's 
 early dwarf-pea, early Charlton, early gol- 
 den Charlton, early Nichols's golden Charl- 
 ton, common Charlton, Reading hotspur, 
 early single-blossomed, early Warwick, early 
 dwarf frame, early double-blossomed frame, 
 dwarf marrowfat, tall marrowfat, green 
 or Patagonia marrowfat, early green non- 
 pareil, Knight's marrowfat or wrinkled pea, 
 Spanish moratto, imperial blue, Prussian 
 blue, egg, white Rouncival, grey Rounci- 
 val, green Rouncival, blue Rouncival, tall 
 sugar (the sugar peas are eaten like kid- 
 ney beans), crown or rose, Leadman's 
 dwarf, dwarf sugar, dwarf Spanish, sickle 
 pea. 
 
 A soil moderately rich and mouldy is 
 best suited to this vegetable ; rather in- 
 clining to aluminous for the lofty growers 
 and main crops, but for the early and late 
 ones, light and dry ; if naturally otherwise, 
 rendered so by the admixture of drift sand 
 with the earth of the drills. Dwarf varie- 
 ties will grow on poorer and lighter soils 
 than the others. In an extremely rich soil 
 they grow luxuriant but unproductive. 
 They are rather injured than benefited by 
 the application of unreduced dung at the 
 time of sowing. Road dirt and rotted 
 leaves form the best compost for them. For 
 the early and late crops, that is, from Octo- 
 933 
 
 ber until the close of January, and during 
 June and July, the sowings must be per- 
 formed in sheltered situations, as south 
 borders. In December, the rows are best 
 drawn parallel with and within afoot of the 
 fence. At other seasons their site cannot be 
 too open. 
 
 They are propagated by seed, the sowing 
 of which commences with the year. In 
 January they may be inserted in sheltered 
 borders, and large supplies in an open com- 
 partment, and thence continued throughout 
 February and until July, once every two 
 or three weeks. During this last month, 
 and in the first week of August, the last 
 sowings must be made for production the 
 same year. For the first production in the 
 following year, a small sowing may be per- 
 formed at the close of October, and re- 
 peated about the middle of November and 
 December, though it often happens that 
 these are scarcely a week forwarder than 
 those inserted in the following February. 
 The necessary extent of the various sowings 
 may be determined with tolerable exact- 
 ness from the experiments of Bradley ; he 
 found on the average that three rods of 
 ground, containing eighteen double rows, 
 afforded thirty-six quarts of shelled peas. 
 {Treat, on Husb. and Garden, vol. iii. p. 19.) 
 
 The seed must be inserted in drills, or 
 by the dibble in rows at a distance propor- 
 tionate to the height to which the variety 
 grows, as well as according to the season. 
 
 When the plants have advanced to a 
 height of two or three inches, they are to be 
 hoed, the weeds cleared away, and earth 
 drawn round the stems. This should be 
 performed twice or three times gradually as 
 they ascend, previous to the sticks being 
 placed. It should be performed in dry 
 weather, and the leaves never covered, or 
 in wet weather they decay. For the winter 
 standing crops it should be especially attend- 
 ed to, as it protects them greatly from frost. 
 Peas are always best supported by sticks ; 
 if it is neglected, even for the dwarf varie- 
 ties, they not only produce less, but sooner 
 decay, are inconvenient to cultivate and 
 gather from, and never so fine. Sticking is 
 not required until the plants are six inches 
 in height, or show their tendrils. If, during 
 the time of blossoming, or swelling of the 
 fruit, continued drought should occur, 
 water may be very beneficially applied, it 
 being poured between the rows, if they are 
 in pairs, or otherwise in a shallow trench on 
 one side of each. Watering the leaves is 
 rather injurious. Failures in the rows of 
 the earliest crops, whether from mice or 
 other causes, may be rectified by trans- 
 planting. This is best performed in March ; 
 the plants thus removed must be watered 
 3 o 3 
 
PEAS. 
 
 PEACOCK. 
 
 until they have taken root, and also shaded, 
 if the weather is hot. It is a good practice 
 to nip off the top of the leading shoots 
 of the early and late crops as soon as they 
 are in blossom, as it greatly accelerates the 
 setting and maturity of the fruit. Too 
 much care cannot be taken when the pods 
 are gathered, not to injure the stems. I 
 have heard it stated from lengthened ex- 
 perience, that if the pods are cut off with 
 scissors, the plants produced one-fourth 
 more than when roughly gathered from. 
 Bradley makes nearly a similar observa- 
 tion. (Gen. Treat, on Husb. and Garden. 
 vol. iii. p. 21.) From the main crops, or 
 where there is no necessity fqr precipitation 
 on account of bringing them to table early, 
 the pods should not be gathered until the 
 peas have become plump and moderately 
 firm, yet green and tender. The more re- 
 gularly the plants are gathered from, the 
 longer they continue in , production, as the 
 later pods never attain maturity if the 
 earlier ones are allowed to grow old before 
 they are gathered. 
 
 In very severe weather the winter stand- 
 ing crops require the shelter of litter or 
 other light covering, supported as much as 
 possible from the plants by means of 
 branches laid between the rows. Mr. J. 
 Laird, gardener, at Portmore, N. B., em- 
 ploys straw ropes or twisted bands for this 
 purpose, which he fixes along each side of 
 the rows with wooden pins, driven into the 
 ground. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 93.) Which ever mode of shelter is 
 adopted, it must be always removed in mild 
 weather, otherwise the plants will be spind- 
 led, and rendered weaker. For the im- 
 perial blue, frame, and other dwarf varie- 
 ties, the sticks need not be more than three 
 feet high ; for the Prussian blue, hotspur, 
 and other middle-sized varieties, about five ; 
 for the Knight's marrowfat, and other tall 
 ones, at least seven ; and for the Patago- 
 nian, not less than eight. The best wood 
 for this purpose is the brush, or fan -shaped 
 branches of the hazel, &c. Before they are 
 employed, the ends that are thrust into the 
 ground should be charred, or moderately 
 burnt, which effectually preserves them 
 from decay. If this is attended to, and 
 when no longer required, the sticks, if 
 thoroughly dry, on a fine day, are stored in 
 a dry shed, they will last for three or more 
 years. 
 
 For the production of seed, leave some 
 rows that are in production during July, or 
 sow purposely in March. Care must be 
 token, however, that no two varieties are 
 in blossom near each other at the same 
 time, but a lapse of at least three weeks 
 should occur, otherwise no perfect variety 
 934 J 
 
 ! can be obtained. We are much in want of 
 observations on this point. If hotspurs and 
 marrowfats are sown on the same day, the 
 latter will not bloom for nearly four weeks 
 after the first. If the frame variety and 
 the moratto are similarly inserted, the latter 
 will succeed the first in about five weeks. 
 The plants intended for seed ought never 
 to be gathered from. When in blossom, 
 all plants which do not appear to belong to 
 the variety among which they are growing 
 should be removed. They are fit for harvest- 
 ing as soon as the pods become brownish 
 and dry. When perfectly free from mois- 
 ture they should be beaten out, otherwise, 
 if hot showery weather occurs, they will 
 open and shed their seed. Seed peas pre- 
 serve their power of germinating for eight 
 or ten years. 
 
 Forcing commences in December, in the 
 early part of which month they may be 
 sown in a hotbed to remain, or thick, to 
 transplant during the succeeding month 
 into others for production. These may be 
 repeated in January, and the transplanting 
 take place in February. It is also a com- 
 mon practice to sow in a warm border 
 during October, and the plants being cul- 
 tivated as a natural ground crop, are re- 
 moved into a hot-bed during January. 
 
 The temperature employed in forcing 
 may be either progressive, beginning at 40° 
 and 50°, for the extremes, at the time of 
 sowing, rising to 52° and 66° when in blos- 
 som, and to 55° and 70° while the fruit is 
 swelling ; or the temperature may be uni- 
 formly kept up throughout their growth, 
 having 50° for the minimum and 70° for 
 their maximum. (G. W. Johnson's Kitck. 
 Gard.) 
 
 PEA, EVERLASTING. See Ever- 
 lasting Pea. 
 
 PEACH. (Fr. peche ; Lat. Amygdalus, 
 derived from amysso, to lacerate, in allusion 
 to the fissured shell.) The tall and coarse 
 portion of the ornamental early flower i im- 
 plants, of which the peach forms a species, 
 may be advantageously disposed of in large 
 plantations, and the dwarf kinds in small 
 shrubberies at the front of the large ones. 
 The common way of increasing them is by 
 budding on the plum stock or the bitter al- 
 mond. Rich mould is a proper medium for 
 them. They are most valued for producing 
 their showy pink blossoms early in the sea- 
 son, sooner than almost any other shrubs. 
 The peach is now one of our most esteemed 
 fruits: nearly two hundred varieties are enu- 
 merated in the Horticultural Society's Cata- 
 logue. {Phillips' 's Prints, p. 275. ; Pax tons 
 Bot. Diet.; Loudon s Encyclo. of Gard.) 
 See Nectarine and Apricot. 
 
 PEACOCK. (Pavo cristatus.) The pea- 
 
PEARL -BARLEY. 
 
 PEAT. 
 
 cock need scarcely be mentioned as a bird 
 of economical use. Pea-hens and pea- 
 chickens, indeed, are occasionally used for 
 food, but this splendid creature is, and 
 ought to be, regarded solely as an object of 
 beauty. The advantages to be derived for 
 rearing it for food are not to be thought of. 
 {Lowe's Prac.Agr. p. 619.) See Fowl, the 
 Pea. 
 
 PEARL-BARLEY. See Barley. 
 
 PEARL- WORT. {Sagina; from sagina, 
 fatness ; in allusion to its presumed nourish- 
 ing qualities for sheep.) These are hardy 
 annual weeds growing in any soil. There 
 are three indigenous species : — 
 
 1. Procumbent pearl-wort {S. procum- 
 bens). This is a perennial flowering in 
 May till August. The root is fibrous ; 
 the stems are from two to four inches long, 
 spreading on the ground in every direction, 
 leafy, round, taking root at their lower 
 joints, and, if not disturbed, remaining 
 through the winter. Leaves evergreen, 
 combined by their membranous bases, about 
 half an inch long, minutely bristle-pointed. 
 Flowers drooping, with white roundish 
 petals. Seeds extremely minute. 
 
 2. Sea pearl-wort {S. maritima). An an- 
 nual species, flowering from May to August, 
 found growing on the sea-coast, with a 
 tapering root ; which is fibrous below. The 
 stems are nearly upright, divaricated, smooth. 
 Leaves obtuse, without bristles ; flowers with 
 petals ; capsule longer than the calyx. 
 
 3. Annual small-flowered pearl-wort {S. 
 apetala). This is a very common species on 
 dry, sandy, barren ground. The whole 
 plant is more slender than either of the fore- 
 going. The stems are nearly upright, hairy. 
 Leaves bristle-pointed, fringed. The petals 
 are sometimes present, white, not half the 
 length of the calyx. Seeds bordered with a 
 black line. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 238.) 
 
 PEAR-TREE. {Pyrus, from piren, the 
 Celtic word for pear.) Like other species 
 of cultivated fruits, there are now a very 
 great number of varieties ; more than 600 
 being enumerated in the Horticultural 
 Society's catalogue. A deep rich loam is 
 necessary for pear-trees. They are in- 
 creased by seeds, or by budding and graft- 
 ing, which is the more common method, 
 upon stocks of their own kind, or upon the 
 quince. The established kinds are multiplied 
 by grafting the choicer on the common kinds. 
 Almost the same treatment is required in 
 pruning and training the pear as the apple. 
 When we reflect on the labours of the hor- 
 ticulturists, who have by cultivation made 
 the pear-tree forget its natural thorns, and 
 instead of an acerb berry produce us a 
 fruit so fair and nectareous, we find our 
 warmest gratitude an insufficient return. 
 935 
 
 The wild pear-tree {P. communis) is a 
 tall handsome tree, growing in woods and 
 hedges, with thorny branches, and simple 
 ovate serrated leaves ; downy beneath, and 
 fringed with soft white hairs. The flowers 
 are copious, terminal, in corymbs, snow- 
 white, with pink anthers. Fruit obovate, 
 generally hard and austere, but liable, even 
 in a wild state, to many varieties, and some- 
 times eatable. The wood is light, of a fine 
 grain and tolerably hard. It is used by 
 turners to make joiner's tools and picture 
 frames to be dyed black, and is also fre- 
 quently stained and substituted for ebony. 
 The white wild pear-tree {P. Aria), we 
 have already noticed under the head 
 Beam-Tree. The expressed juice of the 
 pear when fermented in the manner of cider 
 constitutes the well-known beverage, perry. 
 {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol.ii. p. 361.; Phillips's 
 Fruits, p. 281.) 
 
 PEASANT. A rustic or country per- 
 son ; one who lives by rural labour. At the 
 time of the Norman Conquest the condi- 
 tion of the lower classes was wretched ; 
 their huts contained neither beds nor move- 
 ables of any kind, except the few common 
 utensils requisite to the preparation of their 
 food : the peasant reposed on straw, spread 
 upon the floor with a log of wood for his pil- 
 low, or stretched himself in the stable with 
 his cattle ; and even the upper sort of hus- 
 bandman fared very little better. The pea- 
 santry of England of the present day are 
 however far advanced in the necessaries 
 and comforts of life ; though in many in- 
 stances they may have their difficulties to 
 contend with ; yet there are very few hard- 
 working, honest, sober, and industrious 
 labourers, who have not their neatly -fur- 
 nished cottage garnished with all the means 
 and appliances of domestic life ; and fre- 
 quently a pig in the sty, and a small hoard 
 in the savings bank for a rainy day. See 
 Labourer, Farm Servant, &c. 
 
 PEAT. A collection of vegetable re- 
 mains, commonly collected together in con- 
 siderable masses, either on the surface of 
 the earth, or in strata, at various depths. 
 Owing to the changes which the plants 
 composing it have undergone, it contains 
 much tannic acid, which preserves the vege- 
 table matter from farther decomposition. 
 It contains elements for the formation of 
 the richest manure when substances are 
 added to it to decompose the tannic acid, and 
 hasten the decomposition of the vegetable 
 matters, such as lime or marl. Peat has 
 been found, when used alone as manure, not 
 to possess any fertilising qualities, as might 
 be expected from its nature ; but it has been 
 advantageously employed as a mixture with 
 compost. See Farm-Yard Manure. 
 3 o 4 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 PEAT SOILS. The improvement of 
 peat soils is a subject of very considerable 
 importance to agriculture. It involves not 
 only the permanent improvement of large 
 estates, but these peat soils include a very 
 large proportion of several counties in the 
 United Kingdom. 
 
 In this article I feel the advantage of 
 confining my observations and the details 
 of my experimental researches to those peat 
 soils whose profitable improvement is at- 
 tended with the greatest obstacles — to those 
 deep peat mosses, or bogs, which are na- 
 turally the most difficult to bring into cul- 
 tivation. These often extend to a depth 
 of many feet, contain but little earth, are 
 usually tolerably level, and consist of a 
 mass of light vegetable fibres. This peat, 
 even in the midst of summer, is commonly 
 saturated with water ; at other periods semi- 
 fluid, and very often a trembling dangerous 
 quagmire. Its soil, if I may call it such, is 
 usually of a dark brown, changing to a 
 blackish colour when thoroughly dried by 
 a gentle heat. In this state the peat is 
 easily inflammable, is commonly used for 
 fuel, and has been occasionally employed 
 by the gas-manufacturer, the lime-burner, 
 the charcoal- maker, and even the iron- 
 smelter. 
 
 The directions which I am enabled to 
 give, and the suggestions I venture to offer, 
 are of necessity general in their nature. It 
 is in vain to hope that any can be given 
 which will not require modifications accord- 
 ing to the many circumstances under which 
 the possessor of the bogs is placed. Peat 
 soils abound in almost all those situations 
 where stagnant waters are for a long-con- 
 tinued period allowed to rest, and where 
 the vegetable matters produced and very 
 slowly decaying on the surface are not car- 
 ried off. 
 
 The common masses of peat existing on 
 the earth's surface in England, with which 
 I have had most experience, are the pro- 
 ducts of the decay of the mosses, common 
 heath-plants, coarse grasses, and the sedges 
 which often accompany them. But the 
 varieties of peat are numerous, according 
 to their age and situation. There are some 
 of the peats which are found beneath the 
 soil, in the lower portions of the valley of 
 the Thames, which are evidently the re- 
 mains of considerable masses of underwood, 
 and contain sulphate of iron. Many others, 
 dispersed over the coast of Essex and in 
 [reland, abound with the remains of large 
 forest-trees, and were most probably pro- 
 duced by some great convulsion of the earth 
 inadistant period. 1 n the southern counties, 
 except in those of the banks of the Kennett 
 and the Thames, the depth of the peat has 
 
 not, in my experience, often exceeded a 
 few inches ; but in the places I have men- 
 tioned, and in those with which I have come 
 in contact in the northern counties, the 
 depth generally extends to several feet. 
 
 The formation of bog-moss is first com- 
 menced in very many instances by the rapid- 
 growing broad-leaved bog-moss {Sphagnum 
 latifoliuni), a plant of very curious habits, 
 whose growth under favourable circum- 
 stances (and it is strictly an aquatic) ex- 
 tends from an inch in length to two or 
 three feet. In dry situations, or in those 
 only periodically flooded, its progress is not 
 rapid ; but when it vegetates, always im- 
 mersed in the water of low stagnant situ- 
 ations, there it increases with great vigour. 
 It is true that this plant is an annual ; but 
 it sheds an abundance of hardy seeds, pro- 
 ducing seedlings, which vegetate and easily 
 support themselves in the water, with a 
 slight assistance from the mere remains of 
 their preceding generation. Their thread- 
 like stems remain on the surface of the 
 water till the seed is ripened ; they then fall 
 to the bottom and form distinct layers, which, 
 in some specimens of peat, may be distinctly 
 traced. The bog-moss thus commenced 
 gradually gets mixed with a variety of 
 lichens, mosses, and scirpi, which annually 
 add to the depth of the accumulating peat ; 
 and as the moss becomes firmer other plants 
 gradually establish themselves, such as se- 
 veral varieties of the rushes and sedges. 
 It is only when the peat-moss is raised by 
 the gradually-accumulated remains of these 
 peats from beneath the surface of the stag- 
 nant waters that the heaths, the cranberry, 
 the bilberry, and the grass-weeds make 
 their appearance. The few plants which 
 commonly tenant peat moors and bogs are 
 of the most worthless kind, such as all live 
 stock commonly refuse. Besides the com- 
 mon heath plants there are various rushes 
 (Juncus), sedges (Carex), rush-grasses 
 (Schcenus), club-rushes (Cyperus), cat's-tail 
 rushes (Typha), bur- weeds (Sparganium) , 
 &c. 
 
 Amongst the few specimens of the com- 
 mon grasses which are found in such places, 
 struggling as it were for existence, are the 
 rnarsh-bent (Agrostis palustris), the awnless 
 brown-bent (Agrostis canina). This is a 
 very common grass in bogs, whose winter 
 waters are deep. The awned • creeping- 
 bent (A. stolonifera var. aristata), the small- 
 leaved creeping-bent (A. sto. ang.~), the black 
 couch bent (A. repens), the white bent (A. 
 alba), the flote fescue (Glyceria jluitans), 
 tall fescue (Festuca elatio?*), turfy hair-grass 
 (Aira caspitosa), knee-jointed fox-tail grass 
 (Alopecurus geniculatus), water hair-grass 
 (Aim aquatica), water meadow-grass (Poa 
 
PEAT 
 
 aquatica), long-leaved cotton-grass (Erio- 
 phorum polystachiort), and the sheathed cot- 
 ton-grass (E. vaginatwn). 
 
 It is of primary importance that the 
 firmer should clearly understand the che- 
 mical composition of the peat with which 
 he has to contend, and that of the watery 
 solution with which it is usually saturated. 
 The common varieties of peat, when dried 
 by a moderate heat, lose a very consider- 
 able portion of their weight, and are mate- 
 rially reduced in bulk. The dry mass con- 
 sists chiefly of woody fibrous remains of a 
 dark-brown colour, of which a very incon- 
 siderable portion is soluble in water ; and 
 even by exposure to the unassisted action 
 of the sun and air, under the most favour- 
 able circumstances, it decomposes with ex- 
 treme slowness. When burnt to an ash, 
 the solid product thus obtained, varies com- 
 monly in its composition with the nature of 
 the stratum of earth on which the mass of 
 peat rests. If this is of a gravelly or argil- 
 laceous nature, the ashes are generally com- 
 posed chiefly of silex, and a small portion of 
 alumina, oxide of iron, with some carbon- 
 ate of lime and sulphate of iron : if, how- 
 ever, the substratum immediately under 
 the peat is calcareous, then the ashes com- 
 monly yield a considerably larger propor- 
 tion of carbonate of lime, the sulphate of 
 iron (green vitriol) is absent, and the sul- 
 phate of lime (gypsum) abounds in its 
 place. The celebrated Dutch ashes, which 
 are productive of such large crops of clover, 
 are composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Silicious earth - - -32 
 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) - - 12 
 
 Sulphate and muriate of soda (Glauber 
 
 salt and common salt) - - 6 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - - 40 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 3 
 
 Loss - - - 7 
 
 100 
 
 The liquid with which peat is usually 
 soaked is also equally varying in its com- 
 position. It almost always contains a very 
 small portion of brown vegetable extract, 
 a quantity of the red oxide of iron, and 
 when pyrites (sulphur and iron) are con- 
 tained in the gravelly or other substrata, 
 these are gradually, by the action of the 
 water and the oxygen of the atmosphere, 
 converted to sulphate of iron, which dis- 
 solves, and is found in the water. When, 
 however, this solution comes in contact 
 with chalk or other calcareous matter, the 
 lime decomposes the green vitriol, the iron 
 is precipitated, and sulphate of lime, so en- 
 riching to some of the artificial grasses, is 
 937 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 very commonly found with red oxide of 
 iron, dissolved in the peat water. 
 
 The chemical composition of peat soils of 
 course varies in the proportions of their 
 constituents. The following analysis of a 
 specimen of an entirely barren peat moss, 
 in a perfectly dry state, will give the farmer 
 a tolerable idea of their general compo- 
 sition : — 
 
 
 Parts 
 
 Fine silicious sand - 
 
 - 29 
 
 Inert vegetable matter 
 
 - 289 
 
 Alumina - - - 
 
 - 14 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 - 30 
 
 Soluble vegetable matter, with 
 
 some 
 
 sulphate of potash 
 
 - 11 
 
 Sulphate of lime (gypsum) - 
 
 - 12 
 
 Loss - 
 
 - 15 
 
 
 400 
 
 Such is the composition of a barren peat 
 moss. The analysis of an active or fertile 
 peat moss, with which it will be well to 
 compare it, gave the following results, after 
 being also dried in a gentle heat : — - 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Fine silicious sand - - 156 
 
 Unaltered vegetable fibre - 2 
 
 Decomposing vegetable matter - 110 
 
 Silica (flint) - - - 102 
 
 Alumina (clay) - - - 16 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 4 
 
 Soluble vegetable and saline matter 4 
 
 Muriate of lime - - - 4 
 
 Loss - - - - 2 
 
 400 
 
 Such is the usual chemical composition 
 of peat. This, however, is occasionally va- 
 ried by the presence of other substances, 
 but the above sketch will afford a tolerably 
 correct view of its ordinary properties ; and 
 this kind of knowledge will very materially 
 aid the farmer in proceeding to examine the 
 mode in which the composition of such soils 
 may be altered so as to be rendered tenant- 
 able by useful varieties of plants. 
 
 The most common delusion in which the 
 possessors of peat soils are apt to indulge is 
 the belief in the possibility of rendering 
 them permanently productive without either 
 previous drainage or the application of earth. 
 The melancholy attempts of this kind which 
 I have witnessed on the peat land of various 
 parts of England, especially in timber plant- 
 ing, can only excite the pity of those who 
 witness the effects of such misspent time 
 and money. The young trees too, which 
 are most commonly employed in these ill- 
 judged attempts, are usually of the fir tribe, 
 precisely the kind the least adapted to pros- 
 per in a bog of water and peat. Common 
 reflection would suggest that, if any kind of 
 trees could be expected to vegetate with 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 even moderate vigour in soils such as these, 
 composed as they are often of merely a mass 
 of hard inert vegetable matters, saturated 
 with a weak solution of green vitriol — if 
 any kind of plantations would progress, it 
 would be the alder, the willow tribe, or the 
 hardy birch-tree, tenacious of life, which 
 can endure more moisture and subsist on 
 poorer soils than most other plants. After 
 the slightest consideration we should hardly 
 decide upon placing on such swamps trees 
 which delight in dry upland slopes, as the 
 Scotch fir and the larch ; yet we can hardly 
 traverse a single line of railway, driven as 
 their constructors have too often been to 
 take for their line of country the most trem- 
 bling, dangerous bogs, the most worthless 
 heaths, without being struck with the ludi- 
 crous appearance of bright yellow-topped 
 larches and ragged sickly -looking Scotch 
 firs, soaking in bog-water — and that too not 
 in mere patches, but over hundreds of acres. 
 I do not confine these observations to the 
 north of England — to Lancashire and York- 
 shire — but the remark applies to many of 
 the southern counties : for instance, by the 
 road-side between Wareham and Poole, in 
 Dorsetshire, may be seen similar wet peaty 
 heath plantations of Scotch firs. 
 
 The peat soils with which I have had the 
 chief experience have been either those on 
 upland slopes or in the hollows of low 
 grounds, such as near the rivers Kennett 
 and Itchen, and in all cases placed in situ- 
 ations where it was possible to drain them 
 by open or under- drains previous to com- 
 mencing ulterior proceedings. The under- 
 drainage of peats is usually, especially on 
 high moorish grounds, conducted on very 
 erroneous principles, and with little regard 
 to the after-effects to be produced by it on 
 the peat. The first error to be carefully 
 avoided is placing the drains too near the 
 surface. I have invariably found in deep 
 peats, that, where the drains cannot be 
 placed beneath the peat, they should be 
 constructed at least at a depth of from four 
 to six feet or even more ; and this is not 
 adding materially to the expense, for the 
 peat-owner will find that one drain at the 
 depth of five or six feet will produce more 
 powerful and far more permanent good 
 effects than three drains at a depth of three 
 feet. The good results of depth in peat- 
 land drainage will be found by the farmer 
 years after the soil is reclaimed — for, as the 
 peat is dried and its upper portion decom- 
 posed and rendered solid by cultivation, the 
 mass of peat gradually and very materially 
 sinks, and this too in deep peats for a 
 lengthened period. And as this contrac- 
 tion is chiefly confined to the upper portion 
 of the peat, the result is that the improving 
 938 
 
 soil of the surface gradually approaches the 
 drains, and that in some varieties of the 
 softer kinds of peat to a very injurious ex- 
 tent. Such too is the porous, spongy na- 
 ture of most peat soils, that it is difficult to 
 remove entirely the water from those por- 
 tions of them lying on a level with the sides 
 of the drains, and in consequence the roots of 
 many cultivated crops are apt to penetrate, 
 under the shallow-drain system, into the 
 corrosive water of the peat, which they 
 never do without material injury. 
 
 For let me again remind the farmer, it 
 is not the mere presence of too much water 
 which renders the peat moss sterile, but the 
 noxious, astringent, irony quality of that 
 water. Some of the richest water-meadows 
 of the valleys of the Kennett and the Itchen, 
 in Berkshire and Hampshire, are formed on 
 a deep stratum of peat, merely covered with 
 a shallow dressing of chalk mixed with bog- 
 earth ; and these are periodically flooded 
 and kept for many days soaking in the 
 bright rapid waters of the Kennett and the 
 Itchen ; but then the excellent managers of 
 those prolific meadows take especial care 
 that no stagnant mineral waters shall be 
 allowed to corrode the extreme roots of 
 their grasses ; deep drains and lands laid in 
 elevated ridges carry off all these, and keep 
 the surface soil clear of the red oxide of 
 iron and green vitriol, which are sure to ac- 
 cumulate in situations where chalk mixed 
 with iron-pyrites exists in the immediate 
 neighbourhood. It is only necessary to ob- 
 serve the bright, irony, rusty incrustations 
 of the deepest drains of many of these cele- 
 brated meads to be convinced of the nature 
 of the mineral substance against which their 
 skilful owners are so sedulously and suc- 
 cessfully guarding. 
 
 In the construction of open drains (and 
 some peat-mosses require hardly any other), 
 the improver must be guided by the extent 
 of his field : the larger the peat-moss the 
 more capacious must be the open channels, 
 and the greater the fall of the water. It is 
 well to avoid forming these too narrow, so 
 as to make the current of drainage-water 
 too rapid; for the softy peaty soil is not 
 able to bear even a moderately rapid flow 
 of water. 
 
 The materials for under-draining must 
 also vary with the nature of the moss and 
 the facilities afforded by the district. Tiles 
 and stones are certainly the best. The bog 
 itself generally affords heath and rushes : 
 these, when well made, keep open for a long- 
 period : they both decay in such places with 
 very considerable slowness. 
 
 There is hardly a situation to be found 
 in which the drainage of the peat cannot in 
 some form or other be profitably effected. 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 If the surface of the peat is below the ad- 
 joining river, or in hollows, then the well 
 or boring system of Elkington, or even me- 
 chanical power, as windmills or steam-en- 
 gines, may be successfully followed. And 
 again, in many situations where peat-bogs 
 are not far distant from copious rivers, I 
 am certain that great things arc to be ef- 
 fected not only by draining the bog-waters, 
 but by raising those of the river on to the 
 surface of the peat. In those localities 
 where this kind of water is to be readily 
 procured (especially if it abounds with 
 earthy matters), the possessors of the peat- 
 soil would require hardly any thing else for 
 their improvement. The steam-engine, I 
 am convinced, has not yet been employed 
 in the service of the farmer to one half the 
 extent to which it is capable. Its gigantic 
 powers have hitherto been confined to drain- 
 ing the land, but little has been done with 
 it in irrigation ; and yet, when the land- 
 owner remembers how laboriously even by 
 manual labour this is done in Oriental coun- 
 tries, and that in the fens of Lincolnshire 
 one- eighty-horse power steam-engine raises 
 seven feet high 51,230 tons of water every 
 eight hours, by the combustion of only two 
 chaldrons and a half of coals ; and that, al- 
 lowing 150 tons per acre, this mass of water 
 is sufficient to irrigate more than 340 acres 
 of land ; when, I repeat, the landowner is 
 reminded of these gigantic powers, he will 
 feel convinced of the probable certainty that 
 more yet remains to be done in the perma- 
 nent improvement of the soil by the use of 
 the steam-engine than many persons have 
 sufficient leisure to examine, or the courage 
 to attempt. 
 
 The drainage being effected, the next im- 
 portant object is to furnish the soil with a 
 sufficient quantity of earthy matter to sup- 
 port vegetation, and this may be done in 
 several ways : that by paring and burning, 
 so common in various parts of Cambridge- 
 shire and Lincolnshire, I consider the worst 
 of all modes ; for it merely furnishes the soil 
 by an expensively rapid progress with the 
 freed earths of the peat, which its gradual 
 decomposition would by other modes more 
 profitably and steadily effect. 
 
 The first operation after the water has 
 been drained off is to break up as deeply as 
 possible, by the common and the subsoil- 
 ploughs, the surface of the peat ; and then, 
 if good well-burnt lime can be procured, 
 there is no earthy addition so rapid and so 
 powerful in dissolving and rendering pliable 
 the peat as this. A few ploughings, assisting 
 the combined operations of the atmosphere 
 and the lime, will in a few weeks bring the 
 soil into such a state as to enable it to bear 
 a first crop. The quantity of lime should 
 939 
 
 be about 250 or 300 bushels per acre ; but 
 the quantity of necessity must vary with 
 the readiness with which the lime is pro- 
 curable ; where it is very expensive, the cul- 
 tivator is obliged either to reduce the 
 quantity, or mix it thoroughly with a pro- 
 portion of clay or marl before he spreads it 
 over the surface of the peat. Where lime- 
 stone is to be obtained in the immediate 
 neighbourhood, and other fuel is not to be 
 readily procured, peat may be employed in 
 many cases in the process of lime-burning 
 without much difficulty, it chiefly requiring 
 that the peat should be thoroughly dried 
 previous to its being used. For a first crop 
 on the thus so far reclaimed peat soils I 
 have found no other crop equal to potatoes. 
 These are best planted in ridges ; the horse, 
 hoe plough can then be easily kept at work, 
 which not only considerably promotes the 
 decomposition of the peat, by facilitating the 
 introduction of the moisture and gases of 
 the atmosphere, but this very operation adds 
 very materially to the vigour and produce 
 of this valuable root, than which no other 
 plant more delights in fresh soils, such as 
 that produced by well-drained fresh earth- 
 dressed peaty lands. 
 
 It is well to avoid for a year or two all 
 attempts to produce corn crops on land 
 like that I am describing. The course of 
 cropping which the farmer will almost 
 always find the most profitable, is to follow 
 the potatoes with peas, then turnips, oats, 
 grass-seeds, peas, wheat. In all cases, too, 
 he must remember in what small propor- 
 tions some of the essential ingredients of 
 his crops are at first existing in this peaty 
 soil, and how valuable even a slight dress- 
 ing of clay or marl will be found in supply- 
 ing such deficiencies. 
 
 And, again, it is here that the services of 
 the manure-drill are available to an inva- 
 luable extent in applying bone-dust, or any 
 kind of organic or even earthy manure, es- 
 pecially to the young land's earliest crops. 
 For the natural results of the progress of 
 cultivation, the gradual decomposition of 
 the soil and tough vegetable remains, the 
 accumulation of more easily decomposable 
 vegetable matters, the application of the 
 ordinary farm-yard compost, finally suffi- 
 ciently enrich the ground with those salts . 
 of lime and of potash which form the essen- 
 tial ingredients of all fertile land. 
 
 To expedite the accumulation of decom- 
 posing soluble matters in the soil, several 
 expedients may be adopted. For instance, 
 if the farmer has access to night-soil, an 
 admirable compost may be made by mixing 
 this seven or eight weeks previous to its 
 employment with the peat itself. I know 
 of no other compost so powerful on peat 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 soils as a compost of well putrefied peat and 
 night-soil : four or five cubic yards of the 
 night-soil is an ample dressing per acre 
 with twelve or fifteen cubic yards of peat. 
 If the farmer has not access to night-soil, 
 let him substitute farm-yard compost with 
 the peat in a rather larger proportion, or 
 even urine, or the drainage from his farm- 
 yard. This plan, first, I believe, success- 
 fully adopted by the late Lord Meadow- 
 bank, is well described by Mr. Dixon, of 
 Heathershow, in an essay for which a prize 
 was awarded to him in 1839 by the Royal 
 Agricultural Society of England. 
 
 The farmer must, to derive the maximum 
 benefit from this plan, avoid certain errors, 
 which will else materially deteriorate the 
 richness of the compost. He must be care- 
 ful to have the peat he intends to use dug 
 for some time previously, and exposed in 
 spits to the drying influence of the sun and 
 winds. The peat, in fact, can hardly be 
 employed too dry ; and the farmer will find 
 that, if he makes the compost in the dry 
 warm weather of summer, he may then use 
 more peat in proportion to his farm -yard 
 dung or night-soil, than if he makes the 
 mixture when the temperature of the air is 
 less. In the warm weather of the spring 
 and summer months, the cultivator will find 
 one cubic yard of fresh good farm-yard 
 compost sufficient for three or four cubic 
 yards of peat ; but in colder weather the 
 proportion of peat must be decreased. The 
 farmer will find that the fresher and richer 
 the animal manure, the larger will be the 
 proportion of peat with which it may be 
 successfully mixed. Thus, with the rich 
 semi-fluid mixture from the slaughter- 
 houses of London, with one cubic yard of 
 this six or seven cubic yards of peat may 
 be mixed; and I have found, on several 
 occasions, every reason to agree with Lord 
 Meadow bank and others who have em- 
 ployed peat in this way, that it is very 
 desirable not to mix more than half the in- 
 tended proportion of peat at first, but to 
 wait until the fermentation of the mass is 
 somewhat advanced, and the temperature 
 of the heat increased, before the last half is 
 added to the heap. Some persons recom- 
 mend the addition of a portion of lime to 
 this compost ; but this is a plan I do not 
 consider either advantageous or harm- 
 less : for the lime combines with, and even 
 partially decomposes, some of the richest 
 portions of the animal matters of the ma- 
 il ure ; and I have on some occasions sus- 
 pected, from certain appearances, that it 
 retarded, when thus used, the dissolution of 
 the peat. In eight or nine weeks the com- 
 post will be ready for use; the peat and 
 dung will be thoroughly mingled together, 
 940 
 
 and the whole heap will have the colour of 
 a dark garden-mould. Of the nourishing 
 quality of this mixture of peat with night- 
 soil or yard-manure, or urine, the farmer 
 will readily convince himself by the fertile 
 effects which it produces; and, when drilled 
 with turnip-seed, the roots of the young 
 plants will be found to encircle the lumps 
 of it, just as they do in the case of crushed 
 bones. 
 
 If the possessor of a peat soil cannot well 
 prepare a compost of either night-soil or 
 farm-manure with the peat, he may still 
 furnish his soil with a valuable dressing, by 
 mixing hot lime and peat together, at the 
 rate of one cubic yard of the former with 
 three or four cubic yards of the latter. In 
 this case it is not necessary to dry the peat 
 previously, for the lime readily absorbs the 
 water contained in it, and in the course of 
 seven or eight weeks the entire mass is re- 
 duced to the state of mould. From some 
 experiments which I have made on a small 
 scale, I have found that the addition of a 
 portion of common salt to the lime, not ex- 
 ceeding one part of salt to three parts of 
 lime, will still more increase the fertilising 
 powers of this peat compost; but my ex- 
 periments on this head require repetition 
 before I can confidently recommend this 
 plan for the farmer's adoption. 
 
 When once the peat is well drained, a 
 very thin covering of earth will produce 
 much greater effects in forming a solid soil 
 than the farmer may imagine possible : the 
 facility with which roads are made across 
 the extensive deep Scotch peat-mosses and 
 the great Irish bogs, in some degree illus- 
 trates the same fact : the bog, when once 
 dried, is found to require only a thin layer 
 of gravel to make an excellent road. It is 
 true that these are apt to tremble pretty 
 considerably under the feet of the plough - 
 horses, but they bear the heaviest carriages 
 with perfect safety, even in places where 
 the bog of peat is of a depth of from twenty 
 to forty feet. 
 
 Peat-moss lands are commonly divided 
 by the deep ditches or channels by which 
 they are drained. If hedges are necessary, 
 there is some difficulty in raising them of 
 quick, or any of the ordinary hedge-row 
 plants, until the peat is thrown up into 
 banks for some little time, and is tolerably 
 decomposed. A little manure, either earthy 
 or from the. farm-yard, materially adds. I 
 have found, to their rapidity of growth, and 
 is certainly not an expense thrown away. 
 With hedges thus formed the failure of the 
 young plants is but rare: the hedge is 
 much more quickly formed, the expensive 
 use of hurdles is diminished. Hie same 
 remarks apply to the timber trees; for such 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 soils, birch, the larch, the Spanish chest- 
 nut, with a very slight dressing with lime, 
 or marl, or clay, will do well on well- 
 drained peat ; and if the earthy additions 
 are liberally bestowed, such plantations 
 very rarely fail to abundantly reward, in 
 more ways than one, the possessor of the 
 estate for all the expense he has bestowed 
 in their formation. 
 
 These I have foundtobethe chief points to 
 be attended to in the improvement of peat 
 soils, a description of barren waste which 
 perhaps abounds more in these islands than 
 in any other European kingdom of equal 
 extent. Their improvement, either by con- 
 verting them into cultivated fields, or for 
 the formation of timber plantations, is a 
 question of national importance ; for every 
 bog that is thus added to the farmer's pos- 
 sessions not only enlarges, as regards a 
 supply of food, the internal resources of the 
 state, but increases the demand for agri- 
 cultural labour, banishes unwholesome stag- 
 nant waters, purifies the atmosphere, and 
 even renders the climate of the district 
 perceptibly milder. (Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 390.) 
 
 A valuable account of the practice of 
 English farmers in the improvement of 
 peaty ground, by Ph. Pusey, Esq., more 
 especially those of Lincolnshire, is contained 
 in the same volume (p. 400.). He observes: 
 — The first step of improvement is of 
 course to acquire command of the water, 
 and obtain an outfall by digging a straight 
 ditch, about eight feet wide and five deep, 
 down the middle of the hollow : this takes 
 the place of the winding stagnant rivulet 
 that is frequently found there. In wider 
 bogs more of these ditches should be dug, 
 and one may be placed on each side, so as 
 to divide the peat from the sound land, and 
 thus cut off the springs which ooze from 
 the higher ground. However slight the 
 apparent fall of the ground, it is generally 
 practicable, by carrying along the new 
 watercourse to a sufficient length, to reduce 
 the level of the water three or four feet 
 permanently below the surface : this, then, 
 is the first and indispensable step, the open 
 drainage ; the next is the under or close 
 drainage : it has been done on the Dean- 
 ston principle, thorough-draining. The 
 parallel drains have been cut to a depth of 
 thirty inches in the gravel underlying the 
 peat, the materials being tiles and broken 
 stones over the tiles, covered with a sod 
 sixteen inches below the surface ; the dis- 
 tance between the parallel drains varying 
 from twenty to about eighty feet. The 
 levels are so flat that tiles have been often 
 necessary. It is essential that these drains 
 should be formed before the surface is 
 941 
 
 broken up, that the work may be clean for 
 the labourers : winter and early spring will 
 be the most convenient seasons. In Lin- 
 colnshire, however, the heavy expense of 
 under-draining has not been required. 
 Deep open ditches, dividing the peat into 
 fields of twelve or fifteen acres, have been 
 found to lay it sufficiently dry. 
 
 When the draining, of whatever kind, is 
 completed, the question next arises how the 
 coarse and rushy swamp is to be brought 
 into cultivation. I must say that the prac- 
 tice of paring and burning the surface em- 
 ployed by our farmers has been justified by 
 its effects. As soon as the harsh easterly 
 winds of spring have set in, the breast- 
 ploughs are put to work, the surface is 
 pared and turned over, and, when dry, 
 piled in heaps and burnt to ashes. The 
 proceeding may be defended I think on 
 these grounds : — If the coarse sward filled 
 with the roots of rushes were merely 
 ploughed over, it would not decay during 
 the whole summer, and would be far too 
 tough and hollow for any crop that might 
 be sown on it. Again, when a fertile well- 
 dressed surface is burnt, the volatile parts 
 of manure which it contains may be dissi- 
 pated by fire, but on the land we are deal- 
 ing with there is no fertility to be destroyed. 
 Lastly, the ashes which are produced are a 
 manure peculiarly adapted for the crop 
 which experience has taught the Lincoln- 
 shire farmers to make their first crop on 
 such land; that crop is rape, a plant not 
 generally grown in this country. On such 
 ground, so prepared, it shoots up with un- 
 failing luxuriance, resembling the tops of 
 strongly growing Swedes, but forming a 
 dense mass of dark leaves, about a yard 
 high, through which it is difficult to make 
 one's way. Although peat may be well 
 suited to the growth of rape, it is to the 
 peat-ashes I believe that the chief strength 
 of its vegetation is due. In fields where 
 the soil is moory but not a pure peat, when 
 they have been pared and burnt in the 
 same manner, a singular appearance pre- 
 sents itself which proves this point. On 
 the spots were the heaps have been burnt, 
 may be seen dark tufts of rape growing in 
 the vigorous manner already described. On 
 the rest of the ground you can hardly dis- 
 tinguish the pale blue or purple dwindled 
 plants of rape, scarcely raising themselves 
 from the surface, and choked with grass. 
 The rape which has been sown in May, is 
 fed by sheep penned on the ground from 
 the middle of July or from August. As it 
 shoots up again from the root it may be 
 penned twice over, or even three times, 
 before winter. On the best managed field 
 of this kind which I have seen, a flock so 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 penned received corn latterly with the 
 rape, and was sold fat in November. Far- 
 mers will be well aware how much that field 
 must have been benefited by the improve- 
 ment which corn imparted to the dung of 
 the sheep. Swedish turnips have also been 
 grown upon this land instead of rape, and 
 on the best of it, where the peat is not 
 pure, answer well : as much as sixteen tons, 
 a fair crop for a southern county, may be 
 raised on the acre. They are not, it is true, 
 so certain as the rape, nor are they so firm 
 and nutritious as Swedes grown upon sound 
 ground ; hares will not touch them while 
 other Swedes are to be found. If sown 
 early they are apt to decay on the ground, 
 and they do not keep well in store; still 
 they must be sown early as well as other 
 turnips, because their growth is slow on 
 such land when the days have shortened ; 
 and sheep are said not to thrive if penned 
 upon it in winter. 
 
 Rape or Swedes being established as the 
 first crop, after the breaking up of peaty 
 land, in the system I am describing, the 
 next crop is usually oats : they are drilled 
 in upon a very shallow furrow, with plenty 
 of seed, and well pressed with a press-roll 
 as well before they are come up as after- 
 wards, in order to guard against the wire- 
 worm, the enemy to be feared on such 
 land. It is remarkable that by very late 
 sowing, as late as the end of April or be- 
 ginning of May, you may be almost certain 
 to escape the wireworm — it is supposed, 
 because the oats grow more rapidly out of 
 their reach ; but on the other hand it will 
 be harvested late ; and there is this further 
 disadvantage, that the grain which is al- 
 ways light on such land, will become so 
 much lighter that you perhaps lose in 
 weight as much as you gain in quantity. I 
 may observe that the oats do not ripen 
 together upon this ground : the farmers cut 
 them while they are partially green, be- 
 cause they find that, if they wait until the 
 whole crop has changed its colour, the best 
 grains, which are those that first ripen, 
 shed in the mowing and carrying, whereas 
 these are preserved by early cutting, while 
 the unripe grains and green stalks improve 
 the straw as fodder for cattle. This first 
 crop of oats is generally beaten down by 
 the weather, being weak and long in the 
 straw, and though not a bad crop, looks 
 better than it really is. On land which is 
 not peat, but peaty, some farmers grow 
 barley : there is a large crop of straw, and 
 it is therefore liable to be laid; the grain, 
 too, is but thin. 
 
 Tin- rape and the oats will generally 
 have proved successful, and indeed by their 
 luxuriance may lead one to suppose that 
 942 
 
 more improvement has been made than is 
 really the case. It is now that doubt and 
 difficulty begin. The oats or barley are 
 followed by rye-grass, which has been sown 
 among them, but if these have been laid, 
 as they often are, large patches of the rye- 
 grass will have been destroyed. Even if 
 they have not been laid, the peaty soil will 
 perhaps throw out many of the grass-plants 
 by the roots in the next winter, and still 
 more in the succeeding one, if, as is usual 
 here, the rye-grass be left for two years. 
 The motive for so leaving the ground two 
 years in grass is that it may regain solidity 
 before it is again ploughed : still this is but 
 a poor rotation which gives only one crop 
 of corn in four years. ' On the other hand, 
 if the ground were left permanently in 
 grass, there is reason to suppose that in a 
 few years the fine grasses would wear out, 
 the coarse herbage return, and the land be 
 no better for the expenses incurred in 
 drainage. Nay, one farmer thinks he had 
 observed it become worse, because the 
 aquatic grasses natural to peat no longer 
 obtained the moisture which they require, 
 and the better grasses do not grow well. 
 In order to meet this evil the gravel or 
 rubble which has been taken out from the 
 main drains is spread over the ground in 
 the winter before the oats are sown : and, 
 however sterile and hungry be the material 
 thus used as a manure, there is no doubt 
 that it produces a strong effect, for the rye- 
 grass is much thicker and sweeter where 
 this has been done : this is called firming or 
 weighting the land ; it is good as far as it 
 goes, but the staple of the soil is still very 
 weak. When wheat is sown on ground 
 that is at all peaty, it will almost certainly 
 lose plant in large patches, even though the 
 land has been dunged, and the young wheat 
 has been trodden in by women, as is some- 
 times done in the spring. There is clearly 
 some principle defective in the composition 
 of the soil : that principle is cohesion, and 
 can only be supplied by clay. The fen 
 farmers of Lincolnshire accordingly apply 
 clay to peat-land by a process which has 
 been carried on largely in the fens for many 
 years. The operation and its effects are 
 detailed in the following letter from Mr. 
 Cooke of Digby : — 
 
 " The clay of Digby Fen is four feet from 
 the surface. The plan I pursue is to fallow 
 the land for cole or turnips, laying on fif- 
 teen bushels of bones per acre. In the 
 winter I set out the lines for trenching 
 eleven yards apart, and mark out three feet 
 in width for the trench, to be dug down 
 through the peat, which is three feet deep, 
 with sides sloping outwards ; so that, when 
 the surface of the clay is reached, the lower 
 
PEAT 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 part of the trench is four feet wide. We 
 then dig out four feet in depth of clay, 
 throwing it out on both sides, so that the 
 mass of clay thrown out is two feet deep 
 and four feet wide throughout the whole 
 length of the trench. The expense is 54s. 
 per acre. 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 First year. — In the original state of 
 the soil the produce is 5 qrs. of 
 oats, 10 stone gross, at 20s. per qr. 5 0 0 
 
 Second year. — Seeds (herbage there- 
 on), 4 sheep per acre, at 3d. per 
 head, from the 1st of April to the 
 1st of October - - - 1 4 0 
 
 Third year. — 20 bushels of very 
 light wheat, say 16 stone gross, if 
 clean enough for seed 50s. per qr. 6 5 0 
 
 12 9 0 
 
 First year. — After trenching it pro- 
 duces 6 qrs. of oats per acre, 
 12 stone nett, at 24s. per qr. -740 
 
 Second year. — Seeds (herbage there- 
 on), 7 sheep per acre, at 3d. per 
 head, from the 1st of April to the 
 1st of October - - -220 
 
 Third year. — 30 bushels of wheat 
 per acre, at 58s. per qr., 17^ stone 
 nett - - - - 10 17 6 
 
 20 3 6 
 
 " Throughout the fen the soil is a vege- 
 table surface, upon a clay or gravel bed ; if 
 the latter, the land is of but little value for 
 want of clay to give it solidity. The cal- 
 culations I have made are applicable to the 
 fen-land in the following parishes : — Dig- 
 by, Dorrington, Ruskington, and Anwick." 
 
 This Lincolnshire method appears, there- 
 fore, to be the cheapest of all improvements, 
 where the clay is found under the soil, 
 though even so deep as four feet, and its 
 effectris supposed by Mr. Cooke to last fif- 
 teen years. It has also the strong recom- 
 mendation of being not an experiment, but 
 a practice. The great extent to which it 
 has been carried, and its efficacy, are thus 
 described by Mr. Morton, in answer to an 
 inquiry which I addressed to him : — 
 
 " The fens of Lincolnshire have been in- 
 creased in productiveness at least 100 per 
 cent., merely by applying to the surface of the 
 peat the clay which is found at depths varying 
 from two to five feet below it. This applica- 
 tion is made thus : trenches, parallel to one 
 another, are made, eleven yards apart and 
 three feet wide, down to the clay ; and then 
 two feet in depth of the clay is thrown out, 
 one half on each side. The effect of this, 
 after the second year, is greatly to increase 
 the productiveness of the soil ; in many 
 cases to double it. This mode of improve- 
 943 
 
 ing peaty soils extends over a very large 
 district ; indeed it is equal in extent to the 
 extent of the fens, for although the whole 
 of the fen land in Lincolnshire, Northamp- 
 tonshire, Huntingdonshire, and Cambridge- 
 shire, has not been so treated, yet there is 
 scarcely a farmer who has not practised, or 
 is not now proceeding with, this most im- 
 portant improvement. I have witnessed 
 this operation for the last fifteen years ; and 
 I believe it was begun long before. Mr. 
 Wingate's estate at Leake has thus been 
 clayed once every six years, and each re- 
 petition has the effect of adding to the per- 
 manent productiveness of the peaty soil." 
 
 This operation of claying peat is one of 
 the methods by which English farmers have 
 for many years been silently changing the 
 face of the country, which now constantly 
 come to our knowledge, but for which they 
 have not hitherto received the credit due 
 to them ; its effect is so wonderful that I 
 ought not to withhold a further account of 
 it, which I have obtained from Mr. Wingate 
 himself, whose farm at Leake is mentioned 
 by Mr. Morton. 
 
 " I will endeavour to describe to you 
 what we have done in our east fen since its 
 great improvement by drainage, confining 
 myself to that land which I consider de- 
 cayed vegetable matter on a clay or silty 
 subsoil at various depths, and which had 
 been under water generally for ages in the 
 winter season, and getting partially dry in 
 the summer. A great deal of wood in the 
 first instance was taken out of it ; nay, in 
 fact, is still in many parts where the plough 
 goes a little deep, chiefly oak, I believe, but 
 in some instances maple, poplar, and aspens, 
 all lying in one direction. At the time of 
 the first enclosure, from what I hear, the 
 land was brought into cultivation by paring 
 and burning, sowing with cole (rape), then 
 afterwards oats and rye, which oats it grew 
 of very bad quality, being very light, say 
 seven or eight stones the sack of four bushels; 
 and I believe it nearly ruined the first class 
 of occupiers. I did not myself begin to 
 occupy land there before the system of 
 claying was found out, and wheat had begun 
 to be partially grown. Since that time it 
 has been managed with very great success 
 in various ways, until the late unfortunate 
 attack of the wireworm, which has mate- 
 rially decreased its productive qualities. We 
 have the four-field, and in some instances 
 the five-field course, which I consider a 
 sharp dose for any land, namely, 1. tur- 
 nips ; 2. oats ; 3. wheat ; 4. seeds mown or 
 grazed ; 5. wheat. With regard to the ma- 
 nagement of my own farm, concerning which 
 you inquire, I have occupied a small farm 
 nearly in the centre of the east fen for some 
 
PEAT 
 
 years, besides that on which I reside. It 
 had been occupied before I took it, by a 
 tenant, and had been all clayed over once 
 at my expense. After getting it into my 
 own hands, the first thing I did, it being 
 very much out of condition, was to fallow 
 it thoroughly and sow it with cole, and I 
 had some very fair crops. After that I 
 clayed it again ; we usually have our clay 
 dykes eleven yards from the centre of each, 
 taking off the peat and putting on the clay, 
 three feet wide by four feet deep, a very heavy 
 dressing, being nearly 300 cubic yards per 
 acre. After that it was sown with, 1st year, 
 oats ; 2d, wheat ; 3d, cole with manure ; 4th, 
 oats ; 5th, wheat ; 6th, cole or turnips well 
 manured, and then clayed over a third 
 time the same as before ; and most certainly 
 I had very productive crops, that is, as 
 much as five quarters of wheat per acre, 
 and from eight to nine quarters of oats, all 
 of very fair quality. I began again to clay 
 the fourth time, but not with the same fa- 
 vourable results, and have only done some 
 little over again, thinking the lands have 
 got quite sufficient solidity. Perhaps I 
 ought to add, I have generally consumed 
 six or eight tons of oil-cake, with about 
 twelve acres of meadow land hay, to assist 
 in converting my straw into manure. The 
 size of that farm is about 100 acres. I 
 ridged some peat land for turnips one sea- 
 son, with but indifferent success ; and I 
 always find the corn much better and much 
 less infected with the wireworm in the clay 
 dykes, where the land has been turned over 
 perhaps from three to four feet in depth. 
 We attempt very heavy rolling ; tread the 
 wheat land with men or women in the 
 spring ; but if we have cold, backward wea- 
 ther, all we can do appears of but little 
 avail against the destructive insect. I 
 might also add, that there is a great deal 
 of silt, or clay of a silty nature, lying under 
 the peat in many parts of the fen lands, and 
 the wireworm appears there to be much 
 more destructive if the lands are not very 
 well manured, so that the crops, particularly 
 the spring crops, may grow right away with- 
 out a check." 
 
 A most important improvement has been 
 made with clay only, and lime has been 
 often tried without any advantage. It is 
 right that I should now mention two in- 
 stances of great success effected by means 
 of lime. For the first case I am indebted 
 to Sir Charles Monteith, who gives, in a 
 letter to Dr.Buckland, the following account 
 of some extensive operations with lime on 
 peaty Land in Scotland: — 
 
 It is the general opinion amongst im- 
 provers of peaty soils, that lime is absolutely 
 necessary to produce crops of grain well 
 944 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 filled with farina; and I found from ex- 
 perience, in the improvement of part of my 
 peat meadows in view of my house, that 
 when the first crop grown upon it was po- 
 tatoes, well dunged but without lime, the 
 potatoes were found to be hollow in the 
 heart of them, and very watery ; while in 
 other parts of the meadows upon which 
 dung was employed, potatoes of a good 
 quality were produced when lime was em- 
 ployed in addition to the dung. The farmers 
 in Scotland think that they cannot raise 
 good crops of grain without lime, as the 
 greatest part of the south of Scotland is 
 composed of new red sandstone, grauwacke, 
 and granite, and therefore devoid of lime, 
 which forms a very considerable portion of 
 every fertile soil ; indeed it was found that 
 the soil in Dumfriesshire did not produce 
 well filled barley crops till the farmers em- 
 ployed lime, which they now do to a great 
 extent, and find it equally useful for po- 
 tatoes and turnip crops, which is amply 
 testified by the farmers purchasing lime to 
 the amount of 3000Z. annually from my lime 
 quarry at Close Farm. 
 
 " You are correct in saying that a con- 
 siderable part of my peat bog improvements 
 have been made by lime alone, and have 
 been productive of very tolerable crops of 
 hay. I have always considered peat more 
 suitable for crops of grass than corn. In 
 addition to the lime I have commonly em- 
 ployed fifty or sixty tons of sandy earth to 
 the imperial acre of peat bog. 
 
 " I have improved about 200 acres of 
 peat bogs, the average not worth 6d. the 
 acre in their natural state, now worth fully 
 3/. A considerable part of it was very ex- 
 pensive to accomplish, as it was necessary # 
 to fill up large holes from which peat had 
 been dug for fuel ; many acres of it cost 
 me upwards of SOL the acre ; but still this 
 ground remunerates me for the expenditure 
 of so large a sum, besides removing an ugly 
 object in the middle of the low grounds in 
 the neighbourhood of my residence ; every 
 hollow, of which there were many within a 
 mile of the house, was filled by an ugly, 
 useless, black peat bog. 
 
 " I do not recollect whether I pointed 
 out to you some grass fields that had been 
 improved from black moor-land, by first 
 paring and burning, and then ploughing 
 the first season, the ground being exposed 
 to a winter's frost, and during the next 
 summer laying about 160 bushels of lime 
 upon the imperial acre, and sowing out the 
 ground in July or August with five bushels 
 of the holcus lanatus, without taking a corn 
 crop. The reason why I did not take crops 
 of corn from moor ground generally having 
 a peaty surface of four or five inches, was 
 
PEBBLES. 
 
 PENNYROYAL. 
 
 to keep it in a compact state ; as I have 
 found that soil of this kind, after bearing 
 crops of corn and being frequently ploughed, 
 becomes so loose and pulverised that the 
 feet of cattle completely destroy the pas- 
 ture, and that the roots of the grass are 
 injured by the loose state of the ground. 
 This grass land has given me upon the 
 average from 12s. to 14*. per acre annually, 
 in its original state not worth Is. 6d. The 
 moor ground upon grauwacke, after this 
 improvement, is much more valuable than 
 where the subsoil is sandstone. I have em- 
 ployed lime as it is practised in Derbyshire 
 to great advantage upon the surface of moor 
 land ; but as it requires a very large dose 
 of lime, it can only be done where lime is 
 cheap, as it requires from 200 to 300 bushels 
 of lime per acre to destroy the great quan- 
 tity of vegetable matter in moor soils, which 
 it soon accomplishes, as is shown by the 
 land being soon filled with moles, which are 
 drawn to it by the decayed vegetable mat- 
 ter producing worms, the food of moles. 
 In Craven, in Yorkshire, lime is employed 
 very extensively as a top-dressing, even 
 upon a limestone soil. I have found that 
 cattle feed upon pasture well top-dressed 
 with lime much quicker, and that the meat 
 is much richer and better mixed, than upon 
 pastures apparently equally productive of 
 herbage." (Jour, of Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 408.) There is a paper on the Dutch 
 ashes (produced by burning peat), by Mr. 
 Mitchel. (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 107.) 
 See ante, Ashes, p. 136. Peat is much em- 
 ployed as a fuel in some parts of our island, 
 especially in Scotland ; and it is much im- 
 proved for this purpose by compression. 
 There are papers with drawings of com- 
 pression machines in the Transactions of 
 the Highland Society, vol. iii. p. 372. ; vol. iv. 
 p. 111.; vol. v. p. 458. ; vol.vi. p. 327.; and 
 Quart. Jour, of Agr. vol. xii. p. 138. 
 
 PEBBLES. A term applied to rounded 
 nodules, especially of silicious minerals, such 
 as rock-crystals, agates, &c. Among farmers 
 the large common pebbles are frequently 
 called bowlders. 
 
 PECK. A measure of capacity contain- 
 ing two gallons, or the fourth of a bushel. 
 The imperial peck contains 554*55 cubic 
 inches. Besides the standard peck, there 
 are local pecks, which are extremely vari- 
 ous : thus the Lancashire peck contains six 
 gallons ; but in other counties it is much 
 less. 
 
 PEDICLE. One of the ramifications of 
 that part of a flower-stalk called the pe- 
 duncle. 
 
 PEEWIT. See Lapwing. 
 
 PELLITORY OF THE WALL. See 
 Wale-Pellitory. 
 945 
 
 PELT. A term applied to the skin or 
 hide of sheep, &c. 
 
 PELT-ROT. See Rot. 
 
 PENK. One of the names of the min- 
 now. 
 
 PENNY CRESS. See Mithridate 
 Mustard. 
 
 PENNY EARTH. A term used by 
 some farmers to signify a hard, loamy, or 
 sandy soil, with a large quantity of sea- 
 shells intermixed in it ; portions of which 
 being round and flat, and in some measure 
 resembling pieces of money, have occasioned 
 its being called by this name. It is an 
 earth not easily dug through, but it is 
 usually undermined with pickaxes, and then 
 falls into large lumps ; which the frosts 
 speedily pulverise. 
 
 PENNYROYAL. (Mentha Pulcgium.) 
 This well-known perennial plant is found 
 growing wild on wet commons, and about 
 the margins of small brooks. It has a 
 strong acid, and very peculiar smell, and 
 is stimulant and tonic, but less grateful 
 than peppermint. The stems are somewhat 
 procumbent, or quite prostrate. Leaves 
 ovate, scarcely half an inch long, full of 
 pellucid dots. Flowers whorled. Flower- 
 stalks purplish, clothed entirely with very 
 short, dense, hoary pubescence. 
 
 Pennyroyal is cultivated for its use in 
 culinary and pharmaceutical preparations. 
 There are two varieties — the trailing, which 
 is usually cultivated, and the upright. 
 These plants are best grown on a tenacious 
 soil : even a clay^ is more suitable to them 
 than a light silicious one. It should be 
 moderately fertile, entirely free of stagnant 
 moisture, and consequently on a dry sub- 
 soil, or well drained. A wet soil makes them 
 luxuriant in summer, but ensures decay in 
 winter. A border, or situation that is shel- 
 tered from the meridian sun, is always to 
 be allotted them, as in such they are most 
 vigorous and constant in production. A 
 compartment entirely secluded from the in- 
 fluence of the sun is, however, equally un- 
 favourable with one that is too much ex- 
 posed. 
 
 They are propagated by parting the roots 
 in February or March, September or Octo- 
 ber, and by slips or offsets at the same sea- 
 son. The mints likewise may be increased, 
 by cuttings of the annual shoots in May or 
 June, as well as by cuttings of the roots either 
 in spring or autumn. For production of 
 green tops throughout the winter and early 
 spring, the spearmint is often planted in 
 a hot-bed; and more rarely pennyroyal, 
 every three weeks during October and 
 three following months. 
 
 Planting in the open ground, at whatever 
 seasons, or by whatever mode, should if pos- 
 3 p 
 
PEONY. 
 
 PERCH. 
 
 sible be performed in showery weather, or 
 water must be given plentifully, especially 
 to cuttings. If propagated by divisions of 
 the root, they must be inserted in drills two 
 inches deep ; if by slips or puttings, they 
 must be five or six inches in length, and 
 their lower half being divested of leaves, 
 planted to that depth, in every instance 
 being set in rows ten inches apart each 
 way. The only after cultivation re- 
 quired is the constant destruction of weeds, 
 which are peculiarly injurious. After July, 
 the produce of green tops is of little value ; 
 they should therefore be allowed then to 
 advance to flower, which they will produce 
 towards, the beginning of September, when 
 they are in the fit state for gathering, either 
 for drying or distilling. In either case, the 
 stalks should be cut just previous to the 
 flower opening. At the close of September 
 or beginning of October, the stems must be 
 cut down as close as possible, the weeds 
 cleared entirely away, and a little fine fresh 
 mould spread over them. The beds should 
 never be allowed to continue longer than 
 four years ; for by reason of continued ga- 
 thering, the plants not only become weak- 
 ened, but the roots becoming matted, and 
 greatly increased, produce only numerous 
 diminutive shoots, or entirely decay. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 87. ; G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 PENNYWORT, THE MARSH. See 
 White-Rot. 
 
 PEONY, or P^EONY. (Pceonia.) A 
 genus of beautiful flowering plants, mostly 
 hardy enough to endure our winters. The 
 shrubby kinds are increased from cuttings 
 taken off in August or September, with 
 part of the wood of the preceding year at- 
 tached, and planted in a sheltered situation 
 where they will root freely. The herbar 
 ceous species are increased by dividing the 
 plants at the roots, taking care to leave a 
 bud to each slip ; the new varieties are ob- 
 tained from seeds. (Paxton's Bot. Diet) 
 
 PEPPER-GRASS. See Pill- Wort. 
 
 PEPPERMINT. (Mentha piperita.) This 
 species differs from the common spear or 
 green mint chiefly in the intensity of its 
 taste and dark colour of its foliage. It is 
 only cultivated for distillation ; the essential 
 oil or distilled water, enters into various 
 cordial and medical preparations. 
 
 PEPPERS. See Capsicum. 
 
 PEPPER-SAXIFRAGE. (Cnidum, the 
 ancient name of orach.) These are worth- 
 less herbaceous plants. 
 
 The meadow pepper-saxifrage (C. Silaus) 
 is nil indigenous perennial species, with 
 smooth dark green herbage. The root is 
 spindle-shaped ; stem erect, furrowed, solid, 
 tough, from one to two feet high. Leaves 
 <)4G 
 
 doubly pinnate ; leaflets deeply pinnatifid ; 
 their segments opposite decurrent. Umbels 
 on long stalks, erect, of several unequal ge- 
 neral rays. Flowers yellowish or greenish- 
 white, blowing in August and September. 
 The whole plant being fetid when bruised, is 
 supposed in some parts of Norfolk to give a 
 bad flavour to milk and butter ; but cattle 
 certainly do not eat it, except accidentally 
 or in small quantities. W^hen this herb 
 abounds in pastures, it may be found par- 
 tially cropped, though generally left almost 
 entire. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 91.) 
 
 PEPPER, THE WALL. See Stone- 
 crop. 
 
 PEPPERWORT. (Lepidium, from lepis, 
 a scale, in allusion to the shape of the pods, 
 which appear like little scales.) Most of 
 these plants are uninteresting, and none of 
 them are pretty. L. sativum is the well- 
 known garden cress. There are four in- 
 digenous species. 
 
 1. The broad-leaved pepperwort (L. la- 
 tifolium). See Dittander. 
 
 2. Narrow-leaved pepperwort (L. rude- 
 rale) is an annual with glaucous smooth 
 herbage, which is fetid and pungent when 
 bruised. The stem is from six to twelve 
 inches high, solitary, erect, with many wide- 
 spreading branches. Lower leaves pin- 
 natifid ; flowers minute, in dense corymbs. 
 
 3. Common mithridate pepperwort (L. 
 campestre), also an annual, common in cul- 
 tivated fields. Flowers in corymbs, nu- 
 merous, small, white. 
 
 4. Hairy mithridate pepperwort (L. hir- 
 tum). This species has the root woody and 
 perennial, and grows in fields on hilly 
 ground. The stem-leaves are arrow-shaped, 
 slightly toothed. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 164.) 
 
 PERCH. In land measure is the for- 
 tieth part of a rood, or equal to 30^ square 
 yards. Perch is also sometimes used as a 
 denomination of long measure, when it sig- 
 nifies the same thing as a rod or pole, being 
 5^ yards or 16£ feet. 
 
 PERCH. (Perca fluviatilis.) The perch 
 is a very extensively diffused fish, being as 
 common to the rivers and lakes of most 
 parts of Europe, as it is to those of Eng- 
 land. The body of this fish is deep, the 
 scales very rough, and the back much 
 arched. The colours of the perch are 
 beautiful, the back and part of the sides 
 being of a deep green, marked with broad 
 black bars pointing downwards ; the belly 
 is white, tinged with red ; the ventral fins 
 of a rich scarlet ; the anal fins and tail 
 (which is a little forked) of the same co- 
 lour, but rather paler. The season for 
 perch angling is from February until the 
 middle of October. The principal baits are 
 
PERENNIALS. 
 
 PHEASANT. 
 
 worms, insects, and small fish, but particu- 
 larly minnows. (Blaine's Encyclo. of Rural 
 Sports, p. 1068.) 
 
 PERENNIALS. (Lat. perennis, lasting 
 throughout the year.) In botany, those 
 herbaceous plants, the roots of which re- 
 main alive more years than two, but whose 
 stems flower and perish annually. Gar- 
 deners generally call them herbaceous 
 plants. 
 
 PERIWINKLE. (Vinca, probably from 
 vinculum, a band; in allusion to the suit- 
 ableness of the shoots for making bands.) 
 These plants are well adapted for covering 
 naked ground in shady situations. Any 
 common soil suits them, and they are rea- 
 dily increased by separating the rooted 
 trailing shoots. Two of the species are in- 
 digenous, viz. 
 
 1. The lesser periwinkle (V. minor), 
 which has very smooth herbage. The root 
 is creeping ; the stems, round, trailing ; the 
 flowering branches simple, leafy, erect. 
 Leaves elliptic - lanceolate, dark shining 
 green, on short footstalks, opposite without 
 stipules. Flowers solitary, an inch wide, of 
 a fine violet blue. There is a white-flowered 
 variety in gardens, having variegated leaves, 
 and another with double, purple flowers. 
 
 2. Greater periwinkle. ( V. major.) This 
 is a more common species, found in thickets 
 and groves, especially on a wet soil. It is 
 nearly twice as large in every part as the 
 former. The stems are branched, ascending 
 while in flower, afterwards procumbent and 
 taking root near the extremity. Leaves 
 ovate, fringed. Flowers of a lighter blue, 
 stalked. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 338.) 
 
 PERRY. A pleasant and wholesome 
 liquor made from the juice of pears, by 
 means of fermentation somewhat in the 
 same manner as cider from apples. 
 
 The best pears for perry, or at least the 
 kinds which have been hitherto deemed the 
 fittest for making this liquor, are so ex- 
 cessively tart and harsh, that no one can 
 think of eating them as fruit ; for even 
 hungry swine will not eat them. 
 
 It is observed by Mr. Knight, that in 
 making this liquor, the pears are ground 
 and pressed in exactly the same manner, as 
 those of apples in the manufacturing of 
 cider ; but that it is not usual for the re- 
 duced pulp to be suffered to remain any 
 length of time without being pressed. 
 
 The after-management is in all respects 
 so nearly similar to that of cider, that no 
 further description is necessary here. 
 
 On the whole, the pear furnishes a less 
 popular but a very superior liquor to that 
 afforded by the apple. The tree is capable 
 of being grown on a greater variety of soil, 
 and is more productive, furnishing in the 
 947 
 
 proportion of 600 gallons of liquor to the 
 acre, where the trees are full grown. (Brit. 
 Hush. vol. ii. p. 365.) See Cider and Pear. 
 
 PERSICARIA. (Polygonum.) Of this 
 extensive genus there are several indi- 
 genous plants passing under the denomina- 
 tion of persicaria. 
 
 1 . The amphibious persicaria (P. amphi- 
 bium), a perennial, is common in ponds and 
 ditches about their banks. The root is 
 creeping, with numerous whorls of white or 
 red fibres. Leaves stalked, generally flout- 
 ing, ovate-lanceolate, more or less acute, 
 single-ribbed, minutely serrated, smooth, 
 bright green. Flowers crimson, in elegant, 
 ovate, dense spikes raised above the water. 
 Water fowl are said by Curtis to be fond of 
 the seeds. 
 
 2. Spotted persicaria (P. persicaria) is 
 an annual species, with a fibrous root. It 
 is a very common weed in wet fields, watery 
 places, and about ditches. Stem erect, 
 sometimes throwing out radicles from the 
 lowermost joints, one to two feet high, 
 round, smooth, often reddish. Leaves 
 spreading, a little drooping, lanceolate, 
 marked about the centre of the disk with a 
 black crescent- shaped spot. The flowers 
 are in clusters, dense, ovate-oblong, erect, 
 rose-coloured or whitish. 
 
 3. Great bistort. (P. bistorta.) Is a pe- 
 rennial flowering in June. The roots are 
 attached to an underground caudex, con- 
 torted to the shape of an S : hence the spe- 
 cific name of the plant. The roots of bistort 
 contain much tannic acid in combination 
 with fecula, and form an admirable astrin- 
 gent in diarrhoea, and the latter stage of 
 dysentery, when no inflammation is present. 
 A decoction made with one ounce, bruised 
 and boiled in a pint of water and strained, 
 may be given in doses of two table-spoon- 
 fuls. 
 
 There are three other species of persi- 
 caria, the pale-flowered (P. lapathifolium), 
 the biting (P. hydropiper), and the small 
 creeping (P. minus}, which are not suffi- 
 ciently distinct or of importance to call for 
 especial notice. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 232.) See Arsmart and Bistort. 
 
 PETTY MUGUET. One of the names 
 of the ladies' bedstraw (Galium verum). 
 
 PEW. See Churchwarden. 
 
 PHEASANT. (Phasianus Colchicus.) 
 This is one of the most beautiful birds, on 
 account of the vivid colour and diversity 
 of its plumage ; and being held in high es- 
 timation at the tables of the wealthy and 
 luxurious, great care and expense are be- 
 stowed in preserving and increasing the 
 bird by noblemen and other considerable 
 landed proprietors. In Britain it inhabits 
 I woods, brakes, and thickets in the day- 
 3 p 2 
 
PHLOX. 
 
 PIGEON. 
 
 time, and at night roosts on the tops of the 
 highest trees. The food of pheasants in a 
 wild state consists of grain, seeds, green 
 leaves, and insects. The whole length of a 
 male pheasant is about three feet, depend- 
 ing upon the age of the bird and the con- 
 sequent length of the two middle feathers 
 of the tail, which frequently measure two 
 feet. The female measures about two feet. 
 (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol.ii. p. 277.) 
 
 PHEASANT'S-E YE. See Adonis- 
 Flower. 
 
 PHLEUM. See Cat's Tail. 
 
 PHLOX. (From. p7dox, a flame; alluding 
 to the appearance of the flowers.) This is an 
 elegant genus of plants. The species are 
 all rendered more valuable from their lively 
 red, purple, or white flowers, being pro- 
 duced at a season of the year when the 
 majority of the plants that flower at the 
 same period are syngenesious, and, for the 
 most part, yellow. All the species root 
 freely by cuttings under glass, or by divi- 
 sions. {Paxton's Bat Diet.) 
 
 PICKLE. See Brining of Grain, 
 Steep, and Salting. 
 
 PIE. A provincial term for a raised 
 mound, or pit for preserving potatoes and 
 other roots ; and it is also applied to the 
 compost heaps formed when the farm-yard 
 dung is carried into the fields. 
 
 PIECE-WORK. That which is done 
 by the job or piece. It is sometimes called 
 task work. See Labour. 
 
 PIG. See Swine. 
 
 PIG DUNG. See Farm- Yard Dung. 
 
 PIG-NUT. See Earth-Nut. 
 
 PIG-STY. The name of the place where 
 hogs are kept. 
 
 PIG-TAIL. A provincial term some- 
 times applied to a small slip of ground, 
 generally in the state of grass. 
 
 PIGGERY. A collection of small sties 
 where hogs or swine are lodged. See Swine. 
 
 PIGEON. (Columba.) This bird, with 
 all its numerous varieties of tumblers, car- 
 riers, powts, &c, is derived from one com- 
 mon species, denominated the stock dove. 
 Mr. Yarrell, in his History of British Bi?*ds, 
 describes five species of doves or pigeons, 
 viz. — 
 
 1. The ring-dove, or wood pigeon (C. 
 palumbus). Our ring-dove, so called from 
 the white feathers which form a portion of 
 a ring round its neck, a well known bird, 
 which is also called a wood pigeon in many 
 parts of England, is the largest wild pigeon 
 in this country, and even in Europe. It is 
 a constant resident in the warm and tem- 
 perate districts of the Continent, as well as 
 in all the wooded and enclosed parts of the 
 British Islands. In this country the ring- 
 dove is also called the cushat, and the 
 
 queest : the last names having reference to 
 a tone of sadness which pervades their 
 notes. The nest of this bird consists of a 
 few sticks laid thinly across each other. 
 Two oval white eggs are laid, one inch 
 eight lines long by one inch two lines 
 broad. Two, and sometimes three broods, 
 are produced in the season. The old birds 
 feed during spring and summer on green 
 corn, young clover, grain of all sorts, with 
 peas in particular, and during autumn and 
 winter on acorns, beech-nuts, berries, and 
 turnip leaves. 
 
 The whole length of this bird is seven- 
 teen inches. The plumage of the upper 
 parts of the body is bluish-grey, the neck 
 and breast are vinous purple red ; the 
 belly, &c, ash-grey ; legs and toes red. 
 
 2. The stock dove (C anas). This spe- 
 cies derives its name from building in the 
 stocks of trees, particularly such as have 
 been headed down, and have become in 
 consequence rugged and bushy at the top. 
 The eggs are not quite so long as those of 
 the ring-dove. The food of this species is 
 very similar to that of the ring-dove. The 
 plumage is for the most part bluish-grey, 
 the sides of the neck glossy, with green re- 
 flections ; breast purple-red. The whole 
 length of the female is thirteen inches. 
 
 3. The rock dove (C. livia), as its name 
 implies, is a species which, in its natural 
 and wild state, inhabits high rocks near the 
 sea coast, in the cavities of which it lives 
 the greater part of the year, only venturing 
 during summer as far inland as may be 
 necessary to visit the nearest corn fields, or 
 other places from which it can obtain its 
 food. It is distinguished as a species from the 
 stock dove by its lighter or more livid blue 
 colour ; the pure white on the lower part 
 of the back ; the two conspicuous black bars 
 across the wings, and the voice, in conjunc- 
 tion with very opposite habits. The whole 
 length of the bird is eleven inches and a 
 half. The eggs are white, one inch five 
 lines long by one inch two lines and a half 
 broad. 
 
 4. The turtle dove (C. turtur) is only a 
 summer visitor here. These birds arrive in 
 England from the African coast about the 
 end of April or the beginning of May, and 
 are rather more numerous in the south- 
 eastern, southern, and midland counties, 
 than in those which are farther north. 
 
 Their food is grain, particularly wheat, 
 and they are constant visitors to the wheat 
 field while the corn is growing, and to pea 
 fields : they also feed on rape and other 
 small seeds. They frequent woods, fir 
 plantations, and high thick hedges dividing 
 arable land. The eggs are one inch two 
 lines and a half long by ten inches in width. 
 
PIGHTLE. 
 
 PINE-APPLE. 
 
 The plumage is in general brown, of various 
 shades ; legs and toes yellow-brown. The 
 whole length of the bird is eleven inches 
 and a half. 
 
 5. The passenger pigeon (C. Ectopistes 
 migratorius). This beautiful bird is a na- 
 tive of North America. Its appearance on 
 our coasts is very rare. The whole length 
 of an adult male bird is seventeen inches. 
 (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 249. 276.) 
 
 PIGEON'S DUNG. See Dove Cote 
 and Guano. 
 
 PIGHTLE. A provincial term applied 
 to a email inclosure or croft. 
 
 PIKE. A word' of various signification 
 in different districts. In some counties it 
 is applied to a prong, or what is generally 
 called a fork used for carrying straw, &c. 
 from the barn, cocking of hay, &c. In 
 others it signifies a sort of stacklet or load, 
 coclfr of hay, &c. In the midland districts 
 it means to glean. 
 
 PIKE. (Esox Lucius.) This is a well- 
 known indigenous fish, whose voracity is 
 notorious. They may be caught with al- 
 most any bait. The size of the English 
 pike is in some instances very great ; it has 
 been caught weighing ninety pounds. The 
 pike is a long fish, with a very flat head. 
 Its usual colour is a pale olive grey, deepest 
 on the back. They cast their spawn in 
 March and April, and are in season from 
 the end of May to the beginning of Fe- 
 bruary. They are called jack till they be- 
 come twenty-four inches long. (Walton's 
 Angler ; Blaine s Rural Sports.) 
 
 PILCHARD. A fish which greatly re- 
 sembles the common herring; and though 
 its body is somewhat shorter, yet it is con- 
 siderably thicker, and contains a larger 
 proportion of oil. Pilchards appear in ex- 
 tensive shoals on the coasts of Cornwall and 
 Devonshire in July ; and the fishery gives 
 employment to a large number of persons. 
 The garbage, refuse salt, and wasted fish, 
 are extensively used as a manure in the 
 western districts. See Fish as a Manure. 
 
 PILE. A sharpened beam of wood driven 
 down into the ground to protect the banks 
 of rivers or for other similar purposes. Pile 
 is also provincially applied to the breaking 
 off the awns of thrashed barley, and to a 
 blade of grass. 
 
 PILING-IRON. A tool used in break- 
 ing off the awns of barley, and sometimes 
 the tails of oats, an operation which with 
 the farmers is called piling barley. See 
 
 HUMMELLER. 
 
 PILE WORT CROWFOOT. See Crow- 
 toot. 
 
 PILL W r ORT. (Pilularia, from pilula, 
 a pill ; shape of the heads containing the 
 reproductive organs.) The creeping pill 
 949 
 
 wort, or pepper-grass (P. globulifera), Is 
 an obscure little plant, found in damp mea- 
 dows among grass, especially where they 
 have been overflowed with water during 
 winter. It is a perennial in habit, putting 
 forth brown flowers in June and July. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iv. p. 341.) 
 
 PIMPERNEL. (Anagallis.) A genus 
 of very pretty interesting plants of easy 
 culture. There are three indigenous species. 
 
 1. The common scarlet pimpernel (A. 
 a?-vensis), which is common in fields and 
 gardens. The beautiful bright scarlet flowers 
 close at the approach of rain, as farmers 
 and shepherds in general well know ; hence 
 it has been popularly called the " poor man's 
 weather glass." This is an annual- species. 
 The root is small ; stem branched from the 
 lower part, often dotted with purple ; more or 
 less procumbent, square. Leaves ovate,many- 
 ribbed, dotted with purple at the back. 
 
 2. Blue pimpernel. (A. ccerulea.) This 
 is also an annual species, found in corn- 
 fields, but more rare than the last, which it 
 very much resembles in every part, except 
 that the corolla is smaller, of a most vivid 
 blue, paler beneath ; its margin strongly, 
 acutely, and unequally notched. Whether 
 a species or variety, the blue pimpernel is 
 reported to be constantly propagated by 
 seed. 
 
 3. Bog pimpernel. (A. tenella.) This 
 species is perennial, and is not uncommon 
 on wet, spongy, mossy bogs. The root and 
 stems are creeping ; the whole plant smooth, 
 except the stamens, depressed, branched, 
 with small roundish leaves, somewhat point- 
 ed, stalked, finely dotted underneath. Flow- 
 ers erect, rose-coloured, on slender stalks, 
 much longer than the leaves, and becoming 
 twisted when in fruit. The bog pimpernel 
 yields to none of our wild plants in elegance. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 280.) 
 
 PIMPERNEL, BASTARD. See Chaff- 
 weed. 
 
 PIMPERNEL, WATER. See Brook- 
 weed. 
 
 PINE APPLE. (Ananassa sativa ; from 
 nanas, the Guiana name.) A tropical fruit, 
 native of South America and some of the 
 West India Islands, which is now exten- 
 sively cultivated in hot-houses in this coun- 
 try, and is well known to every one. The 
 plants that yield this very superior fruit, 
 so much esteemed for its luscious aromatic 
 flavour, were first brought to this country 
 in 1699 by the Earl of Portland; but it is 
 said it was first grown in this country by 
 Sir Matthew Dickens, at Richmond, where 
 fruit was produced in 1715. There are now 
 as many as thirty distinct varieties cul- 
 tivated in this country, but of these only a 
 few merit cultivation, such as the common 
 3 p 3 
 
PINE 
 
 TREE. 
 
 broad-leaved queen, Ripley queen, and le- 
 mon queen ; black Jamaica ; New and Old 
 Providence ; Antigua ; Montserrat; and two 
 or three others of very good quality. The 
 plants are obtained from suckers and from 
 the crown of the fruit. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet ; 
 Phillips's Fruits ; Speeehley on the Culture 
 of the Pine Apple.) 
 
 PINE TREE. (Pinus, from pinos ; a 
 Greek word used by Theophrastus, to de- 
 signate a pine tree ; and some authors derive 
 it from the Celtic pin or py n, a mountain or 
 rock, alluding to the habitat of the tree.) 
 This much- esteemed and well-known genus, 
 belonging to the gymnospermous division 
 of exogens, contains some of the trees of 
 most universal use in civilised society, and 
 which form a very important article of com- 
 merce, both in Europe and America. The 
 genus Pinus is distinguished from the firs, 
 by the leaves bein^ needle-shaped and 
 grouped in pairs, or in three, four, or five 
 together; held, as it were, together by a 
 sheath at their base. Most, if not all of the 
 species, are highly deserving of culture, 
 being very ornamental and beautiful in 
 every stage of their growth. They will 
 succeed on almost any kind of soil, but to 
 bring the timber to its greatest state of per- 
 fection, a somewhat loamy surface soil and 
 a cool subsoil are requisite. Young plants 
 may be obtained by a variety of methods. 
 All the species may be propagated by layers, 
 by inarching on nearly allied kinds, and by 
 herbaceous grafting ; many may also be in- 
 creased by cuttings, but the speediest way 
 is by seed, and which process I shall briefly 
 notice. In some of the species the cones 
 attain their full size the first year, but in 
 most not till the end of the second autumn. 
 The cones of P. sylvest?'is, and those allied 
 to it, open of themselves shortly after being 
 gathered from the tree, and spread out in 
 the sun ; but the cones of P. Pinaster, P. 
 Pinea, and similar kinds, do not, though 
 treated in the same manner ; and open their 
 scales only after several months. The seed 
 should be sown on a finely-prepared rather 
 sandy soil, in March or April. The seeds 
 of the most common kinds are always sown 
 on beds, and after being gently beaten down 
 are slightly covered with light soil. 
 
 There are upwards of fifty species of 
 pines, and the appearance of the tree, as 
 well as the quality of the timber, varies 
 with the species and with the situation in 
 which each grows. Generally speaking, the 
 timber is hardest and best in exposed cold 
 situations, and where its growth is slow. I 
 shall only notice those species, the timber 
 of which is most in use in this country. 
 
 1 . The Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) is a 
 native of the Scotch mountains, Denmark, 
 950 
 
 Norway, and of most northern parts of 
 Europe. It is straight, abruptly branched, 
 rising in favourable situations to the height 
 of eighty or ninety feet, and being from 
 three to four feet in diameter. The leaves 
 are in pairs, short and glaucous. The cones 
 are ovate-conical, acute, stalked, generally 
 in pairs. The scales are obtuse ; the crest 
 of the anthers is very small; the flowers 
 appear in May and June. It is at perfec- 
 tion when seventy or eighty years old. The 
 colour of the wood differs considerably : it 
 is usually of a reddish yellow, or of a honey 
 colour, of various degrees of brightness. 
 Scotch fir is the most durable of the pine 
 species. Its lightness and stiffness render 
 it superior to any other material for beams, 
 girders, joists, rafters, &c. It is much used 
 in joiners work, as it is more easily wrought, 
 stands betters, is much cheaper, and is 
 nearly, if not quite as durable as oak. The 
 wood of the Scotch fir, grown in England, 
 is inferior to that in Scotland; and the 
 tree is chiefly used as a nurse for other 
 trees in young plantations. Tar, pitch, and 
 common turpentine are obtained from the 
 Scotch fir, and when the tree has attained 
 to a proper age, it is not injured by the 
 extraction of these products. 
 
 2. The Norway spruce pine. (Pinus 
 Abies, Lin.) The white spruce (P. alba), and 
 the black spruce (P. nigra), although often 
 classed as belonging to this genus, yet are 
 in truth firs ; and they are now properly 
 termed Abies excelsa, A. alba, arid A. nigra ; 
 but as they were not mentioned under firs, 
 they are here described. The Norway 
 spruce is a noble tree, rising in a straight 
 stem, from 100 to 150 feet in height. The 
 leaves are tetragonal and mucronate; the 
 cones cylindrical, pendulous ; the scales blunt, 
 rhomboid, flat, jagged, and bent backwards 
 at the margin. It is a native of Norway, 
 Russia, and the north of Europe, in moist 
 springy places. It is cultivated in this 
 country. It yields the timber known by 
 the name of white fir, or Christiana deal, 
 from its being always imported in deals or 
 planks. The Norway spruce thrives very 
 well in Britain, and produces timber little 
 inferior to the foreign ; it is somewhat softer, 
 and the knots are extremely hard. 
 
 3. White spruce (Pinus, or Abies alba) 
 is a comparatively small tree, seldom rising 
 more than forty or fifty feet in height. 
 The leaves are glaucous, quadrangular, pun- 
 gent, and spreading equally round the 
 branch. The leaves are narrow, oval, acu- 
 minate, with even entire scales. It is a 
 native of the coldest regions of North Ame- 
 rica. The Indians in Canada use the fibres 
 of the roots steeped in water, as thread to 
 sow together their bark canoes. The tim- 
 
PINE TREE. 
 
 PIPE CLAY. 
 
 ber is of little value, but the bark contains 
 tannic acid, which renders it useful in 
 tanning. 
 
 4. Black spruce (Pinus or Abies nigra). 
 The leaves resemble those of the Norway 
 spruce, but are shorter. The cones are 
 egg-shaped, with rugged, rounded scales. 
 It is a native of the coldest regions of North 
 America, where it abounds in swampy situ- 
 ations ; and rises seventy or eighty feet in 
 height. The timber is strong, light, and 
 elastic, admirably adapted for the spars and 
 yards of ships. When tapped, it yields 
 what is termed the essence of spruce. 
 
 5. The stone pine (Pinus Pined) is a 
 true pine, a native of the South of Europe, 
 and the Levant ; but it is easily naturalised 
 to our climate. It belongs to the class of 
 pine, the scales of whose cones are obtuse at 
 the apex. The trunk is erect, the leaves in 
 pairs, stiff, dark green. The cones are 
 roundish, very smooth, with truncated 
 scales, and contain large oblong seeds with 
 a short wing. The timber is white and 
 durable. 
 
 The other pines of this class are — P. pu- 
 milio, P. unicinata, P. resinera, P. halepen- 
 sis, P. brutia, P. Banksiana, P. Pallasiana, 
 P. Austriaca, and P. Laricio. Those with 
 leaves in pairs, and having cones spiny at 
 the apex, are — P. pungens, P. mitis, P. 
 inops, and P. Pinaster. Pines with leaves 
 in threes, with the scales of the cones ob- 
 tuse, are — P. sinensis, P. insignis, P. cana- 
 densis, P. Ocote, and P. patula : and among 
 those with the scales of the spiny, we find — 
 the southern pine (P. australis), a native 
 of Virginia, characterised by an erect, cy- 
 lindrical trunk, long leaves, three in each 
 sheath, grass-green. The cones egg-shaped, 
 seven or eight inches long, with depressed 
 scales, armed with a sharp spine. The tree 
 rises seventy or eighty feet in height ; yields 
 excellent timber, light, clean, and durable, 
 and abundance of tar. It does not succeed 
 in England. The others are — P. Tada, 
 P. rigida, P. serotina, P. ponderosa, P. Sa- 
 biniana, P. Coulteri, P. longifolia, P. Ge~ 
 rardiana. The pines with five leaves in a 
 sheath, and obtuse cones, are — P.leiophylla, 
 P. Montezumce, P. filifolia, P. Apulcensis, 
 P. pseudostrobus, P. Russelliana, P. Devon- 
 iana, P Hartwegii. With spiny scales of 
 the cones — P. occidentalism P. macrophylla. 
 With flat scales, compressed at the apex, — 
 P. Cembra, P. Strobus, P. excelsa, P. Lam- 
 bertiana, and one or two others. 
 
 For a great mass of other useful in- 
 formation relative to these fine trees, in- 
 deed for every thing that is necessary to 
 know respecting them, we refer the reader 
 to Loudon's Arboretum et Fruticetum Bi'i- 
 tannicum, a work which ought to be in the 
 951 
 
 hands of every lover of hardy trees and 
 shrubs. The Norway pine yields Burgundy 
 pitch, and common frankincense, by spon- 
 taneous exudation. (Paxtons Bot. Diet. ; 
 Phillips's Sylv. Flor. ; M^CullocKs Com. 
 Diet.) See Firs and Larch. 
 
 PINE, THE GllOUND. See Bugle. 
 
 PIN-FALLOW. A provincial term ap- 
 plied to winter fallow. 
 
 PINK. (Dianthus; from dios, divine; 
 and anthos, a flower, in reference to the 
 fragrance of the blossoms and the unrivalled 
 neatness of the flowers.) A truly beautiful 
 and ornamental genus, containing some of 
 the most prized flowers we possess, on ac- 
 count of the beauty and fragrance of their 
 blossoms, and their foliage, which is as green 
 and vivid in winter as it is in summer. The 
 genus is divided into those with solitary 
 and those with aggregate flowers. The 
 clove pink or carnation (D. caryophyllus) is 
 an indigenous perennial. Smith says it is 
 the origin of all our carnations. (See Car- 
 nation.) The other species of this divi- 
 sion is the maiden pink (D. deltoides) ; and 
 with it may be classed the mountain pink, 
 which bears single-flowered stems, with 
 hairy, unequally notched petals. The ag- 
 gregate pinks are Deptford pink (D. Arme- 
 ria), a beautiful species, with small in- 
 odorous flowers, speckled pink and white. 
 The stems are leafy, forked, corymbose ; 
 the leaves linear, lanceolate, keeled, erect ; 
 but the lowermost spreading. In the same 
 division is the proliferous pink (D. proli- 
 fera), an annual. The rarer kinds of pinks 
 should be grown in pots, so that they can 
 be protected in winter ; they all delight in 
 loamy soil, mixed with a little rotten dung 
 or decayed leaves and sand. They may be 
 increased by seeds or cuttings; the last 
 method is preferable. The cuttings should 
 be planted out under a glass, about the 
 middle of June, and if they are placed on 
 a gentle hot-bed, they will be ready for 
 planting out in about three weeks. The 
 annual and biennial kinds merely require 
 sowing in the open border, where they will 
 grow and flower freely. (Paxtoris Pot. 
 Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 285.) 
 
 PIONY. See Peony. 
 
 PIP. A disease among poultry, consist- 
 ing in a white thin skin, or film, growing 
 upon or under the tip of the tongue, which 
 hinders the feeding. It is supposed to arise 
 from the drinking of foul water, or eating 
 filthy meat ; it is usually cured by pulling 
 off the film with the fingers, and washing 
 the part with a solution of common salt. 
 
 PIPE CLAY. A species of clay abound- 
 ing in Devonshire and other parts of Eng- 
 land, employed in the manufacture of 
 earthenware. See Mixture or Soijls. 
 3 p 4 
 
PIPEWORT. 
 
 PLANTAIN. 
 
 PIPEWORT. (Eriocaidon; from erion, 
 wool, and caulon, a stem, in allusion to the 
 woolly stems.) These are very interesting 
 plants, particularly the jointed pipe wort 
 (E. septangular e), an aquatic species which 
 nourishes exceedingly well in the lakes of 
 Scotland, where, in some parts as well as in 
 Ireland, it is found in abundance. The 
 roots are creeping, with numerous, long, 
 white, finely-jointed radicles, matted to- 
 gether in dense tufts, so as to form floating 
 islands. Leaves radical, numerous, chan- 
 nelled, smooth, two or three inches long, 
 tapering gradually from a broadish base to 
 a capillary point, all finely cellular inter- 
 nally. Stalk three or four times as tall, with 
 a tubular sheath at the base, solitary, simple, 
 naked, a little twisted, having about seven 
 angles. Flowers solitary, terminal, almost 
 globular, like a white double daisy, though 
 not half so large, finely downy, tinged with 
 purple. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 140.) 
 
 PIPIT. (Anthus). In ornithology, the 
 name of two British birds. 
 
 The tree pipit (A. arboreus) is a summer 
 visitor to these islands, arriving about the 
 third week in April. Its nest is on the 
 ground in woods and plantations, or under 
 rushes in hedge-rows, formed of moss with 
 fibrous roots and dried grass. Eggs four 
 or five, whose colour is greyish white spot- 
 ted with purple brown or purple red. This 
 bird feeds on insects and worms. The 
 colour of the beak is dark brown ; the neck, 
 head, back, and wings, olive brown ; the 
 chin and throat pale brownish white ; the 
 whole length of the bird is about six inches 
 and a half. 
 
 The meadow pipit (A. pratensis) is a 
 resident in the British islands during the 
 year. It tenants the commons, wastes, 
 moors, meadows, and marsh lands. It feeds 
 on worms, insects, and small slugs. It 
 builds its nest on the ground of dried bents, 
 lined with a few hairs. The eggs are four 
 or five, of a reddish brown colour, mottled 
 over with darker brown. The egg of the 
 cuckoo is more frequently deposited and 
 hatched in the nest of the meadow pipit, 
 than in that of any other bird. The beak 
 of this little songster is dark brown. The 
 feathers of the head, neck, back, wing, and 
 upper tail-coverts, dark brown in the middle, 
 but much lighter brown at the margin ; the 
 length of the bird is six inches. (YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. v. p. 384—389.) 
 
 PISTIL. In botany, the columnar body 
 in the centre of a flower, consisting com- 
 monly of three parts ; viz. the ovary, styles, 
 and stigmas. It is one of the essential 
 parts o£ the flower; and when it is absent 
 the flower is sterile. It receives the pollen, 
 and communicates its stimulus to the ovules; 
 952 
 
 without which the seeds are imperfect, and 
 do not germinate. 
 
 PITCH. (Germ, peck.) In commerce, 
 the residuum which remains on inspissating 
 tar, or boiling it down to dryness. It is 
 a black solid substance, with a shining frac- 
 ture, softens at 90°, and becomes liquid in 
 boiling water. It is extensively used in 
 ship-building, and for other purposes. Large 
 quantities are manufactured in Great Bri- 
 tain, but not sufficient to supply the great 
 demand. The duty on importation is lOd. 
 per cwt. In husbandry, pitch signifies a 
 fork- full of hay, corn, or straw, or as much 
 as is raised to the load, stack, or mow, at 
 one time. 
 
 PLANKS. (Germ. plariken; Dan.planker ; 
 Fr. planches.) Thick strong boards cut from 
 various kinds of wood, especially oak and 
 pine. Planks are usually of the thickness 
 of from one inch to four. They are im- 
 ported in large quantities from the northern - 
 ports of Europe, and from several parts of 
 North America. Those employed for mak- 
 ing sheds or farm out-houses should be 
 tarred, or steeped in corrosive sublimate. 
 
 PLANT. In natural history. See 
 Botany, Acclimatation, Temperature, 
 Earths, Gases, Water, Organic Che- 
 mistry, &c. 
 
 PLANTAIN. (Plantago; derived from 
 planta, the sole of the foot ; resemblance in 
 the leaves.) A genus of plants, the greater 
 number of the species of which are mere 
 weeds : they are generally almost stemless, 
 and for the most part perennial. There are 
 five native species : — 
 
 1. Greater plantain, or way-bread (P. 
 major), which is very common in meadows, 
 pastures, and waste and cultivated ground, 
 perennial, and in flower all summer. The 
 root consists of many long stout fibres. The 
 leaves are radical, numerous, broad, with 
 seven or nine ribs, on channelled ribbed 
 stalks, often longer than themselves; margins 
 wavy or toothed. Flowers on long spikes, 
 small, whitish, with reddish anthers, very 
 numerous ; the spikes, each on a simple 
 naked radical stalk. The seeds, which are 
 angular, in a membranous capsule, are the 
 food of small birds. The rose-shaped variety 
 and the panicled one are often cultivated 
 in gardens for the sake of curiosity, and 
 afford remarkable instances of vegetable 
 transformation. This species, like the whole 
 genus, in general, is mucilaginous, and some- 
 what astringent, qualities which render it 
 not altogether an useless rustic medicine. 
 Cows and horses do not relish this plant, 
 but it is eaten by sheep, goats, and swine. 
 
 2. Hoary plantain (P. media). This 
 species grows abundantly in chalky or 
 gravelly hills. The root is rather woody. 
 
PLANTAIN. 
 
 PLANTATION. 
 
 The leaves are ovate, downy, all pressed 
 close to the ground, hoary, entire, with five 
 or seven ribs. Flower stalks round, taller 
 than the foregoing, five-angled, hoary, nearly 
 twisted and smooth. Spike an inch long, 
 with black imbricated bractes. Corolla 
 pale, with large cream-coloured anthers. 
 Spike shorter and thicker, very dense in 
 every part. Seeds solitary. The hoary 
 plantain, a great and lasting nuisance in 
 fine grass-plats, is best killed by a drop of 
 vitriolic acid on the crown of the root, 
 which it never long survives. Its medical 
 qualities are like the former. 
 
 3. Iiibwort plantain, or rib-grass (P. lan- 
 ceolatd) is also a very common species in 
 meadows and pastures. The leaves are' 
 numerous, erect, deep green, acute, each 
 tapering at the base into a broad, flat, 
 ribbed foot-stalk, accompanied at its in- 
 sertion with large tufts of soft, white, woolly 
 fibres. Flower- stalks taller than the leaves, 
 likewise woolly at the base, five- angled, 
 with intermediate furrows, nearly smooth, 
 twisted. Spike ovate, an inch long, with 
 black imbricated bractes, occasionally leafy 
 at the base. This species makes a part of 
 most meadow hay, and has been cultivated 
 as a crop, but seems to be now disused. 
 Cattle are said not to eat it willingly, at 
 least by itself. The total absence of rib- 
 grass in marshy lands is a certain criterion 
 of their indifferent quality ; and in propor- 
 tion as such soils are improved by draining, 
 this plant will flourish and abound. 
 
 4. Sea plantain (P. maritima). This 
 grows in muddy salt marshes, and about the 
 mouths of large rivers. It is perennial, 
 and flowers in August and September. 
 The root is long and cylindrical ; herb va- 
 rious in luxuriance. The leaves are all 
 radical, numerous, from four to twelve, 
 inches long, dull-green, linear, channelled, 
 hairy, nearly entire. Flower-stalks round % 
 longer than the leaves, ereet, smooth. 
 Spikes cylindrical, slender, many-flowered, 
 dense, with fleshy keeled bractes, not longer 
 than the calyx. Sheep appear to be very 
 fond of this species. 
 
 5. Buck's-horn plantain, or star of the 
 earth (P. Coronopus). This is an annual 
 species, which flourishes on dry, sandy, or 
 gravelly ground, flowering from June to 
 August. The root is tapering; leaves pale, 
 hairy, in pinnatifid pointed segments. Spikes 
 numerous, dense, cylindrical, varying greatly 
 in length, on spreading hairy stalks. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol.i. p. 213.) 
 
 PLANTAIN, THE WATER. See 
 Water-Plantain. 
 
 PLANTATION. A piece of ground 
 planted with trees, for the purpose of pro- 
 ducing timber or coppice wood; and the 
 953 
 
 term is also applied to a collection of trees 
 or shrubs placed in the ground for their 
 beauty or usefulness. It is a theme highly 
 important to the landholder, and is one too 
 interesting to the cultivator to be passed 
 over slightly in a work of this character. 
 
 For the correct consideration of the best 
 mode of forming plantations of timber trees, 
 several circumstances must, of necessity, be 
 taken into the planter's account, of which 
 the principal are — 1st, The composition of 
 the soil ; 2dly, The trees to which that soil 
 is best adapted ; 3dly, The elevation, or in- 
 clination of the land : an inattention to 
 these three primary questions has been the 
 source of much waste of time, of labour, 
 and of capital. 
 
 In the examination of this subject, I 
 propose to divide my account of the timber 
 trees best adapted to poor soils, into four 
 classes; viz. those best fitted for, 1st, chalk 
 soils ; 2dly, for clay ; 3dly, for sandy lands; 
 4thly, for peat earths ; and, in so doing, I 
 shall conclude, that the land is planted in 
 the usual way without any addition of 
 earths to render the soil more permanently 
 fertile, although I am well aware what ex- 
 cellent results attend the efforts of those 
 planters who have thus, by altering as it 
 were the composition of their land, ren- 
 dered it capable of producing almost any 
 description of timber. And in this, as in 
 all researches where vegetation is con- 
 cerned, nature is ever our guide and in- 
 structor. We find indigenous on the chalks, 
 the beech, the birch, and the ash ; the oak 
 tenants the clay formation, the elm delights 
 in rich alluvial bottoms, and in warm shel- 
 tered situations. To the sand is left the 
 fir tribe, the ash, and the birch ; which last 
 most picturesque tree will endure a climate, 
 and vegetate on soils, far too cold and too 
 barren for any other to exist in. On the 
 warm gravels, and on deep light loams, we 
 find the Spanish chestnut located ; and if, 
 on even the peat, we only occasionally meet 
 with a few straggling mountain ash and 
 Scotch firs, it is not because the compo- 
 sition of the soil is too poor to sustain a 
 better description of timber tree, but that 
 the soil is usually saturated with water, too 
 much impregnated with the salts of iron 
 for any plants to be successfully planted till 
 that corrosive moisture is removed. 
 
 Then, again, as regards the temperature 
 best adapted to the tree, much too little 
 attention is commonly paid. The fir tribe 
 I have ever found to delight in dry cool 
 elevations. I have generally failed when- 
 ever I have attempted to make the larch 
 grow in warm rich bottoms ; but there is 
 hardly a dry spot in England too cold or 
 too poor for its successful cultivation. The 
 
PLANTATION. 
 
 planters of the poor elevated chalk ridges 
 of Hampshire have made the same remark ; 
 fhey tell you that both the larch and the 
 Scotch fir ever nourish most . luxuriantly 
 when planted on land with a northern or 
 eastern inclination. Now the larch is a 
 native of the Appennines and other cold 
 districts : the Scotch fir is found, in the 
 highest state of perfection, on the shores of 
 the Baltic, and in Norway. The nursery- 
 men well know that land with an easterly 
 aspect is the most suitable for young 
 larch. They never prosper where the sun 
 lays long upon them. They evidently, 
 therefore, prefer a temperature much lower 
 than that in which the oak and the Spanish 
 chestnut flourish best ; by far the finest 
 specimens of the first being found in the 
 deep sheltered clays of the south of Eng- 
 land, while, in the adjoining rich allu- 
 vial deposits, we notice the noblest chestnut 
 trees. Thus Tortworth, in Gloucestershire, 
 for instance, can here produce, perhaps, the 
 finest specimen in England ; and on the 
 deep sheltered volcanic matter of Mount 
 Vesuvius, it is found in unrivalled vigour. 
 
 These facts should be more carefully at- 
 tended to by the English planter : he should 
 consider the inequalities of his land and the 
 habits of his trees, and distribute them ac- 
 cordingly. Leaving the natives of a tem- 
 perate climate to the southern and western 
 slopes, he should devote to the northern 
 declinations the natives of a colder clime ; 
 to them consign the larch and the Scotch 
 fir, the ash and the birch. 
 
 This last mentioned tree will, in fact, 
 grow at a greater elevation above the sea, 
 and in a more northern latitude, than any 
 other. As we approach the Arctic regions, 
 it is the last tree that remains to us. Long 
 after all others have departed it still flou- 
 rishes : in Greenland there is no other tree. 
 
 Then, again, as in all other questions 
 where plants of any kind are to be made to 
 vegetate, the chemical composition of the 
 soil is a tolerably certain criterion, when 
 compared with that of the wood of trees, to 
 guide us in our selection of the species to 
 which that land is the best adapted : the 
 earths found in them by the chemist are 
 sure to indicate the soils on which they will 
 flourish. Thus, the ashes of the perfect 
 wood of the oak contain more than 38 
 per cent, of soluble salts, and only 2 per 
 cent, of silica (flint) ; that of the fir (Abies), 
 grown on granite, only 16 per cent, of 
 soluble salts, but 19 per cent, of silica. 
 Now the fir flourishes very well on the 
 poorest silicious sands, but the oak will not 
 grow on such soils without a dressing of 
 other earths. Carbonate of lime (chalk), 
 when in excess in soils, is less prejudicial to 
 
 the growth of trees than an excess of any 
 other earth. Now the carbonate of lime is 
 precisely that earth which is most com- 
 monly found in timber trees, and in the 
 largest proportions. The ashes of the wood 
 of the oak, for instance, contains about 32 
 per cent, of the earthy carbonates, the pop- 
 lar 29, the hazel 22, the hornbeam 26 per 
 cent. ; and that of the beech a still larger 
 proportion. And so almost universally 
 does carbonate of lime and silica exist in 
 wood, that M. Einhof, an able Prussian che- 
 mist, came to the conclusion that the plant 
 had the power of forming these earths 
 when growing on soils that did not contain 
 them : they certainly, however, are found 
 to absorb the largest proportion of carbon- 
 ate of lime and silica on soils in which those 
 earths abound. Thus M. Saussure found 
 in the ashes of the fir, growing on a soil 
 which contained 1 '74 per cent, of carbonate 
 of lime, 46 - 34 per cent, of this earth ; but 
 in the ashes of the same wood, produced 
 from a soil containing 93 per cent, of car- 
 bonate of lime, he found 63 per cent, of that 
 earth. And when the soil contained 75*25 
 per cent, of silica, the timber growing on it 
 contained 13*49 per cent.; but when the 
 soil was entirely free from the earth, it 
 was equally absent from the wood. (Phil. 
 Mag. vol. viii. p. 185.) 
 
 The observations of the planter confirm 
 entirely those of the chemist. Thus, on 
 the poor hungry heath lands, such as those 
 of Norfolk, Surrey, and the north, which 
 contain hardly a trace of carbonate of 
 lime, they find that by dressing land in- 
 tended for planting with chalk or marl, the 
 growth of the trees is very materially in- 
 creased ; and more recently, as in the forest 
 of Darnaway, in Scotland, the planters 
 have found the greatest advantage from 
 placing only a handful of lime (about four 
 bushels per acre is sufficient) in the soil 
 under the plants : by this means the young 
 trees, they say, are forced forward, that is, 
 they are supplied with the carbonate of 
 lime at the very period of their growth, 
 when their roots, from want of extent and 
 vigour, are least able to absorb from the 
 soil the portion of this earth so essential 
 for their healthy growth. And it is pre- 
 cisely such heath soils as those to which 
 I have alluded as being so materially bene- 
 fitted by the application of lime, chalk, or 
 marl (which also contains chalk), that are 
 found when examined, in their natural state, 
 to be nearly destitute of carbonate of lime. 
 
 It is for the same reasons that, in the 
 early state of their growth, timber plant- 
 ations are benefited so materially by being 
 manured with organic matters, a fact well 
 known to those who plant for merely orna- 
 
PLANTATION. 
 
 mental purposes ; and it is because all 
 timber trees contain phosphate of lime in 
 very considerable proportions, that crushed 
 bones are found to be so excellent a fer- 
 tiliser for them ; and hence one reason why 
 it has been long a well-known fact, that by 
 burying dead animals under trees nearly 
 exhausted for want of nourishment, those 
 trees will almost invariably be consider- 
 ably revived, and send out their shoots 
 with unusual vigour ; and how essential the 
 presence of phosphate of lime is to their 
 growth, may be judged of from the fact, 
 that this salt constitutes 4*5 per cent, of the 
 ashes of the oak, 35 in those of the hazel, 
 16-75 of the poplar, 23 in the hornbeam, 
 12 per cent, in those of the fir. 
 
 These chemical examinations naturally 
 support the conclusions to which I have 
 long come in my own experiments, that in 
 all plantations of timber trees, both on the 
 score of profit, and of ornament, it is in al- 
 most all situations desirable to assist the 
 growth of the young trees by a small addi- 
 tion of manure. On a large scale, this 
 must be chiefly confined to the use of the 
 earths, either lime, chalk, or marl, accord- 
 ing to their respective local value ; and 
 for this purpose, a smaller proportion per 
 acre of any kind of manure is of much 
 greater value than is commonly supposed. 
 I have usually under every plant merely ap- 
 plied a small shovelful of tolerably rotted 
 stable dung, stirring it up with the mould, 
 and as these experiments were principally 
 made on a poor hungry gravelly soil, nearly 
 destitute of carbonate of lime, I have 
 usually added to the beech plants, instead of 
 the farm-yard manure, a small quantity of 
 chalk. The effect has been highly advan- 
 tageous : my plantations have been very 
 superior to those of my neighbours (se- 
 parated from my own by merely a road) ; 
 and this they account for in their way, by 
 saying, " Oh, you took so much pains with 
 your trees, they were sure to grow." The 
 leading planters of England have neglected 
 in general this application of manure to 
 plantations, not from an ignorance of its 
 importance to their forest trees, but from 
 not being aware of the great value of it 
 even in very small quantities to the young 
 trees. Thus, when rich organic ma- 
 nures, in the proportion of two or even 
 one ton per acre, are applied under each 
 plant in the way I have described, they will 
 produce a very decided advantage, and if 
 the marl is rich in carbonate of lime, the 
 same weight of that fertiliser will be suffi- 
 cient. A still smaller quantity of chalk is 
 needed ; and as I have before observed, in 
 Scotland they have found about four bushels 
 of lime an abundant addition, since they 
 955 
 
 merely mix a handful of this earth in the soil 
 under each plant; and in the fine woods 
 produced by Mr. Withers, of Holt, by 
 spreading a poor marl over his hungry black 
 heath soil, and then ploughing them in 
 very deeply, he merely added about twenty 
 cubic yards per acre. 
 
 In preparing the land for plantations, 
 the same chemical examination of its com- 
 position well illustrates the advantage de- 
 rived by the plant, from merely previously 
 stirring the soil, since it is evident that 
 when the constituents of the young trees 
 are contained in it, in only very limited 
 proportions, in such case the more easily 
 their roots are enabled to penetrate in 
 search of that necessary nourishment, the 
 more rapid will be their growth. ' Previous 
 trenching of the soil also conduces to the 
 healthy growth of trees, in more ways than 
 one. It renders them less subject to in- 
 jury from want of moisture in the heats of 
 summer, the atmosphere more freely finds 
 access to their roots, and not only yields its 
 watery vapour in the warmest weather for 
 their service, but its gases, so essential to 
 their very existence, are also in a similar 
 manner more readily absorbed. 
 
 I have had many occasions to notice the 
 advantages of deeply stirring the land for 
 timber trees. In my early plantings, my 
 larch and other timber trees made but little 
 progress, for I merely placed them in holes 
 dug in the soil ; I neither manured, nor in 
 any way prepared the soil. An experiment, 
 however, which I made some years since, — in 
 which by merely trenching the soil with the 
 fork in a clump of larch, Scotch firs, and 
 birch to the depth of about twenty inches, 
 the growth of the trees, which had for 
 several years been extremely slow, was in 
 the succeeding years exceedingly vigor- 
 ous, — convinced me of the truth of the ob- 
 servations made by Sir Henry Steuart, Mr. 
 Withers, and others, of the great advantages 
 of trenching the soil, either by the spade, or 
 by the common or the subsoil plough. 
 
 The opinions and explanations given by 
 the labouring woodmen of the cause of the 
 occasional very luxuriant patches in exten- 
 sive young plantations accord with these con- 
 clusions. They tell you that those favoured 
 trees are on a deep tender piece of land. 
 
 The question being determined with re- 
 gard to the nature of the soil proposed to 
 be planted, we may next examine the kind 
 of trees best adapted to each. 
 
 On the clay soils will naturally flourish 
 (under ordinary circumstances) the oak, 
 the ash, and the Scotch fir : clays are not so 
 well adapted to the larch, which loves a dry 
 elevated gravelly or sandy soil, and larches 
 I have ever noticed will flourish better 
 
PLANTATION. 
 
 when mixed together than when growing in 
 masses of the same species, always supposing 
 that the firs are removed, as the more valu- 
 able round-headed trees attain to maturity. 
 The Scotch fir is an excellent nurse when 
 young, but it is, like the locust and the ash, 
 obnoxious to other trees, when it attains to 
 any considerable growth. In the wet bot- 
 toms of this kind of land, the ash and the 
 birch will be found to nourish luxuriantly ; 
 the hazel and the hornbeam should be its 
 cherished underwood. In these remarks, I 
 am supposing that the land is planted in 
 the usual way, neither improved by drain- 
 ing, stirring the soil, or improving its 
 staple by the addition of chalk, marl, or 
 calcareous sand. If the latter modes are 
 adopted, then on such soils almost any 
 kind of trees will nourish — the larch, the 
 beech, and the Spanish chestnut ; which last, 
 be it remembered, is not only to be classed 
 amongst the most elegant and valuable of 
 timber trees, but is also the most produc- 
 tive of underwood on soils that are natu- 
 rally, or made artificially, suitable to its 
 habits and food. 
 
 On the chalk soils, the beech, the ash, 
 the larch, the ever life-sustaining birch, and 
 the Scotch fir, are decidedly the best mix- 
 ture of forest trees ; they are best planted 
 together, and not in separate masses. The 
 beech, when planted in groups by itself, 
 does, it is true, very well in some peculiar 
 localities, but, generally speaking, it is best 
 mixed with other trees ; and they all, as I 
 have before remarked, flourish in a superior 
 way best on the northern sides of a hill, as 
 in the great southern chalk ridges of Kent, 
 Sussex, and Hampshire, and are benefited 
 very materially by the deep stirring of the 
 most compact chalk soil, as will be readily 
 attested by those who have thus previously 
 improved the soil, or have witnessed the 
 rapid, far superior growth of the trees planted 
 on an avalanche of earth in an old chalk pit. 
 
 The cedar tree is much too little culti- 
 vated as a forest tree in England, notwith- 
 standing the great value of its wood. This 
 neglect is principally owing to the general 
 erroneous impression that it is a very slow- 
 growing tree. This remark only applies to 
 its early growth ; for the first seven or eight 
 years its progress is exceedingly slow ; but 
 after that period no tree can well grow 
 faster, especially when it attains to about 
 forty years of age. I would instance those 
 beautiful cedar plantations made by Lady 
 Derby, at the Oaks in Surrey, which have 
 there far outstripped all the other forest 
 trees, such as the beech, ash, and fir, that 
 wi'ic planted at the same time. It does 
 well on almost all dry soils, chalks, gravels, 
 and even sands. 
 956 
 
 On deep sandy soils, unless they are pre- 
 viously prepared by deep trenching or ma- 
 nuring, or both, it is idle to attempt to 
 grow any of the round-headed trees, except 
 the birch. Yet the larch and the Scotch fir 
 on elevated, cool, dry situations, will, after a 
 few years of slow growth, often do very well. 
 In the warm bottoms, especially if there is 
 calcareous matter in the subsoil, the lime, 
 the beech, and the sycamore, will with care 
 grow tolerably well, particularly in sheltered 
 situations, and in such sites the Scotch fir 
 is by far the best nurse. The larch cannot 
 stand the heat ; it becomes covered with the 
 blue mould, and with mosses of several 
 kinds. 
 
 On deep peaty soils in their natural 
 state it is next to impossible to plant 
 with advantage any description of timber 
 trees. But if the water is thoroughly 
 drained from them, and a dressing of cal- 
 careous matter applied, of which lime is the 
 best, then almost any kind of trees will 
 grow with only moderate care : the larch, 
 the Scotch fir, the ash, and the birch, in 
 elevated situations, are the best mixture, 
 and in low sheltered positions, if a dressing 
 of clay can be applied, the oak and the 
 Spanish chestnut will prosper ; but in a soil 
 which usually consists of one deep mass of 
 organic matter, surcharged with the red 
 oxide of iron, or its salts, and in which there 
 is neither decomposing matter nor uncom- 
 bined earths, it is in vain for the planter to 
 expect a profitable result, unless the peat 
 is in some way or other prepared for the 
 reception of the trees : to expect these to 
 grow unaided in such soils — on lands upon 
 which the very native heath and moss are 
 struggling for existence, is a conclusion 
 which does not require any illustration of 
 its absurdity. The alder and the birch 
 make excellent underwood even in wet 
 peaty soils : there is hardly any tree so 
 profitable for plantations near towns, in 
 fact, as the birch ; there is ever a constant 
 and profitable demand for the young wood 
 by the turner and the broom makers. 
 
 The last branch of the investigation — 
 that of the best mode of planting and of 
 expense, is now to be considered. Too 
 little attention is usually paid by planters 
 in the choice of their plants, the manner 
 in which they have been reared, and in 
 the care of their removal : instead of at- 
 tending to the acquired habits of the tree, 
 it is a very common practice for the plants 
 to be bought of some nurseryman, who has 
 reared them in a warm rich bottom, and 
 then as a natural consequence when the 
 trees are transplanted to a cold poor hungry 
 exposed soil, a large proportion of them are 
 sure to perish, or, if they live, many become 
 
PLANTATION. 
 
 stunted or stag-headed. That all these evils 
 may be avoided, with only ordinary care is 
 proved by the experience of the best plan- 
 ters, who are careful to procure their seed- 
 lings from land at least not better than 
 that on which they are intended to be 
 placed ; and is further evidenced by the fact 
 that when the soil is prepared by either 
 deep digging or manuring, or both, then 
 the mortality amongst the plants is very 
 small indeed, — they need no further at- 
 tention, they equally set at defiance the 
 extremes of heat and cold, are very rarely 
 diseased, and shoot with uncommon vigour. 
 This attention to the early acquired habits 
 of the plant is not entirely a modern ob- 
 servation — the early Italian planters were 
 careful in replacing the tree in the same 
 position as regards the cardinal points that 
 it occupied in its early growth. (Virgil, 
 Geo. ii. 269.) 
 
 There are other very common errors, of 
 which I have long noticed the ill effects ; for 
 instance, the want of care with which the 
 roots of the young trees are deposited in 
 the earth, and the unnecessary length of 
 time which is suffered to elapse between the 
 period when the plant is taken from the 
 nursery and replanted. I have always 
 found the after good effect of causing the 
 roots of the young plant to be carefully 
 arranged, and spread out before the earth 
 is thrown in upon it ; the usually heedless 
 way in which the roots are thrust into the 
 hole and perhaps broken, or materially 
 bruised in the act of treading in the earth 
 upon them, is of necessity very prejudicial 
 to the young plant ; and then again, a still 
 more negligent practice, that of ploughing 
 in the young trees, is too often adopted on 
 a large scale, by which the plants are still 
 more hastily deposited in the soil, and are 
 neither fixed with sufficient firmness in the 
 ground or even placed in an upright posi- 
 tion. From these causes I have witnessed 
 some very decided failures; and there is 
 certainly no economy in this hasty mode of 
 planting ; the trees perish in great numbers ; 
 they linger for years without vigour, have 
 to be replaced at a considerable expense ; 
 and in the mean time the owners lose all the 
 advantages which might have been ensured, 
 from a more skilfully obtained rapidity of 
 growth. 
 
 The grouping or mixture of trees is a 
 question which rarely engages the attention 
 of the planter, although it is certain that, 
 like the commonly cultivated crops of the 
 farmer, some trees grow better when mixed 
 with other kinds than when vegetating in 
 plantations of the same species ; that they 
 have certain secretions, and. excrete matters, 
 both by their roots and leaves, which are 
 957 
 
 noxious to other trees is certain. Thus, the 
 ash, and more particularly the locust, in 
 very obnoxious to most trees. Then, again, 
 the grouping together of certain trees is 
 particularly grateful to them all. Thus, 
 the larch is a very good neighbour; the 
 Scotch fir, the birch, and the Spanish chest- 
 nut grow very luxuriantly with it ; the oak, 
 the elm, the hazel, and the hornbeam are 
 evidently good neighbours. The Roman 
 planters had remarked this habit of trees. 
 Thus, they believed that the elm was par- 
 ticularly grateful to the vine ; and they 
 were so convinced of the existence of what 
 they called a sympathy between them that 
 they called the elm the husband of the vine. 
 It was invariably their custom to plant them 
 near each other; and as we are indebted to 
 them for the introduction of the vine in 
 England, so hence in all probability came 
 with them our first elm trees. 
 
 The expense of these different modes of 
 planting is next to be ascertained ; it is an 
 enquiry which will well repay the planter. 
 The favourite mode, that of digging a small 
 hole and inserting the tree, is, apparently, 
 attended with the least outlay of money ; 
 in some instances it has been done for 41. 
 or 51. per acre, or even less ; but such 
 plantations are very rarely profitable, — 
 the plants die, or barely vegetate for years, 
 have to be renewed again and again, and 
 the general appearance of the plantation, 
 overrun with weeds, or heath moss, or furze, 
 is very melancholy. About 40s. per acre 
 more bestowed in deep ploughing or sub- 
 soiling, will make a strange difference in 
 the rapid growth and consequent early pro- 
 fit of the plantation, and moreover save 
 materially the expense of the trees ; for the 
 number of them which perish in land thus 
 prepared for their reception is very small. 
 
 In a still greater degree are these good 
 results obtained by the addition of, say 
 twenty cubic yards per acre of marl, or 
 clay, or a still less quantity of chalk, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the soil, or lime, 
 which may usually be procured for an out- 
 lay of less than 30s. per acre ; or of two or 
 three tons of well putrefied farm-yard ma- 
 nure, — a shovelful under each tree in the 
 manner I have before described. Now, sup- 
 posing that evenall these preparations of the 
 soil are made, the expense per acre will 
 then, in many situations, stand as follows — 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 Ploughing deeply - - 2 0 0 
 
 20 cubic yards of marl or clay, or 
 
 10 of chalk - - - 1 10 0 
 
 3 cubic yards of dung, at 65. - 0 1 8 0 
 Trees, ploughing, &c. - - 6 0 0 
 
 10 8 0 
 
PLANTATION. 
 
 Subsoil ploughing will cost from 24s. to 
 30*. per statute acre. 
 
 If the manure is omitted, as well as the 
 earth, and the ploughing, the outlay of 5s. 
 per acre in lime, in the way I have noticed, 
 will not be without decided advantage. I 
 am quite convinced, therefore, that if all 
 planters were to confine their operations to 
 a less extent of land, and prepare and plant 
 that ground well, they would reap a much 
 earlier and richer harvest from the money 
 expended than they now do from a much 
 greater extent of ill-planted exhausted soil. 
 Such are the facts which I have noticed, 
 in my own practice and in that of others, 
 as most necessary to be attended to in 
 rearing profitable luxuriant plantations of 
 timber trees, on the poorest lands of Eng- 
 land; hardly any of whose soils, however, are 
 so barren or so elevated as not to be able 
 to produce, with only reasonable care and 
 expense, an ample return for the capital of 
 the planter. It is a pursuit which is, in 
 more respects than one, worthy of the at- 
 tention of the landed proprietor, since he 
 not only by his plantations adds to the 
 beauty and income of his own estates, but 
 at the same time yields to the community 
 at large great and important services ; its 
 barren wastes are made to produce timber 
 and underwood, the soil is gradually ren- 
 dered fertile, profitable supplies of labour 
 are afforded, its health is promoted, the 
 very climate of the district by a general 
 system of plantations is ameliorated, for its 
 bleak hills are clothed, its stagnant swamps 
 are drained. 
 
 There is an excellent account by the 
 Bishop of LlandafF of " The planting Cart- 
 mell Fell " (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vi. 
 p. 1.), and a paper " On planting Trees," by 
 Mr. Hove, a Polish gentleman (ibid. vol. vii. 
 p. 281.), " On collecting and preparing the 
 Seeds of Forest Trees, the Mode of sow- 
 ing them, &c." by Mr. Adam, and other 
 planters. (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iii. p. 329.) 
 He advises Scottish planters to collect the 
 seed of the white larch (Pinus larix) in 
 November, from trees of twenty to forty 
 years of age, at an elevation not exceed- 
 ing 400 feet ; that the seed-bed should be 
 manured with cow-dung, well mixed with 
 the soil for some time previously to sowing 
 the seed, which should be in April and 
 May ; the beds to be forty-two inches in 
 breadth, with intervals of eighteen inches. 
 The seed should be sown so that each square 
 yard of ground may produce 2000 plants, 
 which in the first year should reach to a 
 height of five or six inches. One third of 
 the plants may be drawn and pricked out 
 in rows at a distance of ten inches, and the 
 remainder left for another year. The au- 
 
 tumn, Mr. Adam thinks, is the best time 
 for forming plantations. 
 
 The seed of the Scotch fir (Pinus syl- 
 vestris) is gathered in the same way, and 
 to separate the seeds from the cones it is 
 necessary to kiln-dry them; about 11-|- 
 quarters of cones produce about 112 lb. of 
 seed. The Scotch fir must stand two years 
 in the seed-bed. Oaks are to be sown early 
 in February : the best acorns are to be had 
 in Kent, the brightest and heaviest being 
 the most valuable; they keep very well 
 spread on a deal floor ; and may be placed 
 in drills a foot apart, two inches deep, to 
 be planted out when two or three years 
 old. Ash keys are gathered in December or 
 January, and laid in heaps mixed with one 
 third of their bulk of sand under cover : 
 they should be turned over once or twice 
 in the following year, and thus, after resting 
 for twelve or fourteen months, are ready for 
 sowing in March, in drills a foot from each 
 other, and one and a quarter inches deep. 
 The seed of the Scotch elm is ripe in June, 
 and should be sown soon after : that of the 
 beech is gathered in September, and sown in 
 the following March or April in drills one and 
 a half inches deep. The seeds of the Spanish 
 chestnut are best procured from Spain : they 
 may be sown in February in drills four 
 inches deep. The horse-chestnut seeds are 
 to be sown in October : those of the weep- 
 ing birch should be sown as soon as ga- 
 thered, and covered with earth half an inch 
 deep. Those of the lime should be gathered 
 and sown in October. Poplars are propa- 
 gated by cuttings. 
 
 See also on the introduction of certain 
 new forest trees into Scotland. (Trans. 
 High. Soc. vol. v. p. 121.) ; " Reports re- 
 lative to Plantations" (Ibid. p. 155.), by 
 Mr. Thomson (Ibid. vol. vi. p. 287.) ; " On 
 Economy in planting ;" " On the Larch 
 Plantations of the Dunkeld and Athol 
 Estates" (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 165.; "On pre- 
 paring large Trees intended to be trans- 
 planted," by Mr. Macnab (Ibid. p. 823.) ; 
 " On pruning Forest-trees," by Mr. Cree 
 (Ibid. vol. iii. p. 59. and 477. and by Mr. 
 Matthew, p. 300.) 
 
 For a description of the advantages of 
 preparing the land for plantations, I would 
 advise the young planter to consult the 
 works of Mr. Withers, the excellent Plant- 
 ers Guide of Sir Henry Steuart, and the 
 Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England. And for those who wish to plant 
 in the most simple way at an expense of 
 only \0s. per acre, see a paper by Mr. 
 Grigor. (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iii. p. 3G-'*.) 
 By this mode, which consists of merely mak- 
 ing a hole, or raising the turf of the ground 
 sufficiently to put in the plants, the estimate 
 
PLANTING. 
 
 PLATTES, GABRIEL. 
 
 is for a Scotch acre (which is equal to 6150 
 square yards) — 
 
 s. d. 
 
 500 one-year transplanted larches - 1 9 
 1500 two-year seedling do. - 3 0 
 
 500 one-year transplanted Scotch firs - 0 9 
 1000 two-year seedling do. - -'10 
 Carriage of plants to the moor - 1 2 
 
 Expences of planting 3500 - - 2 4 
 
 Total expence per Scotch acre - 10 0 
 
 See Elm, Oak, Fir, Larch, Pine, Forest, 
 &c. 
 
 PLANTING. In arboriculture, the art 
 of forming plantations of trees. Also the 
 art of inserting plants in the soil by the 
 spade, dibble, trowel, or by other means in 
 use in agriculture and gardening. As in 
 the preceding article I have gone very fully 
 into the particulars of planting trees, I shall 
 only add in this place the following useful 
 table, showing the number of plants required 
 for one acre of land, from one foot to twenty- 
 one feet distance from plant to plant. 
 
 Distance. 
 
 
 Distance. 
 
 
 Ft. In. 
 
 Number. 
 
 
 In. 
 
 Number. 
 
 1 0 - 
 
 - 43,560 
 
 
 6 - 
 
 602 
 
 1 6 - 
 
 - 19,360 
 
 9 
 
 0 - 
 
 538 
 
 2 0 - 
 
 - 10,890 
 
 9 
 
 6 - 
 
 482 
 
 2 6 - 
 
 - 6,960 
 
 10 
 
 0 - 
 
 436 
 
 3 0 - 
 
 - 4,840 
 
 11 
 
 0 - 
 
 361 
 
 3 6 - 
 
 - 3,556 
 
 12 
 
 0 - 
 
 302 
 
 4 0 - 
 
 - 2,722 
 
 13 
 
 0 - 
 
 258 
 
 4 6 - 
 
 - 2,151 
 
 14 
 
 0 - 
 
 223 
 
 5 0 - 
 
 - 1,742 
 
 15 
 
 0 - 
 
 194 
 
 5 6 - 
 
 - 1,440 
 
 16 
 
 0 - 
 
 171 
 
 6 0 - 
 
 - 1,210 
 
 17 
 
 0 - 
 
 151 
 
 6 6 - 
 
 - 1,031 
 
 18 
 
 0 - 
 
 135 
 
 7 0 - 
 
 889 
 
 19 
 
 0 - 
 
 121 
 
 7 6 - 
 
 775 
 
 20 
 
 0 - 
 
 109 
 
 8 0 - 
 
 680 
 
 21 
 
 0 - 
 
 99 
 
 PLASHING. A mode of repairing or 
 modifying a hedge by bending down a por- 
 tion of the shoots, cutting them half through 
 near the ground, to render them more pli- 
 able, and twisting them among the upright 
 stems, so as to render the whole effective as 
 a fence, and at the same time preserve all 
 the branches alive. For this purpose the 
 branches to be plashed or bent down must 
 not be cut more than half through, in order 
 that a sufficient portion of sap may rise up 
 from the root to keep alive the upper part 
 of the branches. Where hedges are pro- 
 perly formed and kept, they can very sel- 
 dom require to be plashed ; but this mode 
 of treating a hedge is most valuable in the 
 cases of hedges abounding with hedge-row 
 trees, when from neglect, or from any 
 other cause, the hedge has become of irre- 
 gular growth. See Fences, Hedges, and 
 Pruning. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS. One of the 
 common names of the sulphate of lime or 
 959 
 
 plaster stone, which is found abundantly 
 near Paris. When burnt and reduced to 
 powder, and then mixed with water, it 
 forms a firm, sonorous substance, admirably 
 adapted for forming models and casts. See 
 Gypsum. 
 
 PLASTER FOR TREES. See Canker. 
 
 PLASTIC CLAY. A clay used in the 
 manufacture of pottery. 
 
 PLATT, or PLATTE, SIR HUGH, 
 Knt., is stated by Mr. W eston, in his Cata- 
 logue of English Authors, to have been 
 " the most ingenious husbandman of the 
 age he lived in." From the same author, 
 and from Sir Hugh's own works we learn, 
 that he spent part of his time at Copt Hall, 
 in Essex, then possessed by Sir Thomas 
 Henneage, near which he had a country 
 seat. In 1594, he lived at Bishop's Hall, 
 in Middlesex, and had an estate near St. 
 Alban's. In the title-page of his works he 
 is styled "of Lincoln's Inn, gentleman;" 
 and, therefore, although he does not inform 
 us of what profession he was, further than 
 that it was widely differing from culti- 
 vating the earth, we are justified in con- 
 cluding that he was in the law. He had a 
 very extensive correspondence with the 
 lovers of gardening, &c. He was living in 
 1606. The following are his works : — 
 
 1. Dyvers Soyles for manuring Pasture and Arable 
 Land, 1594. 4to. 2. The Jewel House of Art and Na- 
 ture, containing divers rare and profitable Inventions, 
 together with sundry new Experiments in the Art of 
 Husbandry, Distillation, and Moulding. Faithfully and 
 familiarly set down according to the Author's own Ex- 
 perience. 4to. 1594. Again in 1653, edited by Dr. 
 Beati. 3. The Paradise of Flora, 1600. 4. The Garden 
 of Eden, or an accurate Description of all Flowers and 
 Fruits now growing in England, with particular Rules 
 how to advance their Nature and Growth, as well in 
 Seeds and Hearbes, as the secret ordering of Trees and 
 Plants. Small 8vo. 1660. 5th edition. — A posthumous 
 publication. 5. The second part of the Garden of Eden, 
 &c. never before printed. 1660. " The Garden of 
 Eden" is the same as " The Paradise of Flora," with 
 the mere alteration of the title, by a Mr. Charles Bel- 
 lingham, a kinsman of Sir Hugh's. The second part of 
 " The Garden of Eden " is entirely an original compo- 
 sition of Bellingham's. (Quar. Jour. Ag. vol. xii. p. 69.) 
 
 PLATTES, GABRIEL, was of humble 
 origin, but of his lineage, place of nativity, 
 &c. I have discovered nothing. His works, 
 however, demonstrate that he was a prac- 
 tical man of clear intellect, and observing 
 mind. Being a needy man, he at times was 
 dependant upon the bounty of others for 
 subsistence ; amongst those who chiefly ad- 
 ministered to his relief was S. Hartlib, to 
 whom he bequeathed his papers, few of 
 which were published. He died miserably 
 in the streets, almost in a state of nudity. 
 That he was justly estimated by his con- 
 temporaries is evident. Harte says of him, 
 that " he had a bold adventurous cast of 
 mind." Weston, in his Catalogue of English 
 Authors, says he was an original genius in 
 husbandry and an ingenious writer. An- 
 other author styles him u a singular honest 
 
PLEASURE GROUND. 
 
 man," — a fourth says " he had as excellent a j 
 genius in agriculture as any man that ever 
 lived in this nation before him." Yet this 
 man was permitted to live in poverty, and 
 to die ultimately of want, affording another 
 testimony that those who benefit by the 
 efforts of another's genius but seldom feel 
 grateful for or appreciate the benefits they 
 receive, but whilst they are enjoying them, 
 as Frederick of Prussia said in discarding 
 Voltaire, " Having extracted all the juice, 
 I merely neglect the rind." He was the 
 author of — 
 
 1. A Treatise of Husbandry. 4to. 1G38. and 1674. 
 2. Practical Husbandry improved, a Discourse of in- 
 finite Treasure, hidden since the World's beginning, in 
 the way of Husbandry. 4to. 1639, 1653, 1656. 3. Re« 
 creatio Agricolae. London. 1640. 4to. 4. The Profit, 
 able Intelligencer. London. 1644. 4to. 5. Observations 
 and Improvements in Husbandry, with twenty Experi- 
 ments. London. 1653 . 4to. He also wrote " Art's 
 Mistress," containing his own experiments for fifty 
 years, which however was not published. ( Weston's 
 Catalogue, p. 15. ; G. W. Johnson's Hist. Gard. ; Quar. 
 Jour. Ag. vol.xii. p. 456.) 
 
 PLEASURE-GROUND. That portion 
 of ground adjoining a dwelling-house in 
 the country ; and which is exclusively de- 
 voted to ornamental and recreative pur- 
 poses. In the ancient style of gardening, 
 the pleasure-ground was laid out in straight 
 walks, and regular or symmetrical forms, 
 commonly borrowed from architecture ; but 
 in the modern style, it is laid out in wind- 
 ing walks, and in forms borrowed direct 
 from nature. A portion of lawn or smooth 
 grassy surface may be considered as essen- 
 tial to the pleasure-ground under both 
 styles. See Gardening, Lawn, and Par- 
 terre. 
 
 PLOUGH. (Sax. Plou. Dan. Ploegh.) 
 A well-known, perhaps the most ancient, 
 certainly the most valuable of all agri- 
 cultural implements. There are traces of 
 it in even the earliest of all written au- 
 thorities, and judging of its importance in 
 agriculture, we can hardly imagine it pos- 
 sible to carry on extensive systems of cul- 
 tivation in any period or country without 
 
 PLOUGH. 
 
 its assistance. The first notices of the 
 plough, observes Mr. J. Allan Ransome, 
 from whose excellent work on the imple- 
 ments of agriculture this article is, by his per- 
 mission, extracted, are brief and slight ; we 
 find, however, that in very early times they 
 ploughed with two oxen (Deut. xxii. 10.), 
 that their plough had a coulter and plough- 
 share (1 Sam. xiii. 20.), and that they were 
 early aware of the advantages of a winter's 
 fallow. (Prov. xx. 4.) It is certain that 
 their ploughs were long since furnished 
 with wheels ; a fact 
 which is proved by 
 the drawings of the 
 early Greek ploughs 
 which have escaped 
 to us, of which the 
 following is one copy. 
 
 Hesiod {Works and Days, p. 50 — 441.) 
 advised the Greek farmers to have a spare 
 plough, that an accident might not inter- 
 rupt the work ; and he also enforces the ad- 
 vantages of careful and skilful ploughing. 
 
 The ploughs of Rome were of the most 
 simple form ; the following engraving of 
 one of them I again insert in this place, in 
 order that the gradual progress of the art 
 of plough-making may be the more readily 
 traced. 
 
 Rivalling these in simplicity and rude- 
 ness of form, are the never altered or im- 
 proved ploughs of the Hindoos and the 
 Chinese, from whose implements it is pro- 
 bable the shape of those of Rome were 
 borrowed. This may be seen from the 
 following sketches. 
 
 960 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 It is curious to trace the progress of 
 plough-making in England. Those of the 
 early cultivators were of necessity rude and 
 imperfect, for in those days the ploughman 
 made his own plough. A law of the early 
 Britons in fact directed that no one should 
 guide a plough until he was able to make 
 one. The driver was, by the same law, to 
 make the traces by which it was drawn, 
 and these were to be formed of withes of 
 twisted willow ; a long exploded custom ; 
 many of the olden terms of which, how- 
 ever, are still retained by the rustic plough- 
 men. Thus the womb-withy is yet called 
 the wambtye or wantye. Withen trees are 
 denominated witten trees, or Whipple trees, 
 &c. 
 
 It is uncertain whether the early British 
 ploughs had wheels ; some of those of the 
 Saxons were certainly furnished with them. 
 The following engraving is taken from a 
 Saxon Calendar. (Cotton. MS. Tib. b. 5.) 
 
 Yet it is pretty certain that they used 
 ploughs of a form rivalling those of modern 
 India in simplicity ; a rude sketch of one 
 
 of these is given in a Saxon MS. (Harl. 
 MS. 603.) 
 
 From this cut it would seem that our 
 Saxon forefathers were wont to fasten 
 their horses to the plough by their tails ; a 
 barbarous custom, which certainly was 
 formerly practised in Ireland to such an 
 extent that the legislature interfered in 
 1634, and declared, by the 11 & 12 Car. II. 
 c. 15. (Irish Pari.) entitled "An Act against 
 plowing by the Tayle, and pulling the 
 Wool off living Sheep," that " in many 
 places of this kingdome there hath been a 
 long time used a barbarous custome of 
 ploughing, harrowing, drawing, and work- 
 ing with horses, mares, geldings, garrans, 
 and colts by the taile, whereby (besides 
 the cruelty used to the beasts) the breed 
 of horses is much impaired in this king- 
 dome. And also divers have and yet do 
 use the like barbarous custome of pulling 
 off the wool yearly from living sheep, in- 
 stead of clipping or shearing of them." 
 These wretched practices are then declared 
 illegal, and to be punishable with fine and 
 imprisonment. 
 
 The Norman plough was also furnished 
 with wheels, and it was usual for the 
 ploughmen to carry a hatchet to break the 
 clods, as is depicted in the ancient picture 
 from whence the following sketch is en- 
 graved. See ante, p. 48. 
 
 It is pretty certain that the ox was at first, 
 and for a lengthened period, the only animal 
 employed to draw the plough Thus, al- 
 though the plough and oxen are so fre- 
 quently mentioned in conjunction in the 
 Bible, the horse is never alluded to for such 
 [ an occupation : an old British law forbade the 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 use of any animal except the ox for this 
 purpose. The first representation, of which 
 I am aware, of a horse employed in the 
 plough, is that given (a.d. 1066) in the 
 tapestry of Bayeux. 
 
 There are evident traces in the early 
 English agricultural authors of the im- 
 portance which they ascribed to the im- 
 proved construction of the plough. This 
 implement, however, was long drawn en- 
 tirely by oxen in Britain. 
 
 Fitzherbert, in his Boke of Husbandry e 
 (1532), speaks in a manner that shows that 
 even in his day plough horses were not 
 generally employed ; he observes, " a hus- 
 bande may not be without horses and 
 mares, and specially if he goe with a horse 
 plough." Worlidge, in his Mystery of Hus- 
 bandry, describes (a.d. 1677) very clearly 
 the first rude attempt to construct a sub- 
 soil plough : he tells us, p. 230., " of an 
 ingenious young man of Kent, who had 
 two ploughs fastened together very firmly, 
 by the which he ploughed two furrows at 
 once, one under anothe*, and so stirred up 
 the land twelve or fourteen inches deep. It 
 only looseneth and lighteneth the land to 
 that depth, but doth not bury the upper 
 crust of the ground so deep as is usually 
 done by digging." When Heresbach wrote 
 (1570), it was not uncommon in some of 
 the warmer parts of Germany and Italy to 
 plough during the night, " that the moisture 
 and fattness of the ground may remain 
 shadowed under the clodde, and that the 
 cattell through overmuch heate of the 
 sunne be not diseased or hurt." (31. b.) 
 
 Jethro Tull, more than a century since, 
 paid considerable attention to the plough ; 
 he had even searched into the early history 
 of this implement, and concluded that it 
 was " found out by accident, and that the 
 first tillers (or plowers) of the ground were 
 hogs." (Husb. p. 131.) The ploughs which he 
 describes, and of which he gives drawings, 
 were evidently (although rudely and heavily 
 constructed) superior in several respects to 
 all that had preceded them. 
 
 It is not necessary to do more than thus 
 slightly advert to the various notices which 
 are to be found in the early histories and 
 pictures of this invaluable implement ; for, 
 in fact, for ages the plough was little more 
 than a rude clumsy instrument which served 
 only to rake the surface, instead of making 
 furrows in the land sufficiently deep for the 
 seeds to be buried. It was not brought to 
 any thing like a perfect tool for~ the pur- 
 poses required till the close of the seven- 
 teenth century. 
 
 The Dutch were amongst the first who 
 brought the plough a little into shape, 
 and by some means or other the improved 
 Dutch plough found its way into the 
 northern parts of England and Scotland. 
 Those who have traced the history of the 
 plough agree that one made by Joseph 
 Foljambe, at Rotherham, under the direc- 
 tion of Walter Blythe, author of some 
 works on husbandry, and for which plough 
 a patent was obtained in the year 1730, 
 was the most perfect implement then in 
 use ; and to this day it is well known by 
 the name of the Rotherham plough. 
 
 ROTHERHAM PLOUGH. 
 
 This plough was constructed chiefly of 
 wood ; the draught-irons, share, and coulter, 
 with the additional plating of iron to the 
 mould-board and sole, being the only parts 
 made of iron. 
 
 Mention must now be made of a step in 
 the march of improvements by the ingenious 
 and justly celebrated James Small, a Scotch- 
 man. He constructed a plough on true 
 mechanical principles, and was the first in- 
 963 
 
 ventor of the cast-iron turn-furrow, com- 
 monly called the mould-board ; and, although 
 more than a century has since passed, 
 Small's plough may, in most respects, be 
 referred to as a standard for the elements 
 of plough-making. 
 
 James Small established his manufactory 
 of ploughs and other agricultural imple- 
 ments at Black Adder Mount, in Berwick- 
 shire, in the year 1763, and died about 
 3 q 2 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 thirty years afterwards, having devoted the 
 best part of his life to the furtherance of 
 pursuits connected with agriculture. 
 
 What is known as the Scotch plough 
 comes next under our view, which com- 
 prises the improvements made by Small ; 
 but, instead of the beam and handles being of 
 wood, the whole plough is of iron, and, from 
 
 the various graceful curves in its outline, 
 it forms one of the most tasteful in appear- 
 ance, as well as most effective, ploughs of 
 the present day. 
 
 The Wilkies and Finlaysons have, by 
 their practical experience and good work- 
 manship, brought the plough just described 
 into its present state. 
 
 SCOTCH PLOUGH 
 
 Whilst these improvements were going 
 on in Scotland, it is interesting to observe 
 how similar improvements were progressing 
 in various parts of England. 
 
 The Rotherham plough, from its celebrity, 
 had become partially known at a distance 
 from the place of its origin, and was used 
 as a plough better suited than any other 
 for general purposes. The construction, 
 however, admitted of many easy deviations, 
 and, according to the caprice or judgment 
 of various plough-makers, was altered to 
 suit local convenience or prejudice. In 
 most of the English counties ploughs were 
 made similar to the Rotherham plough, 
 chiefly of wood, having the share, coulter, 
 a partial plating of the mould-board and 
 sole, of iron. The plough was generally the 
 joint manufacture of the village wheelwright 
 and blacksmith ; and while thus depending 
 upon each other for the completion of the 
 implement, neither of them having the con- 
 trol oven of directing its form, each made 
 his separate charges for the materials and 
 workmanship he furnished, and such con- 
 tinues to be the practice in many districts 
 9G4 
 
 at the present time. It is easy to imagine 
 that the wheelwright would allow of but 
 little interference in the matter of improve- 
 ment from the blacksmith, and that the 
 latter mechanic would not have his conceits 
 thwarted by the artificer in wood ; but 
 rather that each would uphold that state of 
 things which least interfered with the oc- 
 cupations of the other, and best contributed 
 to their individual interest. On the other 
 hand, where either the wheelwright or 
 blacksmith had the entire work in his own 
 hands, a different result was apparent in 
 the good and effective ploughs which were 
 produced by them. In some counties, even 
 to this day, there are wheelwrights who 
 make their ploughs chiefly of wood, and yet 
 have gained, by their peculiar workmanship, 
 celebrity as ploughmakers. The same 
 may be said of blacksmiths ; and, as an 
 instance of the skill and merit of one of 
 the latter class, we refer to the account 
 given by Arthur Young, in his Agricul- 
 tural Report of Suffolk, where he men- 
 tions a plough made of iron by a " very 
 ingenious blacksmith of the name ofBrand* 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 and of which he states there is " no other the writer adds, Brand had been dead some 
 in the kingdom equal to it." The report years, 
 was published in 1804; and at that time, 
 
 BH AND S PLOUGH. 
 
 The wood plough, as generally made, 
 had many objectionable points and pro- 
 perties. It was very liable to get out of 
 order from exposure to the soil and wea- 
 ther, and continually required repair. For 
 want of a correct principle or guide, it 
 would frequently happen that if two ploughs 
 were made by the same maker, they would 
 not work exactly alike ; and it was a matter 
 more of chance than certainty whether 
 either would perform its work properly. 
 
 Ploughshares had been hitherto made of 
 wrought iron, until, in 1785, the late Robert 
 Ransome, of Ipswich, obtained a patent for 
 making " shares of cast iron ; " and this cir- 
 cumstance is worthy of notice, not only as 
 a very important and successful improve- 
 ment in the part in question, but as the 
 means of drawing the attention of that in- 
 dividual and many others to further im- 
 provements in the plough, which were very 
 soon after carried into effect. In 1803 
 Robert Ransome obtained a second patent 
 for a mode of applying a case-hardening 
 process to cast iron shares. This invention 
 is now so well known that a brief descrip- 
 tion of it may suffice. 
 
 Before the time referred to, cast iron 
 shares, although occasionally used in some 
 districts, were found to wear away too fast 
 from the under side. When the first edge 
 was worn off, the share became too thick to 
 cut the ground properly, and its tendency, 
 when so worn, was to " lose its hold of the 
 work," and to pass over weeds without cut- 
 ting them; while the blunt edge greatly 
 added to the draught. The improvement 
 alluded to is that of case-hardening the 
 under side to the thickness of one six- 
 teenth or one eighth of an inch, which is, 
 in effect, like a layer of steel underneath 
 the share. This part, from its hardness, 
 wears very slowly, while the upper part 
 of the share grinds more quickly away, 
 thereby producing a constant sharp edge 
 on the under side. The land-side point of 
 the share is also hardened in a similar man- 
 ner, which prevents it from wearing so fast 
 as it would otherwise do at that part ; a 
 fault to which all shares are more or less 
 subject. The following figure shows a 
 broken share, and the white lines the hard- 
 ened parts. 
 
 By the use of cast iron shares, thus tem- 
 pered, considerable expense is saved; the 
 first cost being so much less than that of 
 965 
 
 wrought iron, that they may be renewed at 
 a less expense than the repairs needful to 
 the latter. Another benefit arises from 
 3 q 3 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 their use, as the consumer is no longer 
 liable to those inconveniences to which he 
 was before necessarily subject with wrought 
 iron shares, from the frequent repairs re- 
 quisite in sharpening and "laying them," 
 mostly at a distance from home, and often 
 unprofitably occupying the time of men 
 and horses. 
 
 Following up this improvement in the 
 
 shares, a Suffolk farmer invented for his 
 own use a cast iron plough-ground or bot- 
 tom, with mortices to receive the tenons of 
 the wood, to which it was attached, and 
 a moveable sole or slade. This plough- 
 ground soon became of general use in the 
 counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Essex, and 
 but few ploughs were made without it. 
 
 PLOUGH-GROUND SHARE. 
 
 There was a defect to which ploughs 
 even made with this plough-ground were 
 liable, which was, that nearly the same un- 
 certainty attended their manufacture as in 
 those constructed entirely of wood ; scarcely 
 two workmen would make them alike, and 
 sometimes one plough would work well and 
 easily to the holder, while another made by 
 the same hand would be inferior in this 
 respect ; in addition to which inconvenience, 
 the wood tenons in the iron mortices were 
 liable to decay, and a constant expense of 
 repair was entailed, which has of late years, 
 under further improvements in the con- 
 struction of ploughs, been obviated. 
 
 As improvements in the art of founding 
 became known, cast iron gradually, and to 
 a great extent, superseded the use of wood 
 
 and wrought iron, as a material for the 
 manufacture of ploughs, from the facility 
 and economy with which parts requiring 
 nicety in their form could, with the certainty 
 of their being always alike, be multiplied 
 to any extent. Soon after the introduction 
 of the cast iron share, ploughs were invented 
 having their entire bodies made of cast iron. 
 
 The frames of which the three following 
 are sketches, were so contrived as to admit 
 of the handles, beams, shares, mould-boards, 
 soles, and other parts being screwed to 
 them, and any portion altered or removed 
 at pleasure. They also admitted of the 
 mould-board being set to a wider or a nar- 
 rower furrow, and of changing the shapes 
 of the different parts as different purposes 
 required. 
 
 PLOUGH-FRAMES. 
 
 The following figure shows the entire 
 body of the plough. 
 
 As every part of the plough upon this 
 construction admits of being easily replaced 
 by the ploughman without the' aid of a 
 966 
 
 mechanic, the farmer has only to keep by him 
 a stock of the wearing parts to insure his 
 plough being at all times in working order, 
 and their original form perfect as from the 
 hands of the maker. 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 PLOUGH BODY. 
 
 This arrangement of the body of the 
 plough was a very considerable improve- 
 ment beyond any thing that had been be- 
 fore produced, and is applicable to ploughs 
 of almost every description, as has been 
 fully evidenced in the exhibitions of the 
 different plough-makers, at the annual meet- 
 ings of the Royal Agricultural Society, al- 
 most every one of which was so con- 
 structed. 
 
 Having thus far traced the several im- 
 provements which have been made in the con- 
 struction of the different parts of the plough, 
 and having given the description and figure 
 of a perfect Scotch swing plough (see 
 p. 964.), we shall here introduce a cut of 
 one of the most approved English swing 
 ploughs, and remark on the mechanical 
 principles on which the swing plough should 
 be constructed. 
 
 ft 
 
 ENGLISH SWING PLOUGH. 
 
 Plough Handles. — The handles should 
 be sufficiently wide apart to allow the 
 ploughman to walk in the furrow, and long 
 enough to give him a full command of the 
 plough, so that he can lift or depress it 
 readily in work, guide it to the right or left 
 hand, and swing it round at the land's end 
 out of one furrow into another. 
 
 Plough Beam. — The beam should be of 
 such a length, that its end, commonly called 
 its head, shall cut at the point of draught, 
 upon a line drawn from that part of the 
 collar to which the, traces are attached, to 
 the share or that part of it where it first 
 raises the soil. On the right arrangement 
 of the point of draught in the structure of 
 the plough depends much of its steady 
 working at its proper depth. It is from 
 
 the principle of balancing from a point ad- 
 justed to the line of draught, that the 
 plough takes its name of swing in contra- 
 distinction to the names of foot and wheel 
 ploughs, which will be hereafter described. 
 
 The beam should be curved upwards at 
 the coulter and throat of the plough, to 
 clear itself of rubbish which sometimes ac- 
 cumulates, and should be inclined slightly 
 from the land, or, in other words, towards 
 the furrow, because its tendency is to yield 
 towards the loosened land, and it therefore 
 requires this counteraction in the line of 
 draught to keep it in a right line. This is 
 supposing a pair of horses to be harnessed 
 abreast ; if they be harnessed at length, the 
 beam should be still more inclined ; for as 
 neither horse then walks on the " land," the 
 3 q 4 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 direction of the force towards the land-side 
 is still further decreased. 
 
 Plough-head. — The cross head of the 
 plough, as shown below, forms a ready 
 means of increasing or decreasing the in- 
 clination last spoken of, and the hake, or 
 draught-iron, which moves in the arc of a 
 circle along the cross head, has notches by 
 which the depth of the plough can be regu- 
 
 English. 
 
 lated in unison with the line of draught. 
 There are various contrivances for these 
 purposes, most of which involve the use of 
 a screw as a means of adjustment ; but the 
 plan of pins and notches is sufficiently ac- 
 curate, and not liable to be out of order. 
 The following are sketches of two, the one 
 English, the other Scotch, which appear 
 unobjectionable. 
 
 Scotch. 
 
 PLOUGH-HEADS. 
 
 Plough-share. — The plough-share is the 
 apex of the sole, as the hind part is called 
 the heel. It varies in shape for different 
 purposes. On stony lands it is best with a 
 point, thus — 
 
 But where the land is free from stones, the 
 wing is best when angular, and the cutting 
 edge in a line, or nearly so, thus — 
 
 For different work, " hard lands " and 
 " summer lands," shares of a greater " dip" 
 or " pitch " are requisite. A common plan 
 is to use new shares on hard lands, and to 
 wear them a day or two, and then lay them 
 aside for Bummer lands. 
 !)(5H 
 
 Mould-board. — The upper part over the 
 box of the share should form the first part 
 of the rise of the mould-board. After 
 the coulter and share have made the 
 vertical and horizontal cuts for the depth 
 and width of the furrow-slice, the mould- 
 board has to complete the work by turning 
 it over and leaving it in its proper position. 
 On the precision with which this part of 
 the plough performs its work, much, indeed 
 nearly all,- of the beauty of the ploughing 
 depends : hence the importance of disco- 
 vering its true form for the land on which 
 it has to be used. Desirable, however, as 
 this is, there does not as yet appear to be 
 any precise rule for the formation of the 
 mould-board, that has met with so uniform 
 an approval under the test of practice, as 
 would lead us to speak with entire confi- 
 dence of it. We have looked at the me- 
 chanical principles laid down by Small, 
 Bailey, Gray, Amos, Jefferson, Clymer, 
 and others, but are not aware of any plough- 
 makers of the present day who strictly ad- 
 here to either the one or the other ; and so 
 long as the mould-board cannot be used 
 on even the same farm under circumstances 
 always similar, as its operation will neces- 
 sarily be affected by the weather, the state 
 of the land, with the varying depth and 
 width of the plough, it is not an easy matter 
 to determine which form is best for general 
 purposes. It is clear that different soils, as, 
 for instance, light sand and heavy clay, 
 require mould-boards almost the opposite 
 of each other; and such they are. The 
 Norfolk mould-board is short, with rather 
 a hollow or concave surface, whilst that 
 used in the hundreds of Essex is long ami 
 convex. 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 Lord Western, many years ago, improved 
 upon the form of the heavy land mould- 
 board in use in that part of the county of 
 Essex where he resides, by cutting away a 
 
 considerable portion of the lower and hinder 
 part of the figure, and by making it in a 
 straight line lengthwise from the nose to 
 the hind part. 
 
 Were the circumstances always the same, 
 there can be no question but that one ma- 
 thematical form of the mould-board would 
 be preferable to all others ; but, under cir- 
 cumstances so various, the plan hitherto 
 adopted has been to prove, by experience 
 and from practical operation, the forms 
 best suited to different lands under an 
 average depth and width of work, keeping 
 as nearly as possible to the principle of the 
 wedge, as necessary for the proper lifting, 
 turning, and laying over the soil. Pro- 
 vided the mould-board be made so that the 
 work, while in operation, goes on as it 
 should do, a good practical criterion as to 
 its figure will be found in the evidence of 
 friction it has undergone, and this, with the 
 fine cast metal now in use, can be determined 
 to a nicety. If, on a given soil, the mould- 
 board becomes brightened uniformly — if the 
 mould appears to slip with light friction and 
 with the same pressure from one end of it 
 969 
 
 to the other, it cannot be far, if any thing, 
 out of its proper shape for the purpose in- 
 tended. And yet, if the same mould-board 
 be used on some other lands, it will imme- 
 diately show its inapplicability to them by 
 the soil adhering to it in parts, not slipping 
 well through it, and thus evidencing a want 
 of uniformity in its general friction. There- 
 fore, considering that neither depth nor 
 width of furrow is always the same, and 
 that scarcely one circumstance affecting its 
 use is unvarying, it is difficult to find a rule 
 which shall aptly suit these changes. At the 
 same time it is not presumed that such will 
 not or cannot be found; and the theory 
 which most accords with our view, is one 
 which has recently been laid down by the 
 Rev. W. L. Rham, rector of Winkfield, 
 Berkshire, a gentleman whose scientific and 
 agricultural knowledge entitles his opinion 
 to considerable deference. His theory is, 
 that the mould-board should be composed 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 of straight lines in the direction of its 
 length, with continually increasing angles 
 to the line of the furrow: these last lines 
 
 being either straight, convex, or concave, 
 horizontal sections of the mould-board 
 would then exhibit lines of this kind — 
 
 whilst the perpendicular sections would be thus — 
 1 2 
 
 A B being a section of the mould-board 
 just behind the share, C B in the middle of 
 its length, and D B at the heel. Fig. 1. is 
 a section in which the vertical lines are 
 straight, and is adapted to mellow soils ; 
 Jig. 2. convex lines for adhesive soils, and 
 Jig. 3. for very light loose sands. This 
 
 subject is more fully explained under the 
 head " Plough" in the Penny Cyclopcedia; 
 an article which we would recommend to 
 the perusal of our readers. 
 
 The following drawing exhibits the opera- 
 tion of the mould-board in the process of 
 turning the furrow-slice. 
 
 Having availed ourselves of the oppor- 
 tunity of testing several forms of mould- 
 boards which have obtained general ap- 
 proval in various localities, we find that, 
 though differing widely from each other, 
 their form is nearly that which this rule, 
 under the modifications of its straight, con- 
 cave, and convex lines, leads to ; and the 
 conclusion we should thence draw is, that 
 although no one form of mould-board will 
 or can be applicable to every variety of soil 
 and circumstance, there is no description of 
 soil for which a perfect mould-board may 
 not lie made by this rule in some of its 
 modifications. 
 
 970 
 
 There is another description of mould- 
 board, which, from being divided into parts 
 lengthwise, approximates in some degree 
 to the upper and lower rests of the Kent 
 turn-rest plough. The upper part of this 
 mould-board is nearly flat, and stands out 
 in a wedge -like form to turn the furrow ; 
 the lower part is called the ground-rest, 
 which is fixed below and within the upper 
 part, and cleans out the furrow. 
 
 This kind of mould-board was originally 
 made by Pritchett and Perry, ironfounders, 
 Millbrook, near Southampton, in the year 
 1809, and has continued in use ever since. 
 It is the one described by Philip Pusey, 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 Esq., in an interesting paper reporting his 
 11 Experimental Enquiry on Draught in 
 Ploughing," and used on Hart's plough in 
 an improved form. 
 
 (See Journal of the Royal Agricultural 
 Society, vol. i. p. 222.) 
 
 Coulter. Simple as the coulter may ap- 
 pear to be, it is a very important part of the 
 plough, and much depends upon its being 
 properly formed and fixed for the work it 
 has to perform in the operation of plough- 
 ing. It should be made of iron and steel, 
 and of sufficient substance to stand firmly to 
 the position in which it is set for its work, 
 not bending either to the right hand or to 
 the left. The blade or cutting part should 
 be about two inches and a half wide, and 
 
 formed by the meeting of two curves shown 
 in the accompanying figure, as this shape 
 cuts the land easier than when the edge is 
 either in a straight line or curved forward. 
 The land side of the coulter should be fiat, 
 and the opposite side a gradual taper from 
 the edge to the back : the thickness must 
 be determined by the strength of the work 
 it has to perform. 
 
 The angle at which the coulter is usually 
 set, is about forty-five degrees from the 
 plane of the ground ; but in summer-lands 
 it requires to be placed in a more slanting 
 position, and to take the lead of the share 
 about three quarters of an inch, to prevent 
 the grass or rubbish driving in a heap, as it 
 otherwise might do. On the contrary, when 
 used for ploughing up hard fallows, it re- 
 quires to be fixed in a more upright po- 
 sition, and rather more backward than the 
 point of the share. It should be placed 
 about half an inch above the share, and a 
 quarter of an inch to the land side of it. 
 Every good ploughman has his own notions 
 on the subject of setting the coulter, but 
 the above directions are given from prac- 
 tical observation. 
 
 The usual mode of fixing the coulter in 
 the socket of the frame or beam, is by means 
 
 RANSOMli. 
 
 971 
 
 HENSM AN . 
 
 SANDERS AND CO. 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 of wood or iron wedges driven above or 
 below the socket, or by a coarse cut screw- 
 bolt, which turns into the side of the socket 
 and presses against the coulter stalk. Each 
 of these modes is defective. The plan of 
 wedging the coulter is difficult, and the 
 ploughman, after trying his skill forborne 
 time, frequently finds himself foiled in his 
 attempt to set it in its proper position. The 
 plan of the screw-bolt just described is also 
 faulty, for wedges are even then requisite, 
 and the difficulty of setting is very little, if 
 any, less than by the other mode. 
 
 The figures in p. 971. represent three dif- 
 ferent plans for fastening the coulter. 
 
 Either of these plans is superior to the 
 old mode of wedging ; but there is a com- 
 plication in the details of all, that appears 
 not quite adapted to the class of workmen 
 who have to use them. 
 
 Skim Coulters. Skim coulters are some- 
 times used for the purpose of burying the 
 surface grass or rubbish, and we here give 
 sketches of the kinds we have observed in 
 use. The usual plan is to fix the skim 
 about six inches before the common coulter. 
 
 SKIM COULTERS. 
 
 Wheel Coulters are used in the fen-lands, 
 and are useful 
 when ploughing up 
 turf. One of these 
 coulters is repre- 
 sented by the an- 
 nexed figure/ The 
 cutting disc should 
 be made of steel, 
 with a nave suffi- 
 ciently long for it 
 to be steady, and 
 the box should be 
 bored true, and re- 
 volve on a well 
 fitted steel pin, as 
 on the perfect fit- 
 ting of the box 
 972 
 
 WIILLL (.OULTLK. 
 
 and axle the correct working of the disc, 
 and consequently of the effective operation 
 of the plough, depends. 
 
 Swing Ploughs. — The advantages attri- 
 buted to the swing plough are as follows : — 
 
 1. It admits of being set into its work at 
 a given depth, either shallower or deeper, 
 by the alteration of the draught iron at the 
 point of draught, or by increasing or de- 
 creasing the distance at which the power of 
 the horses is applied. 
 
 2. The ploughman has also the power of 
 regulating, in some degree, the depth of 
 the work, by either lifting or bearing upon 
 the handles. 
 
 3. It is a plough of more simple con- 
 struction than any other, and less expensive 
 in its first cost. 
 
 4. A skilful workman can plough across 
 ridge and furrow at very nearly an uniform 
 depth ; he can work with it on almost all 
 lands, and in all weathers when ploughing 
 can be done at all. 
 
 The Wheel Plough (with high Gallowses). 
 — This derives its name from having the 
 appendage of a carriage and wheels. The 
 body of the plough is essentially the same 
 as that of the swing plough, and notwith- 
 standing the different form of its beam, the 
 point of draught should be the same as that 
 of the swing plough, namely, to cut a line 
 drawn from the horse's shoulder to the share 
 or point of resistance . Its form will be seen 
 from the following sketch of the plough used 
 in many parts of Norfolk, Suffolk, and 
 Essex ; and as all ploughs of this class are 
 the same in mechanical principle, the one 
 we have chosen for illustration will suffice. 
 
 The dotted lines upon the figure, from 
 the frame at d to the point c, will give the 
 figure of the swing plough; and what is 
 intended by this, is to show that the line of 
 draught will be the same notwithstanding 
 the intermediate appendages of wheels, &c. ; 
 and in either case, the line a b should be 
 intersected at 6, by the draught-iron of the 
 plough at c. 
 
 The beam is elevated and made to rest 
 on a cross-bar of the upright standards e 
 and/, and the latter from part of the car- 
 riage framing supported by the wheels ; the 
 draught-chain g collars the beam at A, and 
 will remove at pleasure to either of the 
 notches from h to i; the small chain k serves 
 to keep the standards in their upright po- 
 sition ; Z, the bolster, is made to rise and fall 
 as the plough is wanted to cut shallower or 
 deeper. The plough is made to go more 
 " to or from land," that is, to the right or 
 left, by altering the chain g to a notch either 
 to the left or the right hand, or the same at 
 the hake m. The former acts instantly on 
 the body of the plough, the latter on the 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 WHEEL PLOUGH, WITH HIGH GALLOWSES. 
 
 carriage and wheels ; corresponding altera- 
 tions with the latter must be made by the 
 bolster pins. 
 
 We will suppose that the body of this 
 plough throughout is similar to that of the 
 swing plough, but a slight deviation from 
 this is adopted by practice, from the un- 
 evenness of land rendering it desirable to 
 bring a slight pressure upon the wheels, in 
 order to insure an uniform depth of furrow, 
 and this is effected by attaching the point 
 of draught slightly above the direct line ; 
 it will then be obvious, that any remarks 
 which apply to the one, such as pitching 
 the share more or less into the ground, vary- 
 ing the breadth of the furrow, by expand- 
 ing or contracting the width at which the 
 mould-board works, or such like alterations, 
 will apply equally to the other. The dif- 
 ference, therefore, in the construction of 
 the wheel plough and the swing plough 
 lies in the addition of the carriage and 
 wheels, and those parts which are in direct 
 connection therewith. 
 
 By a reference to the sketch given above 
 of the wheel plough, with the description 
 of its several parts, it will be seen how each 
 part of the wheel gear mechanically operates 
 in work ; but in order to be clear, it may be 
 observed, that irrespective of any alteration 
 in the dip of the share, as that would alike 
 apply to either the swing or the wheel 
 plough, the mode of setting the wheel 
 plough at a greater or less depth, is by 
 lowering or raising the cross-bar e, or by 
 increasing or decreasing the length of the 
 top-chain k ; but as the latter serves to 
 keep the wheel plough in an upright po- 
 sition, this mode of altering the depth of 
 the plough is only used when alterations are 
 suddenly required. 
 
 The draught-chain, which collars the 
 beam of the plough, admits of change to 
 different points of draught, for the purpose 
 of fixing it at the point at which the plough 
 balances itself best: if it be set too for- 
 ward, the plough will incline too much to- 
 wards the ground at the share, and rise up 
 973 
 
 at the heel ; and if too far backward, the con- 
 verse of this will be the case ; the plough- 
 man, therefore, ascertains by trials the point 
 of draught, and regulates this chain accord- 
 ingly. 
 
 The advocates for wheel ploughs state — 
 
 1 . That ploughing can be more easily per- 
 formed by them than by the swing plough. 
 
 2. That the work can be done with greater 
 precision, both as to depth and width, for 
 the wheels serve as gauges. 
 
 3. That shallower work can be done with 
 the wheel than with the swing plough, and 
 that when the ground is very hard or very 
 stony, it can be worked with more ease 
 than by the swing plough, and under some 
 circumstances, when the swing plough, of 
 the same construction in the body part r . 
 cannot be held- in its work at all. 
 
 The advocates of either the swing or the 
 wheel plough, each advance good reasons 
 for the use at particular times or on par- 
 ticular soils of the one or the other ; but 
 our object is to furnish a clear description 
 of both, and to point out the mechanical 
 principles, by which their respective merits 
 may be compared. 
 
 The swing plough requires more skill 
 than judgment m the user. It is dependent 
 upon the ploughman for almost every inch 
 of its work ; it will not go far without his 
 aid, and long practice only can make him 
 perfect in the use of it ; but, when he be- 
 comes master of the art, he can manage it 
 under all circumstances, he can cross ridge 
 and furrow, and gauge his work with as- 
 tonishing correctness. 
 
 The wheel plough with high gallowses is 
 complicated in its construction, and it re- 
 quires more judgment than skill'm the plough- 
 man, because the depth of its working is not 
 alone dependent on the principle of balanc- 
 ing, but on the adjustment in unison there- 
 with of the draught-chains ; and the plough 
 might " swim fair " to all appearance in its 
 work, while its mechanical principles are 
 set at variance with each other so as to add 
 greatly to the draught. Its proper work- 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 ing is not so dependent on the manual dex- 
 terity of the ploughman, as the swing 
 plough is, because the wheels serve as a 
 gauge for the depth, and the one which 
 runs in the furrow acts as a gauge for the 
 width of the furrow-slice. Some mechanical 
 knowledge must be added to practice, for 
 its proper management ; and to cross high 
 ridges and furrows to advantage, the wheels 
 must be frequently altered. 
 
 In ploughing across the ridge with a 
 swing plough, a skilful ploughman would 
 be able to dip into the furrow, and to rise 
 again upon the ridge by his own command 
 of the plough at the handles ; but the wheel 
 plough, unless altered when arriving at the 
 above inequalities, would leave the lowest 
 part unploughed, because the wheels as they 
 rise at the opposite ridge, would in some 
 cases take the plough nearly out of the 
 ground. 
 
 There is generally a perceptible differ- 
 ence in the ploughings performed by swing 
 and wheel ploughs, the latter being more 
 even and uniform. In so far, therefore, as 
 the work is concerned, the wheels give an 
 advantage. When the draught-irons and 
 wheels are all set properly in unison with 
 each other, so that the plough has no con- 
 flicting forces in operation, and the wheels 
 press but lightly on the ground, the force 
 required to draw the wheel plough is less 
 than that of the swing plough, from the 
 regularity of its progress throughout as re- 
 gards both width and depth of furrow. 
 
 It should, however, be observed, there is 
 great liability of the forces, which act so well 
 together while in unison, being, through the 
 ignorance or carelessness of the ploughman 
 set in some degree opposing to each other, 
 and then the resistance of draught is greatly 
 increased. Whatever approximates to this 
 disagreement of forces is in its measure an 
 evil ; and it is the more likely to be fallen 
 into, as the plough will hold steadily to its 
 work, notwithstanding this mismanagement. 
 
 As a counterbalance to the advantages of 
 wheel ploughs, in the precision of the work 
 done, in the saving of labour to the horses, 
 and in their adaptation to hard land, is the 
 time consumed in frequent adjustments of 
 the points of draught, — the probabilities of 
 these points as forces being set in a counter 
 direction to each other, — the greater com- 
 plication in the construction of the plough, 
 and its greater cost, with the liability of the 
 wheels to clog in wet weather ; and its in- 
 applicability to uneven land, must be taken 
 into consideration. Balancing these reasons, 
 pro and con, it seems to us that in com- 
 parison with the wheel plough with gallowses 
 as described, the turn upon the whole is in 
 favour of the swing plough. 
 
 Plough with Land and Furrow Wheels. 
 — There is another description of wheel 
 plough which may be considered as a com- 
 bination of the two before described, and 
 which has advantages over either of the 
 others, inasmuch as the same plough may 
 be used occasionally as circumstances re- 
 quire it, either as a swing or as a wheel 
 plough, and because it is simple in its con- 
 struction, easy of management, and adapted 
 to the ready instruction of boys in the art 
 of ploughing. We have not been able to as- 
 certain, with sufficient correctness to speak 
 with certainty, the county in which the 
 mode of attaching the wheels we are about 
 to describe originated, but they were at- 
 tached to the double furrow plough in- 
 vented by Lord Somerville some years ago, 
 and the plan has been in use from that 
 time. They are now very generally em- 
 ployed in the midland counties. 
 
 We select for our illustration a plough 
 with a body of the same mechanical con- 
 struction as those of the swing and wheel 
 ploughs last referred to, the wheels being 
 attached to the beam in a very different 
 manner to the wheel plough with high gal- 
 lowses. We have of late years observed 
 many Scotch ploughs with wheels fixed 
 in the manner about to be described, and 
 the plough so altered goes by the name of 
 the improved Scotch plough ; but strong and 
 constant as has ever been the attachment of 
 the Scotch ploughman to the swing-plough, 
 we much doubt whether he would not think 
 this a libel on a favourite implement. We 
 will therefore choose another, which, from 
 its having been publicly noticed both in 
 England and Scotland at trials, may be the 
 more eligible for the purpose. 
 
 It will be observed that the two wheels 
 fixed at the fore part of the beam, consti- 
 tute the difference between this and the 
 swing plough. One of the wheels, about 
 twelve inches in diameter, is fixed on the 
 land side of the plough, and runs upon the 
 unploughed land; the other wheel, about 
 twenty inches in diameter, is on the oppo- 
 site side, and runs in the furrow. The latter 
 wheel is upon a sliding axle, which admits 
 of its being set to any width of furrow. 
 The upright shanks regulate the depth by 
 means of screws and sockets on the beam. 
 
 All that has been previously said in fa- 
 vour of the wheel plough with high gal- 
 lowses, may be said of this ; but it is much 
 more simple in its construction, and if cir- 
 cumstances require it, the wheels may be 
 taken off, and the plough used without 
 them. 
 
 It has been objected that the wheels re- 
 quire frequent adjustments, which occasions 
 loss of time, and that unless the furrows 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 THE RUTLAND PLOUGH. 
 
 arc ploughed beyond the length required, 
 the large wheel must be raised at each end 
 of the field just before the plough comes 
 out of the furrow, or it will be taken gra- 
 dually out of the ground, and the land will 
 not be ploughed to its full depth. The 
 usual plan is to extend the common furrow 
 two feet or thereabouts, beyond its ultimate 
 length into the headlands, which is after- 
 wards set right by the cross ploughing at 
 the top and bottom of the field. 
 
 The loss of time involved by alteration of 
 the wheel may be overcome by a simple 
 mechanical contrivance, with a lever, the 
 longer end of which reaches the handle of 
 the plough, and by it the wheel can be ad- 
 justed to any depth instantly. This was 
 the invention of Henry Osborne, a gentle- 
 man residing in Suffolk, and it has been 
 introduced with success into other coun- 
 ties. 
 
 LEVER PLOUGH. 
 
 In the Report to the Board of Agricul- 
 ture from the county of Leicester, published 
 in 1808, it is stated, "that more than 
 thirty years ago, wheels were first applied 
 to the fore end of the beam, and it was 
 found by ' pitching ' the plough a little 
 deeper, and setting the wheels so as to pre- 
 vent its drawing too deep, the wheels were 
 a sufficient guide, and the plough required 
 no one to hold it except in places of diffi- 
 culty." If properly adjusted, a lad of 
 fourteen years of age can manage it easily ; 
 and the writer of this article once saw, at a 
 ploughing match, a lad having a plough of 
 this sort — the only one in the field — walk- 
 ing leisurely beside it, to the great astonish- 
 ment of the other competitors, and from 
 whom, to their still greater astonishment, 
 he carried away the prize. This lad had been 
 taught ploughing only a few months. 
 975 
 
 When one wheel only is attached to the 
 plough, some persons give the preference to 
 a small one to run upon the unploughed 
 land, as it is less likely to clog up, and 
 requires no alteration towards the end of 
 the furrow ; but others prefer a larger 
 wheel which runs in the furrow, as it 
 has an even bottom to travel over, and cor- 
 rectly regulates the width of the furrow- 
 slice. It also more effectually facilitates the 
 turning round at the headland, particularly 
 if the horses have to go to the right hand. 
 The larger wheel to run in the furrow, 
 therefore, is best for general purposes, and 
 with a lever attached to it, as described 
 above, it is rendered very easy of adjust- 
 ment. 
 
 In the use of a gauge for the depth of 
 ploughing, whether of two wheels, one wheel, 
 or a foot, the plough should be so regulated 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 as to press but lightly on the ground when 
 passing over it ; thus admitting as little of 
 the counteracting force between the wheel 
 and share as possible. See Dynamometer. 
 In the Prize Essay by Henry Handley, 
 
 Esq., the advantages of wheels are clearly 
 set forth, and his arguments in favour of 
 their use have since been very strikingly 
 confirmed by the trials made under the 
 direction of Philip Pusey, Esq. 
 
 PLOUGHS WITH A FRICTION WHEEL 
 
 wilkie's, 1814. 
 
 plenty's, 1815. 
 
 1)7(5 
 
 m'c.ujthy's, 1817. 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 palmer's, 1840. 
 
 The four sketches of ploughs each with a 
 friction wheel are not dissimilar in prin- 
 ciple, though slightly different in the mode 
 of attaching the wheel. 
 
 The purpose of a wheel being placed in 
 the position shown in the hinder part of the 
 plough, is to reduce the friction that arises 
 from the sliding pressure of the sole, and 
 for the further purpose of regulating what 
 may be termed the under pitch of the 
 plough, so as to make it take more or less 
 " hold of the ground." 
 
 There appears something plausible in the 
 theory of thus reducing the friction at the 
 sole, and of making the plough into a sort 
 of wheel carriage, by which its motion for- 
 ward may be rendered more easy of draught, 
 but we are doubtful whether it is not more 
 than counterbalanced by the disadvantages 
 which attend it, viz. 
 
 The increased weight. The wheel getting 
 loose in wear, and becoming unsteady at the 
 axle, so as to rock a little on either side. 
 Pressing into, and clogging up on some soils. 
 And the complication it gives to the struc- 
 ture of the plough. 
 
 If a plough be set as it ought to be, there 
 
 is but little friction upon the sole at the 
 heel, and the saving in that respect bears a 
 very small proportion to the entire draught 
 of the plough. It will be seen by the fol- 
 lowing diagram, that the plough, as com- 
 monly constructed, bears only upon the edge 
 of the share and the heel, not all the way 
 upon the sole. 
 
 The alteration of the pitch of the plough 
 applies equally to a sole made to rise or 
 fall as to a wheel, and the bearing on the 
 ground may be made as short with the one 
 as the other. 
 
 DOUBLE FURROW PLOUGH 
 
 This plough is for the purpose of plough- 
 ing two furrows at the same time. It was 
 the invention of Lord Somerville. There 
 has been no very material alteration in 
 the principle of this plough ; but as re- 
 gards the style in which it is now made, it 
 977 
 
 has progressed in the same degree as the 
 common plough, and is a neat and well 
 finished implement. At the late agricultural 
 meeting at Cambridge, a very light plough 
 of this description, made by Ransome and 
 Co ., was exhibited at work ; and there was 
 3 R 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 also one made in the same style by Perry 
 and Co., of Reading, which was not at work, 
 but seemed well calculated for it. 
 
 On light soils, where there are no stones 
 to throw either of the ploughs out of work, 
 and where not more than three horses are 
 required, and the same quantity of work 
 
 performed as is done with the ordinary 
 ploughs, there is an evident saving of 25 
 per cent, in animal power; and as a boy 
 instead of a man would be used for the 
 driver, there would be a saving of the dif- 
 ference of his wages, which would be a large 
 per centage more. 
 
 UNIVERSAL RIDGE PLOUGH. 
 
 It will be recollected that the silver 
 medal of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 of England was awarded to John Clarke, of 
 Long Sutton, Lincolnshire, for the invention 
 of this plough. (Jour, of Roy. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. i. p. 66.) It is for the purpose of ridge 
 culture ; and by an easy transition of shape, 
 which is accomplished in a very simple 
 manner, it becomes 
 
 1. A double torn or ridge plough. 
 
 2. A moulding plough. 
 
 3. A horse-hoe, or cleaning plough. 
 
 4. A skeleton, or broad- share plough. 
 The above cuts will best illustrate the 
 
 subject. 
 
 Subsoil Ploughs. — At the thought of a 
 subsoil plough, our minds turn at once to 
 J ames Smith, of Deanstone, as the gentleman 
 who has opened a very interesting and im- 
 portant view of tillage, by the system of 
 subsoil ploughing, and thereby breaking the 
 under soil without turning it up to the sur- 
 face. His practical knowledge has long 
 been devoted to the interests of agriculture, 
 and the results have been most beneficial. 
 The plough he invented for the purpose is 
 too well known to need a description, though 
 we should consider our Essay incomplete 
 without a sketch of it. 
 
 SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 
 
 Following the invention of James Smith, 
 of Deanstone, was another of a different 
 and much lighter description, the invention 
 of Sir Edward Stracey, Bart., Rackheath, 
 978 
 
 and the plough is called by the latter name. 
 It answers the purpose of deep ploughing, 
 that is, from ten to sixteen inches below 
 the surface, and when preceded by the 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 common plough, which is the plan recom- 
 mended, the depth below the surface 
 
 ground is just as much again as the first 
 plough effects. 
 
 RACKHEATH SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 
 
 This plough answers admirably for under 
 ploughing grass lands, and is made into a 
 subturf plough by changing the wheel gear 
 
 in front, to that of a carriage and two 
 wheels, as shown below. 
 
 RACKHEATH SUBTURF PLOUGH. 
 
 P. Pusey, Esq., in an interesting paper in 
 the Eng. Agr. Soc. Journ. (vol. i. p. 434.), 
 gives an account of a plough made to his 
 order by Charles Hart, of Wantage ; at 
 the hinder part of this plough was fixed a 
 strong tine, something like those on Bid- 
 dell's scarifier, for the purpose of under 
 ploughing the soil. This tine was made to 
 
 rise or lower at pleasure, and from the 
 description of its use and operation given 
 in the above paper, we should think it a 
 valuable invention, as it may be easily at- 
 tached to a plough of the common sort, and 
 removed when not wanted. The figure be- 
 low shows the Charlbury subsoil apparatus 
 attached to one of Ransome's ploughs. 
 
 CHARLBURY SUBSOIL PLOUGH. 
 
 Skeleton, or cleaning ploughs, are often 
 the transformations of common ploughs for 
 that purpose, by taking the mould-boards 
 979 
 
 and shares off, and substituting for the shares 
 subsoil or cleaning shares, with prongs, like 
 the following sketch. 
 
 3 R 2 
 
 I 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 Kent turn-rest Plough. — The one drawn 
 below is the best we have seen. It is in- 
 
 tended for under surface ploughing, so as to 
 clean it from grass and rubbish, as well as 
 to loosen the soil. It is adapted for cross- 
 ing the ridges, as well as ploughing in a line 
 with the common furrows, and it may be 
 used so as to lay the " stetches " or " lands " 
 rounding or flat as desired. There are 
 shares to it of four, eight, twelve, and six- 
 teen inches wide, which may be used ac- 
 cording to the hardness or looseness of the 
 land. 
 
 KENT TURN-REST PLOUGH. 
 
 This plough, as respects its carriage and 
 wheels, handles and beam, is the same in 
 principle as the high gallows plough pre- 
 viously described; but its characteristic 
 difference is in the construction and use of 
 its turn-furrows, a and 6, or, as they are 
 more correctly called, its turn rests, and on 
 its nose-piece e, which is called the buck, 
 and in its share c, which varies in width 
 according to the work it has to do : the 
 plough is sometimes used without its rests 
 as a broad- share for cleaning land, and 
 shares for it are made from two to twenty- 
 four inches. 
 
 The plough is contrived so as to lay the 
 furrows all in one direction, from one side 
 of the field to the other. To accomplish 
 this, it becomes necessary at each turn of 
 the horses to set in for a fresh furrow, 
 either a right-handed or left-handed plough; 
 and this is the operation. We will suppose 
 
 a plough to be turning the furrow-slice 
 over to the right hand ; the coulter, in that 
 case, cuts on the left hand side as in ordi- 
 nary ploughing, the soil is penetrated by 
 the share centred on the plough, each side 
 of the share alike, and this is followed by the 
 buck, which, as a wedge, raises the furrow - 
 slice, and sets it on its edge; the rest, 
 which forms the lateral wedge, then comes 
 into operation, and finishes the turning. 
 
 The furrow-slice being completely turned, 
 the first furrow in the field must be suffi- 
 ciently wide for the slice, as it comes over, 
 first to stand on its edge, and then fall 
 into its place. If the furrows are to be 
 ten inches wide and six inches deep, there 
 must be sixteen inches clear before the 
 regular furrows commence, and there will 
 always be the width of one furrow left 
 as an open one at the finish of the plough- 
 ing. 
 
 The space from a to b is first opened to 
 the width of sixteen inches; the slice a then 
 falls, first edgeways, into the position in 
 which it is shown by the above figure, and 
 is then turned completely over, so as to 
 entirely bury the part which was its upper 
 980 
 
 surface, and it remains thus turned over in 
 the ten-inch space assigned for it, and the 
 furrows which follow are continued in suc- 
 cession. It should be observed that the 
 upper rest of the Kent plough rises as it 
 recedes from the fore part of the plough, 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 and the hinder part gently sweeps over the 
 furrow-slice as it rolls, thus completing the 
 overturn. The lower rest aids the operation 
 by pressure against the furrow-slice. 
 
 The furrow being completed to the right 
 hand, the ploughman next changes the po- 
 sition of the coulter to the opposite side, by 
 what is called the "rod bat," that is, a wood- 
 set stick with a crook in it : this is instantly 
 done, and he removes the lower rest to the 
 other side of the plough, and proceeds as 
 before with the adjoining furrow. 
 
 The Kent plough, notwithstanding its 
 awkward appearance, great bulk, and 
 clumsy combinations, is, in the hands of a 
 skilful ploughman, a very effective imple- 
 ment, and we have frequently seen plough- 
 ing to the depth of eight inches, and with 
 furrows eleven inches wide, so accurately 
 performed as to astonish the judges who 
 had been accustomed to the lighter ploughs 
 of other counties. It is, however, difficult to 
 manage, and requires much practice to use 
 it with any degree of facility. Having to per- 
 form both right and left ploughing, it must 
 be perfectly true in all its bearings, and the 
 coulter must also be so accurately fitted to 
 an angular hole, that when the upper part 
 is pressed either on the right or left by the 
 rod bat, its point shall be equally true to 
 the edge of the furrow it is intended to cut. 
 It is tightly braced in all its parts, the upper 
 part of the gallows being confined by a 
 chain to the top of the beam, and the draught 
 chain is again braced tightly to the beam by 
 means of a collar chain, or rather pair of 
 collar chains, having what is technically 
 termed a "goose neck" passing through one 
 of its links, which is made circular for its 
 admission. In order to correct any tendency 
 to swerve from the perfect straight line, 
 arising from the complicated series of braces, 
 the ploughman is provided with a parcel 
 of nails, of every sort and size, which he 
 frequently carries in- the foot of an old shoe 
 nailed upon the handle of his plough ; and 
 thus equipped, should a link not be suf- 
 ficiently tight, or should any tendency to 
 " run away" from its work appear, after 
 duly selecting a nail of the exact size fitted 
 for the place, it is ingeniously inserted at 
 the junction of the links, and every sub- 
 sequent alteration is effected by the never- 
 failing application to the nail store ; it thus 
 frequently happens, that by the time the 
 plough is fitted for its work, almost every 
 link is garnished with nails ; and upon 
 counting these on a number of ploughs at 
 work in a trial field, the quantity of nails 
 thus used in three, was respectively 15, 17, 
 and 19. 
 
 As has been before observed, the work 
 performed is nevertheless excellent, and for 
 981 
 
 deep and heavy ploughing the principle is 
 better adapted than a casual observer would 
 suppose ; but it is not to be denied that it 
 is a more cumbrous implement than a plough 
 formed as a turn-rest needs to be, for a 
 large proportion of its present size and 
 strength is requisite to provide against the 
 strains to which it is subjected from the 
 attempt to counterbalance the conflicting 
 forces its erroneous construction has en- 
 gendered. 
 
 The plan of laying furrows in one di- 
 rection, so as to have neither ridge nor 
 water furrows, has within the last year at- 
 tracted more than common attention, and 
 it has led to a careful inquiry into the 
 system of ploughing pursued in Kent, and 
 there seems to be a disposition among many 
 of our first-rate agriculturists to try the 
 plan, provided lighter implements can be 
 furnished for the purpose, not exceeding 
 the power of two horses' draught. To this 
 object some eminent practical farmers have 
 turned their attention, and a plough, made 
 under the direction of Mr. William Smart, 
 a farmer of great respectability and expe- 
 rience at Kainham, in Kent, bids fair to 
 open a new and very important view of the 
 mechanical principles of the turn-rest plough, 
 which he has remodelled ; and it may be 
 made equally applicable to the power of two 
 or four horses. A description of this, in a 
 letter he has recently published in the 
 Mark Lane JExp?*ess, gives a clear elucida- 
 tion of his view of the subject. 
 
 This gentleman, after many trials, arrived 
 at the conclusion, that inasmuch as the work 
 of the turn-rest plough depended on its 
 wedge-like construction, its form could only 
 be correct in proportion to its approach to 
 the perfect wedge ; and this form, obtained 
 by straight lines in the direction, first, from 
 the point of the share to the throat of the 
 plough, to produce the effect of elevating 
 the furrow slice ; and, second, from the edge 
 of the coulter to the heel of the rest, to 
 effect the turning of the flag, is that which 
 he has adopted ; making these lines tend to 
 an angle of fifteen degrees. With the as- 
 sistance of an ingenious ploughwright in his 
 own neighbourhood, several ploughs on this 
 principle were constructed, and these have 
 been the basis upon which still further im- 
 provements in the detail have been carried 
 out. They are now so constructed that the 
 ploughman can readily shift his coulter by 
 means of a lever, which reaches the bot- 
 tom of the handler, and also his rests or 
 mould-boards from side to side, without 
 leaving his station between the handles of 
 his plough, they being so arranged that 
 by withdrawing a small pin and pressing 
 the projecting rest towards the body of the 
 3 r 3 
 
PLOUGH. 
 
 plough, the mould-boards on either side 
 become alternately the land side when not 
 in work. The necessity for the choice se- 
 lection from the store of nails, is removed 
 by the introduction of a screw, link, and 
 swivel in each chain ; and the implement 
 
 thus constructed admits of being made 
 much lighter ; this in combination with its 
 form being in accordance with a true an- 
 gle, enables it to perform its work with as 
 little expense of draught as any single mould- 
 board would do, to produce a similar effect. 
 
 IMPROVED TURN-REST PLOUGH. 
 
 Ploughs for the purpose of turning the 
 furrows all in one direction, and laying the 
 slices at an angle with the horizon, as is 
 done by the common plough, have been 
 within the last year or two brought before 
 the public, but we cannot learn that they 
 have been generally adopted. 
 
 The first of these is one most ingeniously 
 contrived by James Wilkie, of Uddington. 
 This plough has handles, beam, and frame- 
 work very similar to the wrought iron 
 Scotch plough. A spindle, fixed over the 
 beam, has attached to it a right and a left 
 hand mould-board and share, each so fas- 
 tened, that when one is in work, the other 
 is elevated over the beam, and by turning 
 the handle on the spindle one fourth of a 
 circle, the one mould-board is taken out of, 
 and the other set ready for, work. The end 
 of the spindle to which these are affixed, 
 has an eccentric, which, acting upon the 
 coulter, sets it to the proper cut for the 
 mould-board which is in use at the time. 
 
 The above is a drawing of the improved 
 Kent turn-rest plough. 
 
 The second is the invention of Captain Hay 
 of Belton. This plough may be described 
 as having a right and a left handed body 
 placed end to end, the beam and handles 
 being so made as to turn round a pivot at 
 the centre of the top of the body, so that 
 the plough may be easily reversed, and 
 turn the furrow to the right or left. In 
 this case, no alteration is required to the 
 coulter, which is fixed by wedges to the 
 beam in the usual manner. 
 
 The third is Iluckvale's plough, which is 
 so constructed that, by reversing the posi- 
 t ion of One of its handles, the ploughman is 
 enabled to turn the body part from right 
 082 
 
 to left, so that the part which was in the 
 one instance the slade or sole of the plough, 
 shall alternately become its land side, and 
 thus act on either side of the plough, that 
 which is not at work forming a close cover 
 over the other. The share is formed with 
 two blades or cutting edges at right angles, 
 one of which acts horizontally as a share, 
 and the other vertically as a coulter, and 
 the position of which is changed at each 
 end of the furrow by the same operation. 
 We have seen this plough used on light 
 land and with a shallow furrow, when it 
 appeared to do its work easily, and its posi- 
 tion was changed without the smallest diffi- 
 culty. 
 
 In going thus at length into the subject of 
 the plough, we have shown the present state 
 of agricultural mechanics as respects those 
 in general use. To have gone more fully 
 into the description of those out of the 
 common routine of farming, would have 
 carried us beyond what we imagine to be 
 the proper limit of this portion of the 
 work. At the same time it must be ob- 
 served, that there are a variety of purposes 
 for which ploughs of a particular form, dif- 
 ferent to any already described, are re- 
 quired. Such as paring ploughs, draining 
 ploughs, drill ploughs, &c. &c. On each, 
 indeed on all of which, a considerable 
 amount of judgment and ingenuity has been 
 expended. 
 
 Ploughs even for common purposes have 
 been long in arriving at their present state ; 
 and there are doubtless many improve- 
 ments that may yet be accomplished. 
 
 In the construction of ploughs, the first 
 object to be borne in mind is the proper 
 performance of the work to be done ; 
 
PLOUGHING. 
 
 the next, that this should be effected with 
 the least expenditure of animal power, and 
 with the greatest economy ; and, lastly, 
 that they should be made as simple as pos- 
 sible in reference to the ploughman who 
 will have to use them. The circumstance of 
 repairs, which will be continually required 
 as the parts wear out, should also be kept 
 in view, and the whole require to be made 
 on an accurate plan, so as to insure every 
 part fitting properly ; the workman may 
 then fix them on the spot as readily as a 
 mechanic at his manufactory. Nor should 
 it be forgotten that quality of materials and 
 workmanship are main points in economy, 
 and that to dispense with either is to pave 
 the way to dissatisfaction and trouble to all 
 parties concerned. 
 
 It is difficult to suggest alterations on 
 the present implements, which appear 
 adapted to the purpose, and likely to agree 
 with the description of requisites just given; 
 but there is no doubt that the plough, in 
 its various forms, is capable of great im- 
 provement; and amongst the points to which 
 attention may be usefully directed, are the 
 following : — 
 
 Amount of draught that different forms 
 of mould-boards and shares require, in 
 order to determine those best suited for the 
 purpose. 
 
 A mould-board that will best turn the 
 work on either side of the plough, so as to 
 admit of its being changed from one to the 
 other, after the plan of the Kent turn- 
 rest. 
 
 A ready means of altering , the depth or 
 pitch of the swing plough while in motion, 
 without stopping the horses, so that it may 
 be accommodated to any difference in the 
 nature of the soil, or inequalities on its sur- 
 face, which the plough may meet with. 
 
 The same as respects the wheel plough, 
 without placing any of its forces in oppo- 
 sition to each other. 
 
 PLOUGHING. The art of turning 
 over the soil by means of the plough. 
 There are various kinds of ploughing. 
 Trench ploughing is effected by the plough 
 passing twice along the same furrow ; the 
 first time for the purpose of throwing the 
 surface soil into the bottom of the furrow, 
 and the second time for raising a furrow 
 slice from under that which had been al- 
 ready turned over, and raising it up, &c, 
 turning it upon the first furrow slice, by 
 means of which the surface soil is entirely 
 buried, and a stratum of subsoil laid over 
 it : thus effecting in the field what trench- 
 ing with the spade does in the garden. 
 Trench ploughing can only be employed 
 with advantage where the subsoil is natu- 
 rally dry and of good quality, or where it 
 983 I 
 
 has been rendered so by draining and sub- 
 soil ploughing ; for bad subsoil brought to 
 the surface, unless considerably altered in 
 composition and texture, would be unfit for 
 receiving seeds or plants. 
 
 To excel in the art of ploughing, the 
 ploughman should take a pleasure in his 
 work, and not rest satisfied till he can make 
 his furrows in a straight line, and lay the 
 slices as much as possible at the same 
 angle from the bottom of the furrow. He 
 should open his first furrow in a uniform 
 manner, and proceed with regularity of 
 width and depth of the furrow slice, and 
 " shut up " clean at last. 
 
 Ploughing matches, which of late years 
 have been so general, have given a very in- 
 creased interest to ploughmen and plough- 
 boys. The face of the country is in many 
 parts strikingly improved by the change 
 which sound ploughing has effected, and 
 much of this may be traced to the lively 
 interest which has been paid to this part of 
 tillage by agricultural societies and by prac- 
 tical farmers. I never knew a ploughing 
 match meeting established in any rural dis- 
 trict, without very beneficial effects being 
 produced on the character of the peasantry. 
 It never fails to elevate the ploughman in 
 his own opinion ; it induces him to strive 
 to excel in his honourable vocation, to 
 please his employer, and to stand well in 
 the estimation of his richer neighbours. 
 The very assemblage of the neighbouring 
 farmers and gentry to witness the trial of 
 skill, brings out all the latent pride of the 
 roughest ploughman. The flowers in his 
 horses' bridles, the network on their ears, 
 the new gay-coloured tape with which 
 their manes and tails are braided, betray 
 the little feelings of honest pride in the 
 ploughman's bosom. When at a recent 
 meeting I noticed the air of triumph with 
 which the victor in the field of Langley, in 
 Buckinghamshire, after having had the 
 Queen's prize of five guineas awarded to 
 him, marched his sleek well-fed plough- 
 horses off the field, with a sprig of laurel in 
 their bridles, I could not but admit that the 
 effect of that meeting would be felt, not 
 only amongst the contending ploughmen 
 there assembled, but through the adjoining 
 hundreds. The triumph, too, was not con- 
 fined to the ploughman ; his master, nay 
 his parish, shared in the honour ; and I will 
 engage that many an honest ploughman, 
 between one year's meeting and the next, 
 as he ploughs " his acre," thinks of the field 
 of meeting, and of the best means of se- 
 curing a prize. Such meetings, moreover, 
 teach even the most ignorant the import- 
 ance of such affairs ; that there is a strange 
 difference in the neatness, style, and profit 
 
PLOUGHING. 
 
 to the farmer in which the ploughmen exe- 
 cute their work ; and they are pretty sure 
 to convince even the most listless that there 
 is more skill required in a ploughman than 
 many persons would readily believe. 
 
 Many papers on ploughs and ploughing 
 are contained in the best modern agricultural 
 periodicals. Wilkie's turn-rest plough is de- 
 scribed in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 484. 
 Mr. Heathcote's steam plough, Ibid. p. 72., 
 Mr. Laidlaw " On the general Advantages of 
 Two-horse Ploughs," Quar. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. ii. p. 712. " On the Plough of Pales- 
 tine," Ibid. vol. iii. p. 373. " On Small's 
 Plough as a Drill Plough," Ibid. p. 854. 
 " On the mathematical Construction of the 
 Plough," by Mr. Amos, Com. Board of Agr. 
 vol. vi. p. 437. " On Wheel and Swing 
 
 Ploughs," by Mr. Handley, Jour. Roy. Ag. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 140. " On Draught in 
 Ploughing," by Mr. Pusey, Ibid. p. 219. 
 " On Subsoil Ploughing," by Sir James 
 Graham, Ibid. p. 245. " On the Rack- 
 heath Subsoil Plough," by Sir E, Stracey, 
 Ibid. p. 253. " On the Charlbury Sub- 
 soil Plough," by Mr. Pusey, Ibid. p. 433. 
 " On the Rackheath Subturf Plough," by 
 Sir E. Stracey, Ibid. vol. ii. p. 37. ; and 
 " On a light Subsoil Plough, adapted for 
 two Horses," by Mr. Gabell, Ibid. p. 421. 
 
 I conclude this article with the following 
 useful table, showing the distance travelled 
 by a horse in ploughing or scarifying an 
 acre of land; also the quantity of land 
 worked in a day, at the rate of sixteen and 
 eighteen miles per day of nine hours. 
 
 Breadth of 
 Furrow-slice, 
 or Scarifier. 
 
 Space tra- 
 velled in 
 
 Extent ploughed per 
 
 Breadth of 
 Furrow-slice, 
 or Scarifier. 
 
 Space tra- 
 velled in 
 
 Extent ploughed per 
 
 ploughing an 
 Acre. 
 
 day, at the rate of 
 
 ploughing an 
 Acre. 
 
 day, at the rate of 
 
 h 
 
 nc es. 
 
 IMilcs 
 
 18 Miles. | 16 Miles. 
 Acres. 
 
 I 
 
 nc es. 
 
 Miles 
 1 es. 
 
 18 Miles. | 16 Miles. 
 Acres. 
 
 7 
 
 1 41 
 
 Ii 
 
 H 
 
 46 
 
 
 81 
 
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 7? 
 
 g 
 
 124 
 
 ii 
 
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 47 
 
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 10 
 
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 (J. Morton, Esq., of Whitfield, 
 984 
 
 Johnson and Shaivs Farmers Almanack, vol. i. p. 95.) 
 
PLOVER. 
 
 PLOUGHMAN'S SPIKENARD. See 
 Spikenard. 
 
 PLOVER. (Charadrius, Lin. ; Fr.plu- 
 vier.) In ornithology, the common name 
 of a large family of wading birds, belonging 
 to the order Grallatores. There are se- 
 veral species, generally included among the 
 British birds. 
 
 1. The great Norfolk plover, or stone 
 curlew (CEdicnemus crepitans), is a summer 
 visiter to this country, arriving here in 
 April, and leaving again at the end of Sep- 
 tember or in October. It is most common 
 in the southern and south-eastern counties. 
 These birds are usually seen in unenclosed 
 countries, or where the fields are large ; 
 they frequent sheepwalks, fallow lands, 
 heaths, and warrens, feeding on worms, 
 slugs, and insects ; and are believed also 
 to kill and devour small mammalia and rep- 
 tiles. They lay their eggs, generally two in 
 number, on the bare ground, among stones 
 and grey flints. The eggs are pale clay 
 brown, blotched, spotted, and streaked with 
 ash-blue and dark brown ; two inches two 
 lines long, by one inch seven lines in 
 breadth. The feathers of the back, wing- 
 coverts, are pale brown ; the neck and 
 breast pale brownish white ; the belly white ; 
 claws almost black. The whole length of 
 the bird is seventeen inches. 
 
 2. The golden plover {Charadrius pluvia- 
 lis) is found widely scattered over the globe. 
 In this island, during the early period of 
 summer, it breeds on the high hills and 
 swampy grounds of the north of England 
 and Scotland. The nest is very inartificial, 
 being formed of a few dry stems of grass, 
 lining a small depression amidst the heath. 
 The golden plover lays only four eggs, 
 which are large in proportion to the size of 
 the bird, but it has only one brood in the 
 season. The eggs are of a yellowish stone 
 or cream colour, blotched and spotted with 
 umber black ; the length two inches by one 
 inch, four lines in breadth. The young, 
 when hatched, &re covered with a bright 
 party-coloured yellow and brown down. 
 They quit the nest soon after they are 
 hatched, but they do not fly until they are 
 five weeks old. The parents, however, 
 look after them with much anxiety ; trying 
 many stratagems to attract the notice of 
 any enemy from them ; often tumbling 
 over and feigning lameness. This plover 
 has a very peculiar call or whistle ; but this 
 is varied in the breeding season. The plo- 
 vers feed on worms, slugs, and insects in 
 various states. In autumn the various 
 broods associate, form flocks, and together 
 wing their way southwards. They are ob- 
 served in great numbers through the winter 
 
 985 
 
 on moors, heaths, downs, and large open 
 fields, in most of the southern counties, and 
 many resort to the sea-shores. They ily 
 with great swiftness, usually making various 
 evolutions and wheelings before they alight 
 on the ground. They run extremely fast, and 
 when winged can scarcely be caught. They 
 are excellent birds for the table. The 
 plumage of both sexes changes in summer 
 from a dull sooty black, marked with large 
 spots of golden yellow on the borders of 
 the barbs of the feathers, to deep black, 
 which pervades the whole of the upper sur- 
 face of the body. The barbs of the feathers 
 are spotted with gamboge or golden yellow. 
 The throat and lower parts in winter are 
 white ; in summer the same parts are white, 
 varied with large black and yellow spots. 
 The bill is black; the iris brown; and the 
 feet a deep ash colour. The whole length 
 of an adult bird is rather more than eleven 
 inches. 
 
 3. The dotterel plover (C morinellus) has 
 already been noticed. See Dotterel. 
 
 4. The ringed dotterel (C.hiaticula). This 
 prettily marked plover is found throughout 
 the year on most of the shores of the British 
 islands, but more particularly frequents 
 bays and flats along the coast where the 
 sea at its ebb retires to a distance, leaving 
 extensive surfaces of sand or shingle. These 
 birds also haunt the sides of large rivers, 
 and are not unfrequently found about the 
 margins of inland lakes and large ponds. 
 They deposit their four eggs in any acci- 
 dental depression on a bank of sand, broken 
 shells, or shingle, above high-water mark. 
 The eggs are one inch five lines long, by 
 one inch and half a line in breadth, of 
 a pale buff" or cream colour, spotted and 
 streaked with ash blue and black. They 
 feed on worms, insects, and, when at the 
 edge of the sea, on the various species of 
 the thinner-skinned Crustacea, as shrimps, 
 sand-hoppers, &c. with which almost every 
 little salt-water pool abounds. The whole 
 length of the adult bird is seven inches and 
 three quarters. In summer the plumage of 
 the breast, throat, and belly are white ; 
 across the neck is a broad collar of black ; 
 the back and wing coverts are hair-brown. 
 
 5. The Kentish plover (C Cantianus). 
 The habits and food of this little plover 
 so closely resemble those of the species last 
 described, that it is unnecessary to occupy 
 space with the recital. The whole length 
 of the bird is about seven inches. The 
 colour of the back, wing-coverts, &c. is 
 ash-brown ; breast, belly, sides of neck and 
 throat, pure white ; just in advance of the 
 carpal joint or point of the wing, on each 
 side, is a patch of black, not continued 
 
PLUM. 
 
 round the front ; legs, toes, and claws, like 
 the beak, black at all ages. 
 
 6. The little ringed plover (C. minor). 
 This rare British bird bears considerable 
 resemblance to the ringed plover (C. hiati- 
 cula), but it is readily distinguished on 
 examination by its smaller size; its more 
 slender form, being one-fourth lighter in 
 weight ; its black beak ; its more slender 
 and lighter- coloured legs, and other pecu- 
 liarities. The food is similar to that of 
 the other species, namely, aquatic insects 
 in their various stages, and small worms. 
 The whole length of the bird is about six 
 inches and a quarter. 
 
 7. The grey plover (Squatarola cinerea), 
 though similar in habits and somewhat in 
 appearance to the golden plover, is by no 
 means so plentiful as a species, and may be 
 considered a winter visiter rather than a 
 native resident, being much more common 
 at the end of autumn, through the winter, 
 and in spring, than in summer, retiring to 
 high northern latitudes during the breed- 
 ing season, and re-appearing in small flocks 
 when that season is over. It frequents 
 oozy bays, and the mouth of rivers, feeding 
 on worms and small Crustacea. The nest 
 is any hollow in the ground, which the bird 
 lines with a little dry bents : it contains 
 only four eggs, which are of an oil green 
 hue, blotched with [black. This plover is 
 very shy ; but when it can be shot, in sum- 
 mer, it forms a delicious dish. The whole 
 length of the bird is very nearly twelve 
 inches. In winter the feathers on the 
 upper surface of the body are dusky grey, 
 edged with dull white; the throat, breast, 
 and sides lighter in colour than the back ; 
 the belly, &c. dull white, with few or no 
 marks. In spring the black feathers begin 
 to appear on the breast, and the birds may 
 be observed in various degrees of change 
 from white, with only a few black feathers, 
 to entire and perfect black. The breeding 
 plumage is generally complete by the end 
 of May. 
 
 Other species of this order have been 
 noticed under the heads Courser and Lap- 
 wing. See also Sanderling, Oyster- 
 catcher, and Turnstone. (YarrelVs Brit, 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 376—436.) 
 
 PLUM. (Prunus, from prime, its Greek 
 name.) A genus of trees and shrubs, several 
 of which are indigenous to Britain. Having 
 already noticed the bird cherry (P. Padus), 
 the wild cherry-tree (P Cerasus), the wild 
 bullace-tree (P. insititia), the black thorn 
 or sloe (P. spinosa), under their several 
 heads, it only remains to speak in this place 
 of the wild and cultivated species of plum- 
 tree. The wild plum-tree (P. domestica) 
 
 is a moderate-sized tree, without thorns, 
 found growing sometimes in woods and 
 hedges, flowering in May. The leaves are 
 elliptic-oblong, serrated, hairy underneath, 
 and convolute while young. The stipules 
 are linear, glandular and deciduous. Flower- 
 stalks short, generally in pairs; flowers 
 s'how-white. The fruit is rather oblong, 
 seldom quite globular, its colour and fla- 
 vour very variable. " Whether all our cul- 
 tivated plums have originated from this 
 species, or from the wild bullace-tree " (P. 
 insititia), says Sir J. E. Smith, " its thorns 
 having disappeared by culture like those of 
 the pear-tree, is a question which perhaps 
 no botanist can ever solve." As to its va- 
 rieties, Gerarde declares that " to write of 
 plums particularly would require a peculiar 
 volume, and yet the end not be attained 
 unto, nor the stock or kindred perfectly 
 known, neither to be distinguished apart." 
 He adds that each country has an abun- 
 dance of its own peculiar varieties. All the 
 kinds of plum grow well in any common 
 soil, and are increased by seeds or suckers, 
 or by grafting or budding to perpetuate 
 the particular kinds. There are 274 va- 
 rieties named in the catalogue of the Hor- 
 ticultural Society. As a choice selection 
 for a small garden, Mr. Nicol recommends 
 the following twelve varieties : Jaune Ha- 
 tive, Wilmot's Orleans green-gage, red 
 magnum bonum, white ditto, Coe's golden 
 drop, Caledonian, mussel, damson, wine- 
 sour, white bullace, blue imperatrice. 
 
 The best plums for cultivation may be 
 thus classed — 
 
 a. Purple Round. — Shoots smooth. — Purple 
 
 gage ; nectarine plum ; Kirkes ; virgin ; 
 queen mother. 
 
 Shoots downy. — Royal native ; Orleans ; 
 early Orleans ; Coxe's fine late red ; wine- 
 sour. 
 
 b. Oblong. — Shoots smooth. — Blue impera- 
 
 trice ; Inkworth imperatrice ; Cooper's 
 large red. 
 
 Shoots downy. — Blue perdrigon ; Shrop- 
 shire damson. 
 
 a. Pale Round. — Shoots smooth. — Green 
 
 gage ; Knight's large green drying ; Lu- 
 combe's nonsuch. 
 
 Shoots downy. — Drap d'or ; Mirabelle ; 
 Washington. 
 
 b. Oblong. — Shoots smooth. — Coe's golden 
 
 drop ; St. Catherine ; White magnum 
 bonum. 
 
 Shoots downy. — Gumaraen ; White per- 
 drigon. 
 
 If plum-trees are much pruned, they 
 grow too luxuriant to produce fruit, and 
 often gum and spoil. The choice varieties 
 of plums are much esteemed for the dessert ; 
 the more common sorts are used for pies, 
 
POA. 
 
 tarts, preserves, &c. The wood is employed 
 for turnery and cabinet work, and for the 
 manufacture of musical instruments. {Lou- 
 dons Encyclop. of Gard. ; Phillips s Fruits ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 353.) 
 
 POA. (From poa, signifying grass or 
 herbage.) The meadow-grass. A genus of 
 grasses of considerable extent, and vefy 
 abundant in the pasturages of Europe. This 
 genus contains some valuable hay and pas- 
 ture grasses, succeeding well in rich loamy 
 soil ; some of the species are aquatic, grow- 
 ing only in water, or in very moist situ- 
 ations ; and increased by seeds or divisions 
 of the roots. One of the commonest of all 
 weeds is the Poa annua. P. trivialis and P. 
 pratensis are sown extensively as a part of 
 the artificial grasses for pastures and lawns, 
 which are now commonly made with picked 
 grasses instead of " hay seeds." In general 
 these grasses appear to be nutritious and 
 agreeable to cattle. There are nine in- 
 digenous species, besides several varieties. 
 
 1. Flat-stalked meadow-grass (P. com- 
 pressa). This is a very common species in 
 dry barren ground, flowering from June to 
 September. 
 
 The root is moderately creeping, with 
 downy fibres ; stems obliquely ascending in 
 the lower part, then erect and often crowded 
 together, from a foot to a foot and a half high, 
 remarkably compressed, by which this species 
 may readily be known, as also by a sudden 
 contraction where the panicle begins. The 
 branches of the latter are acutely angular, 
 rough, spreading considerably while in flower, 
 but close and erect both before and after. 
 Leaves short, narrow, roughish, especially 
 at the edges, with long compressed sheaths, 
 and a short obtuse stipule. The whole plant 
 is more or less glaucous. Florets from three 
 to eight or nine, connected at the base by a 
 mass of white folded threads, as fine and 
 soft as a spider's web, which may be drawn 
 out to a considerable length. This grass, 
 though not succulent, is eaten by all cattle, 
 but cannot be cultivated in moist or ma- 
 nured ground. It never forms a close turf, 
 and although it possesses superior nutritive 
 powers, its produce any where is far from 
 abundant. 
 
 A variety of this species (P. c. var. erecta) 
 is mentioned by Sinclair, which differs from 
 the last, in having culms more upright, less 
 compressed, and produced in greater quanti- 
 ties. It grows closer, forms a pretty good 
 sward, and the roots are less inclined to 
 creeping. But it is nevertheless inferior in 
 point of early growth, and the produce of 
 the foliage. 
 
 2. Alpine meadow-grass (P. alpind). 
 This species is chiefly confined to alpine re- 
 987 
 
 gions and lofty mountains. It is perennial, 
 and flowers from June to August. The 
 root is fibrous, tufted, not creeping. Stem 
 four to twelve inches high, erect ; leafy be- 
 low ; naked, round, striated, and smooth at 
 the top, with frequently a tinge of purple. 
 Leaves linear, rather broad, flat, bluntish, 
 with a small point, rough at the edges. 
 Panicle loosely spreading. Spikelets heart- 
 shaped, four or five flowered. Florets ra- 
 ther sickle-shaped, hairy at the base, with- 
 out a web. The produce of this grass 
 appears to be equal to that of the Mope- 
 curus alpinus, and its nutritive powers 
 greater, but not of sufficient importance to 
 render it an object for the farmer's especial 
 consideration. 
 
 3. Wavy meadow-grass (P. laxd). This 
 species grows in some of the Highlands 
 of Scotland. It is perennial, and flowers 
 in July. Root slightly, whole plant more 
 dwarf, slender, and delicate than the last, 
 pale and somewhat glaucous. The root 
 is creeping. The leaves are narrow, rough- 
 ish above. Stipules all lanceolate and 
 acute. Panicle close, drooping, in the lower 
 part zigzag. Spikelets ovate, three-flower- 
 ed ; essentially distinguished from P. al- 
 pina, by the connected complicated web at 
 their bases, while the keel only of each, not 
 the sides, is silky. It is sometimes vivipar- 
 ous, but it possesses no agricultural merit. 
 
 4. Bulbous meadow-grass (P. bulbosa). 
 This species tenants the sandy sea- shore, 
 and other dry barren ground. It is peren- 
 nial, and flowers in April and May. The root 
 is a tuft of small ovate, white scaly bulbs, 
 as truly such as the bulbs of a lily or garlic, 
 and like them throwing out fibrous radi- 
 cles from their base ; which happens when 
 the autumnal rains fix them in the moist- 
 ened sands. Early in spring a dense crop 
 of linear, keeled, slightly glaucous leaves, 
 serrated with fine marginal teeth is pro- 
 duced, affording a grateful pasturage for 
 cattle, and withering by the time when 
 summer food abounds. Stem four or five 
 inches high. Panicle close, slightly zigzag. 
 Spikelets four-flowered. Florets hairy at 
 the keel, connected by a web. Leaves 
 finely serrated. 
 
 5. Roughish meadow-grass (P. trivialis). 
 This is a very common species, in meadows 
 and pastures, especially such as are rather 
 moist. Perennial, flowering from June to 
 October. The root is fibrous, and tufted ; 
 the stems several, about eighteen inches 
 high, erect, leafy, with several knots, the 
 naked part cylindrical, roughish to the 
 touch, as are the edges and backs of the 
 flat, slightly-spreading, lax, linear, deep- 
 green leaves. In their long compressed 
 
POA. 
 
 sheaths also a slight roughness is some- 
 times perceptible. Panicle large, spread- 
 ing, with half-whorled, horizontal, wavy, an- 
 gular, rough-compressed, unequal branches. 
 Spikelets ovate, three-flowered; florets 
 lanceolate, five-ribbed, connected by a web ; 
 stipule oblong. The seed is lanceolate and 
 triangular. Mr. Curtis, deeply versed in 
 the practical economy of grasses, declares 
 this to be one of the most valuable for 
 pasturage and hay, yielding abundantly, 
 though not particularly early ; and of the 
 most excellent quality. Mr. G. Sinclair, an- 
 other practical authority on the grasses, also 
 observes, " The superior produce of this 
 Poa over many other species, its highly nu- 
 tritive qualities, the seasons in which it 
 arrives at perfection, and the marked par- 
 tiality which oxen, horses, and sheep have 
 for it, are merits which distinguish it as one 
 of the most valuable of those grasses, which 
 affect moist rich soils and sheltered situa- 
 tions : but in dry exposed situations it is 
 altogether inconsiderable ; it yearly dimi- 
 nishes, and ultimately dies off, not unfre- 
 quently in the space of four or five years. 
 Its "produce is always much greater when 
 combined with other grasses, than when 
 cultivated by itself ; with a proper admix- 
 ture, it will nearly double its produce, 
 though on the same soil, so much does it 
 delight in shelter. Those spots in pastures 
 that are closely eaten down, consist for the 
 most part of this grass." 
 
 6. Smooth-stalked meadow-grass (P. 
 pratensis'). This is a very common species 
 in all meadows and pastures. It is peren- 
 nial, flowering in May and June. The root 
 is strong and creeping, with horizontal run- 
 ners. The general aspect of the plant is 
 very like the last, with which it has 
 usually been confounded ; but the stems 
 and leaves betray no roughness when drawn 
 through the hand. Spikelets four-flowered ; 
 florets lanceolate, ribbed, connected by a 
 web. But the clear and essential mark of 
 this species compared with the last, consists 
 in its very short, abrupt, pointless stipule, 
 which in every leaf of every variety proves 
 constant and invariable. 
 
 As an object of agriculture, this species 
 is not less valuable than the P. trivialis, es- 
 pecially for permanent pasture. It is earlier 
 in leaf, and will thrive with less moisture, 
 though the rough-stalked meadow-grass 
 produces, at last, a better crop. Mr. Curtis, 
 and several other able botanists, have ren- 
 dered great service to the farmer in direct- 
 ing his attention to such objects; and it is 
 undoubtedly worth his while to be select in 
 leede f<»r grass lands. Hut, after all, Nature is 
 supreme ra the accommodation of particular 
 988 
 
 grasses to certain soils and situations, and 
 whatever we may sow, unless we have well 
 studied her laws, she finally triumphs. The 
 great objection to this grass is the property 
 of the creeping roots to scourge the soil. 
 
 Mr. Sinclair notices, in his experiments 
 on the grasses, two varieties, the short blue 
 meadow-grass (P. pratensis subccerulea) and 
 the narrow-leaved meadow-grass (P. pra- 
 tensis angustifolia), which require some 
 notice here. 
 
 The discriminating characters of the first- 
 named are as follows : — Panicle diffuse ; 
 spikelets oval, generally three-flowered ; the 
 culms shorter, and somewhat glaucous ; 
 and the leaves much shorter and broader 
 than those of the Poa pratensis. It may be 
 further distinguished by its delicate sky- 
 blue Or glaucous colour. Prom its creep- 
 ing roots and other demerits, this is evidently 
 one of the inferior grasses. Although the 
 botanical characters of the narrow-leaved 
 meadow-grass (P. angustifolid) are not suf- 
 ficient to constitute it a distinct species,* its 
 agricultural merits cause it to differ from 
 P. pratensis, to which it is much superior. 
 Its spring produce is considerable, and its 
 properties of early growth and great nutri- 
 tive matter would rank it with the most 
 valuable grasses, but for its powerful creep- 
 ing root. The culms are most valuable for 
 the manufacture of the finest straw-plait, 
 in imitation of the celebrated " Leghorn." 
 
 7. Annual meadow-grass, Suffolk-grass 
 (P.unnua). This is an exceedingly com- 
 mon species every where, as well in waste 
 as cultivated ground, flowering from April 
 to November. The root is fibrous. Stems 
 pale, very smooth, oblique, compressed, 
 three to twelve inches long. Leaves of a fine 
 light green, spreading, linear, bluntish, flac- 
 cid, roughish at the edge only. Panicle 
 small, widely spreading. Spikelets ovate, 
 five-flowered ; florets a little remote, five- 
 ribbed, without a web. 
 
 This is a good grass for fodder, abundant 
 in proportion to the richness of the soil, 
 easily raised, but not durable. The dimi- 
 nutive size of the plant, however, renders 
 its cultivation unprofitable, compared with 
 that of any other of the pasture grasses. 
 It is the most troublesome weed that infests 
 gravel walks, stone pitchings, and the like. 
 The most effectual way to extirpate it in such 
 situations is to sprinkle salt on it ; some 
 recommend boiling water and a layer of 
 litter, &c. 
 
 8. Glaucous meadow-grass (P. glauca). 
 This species is found on "the mountains of 
 Wales, Scotland, and the north of Eng- 
 land, flowering in June and July. It is a 
 perennial. Its specific characters are, spike- 
 
POA. 
 
 lets ovate. Florets from two to five, ob- 
 scurely five-ribbed, bluntish ; silky at the 
 keel and lateral ribs ; hairy at the base, 
 without a web. Stipules of the lowjer leaves 
 very short and blunt. The whole plant is 
 of a light pale colour, extremely and per- 
 manently glaucous, lloot tufted, fibrous. 
 Stems erect, a foot and a half to two feet in 
 height, round, striated. This grass pos- 
 sesses no properties of sufficient importance 
 to entitle it to a place in the composition of 
 good pasture or soils of the best quality. 
 
 A variety called the sea-green meadow- 
 grass (P. glauca ccBsia) is mentioned by 
 Sinclair, to which the same remarks will 
 apply. The whole plant is of a deep glau- 
 cous colour. The culms are from six 
 inches to a foot and a half in height, ac- 
 cording to the nature of the soil it grows in. 
 
 9. Wood meadow-grass (P. nemoralis). 
 This is a very common species in some dis- 
 tricts in groves and woods, especially on 
 chalk soils. The whole plant is very slender 
 and delicate, one and a half or two feet 
 high. Steins several, slightly compressed, 
 smooth, striated, leafy, with four or five 
 joints. Leaves almost all on the stem, 
 grass-green, narrow, flat, more or less rough, 
 tapering to a fine slender point. Stipules 
 very short, notched. Panicle spreading, 
 capillary. Spikelets lanceolate, pale green 
 and white, with a purplish tinge. Florets 
 about two to three. Mr. George Sinclair 
 speaks favourably of a variety of this spe- 
 cies, which he names P. nemoralis, var. an- 
 gustifolia. Although the produce is incon- 
 siderable compared to that of many others 
 equally nutrient, yet the early growth of 
 this grass in the spring, and its remarkably 
 fine, succulent, and nutritive herbage, re- 
 commend it strongly for admission into the 
 company of the superior permanent pasture 
 grasses. It flowers in the third week of 
 June, and ripens the seed in the end of 
 July. 
 
 The P. aquatica, or water meadow-grass, 
 of some botanists, is the reedy sweet-grass 
 (Glyceria aquatica) of Smith. The decum- 
 bent meadow-grass (P. decumbens) is the 
 decumbent heath-grass (Triodia decumbens) 
 of Smith's English Flora. The reflexed 
 meadow-grass (P. distans) of Sinclair is the 
 reflexed sweet-grass (Glyceria distans) of 
 modern botanists. The Glyceria fiuitans is 
 also sometimes called the Poa fiuitans. 
 
 Having disposed of the native species of 
 meadow-grass, we come now to consider 
 one or two exotic species which are men- 
 tioned in Sinclair's work on the grasses. 
 
 The soft meadow-grass (P. cenisid). This 
 alpine species is a native of Germany, and 
 attains to a greater size than most others 
 of the same class. The root is fibrous. 
 989 
 
 Panicle diffuse, nodding. Spikelets oblong, 
 5 — 7-flowered. Florets connected at the 
 base by a villus. Sheath-scale short. It is 
 rather late in the produce of foliage in the 
 spring, and does not afford much after- 
 grass. Its nutrient properties, as indicated 
 by the quantity of nutritive matter it con- 
 tains, are not superior to those of several 
 other grasses which afford a greater abund- 
 ance of herbage throughout the season. 
 
 The fertile meadow-grass (P. fertilis). 
 It produces flowers about the first and se- 
 cond weeks of July, and seeds in the second 
 week of August. This grass, which is also a 
 native of Germany, seems to be allied to the 
 Poanemoralis. It differs in having the panicle 
 more loose and spreading, and less attenuated. 
 The spikelets are more oval, and nerved. 
 The culm rises from a foot and a half to 
 two feet in height, and sometimes more, 
 ascending at the base, afterwards erect, 
 somewhat compressed. , The root is slightly 
 creeping. In regard to early growth, this 
 grass stands next to the meadow fox-tail, 
 cocks-foot, and tall oat. The herbage is 
 more nutritive than that of either of those 
 grasses ; and from its agricultural merits it 
 deserves a place in the composition of rich 
 pastures, and ranks with the superior grasses 
 of irrigated meadows. It flowers in the 
 beginning of July, and the seed is ripe to- 
 wards the end of the month. 
 
 The nerved meadow-grass (P. nervata). 
 This species is a native of North America. 
 Panicle upright, often half a foot or more 
 in length, with slender branches pressed 
 close, and subdivided. Spikelets small, of 
 a green colour. Valves of the blossom 
 smooth, having five raised nerves on each 
 valve. Leaves in two rows, resembling a 
 fan, somewhat rough. Culm a little com- 
 pressed. This grass is remarkably hardy, 
 and possesses many very excellent proper- 
 ties : it will be found a valuable ingredient 
 in permanent pastures, where the soil is 
 not too dry, but of a medium quality as to 
 moisture and dryness. The root leaves are 
 produced on a shoot, and stand in two rows 
 after the manner of a fan. This shoot, 
 which is formed by the union of the base of 
 the leaves, is very succulent, and contains a 
 greater proportion of nutritive matter than 
 the leaves, which accounts for the superior 
 nutrient qualities of the lattermath. It 
 flowers in the third week of June, and the 
 seed is ripe in the last week of July. 
 
 I shall conclude this article with a useful 
 table for the farmer, showing the compar- 
 ative yield and nutrient properties of the 
 different species of meadow-grass which are 
 capable of cultivation. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 120 — 130. ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. 
 Wob. ; Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
POCKET. 
 
 POITTEVIN'S MANURE. 
 
 Species of Grass. 
 
 Poa alpina, in flower 
 P. angustifolia, in flower 
 
 ., when seed ripe 
 
 P. annua, in June 
 P. cenisia, in flower 
 P. compressa, in flower 
 
 : , var. erecta, ditto 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 P. fertilis, in flower 
 seed ripe 
 
 P. glauca, in flower 
 seed ripe 
 P. g. ccesia, in flower 
 ■, seed ripe 
 
 P. nemoralis, var. angustifolia, 
 
 in flower - 
 P. nervata, in flower 
 
 , seed ripe 
 
 P. pratensis, in flower 
 , seed ripe 
 
 P. trivialis, in flower 
 , seed ripe 
 
 
 Produce per Acre. 
 
 .Description of Soil* 
 
 Green, 
 
 Dry. 
 
 Of Nutri- 
 tive Matter 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Light sandy loam 
 
 5,445 
 
 1,701 
 
 127 
 
 Brown loam - 
 
 18,376 
 
 7,810 
 
 1,430 
 
 ditto 
 
 9,528 
 
 3,811 
 
 781 
 
 Rich black loam • - 
 
 5,445 
 
 1,905 
 
 212 
 
 Sandy loam - 
 
 6,806 
 
 1,871 
 
 239 
 
 Gravelly soil manured 
 
 3,403 
 
 1,446 
 
 265 
 
 Light sandy loam 
 
 15,654 
 
 6,653 
 
 743 
 
 ditto 
 
 14,973 
 
 8,235 
 
 1,169 
 
 ditto 
 
 1 K R.KA 
 1 D,O04 
 
 0,000 
 
 733 
 
 ditto - - 
 
 14,973 
 
 8,235 
 
 1,169 
 
 Rich black sandy loam 
 
 8,848 
 
 3,539 
 
 345 
 
 ditto 
 
 10,209 
 
 4,594 
 
 438 
 
 Brown loam - 
 
 6,806 
 
 2,892 
 
 241 
 
 ditto 
 
 4,764 
 
 2,382 
 
 223 
 
 ditto 
 
 9,188 
 
 3,905 
 
 574 
 
 Rich sandy loam 
 
 21,780 
 
 8,167 
 
 1,616 
 
 ditto 
 
 21,780 
 
 8,712 
 
 1,616 
 
 Clayey loam with peat 
 
 10,209 
 
 2,871 
 
 279 
 
 ditto 
 
 8,507 
 
 3,403 
 
 199 
 
 Brown loam with manure - 
 
 7,486 
 
 2,246 
 
 233 
 
 ditto 
 
 7,827 
 
 3,522 
 
 336 
 
 POACHERS. See Game ; and Animals, 
 Wild, Stealing of. 
 
 POCKET. A large kind of bag in which 
 hops are packed up. 
 
 POD. A term used to express the sili- 
 qua and silicula of botanists. A seed 
 vessel of some plants, consisting of two 
 valves, separated by a linear receptacle, 
 along each of the edges of which the seeds 
 are alternately ranged. The wall-flower 
 affords an example of the siliqua, which 
 differs from the silicula merely in being ob- 
 long instead of being short and round. 
 The satin-flower, or honesty, bears a pouch 
 or silicula. 
 
 POINTER {Canis avicularis). A well 
 known dog, used in shooting^ trained to 
 stop and point where the game is : hence its 
 name. He is an invaluable accompaniment 
 to a sportsman. Although neither so hand- 
 some nor so engaging in his manners as the 
 setter, the pointer retains what is taught 
 him longer and more completely. The 
 value of the pointer consists in steadiness, 
 and retaining his point : strong and able to 
 stand work. For some excellent hints re- 
 specting the training and management of 
 these dogs, Colonel Hawker's work, the 
 Sportmaris Cabinet, may be consulted. 
 
 POINTS OF CATTLE. The parts 
 which show the excellencies or defects in 
 their forms. See Cattle. 
 
 POISON. (Fr.) Any substance which 
 in small quantity disturbs, suspends, or 
 destroys one or more of the vital functions. 
 Poisons are classified by Orfila under the 
 four heads of irritants, narcotics, narcotico- 
 990 
 
 acrids, and putrefiants, or septics, and, we 
 may add, sedatives. The same poisons 
 which affect men usually affect horses, 
 cows, and dogs ; but goats and swine eat 
 many things that are virulent poisons to 
 other animals. Sweet almonds and aloes 
 are poisonous to dogs; sugar is poison to 
 pigeons, parsley to parrots, and pepper to 
 hogs. On the other hand, hogs devour 
 Nux vomica and henbane with impunity; 
 goats browse on Aconite, Cicuta virosa, and 
 Arnica montana harmless ; and sheep eat 
 common hemlock without suffering. See 
 Animal and Vegetable Poisons, Fungi, 
 Yew, Sheep, Diseases of, &c. 
 
 POITTEVIN'S MANURE. A com- 
 pound organic and earthy manure powder, 
 well adapted for the use of the drill. See 
 Manures applicable by the Drill, ante, 
 p. 795.; and Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 417., vol.ii. p. 264. 
 
 In three experiments with this manure, 
 tried in 1840, on turnips against bones, the 
 following are the results. 
 
 Produce. 
 Tons. Cwt. 
 
 First, on a stony soil. 
 
 24 bushels of Poittevin's 9 2 
 
 16 bushels of bones - - 10 1 
 Second, on a sandy soil. 
 
 24 bushels of Poittevin's - 15 10 
 
 16 bushels of bones > - - 13 14 
 Third on a sandy soil with Swedes. 
 
 13 bushels of Poittevin's - 11 0 
 12 bushels of bones - - 10 5 
 This manure answers best on light soils ; 
 it is generally used too sparingly. (Far- 
 mer's Almanack, vol. i. p. 189.) 
 
POLE. 
 
 POLYPODY. 
 
 POLE. A small thick piece of wood, 
 such as a straight bough or young tree. 
 Poles are useful in husbandry for the mak- 
 ing of stakes, hurdles, and various other 
 purposes, as also for supporting the bind of 
 hops. The poles of ash, oak, willow, pop- 
 lar, chestnut, and various other species of 
 wood, are employed in this way. The ash, 
 oak, and chestnut are probably the most 
 valuable. Poles for this purpose are usu- 
 ally prepared by having the bark removed, 
 and being sharpened at the thick end. 
 Care should be taken of them after they 
 are separated from the bind, by haying 
 them properly stacked up in some dry situ- 
 ation. 
 
 POLE. A measure of length equal to 
 16£ feet. 
 
 POLE-CAT. (Mustela putorius.) A 
 predatory animal of a dusky-yellow colour, 
 with whitish ears and muzzle. The pole- 
 cat burrows in the earth, and issues out 
 during the night in quest of prey, commit- 
 ting great havoc among poultry, bees, &c. 
 The pole-cat emits an exceedingly offensive 
 fetor, so that its name has long been a term 
 of reproach. The female breeds in the 
 spring, and brings forth four or five young 
 at a time. 
 
 POLLAKD. A name given to a tree 
 that has been frequently polled or lopped, 
 and its top taken off, or headed down to 
 the stem, for the purpose of fire-wood or 
 small poles for hurdle wood and other 
 similar uses, as well as for hop poles, &c. 
 The term is most commonly in use in the 
 southern and eastern districts of the king- 
 dom. Pollard is also applied to the fine 
 bran or inner husk of wheat. It is a sub- 
 stance much used in feeding hogs and dif- 
 ferent domestic animals. 
 
 POLLEN. In botany, the pulverulent 
 substance which fills the cells of the anthers 
 of a plant, consisting of a multitude of 
 little hollow cases, filled with a fluid hold- 
 ing very minute molecular matter in sus- 
 pension. The latter is eventually dis- 
 charged by the grains of pollen through 
 their hollow tubes, and is supposed to be 
 the spermatic fluid of a plant. When the 
 pollen alights on the stigma of the plant, 
 the membrane lining the shell is protruded 
 to a tube, which enters the stigma, and 
 lengthens until it reaches the ovule, into 
 which it empties the impregnating fluid. 
 The pollen grains vary in form and mag- 
 nitude, being globular, angular, compressed, 
 simple, and compound. Pollen is also 
 a provincial name given to the hen-roost. 
 It is sometimes written hen-pollen. 
 
 POLL -EVIL. An accident which some- 
 times occurs to horses, from the animal's 
 rubbing or striking his head against the 
 991 
 
 lower edge of the manger, or hanging back 
 in the stall and bruising the part with the 
 halter. Such injuries are serious in their 
 nature and difficult of treatment, and will 
 usually require the skill and anatomical 
 knowledge of the veterinary surgeon. 
 
 POLYPODY. (Polypodium, from poly, 
 many, and pous, a foot ; having numerous 
 root-like feet.) This is an extensive genus 
 of very ornamental ferns. The hardy kinds 
 are well adapted for ornamenting rock- 
 work, or they may be grown in pots, in 
 light loamy soil. All the species may be 
 readily increased by dividing the roots, or 
 by seeds. 
 
 There are four indigenous species — 
 
 1. The common polypody (P. vulgare) is 
 found growing on walls, cottage roofs, 
 shady banks, and the trunks of old trees. 
 Root creeping horizontally, with numerous 
 stout branched fibres, scaly. Frond from 
 twelve to fourteen inches high, linear lan- 
 ceolate, deeply pinnatifid; lobes oblong, 
 somewhat serrated, obtuse ; the whole frond 
 elegantly imitating an ostrich feather. 
 
 2. Pale mountain polypody (P. Phegop- 
 teris.) This species grows on the clefts of 
 rocks, and open stony moors in moist situ- 
 ations, but is not very common. The root 
 is thread- shaped, slender, slightly scaly. 
 Fronds scattered, erect, twelve or eighteen 
 inches high, pinnate, delicate in texture, of 
 a pale green, minutely hairy. Stalk brit- 
 tle, slender, sometimes a little scaly. Leaf- 
 lets lanceolate, united at the bases, pinna- 
 tifid, with blunt segments ; the lowest pair 
 deflexed. Ribs and veins hairy. Masses 
 of capsules of a pale yellowish brown to- 
 wards the margin of each segment. The 
 name of Phegopteris, or beech fern, is by 
 no means suitable to this species, which 
 does not grow in beech woods, but in stony 
 mountainous places. 
 
 3. Tender thin-branched polypody (P. 
 dryopteris) grows on shady mountainous 
 declivities. Root not unlike the last, slen- 
 der, undulated, widely creeping, but blacker. 
 Stalk slender, brittle, two or three times as 
 tall as the leafy part, pale, very smooth. 
 Frond about a foot high, three-branched, 
 bright green, smooth, delicate and flaccid ; 
 branches doubly pinnate, spreading rather 
 downwards ; segments obtuse, somewhat 
 crenate. Masses of capsules scattered, dis- 
 tinct. 
 
 4. Rigid three-branched polypody (P. 
 calcareum). Inhabits mountainous heaths 
 and woods, on a limestone soil. The root 
 is creeping, but stouter and less extended 
 than in the preceding species. Frond more 
 firm and rigid ; its stalk more scaly about 
 the lower part. All the three branches up- 
 right, smaller than the last, rigid, and not 
 
POMEGRANATE. 
 
 POOR. 
 
 loosely spreading. Masses of capsules more 
 crowded, finally in some degree confluent, 
 and of a browner hue. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol.iv. p. 280.) 
 
 POMEGRANATE (Punica, from puni- 
 cus of " Carthage," near which city it is 
 said to have been first found ; or from pu- 
 niceus, scarlet ; alluding to the colour of the 
 flowers.) A beautiful hardy deciduous shrub, 
 growing from twelve to fifteen feet high. 
 There is no tree more showy than the pome- 
 granate. P. granatwn, and its varieties, pro- 
 duce their splendid flowers and fruit very 
 plentifully from July to September when 
 planted against a south wall. They all grow 
 well in alight rich loam, and strike root freely 
 from cuttings or layers ; the rarer varieties 
 are sometimes increased by grafting on the 
 common kinds. The pomegranate requires 
 shelter from frost. The pulp of the fruit is 
 of an agreeable acid, and the rind is highly 
 astringent. (Paxtoiis Pot. Diet. ; Phillip's 
 Fruits, p. 311.) 
 
 POND. In agricultural parlance, a na- 
 tural or artificial basin or pool of water. 
 Various indications of the presence of water 
 below the surface of lands have been sug- 
 gested by the ancient writers on husbandry ; 
 such as the spontaneous growth of different 
 aquatic plants, vapours near the surface, 
 &c. ; but the best mode of ascertaining it is 
 by boring : and about the latter end of Au- 
 gust, when the ground begins to be a little 
 moist, is perhaps the most proper season for 
 the purpose. 
 
 Reservoirs of this kind are extremely 
 useful in many situations for the supply- 
 ing cattle with water, and for other pur- 
 poses, and should always be proportioned 
 to the nature and size of the farm. Two 
 great objects should be kept in view in the 
 formation of basins, viz., first, the consider- 
 ation whether a proper supply of water is 
 to be obtained at all times of the year ; and, 
 second, what are the best means of making 
 them retain water at all seasons. There is 
 little art in the construction of these ba- 
 sins, and the manner of their formation 
 must depend in a great measure on the na- 
 ture of the soil. Chalk, clay, and brick or 
 stone work, are used according to local cir- 
 cumstances. The average required depth 
 of ponds for common watering purposes ap- 
 pears to be from three to four feet, though 
 they are sometimes made much deeper. 
 
 Ponds have been made with success, dug 
 four-and-half feet below the surface, what 
 is excavated being added to the sides, and 
 covered about one foot thick like a road, 
 with pebbles and good lime mortar. Such 
 ponds are become general on the dry soil 
 of (lie South downs for watering the large 
 flocks of sliccp ; and had such ponds been 
 
 found in Romney Marsh during the three 
 dry seasons preceding December 1834, the 
 sheep would not have died in such num- 
 bers as to materially raise the price of 
 meat in London. (Hints for Nat. School- 
 masters, p. 11.) See Reservoir. 
 
 POND-WEED. (Potamogeton, from po- 
 tamos, a river, and yeiton, near ; growing in 
 rivers and ponds.) The species of this genus 
 mostly grow wholly immersed in water ; for 
 lakes and ponds in the garden, they are in- 
 creased by seeds, or by dividing the roots. 
 There are very many indigenous species; 
 Sir J. E. Smith describes thirteen, which, 
 as they are of no use but for manure, it 
 will be sufficient to enumerate. 1. Broad- 
 leaved pond-weed (P. natans). 2. Various 
 leaved pond- weed (P. heterophyllum). 3. 
 Perfoliate pond-weed (P. perforatum). 4. 
 Close-leaved pond-weed (P. densum). 5. 
 Long-leaved floating pond-weed (P. Jlui- 
 tans). 6. Shining pond-weed (P. lucens). 
 
 7. Lanceolate pond-weed (P. lanceolatum). 
 
 8. Curled pond- weed, or fresh- water catrops 
 (P. crispum). 9. Flat-stalked pond-weed 
 (P.cornpressum). 10. Pointed-leaved pond- 
 weed (P. cuspidatum). 11. Grassy pond- 
 weed (P. gramineum). 12. Small pond- weed 
 (P.pusillum). 13. French-leaved pond-weed 
 (P. pectinatum). These species are all aqua- 
 tic, floating on immersed herbs, of a highly 
 vascular texture whose evaporation, by their 
 whole surface, is extremely copious and ra- 
 pid. Stem branched. Leaves alternate or 
 opposite, stalked or sessile, simple, undi- 
 vided, entire, rather membranous, smooth, 
 with parallel longitudinal ribs. Flowers 
 spiked, greenish, raised above the water ; the 
 seeds ripened at the bottom. (Paxion's Pot. 
 Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 228 — 
 237.) 
 
 PONTEY, WILLIAM, an ornamental 
 gardener, residing at Huddersfield, was 
 planter and forest pruuer to the Duke 
 of Bedford. He published the following 
 works : — 
 
 ]. The Profitable Planter; a Treatise on the Culti- 
 vation of the Larch and the Scotch Fir Timber, showing 
 that their excellent quality, especially that of the former, 
 will render them so essentially useful, as greativ to pro- 
 mote the Interest of the Country. Huddersfield, 1800, 
 8vo. 4th edition, London, 1814. 2. The Forest Pruner, 
 or Timber-owner's Assistant ; being a Treatise on the 
 Training or Management of British Timber Trees, 
 whether intended tor Use, Ornament, or Shelter ; in- 
 cluding an Explanation of the Causes of their General 
 Diseases and Defects, with Means of Prevention, and 
 Remedies where practicable. Also on Examination of 
 the Properties of English Fir Timber, with Remarks on 
 the Defects of the old, and the Outlines of a new Sys- 
 tem for the Management of Oak Woods. With eight 
 explanatory plates. London, 1805, 8vo. 3d edition, 
 London, 1810. 3. The Rural Improver. Huddersfield, 
 1823, 4to. 
 
 POOR. The relief of the poor is a ques- 
 tion in which the farmer is very materially 
 interested. The system of parish relief 
 first became an object of solicitude to the 
 
POOR. 
 
 POOR LAW. 
 
 legislature after the dissolution of the mo- 
 nasteries, and other religious houses, by 
 Henry VIII. Till that period multitudes 
 of the impotent and the idle were main- 
 tained by the extensive daily charities of these 
 great religious houses. Various statutes 
 were passed to supply the loss of these funds ; 
 but these proving ineffectual, by the 43 Eliz. 
 c. 2., overseers of the poor were appointed 
 in every parish. This system, however,' in 
 time, became a mass of abuse ; wages were 
 regularly paid out of the parish funds, and 
 the country labourers were rapidly pau- 
 
 perising, when, by the 4 & 5 W. 4. c. 76., 
 the present poor-law system of commis- 
 sioners, unions and guardians, was esta- 
 blished. See Labour, Poor Law, POPU- 
 LATION, &C. 
 
 There are papers containing valuable 
 matter concerning the poor, by Lord Swin- 
 ton, Com. Board of Ag. vol.vi. p. 201. ; by 
 the Rev. J. S. Tryon, Quart. Jour, of Agr. 
 vol. v. p. 545. ; of England and Scotland, 
 Ibid. vol. vi. p. 1. ; of Belgium, Ibid. vol. vii. 
 p. 588. ; of the working of the English New 
 Poor Law, Ibid. vol. xi. p. 534. 
 
 Amount of Money expended in England and Wales for the Relief and Maintenance of 
 the Poor, in Law Charges, and for other Purposes (excepting County Rates, and Pay- 
 ments under the Registration and Parochial Assessment Acts), during the Years ended 
 Lady-day, 1834, 1835, 1836, 1837, 1838, 1839, and 1840 respectively ; showing the 
 Decrease per Cent, in each Year on each of the Heads of Expenditure, compared with 
 the Year ended Lady-day, 1834; also the Rate per Head of Expenditure for the Relief 
 of the Poor (on the Population in 1831) in each Year, together with the average Price 
 of Wheat per Quarter : — 
 
 Years. 
 
 Expended 
 for Relief, 
 &c. of the 
 Poor. 
 
 Decrease 
 per cent, 
 compart d 
 with 
 1855-4. 
 
 Rate per 
 Head of Ex- 
 penditure on 
 Population, 
 1851. 
 
 Expended 
 for Law 
 Charges. 
 
 Decrease 
 per cent, 
 compared 
 with 
 1855-4. 
 
 Expended 
 for other 
 Purposes.* 
 
 Decrease 
 per cent, 
 compared 
 with 
 1855-4. 
 
 Totals of 
 the three 
 preceding 
 Heads. 
 
 Decrease 
 per cent, 
 compared 
 with 
 1855-4. 
 
 Average 
 Price of 
 Wheat per 
 Quarter. 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 s. d. 
 
 1833-34 
 
 6,317,254 
 
 
 9 1 
 
 258,604 
 
 
 935,361 
 
 
 7,511,219 
 
 
 51 11 
 
 1834-35 
 
 5,526,416 
 
 13 
 
 7 n 
 
 202,527 
 
 22 
 
 935,361 
 
 
 6,664,304 
 
 "ll" 
 
 44 2 
 
 1835-36 
 
 4,717,629 
 
 25 
 
 6 9 
 
 172,431 
 
 33 
 
 823,212 
 
 12 
 
 5,713,272 
 
 24 
 
 39 5 
 
 1836-37 
 
 4,044,741 
 
 36 
 
 5 10 
 
 126,951 
 
 51 
 
 637,043 
 
 32 
 
 4,808,735 
 
 36 
 
 52 6 
 
 1837-38 
 
 4,123,604 
 
 35 
 
 6 0 
 
 93,982 
 
 64 
 
 507,929 
 
 46 
 
 4,725,515 
 
 37 
 
 55 3 
 
 1838-39 
 
 4,406,907 
 
 30 
 
 6 4 
 
 63,412 
 
 76 
 
 493,703 
 
 47 
 
 4,964,022 
 
 34 
 
 69 4 
 
 1839-40 
 
 4,576,965 
 
 28 
 
 6 7 
 
 67,020 
 
 74 
 
 466,698 
 
 50 
 
 5,110,683 
 
 32 
 
 68 6 
 
 * There being no separate heading for this item of Expenditure in the year 
 like purposes in 1834-35 is taken as an approximation. 
 
 -34, the amount expended for the 
 
 POOR LAW. The humane provision 
 for poor destitute persons, provided by the 
 law of England, although it may be said to 
 have commenced with the statute of the 
 43 Eliz. c. 2., yet originated and was en- 
 forced at a much earlier period. By the 
 23 Edw. 3. c. 7. it was directed that no one 
 should give alms to persons who were able 
 to work; and by the 12 Ric. 2. c. 77. poor 
 persons, who are impotent,* shall abide in 
 the same town, or in the next within the 
 hundred, that is able to maintain them. 
 And by the 15 Ric. 2. and 4 Hen. 4. im- 
 propriators shall be obliged to distribute a 
 yearly sum to the poor parishioners. And 
 provision is directed to be made for the 
 impotent poor by a series of acts, extend- 
 ing from the 19 Hen. 7. c. 12. to the 39 Eliz. 
 c. 3. But it was not until the 43 Eliz. c. 2. 
 that the relief was directed, and regulated 
 upon any thing like a regular system, and 
 its management entrusted to the church- 
 wardens, and to two or more substantial 
 inhabitants of every parish, who were to be 
 called overseers of the poor. 
 
 It is hardly necessary in this place to 
 enumerate the various acts which have been 
 passed to enforce and assist the operation 
 of the act of the 43 Eliz 
 993 
 
 these have been repealed, and the whole 
 system placed on a new and improved foot- 
 ing by the recent poor law act, 4 & 5 W. 4. 
 c. 76. By this act the management of the 
 poor throughout England is transferred to 
 three commissioners, who are styled, " The 
 Poor Law Commissioners for England and 
 Wales ; " and are empowered to appoint 
 and delegate their powers to assistant com- 
 missioners. 
 
 The act, by sect. 15., further authorises the 
 commissioners to make rules and regulations 
 for the relief and management of the poor. 
 And, by sect. 23., they are empowered to 
 order the erection of workhouses, and to 
 unite, for the purposes of this act, two or 
 more parishes together into an union. But 
 by sect. 26. each parish of an union " shall 
 be separately chargeable with and liable to 
 defray the expense of its own poor, whether 
 relieved in or out of such workhouse." And 
 by sect. 26. two justices of the peace may 
 order out-door relief to aged and infirm 
 persons wholly unable to work. By sect. 36. 
 guardians are to be annually elected by the 
 parishes of the union, on the 25th of March, 
 subject to such regulations, and in such 
 manner, as the commissioners shall direct. 
 , since many of j By sect. 40. the ratepayers who are to 
 [ 3s. 
 
POOR RATES. 
 
 POPLAR. 
 
 elect the guardians, are declared entitled 
 to vote after having been rated for one 
 year : each holder of under 200Z. to have 
 one vote; and those rated at above 200Z. 
 per annum but under 400Z., to have two 
 votes; and all above 400Z. per annum to 
 have three votes. By sect. 54. no relief is 
 to be given in future to the poor except by 
 the board of guardians. 
 
 POOR RATES are now regulated by 
 the 6 & 7 W. 4. c. 96. entitled " An Act to 
 regulate Parochial Assessments." By this 
 statute, it is directed in sect. 1 . that all rates 
 shall be made on the net annual value of 
 the property. " No rate for the relief of 
 the poor in England and Wales shall be al- 
 lowed by any justices, or be of any force, 
 which shall not be made upon an estimate 
 of the net annual value of the several he- 
 reditaments rated thereunto ; that is to say, 
 of the rent at which the same might rea- 
 sonably be expected to let from year to 
 year, free of all usual tenants' rates and 
 taxes, and tithe commutation rent-charge, 
 if any; and deducting therefrom the pro- 
 bable average annual cost of the repairs, 
 insurance, and other expenses, if any, ne- 
 cessary to maintain them in a state to com- 
 mand such rent : provided always, that 
 nothing herein contained shall be construed 
 to alter or affect the principles or different 
 relative liabilities, if any, according to which 
 different kinds of hereditaments are now by 
 law rateable." By sect. 2. rates are to be 
 made in a given form ; and nothing in the 
 act is to prevent owners from compounding 
 for rates. By sect. 3. power is given to the 
 poor law commissioners to order new surveys 
 and valuations. By sect. 4. power is given 
 for surveyors to enter and examine lands, 
 &c. for purposes of survey and plans. By 
 sect. 5. power is given to any ratepayer 
 to take copies or extracts of rates gratis. 
 Penalty for refusal to permit. By sect. 6. 
 justices acting in petty sessions to hold four 
 special sessions in the year to hear appeals. 
 Seven days' notice to be given of objections. 
 
 POPLAR. (Populus ; some derive the 
 word from paipallo, to vibrate or shake; 
 others suppose it obtained its name from 
 being used n? ancient times to decorate the 
 public places in Rome, where it was called 
 Arbor populi, or the tree of the people.) 
 Most of the species of poplar are very or- 
 namental, more especially in early spring, 
 when the catkins of the males are produced. 
 Their favourite place of growth is in moist 
 soil, near a running stream ; but they do 
 not thrive in very marshy situations. All 
 the species are, readily increased by cuttings 
 or layers, and some by suckers. There are 
 four indigenous species of poplar, the white 
 poplar, already noticed under the head 
 994 
 
 Abeee-Tree; the grey poplar; the trem- 
 bling poplar (See Aspen) ; and the black 
 poplar. 
 
 1 . The grey, or common white poplar (P. 
 canescens). This species is distinguished 
 from the P. alba by its leaves, which are 
 less deeply and acutely lobed, and instead 
 of being covered with the thick snow-white 
 down which clothes the under surface of the 
 leaves of the abele; the downy substance is 
 sparing, and of a grey colour ; and, indeed, 
 in some instances, the leaves are almost 
 glabrous. The catkins of the female P. 
 canescens, also, are cylindrical instead of 
 oval, and the stigmas eight instead of four. 
 Other characters, also, are not wanting, 
 such as the growth of the branches, which 
 are more upright and compact in P. canes- 
 cens, and the bark differs in colour from 
 that of P. alba. The grey poplar attains, 
 in favourable situations, a very large size, 
 frequently running up to the height of 
 eighty or ninety feet, with a diameter of 
 trunk from three to five, and even seven 
 feet. As an ornamental tree it is not un- 
 worthy of a place in extensive parks and 
 grounds, particularly when planted in low 
 situations, or near to water : it ought, how- 
 ever, to be grouped and massed with trees 
 of equally rapid growth, else it soon be- 
 comes disproportionate and out of keeping 
 with those whose progress is comparatively 
 slow. No tree requires less pruning ; even 
 the shortening of its branches is rarely 
 wanted, and large limbs ought never to be 
 amputated, as the wounds readily imbibe 
 the wet, and soon communicate a taint and 
 rot to the trunk of the tree. The wood is 
 very white, and, when dry, of a tough 
 nature, allowing nails to be driven into it 
 without splitting, on which account and its 
 lightness it is well adapted for packing- 
 cases : it also affords excellent and durable 
 deals for flooring boards, barn-doors, &c, 
 and by the musical instrument-maker is 
 often substituted for the wood of the lime- 
 tree. In Scotland it is used in mill-work, 
 as well as by the turner and cooper ; and, 
 for its lightness and smoothness, the boards 
 and rollers around which silks and other 
 articles are wrapped, are also made of 
 poplar wood. 
 
 2. The black poplar (P. nigra). The spe- 
 cific or botanical characters of this species 
 are : — Leaves deltoid, pointed, serrated, 
 smooth on both sides. Catkins lax, cylin- 
 drical. Stigmas four, simple, and spreading. 
 This is a tree of rapid and vigorous growth, 
 which attains the size of one of the first 
 magnitude, and, as it generally possesses a 
 fine stem and an ample head, it is oi l en 
 highly ornamental when planted in an ap- 
 propriate situation, and in combination with 
 
POPLAR. 
 
 POPPY 
 
 other quick-growing trees. The wood is 
 of a pale yellowish white colour, soft, and 
 easily worked, and is much used by turners 
 for bowls and other wooden ware ; and, in- 
 deed, it is applicable to most purposes for 
 which the timber of the poplar is adapted. 
 In dampish situations, planted in mass, or 
 mixed with the grey poplar, where poles, 
 small rafters, and railing are in demand, it 
 would make a quick return, as a growth of 
 eight or ten years would render it fit for 
 these purposes. When cut over young, it 
 throws out numerous shoots, which may be 
 used like willows for basket-making; it 
 also bears lopping much better than other 
 species, and, as a pollard, produces an 
 abundant supply of stalks and poles ; but is 
 almost useless as a fuel. The bark is used 
 by the tanner, and, as it becomes very thick 
 and corky upon old trees, it affords a ma- 
 terial to support and float the nets of the 
 fisherman. 
 
 Mr. Selby, in his elegant work On British 
 Forest Trees, to which we are mainly in- 
 debted for these particulars, enumerates 
 three or four other species of poplar in ge- 
 neral cultivation, of which it may be well 
 to give a short notice. 
 
 3. The black Italian, or necklace-bearing 
 poplar (P.monilifcrd) appears to have been 
 first introduced into Britain from North 
 America, in 1772. Of all the poplars hi- 
 therto introduced, it is by far the most 
 valuable, looking to it in the light of a use- 
 ful and profitable timber tree, as it grows 
 with astonishing rapidity, and produces a 
 timber of large scantling and excellent 
 quality, equal, if not superior, to that of 
 any other of its genus. The wood is of a 
 greyish white colour, tough when seasoned, 
 and, if kept dry, very durable ; its great 
 size renders it fit for the largest buildings, 
 and as flooring for manufactories and other 
 erections, nothing can surpass it; for, in 
 addition to the property of not splitting by 
 percussion, it possesses the peculiar advan- 
 tage of not easily taking fire, and, even 
 when ignited, burning without flame or 
 violence. As an ornamental tree, it well 
 deserves a place in extensive grounds, its 
 spiry height and pyramidal form, before it 
 becomes aged, being well calculated to 
 break long horizontal lines, or the mono- 
 tonous effect of round-headed trees : it also, 
 in a great measure, from its semi-fastigiate 
 growth in the young state, supplies the place 
 of the Lombardy poplar in such scenery, 
 either of wooded landscape or in combin- 
 ation with buildings, as is improved by the 
 presence of that tree.. 
 
 4. The Lombardy poplar (P. fastigiata). 
 In its close fastigiate growth and cypress- 
 like form, which seems to be retained during 
 
 995 
 
 the whole of its existence, the Lombardy 
 poplar is too conspicuous not to be imme- 
 diately recognised and readily distinguished 
 from all other species of the genus. As a 
 useful and profitable timber-tree it is greatly 
 inferior to some of the species already de- 
 scribed, the twisted and deeply-furrowed 
 trunk, even of the tallest and largest trees, 
 cutting to much waste, and affording boards 
 of only a moderate size when sawn up. The 
 wood is also softer and more spongy than 
 that of the black and the black Italian 
 poplars, and rapidly decays unless kept 
 perfectly dry. In Britain, therefore, it is 
 cultivated almost exclusively as an orna- 
 mental tree, for which its towering height 
 and spire-like form eminently qualify it. 
 
 5. The balsam poplar, or Tacamahac (PI 
 balsamiferd), appears to have been one of 
 the earliest trees introduced into England 
 from the American continent. The early 
 period at which it bursts into leaf, cheering 
 the eye with the first green tint of spring, 
 and the fine balsamic odour emitted by the 
 buds and tender leaves are the chief recom- 
 mendations of the Tacamahac ; for, unless 
 planted in a sheltered situation and a rich 
 soil, it seldom attains to more than the di- 
 mensions of a tree of the second rank, and 
 that without assuming any beauty or pecu- 
 liarity of form to render it a conspicuous 
 object in ornamental planting. The wood 
 is of little value, being soft and spongy, and 
 is only fit for packing-boxes, or where a 
 light material is required. 
 
 6. Nearly allied to the Tacamahac, is the 
 Ontario poplar (P. candicans), also intro- 
 duced from North America, and cultivated 
 sparingly for the last thirty or forty years 
 as an ornamental tree. The wood is soft, 
 and not of much value. 
 
 7. The Athenian poplar (P. Grcecd), as an 
 ornamental tree , is superior, in many respects, 
 to the aspen (to which it is closely allied). 
 It grows rapidly, young trees often making 
 shoots in one season of five or six feet in 
 length, and, though a slender- stemmed tree, 
 it has the valuable property of resisting the 
 wind, and is never seen, even in the most 
 exposed situations, but an erect and per- 
 pendicular trunk. 
 
 The bark of all the poplars is more or less 
 antiperiodic and tonic, containing an alkali, 
 which can be procured separate ; and is 
 known by the name of Salicina. It may be 
 used for curing agues, in the same manner 
 as Quinine, an alkaloid got from Peruvian 
 bark. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iv. p. 242. ; Selby s Brit. For. 
 Trees, vol. i. p. 173 — 214. ; Loudon's Arb. 
 Brit. ; Phillips's Sijl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 124.) 
 
 POPPY. (Papaver, from papa, pap, or 
 thick milk ; the juice of the poppy was for- 
 3 s 2 
 
POPPY. 
 
 merly used in children's food to make them 
 sleep.) These plants succeed best in a light 
 rich soil. The perennial kinds are increased 
 by dividing at the roots. All the species 
 are narcotic. There are six indigenous 
 species of poppy, which are nearly all an- 
 nuals. They are arranged under two sec- 
 tions — 1. Those with bristly capsules; 2. 
 Those with smooth capsules. 
 
 Section I. 
 
 1. Round rough-headed poppy (P. %- 
 bridum), which grows in sandy or chalky 
 fields, but rare. It flowers in July. The 
 root is small and tapering; herb twelve 
 or eighteen inches high, rough, with mi- 
 nute bristles. Leaves deep green, with 
 numerous decurrent, narrow, linear-lance- 
 olate, obscurely revolute segments, each 
 tipped with a bristle. Flowers rather 
 small, deep scarlet, or crimson, short-lived, 
 often violet at the base. The pollen is 
 bright blue ; the stigma a little raised, with 
 5 — 8 rays. Capsule nearly globular, the 
 size of a filbert, furrowed longitudinally, 
 thickly beset with rigid, ascending, tawny 
 bristles. Although named hybridum, yet, 
 as Sir J. E. Smith remarks, it is a true 
 permanent species. 
 
 2. Long rough-headed poppy (P. arge- 
 mone?) This grows in corn fields and thin 
 borders, also on gravelly or sandy soils. 
 It is annual, and flowers in June and July. 
 The herbage resembles the preceding, but 
 the bristles are less closely pressed to the 
 stem, and the segments of the leaves are 
 somewhat broader. Petals pale scarlet, 
 black at the base, soon falling, often jagged; 
 the stamens diluted upwards ; rays of the 
 stigma 4 — 8. Capsule narrow, club-shaped, 
 ribbed, equal to the rays of the stigma, 
 bristly. Calyx slightly hairy. Leaflets 
 doubly pinnatifid. The flowers are some- 
 times double. 
 
 Section tl. 
 
 3. Long smooth-headed poppy (P. du- 
 bium). This species is found in cultivated 
 fields, especially on a light soil. Annual, 
 and flowering in June and July. It is of a 
 stouter, more luxuriant habit than the 
 foregoing, with broader leaves. The stem 
 is clothed with spreading hairs ; the flower- 
 stalks with close-pressed bristles. Petals 
 broader than they are long, of a light scar- 
 let, the margin mostly crenate; the stamens 
 linear ; the pollen yellow ; stigma 6 — 8 
 rays. Capsule perfectly smooth, and some- 
 what glaucous, oblong, angular. 
 
 4. Common red poppy, or corn rose (P. 
 rhoeas.) See Corn Poppy. This is the 
 only officinal species of the British poppies ; 
 but it is used in medicine merely as a co- 
 louring agent. 
 
 5. White poppy (P. somniferum). This 
 
 996 
 
 species appears to grow wild on sandy 
 ground in the neighbourhood of some of 
 the fen lands. But it is probable that in 
 places where it is found apparently wild, 
 the seed from the cultivated poppy has 
 been deposited by birds. The somniferous 
 poppy is a native of Asia and Egypt. It is 
 cultivated in Hindostan, Persia, and Egypt, 
 on account of its opium ; in Germany for 
 the oil expressed from its seeds ; and in 
 England for the capsules, which are used 
 in medicine. It is universally known in 
 our gardens as an ornamental flower, and 
 is much cultivated in the vicinity of Lon- 
 don. The whole herb is glaucous, and 
 generally smooth, though the flower- stalks 
 now and then bear several rigid, spreading, 
 bristly hairs. The stem is three or four 
 feet high, erect, branched, leafy. Leaves 
 broad, wavy, lobed and bluntly notched, 
 clasping the stem with their heart-shaped 
 base. Flowers three inches broad, white or 
 bluish white, with a broad violet spot at 
 the base of each petal. In gardens, double 
 varieties of every shade of purple, scarlet, 
 crimson, and even green, mixed with white, 
 are common, though nothing can be more 
 liable to change. The capsule is nearly 
 globular. Seeds small, whitish-brown, oily, 
 sweet and eatable. There are two vari- 
 eties, namely, P. album and P. nigrum, 
 chiefly distinguished by the foramina under 
 the stigma being absent in the former, and 
 present and open in the latter. The milky 
 juice of the capsules, when abstracted by 
 transverse incisions and inspissated, forms 
 opium, which, as Haller well observes, is 
 far more potent and dangerous in hot coun- 
 tries than in our cooler climates. The cap- 
 sules boiled afford a mild narcotic decoction, 
 more generally used for fomentations in in- 
 ward pains, and for making a syrup, which is 
 misused by lazy nurses, who administer it 
 to restless infants, and sacrifice them to their 
 own love of ease. Nothing is more to be 
 condemned than the indiscriminate use of 
 syrup of poppies. No opium, except as ex- 
 periment, is made from poppies in this 
 country ; and, could it be made, both it 
 and the foreign opium should never be em- 
 ployed except by the advice of those who 
 alone ought to direct its use. 
 
 6. Yellow poppy (P. cambricum). This is 
 a perennial species (and the only indigenous 
 one) which flourishes in moist rocky situa- 
 tions in Wales and Westmoreland. It flowers 
 in June. The herbage is tender, brittle, of 
 a light, slightly glaucous, green ; its juice 
 lemon-coloured. Stem a foot high, many- 
 flowered, thinly covered with upright 
 hairs, leafy, branched. Leaves stalked, 
 pinnate ; leaflets nearly ovate, acute, cut, 
 lobed or pinnatifid, smooth, somewhat de- 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 current. Flowers of a most elegant full 
 lemon-colour, deliciously fragrant; calyx 
 hairy. Capsule smooth, oblong, beaked; 
 stigma 4 — 5 rayed, but close, so as to re- 
 semble a short style. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 9.) 
 POPPY, THE HORNED. See 
 
 HoRNED-PoPPY. 
 
 POPULATION. As many very errone- 
 ous notions with regard to over population 
 are often, I think, entertained, and it mainly 
 depends upon the farmer to render unne- 
 cessary all fears of a want of a sufficient 
 supply ; and as many of the most phi- 
 lanthropic men in England have, at con- 
 siderable personal trouble and cost, pro- 
 moted emigration, to avert the evils of war, 
 pestilence, and famine, from what Mr. Mal- 
 thus supposes to be the tendency of man- 
 kind to excessive population, it may be 
 well for the public to peruse a paper {Quart. 
 Joum. Agr. vol. iii. p. 89.) which, in detail, 
 ably examines Mr. Malthus' s data, calcula- 
 tions, and conclusions; and the result being 
 cheering, I shall give an extract. " Mr. 
 Malthus states, from a variety of sources, 
 that the average births from each marriage 
 are — 
 
 In Europe - - - 4-000 
 
 England - - - 4436 
 
 France, during the six years end- 
 ing in 1822 - - - 4-370 
 Russia - - - - 4410 
 America (in towns) according to 
 
 Mr. Barton - - - 4-500 
 
 America (in town and country 
 
 average) - 5-000 
 
 " But, from returns made to Government 
 the average births in England and Wales, 
 during the thirty years ending 1820, fell 
 considerably under four from each mar- 
 riage ; and of these, from personal defor- 
 mity and a hundred other causes, a con- 
 siderable portion of women must remain 
 unmarried. 
 
 " But supposing every woman, married or 
 single, who lived to eighteen years of age, 
 should have seven children, and the rate of 
 mortality as favourable as at Carlisle, the 
 population would require more than twenty- 
 six years to double itself; and twenty-five 
 years is the lowest rate of increase Mr. 
 Malthus has contemplated. But, supposing 
 one tenth part of all the women who attain 
 twenty to remain in a state of celibacy, and 
 the rest were to bear each 3-66 children, 
 which is stated by Mr. Sadler to be the 
 average prolificness in England, and the 
 mortality continued as at Carlisle, the po- 
 pulation would remain entirely stationa.ry. 
 In the rich and fertile country of France, 
 the population is nearly stationary, and in 
 Ireland, population increases faster than in 
 997 
 
 England ; which can only be accounted for 
 by the institutions which encourage in- 
 creased forethought before entering on the 
 married state. Amongst barbarous nations, 
 the period of marriage is almost always 
 early ; but as countries become civilised, a 
 portion of early life is devoted to labour of 
 mind and body ; and the desire of distinc- 
 tion in some, and, amongst all, the pursuit 
 of gain, delays marriage ; and, happily for 
 mankind, nothing is less consistent with 
 universal experience than the terrible suc- 
 cession of evils Mr. Malthus fears from over 
 population. Natural evils, and the more 
 dreadful effects of misrule, have, indeed, 
 spread death and desolation ; but the con- 
 sequences have not been increased plenty 
 to the survivors : on the contrary, the page 
 of history shows that, in the fairest portions 
 of the habitable world, poverty and want 
 have followed decreasing numbers. 
 
 " Whereas the wiser the laws, and, conse- 
 quently, the more secure person and pro- 
 perty, the slower men are to marry till they 
 have secured for themselves and families, 
 in a habitation of their own, the conve- 
 niences they were used to under their 
 paternal roofs ; and, consequently, the less 
 tendency to the excessive multiplication 
 of mankind; and we refer to Scotland, 
 France, &c, as existing proofs. 
 
 " No society, well governed, we repeat, 
 has been known to outgrow, or tend to out- 
 grow, its means of subsistence. When, in 
 our own country, one of the most populous 
 in the world, we see how far the earth is 
 yet from producing all that labour well di- 
 rected can bring forth, when we look at the 
 tracts lying waste or half cultivated, we 
 must see how little it is to be feared as a 
 possible evil, that our population will ever 
 increase beyond the means of supplying it- 
 self with food. We have only to look to 
 what minute care can effect in multiplying 
 the produce of the earth, to feel in what a 
 prodigious ratio it may be multiplied. A 
 piece of heath land the most worthless, 
 converted into a cottager's garden, yields a 
 return of food exceeding that of the richest 
 land of the cultivated fields. And nothing 
 prevents the increase of this species of cul- 
 ture, but the want of hands to cultivate, 
 and of mouths to consume. Every vege- 
 table that grows, and is consumed, affords 
 new materials for fertilising the earth, and 
 increasing its productions ; and thus every 
 increase of the number of consumers is a 
 means of calling new food into existence. 
 
 " The introduction of a single plant from 
 another hemisphere, has more than doubled 
 the power of this and of every country in 
 Europe to support their inhabitants. An 
 acre of potatoes will supply food sufficient 
 3 s 3 
 
POPULATION. 
 
 for the support, in healthful existence, of a 
 family of six human beings, for one year ; 
 a square mile of land producing potatoes, 
 therefore, will support 3840 persons for the 
 same time. But the produce of the potato 
 is as nothing to that of the banana and 
 other plants of the tropical regions. Nor 
 does the produce of the potato in our fields 
 show the full power of the earth to produce 
 food. By the minute cares of the gardener, 
 successive crops of vegetables may be pro- 
 duced from the same surface, and in the 
 same season. Our present knowledge of 
 agriculture shows us, that throughout the 
 whole kingdom the productions of the earth 
 may be prodigiously multiplied ; but what 
 our present knowledge of this art is in com- 
 parison with what it may become, we know 
 not. What other plants are yet to be ap- 
 plied to the support of animal life, what 
 other means of fertilising the earth are yet 
 to be discovered, what other application of 
 mechanical power may yet take place in aid 
 of human labour, we know not ; nor need 
 we, with relation to our present subject, be 
 too curious in inquiring. It suffices that, 
 with our present means and knowledge, 
 limited as they are, we can multiply our 
 means of subsistence in a degree to furnish 
 food for increasing numbers for more gene- 
 rations of men than the cares of the living 
 race need extend to. 
 
 " And if such be the case with a long 
 peopled country, what must we think of 
 the fear that the entire world will be over- 
 peopled ? The richest regions of the globe 
 have yet been scarcely trodden by the foot 
 of the hunter ; a great part of Europe is 
 still a desert; and a long desolation has 
 overspread lands that once were the seats of 
 nations, and which only demand security 
 that they may be blessed with abundance 
 again. Such as Asia Minor, Syria, and 
 Greece^ and such the long desolated shores 
 of Northern Africa. It is not Nature that 
 is barren of her gifts, but it is man that has 
 abused them all ; and in the climates and 
 the lands where we might look for the ver- 
 dure of an eternal spring, we find only the 
 moving mountains and interminable tracts 
 of the desert." 
 
 It is unnecessary, perhaps, to enlarge 
 upon this statement, but one or two facts 
 will surely convince the most incredulous, 
 that we are not yet nearly arrived at the 
 maximum available produce of the earth. 
 Even as regards the saving in the seed- 
 corn, we have witnessed in our time that 
 the drill has done much, and the dibbling 
 system still more; but by transplanting, 
 greater things may yet be done. I will 
 illustrate this position by only one or two 
 facts out of many of a similar kind that I 
 
 am acquainted with. At the Battle Horti- 
 cultural show (in 1837), R. White received 
 a prize for sixty- one fine ears of wheat 
 growing from one grain, which are depo- 
 sited at the apartments of the Labourer's 
 Friend Society in Exeter Hall, and an- 
 other prize at the Society for Encourage- 
 ment of Arts, &c, in the Adelphi, and simi- 
 lar premiums are again offered there and 
 elsewhere. P. Brown raised that year 345 
 roots, with 4250 ears from one grain, since 
 June, 1836, the plants having been divided 
 three times ; and it is recorded in the Phi- 
 losophical Transactions for 1768, that in the 
 same space of time, one grain of wheat pro- 
 duced 21,109 ears, containing 576,840 
 grains, or nearly a bushel of clean grain ; 
 thus an acorn cup would hold seed wheat 
 enough to raise plants for an acre of land, 
 and full 10,000,000 bushels of seed wheat 
 might be saved, on the 4,000,000 acres 
 under wheat in England and Scotland ; 
 which quantity, allowing eight bushels to 
 each person, would support 1,250,000 per- 
 sons, who, if employed in weeding the 
 crops, would double the produce, as is 
 shown by the increased crops raised by the 
 tenants under the allotment system. 
 
 And again, as regards manuring the soil, 
 agriculture is yet only in its infancy; crushed 
 bones, now so extensively employed, were 
 unknown as fertilisers twenty-five years 
 since ; gypsum, which abounds in England, 
 is only slowly coming into use, and millions 
 of tons of the richest manure are now an- 
 nually wasted in our cities and towns — 
 suffered to putrefy in cesspools, or poured 
 into the sea through a thousand sewers ; 
 " and yet," says the Thames Improvement 
 Company, " strange as it may appear, Eng- 
 land is almost the only nation in Europe, 
 notwithstanding its advance in agricultural 
 knowledge, which suffers the peculiar ma- 
 nure in question to be wasted and cast 
 away ; while all the other nations on the 
 Continent, and even China, husband it, and 
 treasure it up for their lands, make it an 
 object of extensive and lucrative traffic, 
 and some export it to their colonies. The 
 principal London sewers have been care- 
 fully gauged, and are found to convey daily 
 into the river Thames 115,608 tons of 
 mixed drainage." 
 
 By these and other certain improve- 
 ments, we may safely conclude, that as re- 
 gards the cultivation of the most barren 
 tracts, the drifting sands of Norfolk, the 
 heath lands of the north of England, and 
 even the shingle of its sea-coast, hardly a 
 tithe has yet been effected in the way of 
 cultivation. At the suggestion of the Arch- 
 bishop of Dublin, an acre of shingle at East 
 Bourn was covered with three or four 
 
PORES. 
 
 POTATO. 
 
 inches of clay, at a cost of only 16/. This 
 has formed a plate to retain what mould, 
 &c, the tenant has added, who has hired 
 this ground for fourteen years, at 40s. per 
 acre. So no land is hopelessly barren. Let 
 such improvements proceed ; let science 
 go hand in hand with the farmer; let 
 the naturalist find new cultivateable vege- 
 tables, or new varieties of those already 
 known ; let the chemist yield his magic aid 
 to demonstrate the best mode of promoting 
 their growth and increasing the fertility of 
 the soil ; and then, I fearlessly assert, that 
 many times the present inhabitants of Bri- 
 tain may be amply supported by the pro- 
 duce of the land of our birth. 
 
 PORES. In botany, apertures, more or 
 less visible, in the cuticle of plants through 
 which transpiration takes place. They may 
 exist on the cellular tissue ; and when there 
 they are the organs of insensible perspira- 
 tions of the plant : they may exist as cor- 
 tical pores; or on the leaf as stomata or 
 breathing pores. Pores also exist in some 
 kinds of anthers, through which the pollen 
 is ejected ; as in the potato (Solatium tuber- 
 osum). 
 
 PORK. The flesh of swine killed for 
 culinary purposes. See Bacon, Ham, Meat, 
 Swine, &c. 
 
 PORTER. A well known malt liquor. 
 See Aee, Beer, and Brewing. 
 
 POTASH, or POTASSA. The name of 
 one of the alkalies, composed of 39-15 parts 
 of peculiar metal called potassium, 8 parts of 
 oxygen, and 9 of water. It derives its com- 
 mon name from being first obtained from 
 the ashes of vegetable substances, which 
 had been burned in iron pots — hence named 
 pot-ashes. The chemical name potassa, is 
 intended to be consistent with soda. Potash 
 is found in almost all land plants, in com- 
 bination with the tartaric, citric, or other 
 vegetable acid. The potash in these is no 
 doubt an essential food or constituent of 
 vegetation, and there is no fertile soil which 
 does not in some form or other contain this 
 alkali. It exists, however, in plants in 
 varying proportions. See Alkaei. The 
 potash of commerce is an impure carbonate 
 mingled with salts of lime, and other sub- 
 stances. In its separate or pure state, free 
 from carbonic acid, it is a white salt, 
 powerfully attracting moisture from the 
 air, very soluble in water and in alcohol, 
 corroding animal substances, consequently 
 destroying the skin when applied to it. But 
 potash usually means the carbonate. The 
 quantity procured from different plants 
 varies. Fumitory yields 79*0 in 1000 parts, 
 wormwood 73*0, young wheat-stalks 47'0, 
 thistles 35-0, vetch 27*5, common nettle 25*3, 
 the sun-flower 20*0, bean-stalks 20-0, barley 
 999 
 
 straw 5*8, vine-shoots 5*5, wheat-straw 3*9, 
 and flax 5-0. The younger a plant is, if full 
 grown, the more potash it yields. 
 
 " The perfect developement of a plant," 
 says Liebig, (Organic Chem. p. 104.), "ac- 
 cording to this view, is dependent on the 
 presence of alkalies, or alkaline earths, for 
 when these substances are totally wanting, its 
 growth will be arrested, and when they are 
 only deficient it must be impeded. In order 
 to apply these remarks, let us compare two 
 kinds of trees, the wood of which contain 
 unequal quantities of alkaline bases, and 
 we shall find that one of these grows luxu- 
 riantly in several soils, upon which others 
 are scarcely able to vegetate. For example, 
 10-000 parts of oak wood yield 250 parts of 
 ashes, the same quantity of fire-wood only 
 83, of linden wood 500, of rye 440, and of 
 the herb of the potato plant 1500 parts. 
 Firs and pines find a sufficient quantity of 
 alkalies in granitic, and barren sandy soils ; 
 in which oaks will not grow, and wheat 
 thrives in soils favourable for the linden 
 tree, because the bases which are necessary 
 to bring it to complete maturity exist there 
 in sufficient quantity. The accuracy of these 
 conclusions, so highly important to agricul- 
 ture, and to the cultivation of forests, can be 
 proved by the most evident facts. All kinds 
 of grasses, the equisetaceae, for example, con- 
 tain, in the outer parts of their leaves and 
 stalks, a large quantity of silicic acid (silica), 
 and potash in the form of acid silicate of pot- 
 ash. The proportion of this salt does not vary 
 perceptibly in the soil of corn fields, because 
 it is again conveyed to them as manure, in 
 the form of putrefying straw. But thi s is not 
 the case in a meadow : and hence we never 
 find a luxuriant crop of grass on sandy and 
 calcareous soils, which contain little potash, 
 evidently because one of the constituents 
 essential to the growth of plants is wanting. 
 Soils formed from basalt, grauwacke, and 
 porphyry, are, cseteris paribus, the best for 
 meadow land, on account of the quantity of 
 potash which enters into their composition." 
 
 In the experiments of the Rev. E. Cart- 
 wright with various manures applied to 
 potatoes, wood ashes, which contain potash, 
 were found to produce very superior effects 
 to several others : thus, where the soil, 
 without any dressing, produced 157 bushels 
 per acre, the land dressed with 60 bushels 
 of wood ashes yield 187; with 60 bushels 
 of malt dust, 184 bushels; with 363 bushels 
 of decayed leaves, 175 bushels; with 363 
 bushels of saw-dust, 155 bushels; with 121 
 bushels of lime, 150 bushels per acre. (Com. 
 Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 370.) See Salts. 
 
 POTATO. (Solanum tuberosum.) A 
 valuable well-known root, first imported 
 from America into England by Sir Walter 
 3 s 4 
 
POTATO. 
 
 Raleigh, and first grown at Youghall, in 
 Ireland. In many parts of England this tu- 
 berose plant is very extensively cultivated, 
 both in the field and in the garden ; but, in 
 districts removed from large towns, or con- 
 venient markets, its cultivation is of neces- 
 sity restricted to the garden, or for the 
 consumption of the live stock of the farm. 
 As regards the field management of the 
 crop, a writer in a popular journal remarks, 
 when speaking of the preparation of the 
 ground : — 
 
 " It is, I know, customary upon a large 
 scale, to plough the land and make it to- 
 lerably fine before potatoes are planted ; 
 but still, if it is ploughed five, six, or seven 
 inches deep, and made fine and mellow, 
 still at the bottom of such ploughing the 
 land is hard and smooth ; and as the potato 
 is a root that sends out fibres not only near 
 the surface, but deeply if possible, it can 
 never produce such a crop as where the 
 land is broke eighteen inches to two feet. 
 The potato, like the cucumber, only enjoys 
 itself in deeply pulverised soils, Avhich causes 
 them to flourish so much in well-managed 
 sandy land. 
 
 " I should therefore recommend that, in 
 all land where potatoes are to be grown, 
 if the land be springy or otherwise damp, 
 that it be drained deep enough to take off 
 all springs or surface water. When this 
 is done, the land should either be fully 
 trenched, or bastard trenched, by the spade 
 or plough, but I prefer the spade. The 
 width of the drills from each other must 
 depend entirely upon the goodness of your 
 soil : the richer the land, the wider apart 
 must be your rows and sets in your rows, — 
 say, in ordinary land rows, at two feet from 
 each other, and twelve inches from set to set 
 may do ; but if your land be very rich, three 
 feet from row to row, and eighteen inches 
 from plant to plant, will not be too much." 
 
 In preserving your sets, always select 
 the largest and finest potatoes you can pro- 
 cure; do not use the small refuse or mid- 
 dling-sized, the plant and produce from the 
 latter being much inferior. 
 
 The potatoes most valued in field cul- 
 ture are the ox-noble, yam, champion, pur- 
 ple red, rough red, hundred eyes, kidney, 
 and Moulton white. The nutritive qualities 
 of these were examined by Mr. George 
 Sinclair, with his usual accuracy. " The 
 yam," he observes, " is a very productive 
 variety, attains to a large size, but is often 
 hollow, and less nutritive than most others. 
 64 drachms afford of nutritive matter 190 
 grains, which consist of starch 164 grains, 
 and saccharine and albuminous matters 31. 
 
 The ox-noble is a productive potato, 
 adapted for stock; and 64 drachms of it 
 1000 
 
 contain 194 grains of nutritive matter, con- 
 sisting of starch 164, and saccharine, mu- 
 cilaginous, and albuminous matters 31. 
 
 The purple red is smaller than the ox- 
 noble, but well-flavoured, and very prolific 
 in light moist soils : 64 drachms afforded 
 200 grains of nutritive matter, consisting 
 of starch 169, and albuminous and sac- 
 charine matters 31 grains. 
 
 The hundred eye is very prolific on dry 
 loams ; 64 drachms afford 218 grains of 
 nutritive matter, composed of 170 grains of 
 starch, and the rest albuminous and other 
 matters. 
 
 The rough red produces plentiful crops 
 on soils or climates of a moister nature than 
 that adapted for the hundred- eyed variety : 
 it is well-flavoured : 64 drachms afford 250 
 grains of nutritive matter, which is com- 
 posed of 199 starch, and 46 mucilage, sugar, 
 and albumen. 
 
 The champion grows to a moderate size, 
 is very productive, and little subject to the 
 disease called curl. See Curl. 
 
 It is hence of great importance in choos- 
 ing seed potatoes, to consider the nature of 
 the soil and climate ; thus, some of our 
 finest varieties which yield abundantly when 
 planted in suitable soils and moist situations, 
 will yield but inferior returns when planted 
 in drier situations. 
 
 In 7000 grains, or one pound 
 of the bread-fruit potato, 
 I found by careful and re- 
 peated trials 
 
 the Barbadoes potato 
 
 Black kidney potato 
 
 Soluble L „_ , 
 Matter. jStareh. 
 
 Fibre. 
 
 Water. 
 
 975 
 980 
 970 
 
 548 
 667 
 695 
 
 477 
 616 
 622 
 
 5000 
 4737 
 4713 
 
 The soluble matters consisted of gum, or 
 mucilage, extractive, and saline matters. 
 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 409.) 
 
 The potato, although a tender plant, is 
 grown in nearly all parts of the world, from 
 the equator to Norway ; and although it is 
 usual to plant it early in the spring, yet it 
 is possible, by choosing a quick ripening 
 variety, to plant it successfully even as late 
 as July. 
 
 The manures best suited for the potato 
 crop, are common farm-yard compost only 
 partially decomposed, decayed leaves, sea- 
 weed, the potato haulm, and any organic 
 manures, that, while they afford nutriment, 
 have a tendency, by rendering the soil lighter, 
 to facilitate the extension of the roots. 
 Lime is injurious to it. Pond mud, or 
 ditch scrapings to each cubic yard of which 
 a month previously, a bushel of bacon salt, 
 or other refuse common salt, has been 
 mixed, is excellent. The soils best adapted 
 for the cultivation of the potato are of the 
 light, sandy, drained, peaty or loamy descrip- 
 
POTATO. 
 
 tion. It delights in fresh soils : those of a 
 newly broken up meadow, old woodlands, 
 or the site of old yards or buildings, are 
 excellent. It does not do well on wet 
 clays. 
 
 Potatoes are readily consumed by live 
 stock in their unboiled state ; but, generally 
 speaking, they are best when steamed and 
 mixed with chaff. 
 
 The cultivation of the potato is thus de- 
 scribed, by Mr. George Johnson ; and al- 
 though his remarks were intended for the 
 gardener, yet they apply in a great mea- 
 sure to the field culture of this valuable 
 root. 
 
 The varieties of the potato are numerous, 
 and continually increasing, as well as be- 
 coming extinct ; the number, however, is 
 very largely increased by local names for 
 the same variety being classed distinct. 
 
 For forcing, or first crop in the open 
 ground : — there are Broughton dwarf, early 
 Warwick, ash-leaved kidney ; Fox's seed- 
 ling, early manly, early mule, earliest for 
 general cultivation, early kidney, nonsuch, 
 early shaw, goldfinder. 
 
 For main crops, the varieties are ranged 
 in this class, according to their forwardness 
 in ripening : — early champion, ox noble, 
 red-nose kidney, large kidney, bread fruit, 
 red-streak or Lancashire pink eye, black 
 skin, purple, red apple, rough red. 
 
 ~No inhabitant of the garden varies more 
 in quality in different gardens than the po- 
 tato ; for a variety will have a strong un- 
 pleasant flavour in one soil, that has a sweet 
 agreeable one in another. In a heavy, wet 
 soil, or a rank black loam, though the crop 
 is often fine and abundant, it is scarcely 
 ever palatable. Silicious soils, even ap- 
 proaching to gravel, though in these last 
 the tubers are usually corroded or scabby, 
 are always to be planted in preference to 
 the above. A dry, mouldy, fresh, and mo- 
 derately rich soil is unquestionably the best 
 for every variety of the potato ; and, for the 
 earliest crop, it may be with advantage 
 more silicious than for the main ones. The 
 black- skinned and rough red thrive better 
 than any in moist or strong cold soils. If 
 manure is necessary, whatever may be the 
 one employed, it is better spread regularly 
 over the surface previous to digging, rather 
 than put into the holes with the sets, or 
 spread in the trench when they are so 
 planted. Stable-dung is, perhaps, the best 
 of all factitious manures : sea- weed is a very 
 beneficial addition to the soil, as is salt. 
 Coal-ashes and sea-sand are applied with 
 great benefit to retentive soils ; but calca- 
 reous matter should never be used. The 
 situation must always be open. 
 
 It is propagated in general from cuttings 
 1001 
 
 of the tubers, though the shoots arising 
 from thence and layers of the stalks may 
 be employed. New varieties are raised 
 from seed. Planting in the open ground of 
 the early kinds may commence towards the 
 close of February, in a warm situation, and 
 may thence be continued until the same 
 period of March ; and it is only during this 
 latter month that any considerable planta- 
 tion should be made, as the late frosts are 
 apt to injure, or even destroy the advanc- 
 ing plants. In the course of April, the main 
 crops for winter's use should be inserted ; 
 for although in favourable seasons they will 
 succeed if planted in May or even June, yet 
 it ought always to be kept in mind that the 
 earliest planted, especially in dry soils, pro- 
 duce the finest and most abundant crops. 
 
 Of the preparation of the sets, there is a 
 great diversity of opinion. Some gardeners 
 recommend the largest potatoes to be planted 
 whole ; others, these to be sliced into pieces, 
 containing two or three eyes ; a third set, to 
 cut the large tubers directly in half ; a fourth, 
 the employment of the shoots only which 
 are thrown out, if potatoes are kept in 
 a warm, damp situation ; and a fifth, that 
 merely the parings be employed. Cuttings 
 of the stalks, five or six inches in length, or 
 rooted suckers, will be productive, if planted 
 during showery weather in May or June ; 
 and during this last month, or early in July, 
 it may be propagated by layers, which are 
 formed by pegging down the young stalks 
 when about twelve inches long, they being 
 covered three inches thick with mould at a 
 joint. These three last modes are practised 
 more from curiosity than utility, whilst at 
 the same time none of the first five men- 
 tioned plans can be individually followed to 
 advantage, without modification. For the 
 main crops, it is evident, from experiment, 
 that moderate sized sets, having two healthy 
 buds or eyes, are most advantageously em- 
 ployed; middling sized whole potatoes are 
 the best, from which all but the above num- 
 ber of eyes have been removed, but espe- 
 cially having the crown, which is a congeries 
 of small eyes always present, first removed ; 
 for from these proceed an equal number of 
 little spindled stalks, which are compara- 
 tively worthless, and injure the main stem. 
 
 For the early crops, almost the very con- 
 trary to the above is the most advantageous 
 to be practised. The set should have the 
 crown eye, which is one growing in the cen- 
 tre of the congeries of small ones above 
 mentioned, preserved. Some potatoes have 
 two such eyes, but the generality only one. 
 This is always the most prompt to vegetate ; 
 and if not known by this description, may 
 be evinced by placing two or three potatoes 
 in a pan of moist earth, near the fire ; if the 
 
POTATO. 
 
 earth is kept moist, the crown eye will be in 
 a state of vegetation in five or six days. 
 (Pract. Treat, on the Culture of the Potato, 
 p. 20.) Again, as Mr. J. Knight remarks, 
 although abundant crops of late varieties 
 may be obtained from very small sets, by- 
 reason that tubers are not produced until 
 the stem and roots become capable of sup- 
 plying them with nourishment ; yet, to ob- 
 tain early crops, where tubers are rapidly 
 formed under a diametrically opposite state 
 of the plant, large sets must be employed ; 
 in these, one or two eyes, at most, should 
 be allowed to remain. Mr. Knight plants 
 the largest undivided tubers, which, from 
 experiments, evidently support the plants, 
 and finally produce the earliest and largest 
 produce he ever obtained. Another remark, 
 which he makes, restrictively for the early 
 crops, but may well be attended to for all, 
 is, that if the sets are placed with their lead- 
 ing buds upwards, few and very strong early 
 stems will be produced ; but if the position 
 is reversed, many weak and later shoots 
 will arise, and not only the earliness, but 
 the quality of the produce be depreciated. 
 {Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. p. 448.) 
 For the earliest crops, there are likewise 
 several modes of assisting the forward vege- 
 tation of the sets. These should be pre- 
 pared in November, by removing every eye 
 but one or two ; and being placed in a layer, 
 in a warm room, where air and light can be 
 freely admitted, with a covering of straw, 
 they soon emit shoots, which must be 
 strengthened by exposure to the air and 
 light as much as possible, by taking off the 
 covering without injuring them. During 
 cold weather, and at night, it must always 
 be renewed. The leaves soon become green, 
 and tolerably hardy. In early spring they 
 are planted out, the leaves being left just 
 above the surface, and a covering of litter 
 afforded every night, until the danger of 
 frost is passed. The only modification of 
 this plan that is adopted in Cheshire, where 
 they are celebrated for the early produc- 
 tion of potatoes, is, that they employ chaff 
 or sand for a covering instead of straw. 
 (Holland's Agr. Survey of Cheshire.) The 
 most preferable mode of inserting them, is 
 with the dibble, in rows, for the early crops, 
 twelve inches apart each way ; and for the 
 main ones, eighteen. The set should never 
 be placed more than four inches beneath 
 the surface in the lightest soil, but in the 
 more tenacious ones, three is the extreme. 
 The potato dibble is the best instrument 
 that can be employed ; one person striking 
 the holes, and a second dropping the sets, 
 the < arth being afterwards raked or struck 
 in with the spade. There are several other 
 modes of insertion, as opening a small hole 
 1002 
 
 with a narrow sipade, and the set being 
 dropped in, it is covered by the earth taken 
 out in forming the next hole : or, at the time 
 of digging over the ground, a second person 
 follows the one so employed, and places the 
 sets in the trench he opens in the pursuance 
 of his work ; but both these modes are open 
 to numerous obvious objections. 
 
 The compartment may be laid out level 
 and undivided, if the soil is mouldy and 
 favourable ; but if a heavy one is neces- 
 sarily employed, it is best disposed in beds, 
 six or eight feet wide. If the staple of the 
 soil is good throughout, the alleys may be 
 two feet wide, and dug deep, otherwise they 
 must be made broader, and only one spit 
 taken out, the earth removed being em- 
 ployed to raise the beds. If the land is 
 low and wet, it is still further of advantage, 
 after the beds, which should not be more 
 than four feet wide, have been thus raised, 
 if they are dug in parallel ridges, and the 
 sets inserted along their summits. Some 
 gardeners, on such soils, without digging 
 the surface, lay some lon» litter on the in- 
 tended beds ; upon this the sets being 
 placed, some more litter is thrown regularly 
 over them ; the earth is then dug from the 
 alleys, and turned to the requisite depth 
 over the whole. As soon as the plants are 
 well to be distinguished, they should be 
 perfectly freed from weeds ; and, of the 
 early crops, the earth drawn round each 
 plant, so as to form a cup, as a shelter from 
 the cold winds, which are their chief enemy 
 at that season ; but the main crops need not 
 be earthed up until the plants are six inches 
 in height. It is contended by some that 
 this practice is immaterial in its effect. 
 (Bath Papers, vol. i. p. 28.) If the earth is 
 brought so as to be of considerable depth 
 about the stems, it must be even injurious ; 
 but if properly performed it is certainly 
 beneficial. Throughout their growth they 
 should be kept perfectly clear of weeds. 
 It is very injurious to mow off their tops, 
 as is sometimes recommended. The foliage 
 ought to be kept as uninjured as possible, 
 unless, as sometimes occurs on fresh ground, 
 the plants are of gigantic luxuriance, and, 
 even then, the stems should be only mode- 
 rately shortened. It is, however, of con- 
 siderable advantage to remove the fruit 
 stalks and immature flowers as soon as they 
 appear. This has been demonstrated by 
 the experiments of President Knight, and 
 others ; indeed, that such would be the case 
 is a reasonable expectation, since it is known 
 that the early formation of tubers prevents 
 the production of blossom. (Trans. Hort. 
 Soc. Lond. vol. i. p. 188.) It is also worthy 
 of notice, that a potato plant continues to 
 form tubers until the flowers appear, after 
 
POTATO. 
 
 which it is employed in ripening those al- 
 ready formed. 
 
 The very earliest crops will be in pro- 
 duction in June, or perhaps towards the end 
 of May, and may thence be taken up as 
 wanted, until October, at the close of which 
 month, or during November, they may be 
 entirely dug up and stored ; or, at all events, 
 before the arrival of any severe frost. Their 
 fitness to be taken up for keeping is inti- 
 mated by the decay of their foliage, which 
 generally loses its verdure with the first 
 frosts. The best instrument with which 
 they can be dug up is a three-flat-pronged 
 fork, each row being cleared regularly away. 
 The tubers should be sorted at the time of 
 taking them up ; for as the largest keep the 
 best, they alone should be stored, whilst the 
 smaller ones are first made use of. The 
 most common mode of preserving them 
 throughout the winter is in heaps or clamps, 
 sometimes called pyeing them. These are 
 laid in pyramidal form, on a bed of straw, 
 and enveloped with a covering, six or eight 
 inches thick, of the same material, laid even, 
 as in thatching, and the whole enclosed 
 with earth, in a conical form, a foot thick, 
 taken from a trench dug round the heap, 
 well smoothened with the back of the spade. 
 Potatoes should not be stored until perfectly 
 dry, nor unless free from mould, refuse, 
 and wounded tubers. It is a good practice 
 to keep a hole open on four different sides 
 of the heap, entirely through the mould and 
 straw, for a week or two after the heap is 
 formed ; for in proportion to its size it al- 
 ways ferments, and these orifices allow the 
 escape of the vapours, and perfect the dry- 
 ing. An equally good mode, and much 
 more convenient, is to have them heaped in 
 a dry shed, and covered thick with straw, 
 as opportunity is given to look over them 
 occasionally for the removal of decayed 
 tubers, shoots, &c. If carefully preserved, 
 they continue in perfection until late in the 
 following summer. A variety of the potato 
 is generally considered to continue about 
 fourteen years in perfection, after which 
 period it gradually loses its good qualities, 
 becoming of inferior flavour and unproduc- 
 tive. Fresh varieties must therefore be oc- 
 casionally raised from seed. For doing this 
 there are two modes ; the first of these, 
 about to be detailed, is, however, the one 
 usually pursued. 
 
 The berries or apples of the old stock 
 having hung in a warm room throughout 
 the winter, the seed must be obtained from 
 them by washing away the pulp during 
 February. This is thoroughly dried, and 
 kept until April, and then sown in drills 
 about half an inch deep, and six inches 
 apart, in a rich mouldy soil. The plants 
 1003 
 
 are weeded, and earth drawn up to their 
 stems when an inch in height ; as soon as 
 this has increased to three inches, they are 
 moved into a similar soil, in rows sixteen 
 inches apart each way, and during their 
 future growth earthed up two or three 
 times. Being finally taken up in the course 
 of October, they must be preserved until 
 the following spring, to be then replanted, 
 and treated as for store crops. (Dr. Hun- 
 ter's Georg. Essays.} 
 
 Some gardeners sow in a moderate hot- 
 bed, very thin, in drills, the same depth as 
 above, and nine inches apart. Water is 
 frequently and plentifully poured between 
 the rows, and earth drawn about the stems 
 of the seedlings, until they are a few inches 
 in height. They are then transplanted into 
 rows, water given, and earthing performed 
 as usual. The only additional advantage 
 of this plan is, that as the seed can be sown 
 earlier, the tubers attain a rather larger 
 size the first year. 
 
 It is to be remarked, that the tubers of ' 
 every seedling should be kept separate, as 
 scarce two will be of a similar habit and 
 quality, whilst many will be comparatively 
 worthless, and but few of particular excel- 
 lence. If the seed is obtained from a red 
 potato, that flowered in the neighbourhood 
 of a white tubered variety, the seedlings in 
 all probability will in part resemble both 
 their parents, as a cross fecundation may 
 take place ; but seldom or never does a 
 seedling resemble exactly the original stock. 
 At all events, only such should be preserved 
 as are recommended by their superior size, 
 flavour, or fertility. It may be stated as 
 an indication before these qualities can be 
 positively ascertained, that President Knight 
 remarks, that the rough uneven surface of 
 the foliage, which in excess constitutes the 
 curl, appears to exist as, and form a charac- 
 teristic of every good variety ; for he never 
 found one with perfectly smooth and po- 
 lished leaves which possessed any degree of 
 excellence, though such are in general more 
 luxuriant and productive. (Trans. Hort. 
 Soc. Lond. vol. ii. p. 64.) 
 
 The early varieties, on account of their 
 never flowering, were, until 1807, obtained 
 by chance from plants that might now and 
 then be produced from seed of the late 
 kinds. In that year, Mr. Knight disco- 
 vered that the cause of their deficiency of 
 bloom was the preternatural early form- 
 ation of the tubers. His mode of causing 
 them to produce seed is to plant the sets 
 on little heaps of earth, with a stake in the 
 middle, and when the plants are about four 
 inches high, being secured to the stakes 
 with shreds and nails, to wash the earth 
 away from the bases of the stems, by means 
 
POTATO. 
 
 of a strong current of water, so that the 
 fibrous roots only enter the soil, and these 
 being perfectly distinct from the runners 
 that furnish the tubers, and which spring 
 from the base of the stem, none of these 
 are produced, and the effect is, that blos- 
 soms appear and perfect seed. {Ibid. vol. i. 
 p. 58. ; G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 There are numerous valuable commu- 
 nications with regard to the potato dis- 
 persed through the agricultural journals: — 
 As upon the " Use of the Potato Shoots 
 for Planting," by Mr. Wright, Com. Board 
 of Agr. vol. iv. p. 181. ; " On Using for a 
 similar Purpose the Scoops," by Mr. Raw- 
 son, Ibid. p. 185. ; " On Starch from Pota- 
 toes," Ibid. ; " On their General Cultivation," 
 by the Rev. E. Cartwright, Ibid. vol. v. 
 p. 217. ; by Lord Hepburn, Ibid. vol. vi. 
 p. 254. ; by General Bestson (at St. Helena), 
 Ibid. vol. vii. p. 225. ; by Sir Charles Bur- 
 rell, Ibid. p. 323. ; " On the Manures best 
 adapted for Potatoes," by the Rev. E. 
 Cartwright, Ibid. vol. iv. p. 870. He re- 
 marks, " The soil on which my experiments 
 were tried, is a ferruginous sand, brought 
 to a due texture and consistence by a 
 liberal covering of pond mud. Of this 
 soil, in its improved state, I mean by the 
 accession of pond mud (for having been 
 used merely as a nursery for raising forest 
 trees, previous to these experiments, the 
 nurseryman had not thought it necessary 
 to make use of any other manure) ; the fol- 
 lowing is the analysis 400 grains gave : — 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Of silicious sand, of different degrees of 
 
 fineness - 280 
 
 Finely divided matter - 104 
 Loss in water - - - - 16 
 
 400 
 
 " The finely divided matter contained — 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - - 18 
 
 Oxide of iron - - - 7 
 
 Loss by incineration (probably vegetable 
 decomposing matter) - - - 17 
 
 " The remainder, principally silex and 
 alumina. There were no indications of 
 either gypsum or phosphate of lime. 
 
 " On the 14th of April, 1804, a portion 
 of this soil was laid out, in beds one yard 
 wide and forty in length, and were ma- 
 nured as in the following table. On the 
 same day the whole was planted with pota- 
 toes, a single row in each bed, and that 
 fche general experiment might be conducted 
 with all possible accuracy, each bed re- 
 reived the same number of sets. On the 
 21st of September the potatoes were taken 
 1004 
 
 up, when the produce of each row was, in 
 succession, as follows : — 
 
 Manures in bushels, per acre. Produce. 
 
 1. No manure - 157 
 
 2. Salt 8 bush., soot 30 bush. - - 240 
 
 3. Chandler's graves 9f cwt. - - 220 
 
 4. Salt 8 bush., wood ashes 60 bush. - 217 
 
 5. Salt 8 bush., gypsum peat 363 bush., 
 
 lime 121 bush. - - - 201 
 
 6. Salt 8 bush., lime 121 bush., dung 
 
 363 bush. - - - - 199 
 
 7. Salt 8 bush. - - - 198 
 
 8. Salt 8 bush., graves 9f cwt. - 195 
 
 9. Soot 30 bush. - - - 192 
 
 10. Fresh dung 363 bush. - - 192 
 
 11. Salt 8 bush., malt dust 60 bush. - 189 
 
 12. Wood ashes 60 bush. - - 187 
 
 13. Salt 8 bush., decayed leaves 363 bush. 187 
 
 14. Salt 8 bush., peat ashes 363 bush. - 185 
 
 15. Malt dust 60 bush. - - - 184 
 
 16. Salt 8 bush., lime 121 bush., peat 
 
 363 bush. - - - 183 
 
 17. Salt 8 bush., saw dust 363 bush. - 180 
 
 18. Salt 8 bush., peat 363 bush., bone 
 
 dust - - - - 178 
 
 19. Decayed leaves 363 bush. - - 175 
 
 20. Salt 8 bush., lime 121 bush., sulphuric 
 
 acid - 175 
 
 21. Salt 8 bush., peat 363 bush. - - 171 
 
 22. Salt 8 bush., lime 121 bush. - 167 
 
 23. Peat 363 bush. - - - 159 
 
 24. Saw dust 363 bush. - - - 155 
 
 25. Lime 121 bush. - - - 150 
 The following experiments upon potatoes 
 
 are extracted from Mr. George Sinclair's 
 Communication to the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, February 25th, 1820. These experi- 
 ments were made upon a soil composed of 
 three- fourths silicious sand, in plots of 
 thirty- six square feet. 
 
 Bush, of Salt 
 per Acre. No. 
 
 1. Planted without any 
 
 kind of manure - 0 124 
 
 2. Twelve cubic inches 
 
 of salt with the 
 
 seed - - \2,\ 106 the smallest 
 
 3. Six cubic inches of 
 
 6i 
 
 90 
 
 salt with the seed 
 4. Twelve cubic inches 
 of salt mixed with 
 
 the soil - - 13£ 93 the largest 
 
 " The weight of the crop of potatoes 
 was not taken. The superior size of the 
 roots produced by No. 4., left no room to 
 doubt of the advantage of thirteen bushels 
 of salt per acre, applied to the soil previous 
 to planting, over the other modes of ap- 
 plication, still the superiority was not very 
 great." " I may notice here," observes Dr. 
 Holland, {Agricultural Survey of Cheshi?'e, 
 p. 143.), " a practice pursued at Weston, 
 near Frodsham, in the culture of potatoes, 
 which seems deserving of attention. At 
 this place, situated close- to the junction of 
 the Mersey and Weaver, sea mud is used 
 
POTATO. 
 
 POULTRY. 
 
 as a manure for crops of potatoes ; twenty 
 loads being the quantity usually laid on an 
 acre. The ground thus manured not only 
 gives a large produce of potatoes, but is in 
 a state of excellent preparation for a suc- 
 ceeding crop of either wheat or barley. 
 The adoption of this practice has increased 
 very greatly the value of land about Wes- 
 ton." 
 
 There are also papers " On the Cultiva- 
 tion of the Potato in Kintyre," by Mr. 
 Stewart, Trans. Highl. Soc. vol. ii. p. 68. ; 
 " On an Apparatus for Steaming Potatoes," 
 by Mr. Liddell, Ibid. p. 321. ; by Sir James 
 Mackenzie, " On the Potato in general," 
 Ibid. vol. iii. p. 250. ; " On the commonly 
 cultivated Scotch Varieties," by Mr. Law- 
 son, Ibid. p. 364. ; and by Mr. Dudgeon, 
 Ibid. vol. iv. p. 48. ; " On the Benefit de- 
 rived from Removing the Potato Blossoms," 
 (the advantage he deems doubtful), Ibid. 
 p. 236. ; " On Different Varieties," by Mr. 
 Howden, Ibid. vol. v. p. 85. ; " On Pre- 
 serving them and Raising them from Seed," 
 by Sir James Mackenzie, Ibid. p. 349. ; 
 and by Dr. Singer, Ibid. vol. vi. p. 339. ; 
 " On a Grubber, and Drill Harrow and 
 Roller for Potato Culture," by Mr. Ander- 
 son, Ibid. p. 341.; " On Potato Bread," Quar. 
 Journ. Agr. vol. iii. p. 721. ; " Potato Beer," 
 Ibid. 722. ; " On their Winter Manage- 
 ment," by Mr. Towers, Ibid. vol. vii. p. 
 150. ; " On the Potato Raiser," by Mr. 
 Lawson, Ibid. vol. viii. p. 549. ; " On the 
 Curl," by Mr. Falconer, Ibid. vol. ix. p. 
 293. ; " On the Rohan Potato," Ibid, vol. x. 
 p. 281. ; " On the Disease or Failure of the 
 Potato Crop," by Mr. Towers, Ibid. p. 604. ; 
 " On the Taint," by Mr. Aitkin, Ibid. 
 p. 310. 
 
 There is a paper by Mr. Knight " On 
 the Formation of the Buds in Tuberous 
 Roots," Selection of Papers, p. 104. ; and 
 he remarked that the potato possessed the 
 power of reproducing the buds, Ibid. p. 
 120. ; " On causing the early variety of the 
 Potato to produce Blossoms," Ibid. p. 133. ; 
 " On an Improved Method of raising early 
 Potatoes in the open Air," Ibid. p. 256. ; 
 " On the Potato," Ibid. p. 318. ; " On the 
 Advantages of employing large Tubers for 
 Seed," Ibid. p. 331. "The good effects," 
 he observes, " which I have proved to arise 
 from planting large tubers of the potato 
 plant, obviously spring from the large ac- 
 cumulation of fecula in them. Fed by 
 means of this, not only a large breadth of 
 foliage is produced, and exposed to sight 
 more early in the year, but that foliage 
 contains much disposable organisable mat- 
 ter, which once formed a part of the parent 
 tuber." Knight thought that the ordinary 
 produce of potatoes might be very materially 
 1005 
 
 increased. He remarks, " My opinion i.s, that 
 more than a thousand bushels of potatoes 
 may and will be obtained from an acre of 
 ground." 
 
 Potatoes are fermentable, and are con- 
 sequently employed along with barley by 
 the Scotch distillers ; and, also, by the Lon- 
 don bakers in the manufacture of bread. 
 The fecula is also separated and sold as 
 arrow root : it is a good and sufficiently 
 pure starch ; but it is less nutritive than 
 the potato itself, owing to the separation of 
 the saccharine matter and the albumen. 
 
 POULTICE. An external application 
 employed for promoting the suppuration of 
 tumours, or abating painful inflammation. 
 The chief intention of the poultice is to re- 
 tain the stimulus of heat on the tumour for a 
 sufficient length of time, consequently the 
 worst conducting of farinaceous matters 
 are the best fitted for poultices. The fatty 
 matter usually added is to give softness to 
 the poultice, which is otherwise apt to harden 
 as the moisture evaporates. Poultices for 
 animals are generally prepared with linseed 
 meal, to which is added oil, lard, or other 
 unctuous matter to prevent adhesion to the 
 inflamed part. Bran, although frequently 
 used for poultices, is objectionable, because 
 it so soon becomes dry. Few farmers are 
 aware of the value of these simple applica- 
 tions in abating inflammation, relieving pain, 
 cleansing wounds, and disposing them to 
 heal. The poultice may be rendered more 
 soothing by opium, or increased activity 
 may be given by the addition of common 
 turpentine or chloride of lime, and in cases 
 of foul ulcers, powdered charcoal may be 
 added. As an emollient poultice for grease 
 and cracked heels, and especially if accom- 
 panied by much unpleasant smell, there is 
 nothing preferable to a poultice of mashed 
 carrots with charcoal. See Fomentation. 
 
 POULTRY. A general term including 
 every kind of domestic fowl, which is reared 
 about the house or farm-yard, as cocks and 
 hens, ducks, geese, turkeys, &c. Poultry 
 constitutes a part of every farmer's stock, 
 but the rearing of it in this country is 
 not often productive of any pecuniary ad- 
 vantage ; for though fowls are considered 
 chiefly as an article of luxury, and sold at 
 high prices in the market, they seldom or 
 ever repay the value of the corn which they 
 have consumed, especially if such grain must 
 be purchased. Indeed, where profit is the 
 object of the husbandman's labours, no 
 poultry should be admitted into the vicinity 
 of barns, unless for the purpose of picking up 
 scattered grain; though, in general, it cannot 
 be denied, that they acquire their fat subst ance 
 from the corn left in the straw by negligent 
 thrashing. The poor villager may, however, 
 
 1 
 
POULTRY. 
 
 PREGNANCY., 
 
 reap in some cases benefit from poultry, as 
 the fowls are able to shift for themselves 
 the greatest part of the year, by feeding on 
 insects, corn, or any thing of that nature. 
 
 There are many different breeds of this 
 sort of live stock ; but those best known are 
 the game breed, the white or English breed, 
 the black or Poland breed, the Dorking 
 breed, the large or Shakebag breed, and 
 the Malay breed. The two first are much 
 smaller breeds than the others. This kind 
 of stock affords profit in the eggs, as well as 
 the chickens ; therefore such as are the best 
 layers and sitters should be chosen, which are 
 in general the game and Poland breeds, but 
 the other breeds have probably the advan- 
 tage in respect to the size of the eggs : as 
 food, the game and the white breeds are said 
 to be the most delicate. 
 
 The care and management of the poultry- 
 yard usually devolves upon the farmer's 
 wife, and the industrious housewife will do 
 well to see to their food and rearing, &c. 
 herself, and not trust too much to ser- 
 vants. For the most economical methods 
 of keeping and managing poultry, &c, I 
 refer the reader to the different heads of 
 Fowls, Ducks, Goose, Dovecote, Tur- 
 key, &c. See also Eggs, Feathers. 
 
 The comparative value of keep for do- 
 mestic fowls is as follows : geese 5 per cent., 
 ducks 7i ditto, pigeons 10 ditto, dunghill 
 fowls 40 ditto, Turkeys and Guinea fowls 
 50 ditto. From a series of observations 
 made on the diseases of domestic poultry, 
 Mr. Flourens makes the following conclu- 
 sions : — 1 . In these animals cold exercises 
 a constant and determinate action on their 
 wings. 2. The effect of this action is the 
 more rapid and more severe, the younger 
 the animal is. 3. When cold does not cause 
 acute and speedily fatal inflammation of the 
 lungs, it produces a chronic inflammation, 
 which is pulmonary consumption itself. 
 [This, however, is a mistake, as pulmonary 
 consumption is the deposition of tubercles 
 in, not inflammation of, the lungs.] 4. Heat 
 always prevents the attack of pulmonary 
 disease : when the latter has taken place, 
 heat suspends its progress, and even some- 
 times arrests it entirely, and effects a com- 
 plete cure. 5. Pulmonary consumption in 
 any stage is never contagious : fowls affect- 
 ed with that disease, were not only all day 
 along with the healthy fowls, but at night 
 roosted in the same places, without commu- 
 nicating their disease to them. 6. Lastly, 
 the action of too long confined air exposes 
 these animals to abscesses of the cornea, and 
 inflammation of the ball of the eye. These 
 abscesses and inflammations are also caused 
 in a still more cruel manner by cold, espe- 
 cially when accompanied with moisture. (An- 
 100G 
 
 nales des Sci. Nat) The reader will find an 
 interesting essay by Mr. England on the rear- 
 ing and management of domestic poultry, in 
 the fourth volume of the Trans, of the Highl. 
 Soc, to which a premium was awarded. 
 There is also a paper on the same subject in 
 the eighth volume of the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. p. 509. 
 
 POUND. In law, a place where cattle 
 and goods which have been distrained are to 
 be lodged and kept until redeemed. By the 
 1 & 2 Phil. & Mary, c. 12., it is enacted, that, 
 no distress is to be driven out of the hundred, 
 rape, wapentake, or lathe, except to a pound 
 overt within the same shire, not above 
 three miles distant from the place where 
 the distress is taken ; nor is any distress to 
 be impounded at several places. And by 
 the 2 Will. & Mary, c. 5. s. 4., treble da- 
 mages are given in an action on the case for 
 pound breach or rescues. In an action 
 under the first-named statute, for driving 
 the cattle out of the hundred into another 
 county, the venue may be laid in either 
 county. (Pope v. Davis, 2 Taunton, 252.) 
 The pound-keeper is bound to receive every 
 thing offered to his custody, and is not an- 
 swerable whether the thing was legally im- 
 pounded or not. (Bodkin v. Poioell, Cowper, 
 476.) It is no answer to the action on the 
 statute for pound breach, that the rent and 
 demand were tendered after the distress 
 and impounding. (Firth v. Purvis, 5 T. R. 
 432.) Neither is the distrainor obliged to 
 accept compensation for the damage, al- 
 though it is tendered before the cattle were 
 impounded. (Anscomb v. Shore, 1 Taun- 
 ton, 261.) And where cattle are distrained 
 damage feasant, and put into a sufficient 
 pound, and escape without default or ne- 
 glect of the distrainor, he may bring an 
 action of trespass for the damage. (Williams 
 v. Price, 3 B. & Aid. 695.) But if they 
 escape into his lands owing to a defect in 
 his fences, and he drives the cattle into the 
 road and there leaves them, an action of 
 trespass will lie against him. (Carruthers 
 v. Holies, 8 A. & E. 113.) See Distress. 
 
 PREGNANCY. In cattle, the state of 
 being with young. Under the heads Abor- 
 tion, Calving, Gestation, &c, I have gone 
 very fully into this subject ; but the follow- 
 ing excellent observations by Mr. Youatt, 
 on the detection of pregnancy in the mare 
 and the cow, are of so practical and useful 
 a nature, that I extract them almost entire 
 from the first volume of the Journ. of the 
 Roy. Ag. Soc, p. 170. 
 
 Among healthy animals, the impregnation 
 of the female rarely fails to be the result 
 of an intercourse between the sexes. The 
 assurance, however, of this having taken 
 place, is, occasionally, an affair of consider- 
 
PREGNANCY. 
 
 able interest, and of no little difficulty ; and 
 the value and the destiny of the female may 
 very much depend on the decision of the 
 question. A certain time having elapsed, 
 the thing will speak for itself; but are 
 there any symptoms or circumstances that 
 will warrant the veterinary surgeon, or the 
 agriculturist, in giving a decided opinion 
 on the case in an early period of supposed 
 pregnancy ? 
 
 It occasionally happens that the fifth or 
 the sixth month arrives, and, even to the 
 practised eye, there are few or no indica- 
 tions of conception having taken place. 
 There are, also, but somewhat unfrequently, 
 diseases which very closely simulate this 
 natural process. Can the veterinary sur- 
 geon or the breeder decide ? The answer is 
 m the affirmative, and plainly and unequivo- 
 cally. This is one of the boons which the 
 veterinary art can now confer on the agri- 
 culturist. The altered character of the 
 female is regarded, and very properly, as a 
 circumstance of no little weight. She is 
 comparatively calm and quiet ; her appetite 
 returns, and she regains her former con- 
 dition and her former habits. Five or six 
 weeks pass, and there is no outbreak of any 
 kind. The owner concludes, and he is not 
 often wrong, that she is impregnated. He, 
 however, has had little to do with mares 
 or with cows who has not witnessed the 
 return of the most furious oestrum, after a 
 much longer period of time has elapsed. 
 I have known more than three months pass 
 in this delusive quietude, and then a sala- 
 ciousness worse than at first has indicated 
 that no actual impregnation had taken place. 
 On the other hand, the oestrum, but not 
 with all its former fury, has returned, two, 
 and three, and four months after the con- 
 nection ; and yet, as the result finally shows, 
 impregnation had taken place at their first 
 intercourse. 
 
 Many circumstances may cause the owner 
 to be anxious to know the truth of the 
 matter. He may wish to sell her, or he 
 may be unusually desirous to breed from 
 her. Let the animal be examined per va- 
 ginam. Let the hand be slowly and cau- 
 tiously passed up the vagina until it reaches 
 the os uteri. Let there be no attempt to 
 penetrate farther. No information can be 
 gained from introducing the fingers into 
 the uterus. It is simply wished to ascertain 
 the character of the os uteri. In its na- 
 tural and unimpregnated state it will be 
 closed ; but it will not be tightly or spas- 
 modically so, and the contraction of the 
 mouth of the womb will form a kind of cup, 
 with the base towards that viscus. If she is 
 impregnated, the entrance to the uterus will 
 be more firmly closed, and the protrusion 
 1007 
 
 will be towards the vagina. This is the only 
 exploration per vaginam which I would 
 allow ; it is easily made, and it will be satis- 
 factory. If an exploration of this kind is 
 attempted when half or more than half of 
 the period of pregnancy has passed, it is not 
 at all unlikely that so much irritation of 
 the parts will ensue as to cause the expul- 
 sion of the foetus. 
 
 I will suppose that two months have 
 passed since the supposed impregnation. 
 The foetus is still remaining in the pelvic 
 cavity. The heart has begun to beat, and 
 the blood to circulate through its little veins. 
 It will be situated immediately below the 
 rectum. I introduce my hand into that in- 
 testine. I have not occasion to pass it very 
 far up. I feel the little substance ; for it 
 then is small in proportion to its after 
 growth. I feel it under my hand. I am 
 certain that I am pressing upon the uterus 
 and its contents. I cannot perhaps detect 
 the pulsation of the embryo ; but if I had 
 delayed my examination until the foetus 
 was three months old, I should have as- 
 surance that it was there by its now in- 
 creased bulk, while the pulsation of its 
 heart would tell me that it was living. 
 
 For two months from this period in the 
 cow, and for three in the mare, I should 
 have no other indication of the presence of 
 the foetus, nor of its life and growth, except 
 from the gradual enlargement of the ab- 
 domen of the mother; and, by that time, 
 the little one would have increased in size 
 and strength, and would have begun to take 
 occasional exercise in its first domicile, and 
 then would become the more evident, but 
 not more satisfactory proof of the life of the 
 foetus ; its motion strong enough to be seen 
 through the integument. 
 
 I might, perhaps, wish to give this as- 
 surance of the life of the foetus to some 
 curious spectator, or to some intended pur- 
 chaser. I would not gallop the mare in 
 order to effect this : I would not so far dis- 
 turb her or the young animal that she bore 
 within her. Much less would I give her 
 cold water to drink, and which she usually 
 would drink until she annoyed the fcetus, 
 and the unborn animal told us how much 
 we annoyed him by endeavouring to shift 
 his quarters and get away from the action 
 of the cold. I would not run the hazard of 
 giving her the colic, and perhaps destroying 
 him or her by this unscientific and somewhat 
 cruel method of exploration ; but I pro- 
 bably should give a tap or two on the outer 
 wall of his dwelling, just sufficient to rouse 
 him from his slumbers, and induce him to 
 express his anger at the annoyance by a 
 tolerable distinct plunge or kick. 
 
 Most certainly, if it was a cow that I was 
 
PREGNANCY. 
 
 PRIMROSE. 
 
 exhibiting, I would not give, nor would I 
 suffer any one else to give, those terrible 
 punches in the right flank which I have no 
 doubt are the cause of much unsuspected 
 injury, and, occasionally at least, connected 
 with, or the origin of, a difficult or a fatal 
 parturition. 
 
 I may here observe that the foetus of the 
 mare from the beginning occupies nearly 
 the centre of the belly. In the early stage 
 Mr. Mogford generally found it " lying 
 across the pelvic cavity, the spine being 
 immediately under ; the head on the left 
 side, and the tail on the right side." In 
 the latter portion of its fcetal state its mo- 
 tions are pretty equally distributed on either 
 side, and the beating of the foetal heart is 
 most plainly heard at the very base of the 
 abdomen. The foetus of the cow is huddled 
 up on the right side of the belly. There its 
 motions are most seen, and the beatings of 
 its heart best heard. The enormous paunch, 
 lying principally on the left side, presses 
 every other viscus, and the uterus among 
 the rest, into the right flank. This also 
 explains a circumstance familiar to every 
 breeder. If "the cow should happen to carry 
 twins, they are crowded together in the left 
 flank, and one seems absolutely to lie upon 
 the other. Whenever the farmer notices 
 the kicking of the foetus high up in the 
 flank, he at once calculates on twins. 
 
 To return from this digression. If half 
 the period, or more, of utero-gestation had 
 passed, and I could not get the little stranger 
 to move by my gentle tapping, and it was 
 a cow with which we had to do, and a quiet 
 one, I would have her carefully held by the 
 cowherd, while I stooped and applied my 
 ear flat upon the flank, and then slowly and 
 with gentle pressure upwards and down- 
 wards, and forwards and backwards, over 
 the flank and the lower part of it, until I 
 heard — and which I should do in a great 
 maj ority of cases — the pulsations of the foetal 
 heart. I should recognise it by their quick- 
 ness, the pulsations of the foetus being dou- 
 ble or more than double those of the other. 
 
 If it was a mare, I would have a halter 
 put on her, and an assistant should hold up 
 one of her legs, while some person interested 
 reached under, or perhaps knelt under the 
 belly of the mare, and passing one ear along 
 an imaginary line from between the teats 
 to the chest, and deviating a little from one 
 side to the other, he would then also re- 
 cognise the quick pulsation of the foetal 
 heart. 
 
 These observations are addressed to prac- 
 tical men, and will be speedily put to the 
 w :> them. The object of the author is 
 gel rid Of the vulgar and inefficient 
 methods of detectin g pregnancy which are 
 1008 J 
 
 now in general use, and to introduce others 
 that are founded on a surer and more scien- 
 tific basis. 
 
 This subject is more fully treated of in 
 the second volume of the Proceedings of 
 the Veterinary Medical Association, p. 126. ; 
 and in the twelfth volume of The Veterina- 
 rian, p. 377. See also an Essay on Auscul- 
 tation, as the only equivocal Evidence of Preg- 
 nancy, by Dr. J. C. Ferguson, of King's 
 College, London. 
 
 PRICKET. A term applied to a spitter 
 or young male deer of two years old, that 
 begins to put forth the horns. 
 
 PRICKING. In hunting, the tracing 
 of a hare, where her footing can be per- 
 ceived. In farriery, the term is used to 
 signify the driving a nail into the soft or 
 quick part of a horse's foot, so as to cause 
 temporary lameness. 
 
 PRICKWOOD. See Spindle-Tree. 
 
 PRIDE, LONDON. See Saxifrage. 
 
 PRIESTLEY, DR. JOSEPH, a cele- 
 brated chemical philosopher, whose labours 
 have very " materially assisted" in the appli- 
 cation of science to practice. He was born, 
 March 13th, 1733. " His characteristics," 
 observes Sir H. Davy, " were ardent zeal 
 and the most unwearied industry ; he pos- 
 sessed in the highest degree ingenuousness 
 and the love of truth. Chemistry owes to 
 him some of her most important instru- 
 ments of research, and many of her most 
 useful combinations ; and no single person 
 ever discovered so many new and curious 
 substances." To Priestley belongs the dis- 
 covery of vital air, or oxygen gas, which he 
 denominated dephlogisticated gas, for he 
 flourished in the days of phlogiston. He 
 was aware that plants, when growing in the 
 light, purify the atmosphere. For his re- 
 searches in vegetable chemistry, the Royal 
 Society awarded him the Copley medal. 
 
 The discoveries of Priestley have been, 
 in more ways than one, highly beneficial to 
 the cultivator. The discovery of oxygen 
 gas, and of its connection with the growth 
 of plants, suggested some new, and illus- 
 trated and improved many old, practices of 
 the agriculturist ; for instance, it was soon 
 found that oxygen gas was grateful even to 
 the roots of plants, and that hence was de- 
 rived one great advantage of the horse-hoe 
 husbandry, of deep trenching, and of the 
 sub-soil and sub-turf systems ; for the 
 deeper and more completely the earth is 
 loosened, the more copiously do the gases 
 and the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere 
 penetrate to the roots of the farmer's crops. 
 He died February Gth, 1804, in the seventy- 
 first year of his age. (Johnson and Shaivs 
 Partner's Almanac, vol. i. p. 15.) 
 
 PRIMROSE. (Primula, from primus. 
 
PRIMROSE. 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 the first; in allusion to the early flowering 
 of the plants.) This is an extensive genus 
 of small, but very pretty and desirable 
 plants. All the species of primrose succeed 
 best in a mixture of loam and peat, and in- 
 crease readily by seeds, or by dividing the 
 plants, which should be done as soon as 
 they have flowered. There are five indi- 
 genous species. 
 
 1. The common primrose (P. vulgaris). 
 This species grows common every where, 
 adorning our groves, hedges, and waste 
 grassy places in spring ; flowering from 
 March to June. The root is somewhat 
 fleshy, with long fibres. Leaves numerous, 
 radical, obovate-oblong, unequally toothed, 
 wrinkled, soft, and somewhat downy, with 
 broad short footstalks. Flowers numerous, 
 large, sulphur- coloured, with a darker ra- 
 diating spot in the middle; their scent 
 agreeable, though slight. Sometimes the 
 flowers are in umbels, but in general they 
 are solitary. There are cultivated varie- 
 ties, white, purplish, or brown, single or 
 double, of . which the double sulphur-co- 
 loured is peculiarly elegant. 
 
 2. Oxlip primrose (P. elatior). This is 
 a less common species, found in woods and 
 pastures, but rare. It is perennial, and 
 flowers in April. The leaves are contracted, 
 or sinuated, about the middle, in which re- 
 spect it differs from the preceding, and 
 more agrees with the cowslip. The flowers 
 are sweet-scented, all umbellate, smaller, 
 with a less expanded limb than in the 
 former or its varieties, but larger, paler- 
 coloured, and less cup-shaped than in the 
 cowslip. It differs from the umbellated 
 variety of the primrose. 
 
 3. Common cowslip, or paigle (P. veris). 
 See Cowslip. 
 
 4. Bird's-eye primrose (P. farino&d). 
 This species is found growing in wet pas- 
 tures and by rivulets, on mountains in the 
 north of England as well as in Scotland. 
 It flowers later than the preceding species, 
 in June and July, and is only about half 
 the size of the cowslip. It is distinguished 
 by the white mealiness of the flower-stalks 
 and backs of the leaves, whose upper sides 
 are green, smooth, and even, as well as by 
 the beautiful rose-coloured flowers, whose 
 mouth is surrounded with a notched, yellow, 
 glandular border. 
 
 5. Scottish primrose (P. Scotica). This 
 species is met with occasionally in the 
 north of Scotland, and is near akin to that 
 last described ; but the mealiness is said to 
 be yellower, existing, more or less, on both 
 surfaces of the leaves. The limb of the 
 corolla is flat ; mouth with a notched bor- 
 der ; stigma five-cleft. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol.i. p. 269.) 
 
 1009 
 
 PRIMROSE, EVENING. See Even- 
 ing Primrose. 
 
 PRIMROSE PEERLESS. See Nar- 
 cissus. 
 
 PRIVET. (Ligustrum, from ligare, to 
 tie ; in allusion to the very flexible 
 branches.) The common privet, print, or 
 prim-print (L. vulgare), is a hardy shrub, 
 growing from six to eight feet in height, in 
 its wild state tenanting rather moist thick- 
 ets and hedges, on a gravelly or chalky 
 soil ; but it grows well in any situation, and 
 in all soils. It may be propagated by 
 seeds, layers, or cuttings. These plants 
 are well suited for making cut hedges in 
 gardens, especially the evergreen varieties 
 of the common privet. The branches are 
 straight, filled with pith, and the wood is 
 hard. Leaves on short stalks, imitating 
 myrtle, but of a duller hue, almost ever- 
 green in mild seasons, and not injured by 
 smoke. Panicles terminal, many-flowered, 
 dense, thrice-compound of strongly-scented 
 white flowers, appearing in June and July, 
 which become brown before they fall. Ber- 
 ries globular, nauseous and very bitter, 
 black, varying to yellow. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol.i. p. 13.) 
 
 PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. The 
 greater number of plants are propagated 
 naturally by means of seeds ; but, in addi- 
 tion to these, many plants are extended 
 over the surface on which they take root 
 by the production of runners, or lateral 
 shoots, which spread along the surface, and 
 root at the joints or buds, from which they 
 send up new plants, by suckers, or side 
 shoots from the roots, by bulbs, by tubers, 
 rhizomes, and by various other natural 
 means. Artificially, plants are propagated 
 by seed, by runners, suckers, offsets, divid- 
 ing the tubers, layers, cuttings, grafting, 
 budding, inarching, &c. Seeds are ga- 
 thered when mature, and sown on recently- 
 stirred soil, and covered to different depths 
 according to the size of the seed, the nature 
 of the soil and situation, and other circum- 
 stances. The plants formed by runners 
 are separated from the parent plant by cut- 
 ting through the runner, and removing the 
 young plant, in order to plant it elsewhere. 
 Suckers, slips, or side shoots from the roots 
 are separated from the parent plant by 
 being slipped down, or cut off,' so as to 
 carry with them a portion of fibrous roots ; 
 and they are afterwards planted in suitable 
 soil, &c. Offsets are small bulbs which are 
 produced round the base of larger ones, 
 or on stems, in the axillae of the leaves, 
 and, being taken off and planted, become 
 plants. Tubers are underground stems 
 containing leaf-buds ; and these may be se- 
 parated and planted entire, or cut into as 
 
PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. 
 
 PRUNING. 
 
 many pieces as there are buds, in either of 
 which cases new plants will be formed. 
 Layers are branches or shoots of either 
 woody or herbaceous plants, which are bent 
 down, and a portion of their length buried 
 a few inches in the soil; that portion having 
 been previously wounded by cutting, bruis- 
 ing, or twisting, which, by checking the 
 descent of the sap, gives rise, after a cer- 
 tain period, to the production of roots. 
 
 After these roots are formed, the portion 
 of the layer which has produced them is 
 separated from the main stock or parent 
 plant, and planted by itself. 
 
 Cuttings are portions of shoots, either of 
 ligneous or herbaceous plants, and they are 
 made of the young shoots with the leaves 
 on, or of the ripened wood, either with or 
 without its leaves ; and after they have, 
 either in an herbaceous state with the leaves 
 on, or with the wood mature, and with or 
 without the leaves, been properly prepared 
 and planted, they form roots at the lower 
 extremity, each cutting becoming a perfect 
 plant. In general, cuttings should be taken 
 from those shoots of a plant which are 
 nearest the soil ; because, from the mois- 
 ture and shade there, such shoots are more 
 predisposed to emit roots than those on the 
 upper part of the plant. 
 
 The young, or last formed shoots, are to 
 be taken in preference to such as are older, 
 as containing more perfect buds in an un- 
 developed state, and a bark more easily 
 permeable by roots ; and the cutting is to 
 be prepared by severing its lower extremity 
 across at a joint, the lenticells, or root-buds, 
 being there most abundant. When the 
 cutting is planted, the principal part of the 
 art consists in making it quite firm at the 
 lower extremity, so as completely to ex- 
 clude the air from the wounded section. 
 Cuttings emit roots at this section, either 
 in consequence of the action of the accu- 
 mulated sap in the cutting, as in the case 
 of the ripened wood in deciduous trees and 
 shrubs ; or in consequence of the joint ac- 
 tion of the accumulated sap and of the 
 leaves, as in the case of cuttings of soft 
 wood with the leaves on, and in a living 
 state. A few plants are propagated by cut- 
 tings of the leaves, the petiole of the leaf 
 being slipped off from the parent plant, and 
 probably containing the latent embryos of 
 buds. Grafting, inarching, and budding, 
 are processes which have been already ex- 
 plai Qed. See Budding, Grafting, Layer- 
 i n a , &c. (Branded Diet, of Science and Art.) 
 
 PRUNING, in gardening and the cul- 
 ture of forests, denotes the removal of 
 the excrescences or superfluous portions of 
 trees, with the view of rendering the trees 
 more fruitful, to make them grow higher, 
 
 I AIA ° ° ' 
 
 and with greater regularity, or to produce 
 larger and better-flavoured fruit. The 
 pruning of timber trees is an operation 
 alike interesting to the landowner and the 
 farmer; for upon that being judiciously 
 performed, in a great measure depends the 
 profitable growth of his plantations. Al- 
 most all that can be urged on this theme is 
 contained in the valuable practical essays of 
 Mr. John Grigor and others, presented to 
 the Highland Society of Scotland. These 
 all agree that pruning is beneficial, and es- 
 sential towards promoting the growth and 
 value of by far the greater number of hard 
 wood trees, but that this may be rendered 
 less essential in some situations by thick 
 planting and judicious timely thinning; 
 that pruning should commence when the 
 trees are three, or, if very vigorous, two 
 years old (but I think four or five years 
 would be better) ; and that then it is the 
 top which needs the most attention. It is 
 also an erroneous practice to cut away all 
 the side branches at once. " Where this is 
 done," says Mr. Cree, " the trees remain 
 nearly stationary, and are often stunted to 
 such a degree as to assume the appearance 
 of old age." They agree in the advantage 
 of preserving one leading shoot. Mr. Gorrie 
 remarks, " where hedge-row trees and trees 
 in open situations are intended for profit- 
 able timber, pruning should commence at 
 an early period of their growth, encourag- 
 ing the leading or main stem by displacing 
 or shortening all over-luxuriant or aspiring 
 side shoots, clearing the lower part of the 
 stem of shoots, and forming the top into 
 the shape of a very open cone. That cone, 
 while the trees are under ten years of age, 
 occupying nearly half the length of the 
 tree, and gradually diminishing from that 
 proportion as the tree advances, till ulti- 
 mately, when about thirty years of age, the 
 tree will have acquired sufficient length of 
 stem, the cone or top may occupy from a 
 third to a fourth part of the whole length." 
 Mr. Cree thinks that under ten years of age 
 the tree should have one inch in circum- 
 ference to fifteen inches in height ; and 
 that, as it advances to maturity, it should 
 have an inch in circumference to twelve 
 inches in height ; and for a full-grown tree 
 one inch in circumference to nine in height. 
 The cutting of large branches should be 
 avoided as much as possible. The writers 
 whose works I have used deprecate the 
 foreshortening system of pruning, of leav- 
 ing snags, or projecting stumps. Dead 
 branches should be removed; hard wood 
 trees are commonly benefited by judicious 
 pruning ; but the larch and fir tribe do not 
 admit of being pruned in any soil or situa- 
 tion. The Scotch fir stands it the best: 
 
PRUNING. 
 
 every species of tree should be pruned as 
 near the spring months as its nature will 
 permit. The value of the timber is in- 
 creased by judicious pruning very consider- 
 ably. " In regard to the value of timber," 
 says Mr. Gorrie, " which has been pruned 
 and has stood detached in hedge-rows, 
 every thing will depend on the mode in 
 which that operation has been practised. 
 In attending or conducting sales of wood, 
 I have invariably found that trees from 
 which large branches have been lopped, 
 brought less money in proportion to the 
 supposed evil inflicted." (Digest, by Mr. 
 Scott; Tram. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 141. ; 
 Sir Henry Steuarfs Planter's Guide.) 
 
 Notwithstanding these highly respectable 
 authorities, our experience rather leads us 
 to the conclusion that such extensive prun- 
 ing of timber trees is seldom advisable ; for, 
 saying nothing of minor evils, no portion 
 of a tree can be removed without propor- 
 tionally checking the flow of sap in the 
 portion of the tree from whence it is severed. 
 And the system of close pruning is very apt 
 to produce a head disproportionate to the 
 stem, and, in consequence, such trees are 
 very apt to be damaged by heavy falls of 
 snow or high winds. In conclusion, I am 
 of opinion that, although the pruning of 
 timber trees may be in some cases neces- 
 sary, yet that it is a practice too often car- 
 ried to an extent that is prejudicial to many 
 valuable plantations, of which I could in- 
 stance several extensive plantations in the 
 vicinity of the metropolis. 
 
 The pruning of timber trees, however, 
 has had, especially in Scotland, many warm 
 advocates ; and no one, perhaps, has ex- 
 plained the real or imaginary advantages of 
 the system more clearly than Mr. Cree. He 
 observes : — 
 
 " To manage woods in a proper manner, 
 young trees should be examined even the 
 third year after they are planted ; and if 
 any more leading shoots than one are found 
 to exist, the best one should be selected, 
 and the others shortened to one half the 
 length of the selected shoot. This practice 
 of examining the trees should be continued 
 every year till they are about fifteen feet 
 in height. These shortenings, however, 
 which should not be confined to superfluous 
 leading shoots, but should include any 
 branch which is gaining a disproportionate 
 ascendency over other branches of the same 
 year's growth, should, at first, and even for 
 some time previous to this stage of the 
 growth of the plant, be more cautiously 
 done than is necessary to be observed after- 
 wards ; and should increase in severity as 
 the tree approaches to, and after it is, fifteen 
 feet in height. 
 
 1011 
 
 " The process of examining a tree is a 
 simple one : it is done in a moment by the 
 pruner casting his eye over the whole tree, 
 and detecting the branches which require 
 to be shortened. And, as a general rule, 
 when it is found that any branch has a 
 greater growth upon it than the leading 
 shoot, it should be shortened by cutting off 
 as much as will reduce it to half the length 
 of the leading shoot, or even less. By this 
 I mean any branch which is either of 
 greater thickness generally, or near its junc- 
 tion with the main stem of the tree, than 
 the leading shoot is at the same distance 
 from its top. And, as trees produce only 
 one regular tier of branches in each year, 
 any branch should be shortened which is of 
 a greater length than the majority of the 
 branches of the same tier, or if the whole 
 are too long, they must be shortened. In 
 the case of trees intended for timber, after 
 they are at and above fifteen feet in height, 
 this rule of shortening the branches must 
 also be applied to the undermost tiers of 
 branches. In this manner, all the under 
 branches of any importance will have been 
 shortened, which prepares them for the next 
 operation. 
 
 " After the trees are about fifteen feet in 
 height, the undermost tier of branches only 
 should all be cut off close to the stem in one 
 year ; in the subsequent year another tier 
 of branches should, in the same manner, be 
 cut off, and so on every year afterwards, 
 always cutting off only a single tier in one 
 year. The same process of shortening the 
 branches is always to be continued, as before 
 directed; but must be discontinued some 
 years before the cutting off of the branches 
 shall be discontinued, so as to give a more 
 extended top to the tree ; for all trees that 
 have naturally conical heads, such as the 
 willow, poplar, larch, silver and spruce fir, 
 require longer heads than those trees that 
 are of a spreading nature, such as the oak, 
 beech, and others. But no branch, where- 
 ever it be situated, is to be cut off close to 
 the stem, until such branch stands upon the 
 undermost tier. In this mode of shortening 
 the branches, it will be seen that the tree 
 will at all times present a head of nearly a 
 conical form ; and advantage should also be 
 taken of shortening such branches as will 
 balance the tree best, and produce the 
 proper shape of the top. But in shortening 
 the branches, too much should never be 
 done in one year ; nor will it be necessary 
 to do so, provided the trees are attended to 
 in the regular manner I have described. 
 
 " I have endeavoured to explain the im- 
 portant part which the leaves perform in 
 the elaboration of the proper juice. Now, 
 by this mode of shortening the branches, 
 3 t 2 
 
PRUNING. 
 
 number of smaller subordinate branches 
 will still be left upon the shortened branch 
 to produce leaves, and which will perform 
 at least a considerable part of the functions 
 of the branch in its unshortened state. 
 The effect produced on the remaining part 
 of a shortened branch is to produce larger 
 leaves the first year. This may be ac- 
 counted for from the quantity of sap in- 
 tended for the entire branch, which will 
 ascend in the first spring, being now ap- 
 plied only to the part remaining. And, 
 besides the neatness and uniformity of 
 foliage which a tree so shortened is found 
 to exhibit, the leaves on these shortened 
 branches will still remain to perform their 
 useful functions. I may add, that, under 
 this mode of pruning, I have found that 
 trees in general will advance in growth as 
 much in one year, as they will advance in 
 three or four years under similar circum- 
 stances, but when not so pruned. 
 
 " Trees of a considerable size and age, 
 which have been previously neglected, may 
 be greatly improved by the system which I 
 have laid down. But after the shortenings 
 have been performed, a considerable period 
 should be allowed to elapse before the 
 branches are to be cut off close to the stem. 
 And when this is done, especially in the 
 case of large limbs, too much care and at- 
 tention cannot be observed. The branches 
 should always be cut off with a saw ; and 
 precaution should be taken, never to allow 
 the branch to be split off by its own weight, 
 or to injure in any other manner the main 
 stem. Where this may be anticipated, and 
 the branch cannot be propped up during 
 amputation to prevent it, the branch should 
 be removed at two operations, — first, by 
 being cut off about twelve or eighteen 
 inches from the main stem, and, finally, by 
 being cut off close to the main stem, but so 
 as not to injure the adjoining bark. This 
 additional trouble will be amply compen- 
 sated for, by the earlier and superior man- 
 ner in which the wound will be cicatrized. 
 
 " Though the remarks which I have made 
 regarding shortening and cutting off the 
 branches, are intended to have reference in 
 particular to deciduous and non-resinous 
 trees, I am very far from thinking that re- 
 sinous trees are not benefited by judicious 
 pruning. The question of the propriety of 
 pruning resinous trees has, I am aware, 
 been very much agitated, and great diver- 
 sity of opinion has existed, and does exist, 
 00 this point. But it must be evident, that, 
 if clean straight timber, free from knots, be 
 wanted, where branches exist, they must 
 be removed, to prevent knots from being 
 formed. Perhaps our best plantations of 
 resinous trees prune themselves ; and it has 
 1012 
 
 often appeared to me to be an injudicious 
 assortment of trees, to intermix pines with 
 hardwood, unless it be for nurses to be 
 afterwards removed. Pines thickly planted 
 by themselves, (the Scots pine for ex- 
 ample,) are found to produce the cleanest 
 timber, of the most rapid growth, and fre- 
 quently without any pruning. But still 
 there are many cases, such as in that of 
 isolated trees, and especially when they are 
 planted along with hardwood, where re- 
 sinous trees produce large branches. Now 
 these, in the case of the Scots fir and larch 
 in particular, ought to be removed, pro- 
 vided it can be done judiciously, so as not 
 to injure the growth of the tree. By 
 shortening and cutting off the branches in a 
 careful manner, as recommended for decidu- 
 ous trees, the object will be attained so as to 
 injure the tree in the least possible degree. 
 
 " In cutting off the branches of all kinds 
 of trees, I wish it to be distinctly under- 
 stood, that I mean them to be cut off as 
 close to the stem as possible. But there is 
 a little swell at the junction of the branch 
 with the stem which must not be cut off, 
 by which the wound is not half the size 
 that it would otherwise be. And no wound 
 should be polished up to the circular form 
 of the main stem, as such a process only 
 enlarges the wound, and hence it requires a 
 much longer period before it is healed over. 
 Where the saw is used, the part, and par- 
 ticularly the bark, should be cut clean over. 
 
 ** Authors differ much regarding the 
 mode of cutting off the branches. By some, 
 it has been recommended to leave snags in 
 pruning, that is, to leave a few inches be- 
 tween the stem and the part at which the 
 branch is cut off. This I conceive to be 
 a bad system. Even granting that trees 
 suffer much by bleeding, as it is called, 
 especially resinous trees, when cut close to 
 the stem, still that bleeding will soon be 
 prevented by the wound being cicatrized. 
 Now, there are two evils attending the 
 practice of leaving snags. In the elm, Scots 
 fir, and many other trees of considerable 
 size, an effort is made by the tree to cover 
 over the snag long before the annual 
 growth of the wood arrives at this mag- 
 nitude ; the consequence of which is, that 
 a large knot in the wood is formed, thus 
 defeating one of the principal objects which 
 it is the province of pruning to accomplish. 
 But another evil consequent upon this 
 practice, where no effort is made by the 
 tree to cover it until the annual increase of 
 the alburnum circles shall have done so, is, 
 that the snag, in resinous trees in particular, 
 is always liable to bleed until it is cica- 
 trized; or, where the snag has lost its vi- 
 tality, it soon becomes liable to rot. From 
 
PULSE. 
 
 PURSE-NET. 
 
 this latter circumstance, the danger is ap- 
 parent of often finding large trees when 
 cut down, though apparently sound on the 
 outside, rotted in the interior. Such is 
 frequently the case with snags even in 
 middle-sized trees. When large branches, 
 too, are amputated from old trees, before 
 the growth of the tree can cover the part, 
 it has become rotted, and, by exposure to 
 the atmosphere, moisture is carried down 
 the pith of the tree, which commences the 
 work of decomposition, spreading to the 
 adjoining parts of the wood. 
 
 " With regard to the proper season for 
 shortening and cutting off the branches, I 
 conceive that after the fall of the leaf in 
 autumn is the best period for shortening 
 the branches, except the gean, which should 
 be shortened in August or September. I 
 have made many experiments in order to 
 ascertain the proper period for pruning or 
 cutting off the branches. I have performed 
 it in March, May, June, July, and other 
 periods of summer, and in autumn ; but I 
 always found, that the earlier in spring the 
 pruning was performed, the part was the 
 sooner cicatrized, and the tree did so much 
 the better afterwards. This I found to be 
 the best period for trees in general. But 
 the sycamore and birch should be pruned 
 in January, the Scots fir in September or 
 October, and the larch may be divested of 
 its decayed branches at any period when 
 it can be done with a blunt instrument." 
 {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 59.) 
 
 PTARMIGAN. See Grouse. 
 
 PULSE. A term applied to all legu- 
 minous plants, as pease, beans, tares, vetches, 
 lupins, &c. All the species of pulse afford ex- 
 cellent manure when turned into the soil in 
 a green state. The custom of ploughing in 
 green succulent plants of this kind is very 
 ancient. All the Roman agricultural writers 
 commend it highly. Columella, particularly, 
 advises lupins as a manure, which, if cut 
 down and turned in while green, will have 
 as good effect as the best and strongest 
 dunging whatever. They may be sown 
 upon poor land about the middle of Sep- 
 tember, and be ploughed in before they 
 attain their full growth. In gravelly soils 
 they should be cut down after they have 
 put forth their second flower ; and in strong 
 lands, where a little more advanced. In the 
 former of these grounds they are turned in 
 while young and tender, that they may 
 quickly rot ; and in the latter, are let stand 
 till they grow stronger, that they may pro- 
 duce a better effect on the stiff clods of 
 earth, and render them more mellow and 
 friable. This practice is still extensively 
 followed in northern Italy 
 
 Pease, beans, lupins, vetches, and other 
 1013 
 
 succulent plants, have also been strongly 
 recommended by the older writers on hus- 
 bandry, as excellent manures, especially for 
 sandy ground ; these plants enriching the 
 earth greatly if ploughed in, either green, 
 or when in bloom. In strong land they are 
 advised not to be turned down till the pods 
 begin to harden. See Green Crops, Le- 
 guminous Plants, Rotation or Crops, &c. 
 
 PUMPKIN. See Gourd. 
 
 PURCHASE. See Buying and Sell- 
 ing, and Warranty. Purchase, in law, 
 means, generally, the acquisition of lands 
 or tenements by any other means than de- 
 scent ; as by devise, gift, deed, or agreement. 
 
 PURGATIVES. In farriery, such me- 
 dicines as tend to evacuate the crudities of 
 the bowels by stool, and which are some- 
 times called cathartics. (See Purging.) 
 
 The purgatives most frequently employed 
 for horses and cows are sulphur, jalap, 
 aloes, gamboge, Rkamnus catharticus, and 
 calomel. Saline purgatives are not often 
 required ; but when they are, Epsom salts 
 (the sulphate of magnesia), is adequate for 
 every purpose. 
 
 PURGING is necessary in a variety of 
 cases, for different sorts of animals, par- 
 ticularly in diseases of the inflammatory kind, 
 swellings in the extreme parts. Aloes is the 
 best form of physic ; but Epsom salts, linseed, 
 and olive oil, are sometimes used on certain 
 occasions as laxatives with great propriety 
 and benefit, and in gross full horses, in some 
 disorders of the stomach, liver, &c, but it 
 should always be directed with caution. 
 
 Violent purging or scouring, attended 
 with inflammation, will sometimes arise 
 when a horse is worked hard upon green 
 meat. The remedy is change of diet or 
 less labour. Astringents should be used 
 with much caution. It is probably an 
 effort of nature to get rid of something that 
 offends. A few doses of gruel will assist in 
 effecting this purpose, and the purging will 
 cease without astringent medicine. See 
 Aloes, Bales, Drenches, Linseed Oil, 
 &c. (Blaine's Encyclop. ; The Horse, p. 209.) 
 
 PURLIEU. A portion of ground near 
 any forest, which being anciently made fo- 
 rest, is afterwards, by perambulation, sepa- 
 rated from the same, and freed from that ser- 
 vitude which was formerly laid upon it. 
 
 PURSE-NET. A net used for snaring 
 hares and rabbits at certain times. In . 
 hunting rabbits by ferrets, it is placed over 
 the holes of their burrows in different direc- 
 tions, and the rabbits, in endeavouring to 
 escape from the ferret, are bagged in this net. 
 
 PURSE, SHEPHERD'S. See Shep- 
 herd's Purse. 
 
 PURSLANE. (Porfulaca; from porto 
 to carry, and lac, milk; juicy nature of 
 3 t 3 
 
 F 
 
PURSLANE. 
 
 PUTREFACTION. 
 
 the plants.) The seeds of the hardy annual 
 species of this exotic genus may be sown in 
 a sheltered part of the flower-garden in 
 spring. The stove and green-house kinds 
 require the same treatment as the other 
 stove and green-house annuals. Purslane 
 is now but little noticed, and only cultivated 
 as a salad and pot-herb. The species 
 usually grown in the kitchen-garden are 
 the green or garden purslane (P. oleracea), 
 and the golden purslane (P. sativa). 
 
 A light rich soil is the one in which they 
 thrive best. They must always have a 
 warm situation, a south border being ge- 
 nerally allotted to them. 
 
 They are propagated by seed, which may 
 be sown in February and early in March, 
 in a moderate hot-bed, to remain where 
 sown ; and at the close of this last month, as 
 well as once a month during the course of 
 April, May, and the summer months, until 
 the end of August, in the open ground. 
 
 The sowings are performed broadcast, or 
 in drills, six inches apart ; in either mode, 
 very thin and buried about half an inch. 
 The plants very soon make their appear- 
 ance. They must be kept clear of weeds, 
 and be thinned to six or eight inches asunder. 
 In dry weather water is required to be 
 given moderately two or three times a week. 
 In general, they are ready for gathering 
 from in six weeks after sowing, the young 
 shoots being made use of from two to five 
 inches in length, which being cut down 
 low, shoot out again. These observations 
 and directions apply equally to the open- 
 ground and hot-bed crops. The latter re- 
 quire the air to be admitted as freely as 
 possible, the temperature ranging between 
 50° and 75°. For the production of seed, a 
 small quantity of which will suffice for the 
 largest family, some of the earliest border- 
 raised plants must be left ungathered from, 
 the strongest and largest leaved ones being 
 selected ; they blossom in June and July. 
 They must be cut immediately that the 
 seed is ripe, laid on a cloth, and, when 
 perfectly dry, thrashed. The refuse is best 
 separated by means of a very fine sieve. 
 ( G. W. Johnsons Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 PURSLANE, THE SEA. One of the 
 names of the shrubby Orache. 
 
 PURSLANE, WATER. (Peplis portula ; 
 from peplis, the Greek name of purslane.) 
 The species of water purslane will grow in 
 any moist soil, in which also the seeds may 
 be sown. The species indigenous to Bri- 
 tain is an annual with a fibrous root, grow- 
 ing very common in watery places on a 
 gravelly, sandy, or heathy soil. The stems 
 are prostrate, floating, or creeping, a few 
 inches in length, square, smooth, leafy. 
 Leaves opposite stalked, obovate, entire, 
 1014 
 
 smooth, hardly an inch long. Flowers, 
 which appear in J uly and August, are small, 
 axillary, solitary, nearly sessile, reddish. 
 Petals wanting, or scarcely visible, being 
 concealed by the calyx. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 187.) 
 
 PUTREFACTION. (Lat. Putref actio.) 
 The spontaneous decomposition of animal 
 and vegetable substances, attended by the 
 evolution of fetid gases. The putrefactive 
 fermentation of animal substances is usually 
 attended by more fetid and noxious ex- 
 halations than those arising from vegetable 
 products. This appears principally refer- 
 able to the more abundant presence of ni- 
 trogen in the former; and, hence, those 
 vegetables which abound in nitroginiferous 
 principles, such as most (if not all) of the 
 cruciform plants, exhale peculiarly nauseous 
 effluvia ; hence, also, such animal products 
 as are destitute of nitrogen, are either un- 
 susceptible of what is commonly called pu- 
 trefaction, or suffer it slowly and imperfectly. 
 The formation of ammonia or of ammonia- 
 cal compounds is a characteristic of most 
 cases of animal putrefaction; while other 
 combinations of hydrogen are also formed, 
 especially carburetted hydrogen, and sul- 
 phuretted hydrogen, together with compli- 
 cated and often highly infectious vapours or 
 gases, in which sulphur and phosphorus are 
 frequently discerned. These putrefactive 
 effluvia are, for the most part, easily de- 
 composed, and resolved into new and com- 
 paratively innocuous compounds by the 
 agency of chlorine ; hence the importance 
 of that body as a powerful and rapidly 
 acting disinfectant. The rapidity of putre- 
 faction and the nature of its products are, 
 to a great extent, influenced by temper- 
 ature, moisture, and access of air ; they do 
 not ensue below the freezing point, nor in 
 dry substances, nor under the entire ex- 
 clusion of oxygen ; and hence various means 
 suggest themselves of retarding or prevent- 
 ing putrefaction, as well as of modifying its 
 results. A temperature between 60° and 
 80°, a due degree of humidity, and free 
 access of air are the circumstances under 
 which it proceeds most rapidly. The most 
 effective antiputrefactives, or antiseptics, 
 are substances which either absorb or re- 
 move a portion of the water or moisture, 
 and enter into new combinations with the 
 organic matter. The astringent or tannic 
 principle of vegetables is also a powerful 
 preserver of most organic tissues ; it enters 
 into chemical combination with the albu- 
 minous and gelatinous membranes and 
 fibres ; and the resulting compound, of which 
 leather furnishes a characteristic example, is 
 comparatively little prone to change, al- 
 though the tanning material itself, as well as 
 
PUTTOCK. 
 
 QUARRY. 
 
 the animal principles with which it unites, are 
 separately liable to decay. Among saline 
 substances, the antiputrefactive powers of 
 salt are commonly known : when a piece of 
 flesh is salted, brine runs from it, in conse- 
 quence of the energy with which the salt 
 abstracts the component water of the mus- 
 cular fibre ; the flesh becomes indurated, and 
 its susceptibility to putrefactive changes is 
 greatly diminished; but it becomes at the 
 same time less easy of digestion as an article 
 of food. Corrosive sublimate is a far more 
 powerful preservative than common salt ; 
 and it appears to act not by the mere abstrac- 
 tion of water, but by entering into chemical 
 union with the fibre. Sulphate of copper 
 and several other metallic salts are similarly 
 efficacious ; but their poisonous nature pre- 
 vents their employment in the preservation 
 of articles of food. 
 
 The inhabitants of northern climates avail 
 themselves of freezing to prevent the putre- 
 faction of their food, and the supplies of 
 game and other articles in the Russian mar- 
 kets are retained in a frozen state. Our 
 fishmongers resort to the same expedient 
 for the preservation of their unsold fish, 
 which is daily removed to the ice-house, 
 after having been exhibited in their shops ; 
 salmon is packed in ice for the purpose of 
 transport and preservation. (Brande's Diet, 
 of Science.') See Decomposition, Dry- 
 Rot, Fermentation, Organic Chemistry, 
 Manures, &c. 
 
 PUTTOCK. A local name for the Buz- 
 
 PYROLIGNEOUS ACID. This term 
 is generally applied to the acid liquor which 
 passes over along with tar and gaseous pro- 
 ducts, when wood is subjected to destructive 
 distillation. This acid liquor is an impure 
 vinegar, from which acetic acid is obtained. 
 It has in its impure state a powerful smoky 
 odour, not unlike that of Westphalia ham. 
 The acid is purified by converting it into 
 acetate of soda, and decomposing that salt 
 by means of sulphuric acid. This acetic 
 acid, after distillation, is in a high state of 
 concentration; but it 'differs from concen- 
 trated acetic acid, by being neither com- 
 bustible nor crystallizable. It is usually 
 lowered by the addition of water. If in- 
 tended for the table or for domestic use, 
 as a substitute for other forms of vine- 
 gar, it is usually coloured with a little burn- 
 ed sugar. This manufacture of vinegar 
 is now carried on upon a very large scale, 
 and the greater part of the vinegar used for 
 domestic purposes and in the arts, in many 
 of which it is largely consumed, is derived 
 from this source. Ordinary vinegar, besides 
 containing acetic acid and water, contains 
 also sulphate of lime, some ethereal matter, 
 1015 
 
 a portion of sulphuric acid, and a colouring 
 principle. See Vinegar. 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUAGMIRE. See Bog and Peat. 
 
 QUAIL. (Coturnix.) A genus of gal- 
 linaceous birds allied to the partridge, but 
 of smaller size, with a more slender beak 
 and shorter tail, and without red eye-brows 
 or spurs. The flesh of the quail is delicate, 
 and very little inferior to that of the land- 
 rail ; it is accordingly very much in request, 
 and in London, in particular during the 
 season, that is from May to August, the 
 consumption is large. They arrive in this 
 country in May, and seem more partial to 
 open champaign countries than to those 
 which are enclosed. The female scrapes 
 out a small cavity on the ground, into 
 which she collects a few bits of dry grass, 
 straw, or clover stalks ; she lays from seven 
 to twelve eggs ; nestling among wheat ge- 
 nerally, but sometimes in a piece of clover 
 or grass. The eggs are of a yellowish or 
 dull orange-coloured white, blotched or 
 speckled with umber brown ; one inch one 
 line in length, by eleven lines in breadth. 
 The food of the quail consists of seeds, 
 grain, insects, and green leaves. The whole 
 length of the bird is seven inches. The adult 
 male has the plumage of the back, wings, 
 rump and tail, brown, with lighter- coloured 
 shafts, and longitudinal streaks of wood- 
 brown ; chin and throat white, bounded by 
 two half- circular dark brown bands, de- 
 scending from the ear-coverts, and with a 
 black patch at the bottom in front ; breast 
 pale chestnut brown, with the shafts of the 
 feathers straw colour ; lower part of the 
 breast, belly, &c. yellowish white. (YarrelTs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 355.) 
 
 QUAKING BOG. Peat bog in a grow- 
 ing state, and so saturated with water, that 
 a considerable extent of surface will quake 
 or shake, when pressed on by the foot or 
 any body; such bogs are unfit for any 
 useful purpose till they are drained. See 
 Bog and Peat. 
 
 QUAKING GRASS. (Briza; named 
 from brizo, to nod, on account of the quak- 
 ing character of the spikelets.) A genus 
 of grasses of which some species are pretty 
 and interesting, as B. minor, B. rubra, and 
 B. Clusii ; but the greater portion are mere 
 weeds. The whole are of easy cultivation. 
 Two species are indigenous to Britain, the 
 smaller quaking grass (B. minor), and the 
 common quaking grass (B. media). (Pax- 
 ton's Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol i. 
 p. 132.) See Briza. 
 
 QUARRY. A pit or drift from which 
 3 t 4 
 
QUARTER. 
 
 QUIT-RENT. 
 
 stones, gravel, slates, or some other similar 
 material is raised. Quarries are valuable 
 and useful as furnishing limestone, marble, 
 slate, serpentine, granite for building mate- 
 rials ; freestone and other substances for the 
 repair of roads, coals, &c. Extensive quar- 
 ries are met with in different districts of the 
 kingdom, particularly in the more northern 
 parts. Some very interesting reports on 
 the quarries of granite, sandstone, green- 
 stone, limestone, marble, and slate, at pre- 
 sent wrought in Scotland, will be found in 
 the fourth volume of the Trans, of the High. 
 Soc. (new series), pp.53 — 106.; and vol. v. 
 pp. 57—84. ; and 398 — 416. of which my 
 limits will not even permit me to give an 
 outline. 
 
 QUARTER. The fourth part of any 
 thing, as of a carcass. As a term of weight 
 it denotes the fourth of a hundred weight, 
 or twenty-eight pounds ; as a dry measure 
 it signifies the fourth of a chaldron. Quar- 
 ter is also a measure of grain contain- 
 ing eight bushels : it is the common mea- 
 sure by which grain is sold in the southern 
 districts, especially when in large quanti- 
 ties. 
 
 QUARTZ. A German term, now uni- 
 versally adopted in scientific languages, and 
 commonly applied in mineralogy to the 
 purer varieties of silica, especially to rock 
 crystal. Quartz occurs also in beds : it is 
 usually granular, white, sometimes mixed 
 with mica. 
 
 QUEEN OF THE MEADOWS. See 
 Meadow-Sweet. 
 
 QUICKEN TREE, or MOUNTAIN 
 ASH. See Rowan-Tree. 
 
 QUICKS. The young sets of the white - 
 thorn used in planting hedges. The term 
 is also applied to couch-grass in some 
 places. See Quickset. 
 
 QUICK LIME. See Lime. 
 
 QUICK-SANDS— Are sandy spots of 
 soil which contain water in such a propor- 
 tion as to form a sort of shaking quag at 
 certain times. 
 
 QUICKSET. A term applied to the 
 white or hawthorn, the sets or young plants 
 of which are raised by the nursery gardeners 
 for sale for this purpose. See Fence, Haw- 
 thorn, and Hedge. 
 
 QUILLS. The hard and strong feathers 
 of the wings of geese, swans, turkeys, crows, 
 &c. used in writing. They* are classified 
 according to the order in which they are 
 fixed in the wing ; the second and third 
 quills being the best. Crow quills are 
 chiefly used for drawing. The goodness of 
 quills is judged partly by the size of the 
 barrels, but more by the weight ; hence the 
 denomination of (mills of fourteen, fifteen, 
 &c. loths per mille, each mille consisting of 
 1016 
 
 1200 quills. The duty on goose quills pro- 
 duced, in 1834, 4202J. lis.; which, as the 
 duty is at the rate of 2s. 6d. the 1000, shows 
 that the number of quills entered for home 
 consumption that year must have amounted 
 to 33,668,000. Quills are principally im- 
 ported from the Netherlands and Germany, 
 but those from Riga are the finest (M i Cul- 
 loch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 QUILLWORT. (Isoetes lacustris, from 
 isos, equal, and etos the year; the plant being 
 the same throughout the year.) The Euro- 
 pean quill wort, or Merlin's grass, as it is 
 sometimes termed, is a curious little aquatie 
 found in the more shallow parts of the bot- 
 toms of some of the clear alpine lakes of 
 this country, blowing a brown flower in May 
 and June. The long, simple, somewhat hairy 
 fibres run perpendicularly down from the 
 tuberous root into the ground. Each plant, 
 having no stem, consists of a tuft of nume- 
 rous awl-shaped quadrangular fronds, all 
 varying in height in different individuals, 
 from three to nine inches high, with several 
 longitudinal cells. Fish are said to feed 
 and grow fat on the quillwort. {Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 343.) 
 
 QUINCE. {Cydonia.) A well-known 
 genus of fruit-trees. C. vulgaris is the spe- 
 cies generally cultivated for its fruit. It is 
 a native of Candia; but cultivated over 
 most parts of Europe. It belongs to the 
 natural order Pomacea. The fruit, or quince, 
 is of a roundish somewhat pyriform shape, 
 and contains ovate pointed, plano-convex 
 seeds, yielding to boiling a large quantity 
 of mucilage, which is employed in medical 
 practice as a demulcent. The quince will 
 thrive in any soil, and may be multiplied 
 by suckers. C.japonica is one of the hand- 
 somest hardy shrubs, producing its beautiful 
 scarlet or white flowers in great abundance. 
 The Portuguese quince is reckoned the best. 
 Quince-marmalade is greatly admired by 
 those who are fond of the fruit, and all 
 good housewives know its value, in adding 
 richness of flavour to apple-pie. (Paxtoiis 
 Bot. Diet; Phillip's Fruits, p. 318.) 
 
 QUINTINIE, JOHN DE LA, was born 
 at Poictiers in 1626. He published the re- 
 sults of his practice and study in his Com- 
 plete Gardener, which was translated entire 
 by Evelyn, and in an abridged form by 
 London and Wise. The best part of this 
 work is on the management of fruit-trees. 
 He died about the year 1700. The follow- 
 ing is a list of his works. (G. W. John- 
 sojis Hist, of Gard.) 
 
 1. Traite des Jardins Fruitiers et Potagers. Amster- 
 dam. 1G90. With plates. 4to. 2. Instructions sur les 
 Jardins Fruitiers et Potagers, avec un Traite des (Gran- 
 gers, et des Reflexions sur l'Agriculture. 4to. 
 
 QUIT-RENT. (Lat. Quietus redditm.) 
 In law, a small rent payable by the tenants 
 
QUITTER. 
 
 of most manors, whereby the tenant is quit, 
 or free, from all other services, and is an 
 acknowledgment made of their subjection 
 to the lord of the manor. 
 
 QUITTER. In farriery, an ulcer formed 
 'between the hair and hoof, usually on the 
 inside quarter of a horse' s foot ; it often 
 arises from treads and bruises, sometimes 
 from gravel, which, by working its way up- 
 wards, lodges about the coronet; if it is 
 only superficial, it may be cured by cleans- 
 ing dressings, bathing the coronet every day 
 with spirits of wine, and dressing the sore 
 with lime-water, or a detergent application, 
 such as red precipitate. 
 
 R. 
 
 RABBIT. (Lepus cuniculus.) A well- 
 known animal, resembling the hare, smaller 
 in size, belonging to the order Rodentice. 
 The rabbit has shorter hind-legs than the 
 hare, and the ears are more thinly covered 
 with hair. Rabbits abound in this country, 
 and are in many cases preserved in warrens. 
 Their fertility is great. They begin to breed 
 at six months old, and have several broods 
 in a year, and from five to seven young 
 ones in a brood. The young are blind at 
 birth, and nearly naked. Their fur, in a 
 wild state, is of a brown colour ; but varies 
 when domesticated. It constitutes a prin- 
 cipal article in the manufacture of hats. 
 Owing to its slight conducting power, it is, 
 next to hare's fur, an excellent thing to 
 wear over the shirt for those predisposed to 
 consumption. The usual mode of catching 
 wild rabbits are by what are called purse- 
 nets, and by ferrets, though they are occa- 
 sionally coursed by greyhounds or spaniels 
 trained to the sport. See Animals, Steal- 
 ing or. 
 
 RABIES. See Hydrophobia, and Sheep, 
 Diseases of. 
 
 RACE. In horsemanship, a trial of 
 speed between two or more animals. Races 
 are most commonly run by horses trained 
 for the purpose. (See Gaming, &c.) Race 
 is also employed to designate certain kinds 
 of horses and cattle, in the same manner as 
 the different races of man. 
 
 RACEME. (Lat. racemus, a bunch of 
 grapes.) In botany, a form of inflorescence, 
 in which the flowers are stalked along a 
 common unbranched axis, as in the hya- 
 cinth. 
 
 RACHIS. (Gr.) A branch which pro- 
 ceeds in nearly a straight line from the base 
 to the apex of the inflorescence of a plant. 
 It is also applied to the petioles of the 
 leaves of ferns. 
 
 1017 
 
 RADISH, CULTIVATED. 
 
 RACK. A railed convenience formed 
 above the manger in a stable for the recep- 
 tion of the hay. It should be constructed 
 with openings at the bottom for the seed or 
 dust to pass through. 
 
 RADICLE. In botany, that portion of 
 an embryo which eventually becomes the 
 descending axis or root. It is the lowest of 
 the two opposite cones of which an embryo 
 plant consists. 
 
 RADISH, CULTIVATED. {Raphanus 
 sativus.} There are two kinds of cultivated 
 radish, the fusiform, or spindle-rooted, and 
 the globular, or turnip-rooted ; and these 
 again are divided into the spring and au- 
 tumn varieties. As for the designation of 
 short and long top, by which the old gar- 
 deners divided the varieties, I perfectly 
 agree with Mr. Strachan, the gardener of 
 the London Horticultural Society, in con- 
 sidering it as giving importance to a differ- 
 ence that is by no means permanent. The 
 first may be sown at all times of the year ; 
 but the last, requiring a greater length of 
 time to perfect their roots, can only, as the 
 name implies, be obtained during the latter 
 part of the year. 
 
 Spring Varieties. — Fusiform-rooted: 1. 
 Long white, called also the white trans- 
 parent, white Italian, and Naples radish. 2. 
 White Russian, probably the Raphanus sa- 
 tivus of Gerard. 3. Twisted radish of Mons. 
 '4. Scarlet or salmon, or scarlet-transparent 
 radish. 5. Purple, formerly called exclu- 
 sively the short-topped. 6. Red-necked 
 white. 
 
 Turnip-rooted: 7. White turnip is the 
 only one noticed by Gerard, as the Ra- 
 phanus orbiculatus. 8. Early white turnip. 
 9. Pink, rose-coloured, scarlet, and crimson 
 turnip. 10. Purple turnip. 11. Yellow 
 turnip. 
 
 Autumn and Winter Varieties. — These are 
 all of the turnip-rooted kind ; and in the 
 following list they are described in the order 
 they follow in coming into use. 1. Yellow 
 turnip. 2. Round brown. 3. White Spa- 
 nish, is Miller's Raphanus albus orbicularis. 
 4. Oblong brown. 5. Black Spanish. 6. Large 
 purple winter, or purple Spanish. 
 
 The soil best suited for this vegetable is 
 a mouldy loam, rather silicious than other- 
 wise, and moderately fertile. It should be 
 dug a full spade deep, and well pulverised. 
 The subsoil is best to be rather hard. Ma- 
 nure should not be applied at the time of 
 sowing, if avoidable, as it is apt to cause 
 the roots to be fibrous. If employed, it 
 should be in a finely-divided putrescent 
 state. The situation should always be open ; 
 but for early and late crops, warm and 
 sheltered. Radishes are propagated by seed, 
 which may be sown at all times throughout 
 
RADISH, CULTIVATED. 
 
 the year. For the earliest productions, dur- 
 ing December, January, and February, in a 
 hotbed; and in the open ground once a 
 month during winter, and every fortnight 
 during the other seasons of the year. 
 
 In the open ground, the seed is generally 
 sown broadcast, and well raked in, but 
 drilling is the most preferable mode; in 
 either case, it must be inserted thin, and 
 buried half an inch deep; thick sowing 
 causes the tops to be large and the roots 
 sticky. If broadcast, the beds should be 
 laid out four or five feet wide, divided by 
 alleys a foot in width, the earth from which 
 may be thrown oufto raise the beds, or 
 not, according as the season renders it de- 
 sirable for them to be dry or moist. If 
 drills are employed for the fusiform-rooted, 
 they are required to be three inches asun- 
 der ; for the turnip-rooted, four or five, 
 and for the Spanish, &c, six or eight. 
 
 When the seedlings are well up, and ad- 
 vanced to five or six leaves, they are ready 
 for thinning ; the spindle-rooted to three 
 inches apart, the turnip-rooted to four, and 
 the larger varieties to six. These spaces, 
 however, require to be rather increased in 
 moist warm weather. In dry weather they 
 ought to be watered regularly every night, 
 as the goodness of their flavour and tender- 
 ness depends upon their rapidity of growth, 
 which is chiefly accelerated by a constant 
 supply of moisture. The early and late 
 crops that have to withstand the attacks of 
 frost, &c, should be kept constantly covered 
 with dry straw or fern, to the depth of 
 about two inches, or with matting, sup- 
 ported by short sticks, until the plants 
 make their appearance, when the covering 
 must be removed every mild day, but re- 
 newed towards evening, and constantly 
 during frosty or tempestuous weather. 
 Some gardeners sow lettuces, but more 
 commonly spinach, with this crop. Others 
 do the same with carrots among the early 
 sown ones ; so that if the radishes are killed 
 by the frost, which sometimes occurs, the 
 carrots supply their place ; or even if both 
 survive, the former being drawn young, 
 and the carrot seed not vegetating for 
 three weeks or more after that of the ra- 
 dishes, there is room sufficient for them 
 both to succeed. The practice of mixing 
 crops is rather to be avoided than com- 
 monly followed. 
 
 The time of drawing radishes is by no 
 means indifferent. They eat in the greatest 
 perfection if pulled in the morning before 
 the sun has attained any power, and laid in 
 <i cool damp place until wanted. The bed 
 should have a plenteous watering the morn- 
 ing before that on which they are taken, 
 but none afterwards until subsequent to 
 1018 
 
 the drawing. In November, those wanted 
 for winter must be taken up during dry 
 weather, and preserved in sand. 
 
 To draw small salads when the se- 
 minal leaves are pertaining, sowings must^ 
 be made once a week. The management 
 is precisely that required for rape, mus- 
 tard, &c. For the production of seed, in 
 April, or early May, some of the most per- 
 fect plants of a main crop, when in full 
 vigour, must be taken up with as little in- 
 jury as possible to the roots and leaves, 
 and planted in rows three feet asunder each 
 way, being inserted by the dibble com- 
 pletely down to the leaves. Water must 
 be applied as well until they have taken 
 root, as occasionally throughout their 
 growth, especially when in flower. If prac- 
 ticable, it is best to leave some plants where 
 raised. To obtain seeds of the black Spa- 
 nish, some seeds must be sown in March, 
 or some of the winter standing crop left or 
 transplanted during that month. The flowers 
 open from June until August, and their 
 pods are of a size fit for pickling, as they 
 must be gathered whilst young and tender, 
 during that last month, or July. For seed, 
 they must be cut as soon as they become of 
 a brown hue ; and, being well dried, other- 
 wise it will thresh with difficulty, it may be 
 stored. Two varieties must never be raised 
 near each other, and seed of the previous 
 year's raising should always be employed. 
 The seeds of the different varieties are 
 easily distinguished by an experienced 
 seedsman. Those of the long white radish 
 are small, flat, and pale ; of the scarlet and 
 purple, fusiform-rooted, large, and of the 
 first Very light coloured, compared with 
 those of the latter; of the white turnip, 
 small, round, and brown ; scarlet turnip, 
 rather larger, and somewhat darker ; purple 
 turnip, larger, and brown, being similar to 
 the long-rooted purple, except in size. 
 
 Forcing. — A moderate hot-bed is re- 
 quired for this crop, of a length according 
 with that of the frame to be employed ; the 
 mould, about eight inches deep, on the sur- 
 face of which the seed is to be sown as soon 
 as the violent heat is abated, and an ad- 
 ditional half inch of mould sifted over it. 
 The seedlings are in general up in less than 
 a week, and in six they will be ready to 
 draw. Throughout their growth air must 
 be admitted as freely as is allowable. The 
 glasses, however, must be closed on the 
 approach of evening, and mats or other 
 covering put on in proportion to the se- 
 verity of the season. When the mould ap- 
 pears at all dry, a light watering must be 
 given during noon. The plants must not 
 stand nearer than two inches to each other. 
 The temperature required is from 50° to 
 
RAFT. 
 
 RAGWORT. 
 
 70° ; and it must be kept to this heat by 
 moderate coatings as required. 
 
 If there is a deficiency of frames, hoops 
 and mats may be employed, a frame of 
 .boards being formed round the bed, light 
 and air being admitted as freely and as 
 often as possible. If seed is sown within a 
 frame without any bottom heat, the plants 
 will be two or three weeks forwarder than 
 if sown in the open ground. (G. W. John- 
 sons Kitch. Gard.; Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 
 vol. iii. pp. 436—446. ; vol. iv. p. 10. ; But- 
 ter's Gard. Univ. Guide, p. 30.) 
 
 RADISH, THE HORSE. See Horse- 
 radish. 
 
 RADISH, THE GREAT WATER. 
 See Cress. 
 
 RAFT. A quantity of light timber, 
 bound together so as to be floated down 
 rivers or other waters. This means of con- 
 veying timber to navigable situations may 
 be advantageously practised in many places. 
 
 RAG. A torn piece of cloth of any sort : 
 when of the woollen kind, they are used as 
 manure. Woollen rags are almost entirely 
 composed of animal matter : they are found 
 to contain a very large proportion of albu- 
 men, (a substance similar in appearance to 
 boiled white of egg,) minute portions of 
 lime and silica, and traces of various salts. 
 They form, therefore, an excellent manure, 
 by slowly decomposing in the soil ; and are 
 found to remain dissolving in it, and form- 
 ing soluble and elastic matters for the ser- 
 vice of plants, when applied at the rate 
 of 1200 weight per acre, for periods vary- 
 ing from two years on the heavy clays, 
 such as those of the hop-grounds of the 
 Weald of Kent, to three or four on the light 
 chalky soils of the valley of the Kennet, 
 in Berkshire. The lightness of carriage, 
 and its readiness, as well as cleanliness of 
 application, render it peculiarly eligible as 
 a fertiliser ; it keeps, too, for any length of 
 time, until the farmer is ready to apply it 
 to his ground, and is much more slowly 
 decomposed and consumed than either 
 blubber, rape-cake, train-oil, or bone dust. 
 
 The consumption of these rags by the 
 Berkshire and Oxfordshire farmers, and 
 especially in Kent for the hop grounds, is 
 very considerable. I am informed by an 
 extensive dealer in these rags, that at least 
 20,000 tons are annually consumed by the 
 farmers of the south of England. My in- 
 formant himself has a sale of more than 
 500 tons per annum, which he delivers free 
 on board a vessel, at any of the London 
 wharves, for five guineas per ton. The cus- 
 tom of the farmer is, to cut the woollen 
 rags by means of a chopper and block into 
 shreds about the size of a crown piece, and 
 then spread them on their fields by hand, 
 1019 
 
 out of a common seed basket, as evenly as 
 they can ; they find that this manure is ad- 
 mirably adapted for hops, wheat, turnips, 
 &c, and that the beneficial effect is as 
 great the second year as the first. It ap- 
 pears that one farmer in Kent, Mr. Ellis, 
 of Barming, purchases annually four or 
 five hundred tons of these rags, almost ex- 
 clusively for his hop grounds. The farmers 
 of Kent think the application of the rags 
 " warms'" the ground, as they slowly putrefy 
 in the soil; they certainly afford nourish- 
 ment to the crop, for wool is composed al- 
 most entirely of a peculiar animal substance, 
 with a slight portion of phosphate of lime, 
 or earthy matter of bones. 
 
 RAGGED ROBIN. See Lychnis. 
 
 RAGWORT. (Senecio.) A portion of 
 the species of this extensive genus has al- 
 ready been noticed under the head Ground- 
 sel ; but there are four or five species of 
 ragwort, properly so called. The four first 
 belong to that section of the genus which 
 have flowers with spreading rays and pin- 
 natifid leaves ; the others to that with un- 
 divided leaves and radiant flowers. 
 
 1. Inelegant ragwort. (S. squalidus.) This 
 is an annual species, which flowers from 
 June to October. The root is fibrous, stem 
 erect, branched, leafy, smooth or a little 
 hairy, twelve or eighteen inches high. The 
 leaves are smooth, bright green, either ses- 
 sile or somewhat clasping, pinnatifid, sharply 
 toothed, with distant and somewhat linear 
 segments. Flowers loosely corymbose, ter- 
 minal, erect, with awl- shaped bractes on the 
 partial stalks. Florets all of a bright golden 
 yellow, spreading, elliptical, entire. The 
 seeds somewhat silky, with roughish down. 
 The scent of the herb is like tansy or mug- 
 wort. 
 
 2. Hoary ragwort. (S. tenuifolius.) This 
 is a perennial species, growing in woods, 
 hedges, and by road sides, in the chalky or 
 gravelly counties, flowering in July and Au- 
 gust. The root is somewhat creeping, with 
 long stout fibres. Stem erect, straight, un- 
 branched, usually two or three feet high, 
 leafy, furrowed, covered slightly with loose 
 cottony down ; corymbose at the top, with 
 several bright yellow flowers or bractiated 
 stalks. The florets of the radius linear- 
 oblong, three dentate, revolute in fading. 
 Leaves numerous, alternate, deeply pinna- 
 tifid, with the segments somewhat revolute, 
 dark-green, and nearly smooth above, downy 
 or cottony, often snow-white beneath, seeds 
 hairy, down rough. 
 
 3. Common ragwort. (S. Jacobin.) This 
 species is found almost every where. It is 
 a perennial, flowering in July and August. 
 The root is rather fleshy. The herbage for 
 the most part quite smooth, of a deep shin- 
 
RAGWORT. 
 
 RAIN. 
 
 ing green, sustaining uninjured the greatest 
 drought and most scorching heat, at least 
 of our temperate climate. Stems upright, 
 corymbose, striated. Leaves alternate, 
 doubly pinnatifid, with wedge-shaped, 
 spreading, denticulate segments. Flowers 
 in corymbose panicles, on cottony pedicles, 
 numerous, bright-yellow. The flowers face 
 the sun. Thin hairy florets, spreading, 
 oblong, and toothed. Seeds clothed with 
 silky hairs, down rough. It is fetid when 
 bruised, and generally remains untouched 
 by cattle whilst any thing else is to be 
 had, though often devoured entirely by 
 the black and yellow ringed caterpillars of 
 Phalcena Jacobcea. It has been recom- 
 mended as an application for cancers, by 
 the name of swine's cresses, which it bears 
 in Yorkshire. It passes under a variety of 
 names in different localities, being known as 
 rag-weed, stagger-wort, St. James's wort, 
 seggrum, Scotch canker-weed, stinking el- 
 shinder, &c. Its virtues in cancer may be 
 justly questioned. 
 
 4. Marsh ragwort. (S. aquaticus.) This 
 is a common perennial species, in marshes 
 and about watery places, near rivers and 
 brooks. The herbage is of a lighter green 
 than the preceding, and the leaves are ly- 
 rate, serrated ; the lowermost obovate and 
 undivided. The flowers are also few and 
 larger, though of the same golden hue as 
 the last, with more elliptical radiant florets. 
 The seeds of the ray are not silky. 
 
 5. Great fen ragwort, or bird's tongue. 
 (S. paludosus.) This is a very rare species, 
 found occasionally about the ditches and 
 fens of any part of England. It is a pe- 
 rennial, and flowers in June and July. The 
 root is creeping and fibrous. The stems 
 are perfectly straight, hollow, from three to 
 six feet or more in height, loosely clothed 
 with deciduous cottony down. The leaves 
 are lanceolate, tapering, sharply serrated, 
 smooth above, somewhat cottony beneath ; 
 the lower ones are dilated, clasped, and 
 equally serrated at the base ; the upper con- 
 tracted and entire. Flowers corymbose, 
 not very numerous, but large and conspi- 
 cuous, bright-yellow, with many oblong- 
 toothed spreading rays. Bractes awl-shaped, 
 scattered. Down roughish. 
 
 6. Broad-leaved ragwort. (S. sarace- 
 nicus.) This is also rare, though met with 
 sometimes in moist meadows and pastures, 
 or watery lanes. It is a perennial, flower- 
 ing in July and August. The root is creep- 
 ing. The stems are erect, solid, from three 
 to live feet high, full of pith, smooth, co- 
 rymbose, and many-flowered at the summit. 
 Tin- Leaves are scattered, sessile, broadly 
 lanceolate, acute, serrated, bright green, 
 shining, smooth, moderately downy, in other 
 
 1020 
 
 respects like the last. The flowers are bright 
 yellow, on angular downy pedicles; seeds 
 smooth, silky, short, obovate, angular; down, 
 copious, roughish. The herb is astringent 
 and acrid. How far it might serve the Sa- 
 racens as a vulnerary we know not, but it 
 is not regarded as an article of the Materia 
 Medica. (Paxton's Bot. Diet; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 431. ; HoldicKs Weeds, 
 p. 64.) 
 
 RAIL. (Rallus, Linn.) There are two 
 species of this bird, which are common to 
 these islands ; namely, the land-rail and the 
 water-rail. The land-rail or corn-crake 
 (R. Crex) is a bird of passage, which ar- 
 rives here in the spring, about the same 
 time as the quail, and migrates to warmer 
 countries towards the end of autumn. 
 These birds are uniformly found among corn, 
 grasses, broom or furze, where they deposit 
 from twelve to twenty eggs of a dull white. 
 Bewick describes the land-rail as rather 
 more than nine inches long. All the feathers 
 of the upper parts of the plumage are dark 
 brown, edged with pale rust, fore-part of 
 the neck and breast pale ash, belly yellow- 
 ish white, legs pale flesh red. 
 
 The water-rail (R. aquaticus), is a constant 
 resident with us, and frequents the sides of 
 brooks, and damp watery places. Its nest 
 is formed like the nest of the grebes, of a 
 prodigious quantity of flags or other water 
 plants, but is generally fastened to the reeds 
 or flags in order to prevent its being carried 
 away by the current. The eggs are five or 
 six in number, of a dirty white ; the shape 
 oblong, and less than those of a pigeon. 
 They are frequently destroyed by the water 
 rat, and in large rivers the birds themselves 
 are occasionally devoured by pike and trout, 
 while they are diving in pursuit of small 
 fish. The whole length of the bird, includ- 
 ing its long bill, is about twelve inches. 
 The body is beautifully variegated. The 
 feet are not webbed ; but these birds swim 
 very fast. (Blaine's Rur. Sports ; Omithol. 
 Diet) 
 
 RAILING. A sort of barrier or fence 
 constructed with posts and rails. It is often 
 made use of in protecting young hedge 
 fences, from the cropping of cattle or other 
 animals. See Fence. 
 
 RAIN. (Ger. regen). In meteorology, 
 water falling from the clouds. The theory 
 of rain is not yet very satisfactorily ex- 
 plained. Dr. James Hutton, (Philos. Trans. 
 ofEdin., 1787,) and Sir J. Leslie (Encyc. 
 Brit. Art. " Meteorology,") have given per- 
 haps the most ingenious explanation. It is 
 the opinion of these, and of Mr. Howard and 
 some , other late writers on meteorology, 
 that the immediate cause of rain is to be 
 ascribed, in many instances at least, to the 
 
RAIN. 
 
 electric action of the clouds on each other. 
 They suppose the hygrometric moisture in 
 the air to be kept suspended by the mutual 
 repulsions of the electric atmospheres of the 
 particles, and that when the electricity is 
 from any cause withdrawn, the suspending 
 power is likewise removed, and the particles 
 coalesce and fall in consequence of their 
 gravity. That rain is connected in some 
 way or other with the electric state of the 
 atmosphere, is a position which may be 
 readily conceded ; but as the disturbance of 
 the electrive equilibrium remains to be ac- 
 counted for, this theory, as it at present 
 stands, brings us no nearer to definite ideas. 
 
 Leaving, however, the theoretical and 
 disputed part of the subject, I propose in 
 this article merely to make a few leading 
 remarks connected with the subject, to give 
 summaries from the registers of several 
 years of the average annual and monthly 
 falls of rain in different places, and to de- 
 duce therefrom a few practical and useful 
 hints and rules. 
 
 As the effects of rain are very consider- 
 able on vegetation, it will be highly useful 
 to ascertain the quantity or depth of rain that 
 falls annually in various districts, and the dif- 
 ference in the effects which are produced by 
 it, more especially for the formation of re- 
 servoirs for agricultural purposes. To use 
 the words of Mr. G. Tatem : — Although 
 " fully aware, that little reliance can be 
 placed upon any theory founded on data so 
 uncertain as the quantities of rain that fall 
 in different years, I am convinced that 
 something might be done towards establish- 
 ing rules for the guidance of agriculturists 
 and botanists, if observations were made at 
 the same place for a series of years, and the 
 results recorded." The average quantity 
 of rain which falls in a year at any given 
 place, materially affects the productiveness of 
 the soil, and is necessarily influenced equally 
 with the climate by a variety of general 
 circumstances and local causes ; such as la- 
 titude, proximity to the sea, elevation of the 
 region, configuration of the country, and of 
 the mountain ranges, exposure to the pre- 
 vailing winds, &c. 
 
 Near the foot of high hills a greater quan- 
 tity commonly falls than over a level coun- 
 try ; the currents of the atmosphere in their 
 course meeting with a hill, are so charged, 
 that a deposition in showers very frequently 
 follows. The quantity that falls, and the 
 manner in which it falls, are the circum- 
 stances to be attended to. A great number 
 of rainy days are more injurious to the soil, 
 even where the quantity is not great, than 
 heavy falls at distant intervals of time ; the 
 
 ground, in the first case, being constantly 
 over saturated, its fertility is much lessened ; 
 in the other, the superfluous moisture being 
 soon drained off, only the portion necessary 
 for the nourishment of plants is left, which 
 is gradually given out in dry weather, dur- 
 ing which the ground for a time is in its 
 most productive state. 
 
 In general, more rain falls in the north of 
 England than in the south. The east and 
 south eastern counties have usually the 
 driest seasons and years. The fall of rain 
 is various, however, at any period of the 
 year, as may be seen from the annexed 
 tables. The mean quantity falling annually 
 in England is reckoned to be 32 inches, or, 
 according to Dalton, 31*3; but this is un- 
 equally distributed. 
 
 The annual amount in Westmoreland and 
 Lancashire, according to Mr. Whistlecraft, 
 usually ranges from above forty to nearly 
 seventy inches, while that noted by the gauge 
 in Essex and Suffolk, is as low as from four- 
 teen to thirty-two inches ; seldom however 
 does it exceed twenty-five inches. It may 
 indeed be fairly inferred, that these two parts 
 of England produce our extremes. The for- 
 mer being situated bordering on the western 
 ocean, where the waves of the vast Atlantic 
 cause, by the gales from American shores, 
 many clouds and frequent precipitation on 
 the west and north-west coasts of our island, 
 and the hilly nature of those districts also 
 serve to aid and induce precipitation. On 
 the contrary, the eastern counties are much 
 elevated in a great part of their surface, 
 and here the western breezes and vapours 
 become more spent in the extremity of their 
 passage. The continent of Russia too is 
 here a great evaporating cause ; at least the 
 winds in passing from thence acquire that 
 remarkable dryness which distinguishes them 
 from other currents. (Climate of England, 
 p. 2.) 
 
 Mr. Howard gives the annual average at 
 London equal to 24*9 inches; Professor 
 Phillips at York, 25-7; and Mr.Adie at 
 Edinburgh, 25 inches. 
 
 At Keswick, in Cumberland, the depth 
 on an average of seven years was found to 
 be 67 inches; at Baverstock, near Salis- 
 bury, during the same period, 32f inches ; 
 and at Plymouth, in Devonshire, 45 inches. 
 In the western parts of Scotland the depth 
 is from 30 to 35 inches, which is from 6 to 
 10 inches more than that on the east coast. 
 
 The mean monthly and annual quantities 
 of rain at various places, deduced from the 
 average, for many years, by Dalton, is given 
 in the following table : — 
 
 1021 
 
RAIN. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Manches- 
 ter, 33 
 j ears. 
 
 Liverpool, 
 18 years. 
 
 Chats- 
 worth, 
 16 years. 
 
 Lancaster, 
 20 years. 
 
 Kendal, 
 25 years. 
 
 Dumfries, 
 16 years. 
 
 Glasgow, 
 17 years. 
 
 London, 
 40 years. 
 
 ^ Paris, 
 
 Viviers, 
 years. 
 
 General 
 Average. 
 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Inbhes. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 French in. 
 
 French in. 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 2" C 3l6 
 
 2 n - C 177 
 
 2*196 
 
 3*461 
 
 5-299 
 
 3*095 
 
 1*595 
 
 1*464 
 
 1*228 
 
 2*477 
 
 2*530 
 
 Feb. 
 
 2-568 
 
 1-847 
 
 1*652 
 
 2*995 
 
 5-126 
 
 2*837 
 
 1*741 
 
 1*250 
 
 1*232 
 
 1*700 
 
 2*295 
 
 March 
 
 2-098 
 
 1-523 
 
 1*322 
 
 1*753 
 
 3-151 
 
 2*164 
 
 1*184 
 
 1*172 
 
 1*190 
 
 1*927 
 
 1*748 
 
 April 
 
 2-010 
 
 2.104 
 
 2*078 
 
 2*180 
 
 2-986 
 
 2*017 
 
 0*979 
 
 1*279 
 
 1*185 
 
 2*686 
 
 1*950 
 
 May 
 
 2-895 
 
 2-573 
 
 2*118 
 
 2*460 
 
 3-480 
 
 2*568 
 
 1*641 
 
 1*636 
 
 1*767 
 
 2*931 
 
 2*407 
 
 June 
 
 2-502 
 
 2-816 
 
 2*286 
 
 2512 
 
 2*722 
 
 2*974 
 
 1*343 
 
 1*738 
 
 1*697 
 
 2*562 
 
 2*315 
 
 July 
 
 3-697 
 
 3-663 
 
 3*006 
 
 4*140 
 
 4*959 
 
 3*256 
 
 2*303 
 
 2*448 
 
 1*800 
 
 1*882 
 
 3*115 
 
 August 
 
 3*665 
 
 3 "31 1 
 
 2*435 
 
 4*581 
 
 5*089 
 
 3*199 
 
 2*746 
 
 1*807 
 
 1*900 
 
 2*347 
 
 3*103 
 
 Sept. 
 
 3-281 
 
 3-654 
 
 2*289 
 
 3*751 
 
 4*874 
 
 4*350 
 
 1*617 
 
 1*842 
 
 1*550 
 
 4*140 
 
 3*135 
 
 October 
 
 3-922 
 
 3*724 
 
 3*079 
 
 4-151 
 
 5*439 
 
 4*143 
 
 2*297 
 
 2*092 
 
 1*780 
 
 4-741 
 
 3*537 
 
 Nov. . 
 
 3-360 
 
 3*441 
 
 2*634 
 
 3-755 
 
 4*785 
 
 3*174 
 
 1*904 
 
 2*222 
 
 1*720 
 
 4-187 
 
 3*120 
 
 Dec. fl 
 
 3832 
 
 3*288 
 
 2*569 
 
 3-955 
 
 6*084 
 
 3*142 
 
 1*981 
 
 1*736 
 
 1*600 
 
 2*397 
 
 3*058 
 
 Annual 
 
 36-140 
 
 34*121 
 
 27*664 
 
 39-714 
 
 53*944 36*919 
 
 21*331 
 
 20*686 
 
 18*649 
 
 33*977 
 
 
 Upon taking the average of the twelve 
 months, it appears that the depth of rain 
 for the whole year 1840, was at Aberdeen 
 24*627 inches; Empingham, 18*58; Epping, 
 20*767 ; Falmouth, 31*51 1 ; Gosport, 25*525 ; 
 Greenwich, 18*24 ; and at the city of York, 
 24*72 inches, making the mean annual fall 
 23*424 inches, or 9*813 hhds., which in 
 weight is nearly 2*363 tons. 
 
 The average depth at Paris, according to 
 M. Arago, is 19*1 inches (Journ. de Phy- 
 sique, 1816); Berlin, 20*9; Brussels, 19; 
 Florence, 41*3 ; Lyons, 39*5 ; Maestricht, 
 36*1; Marseilles, 18*4; Padua, 36*6; St. 
 Petersburg, 18*2; Rome, 31*2; Rotterdam, 
 22*4 ; Stockholm, 18*7 ; Vienna, 17. 
 
 The greatest depth of rain which has 
 been registered at any place in a year, is at 
 Maranham, lat. 2£° S., and which is stated 
 by Humboldt to be 277 English inches. 
 But this is greatly above the average, and, 
 indeed, more than double the annual quan- 
 tity which has been observed at any other 
 locality. At St. Domingo, the annual fall 
 is estimated at 120 inches; at Cayenne, 116 
 inches ; at the Havannah, 91 ; at Calcutta, 
 from 76 to 118; at Bombay, from 83 to 96 ; 
 the island of Martinique, 87 inches ; and at 
 Sierra Leone, 86. Of European countries, 
 Portugal appears to be the most humid, 123 
 inches having been observed at Coimbra in 
 a year. 
 
 Although winter usually produces more 
 rainy days than summer, the quantity of 
 rain which falls is greater in the latter 
 season. Dr. Dalton has ascertained that 
 the first six months of the year may be re- 
 garded as dry, and the last six as wet 
 months. Another ingenious author has in- 
 ferred, from long observation, that in spring 
 it rains oftener in the evening than in the 
 morning, but that towards the end of sum- 
 mer, oftener in the morning than in the 
 evening. At St. Petersburgh, rain and 
 snow fall on an average 84 days of the 
 1022 
 
 winter, and the quantity amounts to about 
 five inches ; on the contrary, the summer 
 produces 11 inches in the same number 
 of days. In Canada, the average fall of rain 
 usually is about three feet, which furnishes 
 about twenty gallons of water for each 
 square foot of surface during the year. 
 
 The following table is the result of eight 
 years' observations, from 1833 to 1840, at 
 Cobham, Surrey. 
 
 Months. 
 
 Greatest 
 Quantity. 
 
 Least 
 Quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Mean 
 Quan- 
 tity. 
 
 Greatest 
 No. of 
 Days. 
 
 Least 
 No. of 
 Days. 
 
 Mean 
 No. of 
 Days. 
 
 January 
 
 4-08 
 
 0-26 
 
 1-747 
 
 26 
 
 9 
 
 16 0 
 
 February 
 
 4-09 
 
 0-37 
 
 2 071 
 
 23 
 
 10 
 
 167 
 
 March 
 
 3-58 
 
 0-32 
 
 1-417 
 
 23 
 
 8 
 
 153 
 
 April 
 
 310 
 
 0-21 
 
 1-231 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 12-8 
 
 May 
 
 231 
 
 0-60 
 
 1-196 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 11-8 
 
 June 
 
 2-65 
 
 0-93 
 
 1-918 
 
 22 
 
 11 
 
 14-5 
 
 July 
 
 5-47 
 
 0-30 
 
 2-212 
 
 20 
 
 6 
 
 133 
 
 August 
 
 3-50 
 
 0-83 
 
 1-800 
 
 15 
 
 3 
 
 10-8 
 
 Sept. 
 
 5-74 
 
 0-98 
 
 2-911 
 
 25 
 
 12 
 
 17-0 
 
 October 
 
 4*77 
 
 0-24 
 
 2-242 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 146 
 
 Nov. 
 
 3-94 
 
 0-60 
 
 2-778 
 
 23 
 
 11 
 
 17-2 
 
 Dec. 
 
 3*53 
 
 0-28 
 
 1-643 
 
 25 
 
 7 
 
 15 3 
 
 The rain was measured by Howard's 
 rain-guage, which is placed near the post 
 on which the thermometer hangs, about six 
 inches from the ground. 
 
 The following is the average monthly fall, 
 &c, for a series of years, in what may almost 
 be considered extreme dry and wet quarters 
 of England. 
 
 1824 to 1830. Epping, Essex, lat. 51° 41' 42" 
 N., long. 25° E. 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Greatest 
 
 Year 
 
 Least 
 
 Year 
 
 Months. 
 
 Quantity 
 
 Quantity 
 
 in which 
 
 Quantity 
 
 in which 
 
 
 of K.i in. 
 
 of Rain. 
 
 it fell. 
 
 of Rain. 
 
 it fell. 
 
 January 
 
 1-38 
 
 3-72 
 
 1828 
 
 0-91 
 
 1824 
 
 February 
 
 1-47 
 
 2-46 
 
 1824 
 
 0-72 
 
 1827 
 
 March 
 
 1*51 
 
 2-84 
 
 1824 
 
 0-45 
 
 1329 
 
 April 
 
 2-29 
 
 4-86 
 
 1829 
 
 102 
 
 1827 
 
 May 
 
 233 
 
 3-77 
 
 1824 
 
 059 
 
 1829 
 
 June 
 
 241 
 
 576 
 
 1824 
 
 0-41 
 
 1826 
 
 July 
 
 2-53 
 
 5-57 
 
 1828 
 
 0008 
 
 1825 
 
 August 
 
 323 
 
 682 
 
 1829 
 
 1-63 
 
 1826 
 
 Sept. 
 
 366 
 
 4 22 
 
 1829 
 
 332 
 
 1828 
 
 October 
 
 230 
 
 3 71 
 
 1825 
 
 064 
 
 1830 
 
 Nov. 
 
 2-61 
 
 3-90 
 
 1824 
 
 1-22 
 
 1839 
 
 Dec. 
 
 2-41 
 
 3-47 
 
 1825 
 
 0*35 
 
 1829 
 
RAINBOW. 
 
 RAIN-GAUGE. 
 
 1819 to 1826. Carlisle, Cumberland, lat. 
 54° 50' 50" N., Ion. 2° 58" W. 
 
 Darwin, Swift, Foster, and other authors, 
 have detailed at considerable length, in 
 prose and verse, various signs of coming 
 rain ; but as our space is limited, we can- 
 not go fully into the subject here, and must 
 therefore be content to sum up with the 
 following remarks. 
 
 If frequent showers fall in the month of 
 September, it seldom rains in May ; and the 
 reverse. When the wind blows often from 
 the S. W., during either summer or autumn ; 
 when the air is unusually cold for those 
 seasons, both to our sensations and by the 
 thermometer, at the same time the mercury 
 being low in the barometer — under these 
 conditions a profuse fall of rain may be ex- 
 pected. If the mercury in the barometer 
 falls when the wind is full south, it scarcely 
 ever fails to be a sign of rain. {Brandes 
 Diet, of Science ; Howard's Climate ; Lou- 
 don's Encyc. of Gard. ; Quart. Journ. of 
 Meteor. Soc. ; Mag. of Nat. Hist. ; Treatise 
 on Rain, by P. L. Simmonds.) 
 
 RAINBOW. (Germ, regen-bogen.) The 
 brilliant coloured arch which makes its ap- 
 pearance when rain is falling, in the region 
 of the sky opposite to the sun, and the sun 
 is shining at the same time. This well- 
 known meteor presents, when perfect, the 
 appearance of two concentric arches ; the 
 inner being called the primary, is the most 
 vivid, and the outer the secondary rainbow, 
 in which the colours are fainter than in the 
 other. Each is formed of the colours of 
 the solar spectrum; but the colours are 
 arranged in the reversed order, the red 
 forming the exterior ring of the primary 
 bow, and again reversed in the secondary, 
 or exterior bow. From the conditions in- 
 variably accompanying its appearance, the 
 colours of the rainbow were known at an 
 early period to be produced by the sun's 
 rays passing through the drops of falling 
 rain ; but the phenomenon is a complicated 
 one, and was not fully and satisfactorily ex- 
 plained until Newton had discovered the 
 compound nature of solar light, and the 
 different refrangibility of the component 
 rays. It is on this account that the colours 
 1023 
 
 of the outer arch are less brilliant than 
 those of the inner, because the rays falling 
 upon the drops of rain in that position are 
 more reflected. The rainbow is always of 
 the same apparent breadth, a circumstance 
 depending on the refrangibility of the red 
 and violet rays being always the same. 
 
 Rainbows are said to be signs that rain 
 will not long continue, a thing easily un- 
 derstood, because they can only be seen in 
 a passing shower. A rainbow is, for the 
 same reason, a sign sometimes of wet, be- 
 cause the first that is seen shows that 
 showers and showery weather are at hand. 
 There is a well-known proverb — 
 
 A rainbow in the morning 
 Is the shepherd's warning. 
 
 Double rainbows are very rainy signs ; but 
 after a rainy day it shows that set rain is 
 giving place to mere showers ; and then, 
 
 A rainbow at night, 
 
 Is the shepherd's delight. 
 
 A fastidious description of the peculiar 
 indications of the several colours of the 
 rainbow, according as each prevails, is given 
 by some authors, but without foundation. 
 (Brande's Diet, of Science ; Forsters Nat. 
 Phenom.) 
 
 RAIN-GAUGE. An instrument for 
 measuring or gauging the quantity of rain 
 which falls at a given place. It is also 
 known under the several names of om- 
 brometer, udometer, pluviameter, and hyte- 
 tometer. Its principles and construction 
 are of the simplest nature ; but it is made 
 in a variety of shapes. 
 
 A convenient form of the instrument is 
 represented in the annexed figure, where 
 the rain which enters the funnel g=S} 
 (a) is collected in a cylindrical ves- \-Z a 
 sel of copper (Z>), connected with H 
 which at the lower part is a glass U c 
 tube (c), with an attached scale. The =| 
 water stands at the same height in § ^ 
 the cylinder and glass tube, and ^-4Jk% 
 being visible in the latter, the 
 height is read immediately on the scale. 
 And the cylinder and tube being con- 
 structed so that the sum of the areas of 
 their sections is a given part, for instance, 
 a tenth, of the area of the funnel at its 
 orifice, each inch of water in the tube is 
 equivalent to the tenth of an inch of 
 water entering the mouth of the funnel. 
 A stop- cock (d) is added, by which the water 
 is drawn off from the cylinder after each 
 observation is made. 
 
 A curious circumstance attending the fall 
 of rain is, that the quantity collected in 
 rain-guages placed at the surface of the 
 ground is considerably greater than when 
 the instruments are placed at some eleva- 
 * 3 t 8 
 
 IVlonths. 
 
 A veraee 
 Quantity 
 of Rain. 
 
 Cireate>t 
 Quantity 
 of Rain. 
 
 Year 
 in which 
 it fell. 
 
 Least 
 Quantity 
 of Rain. 
 
 Year 
 
 
 January 
 
 215 
 
 362 
 
 1819 
 
 153 
 
 1822 
 
 February 
 
 1 90 
 
 301 
 
 1819 
 
 0-75 
 
 1821 
 
 March 
 
 2-50 
 
 401 
 
 1822 
 
 1-31 
 
 1825 
 
 April 
 
 1:89 
 
 274 
 
 1821 
 
 085 
 
 1824 
 
 May 
 
 2 - 41 
 
 461 
 
 1823 
 
 1*23 
 
 1824 
 
 June 
 
 206 
 
 3-64 
 
 1820 
 
 1-05 
 
 1822 
 
 July 
 
 295 
 
 533 
 
 1822 
 
 045 
 
 1825 
 
 August 
 
 3-65 
 
 503 
 
 1822 
 
 T06 
 
 1821 
 
 Sept. 
 
 305 
 
 3-85 
 
 1824 
 
 1-33 
 
 1822 
 
 Oct. 
 
 374 
 
 5-15 
 
 1819 
 
 2-45 
 
 1820 
 
 Nov. 
 
 375 
 
 5-53 
 
 1824 
 
 1-06 
 
 1820 
 
 Dec. 
 
 330 
 
 563 
 
 1824 
 
 2-31 
 
 1825 
 
RAIN-GAUGE. 
 
 RAKE. 
 
 tion above the surface. {Brandes Diet, 
 of Science.) 
 
 A rain-gauge on a new and greatly im- 
 proved construction was invented by Mr. 
 Samuel Crosley, engineer, London, in 1828, 
 and described in Gill's Tech. Bepos. vol. ii. 
 p. 17. Its superiority consists in its power of 
 self-registering the quantity of rain fallen. 
 It consists of a funnel («), of the usual form, 
 
 through which the rain passes to a vibrating 
 trough (Z>), when, after a sufficient quantity 
 has fallen into its higher side (c), it prepon- 
 derates, and discharges the rain, which 
 escapes by a tube (//), and, by its vibrating 
 action, moves a train of wheel-work and 
 indices, to record upon a dial-plate the 
 quantity of rain fallen. 
 
 Messrs. Tagliabue and Casella, of 23. Hat- 
 ton Garden, London, the oldest established 
 philosophical instrument makers in the 
 
 three kingdoms, have very recently brought 
 out a new and simple rain-gauge, which is 
 accompanied by a carefully drawn up table, 
 showing at a glance, from the quantity of 
 water received into the gauge, the amount 
 of rain which has fallen. 
 
 It is requisite to be particular in the 
 situation of the instrument. The gauge is 
 best placed about three or four feet from 
 the ground, unless it be one of Mr. Howard's 
 construction, and then we cannot deviate 
 from his plan with any propriety. But, in 
 all cases, an open space, free from trees, 
 shrubs or buildings, must be chosen. 
 
 RAKE. A tool of the toothed kind, of 
 various sizes and forms, made use of in gar- 
 dening, and for different agricultural pur- 
 poses. There are several others used for 
 field operations, some of which are worked 
 by horses. 
 
 The Drag-Rake, in its simplest form, is 
 merely a long cross-head, with a row of 
 teeth placed in it : in some these are straight ; 
 they are, however, generally bent, with their 
 points projecting forward. A very excel- 
 lent and light implement, having the teeth 
 of steel, and made with screws, so as. to 
 admit of their being easily replaced in case 
 of accident, is well known as Badgley's im- 
 proved drag rake. These rakes have, from 
 
 HAND DRAG-RAKE. 
 
 time to time, increased in length and weight, nageable by women or boys. Further ad- 
 till they became too large to be balanced dition having been made to them, they are 
 by the hand. Two small wooden wheels now sufficiently strong to be worked by a 
 were then added, which rendered them ma- horse. Used oh fallows when foul, to re- 
 
RAKE. 
 
 move the couch grass, they act as a harrow, 
 to get together the rubbish, or in harvest- 
 time they act as a rake to collect the loose 
 corn which may have escaped from the 
 scythe or sickle. In order to clear them 
 readily, there are different contrivances. 
 One of the most simple and efficient is ex- 
 hibited in the following sketch, where it will 
 be perceived that by lifting the handle the 
 teeth are brought between two iron bars, 
 which constitute part of the framing ; by 
 which means all the rubbish is stripped off 
 irom the teeth of the rake. 
 
 The following is a sketch of " Wedlake's 
 Horse Hay-Rake," the weight of the rake 
 is balanced upon the carriage by two heavy 
 balls projecting in front of it; so that a 
 slight lifting power applied to the handle 
 will raise it from the ground, and disen- 
 cumber it of the hay or stubble it may have 
 gathered. This rake obtained the com- 
 mendations of the Committee on Implements 
 at the meeting of the Royal English Agri- 
 cultural Society at. Cambridge. 
 
 WEDLAKE S HORSE HAY-HAKE. 
 
 The East-Lothian Stubble-rake, is a ma- 
 chine not so well known in this country as 
 its merits deserve. Its advantages over those 
 previously described are as follows : — It 
 has each tooth placed in a separate head, 
 which, working upon a centre like the 
 levers of a drill, adapt themselves to any 
 inequality in the ground. To the handles, 
 
 a bar the length of the harrow is firmly 
 fastened, and from this bar each lever is 
 suspended by a few links of chain. When 
 it is necessary to clear the rake, these 
 handles, on being elevated, lift all the 
 levers between a framing of light iron rods. 
 The following is a sketch of this imple- 
 ment. 
 
 EAST LOTHIAN STUBBLE-RAKE. 
 
 1025 3 u 
 
 * 
 
KAKE. 
 
 An ingenious practical farmer, John 
 Sayer, of Bodham, in Norfolk, made con- 
 siderable improvement upon this rake, by 
 altering the form of the teeth to avoid tear- 
 ing the land ; and in order to effect more 
 work without increasing the width of the 
 rake, the naves of his wheels were made to 
 project inwards, so that two additional 
 levers could be introduced working quite 
 close to the spokes. 
 
 But within the last few months a very 
 improved implement of this character has 
 been introduced and patented by J. C. 
 Grant, of Stamford, which obtained the 
 prize of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 of England, at its meeting at Liverpool. 
 Its advantages consist in the adaptation 
 of a compound lever, by which the whole 
 row of tines may be instantly raised, and 
 
 as quickly allowed to resume their po- 
 sition, while the form of the teeth being 
 such as to describe part of a circle, the 
 centre of which is the axis of the se- 
 parate levers to which they are attached, 
 each portion of the curve is successively 
 brought into a vertical position, thus ra- 
 pidly disengaging the teeth from the ma- 
 terial collected, so that, without stopping 
 the horse, the process of collecting is re- 
 sumed, leaving no interval beyond what 
 is requisite for the deposit of the hay, corn, 
 or stubble previously collected. 
 
 Several minor improvements are included 
 in the patent, but as these mainly refer to 
 modes of construction, it will not be ne- 
 cessary here to particularise them. 
 
 The following sketch will convey the ge- 
 neral character of the improved implement. 
 
 grant's horse-rake. 
 
 American Hay -rake. — This rake is drawn 
 by one horse ; and it can be made to go 
 either along or across the ridges, as may be 
 required. It can carry between ten and 
 twelve stones of hay ; and when that quan- 
 
 tity is upon it, the hay can be deposited, 
 by a simple revolution of the instrument, 
 afterwards to be described, in rows, or at 
 any particular place required, without stop- 
 ping the horse. 
 
 AMERICAN HAY-RAKE. 
 
 The head A B is 9 feet 8 inches in length, 
 and 4 inches square, into which are in- 
 serted 1 8 teeth, a, b. Each tooth is 3 feet 
 LI inches in length from a to Z>, that is, 1 
 foot 9£ inches on each side, and 4 inches 
 for the breadth of the head AB, through 
 which they puss; these teeth are 1 T 5 , T inch 
 broad, by 1JU inch thick or deep. About 
 1026 
 
 5 inches next the point a they are tapered 
 on the under side, and the same length at 
 the point b on the upper side, to prevent in 
 some measure the teeth from having too 
 great a tendency to go into the ground. 
 
 The frame to which the draught is at- 
 tached, consists of the circular beams C 
 and D, with the connecting stretcher E. 
 
RAKE. 
 
 At C and D are straps to which the horse is 
 attached by traces or ropes, in a similar 
 way to that in which it is attached to the 
 plough, but without swingletrees. The 
 stretcher E, which attaches the beams C and 
 D, is 5 feet 4£ inches in length, measured 
 over the beams. 
 
 The part by which the instrument is 
 guided, consists of the handles F and G. 
 These handles are circled and strapped for 
 the journal of the head, in the same manner 
 as the beams C and D. A little from the end 
 of the handles at F and G, is a round con- 
 necting stretcher ; and at c?, 2 feet from the 
 centre of the head, is another round stretcher. 
 From this latter stretcher is appended the 
 frame e, forming a parallel motion. The 
 two standards of this frame are each 12£ 
 inches long, or, from the outside of its head 
 at e to the centre of the stretcher, 10 in- 
 ches. There is a connecting rod c, 3 feet 
 8 inches long from centre to centre, which 
 is circled and strapped round journals at 
 E and e. The round stretcher at d is con- 
 tinued on the outside of F and G, so as to 
 accept of a rod or catch on the outside of 
 these handles, as seen at rf, 2 feet 10 inches 
 long, or 2 feet 2£ inches to the centre of 
 the connecting stretcher at d ; and upon the 
 head A B the other end of each of these 
 two rods or catches rests upon a kneed 
 strap, a similar strap being also on the re- 
 verse side of the head. 
 
 Now, when the frame C D E, to which 
 the draught is attached, is in its proper po- 
 
 sition, by depressing the handles F G, the 
 parallel motion at e will be pressed against 
 the hind teeth, and thus the fore ones can 
 be raised up, in order to surmount any in- 
 equality of ground. And when it is wanted 
 to depress the fore teeth, the handles F G 
 are to be raised, by which the rod or catch 
 at d and its opposite side act upon the 
 kneed straps on the head. When the rake 
 has collected as much hay or corn as it can 
 conveniently carry, it is emptied in the 
 following manner. By raising the handles 
 F G to a certain extent, the fore teeth are 
 depressed in the manner above described, 
 and (the point E remaining the same) the 
 rod c pushes the under side of the parallel 
 motion without the hind teeth. In this 
 manner, as the beams and handles are all 
 placed between the teeth, so as not to come 
 in any way in contact with them, the fore 
 teeth take the ground, and cause the whole 
 teeth with the head to revolve, and deposit 
 the hay or corn which the instrument was 
 carrying at the time. By this revolution 
 of the teeth and head, the instrument will 
 again be in its proper position for working, 
 all the difference being merely that the 
 under side of the head will now have ex- 
 changed places with the upper side, and 
 the fore teeth will now have exchanged 
 places with the hind teeth. (Trans. High. 
 Soc. vol. iii. p. 40.) 
 
 We have now only to notice the hay- 
 making machine invented by Robert Salmon, 
 of Woburn, and patented in 1816. This, 
 
RAM. 
 
 RANUNCULUS. 
 
 as will be seen by the figure, is a series of 
 rakes revolving upon two skeleton frames, 
 to which motion is communicated by cog- 
 wheels attached to the naves of the wheels 
 in which it travels. It has undergone 
 considerable improvement by R. Wedlake, 
 an ingenious manufacturer residing at Horn- 
 church, from one of whose implements this 
 illustration has been taken. These im- 
 provements consist in forming the cylinder 
 in two parts, each of which has motion in- 
 dependent of the other, and in placing the 
 tines or rake teeth upon a bar, which, being 
 supported by a spring, will yield to any 
 obstruction caused by sudden unevenness 
 of the surface of the ground, and return 
 again to its original position. Its object is to 
 spread the hay, and by thoroughly separa- 
 ting its parts, continually to expose them to 
 the sun and wind, which it so thoroughly 
 effects, as to render the hay fit to cart much 
 earlier than by the common process of 
 shaking it by the hand. To the practical 
 agriculturist, it will not be necessary to re- 
 mark on the advantages accruing from the 
 ability to hasten, if only by a few hours, the 
 process of hay-making ; but it will be valu- 
 able to know, that the universal testimony 
 of all with whom we have conversed is, that 
 this implement is a time-saving machine, 
 and therefore one of the greatest value. 
 
 RAM. A male entire sheep. See Sheep. 
 
 RAMPION. (Phyteuma.) This is a 
 genus of handsome herbaceous plants, well 
 adapted for rock-work, or growing in small 
 pots ; they will flourish in any common 
 soil, and increase readily by divisions or 
 seeds. P. spicatum is occasionally eaten as 
 an article of food. The only indigenous 
 species is the round-headed rampion (P. 
 orbicular e), which, although rare, is met 
 with sometimes on pastures, and by road 
 sides on a chalky soil. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in August. The root is long 
 and woody, divided at the crown. Herb 
 milky, not acrid. Stem solitary, simple, 
 smooth, leafy, angular, a foot or more in 
 height. Leaves smooth, with a mid-rib 
 and many reticulated veins, crenate, radical 
 ones heart-shaped, or elliptic-lanceolate. 
 Flowers of an intensely brilliant deep blue, 
 numerous, inodorous, sessile, forming a 
 round head with several ovate-lanceolate, 
 leafy bractes. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 295.) 
 
 RAMPIONS, or RAMPION BELL- 
 FLOWER. {Campanula rapunculus.) The 
 esculent roots of this vegetable are far more 
 <lcl 1 c;it(; than turnips or radishes; the seeds 
 are ophthalmic. For garden cultivation, 
 (lie soil ought to be moderately moist, but 
 i' n. ust not be too tenacious. A shady 
 border of rich and moderately still' earth is I 
 1028 I 
 
 considered to be most favourable ; the mould 
 being made as fine as possible. {Trans. 
 Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. p. 20.) If it is 
 cloddy, or subject to bind and crack in hot 
 weather, the plants will refuse to thrive. 
 
 It is propagated by seed, which may be 
 sown during March, April, and May ; the 
 plants from sowings in the two first months 
 soon, however, run up to seed. The inser- 
 tions may be performed either in drills 3'X 
 inches apart, or broadcast ; in either mode 
 the seed to be buried half an inch deep, 
 effecting it in the latter by sifting mould 
 over it ; for, if the seed is raked in, from 
 its minuteness, it is apt to be buried too 
 deep. The plants are to remain where 
 sown ; though in case of any deficiency, 
 those which are taken away in thinning the 
 crops may be transplanted successfully. 
 The best time for performing the removal 
 is of an evening. They are fit for thinning 
 when about two inches in height; they 
 must be set at a distance of six inches apart, 
 being hoed at the time, and the same opera- 
 tion repeated two or three times, which, if 
 performed in dry weather, will keep them 
 free from weeds until used. 
 
 The plants of the sowings during the two 
 first mentioned months will be fit for use 
 at the close of August, or early in Sep- 
 tember, and continue throughout the au- 
 tumn. Those of the last one will continue 
 good throughout the winter, and until the 
 following April. The soil, throughout their 
 growth, must be kept moist, effecting it in 
 dry weather by giving frequent but mo- 
 derate waterings through the fine rose of a 
 watering-pot. 
 
 The root, for which it is cultivated, either 
 to be sliced, together with its leaves, in 
 salads, or eaten as the radish, as well as to 
 be boiled like asparagus, is most palatable 
 when drawn young, and eaten fresh from 
 the ground. 
 
 For the production of seed, a few of the 
 winter standing plants are left unmoved. 
 These shoot up in the spring, flowering in 
 July and August, and ripening abundance 
 of seed in early autumn. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Kitch. Gard.) See Bell-Flower. 
 
 RAMSONS. See Garlick. 
 
 RANUNCULUS. (From rana, a frog ; 
 several of the species being found in moist 
 places frequented by that reptile.) Many of 
 the plants belonging to this extensive genus 
 are well worth the cultivator's care, and 
 they have long been favourites with the 
 florist. The aquatic kinds require to be 
 grown in water. The grumose-rooted spe- 
 cies will thrive in any common soil and 
 situation ; they are increased by onsets from 
 the roots, or by seeds. These plants are 
 acrid, and most of them poisonous. R. asi' 
 
RAPE. 
 
 RAPE-CAKE. 
 
 aticus, and its varieties, should be grown in 
 good fresh loam and well-rotted cow-dung ; 
 the tubers should be planted in October or 
 March ; if, in the former month, they will 
 require to be slightly protected in bad 
 weather. Seeds selected from the best 
 semi-double varieties, sown early in Oc- 
 tober, and kept growing during the winter, 
 will flower the next season ; these latter 
 may also be increased by dividing the roots. 
 (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) See Crowfoot and 
 Spearwort, for the indigenous species of 
 the ranunculus. 
 
 RAPE. A plant of the cole kind, greatly 
 cultivated in Flanders for the sake of the seed, 
 but extremely valuable also as green food for 
 cattle and sheep in winter and spring. " The 
 plants," says Mr. Low, " usually cultivated 
 under the name of rape, are the fusiform 
 varieties of the following species of Bras- 
 sica. Cole or rape (B. napus), colza (B. 
 campestris), fusiform common turnip (B. 
 rapa), and early cole (B. prcecox)." There 
 are different modes of treating this plant, 
 according to the uses for which it is de- 
 signed. The whole plant is of great service 
 in feeding cattle ; and after the seed is 
 thrashed, the straw and chaff, on being 
 burnt, afford ashes equally valuable as the 
 best pot- ashes. Wheat yields an excellent 
 crop after rape, and the plant is grown with 
 great advantage on bog plant, where paring 
 and burning has been practised. Rape is 
 very hardy, and with fair treatment it never 
 fails on any soil. Cattle are so successfully 
 fattened with it, that many farmers prefer 
 it to turnips. See Coee. 
 
 For garden culture, rape is propagated 
 by seed, and, like mustard, and other small 
 salading, may be sown at any period of the 
 year, when in request ; being allowed a 
 separate bed. For the production of seed, 
 some plants of a sowing which has been 
 made about the middle of July, must be 
 thinned to about eighteen inches apart : 
 they will survive the winter, and flower in 
 the May and June of the next year. The 
 seed, which is produced in great abundance, 
 ripens in July and August, and must then 
 be cut and laid upon cloths to dry, as it is 
 very apt to shed. 
 
 RAPE, edible-rooted. This name may 
 be applied to a variety of the rape men- 
 tioned by Mr. Dickson, one of the vice- 
 presidents of the Horticultural Society. 
 Its root is white, and carrot-shaped, about 
 the size of the middle finger. It is much 
 more delicate in flavour than the turnip, 
 like which root it is cooked, only that it is 
 not peeled, but scraped, its skin being re- 
 markably thin. It has been cultivated for 
 a great length of years on the Continent, 
 and for about thirty years in this country, 
 1029 
 
 but only by one person, as far as Mr. Dick- 
 son is aware. It is propagated by seed, 
 which, for the main crop, may be sown from 
 the middle of July to the end of August, or 
 even later : these will supply the table until 
 April ; and, if wanted throughout the year, 
 a little may be sown in the latter end of 
 October ? the plants from which will be fit 
 for use, if they succeed, during April and 
 May : the last crop to be inserted from the 
 middle of January to the middle of Feb- 
 ruary, which will come in at the end of 
 May, and during June. On a north border, 
 and if the soil is sandy and moist, it is pos- 
 sible to have them sweet and tender during 
 the whole summer, to effect which the seed 
 must be sown at the close of March and 
 May. They require the same modes of cul- 
 tivation and treatment as turnips. In dry 
 weather the beds must be watered regu- 
 larly, until the plants have got three or 
 four leaves. One great advantage attend- 
 ing the cultivation of this vegetable is, that 
 it requires no manure. Any soil that is 
 poor and light, especially if sandy, is suit- 
 able to it. In rich manured earth it grows 
 much larger, but not so sweet and good. 
 For the growth of seeds, Mr. Dickson re- 
 commends, in February or March, some of 
 the finest roots to be transplanted to two 
 feet asunder ; but it would, perhaps, be a 
 better practice to leave them where grown. 
 The ground is to be hoed repeatedly, and 
 kept clear of weeds. The seed must be cut 
 as soon as ripe, and treated as directed for 
 turnips, &c. (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. i. 
 pp. 36—39. ; G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 RAPE-CAKE. The refuse or marc re- 
 maining after the oil has been expressed 
 from the rape or cole seed. (See Linseed 
 Cake.) The use of rape-cake as a manure 
 is pretty extensive in some parts of Eng- 
 land, and its effects are so immediate and 
 powerful, that its expense alone retards its 
 more general employment. It contains a 
 large quantity of mucilage, some portion of 
 albuminous matter, and a small proportion 
 of oil. It should be kept dry, and used 
 when recently made. (Davy's El. of Agr. 
 Chem. p. 281.) It answers admirably for 
 turnips. When first recommended as a 
 fertiliser, it was used in the proportions of 
 half a ton per acre ; but by pulverizing it, 
 and drilling it in with the seed, about half 
 that quantity has been found sufficient. 
 Rape cake produces, when ploughed in with 
 wheat, excellent crops. It has been found 
 exceedingly noxious to the wireworm, and 
 other field vermin, and when applied in 
 compost, with thirty times its weight of 
 farm- yard dung, it forms a very excellent 
 manure. 
 
 Rape cake, in common with all fertilisers 
 3 u 3 
 
RASPBERRY. 
 
 RAT. 
 
 of an oily nature, is much more decided in 
 its effects in wet than in dry seasons. In 
 Yorkshire and Lincolnshire the quantity 
 applied is about sixteen bushels per acre. 
 It is more serviceable on clays and other 
 moist lands, than on dry soils; its benefit 
 extends to only one crop, although there 
 have been occasional instances of its ex- 
 tending to two. It may be either drilled 
 with the seed or spread on the land before it is 
 ploughed. (Rep. of the Doncaster Agr. Soc.) 
 
 The practical benefits which are capable 
 of being derived from a correct knowledge 
 of the mode in which green manures ope- 
 rate, are considerable. It should teach the 
 cultivator to carefully bury in the soil every 
 portion of either animal or vegetable matter 
 he can command ; for every weed, every 
 fragment of straw he thus employs, will 
 again, under judicious management, be re- 
 turned to him in new forms of beauty and 
 usefulness. (Johnson on Fertilisers.} 
 
 RASPBERRY. (Rubus idceus.) This 
 shrub, in its wild state, is found growing 
 in our mountainous woods and thickets : 
 flowering in May and June. The root is 
 creeping. The stems are biennial, erect, 
 three or four feet high, branched, round, 
 pale or purplish, more or less besprinkled 
 with small, straight, slender prickles, fre- 
 quently rather resembling bristles than 
 prickles, and sometimes altogether absent. 
 Leaves primate, of five or three ovate, 
 rather angular, lateral leaflets, serrated or 
 cut, and angular, green, and nearly smooth 
 above, very downy beneath, and a larger 
 terminal leaflet. The foot-stalks are fur- 
 rowed, downy, and prickly, with narrow 
 lateral stipules. The flowers are small, 
 white, or pinkish-white, pendulous, in 
 drooping terminal clusters. Fruit crimson, 
 of numerous juicy grains, beset with the 
 permanent styles, and highly fragrant, with 
 a very deliciously perfumed sweet and acid 
 flavour, more exquisite in the wild state, in 
 general, than when cultivated. 
 
 The wood of the raspberry bush produces 
 fruit but one year, therefore that should be 
 carefully cut down below the surface of the 
 earth, and the young shoots should be 
 shortened to about two feet high ; and not 
 more than three or four shoots should be 
 left to each root, as these will produce a 
 greater number of berries, and larger fruit, 
 than would be obtained if twice that num- 
 ber of suckers were left.' The middle or 
 end of October is the proper time for this 
 runing. The fruit is produced from young 
 ranches out of the last year's shoots or 
 suckers. The plants raised by layers are 
 much preferred to those taken from suckers; 
 they should also have plenty of room, for 
 when there is not space for the air and light 
 
 to pass between the rows, the fruit will be 
 small, and not ripen well. They require a 
 fresh strong loam, deeply trenched and 
 well manured in the first instance, for in 
 warm light ground they produce but little 
 fruit. 
 
 The following selection is recommended 
 for a small garden: — Barnet, Cornish, 
 double-bearing red Antwerp, Williams's 
 preserving yellow Antwerp. 
 
 This fruit is employed for the dessert, 
 it is also in very general use for jams and 
 tarts, and is converted into wine and vine- 
 gar, which is a refreshing beverage, when 
 diluted with water, in fevers. The young 
 and fresh leaves of the common raspberry 
 are eagerly eaten by kids. (Lindleys Or- 
 chard and Kitch. Gard. ; Phillip's Fruits ; 
 Smith? sEng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 407.) 
 
 RAT. The name of a large, destructive, 
 and very prolific species of the genus Mus, 
 the brown, or water-rat (Mus decumanus, 
 Linn.), introduced into the British islands 
 from Asia, not, as is commonly believed, 
 from Norway. It has spread over all the 
 country, and multiplied at the expense of 
 the old British species, called the " black 
 rat" (Mus rattus, Linn.). 
 
 Of all the four-footed animals (says the 
 author of Brit. Hush.} included in the rank 
 of vermin, rats and mice are the most per- 
 nicious ; for they build their nests under 
 the floors and in the roofs of barns, nor 
 even are the stacks exempt; and are so 
 prolific that, if not destroyed, they occasion 
 incalculable mischief. It therefore behoves 
 every farmer to use all possible means to 
 check the evil, and one might suppose that 
 every exertion was invariably made for that 
 purpose ; yet we constantly find homesteads 
 overrun with these pests, without any other 
 pains being taken than an occasional rat- 
 hunt by farm servants, aided by a terrier, 
 which, though not to be neglected, is a very 
 ineffectual remedy. The best is, unques- 
 tionably, the construction of the barn-floor 
 and roof in such a manner as to prevent 
 them obtaining a permanent harbour in the 
 building. The next is before the entire 
 clearance of the barn, while yet a little corn 
 remains to prevent them from quitting it, 
 to close every part of the barn, by carefully 
 covering any holes there may be with sacks 
 and tarpaulings, so as to prevent all access 
 of the outward air, leaving only the door 
 for a few minutes open while the process is 
 going on. This done, some common iron 
 chafing dishes, which may be purchased for 
 a trifle, should be placed upon the floor, 
 and in the bags ; or, if they cannot be had, 
 build up a few bricks, clay, or any rub- 
 bish, that will secure a fire from spreading, 
 leaving a cavity in the centre, and filling it 
 
 i: 
 
RATTLE, THE RED. 
 
 RAVEN. 
 
 up with charcoal. Then light the charcoal 
 from the bottom, and when the heaps are 
 all burning, quickly strew a good quantity 
 of broken brimstone upon the top ; retire 
 immediately, shut the door fast, and leave 
 the building entirely closed during a couple 
 of days following. On opening it, the 
 greater portion of the rats and mice will be 
 found dead around the charcoal ; and, al- 
 though some may have been suffocated 
 while in their holes, and if not discovered 
 will occasion an unpleasant smell until their 
 remains are dried up, it yet will not last 
 long. The operation should be again re- 
 peated just previous to harvest, and if any 
 opening be found into the barns while they 
 are full, by the burrowing of the rats, 
 brimstone matches should be inserted into 
 them before they are stopped up. Traps 
 and poisons are only partially efficient ; but 
 an effectual mode of trapping is detailed 
 in a small pamphlet, published some years 
 ago by Mr. B. Broad, of Thurton, under the 
 sanction of the Hereford Agricultural So- 
 ciety, which ought to be in the hands of 
 every farmer in the kingdom. 
 
 The ferret is a decided enemy to the rat, 
 and if kept in a hutch or cage, and only 
 occasionally used, will be found very service- 
 able : but^ he should be well fed to induce 
 him to return, or otherwise he will escape 
 and become destructive to poultry. A cat 
 or two should also always be reared about 
 a barn. In new barns and outhouses the 
 entrance of rats is effectually prevented by 
 steeping the joints, rafters, and flooring in 
 a solution of corrosive sublimate. If a rat 
 or a mouse attempt to gnaw wood so pre- 
 pared, their saliva moistens the sublimate, 
 they take it into the stomach, and are so 
 destroyed by it. {Bint. Husb. p. 551. ; 
 Complete Farmer.) See Mice, Harvest- 
 Mouse, and Vermin. 
 
 RATTLE, THE RED, or Louse-wort. 
 (Pedicidaris, from pediculus, a louse, im- 
 plying a supposed effect of creating lousi- 
 ness in sheep which feed on it.) This 
 is a genus of beautiful little plants, with 
 very regular finely cut leaves. In the gar- 
 den they thrive best if planted in a mixture 
 of peat and soil, and kept moderately moist. 
 They are most readily propagated by seeds. 
 There are two indigenous species : — 
 
 1 . Marsh lousewort, or tall red-rattle (P. 
 palnstris), which is found in marshes and 
 boggy meadows : a perennial, flowering in 
 June and July. The root is small. The 
 stem solitary, erect, twelve or fifteen inches 
 high, with many lateral spreading opposite 
 branches. Leaves partly opposite, and 
 partly scattered, stalked, smooth, bright 
 green, doubly pinnatifid. Flowers axillary, 
 opposite, solitary, nearly sessile, of an ele- 
 1031 
 
 gant crimson, darker on the upper lip, with- 
 out scent. 
 
 2. Pasture lousewort, or dwarf red-rattle 
 (P. sylvaticum). This is a perennial species, 
 flowering also in June and July ; very 
 common in moist heathy, rather mountain- 
 ous pastures. It is of more humble stature 
 than the preceding, with several spreading 
 or recumbent unbranched stems, from a 
 large fleshy, tapering, subdivided root. 
 Leaves alternate, doubly pinnatifid, and 
 notched ; radical ovate, undivided, crenate, 
 recurved. Flowers of a more uniform rose- 
 colour than the last; the lobes of their 
 lower lip not fringed. (Paxtoiis Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 129.) 
 
 RATTLE, THE YELLOW. (Rhinan- 
 thus ; from rhin, a snout, and antkos, a 
 flower, in allusion to the appearance of the 
 corolla.) For garden culture, the seeds of 
 the yellow rattle have only to be sown in a 
 moist situation. There are two native 
 species : — 
 
 1. The common yellow rattle (R. crista 
 galli). An annual plant, which is very 
 common in rather barren meadows and 
 pastures, flowering in June. This plant is 
 reckoned unprofitable to the farmer, en- 
 cumbering rather than enriching his crop 
 of hay, as cattle are not fond of it, and 
 whether they ever eat it by choice is doubt- 
 ful. The root is fibrous. Stem about a 
 foot high, with few and generally short 
 branches, leafy, square, often spotted with 
 red or purple, smooth. Leaves lanceolate, 
 spreading, acute, sharply serrated, rough, 
 and minutely wrinkled on both sides, from 
 an inch to an inch and a half long. Flowers 
 yellow, crowded into a terminal bracteated 
 spike, each pair crossing the next. The 
 bractes heart-shaped, acutely serrated, green. 
 Calyx bladdery, ribbed, smooth : corolla 
 yellow ; segments of the upper less bluish. 
 Capsules dry and membranous, making a 
 rattling noise when touched. 
 
 2. Large bushy yellow rattle (R. major). 
 This is also an annual, growing in corn 
 fields in the north of England. It is dis- 
 tinguished from the last by its greater 
 size, copious branches, narrower leaves, and 
 smaller flowers, with a purple upper lip. 
 {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 119.) 
 
 RAVEN". (Corvus corax.) This " bird 
 of ill omen," as it has been termed, is by 
 far the largest specimen of the genus corvus 
 among British birds : it is rather a rare bird 
 in England, and, though his presence is 
 hateful to the farmer, as he makes a prey 
 of young poultry and lambs, he is, in some 
 respects, useful as a devourer of putrid 
 matter. Bold as well as sagacious, with 
 a quick eye, and a keen sense of smell, the 
 raven is always an object of suspicion to 
 3 u 4 
 
RAY, JOHN. 
 
 REAPING. 
 
 shepherds and husbandmen. No sooner 
 does an animal betray signs of weakness or 
 disease, but the raven is there on the watch 
 for an opportunity to satisfy his appetite. 
 At first he makes his approach with ex- 
 treme caution ; because, as it has been aptly 
 observed, though glad to find other's car- 
 rion, or to make carrion of them, if he can 
 do it with impunity, he takes good care 
 that none shall make carrion of him. If 
 the herdsman absent himself, and no other 
 interruption occurs, he makes his first at- 
 tack upon the eye, and afterwards tears 
 open the body with his beak, gluts upon 
 the entrails, and feeds at his leisure, retiring 
 to a small distance to digest his meal, and 
 then returns to feed again. The raven in- 
 habits high rocks on the sea- coast, exten- 
 sive woods, mountains, or open plains, 
 where danger may be seen and avoided. 
 Like other birds of this genus, the raven is 
 not particular in his food, but eats indis- 
 criminately small mammalia, birds or their 
 eggs, reptiles, insects, grain, or carrion : on 
 the sea-coast the shore is closely searched 
 for dead fish of any sort, or other animal 
 substance washed up by the tide. These 
 birds live to a great age. Their nest is 
 generally placed in the fork of a branch, 
 and is formed on the outside of sticks, with 
 a lining of wool and hair ; the eggs are 
 four or five in number, two inches in length, 
 by one inch four lines in breadth, of a pale 
 green ground colour, spotted and speckled 
 with darker greenish brown. The plum- 
 age of the raven is glossed with steel-blue 
 and purple. The legs, toes, and claws, as 
 well as the beak, are shining black. The 
 whole length of a male bird is twenty-six 
 inches. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol.ii. p. 63.; 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 377.) 
 
 RAY, JOHN, an illustrious English na- 
 turalist, was the son of a blacksmith, and 
 born in Essex, November 29th, 1628. He 
 early devoted himself to the study of na- 
 ture ; and in 1663 accompanied Mr. Wil- 
 loughby on a tour through Europe, of 
 which journey he published an account in 
 1 673. Mr. Ray was elected a fellow of the 
 Royal Society in 1667, and the Transactions 
 of that body afford ample proofs of his at- 
 tention to science. His letters, &c, were 
 published after his death, which happened 
 at Black Notley, January 17th, 1715. The 
 works for which he deserves notice here, 
 are — 
 
 A Catalogue of English Plants. Methodus Planta- 
 rium Nova. 8vo., 1G82. Historia Plantarium, 3 vols, 
 folio. London, Ki8(;_1704. Synopsis Methodico Stir- 
 Uhim. Bvo. The Wisdom of God manifested in the 
 Works of the Creation, which passed through several 
 editions. Three Discourses concerning the Chaos, 
 Deluge, and Dissolution of the World. Synopsis Me- 
 thodica Animalium Quadruped uni. Sylloge Stirpium 
 Kuropearum extra Britanniam. He also printed Mr. 
 1032 
 
 Willoughby's History of Birds, and that of Fishes. His 
 last undertaking was a History of the British Insects, 
 which he did not live to complete. (Iiees's Cyclop. ; 
 Watkins's Biog. Diet. ; G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 RAY- GRASS. See Rye-Grass. 
 
 RAY'S WAGTAIL. See Wagtail. 
 
 RE A, JOHN, published in 1665, " Flora, 
 Ceres, and Pomona, or a complete Florilege 
 furnished with all Requisites belonging to a 
 Florist. By John Rea. London. Folio. 
 With Engravings." Again in 1676. From 
 this work we learn that the author was a 
 professional gardener, and, at the time he 
 wrote, far advanced in years, and retired 
 from business. He lived at Kinlet, near 
 Bewdley, in Worcestershire. His works 
 contain ample catalogues of flowers, shrubs, 
 &c. : amongst them may be noticed 300 
 tulips (184 in the first edition) ; 360 good 
 carnations, fruits proportionably numerous ; 
 and yet the size of his gardens is ludri- 
 crously small, " fourscore yards square for 
 the fruit, and thirty for the flower garden, 
 will be enough for a nobleman." He men- 
 tions the horse chestnut as rarely producing 
 fruit here, and as the larch being seldom 
 seen. (G. W. Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 REAPING. Cutting down corn or pulse 
 with a sickle, hook, or scythe, or by a reap- 
 ing machine. These operations are more 
 advantageously performed when the corn 
 or pulse is not quite ripe, than when it is 
 thoroughly ripe ; because, in the latter case, 
 the seeds are apt to drop out in the process 
 of handling, turning, and drying. 
 
 Mr. Hannam (Quar. Journ. of Agr. vol. 
 xii. p. 22.) enters into some elaborate cal- 
 culations on the advantages of reaping 
 wheat a fortnight before it is ripe, from 
 which he deduces the following results ; 
 that, independently of a gain of four per 
 cent, on the value of the grain, we have, 
 1st, straw of a better quality ; 2dly, a bet- 
 ter chance of securing the crop ; and, 3dly, 
 a saving in securing it. (See Wheat.) The 
 smaller the sheaves are the better, espe- 
 cially in a wet harvest : in general, the 
 diameter of the sheaf should not exceed 
 thirty inches. It is of some importance, 
 also, not to tie the sheaves too near the ears. 
 In making the shocks, they should be placed 
 across the furrows, in order to procure a 
 free circulation of air around them. 
 
 In some districts, the scythe has of late 
 years been partially employed for the pur- 
 pose of reaping, but with no satisfactory 
 result ; and in Berwickshire the scythe- 
 hook is now generally used in preference to 
 the toothed sickle of our fathers. Cutting 
 corn with a sickle of some sort is, however, 
 preferable to mowing it with a scythe, 
 unless the crop stands up well, and time 
 presses. Barley and oats, however, may be 
 frequently mown with advantage ; but 
 
REAPING-HOOK. 
 
 REDBREAST. 
 
 wheat, which requires immediate and clean 
 binding, and is too valuable to admit of any 
 irregularities or wastefulness in harvesting, 
 should be reaped. The mode of reaping 
 called bagging, and practised a good deal 
 about London, and part of the west of Eng- 
 land, is thus executed: — The left leg being 
 pushed into the standing corn, and the 
 straw inclined with the left hand over the 
 left foot, is then cut close to the bottom 
 with a stroke from the right hand. The 
 increase of straw, where this is valuable, 
 renders this a good method of reaping. 
 
 The mode of reaping varies with the na- 
 ture of the crop. Barley and oats are gene- 
 rally cut with the scythe, beans with the 
 sickle : peas with what are called fagging 
 hooks, which rather tear up than cut ; and 
 tares in the same way. 
 
 Reaping is a great part of the expense of 
 a crop. The average price is from 12*. to 
 15s. an acre. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. 
 xii. p. 222. ; Doyle s Pract. Husb.) See 
 Bagging, Bands, Harvesting, and Bar- 
 ley, Wheat, &c. 
 
 REAPING-HOOK. An implement 
 used to cut down corn. It is one of the 
 oldest instruments employed in husbandry. 
 There are two kinds of hooks ; that which 
 is principally used by the British labourer, 
 has a smooth blade of wrought iron and 
 steel, about twenty-five inches long, and 
 curved nearly to a semicircle ; the other, 
 which is universally preferred by the Irish 
 reaper, has a finely serrated edge, and to- 
 wards the lower point recedes from the 
 curved direction to nearly a straight line. 
 The real action of the reaping-hook is that 
 of a saw, consequently the serrated edge is 
 an advantage. See Sickle. 
 
 REAPING MACHINE. A contrivance 
 for the purpose of reaping grain by means 
 of animal labour. With this view, and to 
 facilitate an operation of such importance 
 to the farmer, different attempts have been 
 made to construct machines, so as to dis- 
 patch the work in a rapid manner by the 
 assistance of horse labour, but the success 
 with which they have been attended has 
 hitherto been far from complete. 
 
 Many contrivances have also, of late 
 years, been resorted to for supplying the 
 place of the reaping-hook, but hitherto 
 none have proved effectual, nor are the dif- 
 ficulties arising from roughness and irre- 
 gularity of surface likely soon to be sur- 
 mounted. No one will dispute the great 
 utility and advantages of an efficient reap- 
 ing machine, if it could be carried into 
 operation, as these advantages are univer- 
 sally acknowledged. Such an implement is 
 the more required now that our agricul- 
 tural labourers are greatly reduced in num- 
 1033 
 
 ber by emigration, and harvest work has 
 become more expensive. There is now a 
 much greater quantity of corn to cut down, 
 and most of the grain ripens about the 
 same period. In 1815, Mr. Smith, of Deans- 
 ton, invented a reaping machine, which, in 
 some experimental trials, appeared to per- 
 form its work exceedingly well ; but, upon 
 longer trial, it has not answered the favour- 
 able expectation formed of it. Since that 
 period, another invention of a similar 
 nature, by Mr. Patrick Bell, has attracted 
 considerable attention, but does not appear 
 to be of sufficient merit to have come into 
 general use. The original cost of these 
 machines, 40/. or 50/., must, in many in- 
 stances, preclude their employment. 
 
 An excellent article on the advantages of 
 a reaping machine will be found in the first 
 volume of the Quart. Journ. of Agr. p. 137. ; 
 and Mr. Bell's machine is figured and de- 
 scribed at p. 217. of the same volume. 
 
 RECKLING. A provincial word sig- 
 nifying the last of a farrow or brood. 
 
 REDBACKED SHRIKE. See Shrike. 
 
 REDBREAST (Erythacarubecula). The 
 redbreast (says Mr. Yarrell), is so generally 
 distributed over the British islands, and so 
 universal a favourite, mixed up as it is with 
 our earliest associations, that all are suffi- 
 ciently interested in this bird to make them- 
 selves acquainted with its habits. These 
 may be observed either in the wood, the 
 field, or the garden, since there is scarcely 
 a hedge without its redbreasted inhabitant ; 
 and if robins appear to be more numerous in 
 winter than in summer, it is partly owing 
 to the state of vegetation at the former sea- 
 son, which leaves them more exposed to 
 observation, and partly because they resort 
 to the habitations of man for food as they 
 find it decline elsewhere. During summer 
 they feed indiscriminately on earthworms, 
 various insects in their different states, fruit 
 and berries. In winter every country-house 
 has its attendant pensioner, who requires 
 but little invitation to become an in-door 
 guest. 
 
 He pecks the crumbs on the sanded floor, 
 
 That the smiling infants strew, 
 The willing tribute of the poor 
 
 To their feather'd minstrel due : 
 The only thanks he can repay 
 Is his sweetly warbled roundelay. 
 
 The song of the robin is sweet and plain- 
 tive, but not very powerful. The robin 
 breeds early in spring ; its nest is formed of 
 moss, dead leaves, and dried grass, lined 
 with hair, and sometimes a few feathers. 
 The nest is frequently placed on a bank 
 sheltered by brushwood, or a short distance 
 above the ground in a thick bush, lane, or 
 hedge, sometimes in a hole of a wall partly 
 covered with ivy. The eggs are from five 
 
REDPOLE. 
 
 REDSTART. ' 
 
 to seven in number, white, spotted with 
 pale reddish brown ; the length nine lines 
 md a half by seven lines and a half in 
 jreadth. The feathers of the back are yel- 
 lowish olive brown, chin, throat, and upper 
 part of the breast, reddish orange, lower 
 part of the breast and belly white ; legs, 
 toes, and claws, purple brown. The whole 
 length of the bird is five inches and three 
 quarters. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 227.) 
 
 RED CLOVER. See Clover. 
 RED-FOOTED FALCON. See Fal- 
 con. 
 
 REDPOLE. (Fringilla, Bewick; Linaria, 
 Selby and Gould.) There are two species 
 of this bird known in the British islands. 
 
 1. The mealy or stone redpole (Linota 
 ca.nescens, Yarrell), has been considered by 
 several ornithologists to be merely a larger 
 variety of the lesser redpole ; in length it is 
 about five inches and a quarter. The beak 
 is much larger than that of the common 
 redpole, but of the same form, and yellowish 
 brown. In winter the feathers of the fore- 
 head are dark red ; back of the head, neck, 
 and upper part of the back, a mixture of 
 dark and light brown ; lower part of the back, 
 rump, and upper tail coverts mealy or grey- 
 ish white ; tail deeply forked, neck, breast, 
 and belly brownish, white streaked with 
 darker brown, legs, toes, and claws dark 
 brown. 
 
 2. The lesser or more common redpole 
 (Linota linaria), is the smallest of the Bri- 
 tish linnets, and is even a trifle smaller than 
 our diminutive siskin. It is more especially 
 a winter visiter to the southern counties of 
 England, appearing in small flocks from 
 Michaelmas to April ; but is not often seen 
 in the south of England in summer. It is 
 at once distinguished from the mealy redpole, 
 last described, by its smaller size. In some of 
 the northern counties of England, and in 
 Scotland particularly, this little bird is re- 
 sident all the year. It builds its nest in a 
 bush, or low tree, of moss, and the stalks of 
 dry grass, intermixed with down from the 
 catkin of the willow, which also forms the 
 lining, and renders it a particularly soft 
 and warm receptacle for the eggs and 
 young. The eggs are four or five in num- 
 ber ; their colour pale bluish green, spotted 
 with orange brown; they are seven and a 
 half lines long, by five lines and a half broad. 
 It feeds on the catkins of the birch, alder, 
 and willow, and also eats the buds of trees, 
 and (when in flocks) proves in this way 
 seriously injurious to young plantations. 
 The forehead is deep red ; the head, neck, 
 beck, wingcoverts, rump, and upper tail 
 coverts, a mixture of dark and light brown ; 
 tad feathers not so deeply forked, or near 
 
 1034 
 
 so long as those of the mealy redpole ; chin 
 with a patch of black ; breast strongly 
 marked with vermilion red ; belly and under 
 tail-coverts dull brownish white. The 
 whole length of the bird is four inches and 
 a quarter. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 508—520.) 
 
 RED RATTLE. See Rattle. 
 
 RED SANDSTONE. See Geology. 
 
 REDSHANK (Totanus). Of this bird 
 there are two species frequenting our shores. 
 
 1. The spotted redshank (T. fuscus) is 
 rather a rare species, although not uncom- 
 mon in the London market in autumn and 
 winter. The bird has a moderately long 
 straight beak, and its whole length is about 
 twelve inches and a half. In its winter 
 plumage the adult bird has the back ash, 
 grey breast, and belly pure white. In winter 
 it changes to a sooty black. The vermilion 
 red colour of the legs and toes, and the 
 white spots on the wings, are however per- 
 manent at all ages and seasons. 
 
 2. The common redshank (T. calidris), is 
 much more numerous than the spotted, and 
 accordingly much better known. It is resi- 
 dent in many parts of this country all the year. 
 In the winter season it frequents and feeds 
 on the sea-shore, over whose extensive flats, 
 which are left bare by every receding tide, 
 the birds are then seen in flocks ; in the 
 spring, however, they retire to fens and 
 marshes near pools or lakes, and to the 
 banks of rivers, where, during the breeding 
 season, they are only seen singly or in pairs. 
 They feed on aquatic insects, and on marine 
 or other worms, which they probe for with 
 their beaks in soft mud. Montagu says, it 
 makes a slight nest with coarse grass near 
 the moist parts, or most boggy places in fens, 
 and begins to lay early in May : the egg is pale 
 reddish white, tinged with green, blotched 
 with dark red brown, the length one inch 
 six lines and a half, by one inch and two 
 lines in breadth. In winter, the whole of 
 the back, head, &c. are ash brown, stump 
 and tail feathers, neck in front, breast and 
 belly, white ; with a few slight dusky streaks 
 in the line of the shaft of the feathers. In 
 the spring plumage the white parts of the 
 front of the neck, and all the under surface 
 of the body, sides and flanks are spotted 
 and streaked, with brownish black. The 
 whole length of an adult female, which is 
 the larger bird, is about eleven inches. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol.ii. p. 520—527.) 
 
 REDSTART. (Phoenicurus inticulla.) 
 The redstart is a summer visiter, that conies 
 to this country from the south, and pro- 
 ceeds both to the westward and northward. 
 It is not very numerous, and in some lo- 
 calities is rather rare. It makes its first 
 appearance in the southern counties of Eng- 
 
RED-WATER. 
 
 land, generally about the second week in 
 April. It inhabits the skirts of forests, 
 lanes, meadows, orchards, and gardens, and 
 is partial to old walls and ruins, particu- 
 larly if overrun with ivy. The food of 
 the redstart is worms, beetles and their 
 grubs, flies, spiders, ants and their eggs, 
 fruit, and berries. The nest, which is 
 rather loosely constructed, is formed of 
 moss externally, and lined with hair and 
 feathers. It is occasionally placed in a 
 hollow tree or in a hole in the wall. The 
 eggs, which are from four to six or eight, 
 are of a uniform greenish blue colour, eight 
 lines and a half long, by six and a half 
 broad. In the adult male during summer, 
 the top of the head, back, and wing- coverts 
 are lead-grey ; forehead white ; chin, throat, 
 side of neck and face, jet black ; breast, 
 belly, &c. pale chesnut ; legs and toes brown. 
 The whole length of the bird is five inches 
 and one quarter. 
 
 The black redstart (Phcenicura tithys) 
 has already been noticed. See Black 
 Redstart. (YarrelVs Brit Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 237.) 
 
 RED-WATER. A well-known disease 
 in cattle. "The disease commonly called 
 red-water, brown-water, black-water, moor- 
 ill, &c." says Mr. R. Thompson, of Auch- 
 terarder, " is most prevalent in old foggy 
 pastures. It is seldom seen in hill pastures, 
 or in new sown pastures, in which there is 
 abundance of clover; but it sometimes 
 happens at the stall, where the animal has 
 no other allowance than straw, turnips, and 
 potatoes. It usually makes its appearance 
 after a few days of rain, followed by cold 
 dry weather. As the disease appears at 
 times in all situations, it is difficult to trace 
 its existing cause, which may be the nature 
 of the pasture, or the state of the weather, 
 or both combined. It attacks every breed 
 and kind of cattle. 
 
 " The first symptom is the appearance of 
 something like blood mixed with the urine. 
 So trifling is the complaint in some in- 
 stances, that no inconvenience seems to be 
 felt by the animal, who eats and drinks as 
 usual, chews the cud, and is free of the 
 disease in a few days. In such cases a 
 natural diarrhoea comes on, to which the 
 cure may be attributed. In general, how- 
 ever, the disease is not observed until the 
 animal refuses food, separates from the rest 
 of the herd, appears dull and heavy, and 
 manifests great languor and apathy. The 
 ears droop, the urine is of a reddish or 
 brownish colour, and if it be a milch cow, 
 the milk is often similarly tinged. The 
 pulse ranges from sixty to seventy ; there is 
 obstinate constipation of the bowels ; the 
 urine is discharged in moderate quantity, 
 1035 
 
 and apparently without pain. If relief is 
 not afforded by some brisk purgative, at 
 the period when the urine changes colour 
 from red to brown, the pulse begins to 
 sink, and if a little blood be drawn at this 
 time, its surface assumes a brownish co- 
 lour ; the eye appears of a yellowish brown 
 tint ; the urine acquires a darker hue ; the 
 animal refuses to rise ; the pulse sinks ; the 
 legs, tail, and horns, turn cold ; and the 
 animal dies, to all appearance perfectly 
 exhausted, although it has manifestly no 
 symptoms of acute pain during the course 
 of the disease. 
 
 " Purgatives of any kind, if given in 
 large quantities of water, are found to be 
 the best medicines that can be employed. 
 Medicines given to cattle that have lost the 
 power of chewing the cud, generally pass 
 into the first and second stomachs, and if 
 a good draught of water is not given to 
 wash them from thence, if the animal dies 
 the greater part of the medicines will be 
 found in these stomachs ; and upon this 
 principle, common salt, if properly managed, 
 will be found among the best. Dissolve 
 the quantity to be given in as much water 
 as will enable it to pass freely from the 
 bottle or drenching horn, and let the ani- 
 mal have plenty of water to drink after- 
 wards. Should it refuse to drink, no time 
 should be lost in drenching it profusely 
 with water. Without a plentiful dilution, 
 there is no certainty of purging cattle that 
 have lost their cud. If purging does not 
 commence in from twelve to twenty-four 
 hours, a second dose should be given. In- 
 jections of soap and water should also be 
 tried if the case is obstinate, and when they 
 operate a pint of linseed oil should be given 
 as a laxative. So obstinate is the constipa- 
 tion in some cases, that the salt acts only 
 as a diuretic, causing a plentiful discharge 
 of urine. Diuretics and astringents com- 
 bined, seem only of service when the bowels 
 are open, and their improper administra- 
 tion often causes inflammation of the bowels 
 and kidneys. If, after purgation, the bowels 
 are kept open by laxatives, such as linseed 
 infusion, the disease will gradually dis- 
 appear without their use. In the last stage 
 of the disease, when the urine assumes a 
 dark brown or black colour, no remedy 
 seems to have any efficacy, the animal is 
 sunk beyond recovery, the bowels lose their 
 action, suppression of urine follows, the 
 animal stretches itself out and dies, as if 
 perfectly exhausted. 
 
 " There are two diseases which in their 
 symptoms bear some resemblance to red- 
 water in cattle, viz. inflammation of the 
 kidneys, and inflammation of the mucous 
 membrane of the bladder or the urethra, 
 
REDWING. 
 
 REGULUS. 
 
 which often happens at calving. In these 
 cases the urine, which is discharged with 
 pain, is mixed with blood, but not so in- 
 timately so as the coloured urine in red- 
 water, and it has generally more or less 
 mucus mixed with it. Inflammation of the 
 kidneys in cattle is comparatively rare. 
 I have seen only one well marked case, 
 which terminated fatally. The animal ex- 
 perienced considerable pain upon pressure 
 being applied to the region of the kidneys. 
 The urine was small in quantity, and nearly 
 as thick as blood ; and pulse ninety and very 
 hard. As the disease advanced, the urine 
 became black and fetid. The animal all 
 along exhibited symptoms of excruciating 
 pain, until death terminated its sufferings. 
 Post-mortem examination disclosed exten- 
 sive inflammation of the peritonaeum. The 
 abdominal cavity contained a large quantity 
 of dark-coloured fetid fluid ; the fat sur- 
 rounding the kidneys, as well as the kidneys 
 themselves, was in part gangrenous; and 
 the fat generally exhibited a yellow colour, 
 as is usual in cases where death terminates 
 inflammatory diseases." (Trans. High. Soc. 
 vol. ix. p. 9.) 
 
 REDWING. (Turdusiliacus.) This 
 bird is one of the winter visiters to the 
 British islands, which, like the fieldfare, 
 comes to us in flocks from the northern and 
 north-eastern parts of Europe, but with 
 this difference, that they make their ap- 
 pearance earlier in the year than the field- 
 fare, arriving frequently by the middle or 
 before the end of October. While in this 
 country the redwings inhabit parks and 
 pleasure-grounds that are ornamented with 
 clumps of trees, and, like the thrush, which 
 they most resemble in external appearance, 
 they seek their subsistence in mild and 
 open weather in pasture lands and moist 
 meadows, feeding principally on worms, 
 snails, and other soft-bodied animals. The 
 whole length of this bird is about eight 
 inches and three quarters. The top of the 
 head, the upper surface of the neck, the 
 back, rump, upper tail-coverts, and tail- 
 feathers, uniform clove-brown ; chin, throat, 
 belly, and under tail-coverts, dull white, 
 tinged with wood-brown, and streaked 
 longitudinally with clove-brown ; sides of 
 the body, under wing-coverts, and axillary 
 feathers bright reddish orange, from which 
 peculiarity the bird has derived its name. 
 (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 198.) 
 
 REED. (Arundo.) A genus of aquatic 
 plants, in most instances mere weeds, in- 
 festing boggy low lands or meadows on the 
 sides of rivers. 
 
 The best method of destroying reeds, is 
 by draining the land; for if the drains be 
 cut deeper than their roots it will take 
 1036 
 
 away their nourishment, and consequently 
 destroy them. Common salt, ashes, or soot, 
 will likewise sometimes kill them; and so 
 will ploughing up the land, and laying it in 
 high ridges. Reeds always indicate a deep 
 good moist soil, as a bad one will not nourish 
 or support them. 
 
 There are five indigenous species of reed • 
 the common reed (A. phragmites), the 
 wood reed (A. epigejos), the small reed (A . 
 calamagrostis), the smallest close reed (A. 
 stricta), and the sea reed (A. arenaria). 
 See Arundo and Aromatic Reed. 
 
 The term reed is sometimes provincially 
 applied to the straw of wheat, rye, &c. that 
 has not been bruised. 
 
 REED- GRASS. See Canary-Grass. 
 
 REED-MACE. See Cat's-Tail. 
 
 REED-WARBLER. See Warbler. 
 
 REEL. An anglers implement, attached 
 to the butt of the rod, for the purpose of 
 winding in the line when a fish is hooked. 
 The barrel of the reel should be of a suffi- 
 cient diameter to wind in quickly, as a fish 
 is often lost by not being able to bring him 
 rapidly within reach of the landing-net ; 
 especially where, as in fly-fishing, a great 
 length of line has been thrown out. The 
 term reel is also applied to the instrument 
 upon which gardeners wind up the lines 
 by which they work. 
 
 REGULUS. There are two species of 
 this little bird, which are found in this 
 country. 
 
 1. The golden crested regulus or kinglet 
 (Regulus amicapillus, Selby) is most fre- 
 quently to be observed in fir plantations, 
 where these diminutive creatures, one of 
 the smallest among our indigenous birds, 
 may be seen all life and activity, hopping 
 from branch to branch, and clinging to 
 them in various positions, sometimes with 
 their backs downwards, busily engaged 
 sucking various small-winged insects, or 
 their hidden larva as food, occasionally eat- 
 ing also a few seeds or small berries. They 
 remain in this country all the year through. 
 The nest is placed under a branch of a fir, 
 and generally towards the end of the 
 bough, being supported by two or three of 
 the laterally diverging and pendant twigs, 
 which are interwoven with the moss of 
 which the outside of the nest is principally 
 composed. The female lays from six to 
 ten eggs, of a pale reddish white, six lines 
 long and five lines in diameter. The whole 
 length of this bird is about three inches 
 and a half. The forehead is greyish white ; 
 the base of the crest on each side is bounded 
 by a narrow black line ; the crest feathers 
 brio-ht yellow, tipped with orange; the 
 baek and upper tail-coverts olive green, 
 slightly tinged with yellow. Wing and 
 
RENNET. 
 
 RENT. 
 
 tail feathers brownish black, edged with 
 greenish yellow. 
 
 The fire-crested regulus (R. ignicapillus) 
 is not any where so numerous as the little 
 gold crest. It is about half an inch longer. 
 It has three dark lines contrasting with 
 two light-coloured lines on the sides of the 
 head. The crest is large, and of a much 
 more vivid red colour than that of the same 
 parts in the gold crest. The tail feathers 
 are also longer. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. i. p. 317—325.) 
 
 RENNET, or RUNNET. The pre- 
 pared inner membrane of the calf's sto- 
 mach, which has the property of coagulating 
 the albumen of milk, and converting it 
 into curd and whey. The maw is cleaned, 
 salted, and suspended in paper bags. Pre- 
 viously to its use, the salt is extracted by 
 washing the rennet ; which is then soaked 
 in hot water during the night ; and in the 
 morning the infusion is poured into the 
 milk to coagulate it. This is the result of 
 the gastric juice, which is acid ; and acts 
 upon the caseous part of the milk, in the 
 same manner as other acids. It some- 
 times happens that no rennet sufficiently 
 good for curdling milk can be procured ; 
 hence various plants have been advantage- 
 ously substituted for this purpose. The 
 principal of these are the flowers of the 
 yellow ladies' bedstraw (Galium verum), 
 used in England, and the cardoon (Cynara 
 cardunculus), in Spain. A strong infusion 
 is made of the down of the latter vegetable 
 in the evening and on the succeeding morn- 
 ing, half a pint is poured among fourteen 
 gallons of new milk, which is thus effec- 
 tually coagulated, and in consequence pro- 
 duces a delicious cheese. See Cheese, Coa- 
 gulum, and Cheese Rennet. 
 
 RENT. (Redditus; fromredeundo.) The 
 sum of money or other consideration issuing 
 yearly out of lands and tenements paid 
 by the occupier to the owner. This has 
 gradually taken the present form of pay- 
 ment in money, from a very different origi- 
 nal tenure; for, in former days, the land 
 was generally held of the superior lord, by 
 certain services rendered, of either a military 
 or servile nature, such as carrying out the 
 lord's manure on to his land ; certain days 
 of ploughing, digging, or cutting the corn, 
 &c. of the landlord; the general adoption 
 of a fixed rent or money payment in lieu 
 of these arbitrary and vexatious tenures, 
 was an advance of modern days. To dwell 
 upon these, however curious and interest- 
 ing the research would be, is hardly compa- 
 tible with the assigned limits of this work. 
 
 When due. — Rent is not due until mid- 
 night of the day agreed upon, per Judge 
 Blackstone, in Cutting v. Derby, 2 W. Black- 
 1037 
 
 stone, T. R. 1077., " though the rent is de- 
 mandable at sunset, yet it is not due, nor 
 does the lease expire, till midnight " (1 
 Saunders, 287., and Lord Kenyon in Leffley 
 v. Mills, 4 T. R. 173.) : " The party bound 
 has, till the last moment of the day, to de- 
 liver himself from the obligation by paying." 
 (See also 1 Rol. Rep. 189.) And yet when a 
 tender is to be made, or a demand of rent, 
 sunset is the proper time ; but then, as was 
 observed by Judge Gibbs in Tinchler v. 
 Prentice, 4 Taunton, 554., the person who 
 attends should be there a sufficient time 
 before sunset, to count the money. When 
 rent is reserved generally by an agreement, 
 and no time or manner of payment is men- 
 tioned, in that case nothing is due till the 
 end of the year. And when rent is speci- 
 fied to be payable in advance, such agree- 
 ment should state it to be always in advance, 
 otherwise the Court may rule otherwise, as in 
 Holland v. Palsar, 2 Starkie, 160. And when, 
 by a parol agreement, the rent was to be 
 paid from Lady-day following, evidence is 
 admissible to show that Old Lady-day was 
 intended (Doe v. Benson, 4 B. & A. 588.); 
 and even in a written agreement not under 
 seal (Denn v. Hophinson, 3 D. & R. 507.), 
 where the tenant, who is about to quit his 
 farm, advertises a sale of bis stock, the pay- 
 ment of his rent to the end of his term to 
 his landlord, who has notice of the sale, 
 does not raise an implied promise on the 
 part of the landlord to consent to the sale, 
 and the removal of the property. (Bushley 
 x.Fisher, 3N.& M.381.) 
 
 Payment of Rent. — There is an implied 
 covenant for payment of rent under the 
 words " yielding and paying " (Iggulden 
 v. May, 7 East, 237.), and a net rent means 
 the same to be paid to the landlord clear of 
 all deductions (Bennett v. Womack, 7 B. & 
 C. 627.). No security which can be given 
 to the landlord by the tenant, as a bill or 
 bond, or promissory note, even if the land- 
 lord give a receipt for it, will be regarded 
 as payment of rent : he may still distrain for 
 it (Harris v. Shipway, Bulier N. P. 182.; 
 Curtis v. Rush, 2 Ves. & B. 416), and re- 
 ceiving interest for the arrears is no waiver 
 of the right to distrain (Sherry v. Preston, 
 2 Chitty, 245.). When the tenant is di- 
 rected by his landlord to pay the money 
 due for rent into a bank (Breed v. Green, 
 Holt, 204.), or remit it by post, and the 
 banker fails, or the letter is lost, in either 
 case the loss falls upon the landlord (War- 
 wicke v. Noakes, Peake, 67.) ; but then the 
 letter should be delivered to the General 
 Post Office, or its main branches : it will not 
 suffice to deliver it to a bellman in the street 
 (Hawhins v. Bull, Peake, 167.), or lay the 
 letter in a place amongst others from 
 
REPAND. 
 
 REST-HARROW. 
 
 whence they are usually carried to the 
 post-office. (Hetherington v. Kemp, 4 Camp- 
 bell, 193.) See Distress. 
 
 REPAIRS. See Lease. 
 
 REPAND. A botanical term. A leaf 
 is said to be repand when its disk is so little 
 dilated as to cause the margin to be un- 
 dulated and unequally dilated ; a circum- 
 stance which is regulated by the unequal 
 dilatation of the centre and the margin. 
 
 REPTON, HUMPHRY, was born at 
 Bury St. Edmund's, in Suffolk, in 1752. 
 He died at Hare Street, near Romford, 
 Essex, in 1818. He published the follow- 
 ing works : — 
 
 1. A Letter to Uvedale Price, Esq., on Landscape 
 Gardening. London, 1794, 4to. 2. Sketches and Hints 
 on Landscape Gardening ; collected from Designs and 
 Observations now in the Possession of the different 
 Noblemen and Gentlemen for whose Use they were 
 originally made ; the whole tending to establish fixed 
 Principles in the Art of laying out Grounds. Sixteen 
 coloured plates. London, 1795, folio. 3. Observations 
 on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, 
 including some Remarks on Grecian and Gothic Archi- 
 tecture, collected from various MSS. in the Possession 
 of different Noblemen and Gentlemen ; the whole tend- 
 ing to establish fixed Principles in the respective Arts. 
 Many plates. London, 1803, 4to. 4. Observations on 
 the Changes in Landscape Gardening. 1806, 8vo. 5. On 
 the Introduction of Indian Architecture and Gardening. 
 1808, folio. 6. On the supposed Effects of Ivy on Trees. 
 In the eleventh volume of the Trans, of the Linn. So- 
 ciety, p. 27. 1810. 7- Fragments on the Theory and 
 Practice of Landscape Gardening. London, 1817, folio. 
 In this work his son assisted him. (G. W. Johnson.) 
 
 RESERVOIR. A conservatory of water. 
 The husbanding of water is now becoming 
 a subject of peculiar interest to the agri- 
 culturist. This arises from its scarcity in 
 many districts, in consequence of the im- 
 proved drainage of the land, and from the 
 many uses to which machinery may be 
 applied in farming operations by the agency 
 of water power. The construction of re- 
 servoirs must resolve itself into the follow- 
 ing heads : — 
 
 First, where a sufficient quantity of water 
 can be diverted directly from the channel 
 of a stream or river. 
 
 Second, where the supply is to be ob- 
 tained from drainage, which maintains a 
 stream during part of the year, but which 
 stream fails during the summer months. 
 
 Third, where there are grounds affording 
 a favourable situation for the construction 
 of a reservoir, but through which there is 
 no natural stream passing. 
 
 Previous to the formation of a reservoir, 
 the following conditions must be taken into 
 consideration : the annual average fall of 
 rain and dew balanced against the evapor- 
 ation ; the extent of ground from which the 
 water is to be derived ; the supply and pur- 
 poses lor which it is required, and whether 
 the country is liable to heavy floods. The 
 following substances will be necessary for 
 the embankments : — 
 
 Grout, a thin description of very old 
 1038 
 
 mortar, sufficiently fluid to run into the 
 irregular spaces between the stones in rough 
 facings. Concrete, or artificial stone, which 
 is a compound of coarse and fine gravel, 
 with about one sixth or eighth part of 
 slaked lime and water laid in regular layers 
 of six inches in thickness, each layer being 
 grouted and immediately hard rammed 
 down. Sheet piling, which is formed by 
 driving flat stakes (shod and ferruled if 
 necessary) into the ground, having their 
 edges placed close together, and which 
 should be from eight to twelve inches broad. 
 If they are always under water, beech wood 
 will be found well calculated for this pur- 
 pose, and it should be charred. Puddles 
 of moistened and well pounded clay, laid 
 down in layers. No general directions can 
 be given which will apply in all cases to the 
 construction of reservoirs ; for much must 
 necessarily depend on the situation of the 
 country supply of water to be obtained, 
 and from what source, &c. Some useful 
 hints, however, will be found in the sixth 
 volume of the Highland Soc. Trans, pp. 308 
 — 325. See Ponds and Tanks. 
 
 RESINS. Peculiar vegetable substances 
 of allied properties, composed of carbon, 
 hydrogen, and oxygen; the most common 
 of which is the rosin of commerce, or re- 
 sidue after the distillation of turpentines, 
 in order to obtain the volatile oil. When 
 no water is used in this process, an empy- 
 reumatic, brownish-yellow, semi-transparent 
 substance remains, namely colophony or fid- 
 ler's rosin ; when water is used, the residue 
 is the opaque yellow substance called yellow 
 rosin. When every particle of water is 
 evaporated from the last, and it is kept in a 
 state of fusion at a moderate temperature, 
 and then allowed to cool slowly, the best 
 resin is procured. It is translucent, brittle, 
 fusible at a moderate heat, inflammable, 
 and soluble in spirits of wine, volatile oils ; 
 and also fixed oils and fat, when aided by 
 heat. The mineral acids convert it into arti- 
 ficial tannin ; the alkalies into soap. Resin 
 in combination with wax, a little oil of tur- 
 pentine and wax, forms a good polish for 
 furniture. Rosin contains oxygen 13*337, 
 carbon 75-944, hydrogen 10-719. The chief 
 of the other resinous substances are elemi, 
 copal, mastic, sandardc, lac, labdanum, am- 
 ber, &c. They are almost all soluble in 
 alcohol. 
 
 REST-HARROW. (Ononis, from onos 
 an ass, and onemi to delight ; some of the 
 species are said to be grateful to asses.) All 
 the plants belonging to this genus are of 
 easy cultivation, and several of them are 
 rather handsome when in flower. The com- 
 mon rest-harrow or cammock (O. arvcnsis), 
 is a native plant ; with a woody, tough, and 
 
RHIZOMA. 
 
 RIDGLET. 
 
 strong root, resisting the harrow's prongs, 
 whence the English name. The stems are 
 annual, though often considerably woody, 
 or shrubby, various in length, hairy. 
 Leaves generally simple, entire towards 
 their base. Flowers mostly solitary, large, 
 and handsome, of a brilliant rose colour. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 266.) 
 
 RHIZOMA. (Lat. rhiza, a root). A 
 term applied to roots which spread under 
 ground, like those of the iris. 
 
 RHODODENDRON. (From rhodo, a 
 rose, and dendron a tree, because of the ap- 
 pearance of the terminal bunches of flowers.) 
 The rhododendron is decidedly one of the 
 finest of all known genera, containing some 
 of the most handsome, elegant, and showy 
 shrubs ; all of which are admirably adapted 
 either for ornamenting the green -house or 
 shrubbery, or for planting singly on lawns. 
 Peat soil is most suitable to these plants, 
 but they may also be grown in very sandy 
 or vegetable mould. They are propagated 
 by layers or seeds. The small- wooded kinds 
 may be also increased very freely by young 
 cuttings, planted in sand under a glass. 
 (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 RHUBARB. (Rheum rhaponticum, from 
 pew, to spread, and Rheum hyhridum.) The 
 soil best suited to these plants is one that is 
 light, rich, deep, and moderately moist. A 
 poor heavy or shallow soil never produces 
 them in perfection. The compartment can- 
 not be too open. 
 
 It may be propagated by cuttings, but the 
 mode almost universally practised is by 
 seed. This should be sown soon after it is 
 ripe in September or October, for if kept 
 out of the ground until the spring it will 
 often continue dormant for twelve months ; 
 if the danger of this, however, is risked, it 
 must be inserted early in February or 
 March. The seeds are best inserted in 
 drills three feet apart and an inch deep, the 
 plants to remain where raised ; for although 
 they will bear removing, yet it always 
 checks and somewhat lessens their growth. 
 When they make their appearance in the 
 spring, and have been thoroughly cleared 
 of weeds, they may be thinned to six or 
 eight inches asunder, and the surface of the 
 ground about them loosened with the hoe. 
 Towards the conclusion of summer, when it 
 can be determined which are the strongest 
 plants, they must be finally thinned to three 
 or four feet, or the hybrid to six. They 
 must be continually kept clear of weeds. In 
 autumn, when the leaves decay, they are 
 removed, and the bed being gently turned 
 over, a little well putrefied stable-dung 
 added, and some of the earth applied over 
 the stools. In the spring, the bed may be 
 again dug, previous to the plants making 
 1039 
 
 their appearance ; and as the stalks, when 
 blanched, are much less harsh in taste, re- 
 quire less sugar to be rendered palatable, 
 and are greatly improved in appearance, as 
 T. Hare, Esq., Assistant Secretary to the 
 Horticultural Society, accidentally disco- 
 vered (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. ii. 
 p. 258.), at this period a trench may be 
 dug between the rows, and the earth from 
 it laid about a foot thick over the stool. 
 This covering must be removed when the 
 cutting ceases, and the plants allowed to 
 grow at liberty. As the earth in wet sea- 
 sons is apt to induce decay, the covering 
 may be advantageously formed of coal- ashes 
 or drift sand, which are much less retentive 
 of moisture. Those plants produce the 
 seed in greatest perfection that are not 
 gathered from, but on no account must they 
 be subjected to the process of blanching. 
 Two year old plants often produce seed, but 
 .in the third year always. It must be gathered 
 as soon as ripe, and great care taken that 
 none is scattered over the beds, for the 
 plants thence produced often spring up and 
 greatly injure the old plants by growing 
 unobserved amongst them. (G. W. John- 
 sons Kitch. Gard!) 
 
 RHUS. (Derived from rous, in Greek, 
 which is from rhudd, a Celtic word signify- 
 ing red ; alluding to the colour of the fruit 
 and leaves of some species in autumn.) 
 The hardy kinds are rather ornamental, 
 and well fitted for shrubberies ; some are 
 propagated by cuttings of the roots, and 
 others by cuttings and layers. The juice 
 of R. radicans and R. toxicodendron is 
 milky, stains black, and is extremely poi- 
 sonous. R. coriaria is powerfully astrin- 
 gent, and is used in tanning Turkey or 
 Morocco leather. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 RIB-GRASS. See Piantain. 
 
 RICHARD'S PIPIT. (Anthus Ricardi.) 
 An occasional visiter to this country. The 
 whole length of the male bird is six inches 
 and three, quarters. The plumage is brown, 
 tinged with yellow. For habits, &c, see 
 Pipit. 
 
 RICK. A pile of corn, hay, straw, &c, 
 regularly heaped up in the open air, and 
 sheltered from wet by thatch. See Stage. 
 
 RICK- YARD. A term sometimes given 
 to that part of the farm-yard in which the 
 stacks are placed. 
 
 RIDDLE. A sort of sieve used to se- 
 parate dust and the seeds of plants from 
 corn. They are made of various sizes for 
 different uses. 
 
 RIDGE. A piece of ground laid up be- 
 tween two furrows, having always consider- 
 able length, but different small breadths, 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 RIDGLET. A provincial word, used to 
 
RIGGIL. 
 
 ROARING. 
 
 signify a small ridge, especially when raised 
 by baulking. 
 
 RIGGIL. An imperfect male sheep, 
 having only one or no testicle in the scro- 
 tum. 
 
 RIGHT OF WAY. See Way. 
 
 RIME. A hoary or white frosty appear- 
 ance, sometimes on the ground in the au- 
 tumnal, winter, and early spring mornings. 
 See Dew and Frost. 
 
 RING-BONE. In farriery, a callus 
 growing in the hollow circle of the little 
 pastern of a horse, just above the coronet. 
 It has its name from the resemblance to a 
 
 ^RING-DOVE. See Pigeon. 
 
 RING-OUZEL. See Ousel. 
 
 RINGS, FAIRY. See Fairy Ring. 
 
 RINGS IN TIMBER. The concentric 
 layers, by which the wood is formed. See 
 Alburnum, Bark, Liber, &c. 
 
 ROACH. (Cyprinus rutilns.) This is a 
 well known river fish, which is almost uni- 
 versally distributed, and they breed pro- 
 fusely as well in ponds, weirs, and marshes, 
 as in rivers and lakes. The best season for 
 roach fishing is from autumn until the fol- 
 lowing spring : they usually spawn in May. 
 The baits used are gentles, worms, and 
 pastes. ( Walton's Angler ; Blaine's Rural 
 Spo?*ts.) 
 
 ROADS. See Highways. 
 
 Macadamization. — This process in road- 
 making, which has received its name from 
 Macadam, consists in forming the road 
 crust of stones, broken with a' hammer into 
 angular pieces of a small and uniform size. 
 When the stones of which the road crust is 
 to be formed are broken to the proper mag- 
 nitude and form, they are spread over the 
 surface of the road in a layer of three or 
 four inches thick. After this has been con- 
 solidated by carriages working upon it or 
 by rollers, another layer of broken stones of 
 equal depth is laid upon it; it is con- 
 solidated in like manner; and thus one 
 layer is laid over another until an artificial 
 crust is formed of broken stones of sufficient 
 thickness to give the requisite strength to 
 the road. 
 
 Mr. Macadam disregarded the nature of 
 the substratum on which his roads rested ; 
 and he maintained, that if it was not such a 
 bog as would not allow a man to walk over 
 it, he would even prefer it to a hard bottom. 
 
 Telford's system consists in a due atten- 
 tion to the substratum or foundation of the 
 road, so as to give increased facility to the 
 tractive power by rendering its surface hard 
 and unyielding. The following is a de- 
 scription of the method of constructing 
 such a road practised by that eminent en- 
 gineer. 
 
 1040 
 
 Upon the level bed prepared for the road 
 materials, a bottom course or layer of stones 
 is to be set by hand, in form of a close firm 
 pavement. The stones set in the middle of 
 the road should be seven inches in depth ; 
 at nine feet from the centre the depth 
 should be five inches ; at twelve feet, four 
 inches; and at fifteen feet, three inches; 
 the entire width of the road being thirty 
 feet. These stones are to be set on their 
 broadest edges, lengthwise across the road, 
 and the breadth of the upper edge should 
 not exceed four inches. All the irregu- 
 larities of the upper part of this pavement 
 are to be broken off by hammers, and all 
 the interstices to be filled with stone chips 
 firmly wedged or packed by hand with a 
 light hammer ; so that, when the pavement 
 is finished, its cross section shall have a 
 convexity of surface of about four inches 
 in the centre, above the extreme edges ; 
 eighteen feet in the centre of this pavement 
 are to be coated with a layer of hard broken 
 stones, six inches deep ; of these six inches, 
 four must be first put on and worked down 
 by carriages and horses in the ordinary 
 traffic of the road, care being taken con- 
 stantly to rake in the ruts until the surface 
 has become firm and the crust consolidated. 
 After this, the remaining two inches of 
 stone may be put on ; the whole of this 
 stone, forming six inches of crust, is to con- 
 sist of pieces broken as nearly as is prac- 
 ticable into a cubical form, and of such a 
 magnitude that they can pass through a 
 ring of two inches and a half internal di- 
 ameter. The spaces on each side of the 
 middle eighteen feet are to be coated with 
 broken stone or well-cleansed strong gravel 
 up to the level of the footpath or other 
 boundary of the road, so as to make the 
 whole convexity of the road six inches in 
 the middle above the level of the edges ; 
 and the whole of the materials thus formed 
 and consolidated should be covered with a 
 coating one inch and a half deep of good 
 gravel, free from clay or earth. (Brande's 
 Diet, of Science.) 
 
 ROARING. In farriery, a disease well 
 known to jockeys and horse-dealers, which 
 usually accompanies or precedes broken 
 wind. It is generally the result of long- 
 continued or violent exercises. It is con- 
 nected^ with dilatation of the air cells of the 
 lungs, and is incurable. See Broken 
 Wind. 
 
 ROAST-BEEF PLANT. See Iris. 
 ROBERT, HERB. See Cranes-Bill. 
 ROCHAMBOLE. See Garlic. 
 ROCK CRESS. See Cress, Wall. 
 ROCK DOVE. See Pigeon. 
 ROCKET, THE CRESS. See Cress- 
 Rocket. 
 
ROCKET. 
 
 ROLLERS. 
 
 ROCKET, LONDON. See Hedge- 
 Mustard. 
 
 ROCKET. (Reseda.) There are two 
 indigenous species of rocket or mignonette. 
 The dyer's rocket, or yellow weed (R. 
 Luteola, see Weld and the base rocket or 
 wild mignonette (R. luted), which is found 
 growing abundantly on chalky hills and 
 waste places, flowering in July and August. 
 The root is rather woody ; the stem bushy, 
 about two feet high, striated and branched. 
 The leaves are deeply three-lobed, lower 
 ones pinnatifid. Flowers buff-coloured, 
 slightly scented, in clusters. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 347.) See Mignonette. 
 
 ROCKET, THE SEA. (Cakile.) This 
 is a genus of annual plants, of little beauty 
 and easy cultivation. One species, the pur- 
 ple sea-rocket (C. maritima), is indigenous, 
 annual, very common on the sandy sea- 
 coast, flowering from June to September. 
 The herbage is smooth, fleshy, bushy, a 
 foot high, much branched and spreading in 
 every direction ; the stem and branches 
 remarkably twisted and zig-zag, never 
 straight. The leaves are fleshy, pinnatifid, 
 obtuse, a little glaucous, with a saltish bit- 
 ter taste. Flowers rather large, of a bright 
 lilac colour, densely corymbose. (Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 183.) 
 
 ROCK PIPIT. (Anthus aquaticus.) The 
 rock pipit inhabits low flat shores in the 
 vicinity of the sea, and the neigbouring salt 
 marshes, where it feeds on marine insects. 
 It makes a nest on the ground of dry grass, 
 and lays four or five eggs, which are green- 
 ish white, mottled with ash brown; nine 
 lines and a half long by seven lines and a 
 half broad. The general colour of the 
 plumage is olive, or yellowish brown. Whole 
 length of the bird six inches and three 
 quarters. (Yarrell's Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 394.) See Pipit. 
 
 ROLLER. (Coracias garrula.) In or- 
 nithology, a perching bird, which is an 
 occasional visitor to our shores. The ge- 
 
 Drill rollers. — These are not by any 
 means of modern invention, having been 
 well known to the farmers of Norfolk and 
 Suffolk for the greater part of a century. 
 The only improvement they have under- 
 gone has been to render each ring in- 
 dependent of its neighbour, so that the 
 process of turning at the end of the field 
 is facilitated, as in the case of the jointed 
 roller already mentioned. The modern 
 drill rollers in other respects have not im- 
 proved, if the doctrine of Mr Booth, 
 already noticed, be correct, that a small 
 1041 
 
 neral colour of the plumage is blue of 
 various shades, tinged with verditer, brown, 
 and black. The whole length of* the bird 
 is thirteen inches. The food of the roller 
 consists of worms, slugs, insects in their 
 various stages, and berries. (Yarrell's Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 195.) 
 
 ROLLERS. An implement of simple 
 construction, like the roller, the main object 
 of which is to render smooth the surface of 
 arable lands, would not seem to admit ap- 
 parently of much variety in its construc- 
 tion. Nevertheless, it is an implement in 
 which greater diversity of form is found to 
 exist than in most other agricultural ma- 
 chines. Rollers are of all sizes, weights, 
 and lengths ; and the material of which they 
 are made is occasionally iron, sometimes 
 stone, but most commonly wood. Of these, 
 the first is undoubtedly the best, and par- 
 ticularly for the jointed roller, by which 
 the operation of turning at the ends of the 
 ridges is materially facilitated, and the sla- 
 ding of the earth which would otherwise 
 take place on the head-lands, not only to 
 their great detriment, but to the no small 
 increase of labour to the horses, is thereby 
 prevented. 
 
 An ingenious gentleman, the late George 
 Booth, Esq., of Allerton, near Liverpool, 
 who to a great love of farming added a 
 very tolerable share of mechanical skill, 
 and to both ample means to carry out his 
 various devices, constructed a roller, or 
 rather a nest of rollers, on the lever prin- 
 ciple. He contended for a very small di- 
 ameter as the most effective in crushing the 
 clods, and throwing the greatest possible 
 weight on the surface of the ground. We 
 regret being only able to give an idea of 
 his invention from memory ; but do not 
 think his roller was more than a foot in 
 diameter at the outside. It consisted of 
 five cylinders or rollers, arranged somewhat 
 in this manner. 
 
 diameter is better than a large one. The 
 drill roller is used for the double purpose of 
 crushing clods on rough lands, and making 
 grooves ready to receive the seed of wheat 
 or other grain sown broad-cast on light soils. 
 It is a capital tool for either purpose. In 
 the first case it is followed by a harrow, of 
 sufficient weight to lighten up the surface ; 
 in the other, the fine short-toothed harrow, 
 or even a mere bush harrow, will be found 
 sufficient. The less such land is disturbed 
 after sowing the better, and the more distinct 
 will be the several rows or grooves of corn. 
 3 x 
 
ROLLERS. 
 
 Section ofWX Wieet 
 
 DRILL HOLLER. 
 
 Heavy Boilers. — The heavy roller shown 
 in the following sketch, is very effective : 
 it is formed of three separate cylinders, 
 about two feet in diameter, and of the same 
 
 length ; the axis of each being independent 
 of the other. On turning they consequently 
 revolve in different directions, and thus 
 " slading" at the land's end is avoided. 
 
 HEAVY ROLLER. 
 
 The double -jointed barley roller is a very 
 useful implement. It is so constructed that 
 the two sides being separate rolls or dis- 
 tinct frames, may revolve at opposite angles, 
 and when required one may be placed 
 behind the other. A plan has for many 
 
 years been in use in Norfolk, of construct- 
 ing them with twisted joints, so that the 
 under end of one roll shall work behind 
 the end of the other, thus leaving no seam 
 between the roller. 
 
 1042 
 
 DDI lil.K JOlM HARLEY ROLLER. 
 
ROLLING. 
 
 HOOT. 
 
 Crosskills' clod crusher is under many 
 circumstances a valuable implement. It is 
 composed of a series of iron rings, with 
 notched edges set apart from each other 
 about three or four inches. Small cross 
 bars or knives are placed at frequent in- 
 tervals on the faces of these, and near their 
 outer notched rims, so as to intersect every 
 portion of land over which it passes. Its 
 construction, combined with its great 
 weight, renders it very effective for the pur- 
 pose which its name denotes. Indeed, as 
 an old farming bailiff once aptly remarked, 
 it is a roll and a harrow combined. The 
 roller is an implement which requires some 
 judgment as to the time of its use, and this 
 
 remark applies with increased force to the 
 one under consideration. 
 
 Seam or Land Presser. — If a drill is so 
 effective an implement, far more so is the 
 seam or land presser, inasmuch as its whole 
 force and weight is directed to each indi- 
 vidual furrow, as it is turned over by the 
 common plough. The seam presser is in 
 fact an abstract of a drill roller, consisting 
 of but two cylinders of cast iron, which, 
 following in the furrow, press and roll down 
 the newly turned-up earth, and it is more 
 particularly useful when applied to clover 
 stubbles intended for wheat. (Ransome on 
 Agr. Imji.) 
 
 SEAM PRESSER . 
 
 ROLLING. In agriculture, the action 
 or operation of drawing a roller over the 
 surface of the ground with the view of 
 breaking down the clods, rendering it more 
 compact, and bringing it even and level ; or 
 for only levelling the surface, as in grass lands. 
 This is a practice that becomes necessary 
 both upon the tillage and grass lands, and 
 which is of much utility in both sorts of 
 husbandry. In the former case it is made 
 use of with different intentions, as for the 
 purpose of breaking down and reducing the 
 cloddy and lumpy parts of the soil in pre- 
 paring it for the reception of crops. It is 
 also of great use in many cases of light 
 soils, in rendering the surface more firm, 
 even, and solid, after the seed is put in. 
 
 ROOK. (Corvus frugilegus.) The habits 
 and appearance of this common and widely 
 extended bird, are so well known that de- 
 scription is unnecessary. It is found in all 
 the wooded, temperate parts of Europe, but 
 more abundantly in England and Ireland 
 than elsewhere. 
 
 Rooks are omnivorous, devouring in each 
 season the kind of food they can obtain in 
 the greatest quantity ; but they feed princi- 
 pally upon worms and various insects, which, 
 from the number of the birds themselves, 
 must be consumed to an enormous extent. 
 Although there has always been a differ- 
 1043 
 
 ence of opinion between farmers as to 
 the question of their amount of usefulness, 
 there can be no doubt that rooks are highly 
 beneficial to the farm, by keeping within 
 due bounds the turnip-fly beetle, the cock- 
 chafer beetle, wire worm beetle, crane fly, 
 slugs, grubs, &c. which prey upon and in- 
 jure the cultivated crops. 
 
 The rook lays four or five eggs of a pale 
 greenish ground colour, blotched over with 
 dark greenish brown, one inch eight lines 
 long, by one inch two lines broad. The 
 whole length of an adult male is about 
 nineteen inches and a half. The female is 
 frequently two inches shorter than the 
 male, and has less brilliancy in her plumage. 
 There are many varieties of the bird, and 
 instances have occurred of perfectly white 
 rooks. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 91. ; 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 306.; vol. ix. 
 p. 464.) 
 
 ROOT. In botany, that part of the cen- 
 tral axis of a plant which is formed by the 
 descending fibres, and whose function is to 
 attract liquid food from the soil in which it 
 is mingled. It differs from the stem in not 
 having leaves or buds upon its surface, and 
 in its tendency to burrow under ground, re- 
 treating from light; nevertheless, some kinds 
 of roots are exclusively formed in air and 
 light, as in the ivy, and other such plants ; 
 3* 2 
 
ROSE. 
 
 ROSEMARY. 
 
 but these are to be regarded as prehensile 
 organs, to support the plants, rather than 
 as roots, or nutritious organs. The ropt- 
 stock or rhizome is a prostrate rooting 
 thickened stem, which yearly produces 
 young branches or plants. Ginger and 
 orris-root are common instances of it. It 
 is often confounded with the root. There 
 are many appendages to the roots, namely, 
 tubers, bulbs, &c. which are mere reser- 
 voirs of food for the lateral progeny of the 
 plant. See Bulb, Rhizome, Tuber, &c. 
 
 ROSE. (Lat. Rosa, from the Celtic 
 rhod, red, in reference to the prevailing 
 colour of the flowers.) In botany, the 
 English name for the well known and uni- 
 versally cultivated flower of the genus 
 Rosa. It is an extensive family, but all 
 of the species love a stiff soil. No roses 
 will thrive in shallow poor ground. Stand- 
 ard roses are obtained by budding them 
 upon vigorous stocks raised from the seed 
 of the hedge or dog-rose, managing the 
 stocks in the same way as fruit stocks. 
 Their heads must be pruned occasionally, 
 to prevent their rambling. The dwarf 
 roses in flower borders should be pruned 
 in January, down to a foot high, cutting 
 out the old and dead wood. They will 
 produce finer flowers. Roses bear their 
 flowers upon wood of the last year. Only 
 the China roses flower upon the shoots of 
 the same year. Roses continue bkwing a 
 long time, if the fading flowers are cut off, 
 instead of being allowed to seed. The fol- 
 lowing roses are very hardy and beautiful, 
 and might satisfy any person who was not 
 an amateur : — Provence, white and red. 
 Moss Provence, white and red. Damask. 
 Velvet striped. Maiden's blush. Monthly 
 roses, white and red. Yellow, double and 
 single. Rose de Manx. Austrian briar. 
 Sweet briar. Chinese. Multiflora. Lady 
 Banks. Hardy climbers are, the Ayrshire 
 rose, single and double. Boursalt, red and 
 crimson. Reversa, elegans. Rosa semper- 
 virens, three sorts. Lady Banks yellow 
 rose. Rosa ruga. 
 
 As it would be impossible to give a 
 standard list of the most improved culti- 
 vated kinds, owing to the number of supe- 
 rior sorts raised annually from seed, and 
 many of the varieties being annually lost, 
 going out of repute, or entirely changing 
 their appearance from time and local cir- 
 cumstances, we would on that account 
 recommend those who wish to form a selec- 
 tion of these popular plants, to resort to 
 the latest and best catalogue of roses now 
 actually in cultivation, such as that of 
 Messrs. Rivera and Son of Sawbridgeworth, 
 Hertford, Messrs. Wood and Son, Uckfield, 
 Sussex ; or to consult Mrs. Gore's work 
 1044 
 
 upon Roses; The Rose Amateur's Guide, 
 by T. Rivers, jun. ; or Lindley's Rosarum 
 Monographia. The rose is propagated by 
 every method capable of being applied to 
 ligneous plants. The fruit of the dog rose 
 or common wild briar (R. canind) is de- 
 mulcent, and employed in medicine in the 
 form of a conserve or confection, as a ve- 
 hicle for more important medicines. The 
 various preparations from the flowers of the 
 Rosa centifolia, and some other kinds, are 
 rose-water, vinegar of roses, attar, or es- 
 sences of roses, &c. There are twenty-two 
 indigenous species of roses enumerated by 
 late botanical writers ; which it would take 
 up a considerable portion of our space, even 
 to name. (Paxton's Bot. Diet ; Phillips's 
 Shrub. ; Smith's ICng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 369.) 
 
 ROSE-COLOURED PASTOR. (Pas- 
 tor roseus, from pastor, a shepherd or herds- 
 man : this bird was probably so called, 
 because, like the starling, it is frequently 
 seen in company with sheep and cattle.) 
 This beautiful bird is a mere accidental 
 visiter to our shores. The head, neck, 
 wings, and tail are black, glossed with 
 violet blue ; the feathers on the head elon- 
 gated so as to form a flowing crest; the 
 back, rump, breast, sides, &c. of a delicate 
 rose colour. The whole length of the bird 
 is eight inches and a half. (Yan^elVs Bint. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 52.) 
 
 ROSE, JOHN, was considered the best 
 gardener of his time. He was dead at the 
 time Switzer published his Icnographia in 
 1718. He wrote, 
 
 1. The English Vineyard vindicated, and the Way of 
 making Wine in France. 1675, 1676, and 1690. 8vo. 
 This first appeared at the end of Evelyn's French Gar. 
 dener in 1672. 12mo. 2. A Treatise upon Fruit Trees. 
 This is mentioned by Switzer, but is a work I have never 
 seen. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Eng. Gard.) 
 
 ROSE, GUELDER. See Guelder 
 
 Rose. 
 
 ROSEMARY. (Rosmarinus officinalis. 
 From ros, dew, and marinus, of the sea, on 
 account of its maritime habitat. Poetically 
 implying " the dew of the ocean.") There 
 are three varieties — the green, golden- 
 striped, and silver-striped. The first is 
 the one in general cultivation. Rosemary 
 thrives best on a poor, gravelly soil, in 
 which there is a mixture of old mortar, or 
 other calcareous matters. In such, or when 
 the plants are self-raised on an old wall, 
 they will bear our severest winters ; but in 
 a rich soil they become succulent, lose 
 much of their aromatic nature, and perish 
 in frost. For the green variety, the situa- 
 tion may be open, but the other two being 
 tender, require to be planted beneatli a 
 south wall, or in pots, to be allowed the 
 shelter of a green-house in winter. It may 
 be propagated by cuttings and rooted slips 
 
ROSEMARY, THE WILD. 
 
 ROT. 
 
 during any of the spring months, or by- 
 layers during the summer. But the finest 
 plants are raised from seed, which, indeed, 
 and by layers, is the only mode of pro- 
 pagating the gold and silver-striped va- 
 rieties practised. The sowing must take 
 place in March or early in April. (G. W. 
 Johnsons Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 ROSEMARY, THE WILD. See An- 
 dromeda. 
 
 ROSE-ROOT. (Rhodiola.) The moun- 
 tain rose-root (R. rosea) is an indigenous 
 perennial plant, found growing in the fis- 
 sures of alpine rocks or maritime cliffs. The 
 root is thick and rather fleshy, much di- 
 vided at the crown; the cuticle grey and 
 smooth like satin. When recently dried, 
 the whole has an agreeable scent, resem- 
 bling rose-water. The herbage is succu- 
 lent, smooth, and glaucous, about a span 
 high. Cyme of many yellow flowers with 
 bluish anthers. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 246.) 
 
 ROSIL. A provincial term applied to 
 land which is neither light nor heavy, being 
 a medium between sand and clay; it is 
 sometimes written rosills. 
 
 ROSIN. A well-known substance, pro- 
 cured by the distillation of turpentine. 
 See Resin. 
 
 ROT. In farriery, a disease in sheep 
 and other animals, in which both the liver 
 and lungs are affected, and there is com- 
 monly a dropsical tendency. Its ravages 
 are chiefly, however, confined to sheep, and 
 it is most commonly closely connected with 
 excess of moist food, or placing these ani- 
 mals in low, wet situations, every way 
 foreign to their natural habits ; for sheep, 
 in a state of freedom, seek the most ele- 
 vated, dry, and heathy situations — an in- 
 stinct which long imprisonment and do- 
 mestication has not yet eradicated : every 
 farmer is aware with what tenacity his 
 sheep adhere to 'the very highest portions 
 of a field. It is only when we force them 
 to inhabit low grounds, and situations 
 foreign to their habits, that they thus be- 
 come diseased. In a state of nature too, 
 they browse npon the heath plants, and 
 seek with avidity at certain periods salt 
 springs and salt exudations, facts which 
 have not entirely escaped the notice of 
 modern flockmasters. Thus the argali or 
 wild sheep of Siberia, which are the pre- 
 sumed origin of all our domestic sheep, are 
 found about the size of the fallow deer, on 
 the immense chain of mountains reaching 
 through the middle of Asia to the Eastern 
 Ocean. They are found in small flocks, 
 ranging over the highest elevations. As the 
 winter approaches, they move downwards 
 into the plains, and exchange their food 
 1045 
 
 from the mountain plants to grass and other 
 vegetables. They are so partial to salt, that 
 they scrape away the earth in considerable 
 quantities in the neighbourhood of saline 
 places in ordere to procur it. All animals 
 in fact seek salt with the greatest avidity. 
 The shawl goat of Thibet (Dr. Macculloch) ; 
 the rein deer of Norway ( Von Brech) ; the 
 gyall, or bos frontalis of Aracan (A. B. 
 Lambert) ; the horses and mules of Mexico 
 (Dr. Paris) ; the cattle of Buenos Ayres ; 
 the Merino flocks of Spain (Lord Somer- 
 ville on Sheep, p. 97.) ; the sheep of Flan- 
 ders, whose owners deem its use an effectual 
 prevention of the rot (Minutes of the Salt 
 Committee, p. 119.); all are fond of salt, 
 and there is very considerable reason to 
 believe that by the use of this valuable 
 condiment, the ravages of this dreadful dis- 
 ease might either be very materially modi- 
 fied, or perhaps entirely prevented. 
 
 Many years since, Ellis, in his Practical 
 Husbandry, recommended the use of salt, 
 mixed with wort, in which had been boiled 
 sage, penny-royal, wormwood, shepherd's 
 purse, comfrey, &c. as a prevention of the rot ; 
 seven or eight spoonsful was the dose, once 
 a week after April, whenever the weather 
 was wet. 
 
 More than three centuries since, Fitz- 
 herbert, the earliest of the English agricul- 
 tural writers, alluded to this dreadful dis- 
 order in his " Boke of Husbandry," and in 
 his section entitled " What thynges rotteth 
 Shepe," he says, "It is necessary that a shep- 
 herde shoulde knowe what thynge rotteth 
 shepe, that he myghte kepe theym the bet- 
 ter. There is a grasse called sperewort, 
 and hath a longe narrow leafe lyke a spere 
 heed, and it wyll growe a fote hyghe, and 
 beareth a yellowe floure in lowe places 
 where the water is used to stande in wyn- 
 ter. An other grasse is called peny grasse, 
 and growethe lowe by the erthe in a mar she 
 grounde, and hath a leafe as brode as a 
 peny or two pence and neuer beareth floure. 
 All manner of grasse, that the lande floudde 
 runneth oner, is very evylle for shepe, by- 
 cause of the sande and fylthe that stycheth 
 uppon it. All moorish grounde and marsche 
 grounde is yll for shepe. The grasse that 
 groweth upon falowes is not good for shepe, 
 for there moche of it wede, and ofte tymes 
 it commeth uppe by the rote, and that 
 bryngeth erthe with it, and they eate both, 
 &c. Myldewe grasse is not good for shepe, 
 and that ye shall knowe two wayes : one 
 is by the leaves on the trees in the rnorn- 
 inge and specially of okes ; take the leaves 
 and putte thy tongue to them, and thou 
 shalt fele like hony uppon them. And also 
 there wyll be many kelles upon the grasse, 
 and that causeth the myldewe, wherefore 
 3x3 
 
ROT. 
 
 theye may not well be left out of the folde, 
 tyll the sonne have domination to drye 
 them awaye. Also hunger rotte is the 
 worst rotte that can be, for there is neither 
 goode fleshe nor goode skynne, and that 
 comethe for lacke of meate, and so for 
 hunger they eate suche as theye can fynde, 
 and so will not pasture sheepe, for theye 
 seldom rot but wythe myldewes, and than 
 wyll they have much talowe and fleshe, and 
 a good skyn. Also white snailes be yll for 
 shepe in pastures, and in falowes there is an 
 other rotte whiche is called pelte rotte, and 
 that commeth of greatte wete, speciallye in 
 woode countreyes where they cannot drye." 
 
 The symptoms of the rot, and of some of 
 its most decided remedies, have been thus 
 described by Dr. Brown of Boston (Mag. 
 of Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 98.), " It cannot, I 
 conceive, be demonstrated that in this dis- 
 ease the bile is thrown back upon the sys- 
 tem, and mingles with the circulating fluid ; 
 for in the early stages there is no obstruc- 
 tion to the bile ; and in the latter, what 
 little is secreted is intercepted by the flukes 
 on the hepatic side of the gall-bladder. 
 The eye, which some persons take to be an 
 index to the bilious condition of the system, 
 has really not that ' tinge of yellow and 
 jaundiced-like appearance' at the com- 
 mencement of the disease. On the con- 
 trary, the peculiar whiteness of the eyes is 
 the first symptom which guides the shep- 
 herd to the unwelcome truth. If the bile 
 ducts be carefully examined in the earliest 
 stage of the complaint, there will be found 
 a few flukes in the duct which conveys the 
 bile from the gall-bladder to the intestine, 
 but none in the gall-bladder, and none be- 
 yond it, a sound liver, no ' tubercles,' no 
 ' abscesses,' and withal a fine fat healthy- 
 looking carcass. If it be in the latest stage 
 when the examination is made, the gall- 
 bladder will be found filled with flukes in- 
 stead of bile : and the animals will be seen 
 making their way up those channels which 
 convey the bile from the liver to the gall- 
 bladder, arresting it in its course, and press- 
 ing forward and enlarging the biliary tubes. 
 Thus, when but few of these animals have 
 possession of this viscus, its function is not 
 materially impaired ; the parenchyma, or 
 substance of the liver, is unaltered in ap- 
 pearance ; the mucous channels, which con- 
 vey the bile to the gall-bladder, and from 
 the gall-bladder to the intestines, have not 
 yet felt their presence, and the bile itself is 
 secreted apparently unaltered in quality or 
 quantity : but here, as they live in a me- 
 dium of perpetual nourishment, they mul- 
 tiply to an extent incredible, and impede 
 the natural action of the liter and subor- 
 dinate organs of the body. They at length 
 1046 
 
 completely block up the conduits of bile, 
 devouring the bile as fast as it is secreted ; 
 spreading irritation and disease from the 
 vessels -in which they live to the whole mass 
 of the liver itself ; and in some instances 
 they carve their way through the mem- 
 brane which encircles them, and escape by 
 myriads into the cavity of the abdomen ; 
 thus completing the destruction of an im- 
 portant organ, and with it the life of the 
 animal. These extreme states are generally 
 associated with dropsy and a total dege- 
 neracy of the muscular tissue; the blood 
 is deficient in quantity, very serous, and 
 almost destitute of fibrin. A correspondent 
 inquires the class and family of the fluke, 
 in hopes of finding a remedy for a disease 
 so fatal. He will find it in the class 
 Vermes, and order Intestina, and it is the 
 Fasciola hepdtica. Contemplating it, as 
 it is, as a variety of exotic worm, it oc- 
 curred to me that vermifuges, destructive 
 to other species, might be employed with 
 advantage against this. But in instituting 
 experiments on the living animals, I dis- 
 carded those popular remedies which have 
 only a mechanical action, and which could 
 never reach the liver, for those which ope- 
 rate by a wider range of influence. What 
 I have observed is, that there are in this 
 class of remedies those which have little or 
 no effect when brought in contact with the 
 living fluke; and there are others which 
 destroy the animal immediately. To the 
 first of those which are inert, belong solu- 
 tions of vegetable bitters, spirits of tar, and 
 several others, which need not be enu- 
 merated. To the second, or to those which 
 destroy the animal, belong solutions of 
 mercury and the spirits of turpentine. For 
 example : a little calomel suspended in 
 water, and dropped upon the animal, 
 quickly deprives it of life ; and a drop of 
 the spirits of turpentine kills it in a few 
 seconds. The oil of turpentine is a deadly 
 poison to the fluke. The next consideration 
 is, how far it may be safe to administer tnis 
 medicine to the living sheep, and what pro- 
 bability there is of its disturbing an animal 
 inhabiting the liver. With regard to the 
 first exception, there can arise no difficulty. 
 The spirit of turpentine is borne readily by 
 children, and has been given to adults in 
 doses of a quarter of a pint ; it is likewise 
 applied externally to blistered surfaces, and 
 as a styptic to the bleeding mouths of rup- 
 tured blood-vessels. There can be as little 
 doubt with regard to the second exception, 
 when we consider the penetrating nature 
 of this drug; when we know that the mere 
 immersion of the hand in it is sufficient to 
 impregnate the urinary secretion; nor can 
 we doubt that its influence will be acknow- 
 
ROT. 
 
 ledged by an organ approximating and 
 communicating with the stomach, and by 
 the worm inhabiting that organ." 
 
 The outward symptoms of this disease 
 were many years since well described by 
 Dr. Harrison of Boston, Lincolnshire, when 
 he said, " If in warm, sultry, and rainy 
 weather, sheep that are grazing on low and 
 moist lands, feed rapidly, and some of them 
 die suddenly, there is reason to fear that 
 they have contracted the rot : this suspicion 
 will be further increased, if in a few weeks 
 afterwards the sheep begin to shrink, and 
 become flaccid in their loins. By pressure 
 about the hips at this time, a crackling is 
 sometimes perceptible. Now or soon after- 
 wards the countenance looks pale, and upon 
 parting the fleece, the skin is found to have 
 parted its vermilion tint for a pale red, 
 and the wool is easily separated from the 
 pelt ; as the disorder advances, the skin be- 
 comes dappled with yellow or black spots. 
 About this time the eye loses its lustre, and 
 becomes white and pearly, from the red 
 vessels of the tunica adnata and eyelids 
 being contracted or entirely obliterated. 
 To this succeeds debility and emaciation, 
 which increase continually till the sheep die, 
 or else ascites or perhaps general dropsy 
 supervene before the fatal termination." 
 
 Such are the symptoms and the most 
 powerful known remedies for this disease ; 
 an equally important research is its origin, 
 its predisposing circumstances, or imme- 
 diate cause. In this, however, in common 
 with most other diseases of animal and ve- 
 getable life, difficulties occur at every turn, 
 of a nature almost entirely inexplicable. 
 We must be content to do little more than 
 merely trace its symptoms and the course 
 in which it commonly runs. No flock- 
 masters are perhaps more anxiously alive 
 to the disease, or more often its victims, 
 than the owners of the noble water-mea- 
 dows of the south of England, such as those 
 of the valleys of the Kennett, the Itchen, 
 and the Wiltshire Avon. 
 
 These excellent farmers have noticed, 
 that the first crop of spring water-meadow 
 grass never imparts the rot to sheep ; but 
 that the second crop, which they therefore 
 make into hay, is almost certain to do so. 
 They notice, also, that the worst rotting 
 time is from Midsummer to Michaelmas ; 
 that almost all meadow land, if chance 
 flooded in summer, that is, if covered by 
 the overflowing of rivers, so as to be co- 
 vered with their muddy waters, is almost 
 certain to rot the sheep. That gravelly 
 bottomed water meadows, like those between 
 Marlborough and Hungerford, never rot the 
 sheep fed on them, in any season or period 
 of the year. This would appear to confirm 
 1047 
 
 the very common suspicion that it is not 
 the grass which rots the sheep, but the 
 gaseous or aqueous vapours which emanate 
 from such places, more copiously as the 
 weather becomes warmer in the summer ; 
 but then against such a conclusion we have 
 the fact well known to owners of the water 
 meads, that when sheep are soiled even 
 upon fine dry elevated soils, (such as never 
 render sheep rotten,) with the second crop 
 of grass from water meads — that then the 
 sheep become as equally rotten, as if they 
 had been pastured on the very meadows from 
 whence the grass was carried. It would 
 seem, therefore, that there are more watery 
 matters, or other sources of disease in the 
 second crop than in the first. 
 
 That the grass of the second crop varies 
 very materially in its chemical composition 
 from that of the first, has been clearly shown 
 by the analysis of the late Mr. George Sin- 
 clair. He found that rye-grass (Lolium ♦ 
 perenne) at the time of flowering, taken 
 from a water-meadow that had been fed 
 off" with sheep till the end of April, afforded 
 of nutritive matter 72 grains. The same 
 grass from the meadow that had not been de- 
 pastured in the spring, afforded 100 grains. 
 The same weight of this grass, taken from a 
 rich old pasture that had been shut up for 
 hay about the same time, afforded of nutri- 
 tive matter 95 grains. That from the rich 
 pasture that had not been depastured, af- 
 forded 120 grains. (Hort. Gram. Wob. 
 p. 384.) And in the great majority of 
 instances, the aftermath of the upland 
 grasses is considerably less rich in nutritive 
 matters than that of their first or spring 
 crop. 
 
 Such then are the supposed causes, symp- 
 toms, and treatment recommended for the 
 cure of this disease. For the cure, both 
 turpentine and common salt seem to have 
 sometimes been successfully used. But the 
 effect of salt seems to be much more de- 
 cided when employed as a prevention rather 
 than a cure. As a preventive too, the use 
 of aromatic vegetable substances seems to 
 be excellent. It is the kind of prevention 
 also which might be supposed to be effi- 
 cacious from following the order of nature, 
 and observing the habits of the sheep in 
 their wild state, browsing as they inva- 
 riably do upon the aromatic plants, and the 
 shoots of mountain shrubs ; and never de- 
 scending to live upon the rank and watery 
 grasses of the valleys, until compelled by 
 the severity of the weather. Every farmer 
 is aware with what avidity they consume 
 such domestic herbs — the parsley for in- 
 stance — as abound in essential oils. An 
 attempt has indeed been recently made to 
 cultivate this herb in the fields as feed for 
 3x4 
 
HOT IN TIMBER. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 sheep ; and I have little doubt that if some 
 attention were paid to the cultivation of 
 such plants (if the parsley will not bear 
 the browsing of the sheep, they might be 
 occasionally soiled with it), by way of con- 
 diment or change ; — if the flock were al- 
 lowed, at all times and seasons, access to 
 common salt (and this might be mixed, if 
 necessary, with aromatic substances grateful 
 to the sheep) ; and, lastly, if some care were~ 
 taken in supplying them, when feeding on 
 watery plants, with a little hay, corn, or 
 oil-cake, that then the destruction caused 
 by this melancholy scourge of the flock- 
 master would be either entirely prevented 
 or very materially reduced. See Fluke. 
 
 ROT IN TIMBER. It has been noted, 
 that wood saturated with common salt is 
 never subject to this disease. Mr. Bethel 
 has proposed a plan for its prevention, by 
 saturating the wood with coal-tar. Mr. 
 Ryan uses for the same purpose a solution 
 of corrosive sublimate (muriate of mer- 
 cury). Sir W. Burnet employs a solution 
 of muriate of lime. (Quar. Jour. Ag. vol. vi. 
 p. 145. ; vol. xi. p. 127.) See Dry-Rot. 
 
 ROTATION OF CROPS. The order 
 in which different crops are made to suc- 
 ceed each other. It was only towards the 
 middle of the last century, that the import- 
 ance of a scientific rotation of crops began 
 even to attract the farmer's attention. Pre- 
 vious to that period we search in vain in the 
 works of agricultural authors for the slight- 
 est notice of such a theme. The writers 
 before those days, as Arthur Young no- 
 ticed, recited courses of husbandry, good, 
 bad, and execrable, exactly in the same 
 tone as matters not open to praise or cen- 
 sure, and unconnected with any principles 
 that could throw any light on the arrange- 
 ment of the farm, or its more successful 
 cultivation. And yet it is on this difficult 
 part of the farmer's business being scien- 
 tifically pursued, that much of the profits 
 and advantages which he is to derive from 
 his land for a course of years must depend. 
 Arthur Young, the most popular and the 
 most rapid of observers, saw the import- 
 ance of this difficult inquiry in its true 
 light : he correctly enough told the farmers 
 of his day, that whenever very good or very 
 bad husbandry is found on arable land, it 
 is more the result of a right or wrong ar- 
 rangement of crops than of any other cir- 
 cumstance ; that no district is well cul- 
 tivated under bad rotations, while it is 
 extremely rare to find any badly cultivated 
 under such as are good. More accurate 
 and more generally diffused observations 
 have Long since, however, led the present 
 race of cultivators to assign to the inquiry 
 its proper value. The importance in fact 
 1048 
 
 of the investigation no modern farmer will 
 for a moment doubt. It may not be an 
 useless mode of conducting the research, if 
 we inquire, as we proceed in our proposed 
 examination, into the few yet valuable 
 lights which chemical and entomological in- 
 vestigations have shed upon this important, 
 yet, from the endless variety of soils and 
 situations, somewhat intricate and laborious 
 theme. 
 
 In regard to the general principles, as 
 it has been well observed, on which the 
 proper cropping of land depends, it is now 
 perfectly understood, that some kind of 
 crops deteriorate or exhaust the land to a 
 much greater degree than others ; that 
 some by their capability of being consumed 
 on the farm (though they do exhaust the 
 soil) return, in such consumption by live 
 stock, as much or perhaps rather more to 
 the soil than they draw from it, during the 
 period of their growth. And again, that 
 other crops, by admitting of profitable til- 
 lage and cleansing the land during their 
 growth, aid very much in the essential de- 
 struction of weeds, insects, &c, and in ame- 
 liorating the land for the succeeding crop ; 
 while, on the other hand, different crops, by 
 not permitting such cultivation, and being 
 great exhausters when following in imme- 
 diate and rapid succession, not only de- 
 teriorate the soil, but fill it with weeds and 
 grubs. Hence it follows in practice, that 
 by suitable arrangements of these different 
 crops in rotation, most kinds of land may, 
 without lying idle, be constantly preserved 
 in a clean and productive condition. In 
 the management of rotations, however, 
 much careful attention and discrimination 
 is requisite in the cultivator, to profitably 
 adapt them to the nature of the soil, and 
 the other circumstances under which he is 
 placed. Above all, the farmer must re- 
 member, that as different kinds of plants 
 require different kinds and proportions of 
 nutritious materials to be drawn from the 
 earth for their increase and perfect growth, 
 so also they need different situations and 
 conditions of soil for their most profitable 
 development. 
 
 The farmer too is well aware that cer- 
 tain crops never prosper well two or more 
 seasons together in the same land ; that they 
 in fact commonly exhaust or " tear out " 
 the soil to such an extent, that every 
 lawyer's clerk is aware of and notices it in 
 some restraining covenant of " the lease." 
 
 Even the gardener, aided as he is by the 
 most copious supplies of enriching com- 
 posts, always avoids as much as possible 
 planting a tree where one of the same 
 species has preceded it. 
 
 Now it is of primary importance that we 
 
ROTATION 
 
 OF CROPS. 
 
 should endeavour to understand, if possible, 
 the cause of this phenomenon. This ques- 
 tion, therefore, has long engaged not only 
 the attention of the most sagacious formers, 
 but of many distinguished chemical philo- 
 sophers. By these it has been regarded 
 in chiefly frvvo points of view. First, it has 
 been contended, that as each plant has pe- 
 culiar excretory matters, which it con- 
 stantly deposits in the soil in which it is 
 placed — matters which are found to be par- 
 ticularly noxious to other plants of its own 
 species — that in consequence, until these 
 are decomposed and removed from the 
 earth by other plants, or by the gradual 
 effects of decomposition, the same crop 
 cannot advantageously prosper in the soil. 
 And in support of this doctrine is adduced 
 the well-known fact, that the excretory 
 matters deposited or diffused through the 
 water in which bulbs or other roots have 
 been cultivated, will not well support other 
 bUlbs ; yet still that such impure water 
 is found to be more grateful than clear 
 water to vegetables of another species. 
 
 And again, that certain plants and trees 
 are well known to be excellent and mu- 
 tually fertilising neighbours, — a know ledge 
 indeed as old as the days of Rome under her 
 emperors ; for at those periods the Italian 
 farmers commonly planted the elm as the 
 companion, or "husband," as they called it, of 
 the vine : and every farmer is aware, amongst 
 other facts of a similar nature, that the corn- 
 flower can be found only amongst his corn 
 crops — it is in vain to search for it elsewhere. 
 The gardener also well knows, that it is almost 
 useless to replant old orchards with the same 
 trees, or to replace old quick-hedges with 
 young quick plants, yet an old orchard or 
 the site of an old hedge row are proverbial 
 for their fertility, when planted with other 
 crops. There is considerable importance I 
 think to be attached to this mode of ac- 
 counting for the facts of the case, but it is 
 by no means so complete an explanation as 
 is desirable. There are some soils for in- 
 stance, which would seem (if this were the 
 sole cause of the phenomenon) to defy all 
 the excretory powers of the plant. Some 
 of the newly- inclosed lands of the United 
 States of America, for instance, have pro- 
 duced excellent wheat crops for even twenty 
 years without interruption. Some of the 
 alluvial soils of the lower portion of the 
 valley of the Thames have yielded alternate 
 crops of wheat and beans from time imme- 
 morial ; and by the addition of manure, the 
 potato grounds near London yield abun- 
 dant crops for a series of years. There are 
 other observations too, of a similar kind, 
 which will readily be remembered by the 
 intelligent farmer, which do not seem to 
 1049 
 
 assimilate entirely with this mode of re- 
 moving the difficulties of the case. 
 
 The other way of explaining the reluct- 
 ance with which a crop follows another of 
 the same description is, by supposing that 
 each kind of plant has some peculiar and es- 
 sential ingredient which it absorbs from, and 
 in a great degree exhausts the soil, and that 
 it is, therefore, only after a lapse of some 
 time, when that ingredient or those ingre- 
 dients are restored by the application of 
 manure, or by other modes, that the same 
 plants can be again profitably cultivated. 
 To a great extent this theory is not only a 
 very plausible but a very probable and 
 reasonable explanation of the difficulty. 
 Thus the farmer is well aware that certain 
 soils on which red clover formerly grew 
 very successfully once in four years, will 
 now only yield any profitable degree of 
 produce of the same plant once in eight 
 or once in twelve years. The excretory 
 powers of the plant in this instance, there- 
 fore, are useless in explanation of the diffi- 
 culty ; for according to that theory, the 
 excretory matters which long were suc- 
 cessfully dissipated or absorbed by other 
 plants in the course of four years, should 
 do so in our age just as well as in a former 
 period. But if we admit what has been 
 not only sometimes, but very often clearly 
 proved to be the case, that the soils which 
 are thus reluctant to produce red clover, are 
 now totally exhausted of sulphate of lime 
 (gypsum) — that moreover, every fair aver- 
 age crop of this valuable grass contains from 
 one to two hundred pounds weight per acre 
 of this salt — and that by dressing the land 
 with this manure, in almost exactly the 
 same proportion and quantity as that which 
 is contained in the clover, that then the 
 land will again grow the very same crop 
 once in four years ; when these and other 
 similar facts are proved, the very strong 
 probable conclusion to which we must ar- 
 rive is apparent, viz. that the clover had 
 gradually exhausted the land of an essen- 
 tial ingredient which only needed to be 
 restored to it, to enable the clover again to 
 flourish with its wonted vigour. And this 
 is not a solitary instance : thus marine 
 plants will only grow successfully in inland 
 situations, where common salt is added to 
 the soil. The sun-flower and the nettle 
 need in an equal degree the assistance of 
 saltpetre. The presence in the soil of phos- 
 phate of lime (the earthy salt of bones) is 
 equally essential to the vigorous growth of 
 almost all the grain crops. 
 
 Then again, there are other facts of a 
 different nature well known to the farmer, 
 which appear to lead us to the same con- 
 clusion ; for instance, every cultivator is 
 
ROTATION 
 
 OF CROPS. 
 
 aware that by cutting his crops green, his 
 land is not nearly so much exhausted, as 
 when the same crops are allowed to ripen 
 their seeds. And if in explanation of this 
 observation, it can be shown that the plant, 
 when ripe, contains a larger proportion of 
 any peculiar saline or earthy ingredient 
 than it does when in a growing unripe 
 state, this will further tend to establish the 
 truth of the last named theory — that it is 
 the abstraction from the soil by the plant 
 of some peculiar substance which thus ex- 
 hausts, and indisposes it to support the same 
 crop. Now this, according to chemical in- 
 vestigations, seems, at least in many in- 
 stances, to be the case. Thus, M. Saussure, 
 in his chemical researches, has shown by 
 the results of his analysis, that the ashes of 
 the plants of peas (Pisum sativum), when 
 green and in flower, contain only 17*25 per 
 cent, of phosphate of lime, but that, when 
 ripe, they yield 22 per cent. And again, 
 that the ashes of plants of vetches (Vicia 
 faba), which yielded only 13*5 per cent, of 
 the same salt when in flower, contain 17*75 
 per cent, when they are ripe. The same re- 
 sult was obtained from other plants : the So- 
 lydago vulgaris for instance, which yielded 
 8-5 per cent, of phosphate of lime when first 
 in flower, contained 11 per cent, when ripe. 
 The turnsole (Helianthus annuus), which 
 afforded only 6 per cent, when flowering, 
 contained 22 - 5 per cent, when ripe. The 
 wheat plant, which held 10*75 per cent, in 
 flower, contained 11-75 when ripe. The 
 ashes of the straw of wheat were found to 
 yield only 6'2 per cent, of this essentially 
 present salt, but its seeds held 44'5, and its 
 bran 46*5 per cent, of it. M. Vauquelin 
 obtained a result somewhat similar in his 
 examination of the ashes of the oat plant ; 
 the seeds affording him 39*3 per cent, of 
 phosphate of lime, but when he burnt the 
 whole plant, seed and stalk together, he 
 then found only 15 per cent. 
 
 The evidence, therefore, in favour of the 
 absorbent theory, is certainly rather stronger 
 than that in support of the excretory mode 
 of explaining the phenomenon. Yet, in all 
 probability, both causes may contribute to 
 produce the effect. Davy, the chief of mo- 
 dern chemists, adopted the former mode of 
 explaining the reluctance with which a crop 
 grows for two years successively on the 
 same land. (Lectures, p. 357.) Changes of 
 all kind seem, in truth, ever to be grateful 
 to vegetation — change of soil, of seed, of 
 the course of cropping, of manure, &c. 
 " Peas and beans," said Davy, " in all in- 
 stances, seem well adapted to prepare the 
 ground for wheat; and in some rich lands, 
 as in (he alluvial soil of the Parret, and at 
 (he loot of tin; South Downs, in Sussex, 
 1050 
 
 they are raised in alternate crops for years 
 together. Peas and beans contain a small 
 quantity of a matter analogous to albumen 
 (hard white of egg) ; but it seems that the 
 nitrogen which forms a constituent part of 
 this matter, is derived from the atmosphere. 
 The dry bean leaf, when burnt, yields a 
 smell approaching to that of decomposing 
 animal matter ; and in its decay in the soil 
 may furnish principles capable of becoming 
 a part of the gluten in wheat. 
 
 " Though the general composition of plants 
 is very analogous, yet the specific difference 
 in the products of many of them, and other 
 well ascertained facts, prove that they must 
 derive different materials from the soil ; and 
 though the vegetables, having the smallest 
 systems of leaves, will proportionately most 
 exhaust the soil of common nutritive mat- 
 ter, yet particular vegetables, when their 
 produce is carried off, will require peculiar 
 principles to be supplied to the land in 
 which they grow. Strawberries and po- 
 tatoes at first produce luxuriantly in virgin 
 mould, recently turned up from pasture, 
 but in a few years they degenerate and re- 
 quire a fresh soil ; and the organization of 
 these plants is such as to be constantly 
 producing the migration of their layers. 
 Thus, the strawberry, by its long shoots, 
 is continually endeavouring to occupy a 
 new soil ; and the fibrous radicles of the 
 potato produce bulbs at a considerable dis- 
 tance from the parent plant. The most 
 remarkable instance of the powers of the 
 plant to exhaust the soil of certain prin- 
 ciples necessary to its growth, is found in 
 certain fungi. Mushrooms are said never 
 to rise in two successive seasons on the 
 same spot ; and the production of the phe- 
 nomena called fairy rings, has been ascribed 
 by Dr. Wollaston to the power of the pe- 
 culiar fungus which forms it, to exhaust 
 the soil of the nutriment necessary for the 
 growth of the species. The consequence 
 is that the ring annually extends, for no 
 seeds will grow where their parents grew 
 before them, and the interior part of the 
 circle has been exhausted by preceding 
 crops ; but where the fungus has died, nou- 
 rishment is supplied for grass, which usually 
 rises within the circle, coarse, and of a dark 
 green colour." " When cattle," adds Davy, 
 " are fed upon land not benefited by their 
 manure, the effect is always an exhaustion 
 of the soil : this is particularly the case 
 where carrying horses are kept on estates ; 
 they consume the pasture during the night, 
 and drop the greatest part of their manure 
 during their labour in the day-time. The 
 exportation of corn from a country, unless 
 some articles capable of becoming manure, 
 are introduced in compensation, must ul- 
 
ROTATION 
 
 OF CHOPS. 
 
 timately tend to exhaust the soil. Some of 
 the spots, now desert sands in northern 
 Africa and Asia Minor, were anciently fer- 
 tile ; Sicily was the granary of Italy, and 
 the quantity of corn carried off from it by 
 the Romans is probably a chief cause of its 
 present sterility." 
 
 The same theory is also supported by M. 
 Liebig : in his excellent work on Organic 
 Chemistry, p. 158. he remarks, " It is evi- 
 dent that two plants growing beside each 
 other, will mutually injure one another, if 
 they withdraw tb.e same food from the soil. 
 Hence, it is not surprising that the Matri- 
 caria Chamomilla and Spartium Scoparium 
 impede the growth of corn, when it is con- 
 sidered that both yield from 7 to 7*43 per 
 cent, of ashes, which contain ^% of car- 
 bonate of potash. The darnel and the Eri- 
 geron acre blossom and bear fruit at the 
 same time as the corn ; so that when grow- 
 ing mingled with it, they will partake of 
 the component parts of the soil, and in pro- 
 portion to the vigour of their growth, that 
 of the corn must decrease ; for what one 
 receives the others are deprived of. Plants 
 will, on the contrary, thrive beside each 
 other, either when the substances necessary 
 for their growth, which they extract from 
 the soil, are of different kinds, or when they 
 themselves are not in the same stages of 
 development at the same time. On a soil, 
 for example, which contains potash, both 
 wheat and tobacco may be reared in suc- 
 cession, because the latter plant does not 
 require phosphates, salts which are inva- 
 riably present in wheat, but requires only 
 alkalies and food containing nitrogen. Ac- 
 cording to the analysis of Posselt and Rei- 
 mann, 1000 parts of the leaves of the to- 
 bacco plant contain 16 parts of phosphate 
 of lime, 8*8 parts of silica, and no mag- 
 nesia; whilst an equal quantity of wheat- 
 straw contains 473 parts ; and the same 
 quantity of the grain of wheat 99'45 parts 
 of phosphates." 
 
 The late George Sinclair took a similar 
 view of the cause of the exhaustion of soils. 
 " If," he says, " a plant impoverishes a soil 
 in proportion to the weight of vegetable 
 matter it produces on a given space of 
 ground, the following will be the order in 
 which the under-mentioned plants exhaust 
 the ground, being the proportion they bear 
 to each other with respect to weight of pro- 
 duce : — 
 
 Mangel wurzel - - - 25 
 
 Cabbages - - - 25 
 
 White turnip - - - 16 
 
 Potatoes - - - - 15 
 
 Kohl-rabi (bulb stalked cabbage) - 14 
 Swedish turnip - - - 13 
 
 Carrots - •• - - 11 
 
 1051 
 
 But when we take the weight of nutritive 
 matter which a plant affords from a given 
 space of ground, the results are very dif- 
 ferent, and will be found to agree with the 
 daily experience in the garden and the farm. 
 
 The following figures represent the pro- 
 portion in which they stand to each other 
 with respect to the weight of nutritive 
 matter per acre, and in exhausting the 
 land : — 
 
 Potatoes - - - - 63 
 
 Cabbages - - - - 42 
 
 Mangel wurzel - - - 28 
 
 Carrots - - - - 24 
 
 Kohl-rabi - - - - 17 
 
 Swedish turnip - - - 16 
 
 Common turnip - - - 14 
 
 Change of crops also prevents very ma- 
 terially the increase of the predatory grub 
 and insects which also more or less prey 
 upon the farmer's crops. The parent of 
 the wire-worm, for instance, which is the 
 larva of a small beetle, the Elater segetis, 
 may be seen in the summer months de- 
 positing its eggs on lays or meadows abound- 
 ing with the cereal grasses ; for instinct 
 teaches it to place its eggs where the young 
 wire-worm will meet with its natural food, 
 which are the cereal grasses. Change of 
 crops, therefore, not only checks the de- 
 posit of the eggs, but by removing the na- 
 tural food of the young vermin, it materially 
 prevents increase, or even their continu- 
 ance ; which otherwise, as is the case for 
 instance with the wire-worm, might for 
 four or five years be a pest to the soil. 
 
 The ordinary course or rotation of crops 
 under which the light lands of England are 
 commonly cultivated, is either on what is 
 denominated the four-course or shift sys- 
 tem, or the five-course or shift. 
 
 The four-shift system commonly consists 
 of fallow, manured: 1. turnips, fed off; 2. 
 oats, or barley ; 3. grass seed ; 4. wheat. 
 
 The five-shift system, which is in many 
 situations a much more advantageous course 
 of husbandry, is commonly fallow: 1. tur- 
 nips ; 2. oats, or barley ; 3. clover ; 4. peas ; 
 5. wheat. 
 
 On clays the course varies : on some 
 kinds of heavy clays it is usually fallow, 
 with manure ; wheat ; beans ; wheat, ma- 
 nured ; clover ; oats, or wheat. 
 
 On other clays the system pursued is 
 fallow, with manure ; wheat, or oats ; clo- 
 ver ; beans ; wheat. 
 
 The variations, however, are of necessity 
 exceedingly various. Thus on some of the 
 inferior adhesive clays of the midland coun- 
 ties, they adopt the four-course system. 
 
 Another system of moderately heavy soil 
 husbandry is : — 
 
ROTATION OF CROPS. 
 
 ROWAN-TREE. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1. Turnips - - - 20 
 Fallow - - - 20 
 
 2. Barley - - - 20 
 Oats - - - 20 
 
 3. Seeds - - - 20 
 Tares fed off - - 20 
 
 4. Wheat - - - 40 
 
 There are endless variations, however, 
 of this system, varying in their course from 
 that practised in some of the heavy rich 
 Essex soils of a two-shift system : viz. 1 . 
 wheat; 2. beans; 3. wheat, with an occasional 
 fallow. And that more extensively used 
 in the hundreds of that great agricultural 
 county, of a five-shift system of fallow: 1. 
 oats ; 2. clover, dunged ; 3. wheat ; 4. beans ; 
 5. wheat. To the nine-shift system of hus- 
 bandry sometimes practised, which is about 
 the longest course with which I am ac- 
 quainted, viz. 
 
 20 acres fallow, or turnips manured. 
 
 20 acres oats or barley. 
 
 20 acres clover. 
 
 20 acres wheat well hoed. 
 
 20 acres winter tares, sheep-fed. 
 
 20 acres wheat, hoed. 
 
 20 acres seeds, sheep-fed. 
 
 20 acres, 15 of beans and 5 of peas, dunged. 
 
 20 acres wheat, hoed. 
 
 The following course, which takes in every 
 valuable crop, without in any instance vio- 
 lating the rules that science directs, seems 
 to me the best, and is recommended by a 
 Norfolk farmer for most clays not too wet. 
 Say for a farm of 350 acres — 100 acres of 
 green crops, such as cabbages, turnips, rape, 
 and tares, adapting the green crops to the 
 nature of the land; 50 acres of peas or 
 beans ; 50 acres of barley or oats, laid down 
 with clover; and 100 acres of wheat. 
 
 You will by this course have every year 
 200 acres of corn, 50 of clover, and 100 of 
 green crops, thus saving your land from 
 exhaustion by too frequent repetition of 
 crops of the same genus. And white crops 
 will in no instance succeed each other. The 
 wheat stubbles are in this way sown with 
 green crops to be followed by fifty of barley 
 and fifty of beans or peas; the barley 
 sown with clover and followed by wheat, 
 which will thus be 50 acres on clover, and 
 50 on the bean or pea stubble, taking care 
 that the 50 acres of green crops, followed 
 by beans or peas, when next coming in 
 course for green crops, shall be sown with 
 barley and clover, as by this means the 
 clover comes only once in seven years. 
 
 In whatever point of view, therefore, 
 the farmer examines the rotation of crops 
 best adapted to his land, the more highly 
 interesting docs the investigation appear. 
 Long observation and the practice of acres 
 1052 
 
 have convinced the best English culti- 
 vators that sooner or later the soil is tired 
 of or exhausted of something essential to its 
 luxuriant produce, by a repetition of the 
 same crops ; that the richest meadows gra- 
 dually decrease in their produce ; other soils 
 become " clover sick ; " and it is now even 
 pretty generally suspected, that the land is 
 in many districts gradually getting tired of 
 turnips. To the examination, therefore, of 
 this great question, let every farmer con- 
 tribute his mite of practical observations ; 
 it is a theme whose investigation has long 
 yielded a rich harvest to English agri- 
 culture, for amongst its fruits must be 
 numbered the introduction of turnips, of 
 mangel-wurzel, and other green crops : its 
 examination led to the adoption of the four- 
 shift system, and the banishment of that 
 which for ages rested on the miserable plan 
 of one crop and a fallow. It is idle, there- 
 fore, to contend that nothing more is to be 
 effected by change of crops ; for the expe- 
 rience of all periods is against so indolent and 
 so erroneous an assumption. Let the farmer 
 only remember what has been accomplished 
 by the mere introduction of the turnip 
 plant ; what thousands of acres have been 
 brought into cultivation by its means, and 
 how many mouths are fed by the increased 
 fertility of the land produced by the adop- 
 tion of that four-shift system of rotation of 
 which it is the first crop. Let him bring 
 to mind what superior crops are now pro- 
 duced by the adoption of new seeds and 
 novel courses, to those which a century since 
 tenanted the lands of merry England ; and 
 he will then see abundant reason for hope, 
 and for an energetic perseverance in a 
 course of discovery, which has already ren- 
 dered such an abundant harvest to the ex- 
 cellent cultivators of our soil. {Brit. Farm. 
 Mag. vol. v. p. 319. See M. Bousingault on 
 the " Rotation of Crops," Quar. Jour. Agr. 
 vol. x. p. 25 1 . ; Mr. Morton, Jour. Roy. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 388. ; Mr. Towers, Ibid. p. 388. : 
 also Quar. Jour. Agr. vol. xi. p. 519. ; and 
 Com. Board Agr. vol. iv. p. 150.) 
 
 ROWAN-TREE. (Pyrus aucuparia.) 
 The quicken tree, or mountain-ash, as it is 
 sometimes called, is a handsome tree, of 
 slow growth, with a tough, cross-grained, 
 not very hard wood, indigenous to our 
 mountains, woods, and hedges. The leaves 
 are pinnate, scarcely a span long, composed 
 of leaflets, uniform, serrated, smooth. The 
 flowers, which appear in May, are nume- 
 rous, in corymbose panicles, with flattish 
 downy stalks ; their petals are concave, 
 and exhale a slight almond-like scent. The 
 fruit is globose, scarlet, very juicy, sour, and 
 bitter. They are eagerly devoured by birds 
 of the thrush kind.' The fruit, also, when 
 
ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. 
 
 RUFF. 
 
 the bitter is extracted by soaking it in 
 water, may be made into a preserve. 
 ( Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 364.) 
 
 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL IM- 
 PROVEMENT SOCIETY OF IRE- 
 LAND was instituted in 1841. Its cham- 
 bers are at 37. Upper Sackville Street, 
 Dublin; its secretary is Edward Bullen, 
 Esq. An annual payment of 11. constitutes 
 a member. The objects of the society are : 
 
 1. An annual cattle show in April or May. 
 
 2. An agricultural museum. 3. The gene- 
 ral diffusion of agricultural knowledge. 4. 
 An agricultural college. 5. By every other 
 means to improve Irish agriculture. (Far- 
 mers Almanac.) 
 
 ROYAL AGRICULTURAL SO- 
 CIETY OF ENGLAND. This excellent 
 Society was instituted in 1838. The secre- 
 tary is James Hudson, Esq. ; Chambers, No. 
 5. Cavendish Square. 
 
 The Royal Agricultural Society of Eng- 
 land consists of a president, twelve trustees, 
 twelve vice-presidents, governors, and mem- 
 bers. The president is elected annually, 
 and is not re-eligible for three years. The 
 president, trustees, and vice-presidents are 
 elected from the governors. The governors 
 pay 51. annually, the members 11., with the 
 power to compound for life by the payment 
 in one sum of ten annual subscriptions. 
 
 The council consists of the president, 
 trustees, vice-presidents, and fifty sub- 
 scribers, twenty-five of whom go out an- 
 nually by rotation, but may be re-elected. 
 
 The council have the power of appoint- 
 ing committees of any subscribers to the 
 society, of all which committees the pre- 
 sident, trustees, and vice-presidents are 
 members ex officio. The council meets the 
 first Wednesday in every month. 
 
 Three general meetings are held every 
 year : — 1. The " anniversary meeting," for 
 the election of the president and council, 
 on the 22d (or should that day fall on a 
 Sunday, on the 23d) day of May. 2. The 
 "general meeting," held in December. 3. 
 The " annual meeting," to be held in the 
 country in the months of July or August. 
 
 The council are elected at the anniversary 
 meeting, held in London, in May ; but do 
 not enter upon the duties of their respective 
 offices until after the annual meeting in the 
 country. 
 
 All governors and honorary members 
 have the power of attending meetings of the 
 council and committees ; but have not the 
 privilege of voting, unless forming part of 
 such council or committees. 
 
 It is a fundamental rule of the Society, 
 and a condition of the royal charter, that 
 no question shall be discussed, at any of its 
 meetings, of a political tendency, or which 
 1053 
 
 shall refer to any matter to be brought for- 
 ward or pending in either of the houses of 
 parliament. 
 
 Subscriptions are paid in advance, and 
 are due on January 1st ; but subscribers 
 elected in December are liable only for the 
 year ensuing. (Farmer's Almanac.) 
 
 ROYAL DUBLIN SOCIETY, for the 
 Promotion of Husbandry, and other useful 
 arts in Ireland. Secretaries, Isaac Weld, Esq., 
 R. B. Bryan, Esq. Assistant Secretary, 
 Edward Hardman, Esq. Chambers, Kil- 
 dare-Street. 
 
 This Society has a cattle show in Septem- 
 ber and April of every year, where prizes 
 are awarded for various stock, and other 
 agricultural improvements. The terms of 
 admission are for " Life Subscribers," either 
 five guineas entrance, and two guineas an- 
 nually, or twenty guineas in full of all pay- 
 ments ; the " Associate Subscribers " pay 
 annually two guineas. (Johnson and Shaw's 
 Farmer's Almanac.) 
 
 RUBBING-POST. A stone pillar or 
 post set up in a field for cattle, hogs, or 
 other animals to rub against, and for the 
 protection of the gates, trees, and fences 
 themselves. 
 
 RUDDLE or RADDLE. A kind of 
 red earthy ochre, or ironstone, very easily 
 reduced to powder, which is found in several 
 parts of England, especially in Derbyshire ; 
 and is used in marking sheep. 
 
 RUE (Rnta graveolens). Rue thrives 
 best in a poor brick earth, in which a por- 
 tion of calcareous rubbish has been mixed. 
 It will not endure the application of dung 
 or a rich soil, for although this causes a 
 luxuriant growth in summer, death is as 
 certainly produced by severe frosts. The 
 compartment may be open and unsheltered. 
 It is propagated by slips and cuttings as 
 well as from seeds ; the first two modes 
 being usually practised as being the most 
 easy. It may be planted or sown any time 
 during the spring. The seed may be sown 
 in drills six inches apart and one deep. The 
 seedlings are not long in making their ap- 
 pearance, and only require to be thinned 
 to a similar distance in the rows, and kept 
 free of weeds. (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. 
 Gard.) 
 
 RUE, THE MEADOW. See Meadow- 
 rue. 
 
 RUFF. (Machetes pugnax). A bird of 
 passage, frequenting the fens of Lincolnshire, 
 and some other parts of Britain. It is of a 
 very pugnacious disposition. The female is 
 called a reeve. The males periodically as- 
 sume at the breeding season a ruff" or tippet 
 of feathers (whence the name). The head, 
 the whole of the ruff, and shoulders, are of a 
 shining purple black, barred with chestnut. 
 
RUNCINATE. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 The belly and rump is white ; the rest of the 
 plumage is a mixture of chestnut, brown, 
 and black. The whole length of the male is 
 about twelve inches and a half, of which 
 the beak is an inch and a half. The female 
 is two inches less in size. (YarrelTs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 573.) 
 
 RUNCINATE. A botanical term, ap- 
 plied to the lobes of leaves ; a leaf is said to 
 be runcinate when it is irregularly lobed, 
 the lobes gradually diminishing to the base, 
 and hooked backwards. The leaf of the 
 dandelion {Taraxacum) is a good example of 
 the runcinate leaf. 
 
 RUNT. A name given to a small kind 
 of black cattle brought from Wales and 
 Scotland. See Cattle. It is also a term 
 applied to several species of pigeons ; as the 
 Leghorn, Spanish, and Friesland runt. 
 
 RUPPIA. (Named after H. B. Rup- 
 pius, a German botanist.) The sea ruppia, 
 or tassel pond- weed (R. maritima), is an 
 indigenous aquatic plant, found growing in 
 salt-water ditches in various parts of Bri- 
 tain. The herbage is submersed ; the green 
 flowers appear in August and September. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 237.) 
 
 RUPTURE- WORT. (Herniaria) 
 There are two indigenous species of this 
 uninteresting genus of herbaceous plants. 
 The smooth rupture-wort (H. glabra) grows 
 on gravelly or sandy ground. The root is 
 tapering, somewhat woody, and perennial. 
 Stems prostrate. Leaves obovate or ellip- 
 tical, stalked, and with the calyx quite 
 smooth. Flowers small, green, in dense 
 clusters. The herbage is rather saltish, as- 
 tringent, and diuretic ; the juice is said to 
 remove specks from the eyes. The hairy 
 rupture-wort (H. hirsuta) is a more rare 
 species, and has the leaves and calyx hairy, 
 and the stem is always rough. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 8.) 
 
 RUSH. (Juncus ; Linnams derived the 
 name from jungo, to join ; in allusion to the 
 first ropes being made from rushes.) This 
 is an extensive genus of coarse plants, many 
 of them aquatics, which are common on 
 most wet lands. Rushes always intimate a 
 deep rich soil, and thrive best in land which 
 is too cold and wet for other plants. The 
 growth of these plants may be easily pre- 
 vented by under or surface draining, which 
 will prevent the stagnation of water on the 
 soil ; and by the application of saline or cal- 
 careous top-dressings, such as sand, Unle- 
 ashes, and road-scrapings. All the species 
 of rush do best cultivated in a moist situa- 
 tion, some of them entirely in water, and 
 others in a peat soil ; they may be increased 
 by s(!c;ds, or dividing the roots. In Japan 
 they cultivate the soft rush (J. effusus) for 
 making floor-mats. 
 1054 
 
 Sir J. E. Smith, in his English Flora, enu- 
 merates twenty-three indigenous species of 
 rush. See Beak-Rush, Bull-Rush, Bog- 
 Rush, Club -Rush, Flowering - Rush, 
 Spike-Rush, Twig-Rush, Wood-Rush, &c. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor.) 
 
 RUSSIA. The surface of this great 
 empire, which extends through so many 
 soils, climates, and kingdoms, has been di- 
 vided into eight districts or regions by 
 those who have examined its natural pro- 
 ductions ; viz. 1 . The region of ice ; 2. Of 
 moss ; 3. Of forests and pasturage ; 4. Of 
 barley, and the commencement of agricul- 
 ture ; 5. Of rye and flax, and of regular 
 agriculture ; 6. Of wheat and fruit ; 7. Of 
 maize and the vine ; 8. Of the olive, the 
 silk-worm, and the sugar cane. For the 
 principal portion of this article I am in- 
 debted to a paper in the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr. vol. vi. p. 497., attributed to a Rus- 
 sian statesman. 
 
 The region of ice may be said to include 
 Nova Zembla, part of the Kolskaya district, 
 and those extreme northerly portions of 
 the empire which extend into the Frozen 
 Ocean. This region is distinguished by a 
 night of three months' duration, and a total 
 destitution of vegetable productions, which 
 circumstances render it quite unfit for the 
 permanent habitation of man and the do- 
 mestic animals. 
 
 2. The mossy region, " where the ever- 
 frozen ground is covered with a kind of 
 greyish moss, and towards the boundaries 
 of the following region with a kind of dwarf 
 brushwood and fir. This tract is endowed 
 by nature with an animal that alone makes 
 it habitable to man, the rein-deer. Its vast 
 deserts stretch from Archangel, along the 
 shores of the White Sea, to the Eastern 
 Ocean ; peopled by thinly-scattered no- 
 madic tribes of Laplanders, Samoyades, 
 Ostiaks, and other aborigines, whose num- 
 bers are gradually decreasing." 
 
 3. The region of forests and pasturage. 
 " By degrees the dwarf trees and brush- 
 wood of the mossy region increase in size 
 until we come to those immense forests, 
 where the hand of man has not yet dis- 
 turbed the majestic operations of nature. 
 Along the banks of the rivers, and in other 
 spots unincumbered with wood, the grass 
 shoots up with astonishing rapidity ; but 
 the lingering frosts of spring, and the early 
 appearance of those of autumn, prevent the 
 cultivation of corn. The abundance of 
 grass in the southern part affords the means 
 of keeping cattle, while in some sheltered 
 spots appear a few corn-fields, the outposts, 
 as it were, of agriculture. The northern 
 and eastern parts of this region are inha- 
 bited by nomadic tribes ; then follow the 
 
RUSSIA. 
 
 Finns, a settled people, chiefly dependent 
 on pasturage for support. It would be 
 difficult to mark with precision the southern 
 boundaries of this region, as it falls gra- 
 dually into the next." 
 
 4. The region of barley, and the begin- 
 ning of agriculture. " On account of the 
 shortness of the summer, and the early 
 autumnal frosts, barley is the only grain 
 successfully cultivated here, but with great 
 care several kinds of vegetables may be 
 brought to maturity. The inhabitants are 
 Russians, Finns, Lirians, and others, having 
 settled habitations; but from the insigni- 
 ficance of their agriculture, they have re- 
 course to grazing, fishing, and the chase, 
 floating of timber, &c. In some parts, how- 
 ever, of the governments of Archangel and 
 Vologda, are to be found a very superior 
 breed of horned cattle. The southern limits 
 of this region may be said to extend nearly 
 to the town of Yarensk in the government 
 of Vologda. Nature here assumes an im- 
 posing aspect : immense forests, vast rivers, 
 beautiful meadows, are here flourishing in 
 all the inexhaustible luxuriance of primitive 
 vegetation." 
 
 5. The region of rye, flax, and of settled 
 agriculture " extends from the limits of 
 the former, southward, to the middle of 
 the government of Tchernigov, or to the 
 fifty-first degree of northern latitude. The 
 climate of Moscow may be called the me- 
 dium, or real Russian climate, and is ex- 
 ceedingly favourable for all agricultural 
 pursuits. Towards Siberia the seasons are 
 much more inclement : while to the west- 
 ward, beyond the Dnieper and Dwina, they 
 are so mild that about Grodno and Bay- 
 lostock plums and pears grow in the open 
 air. The European part forming one im- 
 mense plain, but little diversified by hills 
 of any considerable elevation, the local dif- 
 ference of climate is not considerable, and 
 arises chiefly from the forests, bogs, and 
 the nature of the soil. Agriculture in this 
 region is almost without exception con- 
 ducted on the most primitive and unim- 
 proved plan, called the Trekpolnia or 
 three-field system. In the Baltic provinces, 
 however, considerable progress has been 
 made in the introduction of improved rota- 
 tions of crops." 
 
 6. The region of wheat and fruit. " It 
 must not be inferred from this appellation 
 that these productions of the soil do not 
 thrive in the last-mentioned region, but 
 merely that they are much more abundant 
 here, and that the climate is more favour- 
 able to their growth. This region may be 
 said to extend to Yekatermoslav, or to the 
 forty-eighth degree of latitude. Several 
 kinds of grain, as buckwheat, millet, &c. 
 
 1055 
 
 are cultivated here with much greater suc- 
 cess than in the last described region. The 
 cultivation of tobacco, although it exhausts 
 the soil, is rapidly spreading. Hemp is 
 also found to thrive better than in more 
 northern situations ; but the chief object of 
 the agriculturist is the breeding of cattle. 
 Studs of horses and sheep farms exist here 
 as separate establishments, but the breed- 
 ing of* horned cattle is generally connected 
 with husbandry, and on a much larger 
 scale than in the northern provinces. Bee- 
 hives are also a source of no small profit, 
 especially to the peasants. On a great por- 
 tion of this district, called steppes, which is 
 composed of a hard and arid soil, devoid 
 of trees, a miserable kind of cultivation is 
 adopted, called the perelog plan, which con- 
 sists in sowing corn on fresh land, until its 
 productive powers are exhausted, and then 
 abandoning it for another portion of the 
 waste." See Steppes. 
 
 7. The region of maize and the vine. 
 " It produces also all those crops common 
 to the last described. The vine, as it is well 
 known, thrives only in certain climates and 
 situations, and Indian corn is not to be con- 
 sidered as an exclusive product, but rather 
 as a distinguishing feature. This region in- 
 cludes Bessarabia, the new Russia, the ter- 
 ritory of the Don Cossacks, the government 
 of Astracan, and the Caucasus. It consists 
 chiefly of steppes, partially used as pas- 
 turage, and partly unproductive. The Cri- 
 mea belongs rather to the next region. The 
 hilly parts of Bessarabia are fruitful and 
 well supplied with wood. The low lands 
 are steppes, which towards the Danube are 
 covered with reeds, and the air unwhole- 
 some. The government of Cherson presents 
 a vast plain intersected by deep narrow 
 ravines or dells ; the soil is hard, exposed 
 to frequent droughts, and consequently to 
 bad harvests, besides which it is at times 
 (as well as other parts of the seventh re- 
 gion), subject to the ravages of the locust. 
 The government of Voronesch and the 
 territory of the Don Cossacks are steppes, 
 all capable of cultivation ; that of Astracan 
 has a sandy soil, affording scanty pasturage, 
 and the vine is cultivated in the Asiatic 
 manner by irrigation, which renders its 
 fruit unfit for wine. The northern part 
 of the Caucasus is principally sandy, inter- 
 spersed with saline tracts and rivulets. 
 Breeding of cattle is carried on to great 
 advantage by its Nomadic tribes. The 
 principal defect of this region is the almost 
 total absence of forests, and the great diffi- 
 culty of rearing trees : thus for want of 
 wood, the inhabitants are obliged to burn 
 reeds, Buyan (high grass), straw, and 
 Kizyak (dried cow-dung), which practice 
 
RUST. 
 
 RYE-GRASS. 
 
 of necessity tends to impoverish the 
 land." 
 
 8. The region of the olive tree, the sijk- 
 worm, and the sugar cane. " This region 
 includes the provinces beyond the Cau- 
 casus ; but the climate, owing to the moun- 
 tainous nature of the country, is exceed- 
 ingly various. The plants peculiar to hot 
 climates grow in the valleys, while the hills 
 are covered with corn and pasturage for 
 cattle. The soil also varies, and towards 
 the east there are extensive steppes. The 
 local climates of this region may be divided 
 in the following manner : 1. The summits of 
 the mountains which are covered with snow, 
 then the beginning of vegetation, where 
 nothing but pasturage for cattle is found ; 
 then follow the corn-fields ; below them 
 flourishes the vine and the mulberry, while 
 still lower, especially in the Persian pro- 
 vinces, grow cotton, rice, and other southern 
 productions, which require artificial irriga- 
 tion, an operation familiar to the inhabit- 
 ants of Asia. The olive thrives chiefly in 
 the western part. The sugar cane has been 
 planted, and is spreading in some of the 
 low and rich lands about Kura. Silk may 
 be said to be indigenous to the country." 
 
 RUST. In agriculture. See Mildew. 
 
 RUSTBURN. A provincial name for 
 the weed rest-harrow. 
 
 RUTA BAGA. See Turnips. 
 
 RYE (Secale cereale ; Germ, roggen, dut 
 rog). This species of grain is much more 
 hardy, but incalculably less valuable in 
 every respect than wheat. It has been cul- 
 tivated from time immemorial, and is sup- 
 posed to be a native of the Caspian Caucassian 
 desert. With us it is very little used as an 
 article of food compared with wheat and 
 oats, though in the north of Europe, and in 
 Flanders, it forms a principal article of hu- 
 man subsistence, but generally mixed with 
 wheat, and sometimes also with barley. The 
 grains consist of 65 -6 of meal, 24'2 of husk, 
 and 10-2 of water. The preparation and 
 culture of rye are essentially the same as 
 for wheat ; but the same quality of soil is 
 not equally suited to each. Rye grows most 
 luxuriantly for feeding when sown on hazel 
 mould, but any poor dry sandy soil is fit 
 for its production. It is sown either broad- 
 cast or in drills, in the autumn or spring ; 
 but the spring variety is that most hardy 
 and most generally cultivated. The pro- 
 portion of seed is about two or three bushels 
 ])(•)' acre when required for a crop, and three 
 bushels and a half when it is intended to be 
 fed oil*. The meal of rye is considered 
 second only to wheat; it is often used alone 
 or mixed with a proportion of wheat flour 
 to make bread and gingerbread. In those 
 unaccustomed to its use, it is apt to cause 
 1056 
 
 an acescent state of stomach and diarrhoea. 
 Rye is liable to a disease called ergot, 
 which depends on a fungus, which attacks 
 and alters the character of the grain. It 
 becomes long, of a deep violet hue exter- 
 nally, and pinkish white within. The odour 
 of the ergotted grain is fishy and fetid, 
 the taste slightly acrid. Ergotted or spur- 
 red rye is poisonous, when it is baked into 
 bread. It causes febrile symptoms, great de 
 bility, often paralysis, tremours, abscesses, 
 gangrene, and death. Some of the epide- 
 mics which have occasionally nearly depo- 
 pulated the north of Europe, have been 
 traced to the use of the spurred rye. As 
 green food for sheep, rye is not only valu- 
 able for its early produce, but as produc- 
 ing a flow of milk in the ewes. The straw 
 is highly esteemed for Dunstable work, for 
 thatching and litter; and is also used to 
 stuff horse-collars. (Low s Elements ofAgr.; 
 Doyle's Pract. Husb.) See Ergot. 
 
 RYE-GRASS or RAY-GRASS (Lo- 
 lium perenne). There has been much dif- 
 ference of opinion respecting the merits 
 and comparative value of rye-grass. It 
 produces an abundance of seed, which is 
 easily collected and readily vegetates on 
 most kinds of soil under circumstances of 
 different management ; it soon arrives at 
 perfection, and produces in its first year of 
 growth a good supply of early herbage, 
 which is much liked by cattle. These merits 
 have no doubt upheld it till the present day 
 in practice, and will probably for some time 
 to come continue it a favourite grass with 
 many farmers. But the latter-math of 
 rye-grass is very inconsiderable, and the 
 plant impoverishes the soil in a high degree 
 if the culms, which are invariably left un- 
 touched by cattle, are not cut before the 
 seed advances towards perfection. The 
 spike of the Lolium perenne is awnless ; ca- 
 lyx shorter than the spikelets; floret lan- 
 ceolate. The varieties of this species are 
 very numerous, such as the slender rye- 
 grass (var. tenue) ; compound or broad- 
 spiked rye-grass (var. compositum) ; Pacey's 
 rye-grass (var. ramosum) ; Russell's grass 
 (JRussellianum) ; Whitworth's grass ( Whit- 
 worthiensis) ; Stickney's grass (Stickneiensis) ; 
 panicled rye-grass (paniculatum) ; double- 
 flowered rye-grass (mojistrosum) ; viviparous 
 rye-grass (viviparum) : all the varieties have 
 a strong tendency to vary their form when 
 sown on different soils. The annual species 
 are common only to land under cultivation, 
 under the alternate husbandry. 
 
 Rye-grass appears to have been culti- 
 vated previous to the year 1677 (Wold- 
 ridge's Husb. 1st ed.), besides which red 
 clover, spurrey, trefoil, and nonsuch were 
 the only plants then cultivated as grasses, 
 
RYOT. 
 
 SAGE, JERUSALEM. 
 
 or termed such ; and it is only of late years 
 that any other species of the natural grasses 
 has been tried as a substitute for it in 
 forming artificial pastures. One peck of 
 rye-grass with fourteen pounds of clover 
 per acre is generally considered sufficient 
 for sowing artificial pastures. Rye-grass, 
 when not more than three years old, flowers 
 in the second week of J une, and ripens the 
 seed in about twenty-five days after : as 
 the plants become older they flower much 
 later, sometimes so late as the beginning of 
 August. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram.) See 
 Grasses. 
 
 A variety called the Italian rye-grass was 
 some time since brought prominently into 
 notice, and is well spoken of. See notices 
 of it in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 28., 
 by Mr. Lawson, vol. vi. p. 478., by Captain 
 Hamilton. Sir John Hall (ibid. vol. v.) 
 also furnishes some memorandum of experi- 
 ments in growing different varieties of rye- 
 grass. One species of rye-grass, the bearded 
 darnel (Lolium temulentum) is poisonous. 
 It is an annual, and flowers in July. The 
 root is downy and fibrous ; the culm leafy, 
 smooth, about two feet high, with leaves of 
 a bright green, rough in the under disk. 
 The spike is a span long, and roughish. The 
 calyx of the flowers linear, flattish, many- 
 ribbed, rising above the spikelets. The 
 florets are six, with the outer valve of the 
 corolla elliptical, concave, with a dorsal 
 awn. The seeds are elliptical, flattened, and 
 furnished with a furrow along its upper 
 side. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 174.) 
 See Darnel. 
 
 RYOT (Arab, a subject). The name 
 given to the cultivators of the soil in India. 
 See Hindostan. 
 
 S. 
 
 SACCHARINE. A term applied to 
 such substances as contain sugar. The 
 plants in which this substance is abundant 
 are in general highly nutritious and useful 
 in the fattening of animals. See Molasses 
 and Sugar. 
 
 SACKS. The term sack, in the sense of 
 a bag, is found in all the European and 
 many Asiatic languages. The utility of 
 strong well-made sacks for holding grain 
 and other produce of the farm must be self- 
 evident ; and a number proportioned to the 
 extent of the crops and amount of pulse, 
 grain, &c. conveyed to market, should al- 
 ways be kept on the farm, stored away in 
 some dry airy place. 
 
 SAFFRON. (Crocus sativus.) The 
 stigmata of this purple crocus are of a deep 
 orange-colour, and when in quantitv have 
 1057 
 
 a peculiar and very characteristic odour; 
 they are used in medicine, chiefly as a rich 
 yellow or orange-colouring matter. Saffron 
 is now chiefly imported from the south of 
 Europe, especially Spain ; it was formerly 
 much cultivated in this country in the vi- 
 cinity of Saffron Walden, in Cambridgeshire. 
 
 Saffron is often largely adulterated with 
 the petals of other plants, especially with 
 those of the marigold. The English saffron 
 is superior to that brought from Spain. It 
 should never be compressed into cakes, but 
 the stigmata left in a dry shrivelled state, 
 or, as it is termed, hay saffron. Where the 
 stigmata are pale the saffron is bad. Saf- 
 fron, as a medicine, is of little value. See 
 Crocus. 
 
 SAFFRON, THE MEADOW. See 
 
 COLCHICUM. 
 
 SAGE, GARDEN. (Salvia officinalis. 
 From salveo, to be safe, on account of the 
 sanative properties with which it was sup- 
 posed to be fraught.) Sage is now used 
 principally in culinary preparations. There 
 are several varieties, as, 1. The common 
 green. 2. Wormwood. 3. Green, with 
 variegated leaves. 4. Red, with variegated 
 leaves. 5. Painted, or parti-coloured. 6. 
 Spanish, or lavender-leaved. 7. Red. A 
 dry, moderately fertile soil, is best suited 
 to their growth, in a rather sheltered situ- 
 ation. If the soil is rich, or super-abound- 
 ing in moisture, they grow luxuriantly, 
 but are apt to perish in winter. Sage is 
 propagated by cuttings of the young shoots 
 from the sides of the branches, sometimes 
 also by rooted offsets, and likewise by 
 seed. The cuttings may be either of the 
 preceding or same year's growth ; if of the 
 first, they may be planted in April, but of 
 the latter, not until the close of May or 
 middle of June. The shoots of the same 
 year are usually employed, as they more 
 readily emit roots, and assume a free growth. 
 The outward and most robust shoots should 
 be chosen, and cut from five to seven in- 
 ches in length. All but the top leaves 
 being removed, they must be inserted by 
 the dibble almost down to these, in rows 
 six inches apart each way. Sage was for- 
 merly much used in medicine, but time and 
 observation have diminished its celebrity. 
 The line " cur moriatur homo cui salvia 
 crescit in horto," is no longer an adage. 
 (G. W. Johnsons Kitchen Garden.) See 
 Clary. 
 
 SAGE, JERUSALEM. (Phlomis fru- 
 ticosa, from phlogmos, a flame, the down 
 being used for wicks.) A hardy evergreen 
 shrub, native of Spain and Sicily ; growing 
 three or four feet high, and blowing a yel- 
 low flower from June to September. It 
 grows well in any soil, and may be pro* 
 
SAGO. 
 
 SALLOW. 
 
 pagated by seed or by division Of the 
 roots. 
 
 SAGE, THE WOOD. See Germander. 
 
 SAGO. (Malay and Jav. sagu.) A spe- 
 cies of fecula or starch obtained from the 
 cellular substance of a palm-tree — the Sagus 
 farinifera, Gtertn; Sagus Rumphii, Wild. 
 In the early writers it is called sagu, suga, 
 and zaga. In Java the word signifies bread. 
 The sago which is procured from the above 
 palm, and six other species of the same 
 family, is the pith of the trunk. When the 
 tree is of sufficient age it is cut down, split, 
 and the pith extracted and reduced to pow- 
 der, which is mixed with water and strained 
 through a sieve. The sago is deposited 
 from the fluid, and after two or three wash- 
 ings it is fit for use, and is called in this 
 state, when dried, sago-meal. For the Eu- 
 ropean market it is made into a paste and 
 granulated, and is known in the trade 
 under the name of pearl sago. The con- 
 sumption of sago has undergone an almost 
 incredible increase within the last twenty 
 years, which is wholly ascribable to the re- 
 duction in the interval of the oppressive 
 duties by which the article was formerly 
 loaded. Sago has latterly been brought 
 prominently into notice as food for domestic 
 animals usually reared upon the farm, par 
 ticularly horses and calves. Experience 
 having decided in favour of its wholesome- 
 ness and economy, it will no doubt very 
 soon become a general and staple article 
 of food on all farms that rear young stock. 
 From its emollient and nutritive properties, 
 it appears to be admirably adapted for calves 
 while on milk ; for cows sometimes before 
 and after calving ; for young horses in win- 
 ter, instead of much dry corn, or none at 
 all, as is too frequently practised ; and for 
 young pet lambs, whose mothers have either 
 died or forsaken them, in which events a 
 serious encroachment is apt to be made on 
 the milk intended for the calves. Sago 
 seems peculiarly well adapted for horses for 
 fast work, and for sporting dogs, since it is 
 found to leave the wind unaffected ; and 
 with regard to fowls, the whole class of 
 them might be rendered by it much more 
 white in flesh and delicate for the table, 
 than the food usually allowed them on 
 farms. 
 
 Sago is most commonly used in a gela- 
 tinous state, and it is easily reduced to that 
 state by boiling water. 
 
 As a drink for horses, after a severe run 
 or burst in the field, sago-gruel, consisting 
 of* about a pound of the mucilage or jelly, 
 completely dissolved in two or three gal- 
 lon, of worm water, is found to be superior 
 to any other kind of drink. For cows, the 
 jelly should also be given in the shape of 
 
 drink. Sago-jelly mixed with new milk 
 forms an excellent food for calves. Dogs 
 should have the jelly poured over biscuit, 
 bread, or potatoes. To pigs sago should be 
 administered in the shape of drink, from 
 two to three pounds being given to each 
 pig once a day; and the jelly for fowls 
 should be in warm balls, mixed up with 
 barley-meal. 
 
 Sago has been sometimes used as an in- 
 gredient of household bread, in the propor- 
 tion of 1 part of sago to 3 of wheaten flour. 
 It forms an excellent pudding for the con- 
 valescents from acute diseases. (See Thom- 
 sons Domestic (Economy of the Sick Room.) 
 It is only moderately nutritious, consisting 
 chiefly of starch ; yet it is the bread, and 
 may be termed the staff of life of natives 
 of the Mollucca islands. (JBrandes Diet, 
 of Science; Quart. Jour, of Ag. vol. x. 
 p. 136.) 
 
 SAINFOIN or SAINT-FOIN. (He- 
 
 dysarum Onobrychis.) Having been first 
 introduced to the farmer from France, this 
 plant brought its French name of saint- 
 foin along with it; and cock's-head, by 
 which it was before known as a native of 
 England, is become obsolete. The stems of 
 sainfoin are recumbent, two or three feet 
 in length ; leaves pinnate, nearly smooth ; 
 flower-stalks axillary, ascending, longer 
 than the leaves, each bearing a dense taper- 
 ing spike of handsome variegated crimson 
 flowers. The fruit is a legume, erect, 
 single-seeded, toothed at the margin and 
 ribs. Sainfoin is a well-known object of 
 cultivation as fodder for cattle, on dry, 
 barren, especially chalky or marly ground, 
 in open situations. From its not thriving 
 well except the soil or subsoil be calcareous, 
 sainfoin is not generally met with in this 
 country ; it is most extensively cultivated 
 on the Cotswold Hills, and on the chalk 
 soils of Surrey, Dorset, Hants, Wilts, &c. 
 Its nature, qualities, and treatment are 
 similar to those of Lucern, which see. 
 SAINT JOHN'S-WORT. See John's- 
 
 WORT. 
 
 SAINT PETER'S-WORT. SeeJoHN's- 
 
 WORT. 
 
 SALAD, CORN. See Corn Salad. 
 
 SALLOW. The common name of several 
 species of Salix, which, unlike those known 
 under the name of osiers, are not flexible, 
 but form large trees or rough bushes which 
 grow in moist, marshy woods and hedges, 
 in various parts of England. Sallows ge- 
 nerally yield the best kind of charcoal for 
 military purposes, though all the species of 
 salix are burnt for the preparation of this 
 substance. Sir J. E. Smith particularizes 
 nearly a dozen different native species of 
 sallow. See Osier and Willow. 
 
SALLOW-TIIOKX. 
 
 SALT, COMMON. 
 
 SALLOW-THORN. (Hippophae, from 
 hippos, a horse, and pkao, to destroy,- in 
 reference to the supposed poisonous qua- 
 lities of the seeds.) The species are mostly 
 ornamental trees or shrubs growing in any 
 common soil, and may be readily increased 
 by layers or cuttings of the roots. The 
 common sallow -thorn or sea buck-thorn 
 (H. rhamnoides) is a bushy rigid shrub, 
 five feet or more in height, with hard wood, 
 and straight spreading leafy branches, each 
 terminating in a thorn. The shrub is 
 a native, being found growing wild on 
 sandy cliffs on the eastern coast of England. 
 The leaves are linear-lanceolate, scattered, 
 deciduous, one inch and a half long, on 
 short stalks, dark green on the upper side, 
 minutely dotted, beautifully silvery as well 
 as scaly beneath. 
 
 SALMON. (Salmo salar; Y\\ Saumon; 
 Sp. Salmon.) This well-known fish belongs 
 to a family, which frequents both salt and 
 fresh waters, quitting the former in the 
 spring, for the purpose of depositing its 
 spawn in the gravelly beds remote from the 
 mouths of rivers. Towards autumn, they 
 again resort to the ocean. The largest of 
 the Salmonidae. is that at the head of this 
 article, namely, the common salmon, (S. 
 salar.) It is found in all the Arctic seas, 
 whence it enters the rivers in spring, at 
 different periods, according to their con- 
 dition for spawning. It is curious that 
 rivers issuing from lakes always yield earlier 
 salmon than other rivers ; but the northern 
 rivers are the earliest. The female ascends 
 the rivers before the male, and the grilse, 
 or young fish, that have never spawned 
 before, ascend earlier than the old fish. As 
 the spawning season advances, they ascend 
 with an impetuosity which is surprising, 
 overcoming all difficulties, stemming rapids, 
 and leaping up cascades of ten or twelve 
 feet in height, in order to gain, instinctively 
 instructed, the shallow upper pools, where 
 they deposit the spawn. They turn up the 
 gravel with their noses, working up the 
 stream ; they then come together in the 
 furrow which they made, and both male and 
 female shed the spawn and milt into it at 
 the same time. After this process they are 
 out of condition, the female being known as 
 a kelt, and the male as a kipper, and unfit 
 for the table. They do not recover their 
 usual condition until they return to the 
 salt-water, at the mouth of the river, and 
 ultimately to the sea. These fish are 
 caught in great numbers in the British 
 seas and islands, and varying in weight from 
 thirty to seventy pounds. The London 
 market is principally supplied from the 
 Scotch and Irish rivers. 
 
 Salmon fry, when they attain to about 
 1059 
 
 five or six inches in length in May, are called 
 smelts. When they have grown to fifteen 
 or sixteen inches they are called grilse or 
 grilses. Among the varieties of the salmon, 
 are the salmon trout (S. trutta), the great 
 grey or lake trout (S.ferox), the phinock 
 (S.phinoe), and the salmon fry (S. Samulus). 
 It was long supposed the fish called Parr 
 was a distinct species from the salmon ; but 
 Mr. J. Shaw of Drumlanrig, Dumfriesshire, 
 has fully disproved this opinion, and esta- 
 blished the fact, that the parr is the salmon 
 in the second year of its growth. Salmon 
 have been preserved in ponds and fresh- 
 wafer lakes ; but they never attain the size 
 of the sea salmon. If this experiment is 
 intended to be tried, it should be recollected 
 that if pike be in the lake, the numbers of the 
 salmon will be speedily reduced. {Blaine's 
 Ency. of Rural Sports.) See Fish Ponds. 
 
 SALSIFY. (Tragopogon porrifolius.) 
 An ornamental plant, which, when grown 
 in the kitchen garden, succeeds in any 
 common soil. It is sown and treated in 
 the same manner as carrots ; the flavour of 
 the root is mild and sweetish. 
 
 SALT, COMMON, as a manure. (Germ. 
 salz ; It. sale.) This salt is a compound of 
 chlorine and a metal, the base of soda, 
 called sodium ; or, in chemical language, salt 
 is a chloride of sodium. It is too well 
 known to require description ; but it may 
 be proper to state that it dissolves equally 
 well in cold and in hot water. 
 
 It would be, perhaps, difficult to name 
 any other substance in the catalogue of 
 modern fertilisers, whose powers have been 
 so often and so warmly disputed as common 
 salt ; and for this controversy many reasons 
 may be assigned. It has been generally 
 employed with little scientific accuracy, 
 and in far too loose a manner, for any reli- 
 ance to be placed upon the majority of the 
 reports which have been furnished to us ; 
 and for many years a prohibitory duty ren- 
 dered it inaccessible to the farmer — an im- 
 post which has not very long been removed, 
 and which yet was the occasion of a 
 great variety of blundering trials miscalled 
 experiments. The duty on salt was, in- 
 deed, one of long continuance. It origin- 
 ated as a war tax, in the ninth year of the 
 reign of William III., and was not removed 
 until after many an arduous debate, in the 
 end of that of George III. The price of 
 salt, in consequence of the duty, was raised 
 from 6d. a bushel to more than 20s. ; and 
 was, therefore, during the continuance of 
 the tax, too expensive a fertiliser to be em- 
 ployed by the English farmer ; and it was 
 only after being for a century and a half 
 lost to agriculture, that it was again pre - 
 sented, in 1823, unshackled with duties, to 
 3 y 2 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 the notice of the agriculturist. During 
 that long interval, salt, as a manure, was 
 known only in the traditions of the English 
 farmers. Through these they learned, that 
 it was formerly used to kill worms, and to 
 destroy weeds; that it cleansed fallows, 
 increased the produce of light arable soils, 
 and was good to sweeten grass. These re- 
 ported advantages were rendered more pro- 
 bable by certain facts that had been forced, 
 as it were, upon their attention. The gar- 
 dener was well aware that the brine of the 
 pickling tubs, when poured over his heaps 
 of weeds, not only killed every weed, every 
 seed, and every grub, but that these heaps 
 were then converted into so many parcels 
 of the most fertilising manure ; the good 
 effects of which, especially upon potatoes 
 and carrots, were very decided. It was 
 well known, too, that a single grain of salt 
 placed upon an earthworm speedily de- 
 stroyed it ; that if brine were poured upon 
 the lawn, all the earthworms were imme- 
 diately ejected from that spot ; and that 
 if it were sprinkled about over a portion 
 of the grass, to this salted portion all the 
 deer, sheep, or the horses of the park, con- 
 stantly repaired in preference to any other 
 part of the field. Salt evidently, therefore, 
 destroyed weeds and worms, and rendered 
 grass more palatable to live stock ; and, 
 upon consulting the old agricultural writers, 
 it was found that the notices of salt as a 
 manure were many and important ; and 
 that salt had been employed in various 
 agricultural operations from a very early 
 period. Thus it is referred to in St. Luke, 
 xiv. 34. Virgil reprobates a salt soil. 
 Cato, 150 years B.C., commends it for cat- 
 tle, hay, straw, &c. ; as does Virgil, lib. 3 
 v. 394. The early German farmers knew of 
 its value for sheep ; and, for the same pur- 
 pose in Spain, it has been employed from 
 the earliest ages. In 1570, Conrad Heres- 
 baeh commends it as being a certain pre- 
 vention of the " murrain or rotte." In 
 1653, Sir Hugh Piatt speaks of salt as a 
 fertiliser in his usual visionary manner, and 
 details the result of a very successful expe- 
 riment on a ■'■patch of ground" at Clapham; 
 from which some late writers upon the uses 
 of salt have led their readers into great 
 blunders, by stating that this experiment 
 was performed on an acre of land. 
 
 The use of salt by the cultivator, since 
 the repeal of the duties in 1823, has been 
 considerable, however, in many districts of 
 England, in spite of these blundering in- 
 Btructions, ill-contrived experiments, and 
 ignorant conclusions. If to this be added 
 the natural difficulty of obtaining correct 
 results in any experiments in which vege- 
 table life is concerned, we need no longer 
 10G0 
 
 be surprised that many contradictory state- 
 ments have been made with regard, not 
 only to salt, but to all other fertilisers. 
 
 Common salt is composed of 35*42 parts 
 of chlorine, and 233 of sodium. This is 
 not the place to enlarge upon its almost 
 universal presence in almost all waters, 
 soils, and situations, nor of the masses with 
 which our country is endowed. Its fer- 
 tilising properties, when applied to land, 
 may be described as five in number. 
 
 1. In small proportions, it promotes the 
 decomposition of animal and vegetable sub- 
 stances — a fact first ascertained by Sir 
 James Pringle and Dr. Macbride. Salt, 
 therefore, promotes the rapid dissolution of 
 the animal and vegetable remains contained 
 in all cultivated soils. (Phil. Trans, vol- 
 xlvi. p. 557.) The recent discoveries of 
 M. Macaire (Ann. de Sciences Nat. vol. 
 xxviii. p. 402.), with regard to the excretions 
 of vegetables, impart considerable inform- 
 ation as to the use of common salt in pro- 
 moting the putrefaction of vegetable sub- 
 stances in the soil ; since it has been shown 
 by this gentleman that the brown excretory 
 matter of a plant is extremely noxious to 
 those of its own species ; the salt, therefore, 
 by its presence in the soil, promoting the 
 putrefaction of the excretion, naturally 
 assists in removing the offending matter ; 
 and, in so doing, the excretion, as it de- 
 composes, certainly affords nourishment to 
 the plant which produced it. We are fully* 
 aware that this hypothesis may be dis- 
 puted : we therefore offer it merely as an 
 hypothesis. But it is true that salt, pro- 
 perly used, enables land which has been de- 
 teriorated by one crop to bear another with 
 advantage. 
 
 2. It destroys vermin and kills weeds, 
 which are thus converted into manure. 
 3. It is a direct constituent or food of some 
 plants ; and it has been clearly ascertained, 
 that if salt is applied to a soil, the vegeta- 
 bles afterwards growing on that land are 
 found to contain an increased proportion of 
 common salt. (Mr. George Sinclair, Prize 
 Essay on Salt as a Manure.) All marine 
 plants contain it in considerable propor- 
 tions. 4. Salt acts on vegetable substances 
 as a stimulant. Dr. Priestley tried various 
 experiments, all supporting this supposition, 
 lie added to phials, containing an ounce 
 and a half of water, various proportions of 
 common salt, from one to twelve grains, 
 and in the solutions placed various sprigs 
 of mint and other vegetables. In those 
 solutions which contained more than twelve 
 grains the plants died immediately, and the 
 rest died in their order, except that which 
 contained three grains of salt, which seemed 
 to grow as well as plants growing in simple 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 water. It was remarkable, however, that 
 this plant, as well as all those that died in 
 the stronger solutions, seemed to flourish at 
 Jirst more than those which were growing; 
 in simple water, and that that which had 
 three grains of salt, and that which had one 
 grain only, continued to live after the plants 
 in simple water were dead. {Nat. Philos. 
 vol. i. p. ( 106.) That vegetable substances 
 are capable of being stimulated by che- 
 mical solutions, is well known. A solution 
 of chlorine in water will make certain seeds 
 vegetate which would otherwise rot in the 
 earth ; and a mixture of camphor, &c, 
 has been found to be very beneficial in re- 
 storing vitality to cuttings of various ex- 
 otics too long delayed on their passage. 
 5. Salt preserves vegetables from injury by 
 sudden transitions in the temperature of 
 the atmosphere. That salted soils do not 
 freeze so readily as usual when salt is ap- 
 plied to them, is well known ; and that salt 
 preserves crops of turnips, &c, from injury 
 by the frost (Davis Gilbert, Esq., Young's 
 Annals, vol. xxvii.), is equally well estab- 
 lished. The writer has often witnessed 
 this in his own garden, in the case of cab- 
 bages, cauliflowers, &c. (Johnson's Essay 
 on Salt, pp. 6 — 68.) 
 
 6. Salt renders earth more capable of 
 absorbing the moisture of the atmosphere — 
 a property of the first importance, since 
 •those soils which absorb the greatest pro- 
 portion of moisture from the atmosphere 
 are always the most valuable to the cul- 
 tivator. " It affords," said the illustrious 
 Davy, " one method of judging of the pro- 
 ductiveness of land." (Agric. Chem. p. 
 184.) See Earths, ante, p. 409. 
 
 The impure picking of scalings of the salt 
 makers is usually to be obtained by the 
 farmer at a very low rate, and from its 
 being a mixture of common salt and gyp- 
 sum (sulphate of lime), it is excellently 
 adapted as a manure for the grasses, such 
 as clover, lucern, sainfoin, &c. ; and, as 
 such, I will give the chemical analysis, for 
 the information of the cultivator, of the 
 refuse of the marine and fossil salt makers. 
 The pan scale of the Lymington marine 
 salt makers consists, according to the ana- 
 lysis of Dr. Henry, of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Muriate of magnesia - - 29 
 
 Desiccated sulphate of magnesia - 18 
 Carbonate of lime and magnesia - 127 
 Sulphate of lime - - 216 
 
 Muriate of soda (sea salt) - 610 
 
 1000 
 
 Of the pan scale of the fossil salt refiners 
 of Northwich, two specimens were exa- 
 1061 
 
 mined by Dr. Henry ; the first was com- 
 posed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Common salt - - - 950 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 10 
 
 Sulphate of lime - - - 40 
 
 1000 
 
 The second variety was composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Common salt - - - 100 
 
 Carbonate of lime - - 110 
 
 Sulphate of lime - 790 
 
 1000 
 
 Salt, it should be remembered, rarely 
 causes the wheat plant to grow larger or 
 taller, but it fills up the ear better, and 
 brings the weaker plants forward. Mr. 
 Sinclair informs us, that " salt appears to 
 lessen the produce of straw, and increase 
 the weight of grain." I have never been 
 able in my experiments, nor in any I have 
 witnessed (with salt alone), to observe any 
 increased quantity of straw, even in cases 
 where there was an increased produce, by 
 means of salt, of six bushels of wheat per 
 acre. The salt should be applied some time 
 before sowing the seed, not less than ten, 
 and not more than twenty bushels per 
 acre. In my own experiments upon a light 
 gravelly soil, at Great Totham, in Essex, 
 the use of this quantity of salt per acre (in 
 1819) produced an increase of five bushels 
 and a half per acre. The following state- 
 ment of the result of some trials in 1820, 
 on a light and gravelly soil, will show how 
 important may be the result to the country 
 at large by its judicious application. I 
 regret that incessant employment of a very 
 different nature has hitherto prevented my 
 continuing these experiments. 
 
 Produce per Acre. Bushels, lbs. 
 
 No. 1. Soil without any manure for 
 
 four years - - 13 26 
 
 2. Soil manured with stable dung 
 
 to the previous crop (pota- 
 toes) - , - 26 52 
 
 3. Soil with five bushels of salt 
 
 per acre, and no other ma- 
 nure for four years - 26 12 
 
 The testimony of a plain Essex farmer 
 corroborates these results. " The soil," 
 says Mr. J ames Challis of Panfield, M that I 
 described to you to be of rather a loose 
 hollow description, had a dressing of salt in 
 November, after the wheat was sown, about 
 fourteen or fifteen bushels per acre : it pro- 
 duced at the rate of six bushels per acre 
 more than that which was not dressed, and 
 it may be stated to be 1/. per load of forty 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 bushels better in quality." {Essay on Salt, 
 p. 45.) 
 
 It is a custom in most counties of Eng- 
 land, to apply salt and water as a steep to 
 prevent the ravages of the disease in wheat, 
 called smut ; the value of this is known to 
 almost every farmer. Recent experiments 
 have suggested, that it may even be of use, 
 when employed in larger quantities, as a 
 preventative of mildew ; the most dreadful 
 of the numerous diseases to which the cul- 
 tivated grasses are exposed. The expe- 
 riments of the late Rev. E. Cartwright 
 strongly evidence, that when salt and water 
 are sprinkled with a brush upon diseased 
 plants, it effects a complete cure, even in 
 apparently the most desperate cases. (My 
 Essay, p. 49.) " The proportion, one pound 
 to a gallon of water, laid on with a plaster- 
 er's brush, the operator making his casts as 
 when sowing corn, is instant death to the 
 
 fungus." The time and expense are tri- 
 fling. It appeared, in the course of some 
 inquiries made by the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, that a Cornish farmer, Mr. Sickler, 
 and also the Rev. R. Hoblin, were accus- 
 tomed to employ refuse salt as a manure, 
 and that their crops were never infected with 
 the rust or blight. See Mildew. 
 
 The following table contains the results 
 of the experiments made at Woburn, 
 1818-19, by the late Mr. George Sinclair, 
 with his usual scientific accuracy. I would 
 direct the farmers' attention to this table, 
 as containing a mass of valuable inform- 
 ation. 
 
 The soil on which these experiments were 
 made was sandy, and the plots each con- 
 tained thirty-six square feet ; the Talavera 
 wheat was drilled into the soil November 
 5th, and reaped August 2d, 1818. 
 
 Kind of Manure and Mode of applying it. 
 
 Spit manure applied previous to sowing the seed 
 Salt and spit manure dug in salt mixed with seed 
 Salt mixed with soil four inches deep before sowing - 
 Salt ditto ditto ditto 
 
 Salt sown with seed ------ 
 
 Salt combined with manure, dug in four inches deep 
 
 Salt and manure : salt sown with seed, manure dug in 
 
 Salt and manure : salt applied to the surface 
 
 Salt simply applied to surface - 
 
 Salt and manure : salt applied to the surface 
 
 Salt simply applied to surface - 
 
 Salt and lime mixed, and applied with the seed 
 
 Salt and lime mixed, and applied before sowing 
 
 Salt and lime mixed, and applied on the surface 
 
 Lime applied with the seed - 
 
 Lime applied to the surface - 
 
 Salt, lime, and dung mixed, and applied as manure 
 
 Long dung dug in as manure - - - - - 
 
 Salt and long dung mixed, and applied as manure 
 Lime and long dung mixed, and applied as manure - 
 Salt and long dung mixed, and applied as manure 
 Oil cake mixed, and applied with the seed 
 Oil cake applied as common manure - 
 Oil cake and lime applied as common manure - 
 Salt and oil cake mixed, and sown with the seed 
 Salt and oil cake mixed, and applied as manure 
 Salt, oil cake, and manure, applied as manure - 
 Salt, oil cake, and manure : the salt and oil cake sown 
 
 with the seed, manure previously dug in 
 Salt, oil cake, and lime, applied as manure 
 Salt, oil cake, and lime, sown with the seed 
 Salt, oil cake, and lime, applied to the surface - 
 Salt applied to the soil in preceding spring 
 Salt a pplied to the soil in preceding spring 
 
 The following experiments demonstrate 
 the efficacy of salt on barley and oats. In 
 1 820, on a good alluvial soil, at Hey bridge 
 10G2 
 
 Manures, omitting Fractions, 
 Quantity per Acre. 
 
 Dung 
 
 in 
 Tons. 
 
 45 
 45 
 45 
 
 45 
 
 90 
 41 
 41 
 41 
 41 
 
 {)() 
 
 90 
 
 Salt 
 in 
 Bus. 
 
 44 
 44 
 
 44 
 44 
 
 H 
 4 
 
 5| 
 
 22 
 
 44 
 
 5A 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 62 
 31 
 
 Lime 
 
 in 
 Bus. 
 
 121 
 120 
 120 
 120 
 120 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 
 120 
 120 
 120 
 
 Oil 
 Cake in 
 Bus. 
 
 5i 
 
 Produce. 
 
 49 
 75 
 91 
 77 
 73 
 75 
 95 
 82 
 60 
 55 
 77 
 66 
 68 
 64 
 53 
 57 
 62 
 71 
 71 
 54 
 
 48 
 73 
 
 74 f 
 60£ 
 
 74J 
 
 74} 
 
 55§ 
 71 
 551 
 66 
 44i 
 
 Wgt. 
 of a 
 Bus. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 57| 
 
 58 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 57 
 
 52^ 
 
 59" 
 
 57^ 
 
 55 
 
 53f 
 
 56 
 
 561- 
 
 56| 
 
 56 
 
 52| 
 
 54i 
 
 56§ 
 
 56| 
 
 56 
 
 57 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 60 
 
 56f 
 
 2 
 58 
 58 
 
 55i 
 5H 
 55^ 
 58 
 57* 
 
 26} | 47£ 
 
 in Essex, in a field of barley, the results of 
 two experiments were — 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1. Soil dressed with 6 bushels of salt per 
 
 acre, and 20 loads of earth and stable 
 dung, at turnip time, produced per 
 acre - - - - 65 
 
 2. Soil dressed with 20 loads of dung and 
 
 earth - - - - 60 
 
 In the same year, at Sproughton in Suf- 
 folk, on a sandy barley soil, belonging to 
 Mr. Ransone : — 
 
 Bushels of 
 Barley. 
 
 1. Soil without any manure, produced 
 
 per acre - - - - 30 
 
 2. Soil dressed with 16 bushels of salt 
 
 per acre in March - - 51 
 
 The following table contains the results 
 of fourteen experiments, made in 1819, by 
 the late Mr. George Sinclair, at Woburn, 
 on the uses of salt to the barley crop. The 
 soil had, the previous year, carried a crop 
 of turnips, and was composed of three 
 fourths silicious sand : — 
 
 Kind of Manure, and Mode 
 of applying it. 
 
 Quantity per 
 Acre. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Bushels 
 of Salt. 
 
 Bushels 
 
 of 
 Lime. 
 
 Bush. 
 
 Weight 
 
 per 
 Bushel. 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Soil without manure of 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 any kind 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 43i 
 
 Salt sown with the seed - 
 
 55 
 
 
 20 
 
 43} 
 
 Salt sown with the seed - 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 42* 
 
 Salt applied before sowing 
 
 33 
 11 
 
 
 28J 
 
 44a 
 
 Salt applied before sowing 
 
 
 28f 
 
 43 
 
 Salt applied before sowing 
 
 
 
 231 
 
 43 
 
 Lime and salt applied 
 
 
 
 
 
 before sowing - 
 
 33 
 
 60 
 
 9 
 
 42* 
 
 Lime and salt applied 
 
 
 
 
 
 before sowing - 
 
 11 
 
 60 
 
 22 
 
 42i 
 
 Lime and salt before sow. 
 
 
 
 
 
 ing 
 
 16| 
 
 30 
 
 m 
 
 43 
 
 Lime mixed and sown 
 
 
 
 
 
 with seed 
 
 
 60 
 
 18± 
 
 43f 
 
 Lime mixed with soil 
 
 
 
 
 
 previous to sowing 
 
 
 60 
 
 I Of 
 
 43£ 
 
 OATS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sown without any ma- 
 
 
 
 
 
 nure - 
 
 
 
 2«i 
 
 33 
 
 Salt with the seed 
 
 44 
 
 
 m 
 
 30£ 
 
 Salt mixed with the soil 
 
 44 
 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 In these experiments upon oats, the 
 quantity of salt applied was evidently too 
 great. Mr. Legrand states, that in his ex- 
 periments upon barley, " it gradually ad- 
 vanced in its effects to sixteen bushels, and 
 as gradually diminished to forty bushels, 
 when vegetation was stopped." (Hollings- 
 heacTs Hints, pp. 5 — 10). 
 
 As a manure for Grass Land, Meadows, 
 Sfc, salt has been used in all parts of 
 England, with varying success. It always, 
 however, sweetens the herbage. It has 
 been employed at the rate of six to sixteen 
 bushels per acre, and where the primary 
 object has been the destruction of the old 
 turf, even thirty to forty bushels have been 
 successfully employed on the same extent 
 of land. It has the effect of completely 
 preventing worm-casts on lawns, &c. 
 1063 
 
 In a letter with which I was favoured 
 from Mr. Collyns, of Kenton, Devonshire, 
 1826, he says — "One of my neighbours 
 writes me, in using salt as a manure on 
 grass land, I have found the salted portions 
 not to be affected by severe frosty nights, 
 when every blade of grass on the unsalted 
 portions has been in a frozen state. I ob- 
 serve, too, that it is destructive to every 
 kind of grub and worm ; and I am con- 
 vinced, where it has been used with judg- 
 ment, that it has not failed. Another in- 
 telligent neighbour," continues Mr. Collyns, 
 " whose farm is almost entirely a light 
 black sand, writes, ' I have found salt 
 answer my most sanguine expectations for 
 barley, oats, potatoes, and turnips, both as 
 to the increased quantity and improved 
 quality of the crops, of which I can now 
 give ocular demonstration : my barley and 
 oats, which used to yield me only fifteen to 
 twenty bushels per acre, now yield from 
 forty to forty-five. My wheat is certainly 
 much improved in quality, but I expected 
 more in quantity. I have had thirty-five 
 bushels of wheat from an acre dressed Avith 
 ten bushels of salt ; and from the same field 
 last year, after the same quantity of salt, 
 140 bags of potatoes per acre. This year 
 again, dressed with ten bushels of salt, I 
 have not more than twenty bushels of wheat 
 per acre, but the quality very superior in- 
 deed, and the root of clover in it very fine 
 and luxuriant. In every field I have salted, 
 I find the grass very much superior to any 
 produced before the use of salt.' I have 
 since," adds Mr. Collyns, " gone over his 
 farm, and am astonished at the verdant 
 pasturage, in what used to be coarse and 
 rushy meadows. In this arable land, he 
 never got more than ten bushels of wheat 
 per acre until he used salt ; so that this is 
 also a decided improvement." 
 
 In Suffolk, according to a statement fur- 
 nished to me by Mr. Broke, of Capel, near 
 Ipswich, — " In the month of April, 1821, 
 six bushels of salt manure were applied to 
 half an acre of red clover ; the soil good 
 turnip land, not sharp ; extent of the field 
 ten acres. The salted, clover at first looked 
 very yellow, and apparently injured, but it 
 soon began to recover, and when mown, the 
 increased produce was, at the very least, 
 10 cwt. per acre; and the aftermath pro- 
 portionally good ; the cattle eating it down 
 closer, and in preference to any other part 
 of the field." 
 
 With Potatoes. — There have been va- 
 rious experiments made with salt as a 
 manure for potatoes. The author of this 
 work in 1817, on a gravelly soil, at Great 
 Totham, in Essex, made the following 
 trials : — 
 
 3 y 4 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 1. Soil simple, produce per acre - 120 
 
 2. Soil with 20 bushels of salt in Septem- 
 
 ber - - - - 192 
 
 3. Soil with stable manure, 20 loads in 
 
 the spring of the year - - 219 
 
 4. Soil with 20 loads of manure and 20 
 
 bushels of salt - - •• 234 
 
 5. Soil with 40 bushels of salt alone - 192^ 
 
 6. Soil with 40 bushels of salt and 20 
 
 loads of manure - - - 244 
 
 The Rev. Edmund Cartwright, of Hol- 
 lenden House, in Kent, in 1804, made va- 
 rious important trials of salt as a manure 
 for potatoes. The soil on which the experi- 
 ments were made consisted of three-fourths 
 sand. {Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 370.) 
 See Potatoes, ante, p. 1012. 
 
 " Of ten different manures," said this 
 agriculturist, " salt, a manure hitherto of 
 an ambiguous character, is (one only ex- 
 cepted) superior to them all. The effect of 
 the mixture of salt and soot is remarkable." 
 The writer of this witnessed the same re- 
 sult on carrots, at the rate of sixteen bushels 
 of each per acre. 
 
 Vermin. — With regard to the destruc- 
 tion of vermin by means of salt, we may 
 safely assert, that there is, perhaps, no agri- 
 cultural use of common salt more un- 
 doubted. The effect, too, is direct, and the 
 result immediately apparent. For this pur- 
 pose, from five to ten bushels per acre are 
 sufficient. The agriculturist need be under 
 no apprehension that the salt will destroy 
 his crop, for twenty bushels of salt per acre 
 may be applied to young wheat with perfect 
 safety : I have seen even twenty-five bushels 
 used with advantage. See Insects. 
 
 In reference to Weeds. — Salt has been of 
 late years used at the rate of from twenty 
 to forty bushels per acre, to kill weeds and 
 to cleanse fallows, with great advantage; it 
 also, in the large proportion we have named, 
 will destroy coarse, sour grass, &c. ; and 
 though, for a time, all vegetation is de- 
 stroyed, yet in a short period, a much su- 
 perior turf is produced. If the cultivator 
 can collect weeds, parings of turf, ditches, 
 banks, &c, of the most foul description, and 
 spread evenly on the surface of the heap 
 half a bushel of salt to every ton of the col- 
 lection, he will find every weed, in the 
 course of a few weeks, killed and dissolved 
 away. This plan I have long followed my- 
 self, on a light gravelly soil ; and upon 
 spreading this salted mixture, at the rate of 
 fourteen or fifteen loads per acre, its bene- 
 ficial effects can be traced to an inch. I 
 have principally used it as a dressing for 
 turnips and oats. 
 
 /// the Garden. — Salt has been em- 
 ployed by the gardener for many purposes; 
 10G4' 
 
 most commonly on lawns, at the rate of ten 
 bushels per acre, to prevent worm-casts ; 
 and on gravel walks in a larger proportion 
 to kill weeds; it may be employed, how- 
 ever, as a fertiliser in gardens with decided 
 advantage. I have witnessed the results of 
 the following experiments made by my 
 brother, Mr. George Johnson, at Great To- 
 tham ; and I the more readily give them a 
 place here from knowing with what care 
 they were made : — 
 
 The soil was composed of — 
 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Stones and gravel 
 
 27 
 
 Vegetable fibre 
 
 1-5 
 
 Soluble matter - 
 
 3 
 
 Carbonates of lime and magnesia 
 
 18 
 
 Oxide of iron - 
 
 4 
 
 Animal and vegetable matter - 
 
 
 Alumina - - 
 
 45 
 
 Silica - 
 
 40 
 
 Loss - 
 
 1 
 
 
 100- 
 
 Windsor beans were sown on it — 
 
 Produce 
 per Acre. 
 
 Soil treated with 20 bushels of salt per 
 
 acre - - - bushels 217 
 
 Soil simple - ] 35^ 
 
 Onions — 
 
 tons. cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 Salt, 20 bushels, manure 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 tons per acre 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 Manure - 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 19 
 
 Carrots — 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Soil without any manure - 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2. Soil with 20 tons of manure 22 
 
 18 
 
 0 
 
 26 
 
 3. Soil with 20 bushels of salt 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4. Soil with 20 bushels of salt, 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 20 tons of manure - 
 
 23 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 18 
 
 Parsnips — 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. Soil with 20 tons manure, 
 
 
 
 
 
 and 20 bushels of salt - 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 2. Soil with 20 tons manure - 
 
 6 
 
 11 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Early Potatoes — 
 
 bhls. 
 
 1. Soil simple - 308 
 
 2. Soil with 20 bushels of salt - 584 
 
 Beets — 
 
 tons. cwt. qrs. 
 
 1. Soil simple - - - 4 10 1 
 
 2. Soil with 20 bushels of salt - 4 8 3 
 
 3. Soil with 20 tons of salt, and 
 
 20 tons manure - - 7 0 0 
 
 4. Soil with 20 tons manure - 6 10 0 
 
 In preventing clubbing in the roots of 
 some of the brassica tribe, Mr. Johnson 
 found salt highly useful ; he states, in some 
 observations on this disease read to the 
 Horticultural Society of London, October, 
 10, 1821 : — " Some cauliflowers were 
 
 f)lanted upon a light silicious soil, which 
 tad previously been manured with well pu- 
 
SALT, COMMON 
 
 trefied stable manure, and over one-third of 
 the allotted space was sown salt, at the rate 
 of twenty bushels per acre, immediately be- 
 fore planting in July, 1821. The previous 
 crop had been brocoli. Fifty-four plants 
 were set on the two-thirds unsalted, and 
 twenty-six on the one-third salted : the re- 
 sult has been, that of the fifty-four unsalted, 
 fifteen have been diseased and unproduc- 
 tive, but of the twenty-six salted only two." 
 
 There is little doubt, but that salt might 
 be much more extensively employed by 
 florists than at present. A very small quantity 
 of salt added to the water in which flowers 
 are placed, adds considerably to their dura- 
 tion. There are many bulbous-rooted flowers 
 which flourish best in the immediate vicinity 
 of the sea. Mr. Edwin Greville remarked, in 
 1824, that some common salt applied at the 
 rate of sixteen bushels per acre to a portion 
 of a bed of stocks, in his garden at Wyaston, 
 in Derbyshire, made them grow most de- 
 cidedly stronger and finer, and bloom much 
 more perfectly than those growing in the 
 same bed unsalted. " There was no pos- 
 sibility of error or doubt on the subject," 
 said my intelligent informant. I have given 
 the experiments of Dr. Priestley upon va- 
 rious plants vegetating in salt and water. 
 He found that the use of salt materially 
 protracted the existence of the plant. It is 
 a common custom with the importers of 
 exotic plants, to dip cuttings to salt water. 
 Before the adoption of this plan, they al- 
 most invariably perished in the passage. 
 
 Among the many excellent communica- 
 tions with which I have been favoured on 
 the use of salt in the cultivation of plants, 
 was one from an eminent florist, near Pad- 
 dington, Mr. Thomas Hogg. " From the 
 few experiments," he observes, " that I have 
 tried with salt as a garden manure, I am 
 fully prepared to bear testimony to its use- 
 fulness. In a treatise upon flowers, pub- 
 lished about six years since, I remarked, 
 that the application of salt, and its utility as 
 a manure, was yet imperfectly understood. 
 It is a matter of uncertainty, whether it 
 acts directly as a manure, or only as a kind 
 of spice or seasoning, thereby rendering the 
 soil a more palatable food for plants. The 
 idea that first suggested itself to my mind, 
 arose from contemplating the successful 
 culture of hyacinths in Holland. This root, 
 though not indigenous to the country, may 
 be said to be completely naturalized in the 
 neighbourhood of Haerlem, where it grows 
 luxuriantly in a deep sandy alluvial soil ; 
 yet one great cause of its free growth, I 
 considered, was owing to the saline atmo- 
 sphere : this induced me to mix salt in the 
 compost ; and I am satisfied that no hya- 
 cinths will grow well at a distance from the 
 1005 
 
 sea, without it. I am also of opinion, that the 
 numerous bulbous tribes of amaryllidaceae, 
 especially those from the Cape of Good 
 Hope, ixias, alliums, which include onions, 
 garlic, shalots, &c, anemonies, various 
 species of the lily, antholyza, colchicum, 
 crinum, cyclamens, narcissus, iris, gladiolus, 
 ranunculus, scilla, and many others, should 
 either have salt or sea sand in the mould 
 used for them. I invariably use salt as an 
 ingredient in my compost for carnations ; a 
 plant which, like wheat, requires substantial 
 soil, and all the strength and heat of the 
 summer, to bring it to perfection ; and I 
 believe I might say, without boasting, that 
 few excel me in blooming that flower." 
 
 In the inundations of the sea, as in Fries- 
 land for instance, in 1825, various curious 
 effects were produced by the salt water. The 
 oak, the mulberry, pear, peach, and others 
 with deep roots, did not suffer ; neither did 
 the asparagus, onions, celery, &c, for they 
 were never finer, or more luxuriant. But 
 the vines and gooseberries contracted a salt 
 taste ; and the apricots, apples, cherries, 
 elms, poplars, beech, willows, &c, could not 
 bear the over dose of sea-water. They 
 pushed out a few leaves, but speedily pe- 
 rished. (Turner s Sacred Hist. p. 117.) Simi- 
 lar results were noticed, after an inundation 
 of the sea, in the garden of the late Richard 
 Gower, Esq., near Ipswich, in Suffolk, in 
 November, 1824. In this instance a portion 
 of the garden remained twenty-four hours 
 under the sea-water. The asparagus beds 
 were materially improved in their produce. 
 The cherry trees, in the following year 
 produced a numerous crop of cherries, 
 which tasted, however, so very salt that they 
 could not he eaten, although very fine in ap- 
 pearance. These trees all died in the fol- 
 lowing year, 1826. (Johnson on the Fer- 
 tilisers, p. 374.) 
 
 Salt, with other Manures. — Salt and 
 Lime. — With a mixture of salt and lime, a 
 manure is gradually formed of a most power- 
 ful description. It promises now, through 
 the successful example of Mr. Bennett, and 
 Sir C. Burrell, to be very generally adopted. 
 It is difficult to account for the neglect of 
 this manure, on any other ground than the 
 difficulties which were so long thrown in the 
 farmer's way, by the long continued tax 
 upon salt. That it is not a novel plan for en- 
 riching the land is quite certain. Glauber, 
 a celebrated German chemist, one of the 
 last of the alchemists, described it in the 
 jargon of his craft nearly two centuries 
 since ; when he said — " The Sal mirahilis 
 (common salt), as it is of itself, is, by reason 
 of its corroding virtues, which it as yet re- 
 tains, plainly unfit for the multiplication of 
 vegetable, for that being so used would 
 
SALT, COMMON. 
 
 prove more hurtful than profitable. Upon 
 this account it is necessary that to one part 
 of it be added two parts by weight of the 
 best calyx vine (lime), which being mois- 
 tened with water and made into balls, are 
 to be well-heated red-hot for an hour, that 
 so all the corrosivity being introverted, the 
 sal mirabilis may be alkalizated, and used to 
 vegetables, for an universal medicine : for 
 it conserves its attracting force, and loseth 
 it not in the heating red-hot." {Glaubers 
 Works, by Packe, pp. 2. 47.) 
 
 Christopher Packe, who, in 1688, pub- 
 lished in English Glauber's folio volume, 
 dwells at considerable length in his preface 
 upon this mixture of salt and lime ; " for 
 the enriching of poor and barren land, it is 
 the cheapest of all mixtures, and is most 
 easy to be done ; for any ploughman having 
 but once seen it done may be presently able 
 to manage it." 
 
 Salt and lime was used as a manure by 
 Mr. Mitchell of Ayr, many years since, and 
 he, not knowing what others had done with 
 this fertiliser before his time, considered 
 himself to be the discoverer. (Alton s Ayr- 
 shire, p. 385. ; Sinclair's Hasb. of Scotland, 
 p. 194.) He thus described his process : — 
 " Take thirty-two bushels of lime, and slack 
 it with sea- water, previously boiled to the 
 saturated state. This quantity is sufficient 
 for an acre of ground, and may be either 
 thrown out of the carts with a shovel over 
 the land in the above state, or made into 
 compost with forty loads of moss or earth, 
 in which state it will be found to pay fully 
 for the additional labour, and is sufficient 
 for an acre of fallow ground, though ever 
 so reduced before. Its component parts 
 are muriate and sulphate of lime, mineral 
 alkali, in an uncombined state, also muriate 
 and carbonate of soda. All the experiments 
 have done well with it, but especially wheat 
 and beans ; and it has not been behind any 
 manure with which it has been compared. 
 There is one instance in which it was tried 
 in comparison with seventy-two cartloads 
 of soaper's waste and dung ; and although 
 this was an extraordinary dressing, yet that 
 with this salt and lime manure was fully 
 above the average of the field. Mr. Mitchell 
 calculates that 3000 gallons of sea-water, 
 boiled down to about 600 gallons, will slack 
 sixty-four bushels of shell lime. (These 3000 
 gallons of sea-water will contain about 
 700 lbs. of common salt). A quantity suf- 
 ficient, for two acres. The expense of car- 
 rying the water from the sea, the evapor- 
 ation, &c, he adds, will cost 205. The 
 sixty-four bushels of limestone cost him 
 40.y., or 31. for two acres. 
 
 The use of this mixture of salt and lime 
 was also noticed in the year 1 800, by Mr. 
 1066 7 ^ 
 
 Hollingshead of Chorley, in Lancashire, 
 who observes — " Lime prepared for ma- 
 nure should be slacked with salt springs or 
 salt water : lime so slacked will have a 
 double effect." (Hints to Farmers, p. 20. 
 Edition 1800.) And in 1816, Mr. James 
 Manley of Anderton, in Cheshire, when 
 giving his evidence before a committee of 
 the House of Commons on the salt duties, 
 mentioned, that in getting marl (which is a 
 mixture of carbonate of lime, alumina, and 
 silica), he had found that, by mixing it with 
 brine instead of water, the portion of the 
 field on which the brined marl was used, 
 yielded five bushels of wheat per acre more 
 than that portion on which the watered 
 marl was employed ; and it may be well to 
 remember, that the celebrated salt sand of 
 Padstow Harbour is composed of 64 per 
 cent, of carbonate of lime; and that, in the 
 experiments of the late Rev. Edmund Cart- 
 wright upon potatoes, of twenty -five ma- 
 nures, or mixtures of manures, salt and 
 lime were found superior in their product 
 of potatoes to nineteen others. (Communi- 
 cations to the Board of Agr. p. 370.) 
 
 Every farmer has it in his power, even 
 in the most inland situations, to procure 
 this most excellent manure, for the use of 
 his farm, by means of a mixture of two 
 parts of lime and one part of common salt, 
 and suffering it to remain incorporated in a 
 shady place, or covered with sods, for two 
 or three months ; a plan which I suggested 
 some years since. (Essay on Salt, p. 32. 
 3d ed.) By this process a gradual decom- 
 position takes place, muriate of lime and 
 soda are formed, the whole mass speedily 
 becoming encrusted with alkali. There is 
 another advantage to be derived from the 
 adoption of this process, besides the form- 
 ation of soda, viz. that the muriate of lime 
 is one of the most deliquescing or moisture- 
 absorbing substances, with which we are 
 acquainted ; and, in consequence, whenever 
 it exists in a soil, the warmth of the sun 
 has, in summer, much less influence on it 
 than it would otherwise have. 
 
 I would especially warn those who try 
 the effect of a mixture of salt and lime, to 
 attend carefully to the directions I have 
 given, and not, as some farmers have done, 
 to use the mixed salt and lime immediately, 
 before any decomposition has taken place. 
 After it has been well mixed together in a 
 dry state, it should be allowed to remain 
 two or three months undisturbed, and then 
 applied at the rate of from thirty-five to 
 sixty bushels per acre, either by sowing it 
 out of a seed basket, or mixed with earth, 
 and spread in the usual way. It is neces- 
 sary to give the mixture time, since the 
 decomposition proceeds very slowly, and is 
 
SALTS. 
 
 not to be hastened by any simple process. 
 See Lime, ante, p. 757. 
 
 Salt and Soot. — Salt has never been em- 
 ployed with other substances so extensively 
 as it might. I have used it for potatoes, 
 mixed with earth, ditch scrapings, and with 
 soot, with the most decided success ; the 
 places where it has been thus applied being 
 much superior, both in appearance and in 
 produce. 
 
 The mixture of salt with soot produces 
 the most remarkable effects, especially when 
 trenched into ground prepared for carrots. 
 Mr. G. Sinclair found that when the soil, 
 unmanured, produced twenty-three tons of 
 carrots per acre, the same soil, fertilised 
 with a mixture of only six bushels and 
 a half of salt, and six and a half of soot, 
 yielded forty tons per acre. (My Essay on 
 Salt, p. 145.) Mr. Belfield describes the 
 mixture as equally beneficial for wheat. 
 (Ibid. p. 45.) And Mr. Cartwright found, 
 that when the soil, without any addition, 
 yielded per acre 157 bushels of potatoes, 
 that, dressing the same land with a mix- 
 ture of thirty bushels of soot and eight 
 bushels of salt, made it produce per acre 
 240 bushels. (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. 
 p. 376. ; Johnson on Fertilisers, p. 408.) 
 
 SALTING. See Beef, Bacon, Brining 
 of Grain, Ham, Swine, &c. 
 
 SALTS, their uses to vegetation. That 
 peculiar saline substances exist in almost 
 all vegetables, was an early observation 
 made by the natural philosopher. The sa- 
 line and alkaline taste perceivable in the 
 ashes obtained by the combustion of these 
 substances, very plainly indicated the fact. 
 And although the skill of the chemist did 
 not at first enable him to accurately dis- 
 criminate between the salts, the alkalies, or 
 even the earths contained in plants, with 
 even tolerable accuracy, yet the progress 
 of science has long since surmounted a 
 mass of difficulties, and has detected a 
 strange variety of salts in plants. A salt, 
 be it remembered, is a substance produced 
 by the combination of an acid with a base, 
 that is, with an earth, an alkali, or a me- 
 tallic oxide : the class of salts, therefore, 
 is exceedingly numerous (they have been 
 estimated at about 2000), and includes 
 many substances which at first sight do not 
 appear entitled to such a name; thus the 
 union of the carbonic acid with the earth 
 lime, which is an oxide of a metal, forms 
 the salt carbonate of lime, or chalk, marble, 
 &c. Sulphuric acid and lime form the salt 
 sulphate of lime (gypsum), with phosphoric 
 acid, phosphate of lime (earthy matter of 
 bones), and many other earthy salts look 
 to the mechanical eye as little like salts as 
 these. 
 
 1067 
 
 The farmer must avoid, in entering into 
 this examination, the common error of sup- 
 posing that the saline substances found in 
 plants are not their essential constituents 
 or food, but are merely there by chance : 
 that their presence is unattended with be- 
 nefit, and their absence totally unproduc- 
 tive of injury ; for such is a most erroneous 
 conclusion. Not only are certain salts, the 
 phosphate and sulphate of lime, and the 
 carbonate of potash, for instance, invariably 
 present in certain plants, but without those 
 salts are present in the soil in which they 
 grow, they will not maintain a healthy ve- 
 getation. Under the head Earths, Gases, 
 Water, I have endeavoured to show how 
 essential those substances are to vegeta- 
 tion, and what a great part they perform 
 in the support of the farmer's crops ; but 
 still it will be found, that when a soil is 
 carefully composed of all the pure earths 
 discovered in plants, watered in abundance 
 with pure water, and supplied with all the 
 gases of putrefaction and of the atmosphere, 
 that still all these are not sufficient by 
 themselves to support a single ordinarily 
 cultivated crop ; but then it is found that 
 where such a soil is supplied with various 
 saline substances (for instance, with the 
 various saline matters draining from a 
 dunghill), that then every difficulty is re- 
 moved. Neither must the cultivator sup- 
 pose, that when saline substances are mixed 
 with the soil, that then the plant growing 
 upon it absorbs those salts as a matter of 
 necessity, united with the moisture con- 
 tained in that soil, without having the 
 power of rejecting or separating it from its 
 solution ; for such an assumption has been 
 proved to be contrary to the fact by several 
 very accurate experiments. M. Saussure, 
 for instance, found that plants had the 
 power, when placed in saline solutions, fo- 
 reign to their habits, of separating them 
 from the water in which they were dissolved. 
 These are researches fraught with instruc- 
 tion to the cultivator. He dissolved (says 
 Dr. Thomson, System of Chem. vol. iv. p. 
 319.) the following salts in water, in such 
 proportions that each solution contained 
 part of its weight of the salt — mu- 
 riate of potash, muriate of soda (common 
 salt), nitrate of lime, sulphate of soda 
 (Glauber salt), muriate of ammonia (sal 
 ammonia), acetate of lime, sulphate of 
 copper (blue vitriol). In each of these 
 solutions he put plants of Polygonum Per- 
 sicaria, or of Bidens cannabina, furnished 
 with their roots. The Polygonum grew for 
 five weeks in the solution of muriate of 
 potash, nitrate of lime, muriate of soda, and 
 sulphate of soda, and its roots increased in 
 them as usual. It languished in the solu- 
 
SAL 
 
 LTS. 
 
 tion of sal ammoniac, and the roots made 
 no progress. It died in eight or nine days in 
 the solution of acetate of lime, and in less 
 than three days in the solution of sulphate of 
 copper. When such a number of plants of 
 Polygonum were put into the solutions as to 
 absorb one half of each in two days, the re- 
 maining half was found to have lost very dif- 
 ferent proportions of the salt which it had 
 originally contained. Supposing the portion 
 of salt at first in solution to be 100, the 
 following table exhibits the quantity of each 
 which had disappeared when one half of the 
 
 liquid was absorbed — ; 
 
 
 Parts 
 
 Muriate of potash 
 
 - 14-7 
 
 Muriate of soda 
 
 - 13 
 
 Nitrate of lime 
 
 - 4 
 
 Sulphate of soda 
 
 - 14-4 
 
 Muriate of ammonia - 
 
 - 12 
 
 Acetate of lime 
 
 8 
 
 Sulphate of copper 
 
 - 47 
 
 The Bidens absorbed pretty nearly the 
 same proportions, but in general did not 
 vegetate so long as the Polygonum. 
 
 When various salts were dissolved at 
 once in the same solution, and plants made 
 to vegetate in them, it was found that dif- 
 ferent proportions of the salts were ab- 
 sorbed. The following table exhibits the 
 results of these trials, supposing, as before, 
 the original weight of each salt to have 
 been 100, each solution contained part 
 of its weight of each salt — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 , f Sulphate of soda - - 117 
 
 * \ Muriate of soda - - 22 
 
 2 f Sulphate of soda - - 12 
 ' 1 Muriate of potash - - 1 7 
 
 3 f Nitrate of lime - - 4*5 
 \ Muriate of ammonia - 16*5 
 
 ^ f Acetate of lime - - 31 
 
 \ Sulphate of copper - 34 
 
 _ f Acetate of lime - - 8 
 
 ' \ Muriate of potash - - 17 
 
 f Nitrate of lime - - 17 
 
 ' \ Sulphate of copper - 34 
 f Sulphate of soda - 6 
 
 7. < Muriate of soda - - 10 
 
 [_ Acetate of lime - - 0 
 
 These experiments succeeded nearly 
 equally with other plants, as the Mentha 
 piperita and the Scotch fir. When the 
 roots were cut or removed, the plants ab- 
 sorbed all solutions indiscriminately ; on 
 examining the plants, the salts absorbed 
 were found in them unaltered. It being 
 thus clearly established that plants possess 
 fl discriminating power, and that they do 
 not absorb saline solutions merely because 
 they happen to be dissolved in the soil, it 
 next becomes an object of interest, as an 
 illustration and guide for the operations of 
 1008 
 
 agriculture, to ascertain what salts are 
 found by the researches of the chemist in 
 commonly cultivated plants. And if at 
 the conclusion of our examination, we find 
 that certain salts are found in abundance 
 only in certain plants, and that these saline 
 substances exist in them invariably in all 
 soils and situations, and that without their 
 presence the plant languishes and merely 
 supports a sickly existence, we shall be 
 almost driven to the conclusion, that these 
 are as essentially the food of plants, as any 
 of the other substances with which they 
 abound. 
 
 For a lengthened period, the vegetable 
 alkaline salt, carbonate of potash, has been 
 obtained from plants. Procured at first by 
 their combustion, in iron pots, it hence 
 obtained its name. Dr. Thomson (System 
 of Chem. vol. iv. p. 187.) has given a table 
 of the quantity of potash obtained from 
 100 parts of the following plants — 
 
 
 
 Ashes. 
 
 Potash. 
 
 Sallow 
 
 
 2-8 
 
 0285 
 
 Elm - 
 
 
 2-36727 
 
 0-39 
 
 Oak - 
 
 
 1-35185 
 
 0-15343 
 
 Poplar 
 
 
 1-23476 
 
 0-07481 
 
 Hornbeam 
 
 
 1-1283 
 
 0-1254 
 
 Beech 
 
 
 0-58432 
 
 0-14572 
 
 Common nettle 
 
 
 10-67186 
 
 2-5033 
 
 Common thistle 
 
 
 4-04265 
 
 0-53734 
 
 Fern - 
 
 
 4-00781 
 
 0-6259 
 
 Cow thistle 
 
 
 10-5 
 
 1-96603 
 
 Great river rush 
 
 
 3-85395 
 
 0*72234 
 
 Feathered rush 
 
 
 4-33593 
 
 0-50811 
 
 Stalks of Turkey wheat 
 
 8-86 
 
 1-75 
 
 Wormwood 
 
 
 9-774 
 
 7-3 
 
 Fumitory 
 
 
 21-9 
 
 7-9 
 
 Trifolium pratense 
 
 
 
 0-0078 
 
 Vetches 
 
 
 
 2-78 
 
 Beans with their stalks 
 
 
 2 
 
 In general, adds Dr. Thomson, three 
 times as much ashes are obtained from 
 shrubs, and five times as much from shrubs 
 as from trees. Equal weight of the branches 
 of trees produce more ashes than the trunk, 
 and the leaves more than the branches. 
 Herbs arrived at maturity produce more 
 ashes than at any other time. Green vege- 
 tables produce more ashes than dry. The 
 salt Avhich is obtained by the combustion of 
 plants, although chiefly composed, does not 
 consist wholly of potash : there are many 
 salts mixed with it ; these are usually sul- 
 phate of potash, muriate of potash, sulphate 
 of lime, phosphate of lime, &c, but these 
 bear in general but a small proportion to 
 the potash. 
 
 Perhaps the most copious table of the 
 alkaline and other salts obtained by the 
 combustion of various plants, has been 
 given by M. Saussure in his chemical re- 
 searches on vegetation. He obtained from 
 100 parts of the ashes of the — 
 
SALTS. 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Leaves of oak ( Quercus JRobur) May 10. 47* 
 
 Ditto, September 27. - -17- 
 
 Wood of a young oak, May 10. - 7. 
 
 Bark of ditto - - - 7. 
 
 Perfect wood of oak • - 38-6 
 
 Albumen of ditto - - -32* 
 
 Bark of ditto - - - 7* 
 
 Cortical layers of ditto - - 7* 
 
 Extract of wood of ditto - -51- 
 
 Soil from wood of ditto - -24* 
 Extract from ditto - 66' 
 Leaves of poplar (Popuhis nigra), 
 
 May 10. - - - - 36- 
 
 Ditto, September 12. - -26* 
 
 Leaves of hazel - - -26* 
 
 Ditto, washed in cold water - 8*2 
 
 Leaves of ditto, June 22. - - 227 
 
 Ditto, September 20. - -11* 
 
 Wood of ditto, May 1. - - 24-5 
 
 Bark of ditto - - - 12 5 
 
 Wood of mulberry, November - 21- 
 
 Wood of hornbeam, November - 22- 
 
 Wood of horsechestnut, May 10. - 9 '5 
 
 Fruit of ditto, October 5. - 82- 
 Plants of peas (Pisum sativum) in flower 49*8 
 
 Ditto ripe ... - 34-25 
 Plants of vetches ( Vicia Faba) before 
 
 flowering, May 23. - - 55 "5 
 
 Ditto in flower ... 55-5 
 
 Ditto ripe, July 23. - - 50- 
 
 Seeds of ditto - - - 69-28 
 
 Ditto in flower, raised in distilled 
 
 water - - - - 60-1 
 
 Plants of tamsole, June 23. - - 63- 
 
 Wheat in flower - - - 43-25 
 
 Ditto, seeds ripe - - - 1 1 • 
 
 Ditto, a month before flowering - 60- 
 
 Ditto, in flower, June 14. - - 41* 
 
 Ditto, seeds ripe - - - 10- 
 
 Bran - 44-16 
 
 Plants of maize - - - 69' 
 
 Chaff of barley - - - 20- 
 
 Seeds of ditto - - -29- 
 
 Oats - - - - V 
 
 Leaves of fir (Pinus Abies), raised on 
 
 limestone - - - - 16* 
 
 Leaves of fir, raised on granite - 15- 
 
 Branches of pine - - - 15" 
 
 M. Vauquelin found 20 per cent, of pot- 
 ash in the ashes of the oat, and from his 
 experiments, it is probable that potash ex- 
 ists in plants in combination with the acetic 
 and carbonic acids. 
 
 The mineral alkali soda, or carbonate of 
 soda, is found in almost all the plants which 
 are found growing in the sea, or on the 
 shore, within reach of its influence. The 
 amount of alkali which these produce, is 
 considerably greater, in proportion to that 
 produced by plants, natives of inland 
 places. Thus, 100 parts of the salsola soda 
 yield 19-921 parts of ashes, and these con- 
 tain 1-992 parts of soda and common salt. 
 Many plants, the vegetable marrow and 
 the vine, for instance, derive great benefit 
 1069 
 
 from the application of soda to their roots. 
 Soap-suds are used as an excellent liquid 
 manure by many gardeners. 
 
 Sea-weed, kelp-soda, barilla, and the 
 common washing soda of the shops, have all 
 been used successfully as saline manures ; 
 and the well-known fertilising mixture of 
 salt and lime, after it has remained undis- 
 turbed for some time, contains chloride of 
 lime and soda in abundance. Sea-weed 
 abounds with a strange mixture of alkaline 
 salts, and there is no green manure more 
 powerful in its effects than this, especially 
 when it is ploughed in as fresh as possible. 
 M. Gaultier de Claubry found in the Fucus 
 saccharinus and in the Fucus digitatus (which 
 is much used in Scotland as a manure) the 
 following substances — saccharine matter, 
 mucilage, vegetable albumen, oxalate of pot- 
 ash, malate of potash, sulphate of potash, 
 sulphate of soda, sulphate of magnesia, mu- 
 riate of soda, muriate of potash, muriate of 
 magnesia, carbonate of potash, carbonate of 
 soda, hydriodate of potash, silica, phosphate 
 of lime, phosphate of magnesia, oxide of 
 iron, oxalate of lime. In the islands of 
 Guernsey and Jersey they employ the ashes 
 of the sea-weeds, which they call vraic. 
 Half a bushel strewed over a perch of 
 ground in winter or the beginning of spring 
 is sufficient. It gives a full ear to the corn, 
 and prevents it from being laid. {Com. 
 Board of Ag. vol. i. p. 216.) 
 
 Phosphate of lime, which is composed, 
 according to the experiments of M. Ber- 
 zelius, of phosphoric acid 100 parts, and 
 lime 84-53, abounds in vegetable substances. 
 It forms the basis of bones, from which, for 
 the purposes of experiment, it is commonly 
 procured. Obtained in this way, it is al- 
 ways in the form of a white powder, with- 
 out either taste or smell ; is insoluble in 
 water, and unaltered by exposure to the 
 atmosphere. Phosphate of magnesia is 
 composed of phosphoric acid and magnesia ; 
 is a salt, soluble in fifteen times its weight 
 of water. These two salts have been found 
 in a variety of vegetable substances by MM. 
 Vauquelin, Saussure, and other able che- 
 mists. See Bones. 
 
 There is little doubt but that these salts 
 are absorbed from the soil by the plants. 
 Almost all cultivated soils contain them in 
 some form or other. And of the value of 
 their addition to the soil in almost every 
 form, there is considerable evidence. Thus, 
 phosphate of lime abounds in all the richest 
 animal manures, such as in bone dust and 
 the richest excrements of animals ; and, 
 again, it is found by the Cheshire graziers, 
 that the earthy salts of bones obtained from 
 the size-makers, after most of the oily mat- 
 ters are removed by the action of steam, 
 
SALTS. 
 
 and hardly any thing but the salts of lime 
 remain, are quite as fertilising to their 
 pastures as when used in their fresh state, 
 abounding with animal matters. 
 
 Sulphate of lime, or gypsum, is another 
 salt, which is invariably found in and pro- 
 motes the growth of certain plants. 
 
 It must, I think, be regarded as one of 
 those salts which constitute the food or con- 
 stituents of plants. It is always present in 
 the clover, lucern, and sainfoin, and in 
 smaller proportions in the potato and the 
 turnip. See Gypsum. 
 
 That it is a food for plants was the opi- 
 nion of Sir Humphrey Davy ; he remarked, 
 when speaking of gypsum and the alkalies, 
 " It has been generally supposed that these 
 materials act in the vegetable economy in 
 the same manner as condiments or stimu- 
 lants in the animal economy ; and that they 
 render the common food more nutritive. 
 It seems, however, a much more probable 
 idea, that they are actually a part of the 
 true food of plants, and that they supply 
 that kind of matter to the vegetable fibre, 
 which is analogous to the bony matter in 
 animal structures. Thus, those plants which 
 are most benefited by the application of 
 gypsum, are those which always afford it 
 on analysis. Clover and most of the ar- 
 tificial grasses contain it, but it exists in 
 very minute quantity only in barley, wheat, 
 and turnips." (Ag. Chem. p. 19.) And 
 it is noticeable, that most of these remarks 
 apply to the phosphate of lime (which can 
 hardly be regarded as a stimulant), since 
 it is not even soluble in water ; it is also 
 worthy of observation, that the same salts 
 of lime (the phosphate and the carbonate) 
 which Davy thus supposes to be placed in 
 plants to add to their strength and solidity, 
 are precisely those salts which for that 
 very purpose, are placed in the bones of 
 animals. They thus, as it were, mutually 
 nourish each other. The very phosphate 
 of lime, which in the dissolving bone dust 
 is absorbed by the plant, again becomes in 
 the food of animals a material for the for- 
 mation of other bones. 
 
 The carbonate of lime (chalk) is the most 
 universally present of all the salts con- 
 tained in vegetables. It is composed of 
 carbonic acid 45 parts, lime 55 parts. It 
 is in minute proportions, soluble in wa- 
 ter, and more so if the water is saturated 
 with carbonic acid gas ; hence it is readily 
 absorbed by the roots of plants. It exists 
 in vegetables in very varying proportions; 
 thus, the ashes of the perfect oat plant, 
 Straw and seed together, were proved by 
 M. Vauquelin to contain more than live 
 per cent, of this earth. (Ann. de Chem. 
 vol.xxix. p. 19.) In 32 ounces of seeds of 
 1070 
 
 wheat, M. Schraedar found 12 grains of 
 carbonate of lime ; and in the same quan- 
 tity of seeds of rye 13-4 grains; 24-8 grains 
 in seeds of barley ; 3375 in those of the oat ; 
 and 46*2 in the same weight of the straw 
 of rye. It is most commonly, although not 
 always found, in vegetables with carbonate 
 of magnesia. These were found together 
 by M. Saussure in the ashes of the follow- 
 ing different substances. 
 
 He obtained from one hundred parts of 
 the ashes of the 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Leaves of oak, gathered in May - 0*12 
 Ditto, September - - -23- 
 
 Bark of the oak - - - 63*25 
 
 Wood of oak - - -23- 
 
 Soil from wood of oak - - 10* 
 
 Wood of poplar - - - 27* 
 
 Wood of hazel - - -8- 
 
 Wood of mulberry - - - 56' 
 
 Wood of hornbeam - 26' 
 Plants of pease, in flower - - 6* 
 
 Ditto of vetches, in flower - - 4*12 
 
 Ditto, raised in distilled water - 0' 
 
 Wheat in flower - 0-25 
 Ditto seeds, ripe - 0-25 
 Ditto, straw - - - - I s 
 
 Ditto, bran - - - - 0* 
 
 Oat seeds - - - - 0* 
 
 Barley seeds - - - 0- 
 
 Ditto, chaff - - - ^ - 12-5 
 
 Leaves of Rhododendron ferrugineum, 
 
 raised on limestone - 43*25 
 
 Ditto, raised on granite - - 16*75 
 
 Leaves of fir, raised on limestone - 43*5 
 Ditto, raised on granite - - 29* 
 
 Now, these two soils (the granite and the 
 limestone) contained carbonate of lime in 
 the following proportion : — 
 
 
 Granite. 
 
 Limestone. 
 
 Carbonate of lime 
 
 - 1-74 
 
 98- 
 
 Alumina 
 
 - 1325 
 
 0-625 
 
 Silica 
 
 - 75-25 
 
 
 Petroleum 
 
 
 0-25 
 
 Iron and manganese 
 
 - 9- 
 
 0-25 
 
 
 99-24 
 
 99-275 
 
 Carbonate of lime has also been detected 
 in the sap and white matter of the ulcer of 
 the elm by M. Vauquelin ; in the ashes of 
 wornrwood (more than 50 parts in 100), 
 by Kunsmuller; in the flowers of the ar- 
 nica, by M. Chevalier ; in the potato, by 
 M. Einhof ; in the red bark of St. Domingo, 
 in Peruvian bark, and in the wood of I he 
 quingania, by M. Fourcroy. Existing, 
 therefore, so universally in plants, there can 
 be no doubt of the fact, that this salt is 
 fulfilling then some wise and salutary pur- 
 pose ; not fortuitously, but with design ; not 
 by chance, but by the regulation and ar- 
 rangement of their Divine Architect. 
 
SALTS. 
 
 The action of saltpetre or nitrate of pot- 
 ash upon vegetation is not so easily ex- 
 plicable as that of many other salts ; and 
 the same remark applies to that of cubic 
 petre or nitrate of soda. 
 
 Nitrate of potash, which is composed of 
 nitric acid 54*34 parts, and potash 45-66 
 parts, enters into the composition of a few 
 plants it is true, but in the greater number, 
 even in those of the farmei^s crops, on which 
 on some soils its application produces such 
 luxuriant effects, its presence cannot be 
 detected, even in minute proportions. Some 
 plants, however, do contain it in consider- 
 able quantities. Thus, it has been found in 
 the common nettle, the horse radish, and the 
 sun flower. M. Chevalier found it in the 
 Chenopodium olidum ; M. Vauquelin in the 
 leaves of the deadly nightshade ; M. Che- 
 vreul in woad; Dr. John in the Mesembry- 
 anthemum crystallinum. M. Boullion Le- 
 grange made various plants, such as the 
 sun flower, vegetate in soils which did not 
 contain any saltpetre : upon examining them 
 no traces of saltpetre were discernible, but 
 upon watering them with a weak solution 
 it made its appearance in them as usual. 
 (See Nitrates.) The presence of cubic 
 petre (nitrate of soda) which is composed 
 of nitric acid 62*1, and soda 37*9, is still 
 more rare in plants ; it has only been 
 detected in barley. 
 
 The salts formed with the vegetable acids 
 existing in the juices of plants, are rather 
 numerous. Oxalate of potash for instance 
 exists in the Oxalis acetocella, and several 
 others ; oxalate of lime in rhubarb, pars- 
 ley, fennel, squills, tormentilla, deadly night- 
 shade, and spinach. Nitrate of lime is con- 
 tained in the onion ; malate of lime in the 
 houseleek, wake-robin, mignionette ; and 
 malate of potash in rue, the garden purslane, 
 nasturtians, lilac, madder, &c. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no saline substance that 
 exists to so great an extent in marine plants, 
 and which has been used for so long a 
 period and to such an extent for those grow- 
 ing in inland situations, as common salt. 
 (See Salt.) A substance which not only 
 abounds in all plants growing on the sea- 
 shore, but always exists in smaller propor- 
 tions, in many of those growing in upland 
 districts. Thus, Mr. G. Sinclair obtained 
 from 1450 grains of wheat chaff from Bed- 
 fordshire, ashes 50 ; common salt 2J : from 
 1450 parts of the seed, ashes 10; common 
 salt i. But from the same crop, which had 
 been dressed with 44 bushels of common 
 salt per acre, he obtained from 1450 parts 
 of the chaff, ashes 40 ; common salt 4 : and 
 from 1450 parts of the seed, ashes 10; com- 
 mon salt j. 
 
 Common salt is found generally in minute 
 1071 
 
 proportions in most cultivated soils. Davy 
 detected in 400 grains of a good silicious 
 soil from a Tonbridge hop garden, nearly 
 8 parts of common salt. 
 
 Besides being in small proportions a 
 direct food for plants, common salt also 
 seems to perform several other services to 
 vegetation, and the same remark probably 
 applies to other salts; for instance, when 
 applied to the soil in small proportions it 
 certainly promotes the putrefaction of its 
 organic matters. See Salt. 
 
 And again, salt in common with several 
 others appears to excite or stimulate the 
 plant, when applied to it in proportions not 
 too excessive ; a fact first noticed by Dr. 
 Priestley. 
 
 Another use of common and other salts 
 to vegetation is the preservation of the 
 plant from injury by sudden transitions in 
 the temperature of the atmosphere : salted 
 soils only freeze in intense frosts. I have 
 repeatedly witnessed in the case of culinary 
 vegetables, such as cabbages, brocoli, &c, 
 that while the produce of the unsalted por- 
 tions of the ground were half killed by the 
 frost, the salted portions have totally es- 
 caped. Many salts have also the property 
 of retarding the evaporation of the moisture 
 of the soil, others absorb it from the atmo- 
 sphere, or are of the class of deliquescing 
 salt : such are the common salt, chloride of 
 calcium, chloride of magnesia, cubic petre, 
 or nitrate of soda, &c, which, in conse- 
 quence, when they are used as fertilisers, 
 they increase this property, so valuable and 
 so essential to all cultivated soils. Thus I 
 found by some experiments upon a rich 
 soil near Maldon in Essex, worth 42.9. per 
 acre, that 1000 parts dried at a temper- 
 ature of 212°, absorbed in eighteen hours, 
 by exposure to air saturated with moisture 
 at a temperature of 62°, 25 parts. But 
 1000 parts of the same field which had been 
 dressed with twelve bushels of marine salt 
 per acre, under the same circumstances, 
 gained 27 parts ; and 1000 parts of the 
 same soil, which had been dressed with six 
 bushels per acre, gained 26 parts. The 
 attraction of some saline substances for the 
 moisture of the atmosphere is very con- 
 siderable. I found that 1000 parts of re- 
 fuse salt manure, dried at 212°, absorbed 
 in three hours by exposure to air saturated 
 with moisture at 60°, 49^ parts. 1000 parts 
 of the sediment, or pan scratch of the salt 
 makers, gained 10 parts ; 1000 parts of 
 Cheshire crushed rock salt, 10 parts ; 1000 
 parts of gypsum, 9 parts. Chloride of 
 calcium is so powerfully deliquescent, that 
 it absorbs sufficient moisture from the air 
 to dissolve in it, and form a solution. Dr. 
 Marcet found that 288 grains in 124 days 
 
SAI 
 
 absorbed 684 grains of water. 288 grains 
 of nitrate of iime, a salt found in some of 
 the richest alluvial soils of the East, absorbs 
 in 147 days 448 grains. Carbonate of pot- 
 ash, another saline fertiliser, also absorbs 
 moisture. ISTow it is worthy of the farmers' 
 notice, that chloride of calcium is the very 
 salt which is produced in such abundance 
 by the decomposition of common salt by 
 lime, in the way so successfully recom- 
 mended, first by the old German chemist 
 Glauber, by Mr. Hollingshead, Mr. Ben- 
 nett, and Sir Charles Burrell (see Salt 
 and Lime) ; for by the slow action carried 
 on for three months by these substances on 
 each other, this salt and soda are produced 
 by the decomposition ; and it is not im- 
 probable that when these salts are present 
 in the juices of plants, that by this means 
 the attractive powers of their leaves and 
 roots for aqueous vapour may be increased. 
 Davy alludes to these essential, yet too 
 little understood powers of absorption pos- 
 sessed by vegetables, when he says (Lec- 
 tures, p. 207.), — " In very intense heats, 
 and when the soil is dry, the life of plants 
 seems to be preserved by the absorbent 
 power of their leaves ; and it is a beautiful 
 circumstance in the economy of nature, 
 that aqueous vapour is most abundant in 
 the atmosphere when it is most needed for 
 the purposes of life, and that when other 
 sources of its supply are cut off this is most 
 copious." 
 
 Of the salts of ammonia, as I have in an- 
 other place remarked (On the Fertilisers, 
 p. 322.), carbonate of ammonia has been 
 detected in the Chenopodium olidum by 
 Messrs. Chevalier and Lasseigne ; and it 
 probably exists in other plants which are 
 distinguished for their powerful disagree- 
 able odour. (Ann. of Phil. vol. xii. p. 231.) 
 Muriate of ammonia has been found in 
 woad by M. Chevreul. (Ann. de Chem. 
 vol. lxviii. p. 284.) • The salts of ammonia 
 are in general exceedingly fertilising in 
 their effects upon vegetation. Soot owes 
 part of its efficacy to the ammoniacal salts 
 it contains. The liquor produced by the 
 distillation of coal contains carbonate and 
 acetate of ammonia, and this liquid of the 
 gas makers is a very good manure. " In 
 1808," says Davy (Lectures, p. 342.), " I 
 found the growth of wheat in a field at 
 Iloehampton assisted by a very weak solu- 
 tion of acetate of ammonia." The expe- 
 riments of Mr. Robertson with soot clearly 
 show the fertilising effects of the soluble 
 portion of it. He mixed together, in order 
 to form a liquid manure, six quarts of soot 
 in a hogshead of water. " Asparagus, 
 peas, and a variety of other vegetables," 
 says this intelligent horticulturist, " I have 
 
 '<TS. 
 
 manured with this mixture, with as much 
 effect as if I had used solid dung." (Gard. 
 Mag. vol. ii. p. 18.) Care must be taken, 
 however, in using this and all other liquid 
 fertilisers, not to make the solutions too 
 strong : it is an error into which all cul- 
 tivators are apt to fall in their early expe- 
 riments. Even Davy was not an excep- 
 tion, since, from making his liquids too 
 concentrated, he obtained results which 
 widely differed from his later experiments. 
 There is no doubt but that the salts of am- 
 monia, and all the compound manures 
 which contain them, have a very consider- 
 able forcing or stimulating, or, perhaps, 
 from their decomposition, nourishing effect 
 upon vegetation. In the experiments of 
 Dr. Belcher (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. 
 p. 416.) upon the common garden cress, by 
 watering them with a solution of phosphate 
 of ammonia, the plants were fifteen days 
 forwarder than plants growing under simi- 
 lar circumstances, but watered with plain 
 water; and he also describes the experi- 
 ments of Mr. Gregory, who, by watering 
 one half of a grass field with urine, nearly 
 doubled his crop of hay. Other testimo- 
 nials in support of the fertilising powers of 
 the salts of ammonia, are furnished by Mr. 
 Handley (Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 46.). 
 
 Of the mode in which ammonia operates 
 upon plants, a late valuable work on or- 
 ganic chemistry, by M. Liebig, abounds 
 with observations, with some of which I 
 cheerfully and cordially agree. To under- 
 stand these remarks, however, the farmer 
 must remember that ammonia is composed, 
 according to the analysis of Davy, of hy- 
 drogen 74 parts, and azote, or nitrogen, 
 26 parts. " The nitrogen of putrefied ani- 
 mals," he observes, " is contained in the 
 atmosphere, as ammonia in the form of a 
 gas, which is capable of entering into com- 
 bination with carbonic acid, and forming a 
 volatile salt. Ammonia in its gaseous form, 
 as well as all its volatile compounds, are of 
 extreme solubility in water. Ammonia, 
 therefore, cannot remain long in the atmo- 
 sphere, as every shower of rain must con- 
 dense it, and convey it to the surface of the 
 earth : thence also rain water must at all 
 times contain ammonia, though not always 
 in equal quantity. It must be greater in 
 summer than in spring or in winter, because 
 the intervals of time between the showers 
 are greater ; and where several wet days 
 occur, the rain of the first must contain 
 more of it than of the second. The rain of 
 a thunder storm, after a long protracted 
 drought, ought for this reason to contain 
 the greatest quantity which is conveyed to 
 the earth at one time. But all the ana- 
 
SALTS. 
 
 lyses of atmospheric air hitherto made have 
 failed to demonstrate the presence of am- 
 monia, although, according to our view 
 (says M. Liebig), it can never be absent. If 
 a pound of rain water contains only one 
 fourth of a grain of ammonia, then a field 
 of 40,000 square feet must receive annually 
 upwards of 80 lbs. of ammonia, or 65 lbs. of 
 nitrogen ; for, by the observations of Schub- 
 ler, which were formerly alluded to, about 
 700,000 lbs. of rain fell over this surface in 
 four months. This is much more nitrogen 
 than is contained in the form of vegetable 
 albumen and gluten in 2650 lbs. of woad, 
 2800 lbs. of hay, or 200 cwt. of beet root, 
 which are the yearly produce of such a 
 field ; but it is less than the straw, roots, 
 and grain of corn which might grow on the 
 same surface would contain. Experiments 
 made in the laboratory of Giessen, with the 
 greatest care and exactness, have placed 
 (continues Liebig) the presence of ammonia 
 in rain water beyond all doubt. It had 
 hitherto escaped observation, because no 
 one thought of searching for it. All the 
 rain water employed in this inquiry was 
 collected 600 paces southwest of Giessen, 
 whilst the wind was blowing in the direc- 
 tion of the town. When several hundred 
 pounds of it were distilled in a copper still, 
 and the first two or three pounds evapo- 
 rated with the addition of a little muriatic 
 acid, a very distinct crystallisation of sal 
 ammoniac was obtained : the crystals had 
 always a brown or a yellow colour. Am- 
 monia may likewise be always detected in 
 snow water : crystals of sal ammoniac were 
 obtained by evaporating in a vessel with 
 muriatic acid several pounds of snow, which 
 were gathered from the surface of the 
 ground in March, when the snow had a 
 depth of ten inches. The inferior layers of 
 snow which rested upon the ground con- 
 tained a quantity decidedly greater than 
 those which formed the surface. It is 
 worthy of observation, that the ammonia 
 contained in rain and snow water possessed 
 an offensive smell of perspiration and animal 
 excrements — a fact which leaves no doubt 
 respecting its origin." — " The products of 
 the distillation of flowers, herbs, and roots 
 with water, and all extracts of plants made 
 for medicinal purposes, contain ammonia. 
 The unripe transparent and gelatinous pulp 
 of the almond and peach emit much am- 
 monia when treated with alkalies. The 
 water which exudes from a cut vine, when 
 evaporated with a few drops of muriatic 
 acid, also yield a gummy deliquescent mass, 
 which evolves much ammonia on the addi- 
 tion of lime. Ammonia exists in every 
 part of plants, in the roots (as in beet root), 
 in the stem (of the maple tree), and in all 
 1073 
 
 blossoms and fruit in an unripe condition." 
 — " Putrid urine is employed in Flanders 
 as a manure with the best results. During 
 the putrefaction of urine, ammoniacal salts 
 are formed in large quantity, it may be said 
 exclusively ; for, under the influence of 
 heat and moisture, urea, the most pro- 
 minent ingredient of the urine, is converted 
 into carbonate of ammonia. The barren 
 soil on the coast of Peru is rendered fertile 
 by means of a manure called guano, which 
 is collected from several islands of the South 
 Sea. The soil itself does not contain the 
 smallest particle of organic matter, and the 
 manure employed is formed only of urate, 
 phosphate, oxalate, and carbonate of am- 
 monia, together with a few earthy salts." 
 (Organic Chem. p. 69 — 82.) This is, how- 
 ever, hardly a correct statement of the 
 composition of the guano. The salts of am- 
 monia do not form the chief ingredient of 
 this fertiliser, as will be readily seen by the 
 farmer from the result of an analysis by 
 Mr. Hennell. See Guano. 
 
 Of the presence of ammonia in rain 
 water collected at a distance from great 
 towns, I have, I confess, several doubts. 
 Why it should be found to exist in rain, 
 and not in the insensible moisture of the 
 atmosphere, I cannot well understand : 
 the fact of its being detected in the lower 
 layers of snow, and not in its upper por- 
 tions, appears to me to prove that the am- 
 monia detected in it ascended from the 
 earth into it as it rested on the ground, and 
 not that it descended with it from the at- 
 mosphere. Has ammonia ever been de- 
 tected in rain collected on the summits of 
 great elevations, or even on the surface of 
 the ocean ? Is it not, too, notorious to 
 every chemist, how difficult it is to render 
 chemical vessels absolutely free from minute 
 quantities of foreign substances ? Did not 
 Davy, from an inattention to this fact (and 
 he was the most cautious and the most 
 skilful of chemists) — did not even Davy 
 once feel convinced that pure water might 
 be converted into common salt by the 
 agency of galvanism ? But if I doubt the 
 existence of ammonia in all the situations 
 where it is supposed to exist by M. Liebig, 
 still more do I doubt the correctness of his 
 explanation of the fertilising effects of gyp- 
 sum when applied to the soil — effects, be 
 it remembered, produced on only three or 
 four crops, and these the only cultivated 
 crops of the farmer in which sulphate of 
 lime or gypsum is found as a constituent 
 portion in very sensible proportions. If 
 the explanation of this distinguished Ger- 
 man philosopher was the correct one, gyp- 
 sum would be a manure for almost every 
 crop of the farmer; for sulphate of am- 
 3 z 
 
SALTS. 
 
 SALTWORT. 
 
 monia, which he supposes to be formed by 
 the action of the gypsum and the ammonia, 
 is an enriching application, for instance, to 
 several of the cereal grasses. This able 
 chemist, however, shall speak for himself : — 
 " The evident influence of gypsum upon 
 the growth of grasses, the striking fertility 
 and luxuriance of a meadow upon which it 
 is strewed, depends only upon its fixing in 
 the soil, which would otherwise be vola- 
 tilised with the water which evaporates. 
 The carbonate of ammonia contained in 
 rain water is decomposed by gypsum in 
 precisely the same manner as in the manu- 
 facture of sal ammoniac ; soluble sulphate 
 of ammonia and carbonate of lime are 
 formed, and this salt of ammonia, possess- 
 ing no volatility, is consequently retained 
 in the soil ; all the gypsum gradually dis- 
 appears, but its action upon the carbonate 
 of" ammonia continues as long as a trace of 
 it exists. The decomposition of gypsum by 
 carbonate of ammonia does not take place 
 instantaneously : on the contrary, it pro- 
 ceeds very gradually, and this explains why 
 the action of the gypsum lasts for several 
 years." {Ibid. p. 89.) 
 
 I cannot therefore recommend the farmer 
 to adopt the able conclusions of M. Liebig 
 without considerable caution : hardly any 
 thing retards the progress of science more 
 than erroneous theories. Fortunately, how- 
 ever, the farmer can in all cases patiently 
 and successfully examine and apply the 
 valuable facts of the skilful chemist without 
 mystefying himself with not always intel- 
 ligible doctrines. It is very probable that 
 plants have the power of decomposing am- 
 monia, and of assimilating the nitrogen 
 which it contains, in the same way as there 
 is little doubt the hydrogen of water is as- 
 similated by them ; but we have no direct 
 evidence of the facts, and the best course, 
 therefore, will be to regard them not as ab- 
 solute chemical truths, but merely as of the 
 class of what may be perhaps denominated 
 scientific probabilities. 
 
 Some of the other compounds of chlorine, 
 the old class of chlorides of the chemist, 
 have been tried, as fertilisers with very 
 doubtful success ; for although at first the 
 seeds which had been steeped in them ger- 
 minated with a considerably increased ra- 
 pidity, yet they speedily seemed to suffer 
 by this additional stimulus. Davy tried 
 solutions of chlorine, and sulphate of iron 
 (green vitriol) : he says " Though the plume 
 was very vigorous for a time, yet it became 
 at the end of a fortnight weak and sickly, 
 and at that period less vigorous in its 
 growth than the radish sprouts which had 
 been naturally developed, so that there can 
 be scarcely any useful application of these 
 1074 
 
 experiments. Too rapid growth and pre- 
 mature decay seem invariably connected in 
 organized structures, and it is only by fol- 
 lowing the slow operations of natural causes 
 that we are capable of making improve- 
 ments." (Elem. Agr. Chem. p. 365.) Oxy- 
 muriate of lime, or, properly speaking, chlo- 
 ride of calcium, however, appears to be 
 beneficial to vegetation : this was ascertained 
 in 1795, by Ingenhouz; and I have given 
 in my work On Fertilisers, p. 367., the re- 
 sult of some trials by Mr. Fincham with 
 this chloride that were highly successful: 
 he says, " Half of some turnip-seed were 
 steeped for thirty-six hours in a solution of 
 chloride of calcium, composed of one part 
 chloride of calcium, and forty -eight parts 
 water; this was sown under precisely simi- 
 lar circumstances of soil and aspect, with 
 the other half unsteeped. The first came 
 up much sooner, was never attacked by the 
 fly, and the produce was half as much again, 
 and the tops made more luxuriant. He at- 
 tributes the failure of Davy to his having 
 used the chlorine, uncombined with the 
 base lime. Such then are the chief facts 
 with which I am acquainted, relating to the 
 uses of the saline bodies to vegetation. It 
 is a research much more extensive and va- 
 luable than it at first may appear to the 
 intelligent farmer. What we already know 
 of the action and the effects of these saline 
 bodies as the food or constituents of plants, 
 he will find exceedingly important. It is 
 more than probable, that the salts act upon 
 vegetation in many beneficial ways, yet un- 
 known to the philosopher. The material 
 action upon some soils of saltpetre (nitrate 
 of potash) for instance, is to us inexplicable 
 by any chemical knowledge that we at pre- 
 sent possess. The effect of cubic petre and 
 other salts is often equally mysterious ; but 
 although there are difficulties of this kind, 
 the scientific farmer, far from allowing such 
 impediments to restrain either his ardour 
 or his thirst for knowledge, will only see in 
 these at present hidden truths additional 
 reasons for a noble perseverance in the pur- 
 suit of knowledge ; for he will feel that the 
 discovery of the reasons of the at present 
 many unknown phenomena of vegetable life 
 will in all reasonable probability extend 
 very materially the powers, and increase the 
 sphere of usefulness of many succeeding 
 generations of enlightened cultivators. 
 (Brit Farm. Mag. vol. v. p. 495.) 
 
 SALTPETRE (Germ, and Fr. salpetre). 
 See Nitrates. 
 
 SALTWORT. (Salsola, from salsus, 
 salt ; in allusion to the saline properties of 
 the species.) A genus of plants which in- 
 habits the sea-coast. Two species only are 
 indigenous. 
 
SALVING. 
 
 SAND. 
 
 1. The prickly saltwort (S. Kali) is an 
 annual, common on the sandy sea-coast, 
 flowering in July. It is used like many 
 others of its genus, to furnish alkaline salt 
 for the manufacture of glass. The stem is 
 very bushy, armed in every part with rigid, 
 prominent, channelled, spinous leaves, di- 
 lated and membranous at the base. The 
 flower is reddish, solitary, with five leaf- 
 like bractes ; the seed-vessel a turbinate, 
 winged capsule, filled with spiral seed. 
 
 2. Shrubby saltwort (S. fruticosa), which 
 is a shrub far less common than the former. 
 The stem reaches to a yard high, with 
 many upright leafy branches : the leaves 
 are small, evergreen, alternate ; the flower 
 green with yellow anthers ; and three small 
 concave membranous bractes. The seed is- 
 black and reniform. This plant is not un- 
 worthy of a place in gardens or shrubberies, 
 where it is evergreen and tolerably hardy, 
 lasting without care for many years. The 
 leaves contain some alkaline salt, and have 
 an herbaceous, rather acrid taste. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 18.) 
 
 SALTWORT, BLACK. . See Sea- 
 Milkwort. 
 
 SALVING or SMEARING sheep is 
 resorted to in various districts, for the pur- 
 pose of preserving the fleece from the 
 effects of weather, destroying injurious in- 
 sects, and preventing cutaneous diseases. 
 A mixture of damaged butter, hog's lard, 
 resin, and Gallipoli oil, is found to be the 
 most efficacious salve. Tar stains and 
 spoils the colour of the wool. See Sheep. 
 
 SAMPIRE. (Crithmum, derived from 
 krithe, barley ; in allusion to the singularity 
 of the seeds.) These are curious plants, 
 not succeeding well under any cultivation. 
 Sandy or gravelly soil is best for them, 
 with a plentiful supply of water, to which a 
 little soda should be added. There is only 
 one indigenous species. The sea sampire 
 (C. maritimum) is a perennial, common on 
 our rocky sea-shores and cliffs. The root 
 is branched and creeping. The stem is 
 about a foot high, ascending and leafy. 
 The leaves are twice ternate, on sheathing 
 footstalks : the leaflets are lanceolate, acute, 
 fleshy. The flowers are in dense umbels, 
 white with yellow anthers. The herb 
 makes an old-fashioned English pickle, but 
 there are many plants generally preferred 
 for the same purpose. Some serious acci- 
 dents have occurred from a custom which 
 prevails of pickling sampire in copper pans ; 
 and leaving it to cool. No mischief results 
 if the pickle is not left in the pan to cool. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 22. ; Paxtons 
 Bot. Did.) 
 
 SAMPIRE, THE MARSH. See 
 Jointed Geasswort. 
 1075 
 
 SAMPIRE, PRICKLY. (Echinophora, 
 from echinos, a hedge-hog, and phoreo, to 
 bear, the involucrum being covered with 
 stiff spines.) The sea prickly-sampire (E. 
 spinax) is said to be indigenous, growing 
 on the sandy sea-shore, although not found 
 by any recent botanist. It is a perennial, 
 flowering in July. The herbage is glau- 
 cous, finely downy, copiously branched and 
 spreading in every direction two or three 
 feet. Leaves rigid, doubly pinnatifid, with 
 spinous awl-shaped entire segments. Flow- 
 ers numerous, white or pale flesh-coloured. 
 Root spindle-shaped, long and fleshy, re- 
 ported to be eatable, having the flavour of 
 parsnip, with a stimulating and diuretic 
 quality. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 37.) 
 
 SAMPLE. A small quantity of a com- 
 modity exhibited at public or private sales, 
 as a specimen. Wool, wine, corn, seeds, 
 and indeed most species of agricultural pro- 
 duce and merchandize that can be conveyed 
 in small bulk, are sold by sample. If 
 an article be not at an average equal to 
 the sample by which it is sold, the buyer 
 may cancel the contract, and return the 
 article to the seller. (M^ullocKs Com. 
 Did.) 
 
 SAND. (Germ.) Finely divided sili- 
 cious matter constitutes common river and 
 sea sand : particles of other substances are 
 often blended with it, and sometimes it be- 
 comes calcareous from the prevalence of 
 carbonate of lime. 
 
 Sand is often y employed as a manure by 
 the cultivator of the poor hungry clays, 
 especially if he can obtain calcareous sand ; 
 thus from a very early period the Cornish, 
 farmers have been used to employ, exten- 
 sively, the sea-sand of Padstow Harbour, 
 (which contains 64 per cent, of carbonate 
 of lime), for the same purpose, carrying it 
 from the sea-shore, either in carts, or even 
 on horses' backs, some miles up the country. 
 This privilege they enjoy free from any 
 toll to the proprietors of the shore, under a 
 grant from Richard, Duke of Cornwall, 
 confirmed by another of the 45 th Henry III., 
 in 1261, and supported by the statute 7th 
 James I. c. 18., which declares this sand 
 " to be very profitable for the bettering of 
 land, and especially for the increase of 
 corn and tillage within the counties of 
 Cornwall and Devon." This valuable em- 
 ployment of sea-sand is, however, at pre- 
 sent, of necessity, confined to the lands 
 situated within a few miles of the sea- 
 shore ; and yet, according to Dr. Paris, 
 54,000 single-horse cart loads of this cal- 
 careous sand are annually consumed by the 
 farmers in the neighbourhood of Padstow 
 Harbour. The farmers of Norfolk employ 
 a similar description of sea-sand in the 
 3 z 2 
 
SANDERLING. 
 
 SAP. 
 
 north-eastern part of that great agricul- 
 tural county : and as, like the Padstow 
 sand, it contains a considerable portion of 
 carbonate of lime (chalk) it is found to be 
 an immediate and permanent fertilising ad- 
 dition to clay soils. It is, in fact, in the 
 permanently increased value of the soil, by 
 the use of mineral fertilisers, that their 
 greater importance consists; for the addi- 
 tion of chalk or clay to the land is not, 
 like the use of vegetable or animal ma- 
 nures, productive of benefit for one, two, 
 three, or four years only ; but the increased 
 fertility of a soil by such a dressing is ob- 
 servable for twenty years, or even longer 
 — for it improves its very staple. (Johnson 
 on Fertilisers, p. 63.) See Earths, Mixture 
 of Soils. 
 
 SANDERLING. (Calidris arenaria.) 
 A small wading bird, which is pretty well 
 known on most of the sandy sea-shores of 
 Great Britain and Ireland, where it is usu- 
 ally found at the edge of the water, in 
 company with the purre, but not so plen- 
 tiful as its companions. They feed on small 
 shrimps, sea-worms, and slender Crustacea. 
 In the summer plumage the male has the 
 back black, the under surface of the body 
 and wings pure white ; legs, toes, and claws 
 black. In winter the plumage of the upper 
 surface of the body is a very light ash grey. 
 The whole length of an adult bird is about 
 eight inches. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 427.) 
 
 SANDPIPER. A name applied to dif- 
 ferent species of the genus Tringa, but pro- 
 perly restricted to the Tringa hypolecuus of 
 Linnaeus, which is the type of the subgenus 
 Totanus. Mr. Yarrell, in his elegant work 
 illustrating the British birds, describes ten 
 species of sandpiper as frequenting our 
 islands. 
 
 SANDWORT. (Arenaria, from arena, 
 sand; referring to the sandy situation in 
 which most of the species are found.) This 
 is an extensive genus of herbs, of humble 
 growth, with numerous slender stems, op- 
 posite, mostly narrow, entire, undivided 
 leaves, and small, white or reddish, in- 
 odorous flowers with coloured anthers. Nine 
 indigenous species are now included in 
 our English flora, but it is necessary to 
 notice the principal one only, namely, the 
 sea spurrey sandwort (A. marina), which is 
 an annual, grows in salt marshes and on 
 the sea coast, where it flowers in June and 
 July. It has a spindle-shaped root, from 
 which arise many succulent stems, bearing 
 convex smooth leaves. The flower is mi- 
 nute ; the Beede ;ire round, flat, smooth, with 
 a membranous border, variable in colour. 
 This succulent vegetable bears a great re- 
 semblance to samphire, and considerable 
 1076 
 
 quantities of it are pickled and sold for 
 that plant. (Smith's Flor. Brit. vol. ii. 
 p. 312.) 
 
 SANICLE. (Sanicula, from sano, to 
 heal.) The wood sanicle (S. Europed) is 
 a mere perennial weed, growing in woods 
 and groves abundantly, about a foot high, 
 flowering in May. The root is tufted, with 
 fleshy fibres. The leaves are chiefly ra- 
 dical, simple, with deeply cleft lobes, veiny, 
 and of a deep shining green. Flowers cream- 
 coloured, in capitate umbels, in an irre- 
 gular, twice compound, partly umbellate pa- 
 nicle. The herb is bitter, with an acrid, 
 somewhat aromatic pungency. Its reputed 
 vulnerary qualities are no longer believed. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 36.) 
 
 SANICLE, YORKSHIRE. See But- 
 terwort. 
 
 SAP. In botany, the fluid which is ab- 
 sorbed by the roots from the earth, and 
 undergoes the first action of the vital che- 
 mistry of the plant, is called the sap. It is 
 formed as the absorbed fluid ascends up- 
 wards into the stem. It is afterwards con- 
 veyed to the leaves, where it is exposed to 
 the influence of light and air, loses a large 
 portion of its water, undergoes a chemical 
 change, and, being returned to the branches 
 and stem, it is analogous to the blood in 
 animals ; all the secretions being formed 
 from it. Changed in the leaf into proper 
 juice, it is assimilated to the various parts 
 of the plant. In its crude state it consists 
 of little except water, holding earthy and 
 gaseous matter in solution, especially car- 
 bonic acid ; but as it rises through the tissue 
 of the stem it dissolves the secretions it 
 meets with in its course, and thus acquires 
 new properties, so that by the time it 
 reaches the leaves it is entirely different 
 from its state when it first entered the root. 
 The course taken by the sap in its passage 
 through the stem, is by the whole of the 
 tissue included within the bark, provided 
 it is all permeable ; but, as in many plants, 
 the central part of the stem becomes choked 
 up with solid matter deposited in the tissue, 
 it usually happens, especially in trees, that 
 the course of the sap is confined to the outer 
 part of the wood, hence called sapwood. 
 It is not certainly known through what 
 kind of tissue the upward motion of the 
 sap takes place, but it is probable that it 
 is carried onwards through all the tubes 
 and vessels of the wood, and their inter- 
 cellular passages. The dotted vessels of 
 the wood seem more especially destined to 
 fulfil this office when the sap is in rapid 
 motion ; but as they afterwards become 
 empty, while the ascent of the sap con- 
 tinues, there can be no doubt that the 
 woody tubes or pleurenchyma offer the most 
 
SAW DUST. 
 
 SAW-FLY. 
 
 constant means by which the sap is con- 
 veyed. (Bronchi's Diet, of Science; Knights 
 Hort. Papers ; Quart. Jour, of Agr. vol. vii. 
 p. 464.) See Alburnum. 
 
 SAUCE-ALONE. See Treacle-Mus- 
 tard. 
 
 SAVIN. See Juniper. 
 
 SAVOY CABBAGE. See Cabbage. 
 
 SAW-DUST. The refuse or waste 
 powder obtained from saw-pits, after any 
 wood or timber has been separated or cut 
 asunder by the saw. If fresh oak saw-dust 
 be scattered on gravel walks it effectually 
 prevents the growth of weeds, and when 
 mixed with blood and quick-lime it forms 
 an excellent manure for the garden. This 
 substance has lately been brought pro- 
 minently into notice as an adjunct to other 
 manures. There can be no doubt of its 
 usefulness when made into compost with 
 putrescent manures, saline substances, and 
 organic matters. A compost of this kind, 
 which has been well mixed and decom- 
 posed, and turned over with the spade at 
 proper time, will produce an excellent crop 
 of turnips. 
 
 SAW-FLY. Amongst the many enemies 
 (observes Mr. George Newport in a valuable 
 prize essay printed by the Entomological 
 Society, and which should be in the hands 
 of every farmer) which the agriculturist 
 meets with in the cultivation of one of the 
 most valuable products of his lands, the 
 common turnip, is a species of saw-fly, or 
 Tentkredo Athalia centifolice, Panz. 
 
 The devastations of this insect have been 
 carried to such an extent during the last 
 few summers, as very materially to affect 
 the interests of the farmer, and hence it 
 has become a matter of importance to him 
 that its habits should be closely investigated, 
 in order that some remedy may be devised 
 for the purpose of checking its injurious 
 progress. It was not until recently that 
 the insect attracted the attention of na- 
 turalists in this country ; and hence it has 
 remained undescribed as a British species 
 until within the last few years. But it has 
 never been entirely a stranger to the agri- 
 culturist, although its appearance in num- 
 bers sufficiently great to occasion injury to 
 his crops, has been at such uncertain and 
 distant periods, that when it began, about 
 five summers ago, to commit serious mis- 
 chief, it was then almost entirely unknown 
 to the agriculturists of the present day. It 
 was, however, too well known to some of 
 the older cultivators, who had not forgotten 
 the devastations committed by it in this 
 country about twenty years ago, when it 
 was equally, or perhaps even more destruc- 
 tive than it has been during the past three 
 or four summers. In 1783 also its num- 
 1077 
 
 bers were incalculable, and it produced so 
 much injury to the turnip crops, that whole 
 districts were obliged to be ploughed up. 
 
 In its larva state it was known to farmers 
 at that time, as it is also at the present, 
 chiefly from its colour, and designated ac- 
 cordingly by the terms black palmer, black 
 canker, black slug or caterpillar, negro or 
 nigger. 
 
 The perfect insect (Mr. Newport con- 
 tinues) first makes its appearance about 
 the middle of May, after the continuance of 
 dry warm weather, and this usually happens 
 to be a little before or at the time when the 
 early crops of turnips, in some parts of the 
 country, are just appearing. It is, there- 
 fore, at this period that the fly is able to 
 commit the greatest mischief, by the female 
 depositing her eggs on the young leaves, 
 and which, if the weather continues warm 
 and dry for a few days, become hatched, 
 and the crops are soon destroyed. The 
 period of the year and the temperature of 
 the season greatly influence the growth of 
 the insect in its larva state. Thus, if the 
 season becomes cold and wet, the hatching 
 of the eggs is either retarded or the eggs 
 are not developed at all, or the young larva 
 perishes. But if the weather continues 
 fine, the eggs are hatched in about a week 
 or five days, and the larva passes through 
 its changes rapidly. There appears to be 
 at least, two broods of this insect during 
 the year. From the eggs deposited in May 
 and June, the perfect flies are developed in 
 July and August ; and the broods produced 
 from the last laying of eggs make their 
 appearance in the perfect state about the 
 month of May in the following year. It is 
 in the larva state only that the insect is 
 really injurious ; and it is to this state, 
 therefore, and to the previous embryo con- 
 dition, that we ought chiefly to direct our 
 attention, with a view of preventing its ra- 
 vages. Very many experiments have been 
 tried by various agriculturists with the view 
 of accomplishing this object, but scarcely 
 any have yet been attended with even a 
 moderate share of success. Wood ashes, 
 coal ashes, salt, unslaked lime, and quick- 
 lime scattered over the plants have been 
 found ineffectual. One of the best remedies 
 is turning a few dozen ducks into the field, 
 with a boy to watch them and to drive them 
 to some water to drink occasionally. This 
 practice, however, injures the ducks, which 
 become greatly emaciated, and suffer much 
 from diarrhoea, although they will ultimately 
 recover. One thing is particularly objec- 
 tionable in the cultivation of the turnip, 
 when attacked by these larva; ; which is the 
 practice of hoeing the crops, or thinning 
 them. By doing this a very large quantity 
 3 z 3 
 
SAXIFRAGE. 
 
 SCABIOUS. 
 
 of turnips is purposely destroyed, and, of 
 course, the quantity of food for the insect 
 lessened ; while the numbers of the insect 
 are scarcely, if at all, affected by the opera- 
 tion, and consequently the remaining tur- 
 nips become attacked in far greater numbers 
 than before, and perhaps the entire crop is 
 then totally destroyed. 
 
 Mr. Newport suggests that if, at the 
 period when the parent yellow flies are ob- 
 served on the crops, the whole field could 
 be well watered daily, or twice in the day, 
 with sea water, or a solution of salt in 
 water, the effect thus produced upon the 
 development of the embryo would be similar 
 to that of unfavourable weather ; that, in 
 fact, the larvae would either not be deve- 
 loped or would perish soon after they have 
 made their appearance. The difficulty ap- 
 pears to be in watering the turnips unless 
 the seeds were drilled in, as is done by 
 some cultivators. A fire engine and hose 
 might, perhaps, be successfully employed. 
 I may also direct the attention of the farmer 
 to papers on this subject by Mr. Yarrell, 
 inserted in the Trans. Zool. Soc. of Lond. 
 vol. ii. p. 50. ; by Mr. Curtis, Journ. of 
 Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 364. ; by Mr. Mil- 
 burn, Journ. of York. Agr. Soc. p. 49. 
 
 SAW-WORT. (Serratula ; from serra, 
 a saw : the leaves are edged with cutting 
 teeth.) A genus of plants belonging to the 
 natural order Composites. There are two 
 indigenous perennial species, namely, the 
 common saw-wort (S. tinctoria) and the 
 alpine saw-wort (S. alpind). The former 
 grows in groves, thickets, and grassy pas- 
 tures, flowering in JuLy and August. The 
 root is woody ; stem erect, straight, two 
 or three feet high, angular, striated, solid, 
 and reddish ; leaves pinnatifid, somewhat 
 lyrate, with fine copious bristly serratures. 
 The flowers are corymbose, handsome, of 
 a purplish crimson. The seeds are fur- 
 nished with a bristly, unequal, yellowish, 
 not feathery coronal. This plant gives 
 a yellow colour to wool, for which pur- 
 pose it is much used in Sweden. The 
 alpine saw-wort inhabits the fissures of 
 high rocks, and the stem is only from three 
 inches to a foot high. Leaves undivided, 
 distantly toothed, cottony beneath, very 
 white ; and the lower leaves on longish 
 channelled footstalks. Flowers few, in a 
 corymbose tuft, pink, with blue anthers, 
 very handsome. The seed is furnished with 
 feathery down. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 382.) 
 
 S A X I PR A GE. (Saxifraga ; from saxum, 
 B stone, :uu\ frango, to break ; in allusion to 
 its reputed medical qualities in that dis- 
 ease.) This is a very extensive genus of 
 beautiful alpine plants, the greater part of 
 J07N 
 
 which are particularly suitable for orna- 
 menting rock-work, or growing on the sides 
 of naked banks. They are all readily in- 
 creased by seeds or divisions. According 
 to Sir J. E. Smith's classification, there are 
 twenty-five native species, which it would 
 be quite impossible here to particularise. 
 I may state that these herbs are, for the 
 most part, perennial, various in habit, often 
 in some degree hairy and glutinous, with 
 stalked, simple, undivided or lobed leaves. 
 Flowers either panicled, rarely solitary, on 
 a long naked stalk, or corymbose at the top 
 of a round leafy stem ; erect, white, yellow, 
 or purple, frequently spotted, inodorous. 
 
 SAXIFRAGE, BURNET. See Burnet. 
 
 SAXIFRAGE, GOLDEN. See Golden 
 Saxifrage. 
 
 SAXIFRAGE. PEPPER. See Pepper 
 Saxifrage. 
 
 SCAB. A contagious disease incident 
 to sheep, which, like the mange in cattle, 
 horses, and dogs, and the itch in the human 
 subject, is the effect of certain minute in- 
 sects belonging to the class Acari ; at least 
 these insects always are present in this dis- 
 ease. In the human subject the itch insect 
 obtains its food from the pustules of the 
 disease, but is not the cause of them. The 
 cure of scab, however, is supposed to be in 
 the destruction of this insect. Washes, 
 whether infusions of tobacco, hellebore, or 
 arsenic, appear to be objectionable, and a 
 safer and more effectual method of curing 
 the disease and benefiting the wool is the 
 application of a mercurial ointment. The 
 ointment should be made of two strengths. 
 That for bad cases should consist of com- 
 mon mercurial or Trooper's ointment, rubbed 
 down with three times its weight of lard. 
 The other, for ordinary purposes, should 
 contain five parts of lard to one of the 
 mercurial ointment. (Youatton the Sheep, 
 p. 536.) See Sheep^ Diseases of. 
 
 SCABIOUS. (Scabiosa, from scabies, 
 the itch ; the common kind is said to cure 
 that disorder.) Some of these plants are 
 well adapted for ornamenting the flower- 
 border. The herbaceous species are readily 
 increased by division at the root, or by N 
 seed. The seeds of the annual kinds merely 
 require sowing in the open border. There 
 are three indigenous species, all perennials ; 
 viz. the devil's-bit scabious (S. succiso), 
 which is common in grassy rather moist 
 pastures, flowering from August to October 
 (see Devil's-Bit Scabious) ; the field sca- 
 bious (S. arvensis), growing in corn-fields 
 and pastures, with a bristly stem a yard 
 high. The radical leaves are lanceolate, 
 serrated, stalked, the rest pinnatifid and 
 quite sessile. The flowers, which appear 
 in July, are large and handsome, of a fine 
 
SCALD CREAM. 
 
 SCARIFIER. 
 
 pale purple. Sheep and goats are said to 
 eat this herb ; but its bitter and nauseous 
 flavour is not agreeable to domestic cattle. 
 The small scabious (S. columbaria) is a less 
 common species, attaining to the height of 
 twelve or eighteen inches. The leaves 
 and flowers are smaller and more delicate 
 than the last. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 194.) 
 
 SCABIOUS, THE SHEEP'S. See 
 Sheep's-Bit. 
 
 SCALD CREAM. Provincially cream 
 raised by heat, or clouted cream. See 
 Dairy, Milk, Butter, Lactometer, &c. 
 
 SCALE. A provincial term signifying 
 to spread or scatter about manure, gravel, 
 &c. Scales in botany are any small pro- 
 cesses resembling minute leaves, generally 
 laid over one another. 
 
 SCALLION. See Onion. 
 
 SCAPE. In botany a stem rising from 
 the roots, more frequently from a rhizome 
 or underground stem, bearing nothing but 
 the flowers. The iris is an example. 
 
 SCARCEMENT. A country term sig- 
 nifying the small pedestal or off-set, left at 
 the basis in constructing earth fences. 
 
 SCARIFIER. A tillage implement for 
 stirring and loosening the soil, without 
 bringing up a fresh surface. Under the 
 same head may be included the grubber, 
 the cultivator, and the scufner, all of which 
 act on the combined principles of plough 
 and harrow at the same time. Some of 
 these implements have wheels, by the raising 
 or lowering of which the tines or prongs 
 may be made to sink more or less into the 
 earth. See Harrow. 
 
 Amongst the earliest of the many varie- 
 ties of this implement that Ian acquainted 
 with (says Mr, J. A. Ransome, in his work 
 upon the Implements of Agriculture), was 
 one which the late T. Cooke used, attached 
 to the frame-work of his drill, the coulters 
 and apparatus of which, being removed, 
 gave place to a bar, or head, suspended by 
 joints to the axle, on which a row of strong 
 tines was fixed. 
 
 On a similar plan to this, but working on 
 a plough carriage, another invention by 
 Robert Fuller, a practical farmer of Ips- 
 wich, came into operation, and worked ex- 
 ceedingly well. Its character will be seen 
 from the following cut : — 
 
 / 
 
 fuller's extirpator. 
 
 BiddelVs Scarifier is held in deservedly 
 high repute in Suffolk (where it originated) 
 and the eastern and midland counties, where 
 it is now in very general use. It is an im- 
 plement of immense power, and well cal- 
 culated to supersede the extensive use of 
 the plough, otherwise indispensable in the 
 cultivation of strong land, and we are in- 
 clined to believe with better effect. There 
 can be no question that in a general way a 
 finer tilth may be obtained with Biddell's 
 scarifier than with any plough ; and, for 
 1079 
 
 this reason, strong tenacious clays and even 
 many of the better loams, though dry at the 
 surface and apparently in good order for 
 ploughing, frequently turn up coarse and 
 " loamy." In the early part of the spring, 
 the combined action of frost and the atmo- 
 sphere may probably in time effect what a 
 scarifier would do at once, viz. reduce the 
 clods to a comparatively fine mould, with- 
 out which the hope of a good barley crop 
 is but slender. There is no reason why 
 the process of scarifying should not prove 
 3 7. 4 
 
SCARIFIER. 
 
 equally beneficial to the turnip or any other 
 crop. Indeed, some are of opinion that 
 what is usually called a stale furrow, in 
 contradistinction to a newly ploughed one, 
 
 is more favourable to the germination and 
 after-growth of a plant like the turnip than 
 a sowing on soil freshly turned up. 
 
 biddell's scarifier. 
 
 A great improvement on Fuller's Ex- 
 tirpator, was Finlaysoris patent self-cleaning 
 Harrow. This well-known implement may 
 
 be called the parent of several of the same 
 description, which, in improved forms, have 
 subsequently come into use. 
 
 finlayson's harrow. 
 
 Wilkie's parallel adjusting Brake is very 
 nearly allied to the implement last men- 
 tioned : its chief improvement consists in 
 the triangular adjustment of the teeth or 
 rongs, and the facility with which they may 
 e completely thrown out of work; whereas, 
 with Finlayson's harrow this can only be 
 partially done, the hind teeth of the latter 
 still retaining some hold of the ground, even 
 though the first, row be lifted up. This we 
 are aware has been represented as an ad- 
 vantage, inasmuch as the slight hold re- 
 1080 
 
 tained by the back row of tines prevents 
 the implement from running on the horse's 
 heels, when turning at the ends of the 
 stetches on hilly ground. We see but little 
 in this as an argument in favour of any im- 
 plement of the kind. Indeed we are rather 
 disposed to give the preference to one like 
 Wilkie's brake, which, by a parallel move- 
 ment of the frame irt which the tines are 
 fixed, can, either at the turnings or while in 
 action, be elevated or depressed en masse. 
 
 r, 
 
SCARIFIER. 
 
 SCORPION-GRASS. 
 
 wilkie's parallel adjusting brake. 
 
 KirkwoocCs Grubber, in its operation, 
 somewhat resembles those last described ; 
 but is superior to them in working. The 
 leverage that is obtained by pressing on the 
 handles or stilts of the machine, whether in 
 action or rest, is so simple and yet so power- 
 
 ful in its effect as to regulate the depth of 
 the tines to the greatest nicety ; or, in cases 
 of obstruction, to throw them out of work 
 altogether. It is an admirable implement, 
 and well deserving the high commendation 
 which has been bestowed on it. 
 
 kirkwood's grubber. 
 
 SCHEUCHZERIA, THE MARSH 
 (Scheuchzeria palustris, named in honour of 
 John and James Scheuchzer, German bo- 
 tanists). A perennial native, but very rare 
 plant found in marshes and wet spongy 
 bogs, flowering in June. The root is creep- 
 ing, herbage smooth, with a lax, white, shin- 
 ing cuticle. Stem erect, wavy, a span high, 
 simply racemose ; leaves few, cylindrical, 
 sheathing ; flowers about five, in a terminal 
 cluster, of a brownish green, accompanied 
 with solitary, lanceolate bractes ; the seed 
 in small capsules, the size of a pea, coria- 
 ceous, tumid, wrinkled. {Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 199.) 
 
 SCORE. A term signifying twenty 
 1081 
 
 pounds, in speaking of the weight of cattle 
 or swine. 
 
 SCORING. A provincial term signify- 
 ing the glossing or making the furrow-slice 
 in ploughing or turning land up, by the 
 plough acting as a trowel. It is sometimes 
 written scowering. 
 
 SCORPION- GRASS (Myosolis, from 
 myos, a mouse, and otos, an ear ; fancied re- 
 semblance in the leaves.) All the perennial 
 species of this genus are very beautiful, 
 especially the well-known Forget-me-not 
 (M. palustris). They grow best in moist 
 places, or by the edges of ponds or ditches ; 
 they may also be grown in pots among al- 
 pine plants. The annual species like a dry 
 
SCOTCHES. 
 
 SEA-MILKWORT. 
 
 sandy soil: most of the perennial kinds 
 may be increased by divisions of the roots, 
 and all by seeds. Sir J. E. Smith describes 
 seven indigenous species of scorpion-grass ; 
 two of which are annuals, the rest peren- 
 nials. {Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 247. ; Paxtoris 
 Dot. Diet.) 
 
 SCOTCHES. A country term signifying 
 scores or notches. 
 
 SCOTCH FIR. A common but impro- 
 per name for the Scotch pine (Pinus syl- 
 vestris). See Pine and Fir. 
 
 SCOTTISH ASPHODEL (Tofieldia 
 palustris, named by Mr. Hudson in compli- 
 ment to his friend Mr. Tofield). The spe- 
 cies above named is indigenous and grow- 
 ing wild near the boggy margins of pools 
 and rills. It is perennial, and flowers in 
 August. The root is woody ; the herb 
 smooth. The leaves are sword-shaped, 
 ribbed, incurved at the point, about two 
 inches long, in two-ranked radical tufts. 
 Stem solitary, four or five inches high, 
 bearing a small oblong spike or head of 
 greenish white, inodorous flowers. {Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 198.) 
 
 SCOURING. See Purging. 
 
 SCUD. Provincially to clear with a 
 spade or spittle. 
 
 SCUFFLER. An implement of some- 
 what the same kind as the scarifier, but 
 which is mostly lighter and employed in 
 working after it. See Harrow. 
 
 SCURVY-GRASS (Cochlearia). A 
 genus of plants of little interest, with the 
 exception of horse-radish (C. armoracea), 
 and the common scurvy-grass (C. offici- 
 nalis). Besides these there are three other 
 indigenous species, the Greenland scurvy- 
 grass, the English scurvy-grass, and the 
 Danish scurvy-grass. They are either an- 
 nual or biennial herbs, and were once 
 celebrated as antiscorbutics, but have lost 
 their reputation. The plants are mostly 
 smooth and rather succulent, with branched 
 spreading stems, and simple leaves, the 
 radical ones stalked and most entire. 
 Flowers white, or pale purplish. 
 
 The common scurvy-grass is cultivated 
 in gardens for its leaves. It flourishes 
 best in a sandy moist soil, but will succeed 
 in almost any other, especially if abound- 
 ing in moisture. The situation must al- 
 ways be as open as possible. It is pro- 
 pagated by seed, which should be sown as 
 soon as it is ripe in July or June, for if 
 kept from the ground until the spring, they 
 will entirely lose their vegetative power, 
 or produce plants weak and unproductive. 
 The sowing is performed in drills eight 
 inches apart, and half an inch deep. (G. W. 
 Johnsons Kitchen Garden.) 
 
 SCYTHE. This implement for mowing 
 1082 
 
 grass has been latterly much used for cutting 
 grain crops, and with great success, when 
 it has been properly mounted with a rake 
 or cradle, and put into expert hands. The 
 cradle-scythe is described in the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. iv. p. 350., and vol. v. 
 p. 346., in articles " on reaping with the 
 scythe," and " on mounting the scythe with 
 the bow or rake," which we earnestly re- 
 commend to the careful perusal of every 
 literary farmer, as they contain all the in- 
 formation which it seems possible to collect 
 on the entire subject of which they treat, 
 in a clear and masterly style. 
 
 Drummond's iron-handled scythe is con- 
 sidered in Scotland very effective. A good 
 mower will cut down with it from an acre 
 and a half to two acres in the day, and with 
 this scythe he can either cut out from the 
 standing corn when upright, or cut in, as 
 he may deem the better way at all times. 
 
 The common grass-scythe will cut oats 
 and barley also very well when upright, 
 but the mower will perceive his inability to 
 lay down evenly and at right angles with 
 the standing corn, for the convenience of 
 the binders, a heavy crop of wheat with 
 this scythe, even if furnished with a bow. 
 
 The Hainault or Flemish scythe, the 
 favourite Belgian implement for severing 
 corn, appears to be a very efficient instru- 
 ment, but although all the trials made with 
 it in Scotland and England report favour- 
 ably of it, it has not come into use even 
 partially ; prejudice and the results of habit 
 and custom rendering the old sickles, 
 scythes, and reaping-hooks, more "popular. 
 (Doyle's Pract. Husb. ; WillicJis Dom. En- 
 cyclo.) See Hay-making, Reaping Hook, 
 Sickle, &c. 
 
 SEA BANK. See Banks and Embank- 
 ment. 
 
 SEA BUCK-THORN. See Sallow- 
 thorn. 
 
 SEA-HEATH. See Heath, the Sea. 
 
 SEA-HOLLY. See Eryngo. 
 
 SEA-KALE. See Kale. 
 
 SEA-LAVENDER. See Thrift. 
 
 SEA-MUD or OUSE. This rich saline 
 deposition from salt-marshes and the sea- 
 shores, is found to possess very enriching 
 properties, and to be a useful addition to 
 the soil where it can be obtained in any 
 quantity. See Alluvium and Warping. 
 
 SEAM. A provincial term applied to 
 any fatty substance, as tallow, grease, or 
 lard. A seam of corn is also a quarter or 
 eight bushels, and a seam of wood, a horse 
 load, or about three hundred weight. 
 
 SEAM PRESSER. See Roller. 
 
 SEA-MILKWORT. (Glaux, from glau- 
 hos, grey, in allusion to the colour of the 
 leaves.) The common sea-milkwort, or 
 
SEA-SHELLS. 
 
 SEED. 
 
 black salt- wort (G. maritima), is a pretty 
 little indigenous perennial plant, growing 
 abundantly in muddy salt-marshes. It is 
 easily cultivated in open sandy loam, and is 
 increased from seeds. The stem is erect, three 
 or four inches high, densely clothed with 
 elliptic-oblong, entire, smooth leaves, pale 
 underneath ; saltish to the taste. Flowers 
 axillary, solitary, nearly sessile, flesh-co- 
 loured. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 336.) 
 SEA-PARSNIP. See Samphire, The 
 
 SEA-SAND. See Sand. 
 
 SEA SHELLS. All marine shells where 
 they can be obtained in sufficient quantity, 
 form a durable and lasting addition to the 
 soil. See Oyster Shells. 
 
 SEA- WARE. A term frequently applied 
 to the weeds thrown up by the sea in many 
 situations, and which is collected and made 
 use of as manure and for other purposes. 
 It consists principally of the Quercus ma- 
 rina, and various species of Fuci, and has 
 often the names of sea-wrack, ore weed, sea- 
 tangle, &c. See Kelp. 
 
 SEA WEED. See Kelp. 
 
 SEA WRACK-GRASS. See Sea- 
 Ware and Grass-Wrack. 
 
 SEDGE. (Carex, from careo, to want, 
 the upper spikes being without seeds.) 
 This is a very extensive genus, the species 
 of which are uninteresting; part of them 
 are natives of marshy situations, while a 
 few thrive on dry sandy eminences : they 
 seed freely, by which they are increased. 
 The roots are, perhaps without exception, 
 perennial, mostly creeping ; sometimes 
 fibrous and tufted only ; herbage grassy ; 
 stem simple, generally with thin finely ser- 
 rated and sharply cutting angles, without 
 knots or joints. Leaves linear, pointed, 
 flat, roughish, with similarly cutting edges ; 
 their bases more or less tubular and sheath- 
 ing, membranous at the summit, often 
 auricled ; the upper ones becoming bractes. 
 Sir J. E. Smith enumerates and describes 
 no less than sixty-two indigenous species of 
 Carices. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iv. p. 77.) See Reed. 
 
 SEDGE BIRD, or SEDGE WAR- 
 BLER. See Warbler and Black-headed 
 Bunting. 
 
 SEED is the reproductive part of a 
 plant, resulting from a change effected in 
 the ovules by the process of impregnation : 
 it contains the embryo or rudiment of a 
 future plant. As soon as the pollen is in- 
 troduced into the ovule, its foramen, which 
 was previously open, closes, its integument 
 hardens, its pulpy contents consolidate, 
 and the embryon is seen between its coty- 
 ledons, or in some other position, when 
 these are absent as an organised body. The 
 1083 
 
 seed is nourished by a placental canal at- 
 tached to the axis of the seed vessel ; but 
 when it is fully formed and capable of sus- 
 taining a separate existence, it separates 
 from it. The point of attachment and se- 
 paration constitutes the scar, or hilum. 
 The forms, surfaces, and character of the 
 testa? of seeds are different in different 
 plants. For the preservation of the seed 
 from insects and decomposition, and for 
 food for the embryo, seeds contain fecula, 
 saccharine, oily, and gummy matter within 
 their coverings, and sometimes acrid poi- 
 sonous principles. In their coverings they 
 also contain mucilage, oil, both fixed and 
 volatile, and other principles which man 
 makes subservient to his use, either as diet 
 or condiments, or other purposes. Seed is 
 a form of reproductive matter peculiar to 
 flowering plants, its equivalent in flowerless 
 plants being the sporuli. It is commonly 
 and very justly remarked, that as the seed 
 is the part intended by nature to multiply 
 the races of plants, in this respect it re- 
 sembles the egg, and like it long retains its 
 vitality. 
 
 The period for seed-sowing is most im- 
 portant to the operations of the agriculturist. 
 Nature has provided special contrivances 
 for ensuring the dispersion of seed and its 
 migration from place to place ; such, for in- 
 stance, as being discharged with force by 
 the sudden explosion of the case or seed- 
 vessel in which it is generated; having 
 membranous wings that render it buoyant, 
 and being provided with many other means 
 to avoid destruction. But this idea, al- 
 though to a certain extent true, is fre- 
 quently misapplied to seed-vessels, as in the 
 instance of the dandelion, the ash tree, the 
 sycamore, &c. ; in these latter cases, the 
 part to which the name of seed is given is a 
 true pericarp, or seed-vessel. On the other 
 hand, many kinds of seed-vessels, such, for 
 instance, as those of corn, of labiate and 
 boraginaceous plants, &c, are miscalled 
 seeds, or naked seeds. 
 
 The choice of the seed intended to be 
 sown is an object of greater importance 
 than many farmers seem to imagine. It is 
 not sufficient that the finest grain be chosen 
 for this purpose, unless it be likewise clean 
 from weeds. In procuring seed, it should 
 be a rule with the farmer to purchase or 
 reserve such as is the most full, plump, 
 sound, and healthy, whatever the kind may 
 be, as it is perhaps only in this way that 
 crops of good corn can be ensured. And 
 this practice is still more obvious from the 
 circumstance of its being in some measure 
 the same with plants as with animals, that 
 the produce is in a degree similar to that 
 from which it originated. See Grasses, 
 
SEED-LIP. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. 
 
 Barley, Wheat, Oats, Temperature, I acre for the ordinary crops of the English 
 &c. farmer when either broadcast, drilled, or 
 
 The usual quantity of seed applied per j dibbed, is as follows : — 
 
 
 Time of sowing. 
 
 Broadcast. 
 
 Drill. 
 
 Dibbled. 
 
 >v neat 
 
 Spnt tn Tiff - 
 
 21 to 31 himh 
 
 & IU O Utloil. 
 
 1 1 O Kuril 
 
 jg to ^ ousn. 
 
 ^5 tO o 
 
 Oats - 
 
 F^pVi t a Anvil m 
 
 4 to 6 
 
 ^1 tn 4.1 
 
 O 1 tr» ^1 
 XO Og 
 
 Barley - 
 
 FcUi LKJ XVJLct V — 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 ±tye - 
 
 A no* anrl Sp"nf _ 
 
 iULUk* IX li. Li UCUtt — 
 
 2i to 3j 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 
 
 Nov. to March 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 21 to 3| 
 
 2 to 3 
 
 Peas - - - 
 
 Jan. to March 
 
 3i to 4i 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 3 
 
 Tares - - 
 
 Aug. to March 
 
 21 to 3 
 
 2 to 2^ 
 
 
 Buckwheat 
 
 May 
 
 2 2 to 2i 
 
 2 
 
 
 Clover, Red 
 
 March and April - 
 
 12 to 16 lb. 
 
 10 to 14 lb. 
 
 
 , White ] f 
 
 Ditto 
 
 3 to 4 
 
 
 
 Trefoil 1 Mixed J 
 
 Ditto 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Red Clover i seeds i 
 
 Ditto 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Rye Grass ] [ 
 
 Ditto 
 
 1 peck 
 
 
 
 Turnips 
 
 May to Aug. 
 
 2 to 3 lb. 
 
 11 to 2 lb. 
 
 
 Mangel-wurzel 
 
 April and May - 
 
 
 
 
 Potatoes 
 
 March to June 
 
 - 
 
 20 to 25 bush. 
 
 
 The quantities here given are those com- 
 mon throughout the island. But from the 
 general custom in Flanders, and from the 
 extensive practice which I have witnessed 
 on the farms of Mr. Hewitt Davis and 
 other excellent farmers, I am inclined to 
 think that these quantities may be con- 
 siderably reduced. As in most cases it is 
 usual to have on the land many more seed- 
 ling plants than the soil can properly 
 mature, thinner sowing has the effect of 
 producing stronger, healthier, and more 
 prolific heads ; and I am still inclined to 
 this opinion in favour of thinner sowing, 
 notwithstanding I am aware that such ex- 
 cellent agriculturists as Lords Leicester and 
 Western practise, and strongly recommend, 
 thick sowing. 
 
 As to the season for sowing, only general 
 directions can be given. It is a highly im- 
 portant subject, much too little attended to 
 in general : for instance, in the north of 
 England, they are frequently sowing weeks 
 earlier than in the south ; and yet it must 
 be evident, as summer arrives earlier in the 
 last-named portion of our island, that the 
 practice in the south should be reversed; 
 as by so doing a longer period is allotted 
 for the perfection of the crop. 
 
 SEED-LIP. A sort of basket, in which 
 the sower carries the seed he is about to 
 scatter over the ground. 
 
 SEEL. A term provincially applied to 
 time or season in respect to crops, as hay 
 seel, or hay time, and barley seel, or barley 
 seed time, bark seel, barking season, &c. 
 It is sometimes written seal. 
 
 SEG. A country name for a castrated 
 bull. 
 
 KEG RIM, .,r SEA GRIM, the name pro* 
 vincially applied to the weed ragwort. 
 1084 
 
 SEGS. A local name for sedges (c«- 
 rices). 
 
 SELF-HEAL. {Prunella.) The com- 
 mon self-heal, or slough-heal (P. vulgaris), 
 is an indigenous perennial plant, very com- 
 mon in meadows and pastures. The stems 
 are a span high. Leaves ovate-oblong, 
 stalked. Flowers numerous, deep purplish 
 blue, in dense, solitary, erect, whorled 
 spikes. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 114.) 
 
 SEPTA. In botany, the partitions which 
 divide the interior parts of a fruit. 
 
 SEPTEMBER. The ninth month of the 
 year. Farmer's Calendar. — The harvest 
 being now generally in, with the exception 
 of barley, the farmer's year may be said to 
 be completed : but his work is never ended, 
 no sooner is one harvest finished than he 
 must prepare his ground for another. Now 
 plough your fallows for the last time. The 
 end of this month is the period when the 
 cultivator's main crops of wheat must begin 
 to be sown. Plough your bean, pea, and 
 clover lays, or stubble, for this crop : dress 
 the heavy soils with lime ; from fifty to 
 eighty bushels per acre will be a good 
 quantity. Look now to your seed wheat ; 
 change your seeds frequently, and, if pos- 
 sible, procure it from a colder, poorer soil 
 than your own, and free from smut and 
 seeds of weeds. Prepare a steep for your 
 seed wheat. There is none better than that 
 made with common salt, so strong as to 
 swim an egg, and then drying the seed by 
 rolling it in lime. Sow, however, as soon 
 as you have steeped ; otherwise keep the 
 seed spread thinly over a wooden floor, or 
 it will heat, and lose its vegetative power. 
 This is a very old recipe; John Worledge 
 mentions it as a preventive of the smut 
 more than 150 years since. Dibble all you 
 
SEPTEMBER. 
 
 can, it employs your poorer neighbours 
 and their children, and the saving of seed 
 is nearly equal to the additional expense of 
 labour; you are more certain also of a 
 good plant. There are few soils where the 
 dibble or the drill cannot be easily em- 
 ployed. Many farmers reserve all their 
 manure for their wheat. If you follow this 
 system, you must now carry out the com- 
 post, and spread it on your land ; if you 
 need any additional supply, rape- cake 
 powder, at the rate of six or seven cwt. 
 per acre, answers very well : bones do 
 also ; but gypsum is worthless for this and 
 all other corn crops. Sow your first crop 
 of winter tares early in the month ; some 
 farmers mix it with either wheat, rye, or 
 winter barley ; but the advantage is ques- 
 tionable. Stock will reject the young corn, 
 and much waste ensues. Drill a little ma- 
 nure with the seed ; there is no crop which 
 repays the farmer better for any good or- 
 ganic manure he may add to it than the 
 vetch ; it not only increases the bulk of 
 crop, but pushes it forward, and brings it 
 much nearer to the time when feed is 
 scarcest; if the tares are (as they should 
 be) to be succeeded by turnips, the land 
 will be more ready for them. Look well to 
 your live stock ; wean the early foals ; the 
 ram is now commonly put to the ewes about 
 the middle of the month for stock lamb. 
 Do not use the same ram more than two 
 years, or you will be breeding in and in. 
 Dip your sheep to kill lice ; prepare a wash 
 for them ; add to a sufficient quantity of 
 water to dip one hundred sheep two pounds 
 of arsenic and nine pounds of soft soap ; 
 boil the mixture for a quarter of an hour. 
 Attend to the swine. In this month, the 
 sows should cease farrowing till March, for 
 young pigs sutler much from cold. The 
 boar should be kept from the sows from 
 June till November. After they have been 
 in the stubbles send them into the woods ; 
 if acorns or beech mast are plentiful, they 
 will be half fattened before the end of the 
 season, and their health much improved. 
 The farmers who live near the few remain- 
 ing forests of the south of England pay 
 much attention to this : they engage with 
 a regular swineherd, who takes under his 
 charge the swine of a district, erects a tem- 
 porary shed for himself and his charge deep 
 in the forest, sleeps with them by night, 
 and only returns with them when the acorns 
 are exhausted. Where there are woods, 
 there is commonly fern to be had, collect as 
 much of this as you can for litter ; it adds 
 to your stock of dung, and this is a stock 
 which cannot be too much increased ; if the 
 cultivator has but an abundance of this, he 
 can hardly err much in his farming ; on all 
 1085 
 
 occasions, therefore, collect every kind of ve- 
 getable matter that will enlarge this supply ; 
 it adds to your own riches, while it employs 
 the poor labourers : to this end, closely cut 
 and rake your stubbles, form your stubble- 
 walls in your farm-yard, and do this as 
 soon after harvest as you can^ before the 
 straw becomes half rotten. If you have 
 access- to peat, heath, tanner's refuse bark, 
 or saw-dust, spread them in as dry a 
 state as possible over your yards ; they 
 all help to absorb the richest or liquid 
 portions of the excrements of cattle. With 
 regard to the form of dung-yards there is 
 some little difference of opinion. " Some 
 theorists," said Blakie, " recommend the 
 yards to be made so concave as almost to 
 amount to a well shape ; others, again, assert 
 that dung-yards should be formed convex, 
 and assign as their reason that farm-yard 
 dung should be kept dry. Practical ex- 
 perience points out that a yard a little 
 hollowed is the most common and best 
 shape." Plough your winter fallows ; lay 
 them up in ridges, that the frost may pene- 
 trate, and destroy grub and other vermin. 
 Keep the hoe at work in the late turnip 
 fields, if possible the horse-hoe. Look to 
 and clean your poultry-houses : feed your 
 geese — remember that Michaelmas is at 
 hand. 
 
 Gardener's Calendar. Kitchen-Gar- 
 den. — Angelica, sow. Aromatic, and pot- 
 herbs, finish gathering. Artichokes, break 
 down. Asparagus, plant forcing beds, weed, 
 &c. Balm, plant. Beans, earth up, &c, e. 
 Beet, red, may be taken up as wanted e. 
 Borage, sow, thin advancing crops. Bore- 
 cole, plants. Burnet, plant. Cabbages, sow b., 
 plant, earth up advancing; red are ready 
 for pickling. Cardoons, earth up. Carrots, 
 advancing. Cauliflowers, prick out, draw 
 earth to advancing. Celery, earth up, plant. 
 Chervil, sow. Coriander, sow. Corn salad, 
 sow. Coleworts, plant out. Cucumbers, attend 
 to, sow b., ridge out b. Cress, American, 
 sow b.; wafer ditto, plant. Dill, sow, earth- 
 ing up attend to. Endive, plant, attend to, 
 blanch, &c. Fennel, plant. Finochio, earth 
 up. Herbary requires dressing b. Hoeing, 
 attend to. Hyssop, plant. Jerusalem Arti- 
 chokes, take up as wanted e. Kidney Beans, 
 earth up advancing b. Lettuces, plant out b., 
 sow. Leeks, plant b., attend to advancing. 
 Melons, attend to. Mint, plant. Mushroom 
 beds, make ; spawn, collect. Nasturtium 
 berries, gather as they become fit. Onions, 
 sow b. for transplanting in spring ; attend 
 to those advancing ; gather for storing. 
 Potato, take up for storing. Orach, sow. 
 Pennyroyal, plant. Pot majoram, plant. 
 Peas, hoe, &e. Parsley, cut down. Radishes, 
 sow b. Rhubai'b, sow. Sage, plant. Savory, 
 
SEPTEMBER. 
 
 SETTLEMENT. 
 
 plant. Savoys, plant. Seeds, gather as they 
 ripen. Salading, small, sow. Sorrel, plant. 
 Spinach, sow b. Thyme, plant. Tansey, 
 plant. Tarragon, plant. Turnips, sow b. ; 
 hoe advancing. Turnip, Cabbage, plant 6. 
 
 Flower- Garden. — Transplant in any 
 moist or showery weather this month the 
 perennial and biennial seedlings to their 
 proper situations, with a ball of earth round 
 their roots. Propagate fibrous-rooted plants. 
 Prepare the spots where you mean to de- 
 posit anemone and ranunculus roots any 
 time between the end of this month and 
 the end of October ; and dig all beds and 
 borders which are vacant, to prepare them 
 also for receiving roots and plants next 
 month. Transplant peonies, flag irises, 
 monk's-hood, Fraxinella, and such like 
 plants, to part their roots, and remove each 
 root to its destined position. Transplant 
 evergreens. Plant cuttings of honeysuckles, 
 and other shrubs ; hyacinth and tulip roots 
 for early spring bloom ; and box by slips or 
 roots. Mow grass lawn and walks, clear 
 away flower stems, and trim flowering plants. 
 
 Sow seeds of bulbous flowers, if not done 
 last month. 
 
 General Monthly Notices. — In the 
 Latin and Roman Calendar this was the 
 seventh month, and hence its name, from 
 Septem, seven, and Imber, a shower of rain, 
 this being the commencement of the rainy 
 season. It had only sixteen days assigned 
 to it in the Alban Calendar ; these were in- 
 creased to thirty by Romulus, to thirty- one 
 by Julius Caesar, but Augustus reduced it 
 to its present number. The ancient Saxons 
 called it Berst Monath, or Barley Month ; 
 and after the introduction of Christianity 
 into our island, it was denominated Halig 
 Monath, or Holy Month, from the religious 
 ceremonies then performed in it. It was 
 the Hertsmaand, or harvest month of the 
 Dutch Republic. 
 
 This may be said to be the commence- 
 ment of the sportsman's year, partridge 
 shooting beginning on the first of the month, 
 and on the same day the foxhound is let 
 loose after the " cubs." As the wild flowers 
 depart from the woods, the huntsman's voice 
 begins to enliven the scene. A few flowers, 
 however, still continue to bloom in our gar- 
 dens : the late-flowering Crocus (C. sero- 
 tinus), about the 9th of the month ; the 
 crimson Rudbeckia, near the 14th; the Mi- 
 chaelmas daisy, near the 20th ; the Guernsey 
 lilies, about the close of the month. Swal- 
 lows congregate together about the 21st, and 
 a few will begin to migrate towards the last 
 days "( September, but the main body linger 
 till October. (Johnson and Shaw's Farmer's 
 Almanac.) 
 
 SEPTFOIL. See Tormentil. 
 108G 
 
 SERRATE. A botanical term, imply- 
 ing notched or cut like the teeth of a saw. 
 
 SERVANT. See Master and Servant. 
 
 SERVICE-TREE. (Pyrus.) There are 
 two species of this tree, the wild service- 
 tree (P. torminalis), and the true service- 
 tree (P. domestica). Both are indigenous 
 trees, often of considerable size, of ex- 
 tremely slow growth, and the wood is very 
 hard. The service-tree is still occasionally 
 to be met with in the hedgerows in Kent, 
 and in the wealds of Sussex, as also in the 
 north of 'England and Wales. The leaves 
 of the wild service-tree are dark green, de- 
 ciduous, simple, somewhat heart-shaped, 
 serrated, seven-lobed, on long stalks. Flow- 
 ers white, numerous, in large, terminal, co- 
 rymbose, downy panicles. The umbilicated 
 fruit, which is not larger than that of the 
 hawthorn, becomes agreeably acid and 
 wholesome after the frost has touched it, 
 or when, like the medlar, it has undergone 
 a kind of putrefactive fermentation. Ray 
 prefers its flavour to the true service, which 
 latter is now become obsolete. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 362. ; Phillips's Syl. 
 Flor. vol.ii. p. 335.) 
 
 SESSILE. A botanical term, applied to 
 leaves without footstalks which are seated 
 close upon the stem. 
 
 SETACEOUS. In botany, implies 
 shaped like bristles. 
 
 SETON. In farriery, a small cord con- 
 stituted of a number of threads laid together 
 and passed through the skin by a proper 
 needle, for the purpose of keeping open an 
 issue. 
 
 SETTER. (Canis index.) Avery use- 
 ful shooting dog, which is trained to sit or 
 crouch to the game he finds. There are 
 two principal varieties of the setter, the 
 English and the Irish. The former equals 
 in size the usual run of pointers, and is 
 found of every colour. The latter is a large 
 red dog, of very commanding mien, great 
 powers, and excellent sporting qualities. 
 (Blaine's Encyclo. of Pur. Sports, p. 788.) 
 
 SETTER WORT. See Hellebore. 
 
 SETTLEMENT OF PAUPERS. A 
 settlement of a pauper may be acquired in 
 several ways. 
 
 1. By birth. — This is the natural settle- 
 ment of a person, but is certainly the 
 weakest evidence of a pauper's settlement. 
 (Rex v. Wakefield, 5 East, 338.) It is the 
 settlement of all illegitimate children born 
 before the 14th of August, 1834; but, by the 
 4 & 5 W. 4. c. 76. s. 71., bastard children 
 born after this date have the same settle- 
 ment as their mother has, or shall acquire, 
 till they attain the age of sixteen or acquire 
 settlements in their own right. 
 
 2. Settlement by parentage. — Children 
 
SHACK. 
 
 SHAW. 
 
 born in wedlock have the same settlement 
 as their parents, being referrible in the first 
 instance to that of the father. If neither 
 have a settlement, then the place of birth is 
 the child's settlement, being so prima facie 
 in all cases till another is found. (Rex v. 
 Neaton, 6 T. R. 653.) 
 
 3. Settlement by marriage. — A woman 
 follows the settlement of her husband. 
 But if he has not a settlement, then she re- 
 tains her own. (4 Burn's Just. 26th ed. 
 p. 313.) 
 
 4. Settlement by apprenticeship. — By the 
 3 & 4 W. & M. c. 11. s. 8., a person who is 
 by indenture bound apprentice for seven 
 years, and shall inhabit in any parish, such 
 apprenticeship and inhabiting shall be 
 deemed a good settlement. (Rex v. Linkin- 
 horne, 3 B. & Adol. 418.) Parish appren- 
 tice indentures are exempted from the 
 stamp duties. 
 
 5. Settlement by hiring and service. — This 
 mode of acquiring a settlement, which was 
 long the most fruitful source of litigation, 
 is now abolished, for by the 4 & 5 W. 4. 
 c. 76. s. 64. it is declared, that from and 
 after the 14th of August, 1834, no settle- 
 ment shall be acquired by hiring or ser- 
 vice, or by residence under the same hiring 
 and service. Previous to this act, under 
 the statute 3 W. & M. c. 11. and 9 & 10 
 W. 3. c. 30., it was enacted, that any un- 
 married person legally hired for, and re- 
 maining in such service for the space of one 
 whole year, acquired a settlement. 
 
 6. Settlement by renting a tenement. — By 
 the 6 G. 4. c. 57. it is enacted, that no per- 
 son shall acquire a settlement in any parish 
 or township by or by reason of settling 
 upon, renting, or paying parochial taxes 
 for any tenement not being his or her own 
 property, unless such tenement shall consist 
 of a separate and distinct dwelling-house 
 or building, or of land, or of both, bond fide 
 rented by such person in such parish or 
 township at and for the sum of 10Z. a year 
 at the least for the term of one whole year ; 
 nor unless such house, building, or land 
 shall be actually occupied, and the rent 
 paid for one whole year. 
 
 The foregoing are the chief means by 
 which a settlement is acquired in a parish. 
 There are, or were, other modes, which are 
 in some degree incidental to these, but 
 whose effect has been much narrowed by 
 various wholesome statutes ; such are those 
 by payment of parochial taxes, by the en- 
 joyment of a legal or equitable estate, by 
 serving a parochial office, by acknowledg- 
 ment of the parish, by certificate, relief, non 
 appeal against an order of removal. 
 
 SHACK. A provincial term applied to 
 the waste corn left in the fields ; also to the 
 1087 
 
 stock turned upon the stubble after har- 
 vest ; and likewise to such grounds as lie 
 open as common fields. 
 
 SHALOT or ESCALOT. (Allium as- 
 calonicum.) Having a stronger taste than 
 the onion, yet not leaving, as it is said, the 
 strong odour on the palate which that spo- 
 cies of Allium is accustomed to do, the 
 shalot is often preferred, and employed in 
 stead, both in culinary preparations and 
 for eating in its natural state. Each oflset 
 of the root will increase if planted in a 
 similar manner to its parent. The planting 
 may be performed during October or No- 
 vember, or early in the spring, as February, 
 March, or beginning of April. The first is 
 the best season, especially if the soil lies 
 dry, as the bulbs become finer ; but other- 
 wise the spring is to be preferred, for ex- 
 cessive moisture destroys the sets. Mr. 
 Henderson supports the practice of plant- 
 ing in autumn, and says "if the smallest 
 offsets are employed for planting, they never 
 become mouldy in the ground, and are never 
 injured by the most intense frosts." (Mem. 
 Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 199.) They are 
 to be planted six inches asunder each way, 
 in beds not more than four feet wide, being 
 usually inserted in drills, by the dibble, or 
 with the finger and thumb. (G. W.John- 
 son's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 SHAMROCK. The national emblem of 
 Ireland. The term " shamrock " seems a 
 general appellation for the trefoils, or three- 
 leaved plants. There has been much dis- 
 pute as to what is the true Irish shamrock ; 
 it has generally been considered to be the 
 clover or Trifolium repens. A writer in the 
 Journ. of the Roy. Inst. No. 3. advances 
 abundant testimony in proof of the wood- 
 sorrel (Oxalis acetosella) being the true 
 shamrock. The curious in such matters will 
 find the article quoted in the Quart. Journ. 
 of A sr. vol. iii. p. 365. 
 
 SHARE OF A PLOUGH. That part 
 which cuts or breaks the ground. See 
 Plough. 
 
 SHARROCK, ROBERT, was born at 
 Adstock in Buckinghamshire. He became 
 prebend and archdeacon of Winchester, 
 and rector of Bishop's Waltham and of 
 Harewood in Hants. He died in 1684. 
 Sharrock wrote, 
 
 1. The History of the Propagation and Improvement 
 of Vegetables by the Concurrence of Art and Nature ; 
 written according to the Observations made from Ex- 
 perience and Practice. Oxford. 1660, without his name. 
 8vo. Again, Oxford. 1666 and 1672. 8vo., with the au- 
 thor's name. 2. Improvements to the Art of Garden- 
 ing ; or an exact Treatise of Plants. London. 1694. 
 folio. 3. De Officiis secundum Humana? Rationis dic- 
 tate?, &c. 4. Judicia de variis Incontinentia? Speciebus. 
 5. De finibus Virtutis Christiana?. (G. W. Johnson's 
 Hist, of Gard.) 
 
 SHAW. A country term applied to a 
 wood that encompasses a close. 
 
SHEAF. 
 
 SHEEP 
 
 SHEAF. A bundle of corn as bound up 
 in the field. See Harvest and Reaping. 
 
 SHEARING of Sheep. The operation 
 of cutting off the fleece or coat of wool 
 with a pair of shears. 
 
 This is performed in different ways, but 
 the best mode is that of the circular or 
 round the sheep, instead of the longitudinal, 
 which is now mostly in use. Shearing is 
 usually performed about June or July, ac- 
 cording to situation and season, but should 
 not be done either too early or be too long- 
 protracted, as injury and inconvenience may 
 attend either extreme. A good clipper is 
 capable of clipping from fourteen or fifteen 
 to twenty or twenty-five sheep in the day, 
 and more are frequently done by very ex- 
 pert persons. Great care should be taken not 
 to cut or prick the animals ; but where this 
 accident happens, in the northern parts of 
 the kingdom, they touch the part with a 
 little tar or sheep salve; and in Sweden 
 it is often done with train oil and resin 
 melted together. After shearing, the sheep 
 should be turned into a warm dry pasture. 
 See Sheep. 
 
 SHEARLING. The name given to a 
 sheep that has been once shorn. 
 
 SHEARS. A name applied to some in- 
 struments employed in agriculture. The 
 shears used for sheep shearing are of very 
 ancient origin : they were termed forfex by 
 the Romans ; and it appears that no im- 
 provement has been made on the instru- 
 ment. In a collection of antique gems 
 at Berlin, called the Stosch collection, is a 
 gem bearing a representation of a newly 
 shorn sheep, and the shears, which are 
 exactly the same as those now used. Shears 
 are also employed for clipping hedges. 
 
 SHEATH. In botany, the lower part of 
 the leaf that surrounds the stem. 
 
 SHED. See Cattle Shed. 
 
 SHEEP (Ovis aines, nat ord. Ruminan- 
 tia.) Of the original breed of this invalu- 
 able animal, which is in modern farming 
 almost equally important for furnishing the 
 farmer with a dressing of manure, and the 
 community at large with mutton, clothing, 
 and other almost necessaries of life, nothing 
 certain is known. Several varieties of wild 
 sheep have by naturalists been considered 
 entitled to the distinction of being consi- 
 dered the parent stock. Of these are, 1. 
 The musmon (O. Musimoii), still found wild 
 in the mountains of the larger islands of the 
 Mediterranean and in European Turkey. 
 2. The argali (O. Arnmon), or wild Asiatic 
 Bheep, which are the tenants of the highest 
 jhountains of central Asia, and the elevated 
 inhoi pitable plains of its northern portions. 
 .'{. The Rocky Mountain sheep (O.montana), 
 which is found on the mountains of North 
 1088 J 
 
 America; and 4., The bearded sheep of 
 Africa (O. tragelaphus), found in the high 
 lands of Egypt, and in Barbary. It is 
 doubtful whether sheep are indigenous to 
 this country, but they are mentioned as ex- 
 isting in Britain at very early periods. The 
 Romans established a woollen manufac- 
 tory at Winchester, at which city the first 
 guild of fullers was established. The natural 
 habits of the sheep attach it to the highest 
 ground, to the upland slopes, where the 
 heath and other aromatic plants abound. 
 Nature never intended this animal to occupy 
 the deep alluvial turnip lands of our rich 
 arable farms, or to consume the succulent 
 grasses of our water meadows : every shep- 
 herd is aware that their natural instinct, 
 after being for ages domesticated, still leads 
 them invariably to the elevated portions of 
 the field in which they are placed. All 
 these facts tell the farmer in very intel- 
 ligible language that it is change of food, of 
 pasturage, and, if possible, the giving them 
 occasionally aromatic food, that will best 
 conduce to the prosperity of his flock. With 
 this view parsley has been successfully cul- 
 tivated. Then, again, the wild sheep are 
 found to frequent all those places where sa- 
 line exudation are to be found. They lick 
 the salt clay of some of the American up- 
 lands to such an extent, that these places 
 are denominated licks. Now some of the 
 most skilful of the English flock-masters 
 never allow, their sheep to be without salt. 
 The female sheep goes with young twenty- 
 one weeks, produces one, and rarely more 
 than two at a birth ; her milk yields abun- 
 dance of strong tasted cheese, but a very 
 limited quantity of cream. The sheep in 
 temperate climates is clothed with wool, 
 which is annually renewed, but in warmer 
 countries the animal is furnished with hair. 
 In its wild state it has generally horns, but 
 these have nearly disappeared in most of 
 the breeds of domestic sheep. The domes- 
 ticated sheep is known in England by dif- 
 ferent names, according to its age or sex. 
 " The male" says Mr. Youatt, " is called a 
 ram or tup. While with his mother he is de- 
 nominated a tup, or ram lai^b, a heeder, 
 and in some parts of the west of England 
 a pur lamb. From the time of weaning 
 until he is shorn he has a variety of names ; 
 being called a hog, a hogget, a hoggerel, a 
 lamb hog, a tup hog, or a teg ; and, if cas- 
 trated, a wether hog. After shearing, when 
 probably he is a year and a half old, he is 
 called a shearing, a shearling, a shear hog, 
 a diamond, or dinmont ram or tup, and a 
 shearling wether when castrated. After 
 the second shearing he is a two-shear ram 
 or tup or wether, at the expiration of an- 
 other year he is a three-shear ram, &c, the 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 name always taking its date from the time 
 of shearing. In many parts of the north of 
 England and Scotland he is a tup lamb, after 
 he is salved and until he is shorn, and then 
 a tup hog, and after that a tup, or if cas- 
 trated a dinmont or a wedder. The female 
 is a ewe or gimmer lamb until weaned, and 
 then a gimmer hog, or ewe hog, or teg, or 
 sheeder ewe. After being shorn she is a 
 shearing ewe or gimmer, sometimes a (heave 
 or double-toothed ewe, or teg; and after- 
 wards a two-shear or three-shear, or a four 
 or six tooth ewe or (heave. ] n some of the 
 northern districts, ewes that are barren or. 
 that have weaned their lambs are called 
 eild or yeld ewes. (Youatt on Sheep, p. 2.) 
 
 The teeth of the sheep are in number 
 the same as those of the ox, viz. eight incisor 
 or cutting teeth in the lower jaw, and six 
 molar teeth on each side, and in each jaw. 
 
 When the lamb is born he has either no 
 incisor teeth or only two but before he is 
 a month old he has eight. The two central 
 teeth of these are shed, and again at two 
 years old attain their full growth : when 
 between two and three years of age, the 
 two next incisors are shed, at three years 
 old, the four central teeth are fully grown, 
 at four, he has six complete teeth. That 
 the primitive breed of sheep were horned, 
 we have direct evidence. {Gen. xxii. 13. : 
 Joshua, vi. 6.) Immense flocks of this ani- 
 mal have in all ages of the world been kept 
 by man, but more universally for their wool 
 and skins than for their flesh; for that is 
 yet to many nations by no means a favourite 
 meal. The Calmucs and Cossacks still pre- 
 fer that of the horse and the camel ; the 
 Spaniard who can procure other flesh rarely 
 eats that of the Merino ; to the North Ame- 
 ricans it is still an object of dislike. English- 
 men, perhaps, consume more mutton than 
 the people of any other country, but the 
 taste for this is certainly of modern ori- 
 gin. It has rapidly extended, as better 
 breeds and sweeter kinds of mutton have 
 been produced. 
 
 My limits will not allow me to describe 
 the great variety of breeds of sheep which 
 belong to various countries, I shall, there- 
 fore, confine myself to a brief notice of 
 those which tenant our own islands, refer- 
 ing those of my readers who need further 
 information to the valuable work of Pro- 
 fessor Youatt " On the Sheep," and to 
 Professor Low's " Illustrations of the Breeds 
 of Domestic Animals," from whence this 
 article is chiefly taken ; there is also an ex- 
 cellent essay upon the sheep by Mr. Ell- 
 man in Baxter's " Library of Agricultural 
 Knowledge." 
 
 Class I. — Sheep without Horxs. 
 The new Leicester Sheep, says Mr. Youatt, 
 1089 
 
 which comprehends the most excellent of 
 Bakewell's own breed, and of Culley's va- 
 riety or improvement on it, is precisely the 
 form for a sheep provided with plenty of 
 good food, and without any great distance 
 to travel or exertion to make in gathering 
 it. It should have a head hornless, long, 
 small, tapering towards the muzzle. Eyes 
 prominent, with a quiet expression; ears 
 thin, rather long, directed backwards ; neck 
 full and broad at its base, gradually taper- 
 ing towards the head, particularly bare at 
 the junction with the head ; the neck seem- 
 ing to project straight from the chest, so that 
 there is, with the slightest possible deviation, 
 one continued horizontal line from the rump 
 to the pole. The breast broad and full ; 
 the shoulders broad and round, no uneven 
 or angular formation, no rising of the 
 withers, no hollow behind the situation of 
 these bones. The arm fleshy throughout, 
 even down to the knee. The bones of the 
 leg small, standing wide apart, no looseness 
 of skin about them, and comparatively bare 
 of wool. The chest and barrel deep and 
 round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch 
 from the spine; the barrel ribbed well home ; 
 the carcase gradually diminishing in width 
 towards the rump ; the quarters long and 
 full; the legs of a moderate length; the pelt 
 moderately thin, soft, and elastic, covered 
 with a good quantity of white wool, not so 
 long as in some breeds, but considerably 
 finer. The principal recommendations of 
 this breed are its beauty, and its fullness of 
 form. In the same apparent dimensions 
 greater weight than any other sheep; an 
 early maturity and a propensity to fatten, 
 equalled by no other breed ; a diminution 
 in the proportion of offal, and the return 
 of most money for the quantity of food 
 consumed." (Culley on Live Stock ; Mar- 
 shall's Midland, Counties; Youatt on Sheep, 
 p. 111). 
 
 The Teeswater Sheep was bred originally 
 on the banks of the Tees ; it came from the 
 stock of the old Lincolnshire, and like them 
 it is nearly extinct. It was a tall clumsy 
 animal, polled, and with white face and 
 legs; they were crossed by the Dislley 
 sheep, because a smaller and a better breed, 
 and few traces of them are now to be found. 
 
 The Lincolnshire Sheep. — Culley describ- 
 ed the old breed of Lincolnshire sheep half u 
 century since, as having " no horns," white 
 faces, long, thin, and weak carcases ; the 
 ewes weighing from fourteen to twenty 
 pounds per quarter, the three year old 
 wethers from twenty to thirty pounds ; 
 thick rough white legs, large bones, thick 
 pelts, and long wool, from ten to eighteen 
 inches, and weighing froin eight to fourteen 
 pounds per fleece, and covering a slow- 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 feeding coarse-grained carcase of mutton. 
 (Culley on Live Stock, p. 111.) Culley, how- 
 ever, ran into the opposite extreme ; if the 
 Lincolnshire farmers bred only for the 
 wool, he regarded only the mutton. A 
 cross between the two produced a very 
 profitable and much improved animal. 
 
 The Cotswold Sheep have been long 
 celebrated for the fineness of their wool. In 
 1467, a flock of these sheep were carried 
 into Spain by licence from Edward IV. 
 Gervas Markham, in the time of Queen 
 Elizabeth, describes them " as long-woolled, 
 and large boned breed. Few of the original 
 Cotswold breed, however, now remain ; they 
 have been gradually improved by crossing 
 with the Leicester sheep, and it is this 
 half bred Cotswold and Leicester which 
 now chiefly tenants the Gloucestershire and 
 Worcestershire farms. The old Cotswold 
 sheep are described by Mr. Youatt, as 
 being taller and longer than the improved 
 breed, comparatively flat-sided, deficient in 
 the fore-quarter, but full in the hind-quar- 
 ter, not fattening so early, but yielding a 
 longer and heavier fleece." (Youatt on 
 Sheep, p. 340.) The mutton of this breed 
 is well described by Mr. Ellman, as fine- 
 grained and full-sized, but capable of great 
 improvement by proper crossing. " The 
 Cotswold," he adds, " differ from the 
 Southdown in several particulars ; the skin 
 of the Cotswold is much thicker than the 
 Southdown ; the head long and thin ; ears 
 wide and not too thin, having no wool but 
 a tuft on the poll; wool below the hock 
 considered objectionable. On the Cotswold 
 they never allow two rams to run together." 
 He thinks twin ewes have much more to 
 do with getting twins than twin rams ; both 
 however should be attended to, as well as 
 a still more important particular, their 
 keep. (Baxter s Lib. of Agr.) 
 
 The Dartmoor Sheep. — " The short or 
 rather middle- woolled sheep of Devonshire," 
 says Mr. Youatt, " a few of which are still 
 seen in South Devon, and on the greater 
 part of the hills in the northern district, but 
 most numerously on the forests of Dart- 
 moor and Exmoor, are everywhere of nearly 
 the same character, and betray on a smaller 
 scale a great affinity with the Dorsets ; 
 have white faces and legs ; some with and 
 some without horns ; small in the head and 
 neck, and generally small boned ; carcase 
 narrow and flat-sided, weighing when fat 
 from nine to twelve pounds per quarter; 
 the fleece three or four pounds in weight in 
 the yolk ; wool short, with a coarse and 
 hairy lop." (On Sheep, p. 251). 
 
 The South Down Sheep. — The remarks of 
 Mr. Ellman of Glynde, in Sussex, who has 
 done more than any one to improve the race 
 1090 
 
 of South Down, are so practical and clear, 
 that what he has done so well it is useless 
 to give in any other language ; he says, 
 when speaking of this valuable breed, " the 
 head should be neither too long nor too 
 short, the lip thin ; the neck neither too 
 long nor too short, but thin next the head, 
 and tapering towards the shoulders. South 
 Down breeders object to a long thin neck ; 
 it denotes delicacy. The breast should be 
 wide and deep, projecting forward before 
 the fore legs ; this indicates a good consti- 
 tution, and disposition to feed. The shoul- 
 ders should not be too wide between the 
 plate bones, but on a level with the chine ; 
 if the shoulder blades are wide on the top 
 the animal generally drops behind the 
 shoulders. The chine should be low and 
 straight from the shoulders to the tail ; the 
 ribs should project horizontally from the 
 chine, for the animal will then lay its meat 
 on the prime parts ; the sides high and 
 parallel ; the rump long and broad ; the tail 
 set on high, and nearly on a level with the 
 chine ; the hips wide ; the ribs circular, and 
 barrel-shaped ; the legs neither very long nor 
 very short ; the bones moderately fine." 
 (Baxters Lib. of Agr. p. 570.) 
 
 Romney Marsh Sheep. — Towards the 
 beginning of this century, Mr. Price de- 
 scribed " the pure Romney Marsh bred 
 sheep as distinguished by thickness and 
 length of head, a broad forehead with a 
 tuft of wool upon it, a long and thick neck, 
 and carcase flat-sided ; chine sharp, toler- 
 ably wide on the loins, breast narrow and 
 not deep, and the fore quarter not heavy 
 nor full ; the thigh full and broad, the belly 
 large ; the tail thick, long, and coarse, the 
 legs thick, feet large, the muscle coarse, 
 bone large. Wool long and not fine ; have 
 much internal fat, much hardihood; re- 
 quiring no artificial food during the hardest 
 winter, except a little hay." (Youatt on 
 Sheep, p. 334.) With all these good pro- 
 perties, however, the old Romney Marsh 
 sheep has been nearly obliterated by occa- 
 sional crossings with the Leicester sheep ; 
 which, by judicious management (taking- 
 care not to render the breed too tender by 
 the introduction of too much of the Lei- 
 cester), has produced a sheep possessing 
 sufficient hardiness for these bleak marshes, 
 yet producing more symmetry of form, with 
 earlier maturity, and greater propensity to 
 fatten. 
 
 The Cheviot Sheep are a peculiar breed, 
 which are kept on the extensive range of 
 the Cheviot Hills. They are described as 
 having "the face and legs generally while ; 
 the eye lively and prominent ; the counte- 
 nance open and pleasing; the car large, and 
 with a long space from the ear to (he eye ; 
 
SHEER 
 
 the body long ; and hence they are called 
 1 long sheep,' in distinction from the black- 
 faced breed. They are full behind the 
 shoulder, have a long strait back, are round 
 in the rib, and well-proportioned in the 
 quarters ; the legs clean and small-boned, 
 and the pelt thin, but thickly covered with 
 fine short wool : they possess very consi- 
 derable fattening qualities, and can endure 
 much hardship, both from starvation and 
 cold. He is fit for the butcher at three 
 years old, and at two when crossed with the 
 Leicester." (Youatt on Sheep, p. 285. ; M On 
 crossing the Mountain and Cheviot Sheep," 
 by Mr. Hogg, Quart. Joum. Agr. vol. i. 
 p. 175.) 
 
 Class II. Horned Sheep. 
 
 The Dorset Sheep. — "Most of these," 
 says Mr. Youatt, "at least of the pure breed, 
 are entirely white ; the face is long and 
 broad, and there is a tuft of wool on the 
 forehead ; the shoulders low and broad ; 
 the back straight ; the chest deep ; the loins 
 broad ; the legs rather beyond a moderate 
 length, and the bone small. They are, as 
 their form would indicate, a hardy and 
 useful breed. They are good folding sheep ; 
 their mutton well flavoured, averaging, 
 when three years old, from sixteen to twenty 
 pounds a quarter. Their principal distinc- 
 tion and value is the forwardness of the 
 ewes, who take the ram at a much earlier 
 period of the year than any other species, 
 and thus supply the market with lamb at 
 the time when it fetches the highest price. 
 These sheep are principally bred within 
 a circle of twelve miles round Dorchester, 
 where a considerable quantity of house 
 lamb for the London market is produced. 
 In other parts of Dorset the South Down 
 breed prevails ; except in Portland and on 
 poor sandy heath soils near Warebone and 
 Poole, where a poor small-horned breed 
 prevails, with black muzzles, well adapted 
 for this locality. Their meat is tender. 
 {Youatt on Sheep, p. 251.) 
 
 The Norfolk Sheep. — "A peculiar variety 
 of heath sheep," says Mr. Youatt, " has been 
 found in the localities of Norfolk and Suf- 
 folk from time immemorial. The carcase 
 was long and slender ; legs long ; face and 
 legs black or mottled ; face long and thin ; 
 the countenance lively, and expressive of 
 mingled timidity and wildness : taken alto- 
 gether, there was more resemblance to the 
 deer in the Norfolk sheep than has been 
 observed in any other species. They were 
 attempted to be improved by being crossed 
 with the South Downs ; but at length the 
 pure South Down was generally preferred 
 to the pure Norfolk, and, in consequence, 
 the race is now nearly extinct." {On Sheep, 
 p. 307.) 
 
 1091 
 
 The Merino Sheep. — This celebrated 
 breed are, in Spain, divided into the est 
 tantes, or stationary, and the transhumantes, 
 or migratory. The first are those which re- 
 main during the year in one place or farm : 
 the last travel some hundred miles every 
 year in search of pasture. They are thus 
 described by Mr. Low in his excellent Il- 
 lustrations of the Breeds of Domestic Animals. 
 
 " The stationary sheep consist partly of 
 the larger sheep of the lower country, partly 
 of mixed races, and partly of pure Merinos, 
 who do not differ in any respect from the 
 migratory sheep of that name, except in the 
 method of treatment. The stationary Me- 
 rinos are reared where the district or farm 
 affords them sufficient food during the whole 
 season. They are most numerous in the 
 central countries, where the pastures are 
 less apt to be scorched by the heats of the 
 summer, as in Segovia, and the mountain 
 ranges to north of Madrid. 
 
 " The migratory sheep have been reckoned 
 to amount to ten millions, which is probably 
 equal to half the whole number of the sheep 
 of Spain. They may be divided into two 
 great bodies : those which are to pass fur- 
 ther to the eastward, to Soria, or even be- 
 yond the Ebro. These vast hordes of sheep 
 break up from their winter cantonments, 
 south of the Guardina, about the 15th of 
 April, and proceed chiefly northward. The 
 rams having been admitted to the ewes in 
 the month of July, the lambs are born in 
 November. In the course of their journey 
 northward, they are shorn in large build- 
 ings erected for that purpose. The western, 
 or Leonese division, crosses the Tagus at 
 Almaray. The eastern, or Sorian division, 
 crosses the same river further to the east- 
 ward, at Talavera, and in its course ap- 
 proaches the city of Madrid. Having 
 reached their destination, they are pastured 
 until the end of September, when they re- 
 commence their journey southward. Each 
 of these journeys, of several miles in length, 
 occupies about six weeks in travelling. The 
 older sheep, it is said, when April arrives, 
 know the time of setting off, and are im- 
 patient to be gone. In the ten or twelve 
 latter days, increased vigilance is required, 
 on the part of the shepherds, lest the sheep 
 should break out. Some of them do so T 
 and pursue their accustomed route, often 
 reaching their former year's pastures, where 
 they are found when the main body arrives ; 
 but, for the most part, these stragglers are 
 carried oft' by wolves, which abound along 
 the course which the migratory flocks 
 pursue. 
 
 " These migratory sheep are divided into 
 flocks of a thousand or more, each under 
 the charixc of its own mavoral. or chief 
 4 A 2 
 
SHEER 
 
 shepherd, who has a sufficient number of 
 assistants under his command. It is his 
 province to direct all the details of the 
 journey. He goes in advance of the flock ; 
 the others follow with their dogs, to collect 
 the stragglers, and keep off the wolves, 
 which prowl in the distance, migrating with 
 the flock. A few mules or asses accompany 
 the cavalcade, carrying the simple neces- 
 saries of the shepherds, and the materials 
 for forming the nightly folds. In these 
 folds the sheep are penned throughout the 
 night, surrounded by the faithful dogs, 
 which give notice of the approach of danger. 
 
 " When the sheep arrive at the esquilcos, 
 or shearing-houses, which is in the early 
 part of their journey northward, a sufficient 
 number of shearers are in attendance to 
 shear a thousand or more in one day. The 
 esquilcos consist of two large rude rooms, 
 and a low narrow hut adjoining, termed the 
 sweating-house. The sheep are driven into 
 one of the large rooms, and such of them 
 as are to be shorn on the following day are 
 forced into the long narrow hut as close as 
 it can be packed, where they are kept all 
 night. They undergo in this state a great 
 perspiration, the effect of which is to soften 
 the hardened unctuous matter which has 
 collected on the fleece. They are then 
 shorn without a previous washing, and the 
 wool is left in the esquilcos, where it is 
 sorted, and made ready for sale. By this 
 arrangement 1000 sheep, or more, are shorn 
 with only the delay of a day. 
 
 " The shepherds employed in tending 
 these sheep amount to 50,000, which, sup- 
 posing there to be ten millions of sheep, is 
 at the rate of 200 to each shepherd. The 
 number of dogs is calculated at 30,000. 
 These shepherds form a peculiar class of 
 men, strongly attached to their pursuit, and 
 living in a state of great simplicity. Their 
 food is chiefly black bread, oil, and garlic. 
 They eat the mutton of their sheep when 
 they die or meet with accidents. In tra- 
 velling they sleep on the ground, wrapping 
 themselves in their cloaks ; and in winter 
 they construct rude huts to afford shelter. 
 They seldom, it is said, marry, or change 
 their calling. 
 
 " The whole of this extraordinary system 
 is regulated by a set of laws ; and an es- 
 pecial tribunal, termed the mesta, exists for 
 the protection of the privileges of the parties 
 having the right of way and pasturage. 
 These parties claim the right of pasturage 
 on all the open and common land that lies 
 in their way, a path of ninety paces wide 
 through the enclosed and cultivated coun- 
 try, and various rights and immunities con- 
 nected with the pasturage of the flocks. 
 The system is opposed to the true interests 
 1092 
 
 of Spain. A change of pasture may be re- 
 quired for the flocks in the drier countries 
 at certain seasons, but the periodical mi- 
 gration of so vast a body of sheep cannot 
 be necessary to the extent to which it takes 
 place. Enormous abuses are committed on 
 the cultivated country as they pass along. 
 A fourth part of the year consumed in tra- 
 velling must be prejudicial to the health of 
 the animals in a greater degree than the 
 benefits they derive from a change of pas- 
 turage. A prodigious mortality accordingly 
 takes place among these sheep ; and more 
 than half the lambs are voluntarily killed, 
 in order that the others may be brought to 
 maturity. The sale of the lamb-skins, which 
 form a subject of export to other countries, 
 is indeed a source of profit, but nothing 
 equal to what the rearing of the animals to 
 their state of maturity would produce. That 
 these extensive migrations are necessary to 
 preserve the fineness of the wool is con- 
 ceived to be an error. Attention to breed- 
 ing and rearing would more certainly pro- 
 duce this effect than a violent change of 
 place. In Spain itself there are numerous 
 flocks of stationary Merinos, whose wool is 
 of all the fineness required ; and in other 
 countries of Europe, where the sheep are 
 never moved off the farms that produce 
 them, wool is produced superior to that of 
 the migratory flocks of Spain. The system 
 is of great antiquity, and is so riveted in 
 the habits of this ignorant and intractable 
 people, that it is likely to be one of the last 
 of those ancient abuses which will yield to 
 the desire of change which at this moment 
 agitates the feelings of men in this dis- 
 tracted country. " The Spaniards long 
 preserved the monopoly of this race of 
 sheep with jealous care ; but other coun- 
 tries at length were able to carry off the 
 Golden Fleece of Spain, and the Merino 
 race is now spread over a great part of 
 Europe. 
 
 " The Merino breed, which had extended 
 to so many countries of Europe, was at a 
 period more recent introduced into the Bri- 
 tish Islands. George III., a zealous and pa- 
 triotic agriculturist, resolved to make a trial 
 of this celebrated breed on his own farms, 
 and means were taken to obtain a small 
 Merino flock. This was done clandestinely ; 
 the animals were selected from the flocks of 
 different individuals where they could best 
 be got ; were driven through Portugal, and 
 embarked at Lisbon. They were safely 
 landed at Portsmouth, and conducted to 
 the King's farm at Kew. The flock was 
 bad ; the selection had been carelessly o» 
 ignorantly made; and the animals being 
 taken from different flocks, presented no 
 uniformity of characters. It was then re- 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 solved to make direct application to the 
 Spanish government for permission to ex- 
 port some sheep from the best flocks. The 
 request was at once complied with ; a small 
 and choice flock was presented to his Ma- 
 jesty by the Marchioness del Campo di 
 Alange of the Negretti flocks, esteemed to 
 be the most valuable in Spain ; and in re- 
 turn his Majesty presented to the Mar- 
 chioness eight splendid coach horses. This 
 flock arrived in England in 1791, and was 
 immediately tranferred to the royal farms, 
 while all those previously imported were 
 disposed of or destroyed. 
 
 " On the first change of these sheep to 
 the moist and luxuriant pastures of Eng- 
 land tKey suffered greatly from diseases, 
 and, above all, the rot, which destroyed 
 numbers of them ; and from foot-rot, which 
 affected them to a grievous extent. By a 
 little change of pastures these evils were 
 remedied ; and, after the first season, the 
 survivors became reconciled to their new 
 situation, and their progeny seemed tho- 
 roughly naturalized, and remained as free 
 from diseases as the sheep of the country. 
 The wool was from year to year carefully 
 examined; that of the original stock re- 
 mained unaffected by the change of climate, 
 while in that of their descendants little de- 
 generacy could be detected either in its 
 felting propensities or its fineness. 
 
 " The most distinguished breeders of 
 Merinos at this time in England are Lord 
 Western and Mr.Bennet, M.P. for Wilt- 
 shire. Lord Western's stock is either Saxon, 
 or has been crossed by Saxon rams ; Mr. 
 Bennet's is pure Spanish, and has under- 
 gone progressive improvement by selection 
 of individuals of the same blood. The num- 
 ber of his flock amounted at one time to 
 7000 ; it was subsequently reduced to 3500. 
 It was treated in the ordinary manner of 
 sheep in this country. Lord Western's, it 
 is believed, is managed more in the Saxon 
 manner, with respect to protection from the 
 weather. Mr. Bennet's fine flock, not- 
 withstanding it had been thus acclimated, 
 perished in great numbers in a severe win- 
 ter some years ago, proving that the race 
 had not yet lived sufficiently long in Eng- 
 land to be perfectly inured to its cold and 
 variable climate. Other gentlemen have 
 imported Merinos direct from Saxony, and 
 thus obtained at once the highest perfection 
 of the fleece ; but there is little reason to 
 believe that their experiments will be more 
 successful than those previously made. Me- 
 rinos have lately been carried in some num- 
 bers to Ireland, and may perhaps prove 
 more advantageous than some of the exist- 
 ing breeds ; but this will not show the great 
 value of the Merinos, but the comparatively 
 1093 
 
 little value of the races which they have 
 supplanted." 
 
 The first impression (says Mr. Youatt) 
 made by the Merino sheep on one unac- 
 quainted with its value would be unfavour- 
 able. The wool, lying closer and thicker 
 over the body than in most other breeds of 
 sheep, and being abundant in yolk, is co- 
 vered with a dirty crust, often full of 
 cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the 
 bone ; the breast and the back are narrow, 
 and the sides somewhat flat ; the fore- 
 shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too 
 much of their weight is carried on the 
 coarser parts. The horns of the male are 
 comparatively large, curved, and with more 
 or less of a spiral form. The head is large, 
 but the forehead rather low. A few of the 
 females are horned, but, generally speak- 
 ing, they are without horns. Both male 
 and female have a peculiar coarse and un- 
 sightly growth of hair on the forehead and 
 cheeks, which the careful flockmaster cuts 
 away before shearing time : the other part 
 of the face has a pleasing and characteristic 
 velvet appearance. Under the throat there 
 is a singular looseness of skin, which gives 
 them a remarkable appearance of throati- 
 ness, or hollowness in the pile : the pile, 
 when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding; 
 it is so from the thickness with which it 
 grows upon the pelt, and the abundance of 
 the yolk detaining all the dirt and gravel 
 which falls upon it ; but, when examined, 
 the fibre exceeds in fineness, and in the 
 number of serrations and curves, that which 
 any other sheep in the world produces. 
 The average weight of the fleece in Spain 
 is eight pounds from the ram and five from 
 the ewe : when fatted, these sheep weigh 
 from twelve to sixteen pounds per quarter. 
 The excellence of the Merino consists in 
 the fineness and felting quality of their 
 wool, and the weight yielded by each sheep ; 
 the ease with which they adapt themselves 
 to the climate, the readiness with which 
 they take to the coarsest food, their gentle- 
 ness and tractableness. Their defects are 
 their unprofitable and unthrifty form, vo- 
 racity of appetite, a tendency to barrenness, 
 neglect of their young, and inferior flavour 
 of the mutton. {On Sheep, p. 148. ; Dr. 
 Parry on the Merino sheep, Com. Board of 
 Agr. vol. v. p. 337. ; Sir Joseph Banks on 
 ditto, Ibid. vol. vi. p. 269. ; Mr. Downie on 
 ditto, Ibid. vol. vii. p. 61.) 
 
 The Irish Sheep have been much im- 
 proved by the importation of English rams. 
 Culley describes them as ugly and ill- 
 formed. Bodies large. Legs long, thick, 
 crooked, and of a grey colour. Faces grey. 
 Heads long, large flagging ears, sunken 
 eyes. Neck long, and set on below the 
 4 a 3 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 shoulders. Breast narrow, short, and hol- 
 low ; flat-sided. 
 
 The Shetland Sheep are described by Mr. 
 Wilson {Quart Joum. Agr. vol. ii. p. 557.) 
 as small and handsome ; hornless, seldom 
 exceeding forty pounds in weight ; hardy, 
 feeding on even sea-weed : wool soft and 
 cottony. 
 
 The Hebridean Sheep is described by Mr. 
 Wilson as the smallest of its kind. Shape 
 thin and lank. Face and legs white. Tail 
 short. Wool of various colours, blueish- 
 grey, brown, or deep russet. Even when 
 fat this sheep weighs only twenty pounds : 
 the wool rarely weighs more than one 
 pound. 
 
 With regard to the profitable manage- 
 ment of sheep, it is only possible to offer 
 general suggestions to assist the farmer. 
 I have alluded already to the advantages 
 of varying the food of sheep, and I shall 
 refer at the end of this article to various 
 important testimonials in favour of the su- 
 perior profit derived from keeping sheep 
 dry and warm. In every case they should 
 have access to dry food, and, if possible, 
 occasionally to those lands where heath and 
 other plants which are indigenous to up- 
 land soils are to be found : in all cases, too, 
 they should have access to common salt. 
 
 The importance of salt to the general 
 health of sheep is now, in fact, generally 
 admitted. Every farmer observes that his 
 cattle, horses, &c, are remarkably fond of 
 licking the salt earth of the farm-yard, 
 stables, &c. In Spain, they give their sheep 
 salt with great regularity: 1121b. in five 
 months to 1000 sheep. I subjoin the state- 
 ment of the late Mr. Curyven. He em- 
 ployed salt to his live stock daily for 
 years : — 
 
 For horses he gave - 6 oz. per day, 
 Milch cows - - 4 
 Feeding oxen - 6 
 
 Yearlings - - 3 
 Calves - - 1 
 
 Sheep - - - 2 to 4 per week, 
 
 if on dry pastures ; but if they are feed- 
 ing on turnips or coles, then they should 
 have it without stint. Some give it to 
 live stock on a slate or stone, some lay 
 lumps of it in the cribs or mangers. It is 
 an asserted fact, that if sheep are allowed 
 free access to salt, they ivill never he subject 
 to the disease called the rot. Some recent 
 experiments also lead me even to hope 
 that 1 shall one day or other be able to 
 prove it to be a cure for this devastating 
 disease. I have room but for one fact. 
 " Mr. Rusher of Stanley, in Gloucester- 
 shire, in the autumn of 1828, purchased, 
 for a mere trifle, twenty sheep, decidedly 
 1094 
 
 rotten; and gave each of them, for some 
 weeks, an ounce of salt every morning. 
 Two only died during the winter ; the sur- 
 viving eighteen were cured, and have now," 
 says my informant,-" lambs by their sides." 
 
 The late Mr. Butcher of Brook Hall, in 
 Essex, for years employed salt for his cattle 
 and sheep on his farm near Burnham in 
 Norfolk. One of his fields was so very un- 
 favourable for sheep, that before he used 
 salt he had lost ten and twelve sheep in a 
 night, when feeding on the turnips ; but 
 after he had adopted salt, he never lost one. 
 He used to let the sheep have the salt 
 without stint; and he remarked, that the 
 sheep always consumed four times the salt 
 on this particular field than when feeding 
 on any other on the farm. Mr. Butcher 
 one year let this field of turnips to a neigh- 
 i bour, who did not use salt ; and conse- 
 quently, after losing ten sheep the first 
 night, gave up the field in despair. 
 
 There are several points in the manage- 
 ment of sheep to which I can only briefly 
 allude. Coupling the male and female is too 
 rarely attended to ; and yet, by an atten- 
 tion to this important point, properties are 
 added in one sex which may be deficient 
 in the other ; but extreme care is necessary 
 in arranging this not to introduce other 
 points which may be still more objection- 
 able than those attempted to be removed. 
 Mr. Ellman is of opinion that twin getting 
 is hereditary : " Experience," he says, " has 
 satisfied me that a ram which may be a 
 twin would get double the number of twin 
 lambs than other rains." He advises that, 
 just previous to lambing time, the ewes 
 should not be kept too well, but that their 
 food should be increased a few days after 
 parturition. Cleanliness in the lambing 
 yards he very properly deems to be of the 
 greatest importance. Lambs are best cas- 
 trated at from eight to twelve days old. 
 In the performance of this operation it is 
 calculated that, when properly performed, 
 the deaths do not average one in a thou- 
 sand. Mr. Ellman recommends 80 to 100 
 ewes to each ram, or, when lamb rams are 
 employed, only forty ; and that they should 
 remain with the ewes three weeks, in sepa- 
 rate lots. 
 
 Statistics. — The number of sheep in 
 Great Britain has long been gradually on 
 the increase, with the demands of an en- 
 larging population. To this the introduc- 
 tion of turnips and other better supplies of 
 winter food, which much increased the 
 facilities for their keep, has mainly contri- 
 buted. In 1698, Gregory King calculated 
 that there were 12,000,000 sheep in Great 
 Britain; in 1741 the number had increased 
 to 16,640,000; in 1774, according to Ar- 
 
SHEEP. 
 
 SHEEP, DISEASES OF. 
 
 thur Young, the number was 25,589,754 ; 
 in 1801, Mr. Luccock estimated them at 
 26,148,463. Mr. M'Culloeh, in 1834, states 
 the number to be 32,000,000 ; the value of 
 the wool 7,000,000/. ; and that of the ma- 
 nufactured woollen articles 21,000,000/.; 
 and the number of persons employed in 
 the manufacturing of these goods about 
 332,000. (Youatt on Sheep ; Low's Pract. 
 Agr.; and Breeds of Dom. Animals; Bax- 
 ters Agr. Lib.; M'Culloclis Com. Diet.) 
 
 Of the many valuable papers upon sheep 
 dispersed through the agricultural periodi- 
 cals, I can, in this place, only give a brief 
 catalogue. There is a letter by Mr. T. 
 Escourt, Com. to Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 
 294., " On keeping Sheep warm when feed- 
 ing," which shows very clearly the advan- 
 tages of sheep being kept dry and warm 
 when feeding, a subject not nearly so well 
 understood as is desirable ; see also " On 
 Sheep Stells (Timber Clumps)," by Dr. 
 Howson, Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 332. ; 
 " On Rain-proof Feeding Troughs," by Mr. 
 Buist, Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 114. ; 
 " On Canvass Sheds for Sheep," by Mr. 
 Munro, Ibid. vol. xii. p. 290. ; " On Shed 
 feeding," by Mr. Childers, Journ. Roy. Agr. 
 Soc. vol. i. p. 169—407. ; " On the Improve- 
 ment of the fine-woolied Breed," Com. to 
 Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 65. ; the Rev. Ed- 
 mund Cartwright " On feeding Sheep on 
 Muscovado Sugar," Ibid. p. 405. ; " On the 
 Braxy in Sheep," Trans. High. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 43. ; " On the Flesh Fly and Maggot," 
 by Mr. Hogg, Ibid. p. 325., and by Mr. 
 Mather, Ibid. vol. iv. p. 221., and Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. i. p. 210. "On salving 
 Sheep," by Mr. J. Graham, Ibid. vol. ii. 
 p. 243. ; this salve is composed of 7 lb. of 
 rosin, 171b. of butter, 16 lb. of palm oil, 
 2 chopins of fish oil : and by Mr. Harkness, 
 Ibid. vol. iv. p. 125. " On the Loupingill," 
 by Mr. Tod and Mr. Laing, Ibid. vol. iii. 
 p. 73. ; " On the Foot Rot," by Mr. Hogg 
 and the Rev. H. Riddell, Ibid. p. 307., by 
 Mr. Dick, Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ii. 
 p. 852., and by Mr. Black, Ibid. vol. iii. 
 p. 654. ; " On Blindness in Sheep," by 
 Mr. M'Farlane, Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. 
 p. 393. ; " On Rabies," by Mr. Dickson, 
 Ibid. vol. vi. p. 261. ; " On certain Diseases 
 of Sheep (the Pining, Scab, &c.)," by Mr. 
 Hogg, Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol.ii. p. 697. ; 
 "On the Origin and Natural History of 
 the Sheep," by Mr. Wilson, Ibid. p. 354— 
 536. ; " On drafting Sheep," Ibid. vol. iii. 
 p. 1005. ; " On the acute Dysentery," by 
 Mr. Dick, Ibid. vol. v. p. 411.; "On the 
 Rot," Ibid. p. 503., and vol. vi. p. 117.; 
 " On the Physiognomy of Sheep," Ibid. 
 vol. x. p. 298. ; " On different Breeds, and 
 on feeding and dressing Tups," by Mr. 
 1095 
 
 Hogg, Ibid. vol. xi. p. 105—108 ; " On a 
 peculiar Affection of the Liver in Ewes," 
 by Mr. Buckley, Journ. Hoy. Agr. Soc. 
 vol. ii. p. 116. See Food, Meat, Mutton, 
 Wool. 
 
 SHEEP, DISEASES OF. Apoplexy. 
 — Bleed copiously ; then give two ounces 
 of Epsom salts in a quarter of a pint of 
 water. 
 
 Blachwater. — Keep the bowels open with 
 Epsom salts ; and give a tea-spoonful of 
 elixir of vitriol, or sulphuric acid, diluted 
 with seven parts of water, in an infusion of 
 oak bark. 
 
 Blackmuzzle. — Mix an ounce of verdi- 
 grease (acetate of copper), four ounces of 
 honey, half a pint of vinegar ; simmer them 
 together over a fire for ten minutes in an 
 earthern pipkin. Apply it to the mouth on 
 a piece of rag. 
 
 Cough, or Cold. — Bleed; give a solution 
 of Epsom salts. 
 
 Diarrhoea. See Calves, Diseases of. 
 
 Dysentery. See Diarrhoea. 
 
 Fly. — Fly powder : Two pounds of 
 black sulphur, half a pound of hellebore ; 
 mix them together, and sprinkle the sheep 
 from the head to the tail with a dredging- 
 box. Sheep wash : The farmer will find 
 this an excellent recipe : Half a pound of 
 powdered white arsenic (arsenious acid), 
 four pounds and a. half of soft soap. Beat 
 these for a quarter of an hour, or until the 
 arsenic is dissolved, in five gallons of water. 
 Add this to the water sufficient to dip fifty 
 sheep. The quantity of arsenic usually re- 
 commended is too large. 
 
 Foot Rot. — One drachm of verdigrease 
 (acetate of copper), one drachm of blue 
 vitriol (sulphate of copper), one drachm of 
 white vitriol (sulphate of zinc), two ounces 
 of water, two drachms of nitric acid, two 
 drachms of butter of antimony ; pare away 
 the horn, and apply the lotion upon a fea- 
 ther to the part affected. 
 
 Redwater. See Redwater. 
 
 Rot. See Rot. 
 
 Scab, or Schab. — Apply a lotion formed 
 of one ounce of corrosive sublimate, four 
 ounces of sal ammoniac, dissolved in four 
 quarts of rain water. This is a powerful 
 stimulant, and must be used with caution. 
 
 Ticks. See Fly. 
 
 Wounds. — Wash the part, and apply a 
 lotion formed of vinegar one pint, spirits of 
 wine one ounce, spirits of turpentine one 
 ounce, Goulard's extract one ounce. If the 
 wound be a recent one, it is better to stitch 
 it up with separate ligatures, which can 
 be easily withdrawn, and dress with cold 
 water. 
 
 SHEEP-DUNG. See Farm-Yard 
 Manure. 
 
 4 a 4 
 
SHEEP-FOLD. 
 
 SHEPHERD. 
 
 SHEEP-FOLD. A yard or other con- 
 trivance for the purpose of confining and 
 keeping sheep during the nights or in bad 
 weather, in order to afford them protection 
 and shelter. They are sometimes fixed, 
 being constructed of any convenient sort 
 of light material, so as to enclose a space in 
 proportion to the number of sheep, which is 
 kept constantly well littered with some dry 
 substance, such as stubble, refuse straw, 
 dry sand, &c, during the time the sheep 
 are folded and foddered in them, in order 
 that as much manure may be raised as pos- 
 sible. In some cases, also, for the more 
 perfect protection of the sheep, they have 
 sheds all round them, under which the sheep 
 may lie without injury from rain, snow, or 
 any sort of moisture. These usually are 
 termed standing folds, and are either formed 
 about the homestead or on some dry rather 
 elevated situation on the farms, having the 
 bottoms well laid with some sort of material 
 that is capable of keeping the sheep dry and 
 clean. See Fold, Folding, and Hurdles. 
 
 SHEEP-HOUSE. A slight wooden 
 building constructed for the purpose of 
 containing and protecting sheep in bad 
 weather, &c. Houses of this kind are usu- 
 ally made low for the sake of warmth in 
 the winter, being mostly a third part longer 
 than they have breadth : they should also 
 be sufficiently large for the quantity of 
 sheep that they are to contain. The side 
 should be lined with boards, and the bot- 
 toms be laid in an even manner with stone 
 or some other material, that the litter may 
 be well impregnated with the urine of the 
 sheep. The sides exposed to the sun should 
 be lined with moveable hurdles, that when 
 it shines the whole may be laid open, to 
 give due refreshment and afford the sheep 
 an opportunity of feeding upon the pasture 
 wherein they stand. They should be well 
 and securely covered with some sort of pro- 
 per material upon the tops. They are some- 
 times fixed in particular situations ; but in 
 other cases, which is the more improved 
 method, so constructed as to be capable of 
 being removed as they may be wanted. 
 
 SHEEP-PENS. The divisions made by 
 the small moveable gates or hurdles which 
 are set up to keep sheep in some particular 
 spot. They are usually formed on a dry 
 place about the corners where different in- 
 cisures of the pasture meet, so as to be 
 convenient for the whole. Pens are useful 
 for examining and selecting the sheep, being 
 divided so as to contain about three dozen 
 Bheep each, as by this means they are always 
 at the command of the shepherd for any 
 purposes he may have in view. The bot- 
 toms should be firm and dry, so that the 
 sheep may not be soiled. 
 1090 
 
 SHEEP-SHEARING. See Shearing. 
 
 SHEEP-STEALING. By the 7 W. 4. 
 & 1 Vict. c. 90. every person convicted of 
 stealing any horse, mare, gelding, colt, filly, 
 bull, cow, heifer, ram, ewe, sheep, or lamb, 
 is liable to be transported for a term not 
 exceeding fifteen years, nor less than ten 
 years ; or be imprisoned for any term not 
 exceeding three years. 
 
 SHEEFS-BIT. (Jasione.) The species 
 of this genus are very elegant when in 
 blossom, and well adapted for ornament- 
 ing rockwork. The common sheep's-bit, or 
 sheep's scabious (J. montana), is an annual 
 plant, which grows very plentifully in dry 
 sandy fields and heathy ground. The herb- 
 age is rough, with short rigid hairs. Leaves 
 sessile, several. Stems a span high, simple, 
 or branched; with a terminal tuft of aggre- 
 gate blue flowers. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. i. p. 296.) 
 
 SHEEP'S SORREL. (Rumex aceto- 
 sella.) A perennial species of dock, which 
 is found growing abundantly in dry gravelly 
 fields and pastures. The herb is acrid, 
 with some astringency. The root is creep- 
 ing. The stem wavy, slender, often decum- 
 bent. The flowers are dioecious, small, 
 separate, in numerous whorled leafless 
 clusters. The leaves lanceolate-hastate 
 above, but hastate in the lower part of the 
 stem. The acid which they contain is the 
 oxalic, combined with potassa, as a binox- 
 alate ; but it is less used than its fellow 
 species R. acetosa. See Sorrel. 
 
 SHELLDRAKE. (Tadorna.) This bird 
 is known under the various names of shiel- 
 drake, sheldrake, burrow duck, skeeling 
 goose, &c, in different localities. There 
 are two British species figured in YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds as frequenting the British 
 islands : — 
 
 1. The ruddy shiel drake (T.rutila), which 
 feeds on aquatic plants and their seeds, in- 
 sects, and the fry of fish. The general 
 colour of the plumage is orange-brown, 
 with a black ring round the lower part of 
 the neck. The whole length of the bird is 
 about twenty-five inches. 
 
 2. The common shelldrake (T. vulpansd) 
 is one of the most beautiful in appearance 
 of our ornamental water-fowls. This bird 
 visits our coasts in the winter, and occa- 
 sionally breeds in the rabbit burrows of the 
 Norfolk, Suffolk, and Northumbrian shores. 
 Their food is various ; namely, sea-weed, 
 bivalve, and other shelled mollusca, sand- 
 hoppers, sea-worms, marine insects, and the 
 remains of shell-fish. The whole length of 
 the bird is twenty-four to twenty-six inches. 
 (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. iii. p. 136—146.) 
 
 SHEPHERD. The person who has the 
 care and management of a flock of sheep. 
 
SHEPHERD'S NEEDLE. 
 
 SHOVELER. 
 
 Mr. Bannister says, that it is necessary to 
 have for this emyloyment " a person who is 
 •well skilled in the nature and management 
 of sheep, and hath been brought up m that 
 employment from his infancy ; who is sober, 
 diligent, and good-natured ; qualities essen- 
 tially necessary in a shepherd, who, although 
 he may seem to lead a life of indolence, 
 when contrasted with the more laborious 
 servants of the farm, need rarely to have a 
 minute's time hang heavily on his hands if 
 he will be attentive to his business, which 
 will furnish him with sufficient employment 
 throughout the day, particularly in the 
 lambing season, or where there are two 
 folds at work ; nor will he want opportunity 
 for the exercise of his patience and good 
 temper in his attendance on the sheep, 
 which is by nature an animal of great ob- 
 stinacy and perverseness, and hath often 
 paid the forfeit of its life to these innate 
 qualities, where the shepherd was a man 
 of a morose and surly disposition." 
 SHEPHERD'S DOG. See Dog. 
 SHEPHERD'S NEEDLE. (Scandix 
 Pecten Veneris.) This is a troublesome an- 
 nual weed, very common in cultivated fields. 
 The root is tapering. Stems simple or 
 bushy, spreading, a foot high, leafy, fur- 
 rowed. Leaves light green, triply pin- 
 natifid, with linear, acute, smooth segments. 
 The umbels are simple, small, mostly ter- 
 minal, solitary or in pairs, with short rays, 
 and broad, cloven, white-edged bractes. The 
 fruit is nearly smooth, with a bushy edge, 
 having a beak from one to two inches long : 
 whence the specific name. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 46.) 
 
 SHEPHERD'S PURSE. (Thlaspi, 
 from thlao, to compress ; the seed-vessels 
 are compressed.) This is a genus of worth- 
 less plants, the principal species of which 
 is the common shepherd's purse ( T. bursa 
 pastoris), which occurs in almost every part 
 of the globe. It is an annual plant, with a 
 tapering, whitish root, having a peculiar 
 smoke-like scent. The herbage is rough, 
 with prominent hairs. Stem branched, 
 leafy, from six to twelve inches high. Ra- 
 dical leaves deeply pinnatifid. Flowers 
 small, corymbose, often tinged with purplish 
 brown. Pouch inversely heart-shaped, 
 somewhat triangular. Seeds about five or 
 more in each cell. Small birds eat the 
 seeds and flowers. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 172.) 
 
 SHEPHERD'S STAFF. See Teasel. 
 SHEPPECK. The provincial name of 
 a prong or hay-fork. 
 
 SHERARDIA. (Named by Dillenius in 
 honour of his patron W. Sherard, LL.D., 
 consul at Smyrna.) This is a genus of un- 
 interesting plants. One species, the blue 
 1097 
 
 Sherardia, or little field-madder (S. arven- 
 sis), is indigenous. It grows in fallow fields, 
 or among corn on a light or gravelly soil. 
 The plant is annual ; herbage generally 
 hairy ; stems several, branched, spreading, 
 mostly decumbent, three to six inches long. 
 Leaves whorled, pale green. Flowers pale 
 purplish blue, in a sessile terminal umbel. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 196.) 
 
 SHERDS. In gardening, fragments of 
 earthen pots, &c. ; employed to drain the soil 
 supplied to potted plants, and also as under- 
 draining for gravel walks. 
 
 SHIELD -FERN. (Aspidium, from aspi- 
 dion, a little buckler ; because of the form 
 of the indusium.) One of the pretty and 
 very interesting genera of ferns. A mix- 
 ture of loam and peat, and a sheltered situ- 
 ation, are very suitable for them : they are 
 multiplied by seeds or divisions. .There are 
 thirteen indigenous species : the fronds in 
 some are evergreen, in most deciduous. 
 See Fern. 
 
 SHIFTS. See Rotation or Crops. 
 
 SHIM. A tool of the tillage kind, used 
 in breaking down and reducing the more 
 stiff and heavy sorts of land, as well as cut- 
 ting up and clearing them from weeds. 
 They are made of different forms and con- 
 structions, to suit different purposes. 
 
 SHOODS. A provincial term applied to 
 oat hulls. 
 
 SHOREWEED. (Littorella, from littits, 
 the shore, in allusion to its place of growth.) 
 The plantain shoreweed (L. lacustris) is a 
 pretty little indigenous perennial sub-aqua- 
 tic, flowering in June. It has no stem ; 
 but the root, which is fleshed and tap- 
 shaped, throws up many long, linear, chan- 
 nelled leaves. The flowers are barren and 
 fertile on the same plant : they are whitish- 
 green ; the barren have long tremulous 
 stamens. The plant is easily increased by 
 seeds. 
 
 SHORT-HORNS. See Cattle. 
 
 SHOVELER. (Anas clypeata.) The 
 blue-winged shoveler, or broad-bill, may 
 be considered generally as a winter visiter 
 to this country, but some remain every 
 year to breed. They inhabit marshes, lakes, 
 rivers, and muddy shores, selecting their 
 food in shallow water by the instrumentality 
 of their sensitive beak ; the laminated sides 
 of which, being abundantly supplied with 
 nerves, enable them to retain the nutritious 
 and reject the useless. They feed on some 
 grasses and other vegetables, with worms, 
 aquatic and other insects. In the adult 
 male the whole of the head and upper part 
 of the neck is green, the lower part of the 
 neck is white ; other parts of the body 
 shaded with pale blue, white, dark brown, 
 &c. The whole length of the bird is about 
 
SHOWEL. 
 
 SILICA. 
 
 twenty inches. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. 
 iii. p. 147.) 
 
 SHOWEL. A provincial term applied 
 to a blind for a cow's eyes. 
 
 SHRIKE. (Lanius.) There are three 
 British species of shrike described by re- 
 cent ornithological writers. 
 
 1. The great grey shrike (Z. excubitor), 
 which is the largest of the British species of 
 this genus, is only an occasional visiter to 
 this country, and is generally obtained be- 
 tween autumn and spring. It feeds upon 
 mice, shrews, small birds, frogs, lizards, 
 and large insects. After having killed its 
 prey, it fixes the body in a forked branch, 
 or upon a sharp thorn, the more readily to 
 tear off small pieces from it. It is from 
 this habit of killing and hanging up their 
 meat, which is observed also in other 
 
 , shrikes, th^b they have been generally called 
 butcher-birds. In the old male a black 
 oval patch extends across the head over the 
 eye to the upper mandible, which is con- 
 siderably curved; the head, neck, back, 
 wing, and tail- co verts are pearl-grey ; throat, 
 sides of neck, breast, belly, &c, pure white ; 
 legs, toes, and claws black ; whole length of 
 the bird ten inches. 
 
 2. The red-backed shrike (Z. colluris) is 
 very similar in its habits to the grey shrike 
 last described, but is much more common, 
 and visits this country only in the summer. 
 In the adult male the plumage of the head 
 and neck are grey ; back and wing-coverts 
 fine chestnut-red. All the under surface 
 of the body is very pale red. The length 
 of the bird is about seven inches and a 
 half. 
 
 3. The woodchat shrike (Z. rufus). In 
 size, in most of its habits, and in its mode 
 of feeding, the woodchat resembles the 
 common red-backed shrike, but is not so 
 frequently met with. The forehead, round 
 the eyes, and the back, wings, and wing- 
 coverts, are black. Throat, breast, belly, 
 &c., white. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 pp. 149—163.) 
 
 SHRUB. A small, low, dwarfish woody 
 plant, resembling a tree, which, instead of 
 one single stem, frequently puts forth from 
 the same root several sets or stems. The 
 most hardy indigenous shrubs are the box 
 and ivy, which resist the severest winters. 
 Next, in point of hardiness, are the holly, 
 juniper, and furze ; but there are besides 
 numerous ornamental shrubs, well calcu- 
 lated to diversify parks and lawns. See 
 The Shrubbery, by Mr. Phillips. 
 
 SHUCK. A husk or shell. In hus- 
 bandry, it also signifies a shock, or stouk, 
 of twelve sheaves of corn set up together in 
 the harvest field. See Reaping. 
 
 SHUG and SHUGQING. Provincial 
 1098 
 
 terms implying the shedding or scattering 
 of seeds, &c, as over-ripe grain at harvest. 
 
 SHY. In horsemanship, the starting 
 suddenly aside of a horse. In a provincial 
 sense, it also implies high-mettled and head- 
 strong, as in young and wild colts. 
 
 SIBBALDIA. (Named in honour of 
 Robert Sibbald, professor of physic at Edin- 
 burgh.) A genus of small alpine plants, 
 succeeding best when grown in pots in a 
 mixture of loam, peat, and sand, and in- 
 creased by dividing the roots. One species 
 only is indigenous, the procumbent Sib- 
 baldia (S. procumbens), which is a peren- 
 nial found growing abundantly on a mica- 
 ceous soil on the summits of the highland 
 mountains of Scotland : flowering in July. 
 Stems herbaceous, spreading, from one to 
 three inches long, round, clothed with coarse 
 upright hairs, like the rest of the herbage. 
 Leaflets wedge-shaped, half an inch to an 
 inch long, bright green. Flowers yellow, 
 in corymbose leafy tufts : the calyx large 
 and hairy, the petals small. The whole 
 plant is astringent, like others of the same 
 tribe. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 120. ; Paxtoris 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 SIBTHORPIA. (Named in honour of 
 Henry Sibthorp, M.D., formerly professor 
 of botany at Oxford.) The creeping Sib- 
 thorpia, or Cornish money-wort (S. eu- 
 ropced), is an indigenous plant, found grow- 
 ing in shady places about springs and rivu- 
 lets in the south. This singular species 
 succeeds best in peat soil and a moist situ- 
 ation, and is readily increased by division. 
 The roots are woody, fibrous, perennial. 
 Stems prostrate, creeping extensively, 
 branched, entangled, slender, and delicate, 
 minutely hairy, like the rest of the herbage. 
 Leaves rather succulent, light green, stalked, 
 alternate, rounded. Flowers white, axillary, 
 solitary, minute. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. 
 iii. p. 143. ; Paxtons Bot. Diet.) 
 
 SICKLE. (Sax. pcol; Dutch sickel; from 
 Lat. secale.) A toothed hook with which 
 corn is reaped. See Reaping-Hook, 
 Scythe, &c. 
 
 SIKE. A term provincially applied to 
 running water as in a little rill, a water- 
 furrow, and a gutter. 
 
 SILICA. The chemical name of the earth 
 which forms almost the entire mass of flint, 
 quartz, rock crystal, and other well-known 
 mineral substances. It is composed of a 
 peculiar substance, having somewhat of a 
 metallic nature, called silicon, united with 
 oxygen, in the proportion, according to Dr. 
 Thomson, of silicon 54*66, oxygen 45-34. 
 Silica enters into the composition of plan is, 
 and is invariably found in some proportion 
 or other in all cultivated soils. See Earths, 
 their Uses to Vegetation. 
 
SILLS. 
 
 SKULL-CAP. 
 
 SILLS. A country name for the shafts 
 of a cart, &c. 
 
 SILVER FIR. See Fir and Pine. 
 
 SILVER- WEED, or Wild Tansy. (Po- 
 tentilla anserina.) An indigenous peren- 
 nial plant, which, according to Linnaeus, in- 
 dicates clay under the surface. Although 
 it is found frequent in osier holts and 
 spongy meadows, it grows most commonly 
 upon cold stiff land, and is a sure mark of 
 the sterility of the soil. Root tapering ; 
 stems several, procumbent, trailing to a 
 great extent, round, smooth, taking root at 
 the joints, where also they produce leaves 
 and flowers. Leaves from three to six 
 inches long, interruptedly pinnate, deeply 
 and sharply serrated, clothed most abund- 
 antly beneath with splendid silvery hairs ; 
 the upper side deep green. Flowers large, 
 bright yellow, the calyx hairy ; and each on 
 a long simple stalk, mostly erect, blowing 
 all the summer. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 417.) 
 See Cinquefoil. ♦ 
 
 SIMSON. A provincial term sometimes 
 applied to groundsel, a troublesome weed 
 in many soils. 
 
 - SINCLAIR, GEORGE. An able and 
 successful writer and experimentalist on 
 the artificial and other grasses. He car- 
 ried on a series of valuable researches on 
 these in the grass garden at Woburn Abbey, 
 under the direction of the Duke of Bed- 
 ford, the results of which he gave to the 
 world, in his justly celebrated work, the 
 Hortus Gramineus Woburnensis. He also 
 edited a fragment of a work of Mr. Hol- 
 dich on The Weeds of Agriculture. He 
 died in 1835, in the fifty-second year of his 
 
 ^SINCLAIR, SIR JOHN. An able 
 and justly celebrated farmer, and friend 
 of agriculture, and the first President 
 of the Board of Agriculture. He was 
 born at Thurso, May 10. 1754. His public 
 services, too extensive to recount in this 
 volume, were only closed by his death on 
 the 21st of December, 1835. His works 
 are very numerous ; the chief are 
 
 1. Code of Agriculture. 2. Code of Health. 3. Ac- 
 count of the Husbandry of Scotland. 4. Hints on Fle- 
 mish Agriculture. 5. Hints on managing Merino Sheep 
 in Caithness. 6. Statistical Account of Scotland. 7. 
 Translation of a Letter of M. Dombaste. 1821. 8. On 
 an improved System of Circulation. 9. On the Corn 
 Laws. 1822. 10. On Oil as a Manure. 1826. 11. Poli- 
 tical Axioms. 1828. 12. An Inquiry into the Culture 
 and Uses of the Potato. 1828. 13. On the Corn Que?, 
 tion. 1828. 14. On a Reduction of Taxation. 1830. 
 15. On Improving the Condition of the Labouring Poor. 
 1831. 16. On the Malt Tax. 1831. 17. On Irish Dis- 
 tress. 1831. 18. On his own Literary Labours. 1831. 
 19. On the Corn Laws. 1832. 20. On the Currency 
 Question, in a Letter to Mr. Attwood. 1832. 21. De- 
 fence of Agriculture. 1832. 22. Account of the Origin 
 of Cattle Shows and Agricultural Meetings. 1833. 23. 
 On a threatened Political Revolution. 24. On the Pre- 
 servation of the Corn Laws. 1833. 25. On Shell Marl 
 as a Manure for Turnips. 1833. 26. Hints on Vegeta- 
 tion. 1834. 27. On the Importation of Foreign Corn. 
 1835. 28. On the Repeal of the Malt Tax. 1835. 29. 
 
 1099 
 
 Hints for the Consideration of the Friends of Agricul- 
 ture. 1835. {Quart. Jour, of Ag. vol. vi. p. 5G9., vol. vii. 
 P-l.) 
 
 SISKIN. (Carduelis spinus.) The siskin 
 or aberdivine, as it is also called, is a visiter 
 to this country, arriving in flocks from the 
 north in autumn, and continuing with us till 
 April; sometimes alone, but more frequently 
 in company with linnets and redpoles, twit- 
 tering as they fly, apparently for the pur- 
 pose ,of keeping together. In their flight 
 siskins search the alder, birch, and larch for 
 seeds as food. The general colour of the 
 plumage is yellowish green, streaked with 
 blacky The whole length of the bird is 
 four inches and five eighths. (YarrelVs 
 Brit. Bwds, vol. i. p. 496.) 
 
 SIT-FAST. In farriery, an ulcerated 
 sore in which a part of the skin has turned 
 horny ; if it cannot be dissolved and softened 
 by rubbing with mercurial ointment, it 
 must have a mild blister applied, which 
 will cause it to separate. It generally pro- 
 ceeds from a warble or little tumour re- 
 sulting from the pressure of the saddle. 
 See Galls and Back-Sore. 
 
 SIZE. See Glue. 
 
 SIZZING. A term provincially applied 
 to yeast or barm. 
 
 SKEEL. A large milking pail, having 
 two handles, formed by opposite staves, 
 which rise above the rest. It also signifies 
 a broad flat creaming or milk dish. 
 
 SKEGS. A kind of oat, sometimes cul- 
 tivated as a crop in Nottinghamshire. It is 
 the Avena stipiformis of Linnseus. See 
 Oats. 
 
 SKEP. A coarse round farm basket. 
 It is also provincially used to signify a bee- 
 hive. 
 
 SKEYL. A country term implying to 
 tilt, lean on one side, or throw up, as in un- 
 loading a cart. 
 
 SKID. The chain by which the wheel 
 of a waggon is fastened, so as to prevent its 
 turning round, upon descending a steep 
 hill. See Drag. 
 
 SKIM COULTER. See Plough. 
 
 SKINS. See Hides. 
 
 SKOVES. Provincially reaps, shoves, 
 grips, or bundles of grain : also unbound 
 sheaves. 
 
 SKULL-CAP. {Scutellaria; from scu- 
 tella, a little saucer, alluding to the form of 
 the calyx.) Of this genus of perennial herbs 
 there are two indigenous species, of which 
 the principal is the common skull-cap (S. 
 galericidata), which grows very frequently 
 about the reedy margins of rivers, as well 
 as in ditches and other watery situations ; 
 flowering in July and August. The root 
 is creeping, herbage deep green, often tinged 
 with a violet hue, more or less downy. 
 Stem twelve or eighteen inches high, erect, 
 
- SLATE. 
 
 SMITHFIELD. 
 
 leafy, or branched. Leaves on very short 
 stalks, above an inch long, lanceolate, cre- 
 nate, rugged, heart-shaped at the base, 
 somewhat wrinkled. The flowers are ax- 
 illary, solitary, an inch long, drooping, 
 nearly sessile, scentless, variegated with 
 shades of blue, the lip streaked with white. 
 The lesser skull-cap (S. minor) is more 
 branched than the preceding, and scarcely 
 one third its size. It is perennial, flower- 
 ing in July and August. The leaves are 
 broader than those of the former, almost 
 hastate. The flowers are smaller than those 
 of S. galericulata, of a delicate pink 
 colour, nearly inclining to blue. From the 
 plants of this genus being for the most part 
 very handsome when in flower, they are well 
 suited for ornamenting the front of the 
 flower-border. They grow in any common 
 garden soil, and increase readily by seeds 
 and divisions ; the shrubby species may be 
 easily multiplied by young cuttings. (Pax- 
 ton 's Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 112.) 
 
 SKY-LARK. See Lark. 
 
 SLATE. A well-known neat, conve- 
 nient, and durable material for the cover- 
 ing of the roofs of buildings. There are 
 many varieties of slate, and it likewise differs 
 very greatly in its qualities and colours. 
 In some places it is found in thick lamina or 
 flakes, while in others it is thin and light. 
 The colours are white, brown, and blue. 
 Slate is so durable in some cases as to have 
 been known to continue sound and good for 
 
 ' SLAUGHTER-HOUSE. See Abattoir. 
 
 SLEET. See Snow. 
 
 SLOE. See Blackthorn. 
 
 SLOUGH-HEAL. See Self-heal. 
 
 SLUG. A genus of molluscous animals, 
 comprehending several species, which differ 
 only in colour. Slugs infest gardens and 
 fields, and are very injurious to the growing 
 crops, hence it becomes essential to destroy 
 them. Dry lime and slacked lime have 
 been recommended, which, being dissolved 
 by the dew and moisture of the atmosphere, 
 act as a poison to these animals. But pul- 
 verised lime is not suitable to all soils, and 
 may even prove injurious to some crops. 
 Lime water appears to be preferable. But 
 as many husbandmen may not have an op- 
 portunity of liming their fields or gardens, 
 or of keeping a sufficient stock of geese, 
 fowls, ducks, &c, to turn in and devour the 
 slugs, common salt will be found an effec- 
 tual cure ; and tar water or other refuse of 
 gas-works will prove destructive to them if 
 sprinkled on the land. See Insects, ante, 
 p. 674. and Snails. 
 
 SMALL AGE PARSLEY. See Celery, 
 Wild. 
 
 1100 
 
 SMITHFIELD. The principal market 
 for the sale of live cattle in the United 
 Kingdom. It is very inconveniently situated 
 in the heart of the metropolis. The num- 
 bers of cattle slaughtered have been more 
 than doubled during the last century. (See 
 Cattle, ante, p. 309.) Although this in- 
 creased consumption is scarcely propor- 
 tioned to the increase of population, it 
 should be remembered that a very different 
 description of cattle are now slaughtered 
 to what were then killed. The present 
 average dead weight of the bullock is about 
 656 lb., of the calf 144 lb., of the pig 
 96 lb., and of the sheep and lamb 90 lb. ; 
 approaching to double the weight of these 
 animals in 1730. This renders the number 
 of cattle slaughtered in the metropolis, and 
 the increasing number of the inhabitants, a 
 little more proportionate. From this esti- 
 mate, and the number of cattle sold in 
 Smithfield market in the year 1830, we 
 may now form some not very inaccurate 
 idea of the amount of this branch of the 
 provision trade in London. 
 
 Average Weight. No. of lb. 
 Cattle - 159,907 6561b. 104,898,992 
 Sheep, &c. 1,287,070 *90 115,836,300 
 Pigs - 254,672 96 24,448,512 
 Calves - 22,500 144 3,240,000 
 
 Number of lb. of meat consumed 248,423,804 
 
 This, estimated at the average price of 
 6c?., would be 6,210,595/. 2s. 0d.; at 8c?., it 
 would produce 8,268,293Z. 9.9. 4c?., exclusive 
 of bacon, hams, and all salted provisons 
 brought from a distance (the importation 
 of Irish bacon and hams into Great Britain 
 is 500,000 cwt.), and also fish and poultry. 
 This calculation will enable us to deter- 
 mine another curious question, — what is 
 the average quantity of meat consumed by 
 each individual in the course of a year ? 
 If we divide the gross number of pounds, 
 248,423,804, by 1,450,000, the estimated 
 number of inhabitants in London and its 
 environs, the quotient will be 170, or each 
 individual consumes nearly half a pound of 
 meat every day. This is a very high calcu- 
 lation compared with that of Paris, where 
 each person is supposed to consume but 
 eighty pounds in the year ; and Brussels, 
 where eighty-nine pounds form the allot- 
 ment of each; but ours is a meat-eating 
 population, and composed chiefly of Pro- 
 testants ; and when we remember that this 
 includes the bones as well as the meat, half 
 a pound a day is not too much to allow to 
 each person. 
 
 Cattle are sent from every part of the 
 kingdom to Smithfield market, but many 
 more from some districts than from others. 
 
SMITH, SIR JAMES EDWARD. 
 
 SMUT. 
 
 The farmer has personally little to do with 
 the sale of his cattle, but custom and in- 
 terest induce him to consign them to a 
 salesman, who is acquainted with all the 
 butchers and dealers of the district, and with 
 the contractors. He sees at a glance what 
 is the state of the market ; he can tell 
 whether it is likely to rise or fall ; and com- 
 paring the lot which is entrusted to him 
 with others, and with the market generally, 
 he knows what they ought to fetch. The 
 salesmen are generally honourable men ; 
 they procure for the owner the value of his 
 cattle under all the circumstances of the 
 market, and although it may not always be 
 so much as the grazier had expected, it is 
 more than he could have got himself, and 
 he is always sure of receiving his money. 
 (Youatt on Cattle, p. 256.) See Sheep, 
 Swine, Poultry, &c. 
 
 SMITH, SIR JAMES EDWARD, 
 M.D., F.R.S., a distinguished naturalist, the 
 founder and first president of the Linnaean 
 Society, was author and editor of many 
 botanical works ; the principal of which are 
 his Flora Britannica, in Latin, 3 vols. 8vo. 
 1824 — 1828, and Compendium, an epitome 
 of the above ; Flora Grceca, 1800—1804, 
 8vo. ; English Flora, 4 vols. ; and English 
 Botany, 36 vols. 8vo. Having purchased 
 the celebrated Linnaean collection, com- 
 prising the epistolary correspondence of the 
 great Linnaeus and his son, together with 
 every thing that belonged to those eminent 
 men relating to natural history or medi- 
 cine, he published, in 1821, two volumes 
 of the correspondence of Linnaeus with emi- 
 ment naturalists. Dr. Smith also published 
 numerous tracts during the long space of 
 forty-two years, and contributed largely to 
 the scientific journals of his day. He was 
 born at Norwich, December 2. 1759, and 
 died 17th March, 1828. {Gents. Mag. vol. 
 xcviii. pt. 1. p. 297.) 
 
 SMUT. A disease affecting almost every 
 species of corn, the grains of which become 
 filled with a fetid black powder, instead of 
 containing farinaceous matter. Wet sea- 
 sons, aninialculae, organic weakness, defi- 
 ciency of the parts of generation, and other 
 circumstances, have been assigned as the 
 primary causes of this disease, but all the 
 results of experience are against the opinion 
 that these are more than contingencies 
 which aggravate the symptoms, and acce- 
 lerate the progress of the infection. That 
 the smut does not arise from a deficient 
 fecundity is apparent, because it affects and 
 destroys the grain long before the sexual 
 organs are fully developed. Fogs, exposure 
 to intense sunshine when moist, or other 
 atmospheric influences upon the ear after it 
 has been protruded, have been assigned as 
 1101 
 
 causes; but these cannot be productive of 
 the mischief, for the disease has been ob- 
 served during an early stage of the vege- 
 tation of the ear, and long before it has 
 escaped from the leafy envelopes : this also 
 dismisses the opinion entertained by some 
 that the disease occurs after the grains are 
 fully formed. It does not arise from the 
 too abundant moisture of the soil, because 
 I have universally observed that the driest 
 parts of a field are as liable to bear an in- 
 fected grain as the most wet; and we all 
 know that an infected plant stands sur- 
 rounded by others entirely untainted. Some 
 persons have thought that insects are the 
 origin of the disease ; but the most accurate 
 observations have refuted this opinion, and 
 shown that the diseased grains may be an 
 agreeable nidus for the larvae, but that these 
 always appear after the disease is matured. 
 Upon examining some of the diseased 
 grains, Mr. R. Somerville found upon them 
 a minute insect, in form like a wood-louse 
 {Com. to Board of Agr.), which I know 
 from observation to be a species of the 
 Acarus, and these he considered the cause 
 of the disease. But this is a conclusion un- 
 warranted by observation, for similar ver- 
 min are found upon the roots of the Bras- 
 sica tribe that are affected with aubury ; 
 and, indeed, this genus of insects is inva- 
 riably found upon decaying vegetable mat- 
 ter : it is their habitat. 
 
 Other persons have thought that the 
 grains injured by the process of thrashing 
 are most liable to the disease; but this is 
 refuted by the fact, that it appears in some 
 years, and is scarcely to be detected in 
 others. The Rev. Dr. Hales bruised nu- 
 merous grains of wheat of different sizes 
 with a hammer, but the result cenvinced 
 him that this opinion is erroneous. Wolfins 
 thought it arose from a monstrosity of the 
 embryo ; but M. Cymen has shown that the 
 male flowers of some plants suffer from 
 smut as well as the female, and the former 
 we know have no embryo. 
 
 Some farmers have considered that pi- 
 geons' dung induced the disease, but ge- 
 neral experience is against this idea. Nor 
 is the disease the consequence of any 
 defect of the sap, for all the parts except 
 the ear are healthy ; and there are some 
 plants, observes M. Cymen, having peren- 
 nial roots, and which are vigorous, yet 
 their seeds are annually attacked with this 
 disease. 
 
 Having thus disposed of the several 
 causes which have been erroneously as- 
 signed, I will now proceed to detail the 
 more correct knowledge that has been ac- 
 cumulated respecting this plague of our 
 ! corn crops. 
 
SMUT. 
 
 This disease is severally termed smut, 
 dust brand, blight, burnt corn, &c. In France 
 it is as commonly known by the- names of 
 charbon and nielle volante. Botanists, aided 
 by the microscope, have discovered that the 
 cause of smut is a parasitical fungus, which 
 preys not only upon the sap, but destroys 
 the very organic structure of the grain and 
 chaff upon which it fixes. The majority 
 of naturalists agree in distinguishing the 
 fungus by the title of Uredo segetum ; but 
 as it has other synonymes, these, and the 
 authors who have employed them, may be 
 usefully enumerated. Uredo segetum Pursh, 
 n. 27. ; Chaos ustilago, Lin. Syst. Nat. 1326, 
 n. 4. ; Reticulaire des bles, Bulliard's Fungi, 
 vol. i. p. 90. plate 472. f. 2. Reticularia sege- 
 tum Withering, iv. p. 388. Charbon, Tessier, 
 Des Maladies des Grains, 299. Bulliard 
 describes this fungus as globular, extremely 
 fine, and attached to a fine elastic thread. 
 They are exceedingly numerous, enveloping 
 the seed and chaff of the plants they affect, 
 and are, as well as their own still more 
 minute seed, of an intense black colour, 
 having a disagreeable fetid smell, which has 
 been not inaptly compared to stale lobsters. 
 Mr. Kirby tells us that Mr. Lathbury exa- 
 mined the dust of this fungus under a 
 powerful magnifier, and found it consisted 
 of numerous minute particles, uniform in 
 shape and size, much smaller and blacker 
 than those of the pepper brand, and less 
 easily separable : they seemed to be contained 
 in little irregular cells. This dust or seed is 
 the food of a small shining black insect, the 
 Dermestes Ata of Marsham. {Linn. Trans. 
 vol. cxii.) 
 
 Chemical analysis has demonstrated that 
 this fungus effects an entire decomposition 
 of the vegetable particles of the grain it in- 
 fects, the saline constituents remaining 
 nearly unaltered in the grain. Parmentier, 
 Cornet, Girot, Chantians, Fourcroy, and 
 Vauquelin, have successively examined it, 
 and the result of their researches is, that 
 smutted grains of wheat are composed, 1st, 
 of about one third their own weight of a 
 green, butyraceous, fetid, and acrid oil; 
 2d, nearly one fourth of a vegeto-animal 
 substance, perfectly similar to that which 
 comes from putrid gluten ; 3d, a black coal, 
 one fifth of their weight, similar to that 
 which is found in all remnants of putrefied 
 organic compounds ; 4th, free phosphoric 
 acid, amounting scarcely to more than -004 
 of the smut ; 5th, phosphates of ammonia, 
 magnesia, and lime, in the proportion of a 
 f'< w thousandths. " We must remark," say 
 MM. Fourcrov and Vauquelin, "that in 
 one examination of putrificd gluten, we 
 found characters very similar to those of 
 the smut of wheat ; and that the products 
 1102 
 
 of the one are so like those of the other, aa 
 to render it difficult, in certain cases, not 
 to confound them together. It requires a 
 man to be well practised in chemical ex- 
 periments to discern the slight differences 
 that exist between these two putrified mat- 
 ters, because the differences are only de- 
 licate shades, not easily discernible. The 
 contagion attacks especially the gluten, and 
 precedes, indeed prevents, the formation of 
 the starch ; since we know positively that 
 this fecula, no traces of which are found in 
 the smut of wheat, suffers no alteration from 
 the septic process which so powerfully at- 
 tacks the glutinous substance." (Revue Phi- 
 los. Nov. 1805; Nicholson's Jour. vol. xxiii. 
 p. 146.) The ravages of this disease are v 
 chiefly, though not exclusively, confined to 
 the cereal plants. Mr. Kirby says it is com- 
 mon to wheat, oats, barley, and rye ; and 
 that he has seen the note fescue (Glyceria 
 fiuitans), and some other grasses, affected 
 with it. Barley and oats are more fre- 
 quently affected by it than wheat, which 
 may proceed from the latter being usually 
 steeped before sowing. Willdenow, who, in 
 his Principles of Botany, §331., describes 
 the smut under the name of "Ustilago, v 
 and as being a small fungus, says, " This 
 singular variety of gangrene occurs most 
 frequently in the species of Graniineas, rarely 
 in other plants, sometimes in Scorzonera, 
 Tragspogon," &c. The ear of corn which is 
 attacked is in general totally destroyed, but 
 sometimes the same ear contains sound as 
 well as smutty grains ; and even one end of 
 the same grain has been found diseased, 
 and the other end sound. However, as all 
 the grains in an ear are usually infected, 
 so when one stalk is smutty, it generally 
 happens that all the ears from the same 
 root are so too. In March or April, upon 
 carefully opening the hose or blade {folium 
 vaginans) which covers the ear, and ex- 
 amining the young ear, although it was not 
 above one sixth part of an inch long, and 
 almost close to the roots, M. Du Hamel found 
 this embryo already black and distempered ; 
 a fact confirmed by the researches of Mr. 
 Kirby. When the diseased ear comes out 
 of the above-mentioned envelope, it looks 
 lank and meagre. About half an inch of 
 the upper part of its stalk is commonly 
 not quite straight. If cut asunder at not 
 more than a quarter of an inch below the 
 ear, it will be found nearly solid or fillec 
 with pith ; the circulation above is there- 
 fore obstructed. The next most important 
 point for consideration is, from whence is 
 the infection communicated; and the fol- 
 lowing experiments will be found to have 
 demonstrated that it is capable of being 
 conveyed to the plants by the agency of the 
 
SMUT. 
 
 parent seed. These experiments are satis- 
 factory and decisive ; for, although they are 
 only in accordance with the most prevalent 
 opinions of farmers upon the point, yet pre- 
 valent opinions are not always in accordance 
 with truth, and are never to be implicitly 
 received until sustained by evidence, which 
 is independent of prejudice, and more ac- 
 curate than surmise. 
 
 Mr. R. Somerville, in a paper published 
 in the Communications to the Board of 
 Agriculture, details experiments fully sub- 
 stantiating the fact, that the disease is 
 communicable to the crop from the parent 
 seed. He mixed some smutted grains with 
 others perfectly healthy, and kept them in 
 a box for two months ; after which, pre- 
 viously to sowing, he rubbed them together 
 between his hands. The sample was then 
 divided into two equal parts, one of which 
 was well washed with clear water three or 
 four times, and then sown in a drill in his 
 garden. The other half was sown similarly, 
 but without being washed or otherwise pre- 
 pared. The blades appeared above the sur- 
 face at the same time, and during the first 
 two months of their growth there was no 
 visible difference in their appearance. Soon 
 afterwards many of the plants from the un- 
 washed seed were observed to have a darker 
 and more dirty green hue than those from 
 the seed that had been cleansed with water. 
 This difference of colour by degrees became 
 more striking, and increased until the grain 
 was protruded from the blade, at which time 
 
 many of the dark-coloured plants evinced 
 symptoms of decay ; and the whole of them, 
 when fully developed, were found to be 
 completely destroyed by the smut. The 
 plants from the washed seed produced 
 scarcely a single diseased ear. These re- 
 sults were not fortuitous, for the experi- 
 ment afforded a similar testimony when 
 repeated the next season. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Harrup agree 
 with the preceding. In these, wheat, con- 
 sisting half of sound and half of smutted 
 grains, was sown without being previously 
 at all prepared, and this produced a crop 
 of which nearly two thirds were smutted. 
 Similar wheat, soaked for twelve hours in 
 a saturated solution of common salt, and 
 then mixed with quicklime, produced on 
 the same soil, in the same situation, and in 
 the same season, a crop in which not a 
 smutted ear could be found. (Nicholson's 
 Journ. vol. xiii. p. 113.) 
 
 Similar but more extended, and even 
 more accurate experiments, were completed 
 by Mr. Bevan, and are recorded in the 
 ninth volume of The Agricultural Maga- 
 zine. They give the result of his trials 
 with various liquids as steeps for seed 
 wheat. The wheat was grown on a sandy 
 soil, at Leighton in Bedfordshire. The 
 columns in the accompanying table which 
 are marked A. contain the results from the 
 sound grain that was sown ; and those 
 marked B. are the results from smutted 
 samples. 
 
 Liquid employed 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity 
 of the 
 Solution. 
 
 Number of 
 smutted Ears in' 
 three Sheaves. 
 
 Bushels of good 
 Wheat per Acre. 
 
 Cwts. of Straw per 
 Acre. 
 
 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 A. 
 
 B. 
 
 Solution of potash - 
 
 1 -357 
 
 1 
 
 81 
 
 21-6 
 
 13-6 
 
 36-6 
 
 29- 1 
 
 muriate of potash - 
 
 1-097 
 
 3 
 
 218 
 
 20-2 
 
 101 
 
 36-0 
 
 211 
 
 nitrate of potash (saltpetre) - 
 
 1080 
 
 7 
 
 115 
 
 238 
 
 14-3 
 
 36-0 
 
 31-9 
 
 soda - 
 
 1-056 
 
 9 
 
 159 
 
 20-2 
 
 11-7 
 
 356 
 
 26-7 
 
 muriate of soda (common salt) 
 
 1-089 
 
 
 290 
 
 24 0 
 
 14-5 
 
 41-5 
 
 333 
 
 sulphate of soda (Glauber salt) 
 
 1047 
 
 12 
 
 241 
 
 21-6 
 
 123 
 
 38-5 
 
 27-8 
 
 muriate of ammonia (sal ammoniac) 
 
 1-026 
 
 1 
 
 150 
 
 19-8 
 
 17 6 
 
 35-4 
 
 30-2 
 
 common soot - - - - 
 
 1-025 
 
 
 123 
 
 20-8 
 
 11-4 
 
 34-8 
 
 253 
 
 lime saturated - 
 
 1-003 
 
 
 2 
 
 21-9 
 
 124 
 
 38-7 
 
 25-9 
 
 nitric acid (aqua fortis) * 
 
 1016 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 muriatic acid (spirit of salt) 
 
 1011 
 
 
 136 
 
 207 
 
 161 
 
 35-7 
 
 34- 1 
 
 sulphuric acid (oil of vitriol) 
 
 1050 
 
 
 
 204 
 
 178 
 
 354 
 
 37 1 
 
 Dry in its natural state - 
 
 
 6 
 
 323 
 
 20-3 
 
 14-7 
 
 35-7 
 
 310 
 
 Washed in common water - 
 
 '- ~-\ 
 
 None 
 sown. 
 
 }l07 
 
 
 183 
 
 
 35-8 
 
 * The seed treated with 
 
 The conclusion from these and many 
 other accordant experiments is, that wash- 
 ing the seed is effective in preventing the 
 communication of the disease to the crop 
 to which it gives birth. If the washing was 
 frequently repeated, or the cleansing made 
 complete, by passing a continual stream 
 through the seed for some hours, it is pro- 
 bable that simple water might be employed 
 for this purpose as effectually as any saline 
 solution. But as this would require more 
 labour than is desirable, and as the salts, 
 1103 
 
 this acid did not vegetate. 
 &c, employed are beneficial in other ways, 
 by protecting the seed from vermin, and 
 ministering to the future vigour of the 
 plants, steeps are generally and very pro- 
 perly adopted. 
 
 The experiments of Mr. Bevan indicate 
 that lime-water is the most effective of 
 these preparations ; and, if this be adopted, 
 it may be prepared by mixing one pound of 
 fresh lime with three gallons of boiling 
 water, and the clear liquor then to be 
 poured off and immediately used. In this 
 
SMUT. 
 
 liquor the wheat should be soaked for twelve 
 hours, stirred twice or thrice during the 
 time, and then mixed upon a floor, with the 
 powder made by pouring three gallons of 
 boiling water upon five pounds of lime. I 
 have had no experience of the effects of 
 lime-water as a preventive of the smut ; 
 but with stale urine and a solution of com- 
 mon salt, I have witnessed numerous and 
 extensive experiments. The results, with- 
 out exception, were favourable and nearly 
 similar ; and this being the case, a prefer- 
 ence is to be given to common salt, as being 
 decidedly the most cleanly and the least 
 disgusting. The mode which I have ob- 
 served to be the most effective is, to wash 
 the seed with pure water, pouring this off 
 with all the floating grains, and then allow- 
 ing the seed to soak for twelve hours in a 
 solution of common salt, having a strength 
 or specific gravity sufficient to float a hen's 
 egg. I have no doubt that lime, like com- 
 mon salt, is effectual against the disease, by 
 reason of its powerful action upon the tex- 
 ture of the fungus tribe. Every house- 
 keeper knows how completely mushrooms 
 dissolve away when sprinkled with salt ; 
 and in experiments I have made upon the 
 Uredo segetum, I found that the effect of 
 common salt upon this fungus is not less 
 remarkable. 
 
 Mr. Tull, MM. de Lignerolle, Douat, 
 and others, agree in recommending that the 
 seed to be sown upon any farm should be 
 frequently obtained from other soils ; but, 
 however beneficial this may be for securing 
 other desired effects, I do not understand 
 how it can prevent the occurrence of smut 
 unless the seed is obtained from a crop and 
 a district notably free from the disease. 
 There is little doubt but that the method 
 in which the disease is imparted to the 
 plant is by its root imbibing the extremely 
 minute seeds of the Uredo along with the 
 moisture of the soil. This opinion is con- 
 firmed by the observation that the disease 
 is most prevalent when the winter has been 
 mild and the spring wet ; for, in such sea- 
 sons, the abundant moisture passing through 
 the soil is most likely to convey the seeds 
 to the mouths of the plants' radicle fibres. 
 
 I remember trying some experiments, 
 the full details of which I have accidentally 
 lost, in which I buried some of the Uredo 
 segeturn about an inch below the surface of 
 the soil, in a garden pot in which some 
 wheat was growing, supplying those plants, 
 during their after growth, plentifully with 
 water poured upon the surface of the soil. 
 Not one of these plants escaped infection. 
 
 Another garden pot, in which wheat from 
 (he same sample was growing, and similarly 
 treated in every respect, but to which 
 1104 
 
 moisture was supplied solely by means of 
 the saucer in which it was placed, both 
 pots being sheltered entirely from the rain, 
 produced plants which were not at all in- 
 fected. Although it is very apparent that 
 the smut is generally imparted to a wheat 
 crop by the agency of the seed sown, yet I 
 am by no means of opinion that this is the 
 only source of infection. I have kept ears 
 of wheat that were covered and destroyed 
 by the Uredo during more than twelve 
 months in a situation where they expe- 
 rienced the vicissitudes of temperature 
 during all the seasons, unprotected by more 
 than the paper envelope in which they were 
 suspended in an outhouse. Yet when the 
 Uredo that had been thus exposed was 
 mixed with healthy well-washed seed- 
 wheat, this produced diseased plants in a 
 triplicate proportion more numerous than 
 that not so mixed. This experiment de- 
 monstrates that frost and drought, acting in 
 concert with a damp atmosphere, do not 
 destroy the vegetating power of the Uredo 's 
 seed. Such being the fact, why may not 
 this seed remain in the soil ready to impart 
 the plague ? We know that, owing to its 
 extreme lightness, the seed floats buoyantly 
 in the air, and may be carried by winds to 
 distant soils, which, in the autumn of the 
 same year, before any extremity of cold has 
 been endured, will have to bear the wheat 
 crop for the following harvest. The opinion 
 that the soil is one source of infection, is 
 sustained by the fact that fields in the vici- 
 nity of the sea are rarely injured, and 
 never extensively, by the ravages of the 
 smut. Such soils are impregnated more 
 than any other with common salt, and the 
 effect of this saline compound upon the 
 Uredo has been noticed already. These 
 considerations suggest that applications to 
 the soil as well as to the seed are necessary 
 for the banishment of the disease ; but a 
 more full notice, and some curious par- 
 ticulars upon this point, will be found de- 
 tailed under the head Mildew. 
 
 I have frequently examined the roots of 
 wheat plants affected by the smut, but have 
 never perceived that they had a diseased 
 appearance ; a fact which I find confirmed 
 by the researches of Mr. Kirby. Although 
 the root is not affected, yet I have inva- 
 riably found the smutted plants of a form 
 and habit much less robust than those un- 
 diseased. The average result of Mr. Be- 
 van's experiments is, that smutted wheat 
 produces straw in the proportion of only 
 30 to 36'75, when compared with wheat 
 unattacked by the smut. This is not a 
 result contrary to that which might be an- 
 ticipated; for in plants, as well as animals, 
 an organic affection so serious as this is 
 
SMUT. 
 
 SNAKE, COMMON. 
 
 usually accompanied by a general emaci- 
 ation of the frame. So decidedly is this 
 effect produced upon wheat, that a practised 
 eye can at once detect by its appearance, 
 before the diseased ear is protruded, a 
 plant that is thus distempered. The stem 
 and leaves look upright, thin, and stiff, 
 wearing the aspect that is best described, 
 to those who know the appearance, by the 
 term staring. I cannot conclude without 
 remarking that these facts strengthen the 
 analogy I am so fond of tracing between 
 plants and animals. The atrophy exhibited 
 by both, when under the influence of dis- 
 ease, is strikingly illustrative of their close 
 relationship ; and this is further carried on 
 by their being equally liable to the ravages 
 of parasites. The skin of every animal is 
 liable to be infested by vermin, as its in- 
 testines and other viscera are by worms 
 and various other creatures. So plants are 
 not only subject to invermination, but, 
 like animals, they are preyed upon by va- 
 rious genera of their own race. Their 
 barks are assailed by numerous lichens and 
 Tungi, whilst internally they are a prey to 
 the Uredo I have just described, and to 
 several others of the fungus tribe. Ani- 
 mals have their larger parasites, as the tick, 
 &c, and vegetables similarly bear the mis- 
 seltoe, dodder, and others. This repeated 
 urging that plants are closely allied to ani- 
 mals in every particular is not without its 
 use. Every year's experience convinces 
 me that it is not less beneficial to cultivate 
 plants with the least possible injury to their 
 various parts, than it is to treat our farm- 
 ing stock with gentleness and an attention 
 to their comfort ; and it is by demonstrating 
 the analogy between the two great divisions 
 of created beings, that the reason of the 
 cultivator is to be drawn to regulate his 
 practice. 
 
 Finally, I will observe, that the farmer 
 is much too prone to regard the diseases of 
 his crops as of trivial importance. In such 
 cases as where the curl destroys whole 
 fields of his potatoes, or the mildew reduces 
 the produce of each acre of wheat to a few 
 bushels, he is miserably sensible of the in- 
 jury he has .sustained ; but if, within the 
 circle of corn ears around him, as he surveys 
 his crops, he only sees a sprinkling of those 
 affected with the smut, he looks upon this 
 as of insignificant consequence. Yet, in 
 the experiments of Mr. Bevan, in the in- 
 stances where only two smutted ears oc- 
 curred in three sheaves, the weight of the 
 straw was reduced nearly one third, and 
 that of the grain three sevenths. (Essay 
 by G. W. Johnson, Quart Journ. Agr, vol. 
 ix. p. 45.) 
 
 SNAILS. (Helix— Hclicidce.) Awell- 
 1105 
 
 known genus of molluscous animals, compris- 
 ing a great many species. It is unnecessary 
 for our purpose to describe the anatomy of 
 the snail. The nervous system is extremely 
 sensitive, as may be seen in the ventral 
 disk, or foot, and lower tentacles. We may 
 also mention their wonderful power of re- 
 producing parts of the body that have been 
 destroyed : even the entire head, when cut 
 off, is after a time restored. They live 
 throughout the winter in a torpid state, in 
 cavities in the earth, which are covered over 
 with a calcareous kind of wall, partly formed 
 with its mucous secretion. The animal 
 escapes from its cell in April, bursting its 
 operculum, and again breathes as before 
 its hybernation. The species of shell-snails 
 are very extensive. In the garden, snails do 
 much damage to the vegetables in culti- 
 vated grounds, biting off pieces of the leaves 
 by means of a semicircular dentated horny 
 plate which is affixed to the upper lip. To 
 extirpate them, it has been recommended 
 to strew the ground with lime and ashes, or 
 salt. Snails seldom annoy farmers, unless 
 it be under the hedges ; and if they venture 
 out into the middle of a field, the roller is 
 a certain destructive implement to their 
 fragile coverings. The red, or great vine 
 snail (H. pomatia), formed one of the lux- 
 uries of the tables of the ancient Romans, 
 and by peculiar feeding and other treat- 
 ment was brought to attain an immense 
 size. It is still an article of food in certain 
 cantons of Switzerland and France, and 
 some of the provinces of Spain and Por- 
 tugal. This species of Helix was brought 
 to England by the Howard family, and 
 placed on the grounds in the neighbour- 
 hood of Box-hill, where it is still found ; 
 but it does not attain to the size it often 
 displays in Italy. It is supposed to be a good 
 article of food for the consumptive. 
 
 SNAKE, COMMON. (Coluber natrix.) 
 A native reptile which is often found in 
 bushy places, and . in banks near water. It 
 is from two to three feet long; the back 
 is of a dusky colour, and the belly is 
 beautifully variegated with black and bluish 
 stripes. It has two rows of small serrated 
 teeth, and is perfectly harmless ; being 
 destitute of the fang with which vipers and 
 other venomous serpents are furnished, 
 and which is both an instrument for wound- 
 ing, and also a duct through which the 
 poison secreted by the poison gland, and 
 deposited in a bag at its root, is ejected 
 into the wound it has made. The common 
 or green snake, like its congeners, produces 
 numerous eggs, generally dropping them 
 on dunghills, where they are hatched by 
 the warmth of the sun. It feeds on small 
 insects, frogs, and vegetable substances ; 
 4 B 
 
SNAPDRAGON. 
 
 SNOWDROP. 
 
 thus being of essential service to the cul- 
 tivator, as it devours considerable numbers 
 of field and harvest mice. 
 
 SNAKE'S HEAD. See Fritildary. 
 
 SNAKEWEED. See Bistort. 
 
 SNAPDRAGON, the ivy-leaved. (An- 
 tirrhinum cymbalaria.) This is a perennial 
 plant, belonging to a numerous genus of 
 very pretty flowering species. It blooms 
 from May to November, growing on old 
 walls and rocks. The root is fibrous ; 
 stems trailing or pendulous, very much 
 branched, round, smooth, leafy, hanging 
 from old walls in rich, dense, flowery fes- 
 toons. Leaves alternate, stalked, ivy-like, 
 of a deep shining green, often tinged with 
 violet, and, like every other plant, quite 
 smooth. Flowers solitary, on long axillary 
 stalks, small and very elegant, variegated 
 with violet and blue. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 131.) See Fiajelxin and Toad-flax. 
 
 SNELZEWORT YARROW. See Yar- 
 row. 
 
 SNIPES. {Scolopax.) A genus of wading 
 birds which are well known. The snipes 
 proper have a straight beak, the nasal fur- 
 rows extending to near its point, which is a 
 little inflated externally, so as to extend 
 beyond the lower mandible. The point is 
 soft and very sensible. Some of these fre- 
 quent moors, others open fields or swampy 
 marshes : many of the species are common 
 in Britain, especially during the summer, 
 and sometimes throughout the year. They 
 seldom exceed four ounces in weight, and 
 are, together with their long bill, from ten 
 to twelve inches in length. The breast and 
 belly are white, the back is covered with 
 long feathers, beautifully variegated with 
 black and reddish brown spots. 
 
 The British species described and figured 
 by Mr. Yarrell, the most recent writer on 
 ornithology, are the great or solitary snipe 
 (Scolopax major), the common snipe (S. 
 gallinago), the jack snipe (S. gallinula), Sa- 
 bine's snipe (S. Sabini), and the brown 
 snipe (Macrorhamphus griseus, Selby and 
 Gould). The marine snipes will be found 
 noticed under the head Sandpipers. ( Yar- 
 relVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 597—624. ; Mag. 
 Nat. Hist. vol. ii. p. 143.) 
 
 SNOW. In meteorology, the congelation 
 or freezing of vapours in the atmosphere. 
 It serves to defend corn and all other 
 vegetables from the severity of winter 
 frosts ; for, being a very bad conductor of 
 beat, it prevents the internal warmth of 
 the earth from being carried off through 
 the surface of the land, and consequently 
 ameliorates the soil. The plants being 
 thus sheltered, shoot forth in the spring 
 with renewed vigour; and, cherished by the 
 genial rays of the sun, vegetate with in- 
 110G 
 
 creased luxuriance. The many kinds of 
 snow are produced by different tempera- 
 tures, and otherwise by the natural laws 
 of congelation and crystallisation. When 
 it falls as a fine powder, it is supposed to 
 be formed near the surface of the earth. 
 It has, in this state, a greater density than 
 the flaky form of snow, falls quicker, and 
 forms a covering for the earth less valuable 
 than the flaky kind, as it involves less air 
 between the granules. The largest flakes 
 usually fall when the cold is moderate, 
 the particles being softer, and adhering to 
 each other in the manner of feathers. The 
 granular snow or rounder grains, sometimes 
 called sleet, indicate increasing cold in most 
 instances. The stelliform, or star-like flat 
 grains, show the proximity of great severity 
 of the frost ; and the smaller filaments, like 
 short hairs, falling in the clear sun-shine 
 from invisible clouds, do the same. The 
 most beautiful crystalline forms are ob- 
 served in the snow of the Arctic regions, 
 the varieties of which have been well dis- 
 played by Mr. Scoresby in his work on 
 The Arctic Regions. ( Whistlecraffs Climate 
 of England.) 
 
 SNOW BUNTING. (Plectrophanes ni- 
 valis.) This bird may be generally con- 
 sidered as only a winter visiter to this 
 country. It is only in severe weather and 
 late in the winter season that the older 
 birds make their appearance, the young 
 birds always venturing farthest to the 
 southward. It has been termed, also, the 
 mountain and the tawny bunting in dif- 
 ferent stages of its plumage. The plumage 
 on its arrival here in winter is dull white on 
 the under surface of the body and wing- 
 coverts ; the feathers on the back are black 
 at the base, with broad ends of pale reddish 
 brown. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 
 425.) 
 
 SNOWDROP. (Galanthus nivalis.) This 
 is a well-known native perennial plant, 
 growing in orchards, meadows, the sides of 
 hedges, and on the banks of rivers, flowering 
 in February and March. It is a bulbous 
 plant ; and throws up glaucous, keeled, 
 erect, obtuse leaves, in the midst of which 
 the flower appears on a slender, drooping, 
 partial stalk. The flower is small, beautiful, 
 white, and scentless. It is chiefly esteemed 
 on account of its early appearance, adorning 
 the garden when the soil is covered with 
 snow. There are two species, which are 
 divided into three varieties, known under 
 the names of single, semi-double, and double, 
 which differ only in the seasons of their 
 flowering. They may be easily propagated 
 in any soil, and will multiply exceedingly 
 by offsets from the roots. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 129.) 
 
SNOWFLAKE. 
 
 SOOT. 
 
 SNOWFLAKE. (Leucojum, from leukos, 
 ■white, and ion, a violet ; in reference to the 
 colour of the flower, whence also the Eng- 
 lish name.) This is a genus of hardy bulbs, 
 growing to the height of twelve or eighteen 
 inches, and producing spikes of pretty while 
 flowers, like the snowdrop. Sandy loam 
 suits them best ; and they are increased by 
 offsets from the bulbs. One species is in- 
 digenous, the summer snowflake (Z. cesti- 
 vum), a perennial, which grows in moist 
 meadows and marshes near rivers. 
 
 SOAPWORT. (Saponaria, from sapo, 
 soap ; the bruised leaves are said to produce 
 a lather, like soap, when agitated in the 
 water.) This genus contains some truly 
 beautiful plants, well deserving of a place 
 in every garden. S. ocymoides, from its 
 trailing habit and handsome flowers, is well 
 adapted for rockwork. A mixture of sandy 
 loam and peat suits them best; and they 
 are readily increased by division at the 
 roots or by seed : young cuttings of the 
 branching species will also root readily if 
 planted under a glass. One species, with 
 some varieties, is indigenous. The com- 
 mon soapwort (S. officinalis), a perennial, 
 grows in meadows, by rivers, and under 
 hedges. The root is branching, rather 
 fleshy, with many long creeping scions. 
 Herbage smooth, or nearly so, a little suc- 
 culent. Stems about eighteen inches high, 
 erect, round, leafy. Leaves elliptic-lan- 
 ceolate, acute. Panicle dense, of many 
 erect, large, handsome, flesh-coloured, or 
 pale pink flowers, with an oppressive sweet- 
 ness. (Paxton's Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 284.) 
 
 SODA. See Kelp ; Salts, their uses to 
 Vegetation; &c. 
 
 SOD BURNING. See Paring and- 
 Burning. 
 
 SOFT-GRASS. See Holcus. 
 
 SOIL. See Earths, Analysis and Mix- 
 ture of Soils. 
 
 SOILING. The practice of supporting 
 animals in the summer season, with green 
 food, cut daily and given to them in the 
 houses, stalls, or yards. A number of dif- 
 ferent plants and grasses may be had re- 
 course to for this purpose, particularly those 
 which have a quick and luxuriant growth ; 
 as lucern, sainfoin, tares, clover, turnips, &c. 
 
 Soiling appears to be highly advantage- 
 ous, in a variety of ways, by the food being 
 consumed with much less waste, by the 
 great increase of good manure that is pro- 
 duced, and by the stock feeding with less 
 interruption and inconvenience, from their 
 being more effectually shaded from the ex- 
 cessive heat of the sun, and better pro- 
 tected from the attacks of flies and other 
 insects. In all these respects it would seem 
 1107 
 
 to have a great superiority over that of let- 
 ting the animals range indiscriminately in 
 the pastures or other grass lands. 
 
 Soiling has been found, by the most care- 
 ful experiments, to answer perfectly both 
 with horses, neat cattle, and swine; and with 
 cows it has been found very beneficial in 
 the trials of Mr. Curwen and several others. 
 
 By an extensive and judicious use of 
 soiling, the farmer may derive benefit in 
 being enabled to have a considerably larger 
 extent of land both under the states of til- 
 lage and grass, from the considerable in- 
 crease of manure that is produced. 
 
 SOLAR INFLUENCE. See Temper- 
 ature and Light. 
 
 SOLE, or SLADE, OF A PLOUGH. 
 See Plough. 
 
 SOLOMON'S SEAL. (Convallaria.) 
 There are three indigenous species of Con- 
 vallaria which pass under the name of 
 Solomon's seal, viz. the narrow-leaved So- 
 lomon's seal (C. verticillata), which is, 
 however, a very rare plant. The angular 
 Solomon's seal (C. polygonatum), which is 
 also a rare species, growing in rocky moun- 
 tainous woods, having a fleshy, creeping 
 root, abounding with mucilage, which may 
 be separated, by grating and washing, in 
 the form of starch. Bread is reported to 
 have been made of these roots in the north 
 of Europe. The stem is twelve or eighteen 
 inches high, angular. Leaves alternate, 
 broadly elliptical, acute, ribbed, plaited, 
 clasping the stem. Stalks axillary, droop- 
 ing, bearing one, rarely two, pendulous, 
 conical, green and. white flowers, smelling 
 powerfully like hawthorn, or even helio- 
 trope. Berry dark blue. A variety with 
 double very sweet flowers is sometimes 
 seen in gardens. The common Solomon's 
 seal (C. multifiora) grows in woods and 
 thickets, on a round smooth stem about 
 two feet high. The leaves are of a lighter 
 green than the preceding. Flowers from 
 two to five on a stalk, very faintly scented, 
 more cylindrical and elongated than in C. 
 polygonatum. {Paxtons Bot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 156.) 
 
 SOOT, is very extensively employed in 
 the east of England, as a powerful manure, 
 and produces, when used at the rate of 
 twelve to twenty bushels per acre, most 
 luxuriant crops of wheat and other grain. 
 This valuable fertiliser is composed of a 
 mixture of charcoal, an oil, salts of am- 
 monia, some muriatic acid, lime, magnesia, 
 silica, and other foreign substances; but 
 the charcoal is by far the largest ingredient, 
 and has a powerful influence on vegetation ; 
 and, according to Liebig, it can " completely 
 replace vegetable mould or humus. Plants 
 thrive in powdered charcoal, and may be 
 4 b 2 
 
SOOT. 
 
 SOUTHERNWOOD. 
 
 brought to blossom and bear fruit if exposed 
 to the influence of rain and the atmosphere." 
 {Organ. Chem. p. 61.) All the substances 
 contained in soot are the natural food of 
 vegetation ; the carbon gradually combines 
 with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and is 
 converted into carbonic acid gas, which is 
 readily absorbed by the roots and leaves of 
 plants. 
 
 In Essex the chief employment of soot 
 is for wheat, and it is generally applied by 
 the chimney sweepers to the land, out of a 
 basket, in the same manner that seed is 
 sown. This is usually done in the spring 
 of the year, in March, April, or May. 
 Wheat so treated speedily assumes a very 
 deep green, and on some soils grows with 
 greatly increased luxuriance. Soot was 
 employed by the Rev. E. Cartwright as a 
 manure for potatoes, both by itself and in 
 combination with various other fertilising 
 substances. The experiments were made on 
 a portion of the same soil as that described 
 in the article Ashes. The following were 
 the results obtained : — 
 
 Per Acre. 
 
 1. The soil, without any manure, yielded 
 
 bushels of potatoes - - 157 
 
 2. Soot, thirty bushels - - 192 
 
 3. Soot, thirty bushels, salt eight bushels 240 
 
 Various agriculturists have noticed the 
 good results from mixing salt and soot. 
 Mr. George Sinclair, in his prize essay On 
 Salt as a Manure, mentions it as " remark- 
 able " in the case of carrots. Mr. Belfield 
 of Elford has done the same with regard 
 to wheat. 
 
 In Mr. Sinclair's experiments upon car- 
 rots, 
 
 Per Acre. 
 Tons. cwt. lb. 
 
 The soils without any manure 
 
 produced carrots - - 23 9 107 
 
 Soil with 6| bushels of salt dug in 44 14 17 
 Soil with 6± bushels of salt, and 
 
 6\ soot ditto - - 40 4 97 
 
 In both the liquid and solid state, it has 
 been employed by Mr. John Robertson of 
 Kilkenny, with great success. " On mea- 
 dows," he says, " I have used soot with 
 great advantage in substance ; and though 
 sown by the hand, one dressing gave me 
 always heavy crops of hay for two succes- 
 sive seasons. But this is a wasteful mode of 
 applying it, a great portion of its ammonia, 
 one of its most active ingredients, being 
 volatilised, and dissipated in the atmo- 
 sphere : when dissolved in water, there is no 
 waste, — it is all available ; and for horticul- 
 tural purposes I have mostly used it in 
 that state, mixing it up in the proportion 
 of about six quarts of soot to a hogshead of 
 water, Asparagus, peas, and a variety of 
 J 1 08 
 
 other vegetables, I have manured with it, 
 with as much effect as if I had used solid 
 dung ; but to plants in pots, particularly 
 pines, I have found it admirably well 
 adapted; when watered with it, they as- 
 sume a deep healthy green, and grow strong 
 and luxuriant." Mr. A. Main makes some 
 pertinent remarks on soot as a top-dressing 
 to crops, and describes a machine for dis- 
 tributing it, in the sixth volume of the Trans, 
 of the Highland Soc. p. 535. (Gard. Mag. 
 vol. ii. p. 19. ; Johnson on Fertilisers, p. 329.) 
 
 SORREL. There are several indigenous 
 species of sorrel, some of which have al- 
 ready been described. See Mountain- 
 sorrel, Sheep's Sorrel. The common 
 sorrel (Rumex acetosd) is a perennial plant, 
 met with almost every where in meadows 
 and pastures, flowering in June. The root 
 is long and tapering, astringent, and some- 
 what woody. The herbage is smooth, 
 powerfully and agreeably acid. Stem from 
 one to two feet high, erect, simple, leafy, 
 striated. Leaves oblong, arrow-shaped. 
 Flowers dioecious, with permanent tubercu- 
 lated petals. The acidulous taste of sorrel 
 depends on binoxalate of potassa and tar- 
 taric acid : the astringency on tannic acid. 
 
 The flavour of the wood-sorrel (Oxalis 
 acetoselld) - is much more grateful, and the 
 leaves are more juicy, than those of the 
 common sorrel (Rumex acetosa) and the 
 French or Roman sorrel (R. scutatus). The 
 acid is merely the oxalic, free and also com- 
 bined with potassa and ammonia. It likewise 
 contains some saccharine matter. The gar- 
 den cultivation required by them is identi- 
 cal. The leaves are employed at all seasons 
 of the year, in salads, sauces, &c. The 
 wood-sorrel requires a silicious, yet moist 
 and moderately fertile soil, in a shady situ- 
 ation, as beneath a hedge with a -northern 
 aspect. The garden sorrel thrives best in 
 any mouldy garden soil that tends to light- 
 ness rather than tenacity, and is not too 
 poor. The situation must be open. French 
 sorrel is most healthful in a light dry 
 soil, that is tolerably fertile, in an open 
 compartment. The rumexes are propagated 
 by seed, and all of them by parting the 
 roots, both which modes may be practised 
 from the middle of February until the same 
 period in May, and by the latter also in 
 September and October. The finest plants 
 are raised by seed, but those from portions 
 of the roots are soonest in production. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol.ii. p. 197.; G. W. 
 Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) See Wood-sorrel. 
 
 SOUNDNESS. See Warranty, Buy- 
 ing and Seeling, &c. 
 
 SOUTH ERN WOOD. (Absinthium.) 
 The field southernwood (A. campestris) is a 
 rather rare species. It is perennial in habit. 
 
SOW-THISTLE. 
 
 SPADE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 The whole herb is without any aromatic or 
 bitter flavour. Stems at first prostrate, 
 becoming more or less upright as the flowers 
 appear, branched, leafy, straight and wand- 
 like, smooth, often reddish, near two feet 
 high. Leaves irregularly and doubly pin- 
 natifid, in many linear ; blunt segments. 
 Flowers drooping, small, ovate, yellow with 
 a purplish calyx, forming numerous slender 
 leafy clusters at the ends of the stems and 
 branches. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. iii. 
 p. 406). See Mug wort and Wormwood. 
 SOW-BREAD. See Cyclamen. 
 SOWING. See Seed. 
 SOWING MACHINE. See Drill. 
 SOW-THISTLE. (Sonchus, from som- 
 phus, hollow ; the stems are hollow.) A 
 rather large and very natural genus of an- 
 nual or perennial plants, rarely shrubby, 
 generally tall. They have hollow stems, and 
 more or less pinnatifid or lyrate leaves, 
 toothed or prickly at their edges. The sur- 
 face of the herbage is usually smooth, that of ' 3 
 the inflorescence hairy or glandular, often 
 viscid. They contain a bitter white juice, 
 and are plants of easy culture in any common 
 soil. The herbaceous species are increased 
 by division ; the seeds of the annual and 
 biennial kinds only require to be sown in the 
 open ground. There are three indigenous 
 perennial species : the blue sow-thistle (S. 
 cceruleus), the tall marsh sow-thistle (S. pa- 
 lustris), one of our largest herbaceous plants, 
 growing from six to eight feet high ; and the 
 corn sow-thistle (S. arvensis). The most 
 common native species is annual in habit, 
 viz. the common sow-thistle (S. oleraceus), 
 which is found almost every where, in culti- 
 vated and waste ground ; flowering from 
 July to September. Hares and rabbits are 
 very fond of the herbage, which, like the 
 root, is milky and bitter. The leaves are 
 sometimes dressed and eaten among other 
 culinary herbs, and the roots have occasion- 
 ally been converted into bread. (Paxton's 
 Dot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 340.) 
 
 SPADE HUSBANDRY. There are 
 many situations in which, from the small 
 size of the enclosures, or the want of suffi- 
 cient power for the easy working of the 
 common or the subsoil plough, the cultiva- 
 tor may prefer the employment of manual 
 labour with the spade ; and it is fortunately 
 found by experience that the difference in 
 the expense of deep digging, or spade hus- 
 bandry, is not materially different from that 
 of the subsoil plough. A great mass of in- 
 formation on this head was collected by the 
 late Dr. Yelloly ; not, however, so much with 
 the view of showing the increased fertility 
 of the soil by deep stirring, as with the in- 
 tention of demonstrating the immense field 
 which is thus opened for the profitable la- 
 1109 
 
 bour of a teeming and increasing popula- 
 tion ; and it was with this object that, when 
 addressing the statistical section of the 
 British Association at Liverpool, in 1837, 
 he observed : — 
 
 " The trials which have been hitherto 
 made of spade husbandry, in various parts 
 of the kingdom, have been insufficient, in 
 point of extent, to afford any adequate cri- 
 terion of the general applicability of that 
 practice. Such trials, indeed, have been 
 usually regarded either as matters of spe- 
 culation and experiment, or as charitable 
 efforts adopted by the benevolent to give 
 employment to the poor, without reference 
 to pecuniary expediency. I have, there- 
 fore, thought it might be acceptable to the 
 Association to be informed of the results of 
 a much more ample employment of that 
 mode of cultivation than has hitherto, as 
 far as I know, been made in this country. 
 
 " The farm where the system is pursued 
 which forms the subject of this communi- 
 cation is situated at Wattelfield, in the parish 
 of Wymondham. It is the property and. resi- 
 dence, and in the occupation, of John Mit- 
 chell, Esq. The farm consists of 317 acres, 
 of which 207 acres are arable, and 110 in 
 pasture and plantations. It is a mixed soil, 
 but is rather disposed to be heavy. The 
 country is flat, and the land requires drain- 
 ing, which is effected by bushes and straw. 
 
 " As soon as it was known that Mr. Mit- 
 chell meant to adopt the spade culture ex- 
 tensively and permanently, and not merely 
 as an experiment, or a temporary means of 
 increasing employment, the early prejudices 
 against it subsided ; and as the labourers 
 found that the remuneration was fully equal 
 to that of piece work, and much more than 
 the usual daily wages, and that every man, 
 whether married or single, was paid ac- 
 cording to the work done, it soon became 
 very popular, and he was speedily able to 
 command the services of the most steady 
 and expert men in his neighbourhood. 
 Though the process was begun with the spade, 
 a strong three-pronged fork, of fourteen 
 inches deep, and seven inches and a half 
 wide, which was found to be more manage- 
 able, and less expensive than the spade, was 
 soon allowed to be substituted for it, on the 
 application of the workmen. It cost 4s. 6d., 
 instead of 6s. 6d. ; weighed eight pounds ; 
 and, when worked down, could be relaid at 
 a trifling expense. 
 
 " The digging is effected by taking in 
 about four inches of earth at a time, press- 
 ing perpendicularly, and getting to a proper 
 depth at two thrusts. The earth is not, 
 however, turned out of the trench to a 
 greater depth than ten inches, though the 
 fork may get down as far as thirteen or 
 1 4 b 3 
 
SPADE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 SPANCEL. 
 
 fourteen; but that which remains at the 
 bottom, in the state of what is called 
 " crumbs," answers the purpose, equally 
 with the earth which is thrown out, of form- 
 ing a permeable medium for the roots of 
 the plant which is to grow in it. The men 
 prefer working together, in order that their 
 labour may be as nearly as possible on the 
 same description of soil ; but each takes in 
 about nine feet in width, so that his work 
 can be easily measured. The plan is to 
 have a breathing about every half hour; 
 and the men never work more than the re- 
 gular amount of ten hours per day. Digging 
 is, however, more laborious than the usual 
 operations of agriculture, though it is much 
 less so under the use of the fork than the 
 spade. They work the land in ridges of 
 about nine feet in width ; and the furrows 
 dividing them are sometimes made by the 
 plough, previously to the digging, and some- 
 times by the management of the labourers, 
 during the work, assisted by the eye only. 
 
 " The men receive for the ordinary dig- 
 ging after a white crop, from 2d. to 2\d. per 
 rod of thirty square yards ; the price vary- 
 ing according to the tenacity of the soil, 
 and whether manure is to be dug in. 
 Where the land is to have a fallow crop, 
 that is, turnips, mangel wurzel, or cabbages 
 (for no part of the farm, or the land in the 
 immediate neighbourhood, has ever a naked 
 fallow), there is first a ploughing, which is 
 done at a season when the horses can be 
 best spared, and afterwards a digging at 
 from \\d. to Id. per rod. In preparing for 
 a fallow crop, there is also an expense in- 
 curred in harrowing, and in raising a ridge 
 with the plough, which last is worth about 
 75. per acre. 
 
 " The men are paid the usual wages of 
 the neighbourhood at harvest ; but as the 
 whole number ordinarily employed are not 
 required at that period, those for whom 
 there is no occasion disperse themselves 
 among the neighbouring farmers, with the 
 understanding that they may resume their 
 employment when harvest is over, which 
 they are always happy in doing. Though 
 digging is the principal occupation of the men, 
 yet they are employed in all the other com- 
 mon operations of husbandry, at the common 
 rates of payment ; and all the work on the 
 farm is paid for, as much as possible, by the 
 iece, except hay -making, which is paid for 
 y the day. The ordinary earnings in digging 
 are from lis to 12s. per week, according as 
 the rate of wages may be high or low. Mr. 
 Mitchell is of opinion, that a course of seven 
 years, instead of t he usual one of four years, 
 is best adapted to spade husbandry ; and his 
 object has been, to act upon this system as 
 much as possible. Being satisfied with the 
 1110 
 
 first trials, he soon augmented his farm to 
 its present magnitude ; and under the seven 
 years' course, the folloAving would have been 
 the descriptions and proportions of the va- 
 rious crops, had he been long enough a cul- 
 tivator to carry his ideas into complete effect, 
 namely : — 
 
 Year. Acres. 
 1st, Fallow crop of turnips, cabbages, or 
 
 beet - - - - 30 
 
 2d, Barley - - - - 30 
 
 4th Clover, or artificial grasses - 58 
 
 5th, Oats - - - - 29 
 
 6th, Beans, peas, or tares - - 30 
 
 7th, Wheat - - - - 30 
 
 207 
 
 " It is to be observed, however, that he 
 has always ploughed clover layer for the 
 succeeding crop, not dug it ; and that the 
 horses, when not wanted for other purposes, 
 are employed in assisting the diggers in pre- 
 paring the land for the seed. Spade hus- 
 bandry, indeed, can hardly be expected, 
 even in its completest form, altogether to 
 exclude the plough, when carried on to a 
 considerable extent ; for as a certain num- 
 ber of horses are necessary for various 
 operations on a farm, these will naturally 
 be employed in ploughing, when they are 
 not required for other duty, rather than 
 that they should stand idle. Twenty la- 
 bourers, besides a bailiff, are kept upon the 
 farm, instead of thirteen, who would be ne- 
 cessary under the ordinary system ; and five 
 or six horses, instead of twelve. With so 
 small a number of horses, it is clear that 
 they would not be equal to all the demands 
 of the hay and corn harvest ; and hence, 
 a good deal of the hay and corn is always 
 stacked in the fields where they are grown." 
 {Dr. Yelloly on Spade Husbandry, p. 3 — 13.; 
 Brit. Farm. Mag. No. 4. N. S.) " The late 
 Mr. Blakie objected, in trenching strong 
 clays, to the customary process of turning 
 over the top spit or the cultivated soil, and 
 throwing the barren inert subsoil over it ; 
 but he recommends to turn the top spit on 
 one side, and to shovel the crumbs of earth 
 upon it. The subsoil in the bottom of the 
 trench should then be dug without being 
 raised, the top spit of the next trench placed 
 upon it, the crumbs shovelled over it, and 
 the ground carefully levelled as the work 
 proceeds. In most parts of Biscay and the 
 north of Spain, the fields are commonly cul- 
 tivated by the spade: great crops of pota- 
 toes and turnips are raised by these means" 
 {Sinclair, p. 394.; Brit. Husbandry, vol. ii. 
 p. 571.) See Flanders, Husbandst or. 
 
 SPANCEL. A provincial term, signify- 
 ing a rope to tie a cow's hinder leg*. 
 
SPANIEL. 
 
 SPEECHLEY, WILLIAM. 
 
 SPANIEL. ( Canis fam. extrarius, Linn.) 
 A valuable species of dog, which is sup- 
 posed to derive its name from its Spanish 
 origin ; with us, however, it has branched 
 into numerous varieties and subvarieties. 
 The sporting spaniel, which stands at the 
 head of the list, presents in itself many off- 
 sets, some of which are named from their 
 patrons, as the breed of King Charles, the 
 Blenheim, &c. : others are called after their 
 local origin, as the Maltese ; and the form 
 of some governs their nomination, as the 
 lion dog, &c. We have water spaniels, 
 great and small ; and their congeners, the 
 harbet, or poodle. The Newfoundland dog 
 is a spaniel, the setter also, and the Alpine 
 spaniel. A popular distinction made be- 
 tween them by many writers is into spring- 
 ers, cockers, and water spaniels, (Blaine s 
 Encyclo. of Rural Sports.) 
 
 SPARRO W. Of this eommon and well- 
 known bird there are several species. 
 
 1 . The domestic, or house sparrow (Pas- 
 ser domesticus, Selby and Yarrell), abounds 
 in Britain, particularly in the vicinity of 
 villages and towns. The nest of the sparrow 
 is formed under the eaves of tiles, in holes 
 or crevices in walls, in the orifices of old 
 water pipes, or in any cavity which will 
 afford sufficient space for the mass of hay 
 and feathers collected for their dwelling. 
 The first batch of eggs usually consists of 
 five or six, and two other sets are frequently 
 produced in the season. The eggs are 
 white, spotted and streaked with ash colour 
 and dusky brown ; the length of the egg 
 ten lines, the breadth seven lines. Their 
 young are fed for a time with soft fruits, 
 young vegetables, and insects, particularly 
 caterpillars ; and so great is the number of 
 these that are consumed by the parent birds 
 and their successive broods of young, that 
 it is a question whether the benefit thus 
 performed is not a fair equivalent for the 
 grain and seeds required at other seasons of 
 the year. A writer in the Quart. Journ. of 
 Agr., vol. ii. p. 432., sets forth the injury 
 which resulted from his indiscriminate 
 slaughter of the sparrows which bred about 
 his homestead. 
 
 2. The tree sparrow (Passer montanus). 
 This is an active lively bird ; in appearance, 
 and in many of its other peculiarities, very 
 similar to the house sparrow, and for which 
 (as remarked by Mr. Yarrell) it has often 
 been mistaken. It is not so numerous a 
 species, and much more local in distribu- 
 tion, but small colonies of tbem are to be 
 found in various counties. In size it is 
 smaller than our common sparrow, and is 
 generally described as frequenting trees 
 remote from houses, and building in the 
 holes of decayed pollards. The whole length 
 
 1111 
 
 of a male bird is five inches and five 
 eighths. 
 
 3. The hedge sparrow (Accentor modu- 
 laris) is very generally diffused over the 
 British islands, and in this country is resi- 
 dent throughout the year, frequenting 
 hedgerows, gardens, and pleasure-grounds 
 from spring to autumn, where it feeds in- 
 discriminately on insects in their various 
 stages, worms, and seeds, but not on fruit, 
 drawing nearer to the habitations of men as 
 winter approaches, to gain such scanty sub- 
 sistence as chance or kindness may afford. 
 Its nest, which is one of the first formed, is 
 built of green moss, roots, and wool, and 
 lined with hair. The nest being easily 
 found in an almost leafless hedge, the cuckoo 
 is apt to deposit her egg there ; and it has 
 been observed that more cuckoos are fos- 
 tered by the hedge warbler than by any 
 other bird. The young cuckoo generally 
 shoulders the young sparrows out of the 
 nest after they are hatched. The eggs are 
 four or five in number, of a delicate and 
 spotless bluish green colour ; nine lines and 
 a half in length by six lines and a half in 
 breadth. The general colour of the plu- 
 mage is brown. The whole length of the 
 bird rather more than five inches and a 
 half. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. i.) See 
 Accentor and Hedge Birds. 
 
 SPARROWHAWK. See Hawk. 
 
 SPATTLING POPPY. A name some- 
 times applied to chickweed. 
 
 SPAVIN. In farriery, a disease in 
 horses, consisting of a swelling in or near 
 some of the joints, by which a lameness is 
 produced, and of which there are three 
 kinds ; the blood-spavin, the bog-spavin, and 
 the bone-spavin. 
 
 SPAWDER. A provincial term signify- 
 ing an injury arising from the legs of ani- 
 mals being forced too far asunder on ice or 
 slippery roads. 
 
 SPAYING. The operation of castrat- 
 ing or extracting the ovaries of the females 
 of different kinds of animals, as sows, heifers, 
 mares, &c, in order to prevent any future 
 conception, and promote their fattening. . 
 
 SPEARMINT. (Mentha viridis.) This 
 species of mint is employed in sauces and 
 salads, as well as dried for soups in winter. 
 There are two varieties, the broad and 
 narrow-leaved, equally good. See Mint. 
 
 SPEECHLEY, WILLIAM, was born at 
 a village near Peterborough. About 1796 
 he was engaged by Sir John Sinclair to 
 write some papers on Domestic Economy, 
 which, however, never were published in 
 the Transactions of the Board of Agricul- 
 ture, for which they were designed. He 
 tried a course of agricultural experiments 
 at Woodborough Hall, and wrote essays, 
 
SPEEDWELL. 
 
 SPINACH. 
 
 for which he received the honorary medal | 
 of the Board of Agriculture. He died at 
 Great Milton, in Oxfordshire, in October, 
 1819, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. 
 He was author of the following works : — 
 
 1. A Treatise on the Cultivation of the Pine Apple, 
 and the Management of the Hothouse ; together with a 
 Description of every Species of Insect that infests Hot- 
 houses, with effectual Methods of destroying them. 
 York. 1779. 8vo. '2d Ed. 1796. 2. A Treatise on the 
 Culture of the Vine, exhibiting New and Advantageous 
 Methods of Propagating, Cultivating, and Training that 
 Plant, so as to render it abundantly Fruitful. With 
 New Hints on the Formation of Vineyards in England. 
 York. 4to. 1790. Afterwards in 8vo. 3. Practical 
 Hints on Domestic and Rural Economy, relating partly 
 to the Utility, Formation and Management of Fruit, 
 Kitchen, and Cottage Gardens and Orchards, &c. Lon- 
 don. 1820. 8vo. 
 
 SPEEDWELL. (Veronica.) An ex- 
 tensive genus of herbaceous or somewhat 
 shrubby plants, with annual or perennial 
 roots. The genus is divided into three sec- 
 tions : the first has perennial roots and ter- 
 minal clusters ; the second perennial roots 
 with lateral clusters ; the third annual roots 
 with solitary axillary flowers. There are 
 eighteen indigenous species, of which the 
 principal is the common or small speedwell 
 (V. officinalis). It belongs to the second 
 section, and grows about dry sandy banks, 
 barren heaths, woods, and mountainous pas- 
 tures. It is a perennial, flowering from 
 May till August. The stems are prostrate, 
 creeping, variable, from six to eighteen 
 inches long, round. Leaves elliptical, ob- 
 tuse, serrated, roundish. Clusters lateral, 
 of light blue flowers with dark streaks. 
 
 The hardy herbaceous species of speed- 
 well, namely, spicata, Chamcedrys, and hir- 
 suta, are admirably adapted for ornament- 
 ing the flower-borders, on account of their 
 pleasing habit and beautiful flowers. They 
 are all of the easiest culture, and are rea- 
 dily multiplied by division at the root. 
 The greenhouse shrubby kinds are easily 
 increased by cuttings. The annual species 
 are scarcely worth cultivating, except in 
 botanical collections, and their seeds merely 
 require to be sown in the open ground. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. ] 6. ; Paxton's 
 Bot. Diet) See Bird's Eye. 
 
 SPERAGE. See Asparagus. 
 
 SPHAGNUM. A name used by Pliny 
 for some kinds of moss. The species be- 
 longing to this genus are found in bogs at 
 all seasons. The leaves are nerveless, and 
 of a singularly whitish colour. (Paxtons 
 Bot. Diet.) 
 
 SPIDERWORT. (Anthericum.) This 
 interesting genus comprises both bulbous 
 and shrubby species, and all may be grown 
 in the greenhouse in a mixture of loam and 
 prat, with the addition of a little sand. 
 The shrubby species propagate readily from 
 cuttings, and from the bulbous kinds off- 
 sets may be obtained. Most of them perfect 
 1112 
 
 seed. None of the species will thrive if 
 over- watered, and the bulbous kinds should 
 not have any water in winter. 
 
 The mountain spiderwort (A. serotinum) 
 is an indigenous perennial species, inhabit- 
 ing some of the loftiest Welsh mountains. 
 The root is somewhat tuberous, with many 
 long slender fibres, which are the real roots. 
 The stem is solitary, three or four inches 
 high, round, generally simple and single- 
 flowered, but not unfrequently branched, 
 and bearing several white flowers, veined 
 externally with dull red. Radical leaves 
 few, taller than the stem, semicylindrical ; 
 those on the stem much shorter, lanceolate, 
 and dilated at their base. Flowers white, 
 veined with dull red. The seeds are an- 
 gular, wrinkled, in a small brown mem- 
 branous capsule. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 149.) 
 
 SPIGNEL. See Fennel. 
 
 SPIKE-RUSH. (Eleocharis, from helos, 
 a marsh, and chairo, to delight ; in allusion 
 to the watery places where the plants flou- 
 rish.) These are mostly insignificant bog- 
 plants, which possess neither beauty nor 
 merit to recommend them for cultivation, 
 except in botanical collections. Dr. Smith 
 describes three indigenous perennial spe- 
 cies ; the creeping spike-rush (E. palustris), 
 the many-stalked spike-rush (IS. multicaulis\ 
 and the least spike-rush (E. acicularis). 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 62.) 
 
 SPIKENARD, PLOWMAN'S. (Co- 
 ?iyza, from konis, dust ; because it was sup- 
 posed to have the power of driving away 
 flies ; whence also one of the common names, 
 flea (fly) bane. The genus Erigeros is, 
 however, the real fly-bane ; some of its viscid 
 species, dipped in milk, being used in the 
 south of Europe to catch the various little 
 winged insects, so troublesome in warm 
 climates.) This is a numerous herbaceous 
 or shrubby genus, of which the only Bri- 
 tish species (C. squarrosa) is the type. 
 This is a perennial plant, growing in chalky 
 or limestone countries, frequent, or in woods, 
 or a marly soil. The root is tapering, fleshy, 
 much branched ; the herbage soft and 
 downy, bitter, somewhat aromatic, with a 
 portion of mucilage. The stem is upright, 
 angular, leafy, two or three feet high, ter- 
 minating in a corymbose, leafy, panicle of 
 numerous dull yellow flowers. Leaves el- 
 liptic-lanceolate, veiny, downy, crenate ; 
 radical ones large, tapering down into bor- 
 dered footstalks. The radical leaves bear 
 some resemblance to those of foxglove, hut 
 when rubbed are readily distinguished by 
 their aromatic scent. (Smith's J i J//g. Flor* 
 vol. iii. p. 420.) 
 
 SPIKE ROLLER. See Rojaer. 
 
 SPINACH. (Sjnnacea oleracen. From 
 
 # 
 
SPINNEY. 
 
 SPOONBILL, WHITE. 
 
 ■spina, on account of its prickly seed.) There 
 are two varieties, the round-leaved or 
 smooth-seeded, and the triangular-leaved 
 or prickly-seeded. The first being the most 
 succulent, and, consequently, less able to 
 endure a low degree of temperature, is em- 
 ployed for the spring and summer crops, 
 and the latter for autumn and winter. For 
 the round-leaved variety, a rich moist and 
 mouldy loam, in an open situation, is pre- 
 ferable; but for the triangular-leaved a 
 light moderately fertile and dry one, which 
 may likewise be an open compartment, but 
 a sheltered border is most conducive of a 
 continued supply throughout the winter. 
 The earth should always be well pulverised 
 at the time of digging, as a fine tilth is one 
 of the greatest inducements to its vigour. 
 It is propagated by seed. The first sowing 
 of the round-leaved variety may take place 
 at the close of January, in a warm situa- 
 tion, to be repeated in larger but still small 
 breadths at the commencement and end of 
 February ; and thence to be continued, as 
 the plants rapidly advance to seed, every 
 three weeks until the middle of April, when, 
 as this affection increases, it must be per- 
 formed once a week until the close of May, 
 when it may be reduced to once a fortnight, 
 and so practised until the end of July. 
 With August, the sowing of the triangular- 
 leaved variety commences, the main crop of 
 which should be sown during the first ten 
 days of that month. The sowing may be 
 repeated, after intervals of three weeks, 
 until the early part of September. 
 
 The sowings may be performed broadcast 
 and regularly raked, and which is the mode 
 generally practised for the principal crops, 
 and for the winter standing always, or in 
 drills an inch deep and a foot apart; in 
 either mode the seed being scattered thin. 
 
 Tetragonia, or New Zealand spinach ( Te- 
 tragonia expansd), is much admired as a 
 substitute for summer spinach, being of 
 more delicate flavour, and not so liable to 
 run to seed. It is propagated by seed, 
 which is sown, in the seed-vessel, as ga- 
 thered the preceding autumn, at the latter 
 end of March, in a pot, and placed in a melon 
 frame. The seedlings must be pricked while 
 small singly into pots ; and kept under a 
 frame without bottom heat until the third 
 week in May, or until the danger of frost 
 is past. (Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. vol. iv. 
 p. 488 — 494. ; Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 SPINAGE, WILD. See Goosefoot. 
 
 SPINNEY. The provincial name for a 
 clump of trees, or a small grove or shrub- 
 bery. 
 
 SPINDLE TREE. (Euonymus euro- 
 pceus.) This shrub or small tree grows wild 
 1113 
 
 in our hedges and thickets. The very hard 
 and fine-grained wood is preferred for spin- 
 dles and for skewers. It is fetid in every 
 part when bruised, and esteemed poisonous. 
 The branches are smooth and even angular 
 when young;- afterwards round, with a 
 green, smooth, not warty bark. Leaves 
 ovate, pointed, finely serrated, about two 
 inches long, furnished with awl-shaped sti- 
 pules. Flowers fetid, small, greenish-white, 
 mostly four-cleft. The capsules usually of 
 a fine rose-colour : seeds orange-coloured. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 329.) 
 
 SPINES. In botany, branches that, 
 being imperfectly formed, lose their power 
 of extension, become unusally hard, and 
 acquire a sharp point. They are very dif- 
 ferent from aculei, or prickles, which are a 
 kind of hardened hair. In leaves they are 
 processes formed either by an elongation of 
 the woody tissue of the veins or by a con- 
 traction of the parenchyma : in the former 
 case they project beyond the surface or 
 margin of the leaf, as in the holly ; in the 
 latter case they are the veins themselves 
 indurated, as in the palmated spines of 
 Berherris vulgaris. 
 
 SPLEENWORT. (Asplenium, from «, 
 privative, and splen, spleen ; its supposed 
 medicinal qualities.) A genus of ferns, 
 having tufted or creeping, blackish, strong, 
 fibrous roots. The fronds are erect, mostly 
 stalked, either simple, variously pinnate, or 
 branched; notched or serrated, generally 
 of a fine texture, and smooth. Capsules 
 brown or tawny : cover pale, permanently 
 straight, always having a rib or vein be- 
 tween the edge at which it separates from 
 the frond and the outer margin of its lobe 
 or leaflet. There are nine indigenous spe- 
 cies, none of which call for any detailed 
 observations. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. 
 p. 304.) See Fern. 
 
 SPLINT. In farriery, a hard excrescence 
 growing on the shank bones of horses. It 
 appears first in the form of a callous tumour, 
 and afterwards ossifies. If the splint in- 
 terfere with the action of some tendon or 
 ligament, the hair should be removed, a 
 little strong mercurial ointment be rubbed 
 in for two days, and then an active blister 
 applied. ( Youatt on the Horse, p. 244.) 
 
 SPOKEN-CHAIN. Provincially a chain 
 to fix upon the spoke of the wheel of a 
 waggon, to draw it out by, when the team 
 happens to get set fast in a slouch. 
 
 SPOONBILL, WHITE. (Platalea lew 
 corodia.) A singular bird, which occa- 
 sionally visits the British shores, which is 
 characterised by an extraordinary shaped 
 beak ; whence its common name. Its food 
 is very similar to that of the herons, bit- 
 
SPRAT. 
 
 SPURREY. 
 
 terns, and storks ; and the bird itself is, 
 in other respects, very closely allied to the 
 waders. The whole of the plumage is pure 
 white, except a band of feathers at the 
 bottom of the neck in front, which is of a 
 buff colour ; the feathers of the occiput are 
 elongated, forming a conspicuous plume ; 
 the beak, legs, toes, and claws are black. 
 The whole length of the bird from the 
 point of the beak to the end of the tail, 
 about thirty-two inches ; of which the beak 
 in an old male will measure nine inches. 
 (Ya7'relVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 499.) 
 
 SPRAT. (Clupea sprattus, Linn.) A 
 well-known diminutive nsh. See Fish, as 
 a Manure. 
 
 SPRING WHEAT. See Wheat. 
 
 SPURGE. {Euphorbia ; Linnaeus named 
 this genus after Euphorbus, a physician to 
 Juba, king of Mauritania.) This is an ex- 
 ceedingly variable, and a very extensive 
 genus of plants, comprising a number that 
 are entirely unworthy of cultivation. The 
 hardy perennial species thrive in any com- 
 mon garden soil, and increase by divisions 
 of the roots or by seeds. The hardy an- 
 nuals and biennials merely require sowing 
 in the open ground. The tender kinds must 
 be sown in the hothouse or in a hot-bed 
 frame, and when potted off must be set with 
 other tender annuals and biennials. The 
 root of E. Ipecacuanha is said to be equal to 
 that of the true Ipecacuanha. E. antiquorum, 
 E. canariensis, and some other fleshy species, 
 produce the drug " Euphorbium," which is 
 the inspissated milky juice of such plants. 
 There are thirteen indigenous species, but 
 the only one necessary to be noticed is the 
 lesser spurge (E. Lathyris). It is a bien- 
 nial, flowering in J une and J uly. The stem 
 rises from a strong fibrous root, to the 
 height of three to four feet, purplish, smooth, 
 round, hollow. The leaves opposite, spread- 
 ing, in fours, sessile, oblong, acute, entire, 
 and glaucous. The flowers are in a ter- 
 minal solitary umbel, consisting of four re- 
 peatedly forked branches, furnished with 
 cordate entire bractes : the flowers are va- 
 riegated with yellow and dark purple. Cap- 
 sules are large and smooth, and, when half 
 ripe, are pickled as capers. The seeds, 
 when pressed between moderately heated 
 iron plates, yield a fixed acrid oil, which 
 might be advantageously substituted for 
 castor oil. (Paxtons Bot. Diet; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 58.) 
 
 SPUR( i E- LAUREL. (Daphne Laureola.) 
 An indigenous evergreen shrub, growing in 
 our woods, thickets, and hedges, flowering 
 in March. The stem is two or three feet 
 high, with round, pale, smooth, brown, up- 
 right, tough, and pliant branches, crowned 
 1114 
 
 with tufts of evergreen leaves, elegantly 
 drooping in all directions, and about two or 
 three inches long, on short footstalks. The 
 flowers are deep green, in axillary clusters, 
 with orange anthers. Their scent, resem- 
 bling saffron, with an overpowering sweet- 
 ness, is perceptible in an evening only. The 
 berries, which are oval and black, are poi- 
 sonous to all animals except birds. Every 
 part of the plant is very acrid, producing, 
 like the mezereon, a burning heat in the 
 mouth and throat. The bark of its root is 
 commonly used instead of mezereon. It is 
 powerfully excitant and diaphoretic. The 
 bark of the stem, soaked in vinegar and 
 beaten out flat, forms an excellent agent for 
 keeping blisters open. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 229.) 
 
 SPURGE OLIVE. See Mezekeon. 
 
 SPURREY. (Spergula, from spargo, to 
 scatter, because it expels its seeds.) A 
 genus of herbaceous, annual, or perennial 
 plants, with slender linear leaves and white 
 flowers. There are four indigenous species, 
 the most common of which is the rough 
 seeded corn spurrey (S. arvensis), an an- 
 nual plant, which grows in sandy corn-fields, 
 and flowers from June to August. The 
 stems are spreading, lax, six inches to two 
 feet long, moderately branched, jointed, 
 leafy, angular, and hairy and viscid in the 
 upper part. Leaves whorled, linear, narrow, 
 fleshy, downy, obtuse, with short stipules. 
 The flowers are white, on slender, downy 
 flower-stalks. The rough seeded spurrey 
 is a common weed in sandy soils, and is in 
 Scotland called yarr, and in Norfolk pick- 
 purse. It is devoured with avidity by all 
 cattle, and appears to be conducive to 
 their health, while it remarkably tends to 
 increase the milk of cows, and to fatten 
 sheep. Hence a large smooth seeded va- 
 riety of this weed (S.sativa) is industriously 
 cultivated in Flanders, because it is so far 
 superior to other pasture grasses that it 
 continues green till a late period of autumn, 
 and often throughout the winter. Its seeds 
 afford on expression a good lamp oil : the 
 flour obtained from them, when mixed with 
 that of wheat or rye, produces wholesome 
 bread, for which purpose it is often used in 
 Norway and Gothland. Poultry eat spur- 
 rey greedily, and it is supposed to make 
 them lay a great number of eggs, whether 
 given as hay, or cut green, or in pasture. 
 Von Thaer observes, that it is the most 
 nourishing, in proportion to its bulk, of all 
 forage, and gives the best flavoured milk 
 and butter. It has been recommended to 
 be cultivated in England, but it is not 
 likely that such a plant can ever pay the 
 expense of seed and labour in this country, 
 
SQUILL. 
 
 STALL-FEEDING. 
 
 even on the poorest soil ; or, at all events, 
 as Professor Martyn observes, we have many 
 better plants for such soils. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 336. ; Holddiclis Weeds, 
 p. 53. ; Williclis Dom. Encyclo.) 
 
 SQUILL. (Scilla, from skylla, to injure, 
 the bulbs being poisonous.) An extensive 
 genus of interesting bulbous plants. A 
 light soil is most suitable for them; and 
 they are readily increased by offsets from 
 the bulbs. The leaves are radical, linear. 
 The flowers in clusters, blue, purplish, 
 or white. There are four indigenous spe- 
 cies, the vernal squill (S. verna), the two- 
 leaved squill (S. bifolia), the autumnal squill 
 (S. autumnalis), and the harebell squill, or 
 wild hyacinth (S. nutans). The bulb of 
 the wild hyacinth contains much mucilage, 
 which can be readily separated from an 
 acrid principle, which is conjoined with it. 
 It is much employed by calico-printers. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 145.) 
 
 SQUINANCY WORT. See Woodruff. 
 
 SQUIRREL. (Sciurus vulgaris.) A 
 well-known lively little quadruped, abound- 
 ing in the woods of Britain. The squirrel 
 feeds on acorns, nuts, the young shoots of 
 trees, and the cones of firs. The female 
 constructs a nest of moss and dried leaves 
 in the branches of trees, where she brings 
 forth in April or May from three to seven 
 young. 
 
 SQUITCH-GRASS. See Couch and 
 Bent. 
 
 ST. JOHN'S WORT. See John's 
 Wort. 
 
 STACK. Corn in the sheaf, piled up in 
 a circular or rectangular figure, brought 
 to a point or ridge at top, and afterwards 
 thatched to protect it from the influence of 
 the weather, and more especially from rains. 
 The term is also sometimes applied to hay 
 piled up in the same manner, which, how- 
 ever, in most places is called a rick. The 
 foundation of a corn stack is commonly 
 made on a platform of wood or iron, raised 
 on props to protect it from the moisture of 
 the soil, and also from rats and mice ; in 
 which respect stacks of corn differ from 
 ricks of hay, which are built always on the 
 ground. It is of great advantage to soak 
 the props in corrosive sublimate, which 
 not only preserves the wood, but also de- 
 stroys vermin. Stacks are of various forms 
 and dimensions, according to circumstances ; 
 but for grain those of a long, narrow, 
 square shape are probably the most ad- 
 vantageous, where the quantity of corn is 
 considerable ; as they are found to stand 
 more firmly, have a better appearance, are 
 more conveniently and readily built, and 
 preserve the grain better than those of any 
 1115 
 
 other form. And they have the great ad- 
 vantage of requiring less thatch as well as 
 labour in putting it upon them than the 
 round stack. But where the corn is only 
 in a small proportion, the round or oblong 
 shape may be more proper and suitable, as 
 being more readily drawn up in the roof ; 
 but the circular, with a conical top and 
 cylindrical body diverging a little at the 
 eaves, is esteemed the best form by some. 
 For hay the form of the rick or stack is a 
 matter of still less consequence ; the long 
 square or oblong shapes are perhaps the 
 most safe and convenient, especially when 
 not too broad, as they admit the air most 
 fully, and are besides the most convenient 
 to cut from in trussing hay for sale at the 
 market. 
 
 STAG. A term applied pro vinci ally to 
 a young horse. Also to the male of the 
 deer kind. See Deer. 
 
 STAGGERS. See Apoplexy. 
 
 STALL-FEEDING. The process of 
 fattening cattle in the stall. The best prac- 
 tice in this mode of fattening is probably 
 that of wholly confining them to the stalls, 
 as by this means they are kept quiet, and 
 free from interruption, and of course feed 
 more quickly and with greater regularity, 
 which seem to be points of great import- 
 ance in this system of management. There 
 are, however, many other methods adopted 
 in different situations and circumstances. 
 
 In regard to the sorts of food that may 
 be employed in the way of winter fattening 
 animals, they are very numerous, but the 
 principal succulent kinds are carrots, pars- 
 nips, potatoes, Swedish turnips, cabbages, 
 common turnips, grains, &c. ; and of the 
 more dry sorts, oil-cake, oats, barley-meal, 
 rye-flour, bean and pea-meal, and others 
 of the same nature, with different kinds of 
 straw cut into chaff by means of machinery, 
 or hay cut in the same manner. It is usual 
 with some to employ the different meals in 
 a state of mixture in nearly equal propor- 
 tions, except bean meal, which from its 
 heating quality is mostly made use of in 
 smaller quantities. But on the principle of 
 fresh kinds of food having a more powerful 
 effect on the systems of animals when first 
 applied, it may be more beneficial to have 
 them given in alternation, or at distant in- 
 tervals, as their effects may in this way be 
 more fully experienced. 
 
 In respect to the cut straw and hay that 
 is made use of in this way, the first should 
 be prepared from that which is fresh thrashed 
 out. The hay, instead of being of the in- 
 ferior kind, should be the best that the 
 farm affords, and such as is not in the least 
 injured in the smell or taste by keeping. 
 The more inferior kinds of hay have, how- 
 
STANDARDS. 
 
 STARLING. 
 
 ever, by the addition of a very small propor- 
 tion of common salt, been made to be pre- 
 ferred to the best when not prepared in that 
 way. See Soiling, Folding, Food, &c. 
 
 Considerable advantages, especially on 
 small farms, are derivable from stall-feed- 
 ing, as will be seen from the following 
 extract from vol. i. p. 42. of the Farmers 
 Almanac, of the management of a plot of 
 three acres, at Jarington, in Sussex. The 
 occupier, J. Dumbrell, says, in a letter : — 
 " You have seen the account of my ma- 
 nagement of a small quantity of land, three 
 acres, on which I feed two cows by spade 
 husbandry. Half an acre of pasture, half 
 an acre and eight rods in wheat, and one 
 quarter of an acre in oats, the other part 
 was green food for the cows, such as rye, 
 tares, cabbage, clover, mangel wurzel, tur- 
 nips, Italian rye grass ; but if you are sur- 
 prised at my keeping them on this quantity 
 of land, I must tell you that one crop in a 
 year will not do it ; but my plan is to take 
 a successive crop, that is, rye is the first 
 thing that I cut green in the spring, then I 
 dig the land up and manure it with the 
 liquid manure as far as it will go, then 
 finish with rotten dung, and plant mangel 
 wurzel and turnips, and the part that I 
 manure with liquid is always the best; the 
 next thing I cut is winter barley and tares, 
 which I get off soon enough to sow more 
 turnips, and plant some cabbage for winter ; 
 by this time I cut the Italian rye grass and 
 clover^ which grows again in a short time, 
 with a little of the liquid manure, as soon 
 as it is cut. Last summer I cut the Italian 
 rye grass and clover three times, and this 
 year I have nearly cut it twice already ; and 
 there really were two good crops of the 
 Italian rye grass, and I think there will be 
 two more this summer with a little manur- 
 ing. My early cabbage I always let stand 
 to grow again all the summer, and they 
 bring a great deal of food ; then I plant in 
 November, and put the liquid manure to 
 them when I plant as far as it will go, but 
 to the rest I use dung or ashes, which are 
 not so good as the liquid, which anybody 
 may tell in the spring by looking at the bed 
 of cabbage. So now, sir, I hope you under- 
 stand what I keep the cows on in winter as 
 well as summer. I had no hay last winter, 
 only turnips, mangel wurzel, and straw, 
 and my cows did very well all the winter." 
 
 STAMPS. See Lease. 
 
 STANDARDS. The young trees re- 
 served at the felling of woods, for the 
 growth of timber. It also signifies such 
 fruit trees as are intended to grow in an 
 open exposure, and not to be hacked and 
 mangled with the knife, as the dwarf trees 
 and those planted against walls are. 
 1116 
 
 STARR, or BENT. See Artjndo an 
 
 El/TMUS. 
 
 STARCH. (Germ, sldrke.) One of the 
 common proximate principles of vegetables. 
 It is characterised by its insipidity, and by 
 insolubility in cold water, in alcohol, and 
 in ether. The term " starch" is commer- 
 cially applied to that obtained from wheat, 
 which for this manufacture is ground and 
 diffused through vats of water, where it 
 remains two or more weeks, and undergoes 
 a slight fermentation, and acquires a pecu- 
 liar sour smell. The sour liquor is drawn 
 off, and the precipitate washed in sieves, 
 through which the impure starch passes 
 with the water. It is afterwards passed 
 through other waters, drained through 
 boxes lined with linen or canvass, and ulti- 
 mately stove dried in paper. When drying, 
 it cracks into the prismatic pieces, resem- 
 bling miniature basalt, which is its usual 
 form. Starch may be obtained from many 
 other grains, and from potatoes and several 
 esculent vegetables. Arrowroot is the starch 
 of the Maranta arundinacea; British arrow- 
 root that of the root of Arum maculatum ; 
 sago of the Sagus faranifera, an East Indian 
 palm tree ; and tapioca and cassava, of the 
 Jatropha Manihot. In the process of ger- 
 mination, and by various chemical agents, 
 starch may be converted into a species of 
 gum and sugar. Pure starch is white, 
 tasteless, and inodorous. It consists of two 
 distinct substances, that are readily recog- 
 nised under a good magnifying lens, namely, 
 a membrane called amylin, and a gummy 
 semifluid matter named amiolin; the one 
 the husk, the other the contents of the 
 granules. In cold water, unless triturated 
 in a mortar, the grains do not burst, but 
 remain entire and insoluble ; but in boiling 
 water they burst and form a mucilage. 
 Starch is a compound of 42-8 parts of car- 
 bon, 6*35 of hydrogen, and 50*85 of oxygen 
 in 100 parts. Starch is much less nutri- 
 tious than wheat flour, or the farina of any 
 grain which contains gluten; and on this 
 account the starch of arrowroot, sago, &c, 
 is used as a diet for the sick. Starch is 
 detected from other mucilages by forming 
 a blue colour with iodine, when the muci- 
 lage is cold. Starch is charged with a duty 
 of 3%d. per lb., and its manufacture is con- 
 sequently placed under the control of the 
 excise. 
 
 STARLING. (Sturnus vulgaris.) This 
 is one of our handsome birds, both with 
 reference to shape and plumage ; and from 
 being very numerous as a species, and pretty 
 generally distributed, is not only very well 
 known, but from a variety of associations, 
 is a great favourite with many. The star- 
 ling builds in church steeples, under oaves, 
 
STAR-THISTLE. 
 
 STICKLEBACK. 
 
 and in holes of houses, towers or ruins ; 
 sometimes in hollow trees, and often in 
 cliffs or high rocks overhanging the sea; 
 occasionally in pigeon-houses. The nest 
 is made of straw, roots, and dry grass ; the 
 eggs are four or five in number, of a uniform 
 delicate pale blue, one inch two lines long 
 by ten lines in breadth. Their food con- 
 sists of worms, insects in their various 
 stages, and snails ; in default of these, they 
 will eat berries and grain. The starling is 
 found in almost every part of the United 
 Kingdom. The whole length of an adult 
 male is eight inches and a half. The 
 plumage verges on black, and is varied 
 with purple and green. The legs are dark 
 reddish brown. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. p. 44.) 
 
 STAR OF BETHLEHEM. See Beth- 
 lehem, Star of. 
 
 STAR-THISTLE. A name applied to 
 some species of Centaur ea, viz. Jersey star- 
 thistle (C. isnardi), the common star-thistle 
 (C. calcitrapa), and the yellow star-thistle, 
 or St. Barnaby's thistle (C. solstitialis). The 
 first is a perennial weed, the others are 
 annuals. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 468.) See Blue-Bottle, Knapweed, 
 &c. 
 
 STARWORT. {Aster, a star ; whence 
 also the common name, the flowers re- 
 sembling little stars from the rays of their 
 circumference.) Many species of this ex- 
 tensive genus are stately and handsome 
 plants. One species is indigenous, the sea 
 starwort (A. Tripolium), a perennial, which 
 grows plentifully in salt marshes on the 
 muddy sea-coast, flowering in August and 
 September. The herbage is smooth, rather 
 glaucous. Stem round, generally erect, 
 two or three feet high. Leaves lanceolate, 
 entire fleshy. Flowers, large and handsome, 
 with a yellow or orange disk, and numer- 
 ous spreading elliptic -oblong rays, generally 
 of a bright blue, occasionally white. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 436.) See Aster. 
 
 STARWORT, THE WATER. (Cal- 
 litriche ; named by Pliny from kalos, beauti- 
 ful, and thrix, hair.) Annual aquatic plants, 
 which grow in ditches, ponds, and lakes. 
 There are two native species : the vernal 
 water starwort (C. verna), and the autum- 
 nal water starwort (C. autumnalis). (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 9.) 
 
 STEALING. See Animals, Wild, 
 Stealing of, Sheep Stealing, &c. 
 
 STEAM. Water converted into an elastic 
 fluid by the application of heat. It would 
 be foreign to our subject to go into any de- 
 tail of the various mechanical uses and im- 
 provements to which steam has been applied 
 with so much success. Latterly, however, 
 a spirit of inquiry has led to an investiga- 
 1117 
 
 tion into the application of steam to pur- 
 poses of husbandry, such as engines for 
 ploughing, draining, &c. ; and, though there 
 are obstacles in the way of their successful 
 operation, there is little doubt that event- 
 ually the spirit of research and improvement 
 will overcome these difficulties, and create 
 a singular revolution in the practical ope- 
 rations of agriculture, whereby a vast 
 amount of animal power will be saved, and 
 an increased impetus be given to produc- 
 tion. A series of very able papers on this 
 subject appeared a few years ago in the 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. v. p. 84. 479., 
 vol. vi. p. 411., vol. vii. p. 225. 
 
 STEAMING FOOD. The advantages 
 to be derived from boiling or preparing the 
 food of live stock are now very generally 
 understood and appreciated ; although it is 
 still a question whether it always compen- 
 sates for the extra labour and time con- 
 sumed. We have- already gone into this 
 subject under the head Food, and merely 
 revert to it now to call attention to some 
 articles describing apparatuses for steaming 
 food, which will be found in the Quart. 
 Journ. of Agr. vol. iv. p. 378., vol. vi. p. 33. 
 Steaming is also popularly treated of and 
 explained in the first volume of Brit. Hush. 
 p. 129. 
 
 STEARINE. (Gr.) That part of oils 
 and fats which is solid at common tem- 
 peratures. Both in fats and in fixed oils it 
 is associated with a fluid principle, which 
 cannot be rendered solid at the lowest 
 known temperatures. Stearine is only 
 found in animal fats ; or, at least, is rarely 
 present in those of a vegetable origin. 
 
 STEELYARD. A well-known balance, 
 by which the weights of bodies are deter- 
 mined by means of a single standard 
 weight. 
 
 STEEPING. See Brining of Grain 
 and Smut. 
 
 STEPPES. (Russ.) The name given 
 to the vast extent of plains peculiar to Asia; 
 synonymous with the prairies of North 
 America, and the llanos of South America. 
 The steppes of Russia are not unlike the 
 heaths of Germany ; being in part susceptible 
 of cultivation, and affording pasturage for 
 numerous herds belonging to nomadic 
 tribes. See Russia. 
 
 STITCHWORT. (Stellarid, from stella, 
 a star ; the flowers are star-like.) A genus 
 of herbaceous plants which are mere weeds. 
 There are eight indigenous species, one or 
 two of which are annual, the others are pe- 
 rennial. See Chickweed. 
 
 STICKLEBACK. (Gasterosteus acu- 
 leatus.) A well-known fish, abounding in 
 newly cut ditches, canals, and other collec- 
 tions of water. It seldom exceeds two or 
 
STIGMA. 
 
 STOOL. 
 
 three inches in length : the back is covered 
 with sharp spines, and, like its sides, is of an 
 olive green ; the belly is perfectly white. 
 Numerous shoals of sticklebacks inhabit the 
 fens of Lincolnshire and the adjoining rivers, 
 where they are used to fertilise the land. 
 See Fish, as a Manure. 
 
 STIGMA. In botany, the upper ex- 
 tremity of the style without a cuticle, in 
 consequence of which it has almost uni- 
 formly a humid and papillose surface. It 
 is the part upon which the pollen falls, and 
 where it is stimulated into the production 
 of the pollen tubes, which are indispensible 
 to the act of impregnation. 
 
 STILES. A well-known contrivance for 
 the admission of foot passengers, without 
 permitting the stock of the inclosures to 
 escape. Stiles are made in very different 
 forms and manners in different districts, 
 according to the materials, situations, and 
 purposes for which they are intended. 
 
 STILT. (Himantopus melanopterus^) A 
 bird remarkable for its long and slender 
 legs. The black-winged stilt has occasion- 
 ally been killed in some of the English 
 counties; but it is merely an accidental 
 visiter to our shores. The whole length of 
 this bird is about thirteen inches. The 
 head, neck, breast, and under parts of the 
 body are white ; the back and wings nearly 
 black, tinged with green ; the legs and toes 
 pink. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 559.) 
 
 STINT. A name given to some diminu- 
 tive species of sandpiper. Mr. Yarrell, in 
 his Brit. Birds, describes two species, the 
 little stint (Tringa minutd), which is about 
 six inches long, and Temminck's stint ( T. 
 Temminckii), which is even smaller in size, 
 being only five inches and three quarters 
 long. The food of these birds consists of 
 small insects and worms. See Sandpiper. 
 
 STIPE. The stalk of a fern leaf, or of 
 the head of a fungus. 
 
 STIPULES. In botany, small scales or 
 appendages situated on each side at the base 
 of the petioles or leaf-stalks, most commonly 
 of a less firm texture than the latter, and 
 having a subulate termination. 
 
 STOCK. (Matthiola.) This is a genus 
 of old and well-known inhabitants of the 
 garden. The principal species are, double 
 stock gillhiowers, Brompton, and queen 
 stocks, annual and ten weeks' stock. The 
 management and culture of the stock is too 
 well known to need description here. There 
 are reckoned to be two indigenous species ; 
 the hoary shrubby stock (M. incana), which 
 grows to about two feet high on maritime 
 cliffs in the south of England, and the great 
 tock (M. sinuata), a biennial plant, 
 flourishing on the sandy sea-coasts of Wales 
 and Cornwall. 
 
 1118 1 
 
 STOCK DOVE. See Pigeon. 
 
 STOCK-NUT. See Hazee. 
 
 STOLONIFEROUS. Bearing runners 
 which root at the joints. 
 
 STOMATA. In botany, orifices through 
 the epidermis of plants, chiefly of the leaves, 
 having the appearance of an areola, in the 
 centre of which is a slit of various form 
 and size, that opens or closes, according to 
 circumstances, and lies over a cavity in the 
 subjacent tissue. They are universally re- 
 garded as spiracles, or breathing pores. In 
 leaves of trees and plants exposed to the 
 air they usually occupy the under disk ; on 
 those that lie upon the surface of water, 
 the upper disk. 
 
 STONECHAT. (Saxicola rubicola.) A 
 species of warbler which is a constant re- 
 sident with us. It builds its nest of moss, 
 grass, hair, and feathers, on the ground, at 
 the base of some low bush. The eggs are 
 five or six in number, of a pale greyish 
 blue, the larger end minutely sprinkled with 
 dull reddish brown. The egg is about eight 
 lines and a half long, and seven lines in 
 breadth. The head, neck, chin, and throat 
 are black ; sides of the neck to the wing 
 white ; breast, rich chestnut. The whole 
 length of the bird is five inches and a 
 quarter. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 
 245.) 
 
 STONECROP. (Sedum.) A genus of 
 herbs, with alternate, very succulent, either 
 flat, cylindrical, or tumid leaves. Root 
 mostly perennial. Flowers yellow, white, 
 or reddish, usually cymose, rarely axillary. 
 There are ten indigenous species, which in- 
 habit, for the most part, old walls, roofs, 
 and dry sandy ground. See House-Leek 
 and Orpine. 
 
 STONE CURLEW. See Peover. 
 
 STONE-PARSLEY. (Afhamanta.) 
 These are chiefly weeds. There is but one 
 native species, the mountain stone-parsley 
 (A. libanotis), which is found occasionally 
 growing in elevated chalky pastures. Root 
 tapering, perennial, a little woody, bitterish, 
 and pungent. Stem from one to three feet 
 high, angular, and deeply furrowed, solid. 
 Leaves doubly pinnate, cut. Umbels ter- 
 minal, hemispherical, of crowded white or 
 reddish flowers, blowing in August. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 87.) 
 
 STOOKING. The Scotch term for set- 
 ting up sheaves of corn in stooks or shocks. 
 The operation is performed soon after the 
 corn is cut, it being previously tied into 
 bunches or sheaves. 
 
 STOOL. The root of a timber tree, 
 which throws up shoots. Coppice wood 
 consists chiefly of the shoots sent up by (ho 
 roots of stools, or trees or shrubs which 
 have been cut over by the surface. In ge- 
 
STORK. 
 
 STRAW. 
 
 neral, all dicotyledonous trees are endowed 
 by nature with the property of sending up 
 shoots from the stumps or stools ; but this 
 is not the case with most of the gymnosperms 
 or coniferous trees. A wood of pines or 
 firs, therefore, when once cut down, can 
 never be renewed, except by seeds. It is 
 a curious fact that the shoot, however large 
 the stool may be, can be traced to the pith, 
 and therefore appears to have been origin- 
 ally a shoot of the first year's growth of the 
 plant. That its growth has been impeded 
 is evident ; but when the tree is cut down, 
 and the whole sap thrown into a small space, 
 the latent, yet vital, gum is stimulated, and 
 a twig thence produced. 
 
 STORK. (Ciconia.) The white stork 
 (C. alba) is that species which visits, though 
 rarely, England. The whole length of 
 this bird is three feet six or eight inches. 
 A few recent instances of the visit of the 
 black stork (C. nigra) to this country are 
 on record. In length this species is about 
 three feet four inches. (YarreWs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. ii. p. 489—493.) 
 
 STORK'S-BILL. (Erodium, from ero- 
 dios, a heron ; the carpels resemble the head 
 and beak of that bird.) This is an exten- 
 sive genus of plants of considerable beauty : 
 they thrive well in any common soil with 
 the usual treatment. There are three in- 
 digenous species, the musky stork's-bill (E. 
 moschatum), an annual ; the sea stork's-bill 
 (E. maritimum), a perennial ; and the hem- 
 lock stork's-bill (E. cicutarium), an annual, 
 which is the most common species, and 
 grows everywhere in waste ground. The 
 root is tap-shaped, whitish. Herbage some- 
 what hairy and viscid, disagreeably scented. 
 Stems procumbent, hairy, mostly branched, 
 leafy. Leaves pinnate ; leaflets pinnatifid, 
 cut. Flowers rose-coloured, in stalked um- 
 bels. Capsules single-seeded, bristly, with 
 reflexed hairs. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 229.) 
 
 STOT. A provincial term applied to a 
 steer or young bullock. 
 
 STOVEN. A sapling shoot from the 
 stool of a fallen tree. 
 
 STOVER. A general name for the dif- 
 ferent kinds of fodder arising from thrashed 
 grain, whether it be straw, chaff, or the 
 short straws, such as ears and rough chaffy 
 matter, separated by the rake or riddle 
 from the corn in chaff after the straw has 
 been removed from the floor. 
 
 STOWK. The handle of a pail : also a 
 shock of twelve sheaves of grain. 
 
 STRAINS. In farriery, accidental in- 
 juries arising from over distension of the 
 muscles or tendons, in consequence of which 
 the animals suffer great pain, and are ge- 
 nerally lamed. 
 
 1119 
 
 STRANGLES. In farriery, a disease 
 which is principally incident to young 
 horses ; usually appearing between the 
 fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the 
 spring than at any other season. It is pre- 
 ceded by cough, and is a disease to which 
 all horses are subject, but it never returns. 
 A blister will be found the best application 
 to hasten the formation and suppuration of 
 the tumour under the jaw, which, from its 
 situation, has probably given the name to 
 this disease. (Youatt on the Horse, p. 149.) 
 
 STAPWORT. (Corrigiola, a diminutive 
 of corrigia, a leathern thong, from the habit 
 of the plant.) These are pretty annuals, 
 only requiring to be sown in the open 
 ground, and to be treated as other hardy 
 annuals. One species is indigenous, the 
 sand strapwort (C. littoralis), which grows 
 about the southern coasts of England. It 
 has a small tapering root. Stems several 
 inches long, spreading on the ground in 
 every direction, flaccid, not much branched. 
 Leaves, scattered, simple, linear-lanceolate, 
 obtuse, glaucous, rather fleshy. Clusters 
 terminal and lateral, subdivided or inter- 
 rupted, of numerous pearly, often sessile 
 flowers. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 112.) 
 
 STRATH, in Scotland, is generally un- 
 derstood to signify a valley of considerable 
 size, whose appellation is determined by 
 some river running through it, or some 
 particular characteristic. 
 
 STRATUM. When different rocks lie 
 in succession upon each other, each indi- 
 vidual forms a stratum. See Geology. 
 
 STRAW. The stalks or culms on which 
 corn and other grasses grow, and from 
 which the grain has been separated by 
 thrashing. When chopped or cut small, it 
 affords a wholesome provender for horses 
 and oxen, especially if it be mixed with 
 green food. (See Chaff and Chaff En- 
 gines.) It is likewise usefully employed in 
 thatching cottages, houses, and barns. But 
 as such buildings are liable to be uncovered 
 by violent storms, farmers should, if pos- 
 sible, annually reserve a sufficient quantity 
 of wheat straw in order to be provided 
 against accidents ; thus the necessity of 
 purchasing straw at a high price, or of 
 thrashing their wheat at an improper sea- 
 son, may be effectually obviated. The value 
 and qualities of the straws of the different 
 cereal grasses varies considerably accord- 
 ing to the soil and season. It is thought that 
 when grown on gravelly or rich clay soils 
 it is more valuable as fodder than when 
 it is reared on black deep loam or cold 
 moory land; and it is now generally ad- 
 mitted that it possesses more succulence 
 when the corn is rather green than when 
 it is in a riper state. It is supposed by 
 
STRAWBERRY. 
 
 STRENGTH. 
 
 many that the straw of wheat is the most 
 nutritive ; it certainly makes the strongest 
 manure, and is thought to be the best for 
 either steaming or cutting into chaff, al- 
 though that of oats is usually preferred, as 
 more soft and palatable to cattle. That of 
 barley is so poor and brittle that it is only 
 employed as litter ; it is extremely difficult 
 to save it in any tolerable degree of order ; 
 and though it has been said to possess more 
 nutriment than wheat, yet when the crop 
 is fully ripe, the ears break off in handling, 
 which has been contended as sufficient 
 proof that it contains very little sap. Rye 
 straw is so scarce in all except the northern 
 counties, and some parts of Wales, and 
 is in such demand for thatching, brick- 
 making; &c, that it is but seldom applied 
 to other uses. When not allowed to be 
 carried off the premises, the chief value of 
 white straw for farm purposes lies in its 
 conversion into manure ; for although it 
 may carry store cattle through the winter, 
 it will neither fatten them nor enable any 
 animal to work ; and its intrinsic worth 
 for the uses of litter and of occasional feed- 
 ing has been estimated by experienced 
 farmers at 20*. to 30s. the ton. (Sinclair's 
 Scot. Husb. ; Brown's Treat, on Rural Af- 
 fairs, vol. i. chap. v. ; Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 
 132.) See Haulm. 
 
 STRAWBERRY. (Fragaria, from fra- 
 grans, fragrant ; the perfumed fruit of the 
 strawberry is well known.) The strawberry 
 is our earliest fruit, and, as the harbinger of 
 the fructus horcei, its appearance is as wel- 
 come as its flavour agreeable. The culti- 
 vation and propagation of this plant is so 
 familiar to every one, as are the wholesome- 
 ness and deliciousness of the fruit, that 
 neither need be particularised here any 
 further than that seeds sown early in 
 spring will generally fruit the same year, 
 very late in autumn. Our indigenous spe- 
 cies are two, the wood strawberry (F. 
 vesca), and the hautbois strawberry (F. ela- 
 tior). The covering of strawberry plants 
 with sea-weed in the winter has been found 
 to increase the size of the fruit to a pro- 
 digious degree. This is much practised in 
 the island of Jersey. A very interesting 
 article on the mode by which the metropolis 
 is supplied with strawberries will be found 
 in No. 124. of the Saturday Magazine. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 413.; Phil- 
 lies Fruits, p. 326. ; Paxton's Bot. Diet. ; 
 Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vi. p. 301.) 
 
 STRAWBERRY-LEAVED CINQUE- 
 FOIL. See ClNQUEFOIL. 
 
 STRAWBERRY-TREE. See Arbu- 
 tus. 
 
 STRAW-CUTTER. See Chaff-En- 
 gine. 
 
 1120 
 
 STRAW- YARD. The yard into which 
 straw is thrown in thrashing. Also the en- 
 closure in which cattle are confined in 
 winter, for the purpose of being foddered 
 on straw. There ought to be open sheds 
 for shelter in the straw-yard; for though 
 pure air is essential to the health of store 
 and working cattle, cold winds and rain are 
 highly injurious to them. The great use 
 of a straw-yard is for the accumulation of 
 manure, which cannot be rich unless the 
 cattle get some food besides straw to sup- 
 port them. 
 
 STREET DUNG. The mixture of ani- 
 mal and vegetable matters, comminuted 
 particles, &c, swept up from the streets of 
 large towns, which is found to be an ex- 
 cellent fertiliser ; it is composed of a mix- 
 ture of horse dung, debris of the paving 
 stones, soot, lime, and metallic particles. 
 
 STRENGTH, in Mechanics, is used in 
 the same sense as force or power. Thus, 
 strength of animals is the muscular force 
 or energy which animals are capable of 
 exerting; strength of materials is the re- 
 sistance which bodies oppose to a force 
 acting upon them. It is obviously a 
 matter of much importance to be able to 
 estimate with tolerable accuracy the efforts 
 which an animal of the average strength 
 employed in labour is capable of exerting, 
 and, accordingly, very numerous observ- 
 ations have been made on the subject ; but 
 this species of force is subject to variation 
 from so great a number of circumstances, 
 both physical and mechanical, that the re- 
 sults given by different authors present 
 very little agreement with each other, 
 though they are of great value as afford- 
 ing data for determining the modes in which 
 animal labour is most advantageously em- 
 ployed. 
 
 Of all animals employed as first movers, 
 the horse is, beyond question, the most use- 
 ful, and that whose labour is susceptible of 
 the most numerous and varied applications. 
 For the purpose of determining his muscular 
 power, the dynamometer may be conve- 
 niently used; but, as the action of the 
 animal is very quickly reduced by continued 
 exertion, it is more usual to estimate it ac- 
 cording to the amount of daily labour per- 
 formed. Desaguliers and Smeaton estimate 
 the strength of a horse as equivalent to 
 that of five men ; the French authors have 
 commonly stated it as equal to seven men ; 
 and Schulze makes it equal to that of four- 
 teen men in drawing horizontally. Ac- 
 cording to Desaguliers, a horse's power is 
 equal to 44 lb. raised one foot high in one 
 minute. Smeaton makes this number 22*916, 
 I lachett 28, and Watt 33. The last estimate 
 is commonly understood by the term horse- 
 
STUBBLE. 
 
 SUBSOIL-PLOUGHING. 
 
 power as applied to steam-engines. The 
 quantity of action which a horse can exert 
 diminishes as the duration of the labour is 
 prolonged. Tredgold gives the following 
 table, showing the average maximum ve- 
 locity with which a horse unloaded can 
 travel according to the number of hours 
 per day : — 
 
 Time of 
 iMarch in 
 Hours. 
 
 Greatest Velo- 
 city per Hour 
 in Miles. 
 
 Time of 
 March in 
 Hours. 
 
 Greatest Velo- 
 city per Hour 
 in Miles. 
 
 1 
 
 14-7 
 
 6 
 
 6'0 
 
 2 
 
 10-4 
 
 7 
 
 5'5 
 
 3 
 
 8-5 
 
 8 
 
 5-2 
 
 4 
 
 7-3 
 
 9 
 
 4-9 
 
 5 
 
 6'6 
 
 10 
 
 4-6 
 
 The useful effect a horse is capable of 
 producing depends much upon the manner 
 in which his strength is applied. See Carts, 
 Dynamometer, Thrashing Machine. 
 
 Strength of Materials. — There are four 
 different ways in which the strength of a 
 solid body may be exerted : first, in resist- 
 ing a longitudinal tension, or force tending 
 to tear it asunder ; secondly, in resisting a 
 force tending to break the body by a trans- 
 verse strain ; thirdly, in resisting compres- 
 sion, or a force tending to crush the body ; 
 and, fourthly, in resisting a force tending -to 
 wrench it asunder by torsion. "Mr. Hodg- 
 kinson gives the following results of his 
 experiments on the resistance of a crushing 
 force of short pillars of some of the most 
 common descriptions of wood, the force 
 being applied in the direction of the fibres. 
 
 {Brandes Diet of Science ; Barlows Treat, 
 on the Strength of Timber.) 
 
 STUBBLE. The root ends of the culms 
 of corn left in the field, standing as they 
 grew, after the corn has been reaped by the 
 sickle or scythe. In some parts of the 
 country only a small portion of the straw is 
 cut off with the ears of corn, and the stub- 
 1121 
 
 ble in that case is a foot or eighteen inches 
 in length ; but in others, the corn is cut as 
 close to the surface as possible, in which 
 case the stubble is quite short. In general, 
 long stubble is a symptom of bad farming, 
 because a quantity of straw is in this case 
 left waste in the field, which might have 
 been carried home and rotted into ma- 
 nure. 
 
 STUBWOOD. The young wood that 
 is cut from stubs or stools, or such wood as 
 grows in hedgerows and does not properly 
 come under the name of timber, pollards, 
 or thorns. The age or size of cutting must 
 ever be guided by the demand in a given 
 district ; whether it be for cordwood, hop- 
 poles, hoops, stakes, faggots, &c. 
 
 STURK. A provincial name for a young 
 bullock or heifer. 
 
 STYLE. In botany, is that elongation 
 of the ovarium which supports the stigma. 
 It is an extension of the midrib of the car- 
 pellary leaf, or is formed by the rolling up 
 of the attenuated extremity of the latter. 
 
 SUBSOIL-PLOUGH. See Plough and 
 Subsoil Ploughing. 
 
 SUBSOIL-PLOUGHING. In farming 
 the operation of breaking the substratum by 
 means of a plough constructed especially 
 for that purpose. Considerable discussion 
 has taken place, with regard to the advan- 
 tages of subsoil-ploughing ; a difference of 
 opinion which appears to have been princi- 
 pally caused by an inattention to the che- 
 mical effects produced by the subsoil, or 
 Deanstonizing system of tillage, so named 
 from being first employed, or at least first 
 brought into general notice, by Mr. Smith 
 of Deanston, in Stirlingshire, when he was 
 examined, in 1836, before the Agricultural 
 Committee of the House of Commons. By 
 this system, by means of a subsoil-plough, 
 of which there are several kinds, the sub- 
 soil, or under crust of earth, is merely broken 
 and pulverized, say to the depth of from 
 fourteen to twenty inches, without being 
 brought to the surface, or mixed with the 
 upper soil; after a lapse of four or five 
 years, a portion of the previously disturbed 
 substratum is found, by experience, in a 
 state to be advantageously (by deep plough- 
 ing) brought to the surface ; it being in this 
 time, by the action of the atmosphere, and 
 perhaps by a partial mixture with the sur- 
 face-mould, rendered sufficiently friable 
 and fertile. It is of necessity a conse- 
 quence of this subsoil-ploughing that the 
 permanent drains of all lands thus culti- 
 vated must be constructed rather deeper 
 in the soil than is usual with farmers : the 
 top of those of Deanston are placed at a 
 depth of twenty-two inches from the sur- 
 face, so as to be completely out of the way 
 4 c 
 
 Description of Wood. 
 
 Strength per square Inch 
 in lbs. 
 
 Alder 
 
 6831 
 
 to C960 
 
 Ash 
 
 8683 
 
 93C3 
 
 Bay 
 
 7518 
 
 7518 
 
 Beech - 
 
 7733 
 
 9363 
 
 English birch 
 
 3297 
 
 6402 
 
 Cedar 
 
 5674 
 
 5863 
 
 Red deal 
 
 5748 
 
 6686 
 
 White deal 
 
 6781 
 
 7293 
 
 Elder 
 
 7451 
 
 9973 
 
 Elm 
 
 
 10331 
 
 Fir (spruce) 
 
 6499 
 
 6819 
 
 Mahogany 
 
 8198 
 
 8198 
 
 Oak (Quebec) 
 
 4231 
 
 5982 
 
 Oak (English 
 
 6484 
 
 10058 
 
 Pine (pilch) 
 
 6790 
 
 6790 
 
 Pine (red) 
 
 5395 
 
 7518 
 
 Poplar - 
 
 3107 
 
 5124 
 
 Plum (dry) 
 
 8241 
 
 10493 
 
 Teak 
 
 
 12101 
 
 Walnut ... 
 
 6063 
 
 7227 
 
 Willow 
 
 2898 
 
 6128 
 
SUBSOIL-PLOUGHING. 
 
 of the subsoil which the plough has turned 
 over. 
 
 As the description of this valuable 
 plough cannot be too generally circulated, 
 I will here introduce it in Mr. Smith's own 
 words. 
 
 " The subsoil-plough has been con- 
 structed on principles appearing the best 
 fitted to break up the subsoil completely 
 to a depth sufficient for thorough culti- 
 vation, say fourteen to sixteen inches, whilst 
 the active soil is still retained on the surface ; 
 to be of the easiest possible draught in re- 
 ference to the depth of furrow and firmness 
 of the subsoil ; to have strength and massive 
 weight sufficient to penetrate the hardest 
 stratum; to resist the shocks from fast 
 stones, and to throw out all stones under 
 200 lb. in weight. All this has been ac- 
 complished and practically proved at Dean- 
 ston, over an extent of at least 200 acres of 
 various soils ; and also in various parts of 
 England, Scotland, and Ireland, during 
 several seasons. The plough requires four 
 good horses, an active ploughman, and a 
 lad to drive the horses and manage them 
 at the turnings. Six horses, yoked three 
 and three abreast, may be necessary in 
 some very stiff or stony soils. A common 
 plough, drawn by two horses, goes before 
 the subsoil-plough, throwing out a large 
 open furrow of the active soil ; the subsoil- 
 plough following, slits up thoroughly and 
 breaks the subsoil, and the next furrow of 
 active soil is thrown over the last opened 
 furrow of the subsoil ; the stones brought 
 to the surface by the subsoil-plough being 
 thrown aside on the ploughed part of the 
 land by a lad, thus the work proceeds until 
 the whole field is gone over. The lad 
 should carry a bag of wooden pins, that he 
 may mark the site of the large fast stones 
 which the plough cannot throw out, and 
 which must afterwards be dug out with 
 the pick, and perhaps blasted. 
 
 "The charge of subsoil-ploughing a Scotch 
 acre may be estimated at 24s. or 30s. per 
 statute acre, being one fifth of what a 
 similar depth with the spade would cost, 
 and, upon the whole, as effectually done. 
 When land which has been opened up by 
 the subsoil-plough shall have undergone 
 the first rotation of cropping, several inches 
 of the subsoil may be taken up by the 
 plough to mix with the active soil ; and in 
 proportion as the subsoil is ameliorated, so 
 may the greater depth be taken up with 
 advantage. In the richer subsoils it is 
 sometimes expedient to plough to the whole 
 depth of the moved subsoil on the first 
 application of the trench plough. The 
 trench plough recommended for this pro- 
 cess should be made in the form of Wil tie's 
 1122 
 
 plough, having all its dimensions made of 
 double size; or, what is found to answer 
 fully as well, by a plough in the fashion of 
 the old Scotch plough, but also of double 
 the dimensions. Such ploughs require six 
 horses, yoked three and three abreast, with 
 one man to hold the plough, and another 
 to manage the horses, to do the work effec- 
 tually. This operation should be performed 
 in turning over the winter furrow pre- 
 paratory to a green crop, and the sooner 
 the work is performed after harvest the 
 better. In estimating the expense of this 
 operation, the horses may be charged at 
 4s. each, to cover all expenses, tear and 
 wear, &c, which will amount to 24s.; two 
 men 2s. = 4s. ; and an attendant lad to 
 pick out stones, Is.; in all 29s. As the 
 work is heavy, the motion of the horses 
 is necessarily slow, and it will, in general, 
 take eight hours' working to accomplish 
 one statute acre. The expense of this 
 operation may appear alarming ; but when 
 it is considered that one such ploughing 
 will be more effectual in killing weeds, and 
 in exposing the soil to the air, than two 
 ordinary ploughings, we may deduct the 
 cost of two such = 20s., leaving 9s. to be 
 charged against the deep working. 
 
 " When land has been thoroughly drained, 
 deeply wrought, and well manured, the 
 most unpromising sterile soil becomes a 
 deep rich loam ; rivalling, in fertility, the 
 best natural land of the country ; and from 
 being fitted for raising only scanty crops of 
 common oats, will bear good crops of from 
 32 to 48 bushels of wheat, 30 to 40 bushels 
 of beans, 40 to 60 bushels of barley, and 
 from 48 to 70 bushels of early oats, per 
 statute acre; besides potatoes, turnips, 
 mangel wurzel, and carrots, as green crops, 
 which all good agriculturists know are the 
 abundant producers of the best manure. It 
 is hardly possible to estimate all the advan • 
 tages of dry and deep soil. Every opera- 
 ation in husbandry is thereby facilitated 
 and cheapened ; less seed and less manure 
 produce a full effect ; the chances of a good 
 and early tid (a Scotch term for that state 
 of the ploughed soil which is most suitable 
 for receiving the seed ; neither too moist 
 nor too dry) for sowing are greatly in- 
 creased ; a matter of great importance in 
 our precarious climate : and there can be 
 no doubt that even the climate itself will be 
 much improved by the general prevalence 
 of land dry." 
 
 In this instance, as in most other novel 
 agricultural efforts, the zeal of its promo- 
 ters has sometimes carried them too far ; 
 they have even confidently contended that 
 in most situations subsoiling will render 
 draining unnecessary ; a result which would 
 
SUBSOIL -PLOUGHING. 
 
 hardly have been arrived at by the most 
 sanguine subsoiler, if he had paused to re- 
 collect that deepening the soil, however it 
 may promote the absorption of atmospheric 
 moisture, can in few situations enable land 
 springs and stagnant waters to escape. The 
 objects to be obtained by these operations 
 are, in fact, diametrically opposite. The 
 one is • adopted to increase the gradual 
 healthful supply of food and moisture by 
 the earth to the roots of the crop, in the de- 
 gree the most grateful to its habits. The 
 other expensive practice is, to remove that 
 moisture when (from any cause) it be- 
 comes too abundant for healthful vegeta- 
 tion ; this removal can only be obtained in 
 very peculiar situations by the mere use 
 of the subsoil-plough, and then to a very 
 limited extent ; such, for example, as when 
 the crust or subsoil is of such a degree of 
 thinness as to be completely penetrated by 
 the plough, and thus the upper soil brought, 
 by breaking up the separating crust, into 
 immediate contact with a substratum of 
 earth of greater absorbent properties than 
 the pan-crust which has hitherto separated 
 them. 
 
 I propose, in this place, to examine, first, 
 what is the chemical effect of the atmo- 
 sphere upon the broken-up subsoil ; secondly, 
 how that substratum is thus rendered more 
 serviceable to the plants growing upon it ; 
 and thirdly, the testimony of practical far- 
 mers which has been produced on the ques- 
 tion. In entering on the investigation, I 
 will assume, for the sake of the argument, 
 what is commonly found to be the case, 
 that the chemical composition of the sub- 
 soil and surface-soil is nearly the same, 
 each containing very similar proportions 
 of the earths silica, alumina, and carbo- 
 nate of lime, and that the surface-soil pos- 
 sesses merely the largest portion of decom- 
 posing organic remains. And yet, although 
 this conclusion is one that is very usually 
 correct, yet it is by no means universally 
 the fact ; for not only does this dissimilarity 
 of composition, in many cases, appear on a 
 chemical examination, but the practice of 
 many farmers supports the results of a 
 chemical analysis : thus, the spade culti- 
 vators find, almost always, the advantages 
 of trenching the soil, and, in most districts, 
 " a thin-skinned soil " is but another way 
 of describing its poverty. The farmers of 
 the chalky soils of Sussex, Dorsetshire, 
 Wilts, and Hampshire, very advantageously 
 raise the substratum of chalk existing under 
 their lands, and spread it in considerable 
 quantities on the surface. Those of Essex 
 and Suffolk in many places do the same 
 with the under stratum of clay or marl on 
 which their surface-soils immediately rest ; 
 1123 
 
 and they find this a very profitable prac- 
 tice, because the earths which constitute 
 all fertile soils being also the necessary 
 constituents of the commonly cultivated 
 grasses, are gradually and incessantly car- 
 ried off from thence by continual cropping, 
 and consequently in time an advantageous 
 opportunity is afforded for their being re- 
 plenished with the earths, perhaps contained 
 in the subsoil, in which they may have be- 
 come deficient. 
 
 The chemical effect of pulverizing and 
 breaking up a subsoil is certainly advan- 
 tageous to the plant in two ways, besides 
 others with which we are very likely at 
 present unacquainted ; first, it renders the 
 soil penetrable to a much greater depth by 
 the roots, or minute fibres of the plant, and 
 consequently renders more available any 
 decomposing matters, or earthy ingredients, 
 which that substratum may contain ; and, 
 secondly, it renders the soil much more 
 freely permeable by the atmosphere, ren- 
 dering, in consequence, a greatly increased 
 supply, not only of oxygen gas to the roots 
 of the plants, but also yielding more mois- 
 ture, not only from the soil, but from the 
 atmospheric air ; which moisture, let it be 
 remembered by the cultivator, is in all 
 weathers as incessantly absorbing by the 
 soil as it is universally contained in the at- 
 mosphere, abounding most in the latter, in 
 the very periods when it is most needed by 
 the plants — that is, in the warmest and 
 driest weather. 
 
 It is, perhaps, needless to prove, that 
 the roots of commonly cultivated plants will 
 penetrate, under favourable circumstances, 
 much greater depths into the soil, in search 
 of moisture, than they can, from the resist- 
 ance of the case-hardened subsoil, commonly 
 attain. Thus the roots of the wheat-plant 
 in loose deep soils, have been found to de- 
 scend to a depth of two or three feet, or 
 even more ; and it is evident, that if plants 
 are principally sustained in dry weather by 
 the atmospheric aqueous vapour absorbed 
 by the soil, that that supply of water must 
 be necessarily increased, by enabling the 
 atmospheric vapour and gases, as well as 
 the roots of plants, to attain to a greater 
 depth ; for the interior of a well pulverized 
 soil, be it remembered, continues steadily to 
 absorb 'this essential food of vegetables, 
 even when the surface of the earth is dry- 
 ing in the sun. 
 
 And by facilitating the admission of air 
 to the soil, another advantage is obtained, 
 that of increasing its temperature. The 
 earths are naturally bad conductors of heat, 
 especially downwards ; thus it is well-known, 
 that, at the siege of Gibraltar, the red-hot 
 balls employed by the garrison were readily 
 4 c 2 
 
SUBSOIL-PLOUGHING. 
 
 carried from the furnaces to the batteries 
 in wooden barrows, whose bottoms were 
 merely covered with earth. Davy proved 
 the superior rapidity with which a loose 
 black soil was heated compared with a chalky 
 soil, by placing equal portions of each in the 
 sunshine; the first was heated in an hour 
 from 65° to 88°, while the chalk was only 
 heated to 69°. {Elements of Agr. Chem. 
 p. 178.) This trial, however, must not be 
 regarded as absolutely conclusive, since the 
 surface of the black soils naturally increases 
 more rapidly in temperature when exposed 
 to the direct rays of the sun than those of 
 a lighter colour. A free access of air to all 
 soils also adds to their fertility, by promot- 
 ing the decomposition of the excretory mat- 
 ters of plants, which otherwise would remain 
 for a longer period, to the annoyance of 
 plants of the same species. 
 
 In a recent communication to the secre- 
 tary of the English Agricultural Society, 
 Sir E. Stracey has given some of the results 
 of his experience with the Rackheath sub- 
 soil-plough, and they are of a description 
 which cannot be too generally known : — 
 " On my coming," he remarks, " to reside 
 on my estate at Rackheath, about six years 
 since, I found 500 acres of heath land, com- 
 posing two farms (which had been enclosed 
 under an act of parliament about forty 
 years), without tenants ; the gorse, heather, 
 and fern shooting up in all parts. In short, 
 the land was in such a condition, that the 
 crops returned not the seed sown. The land 
 was a loose loamy soil, and had been broken 
 up by the plough to a depth not exceeding 
 four inches, beneath which was a substra- 
 tum (provincially called an iron pan), so 
 hard, that with difficulty could a pickaxe 
 be made to enter in many places ; and my 
 bailiff, who had looked after the land for 
 thirty-five years, told me that the lands 
 were not worth cultivation — that all the 
 neighbouring farmers said the same thing — 
 and that there was but one thing to be done, 
 viz., to plant with fir and forest trees ; but 
 to this I paid but little attention, as I had 
 the year preceding allotted some parcels of 
 ground, taken out of the adjoining lands, to 
 some cottagers ; to each cottage, about one 
 third of an acre. The crops on all these 
 allotments looked fine, healthy, and good, 
 producing excellent wheat, carrots, peas, 
 cabbages, potatoes, and other vegetables in 
 abundance. The question then was, how was 
 this done? On the outside of the cottage 
 allotments all was barren. It could not be 
 by the manure that had been laid on, for 
 the cottagers had none but that which they 
 had scraped from the roads. The magic of 
 all this I could ascribe to nothing else but the 
 spade ; they had broken up the land eighteen 
 1124 
 
 inches deep. As to digging up 500 acres 
 with the spade, to the depth of eighteen 
 inches, at an expense of 61. an acre, I would 
 not attempt it. I accordingly considered, 
 that a plough might be constructed so as to 
 loosen the soil to the depth of eighteen inches, 
 keeping the best soil to the depth of four 
 inches, and near the surface, thus admitting 
 air and moisture to the roots of the plants, 
 and enabling them to extend their spongioles 
 in search of food ; for air, moisture, and ex- 
 tent of pasture, are as necessary to the thriv- 
 ing and increase of vegetables as of animals. 
 In this attempt I succeeded, as the result 
 will show. I have now broken up all these 
 500 acres, eighteen inches deep. The process 
 was by sending a common plough, drawn by 
 two horses, to precede, which turned over 
 the ground to the depth of four inches ; my 
 subsoil-plough immediately followed in the 
 furrow made, drawn by four horses, stirring 
 and breaking the soil twelve or fourteen 
 inches deeper, but not turning it over. 
 Sometimes the iron pan was so hard, that 
 the horses were set fast, and it became ne- 
 cessary to use the pickaxe to release them 
 before they could proceed. After the first 
 year, the land produced double the former 
 crops, many of the carrots being sixteen 
 inches in length, and of a proportionate 
 thickness. This amendment could have 
 arisen solely from the deep ploughing. Ma- 
 nure I had scarcely any, the land not pro- 
 ducing then stover sufficient to keep any 
 stock worth mentioning, and it was not pos- 
 sible to procure sufficient quantity from the 
 town. The plough tore up by the roots all 
 the old gorse, heather, and fern, .so that the 
 land lost all the distinctive character of 
 heath land the first year after the deep 
 ploughing ; which it had retained, notwith- 
 standing the ploughing with the common 
 ploughs, for thirty-five years. Immediately 
 after this subsoil-ploughing, the crop of 
 ,wheat was strong and long in the straw, and 
 the grain close-bosomed and heavy, weigh- 
 ing full sixty-four pounds to the bushel. 
 The quantity, as might be expected, not 
 large (about twenty-six bushels to the acre), 
 but great in comparison to what it produced 
 before. The millers were desirous of pur- 
 chasing it, and could scarcely believe it was 
 grown upon the heath land, as in former 
 years my bailiff could with difficulty get :i 
 miller to look at his sample. Let this be 
 borne in mind, that this land then had had 
 no manure for years, was run out, and could 
 only have been ameliorated by the admission 
 of air and moisture by the deep ploughing. 
 This year the wheat on this land has looked 
 most promising ; the ears large and heavy, 
 the straw long; and I expect the produce 
 will be from thirty-four to thirty-six bushels 
 
SUBSOIL-PLOUGHING. 
 
 SUGAR. 
 
 an acre : the wheat, the " golden drop." My 
 Swedish turnips on this land this year are 
 very good ; my pudding and sugar-loaf tur- 
 nips failing in many parts, sharing the fate 
 of those of my neighbours, having been 
 greatly injured by the torrents of rain 
 which fell after they had shown themselves 
 above the ground. Turnips must have a 
 deep and well-pulverised soil, in order to 
 enable them to swell, and the tap-roots to 
 penetrate in search of food. The tap-root 
 of a Swedish turnip has been known to pe- 
 netrate thirty-nine inches into the ground. 
 
 Sub- Turf Plough. — " Being on the sub- 
 ject of the subsoil-plough," says Sir Ed- 
 mund Stracey, " I may as well tell you I 
 have contrived another plough, from the 
 vise of which the greatest benefit has been 
 derived by my park land. I call this my 
 ' sub-turf plough.' It is used to loosen the 
 turf about ten inches and a half deep below 
 the surface, without turning over the flag ; 
 loosening the soil underneath, consequently, 
 admitting the air and the rain, and permit- 
 ting the roots of the herbage to spread in 
 search of food. There are no marks left 
 by which it can be known that the land 
 has been so ploughed, except from the 
 straight lines of the coulter, at the distance 
 of about fourteen inches one from another. 
 In about three months from time of plough- 
 ing these lines are totally obliterated, and 
 the quantity of aftermarth, and the thick- 
 ness of the bottom, have been the subject 
 of admiration of all my neighbours. An- 
 other advantage from this sub-turf plough- 
 ing is, that, before that took place, water 
 was lying stagnant in many parts (after 
 heavy rains), especially in the lower 
 grounds, to a great depth : now no water 
 is to be seen lying on any part, the whole 
 being absorbed by the earth." (Journ. of 
 Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 253.) 
 
 And for heavier soils, the evidence in 
 favour of subsoil-ploughing is equally valu- 
 able. In the year 1838, an experiment 
 was made by Sir James Graham, which is 
 important in several respects. It was on a 
 field of about eight acres, of the poorest 
 and wettest land. " The surface soil is 
 about five inches deep of black earth, of a 
 peaty quality. The subsoil is a weeping- 
 retentive clay, with sand and rusty gravel 
 intermixed. This clay extends to the bot- 
 tom of the drains, which are of tile, laid 
 thirty inches deep in every furrow. This 
 field was rented by the out-going tenant at 
 4s. 6d. per acre. It was in pasture of the 
 coarsest description, overrun with rushes 
 and other aquatic plants. After draining 
 on one half of this field, I used Mr. Smith's 
 subsoil-plough. On the other half I trench- 
 ploughed to the depth of ten inches, by I 
 1125 
 
 two ploughs following in succession. In 
 the first part, not mixing with the surface 
 any of the subsoil ; in the last part, com- 
 mingling the surface and the subsoil in 
 nearly equal proportions. The whole field 
 was heavily, but equally manured, and 
 planted with potatoes ; and though the po- 
 tato crop, even on good land in this neigh- 
 bourhood (Cumberland), was below an 
 average, yet the crop in this field exceeded 
 an average, and yielded about twelve tons 
 per acre. The field is equally drained in 
 every part. The crop was so equal through- 
 out the field, that I am unable to pronounce 
 positively which part was the best, but I 
 am inclined to give the preference to that 
 portion where Mr. Smith's subsoil-plough 
 was used/' (Journ. of Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. ii. 
 pp. 346 — 421. ; Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. 
 p. 206. ; Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iv. p. 434.) 
 
 SUBSTRATUM. A stratum lying un- 
 der another stratum. The term subsoil is 
 generally applied to the matters which in- 
 tervene between the surface soils and the 
 rocks on which they rest ; thus, clay is the 
 common substratum, or subsoil, of gravel. 
 
 SUCCORY. See Chiccory. 
 
 SUCCULENT. A botanical term, sig- 
 nifying fleshy, or filled with juice. 
 
 SUCKER. A young twig or shoot from 
 the root of a plant. See Propagation. 
 
 SUDORIFIC. Having the power of 
 producing perspiration. It is a medicine 
 which, entering the circulation, acts on the 
 subcutaneous vessels, and augments the 
 action of the glands of the skin which 
 secrete the sweat. 
 
 SUET. The fat situated about the loins 
 and kidneys, which is harder and less fusi- 
 ble than that from other parts of the same 
 animal. That of the ox and sheep is chiefly 
 used ; and, when melted out of its contain- 
 ing membranes, it forms tallow, and is 
 largely used in the manufacture of candles 
 and the ordinary soaps. Beef and mutton 
 suet, when fused, concrete at a temperature 
 of about 100°. Like other kinds of fat, it 
 is a compound of carbon, hydrogen, and 
 oxygen. See Adeps, Fat, Lard, &c. 
 
 SUFFRUTICOSE. (Lat. suffrutex, an 
 undershrub.) Any plant which is not ex- 
 actly either a shrub or an herbaceous plant, 
 that is, which has not hard w r oody twigs and 
 complete buds like the one, nor perishable 
 succulent leaves and shoots, like the other, 
 is so termed. Lavender is an instance of a 
 suffruticose plant. 
 
 SUGAR. (Fr. sncre ; Germ, zucker.) 
 The great commercial demand for sugar is 
 almost exclusively supplied from the sugar- 
 cane (Arundo sacchartfera), which contains 
 it in greater quantity and purity than any 
 other plant, and consequently affords the 
 4 c 3 
 
SULPHUR-WORT. 
 
 SWALLOW. 
 
 greatest facilities for its extraction. Cane 
 sugar is combined, in the juice of the plant, 
 with a number of other substances. The 
 following analysis of M. Avequin shows the 
 nature and proportions of these : — 0*46 
 albumen, 0*81 gum, 101-2 crystallisable 
 sugar, 41-6 uncrystallisable sugar, 0*85 
 chlorophyle and oil, 075 stearin, 1*28 resin, 
 3*58 salts, and 700*8 water, in 1000 parts. 
 The juice, after expression, is freed from 
 some acid which it contains, by means of 
 lime, and then concentrated by boiling; after 
 which, as soon as brown grains form, the 
 syrup is purified, and allowed to crystallise. 
 The crystals are next separated from the 
 molasses, or uncrystallisable sugar, by drip- 
 ping. This forms muscovado sugar, which 
 is afterwards purified in Europe. The 
 purest raw sugar comes from Demerara. 
 Pure sugar is a compound of 44*44 of car- 
 bon, 6*18 of hydrogen, and 49*78 of oxygen, 
 in 100 parts. Sugar is nutritive, demul- 
 cent, and powerfully antiseptic. Grape 
 sugar undergoes fermentation more readily 
 than cane sugar. A large quantity of 
 sugar, identical to cane sugar, is contained 
 in the sap of the American maple (Acer 
 saccharinum), that of the cocoa nut (Cocos 
 nucifera), and in the juice of the beet-root 
 (Beta vulgaris), from each of which it may 
 be economically obtained : it has also been 
 extracted from grapes or raisins, and, as is 
 well known, is contained abundantly in 
 many ripe fruits and esculent vegetables. 
 It is, however, in these seldom so pure or 
 in such quantity as to admit of ready se- 
 paration. The total average quantity en- 
 tered annually for home consumption is, 
 in round numbers, nearly 4,000,000 cwts. 
 See Molasses, Saccharine Substances, 
 &c. 
 
 SULPHUR-WORT. (Pencedanum, from 
 peuke, a pike, and danos, parched ; so named 
 because of its ' strong resinous smell.) A 
 genus of perennial, fetid, resinous, smooth 
 herbs, with round, striated, branching, leafy, 
 solid stems. Leaves repeatedly compound, 
 with extremely narrow, acute, entire leaf- 
 lets. Umbels large, concave, or flat, of 
 numerous general and partial smooth rays. 
 Bractes several, rather small. Flowers 
 yellow. Fruit, first reddish, then of a 
 tawny brown : there is one indigenous spe- 
 cies, but it is not common ; the sea sulphur- 
 wort, or hog's fennel (P. officinale), which 
 grows in salt marshes, flowering from July 
 to September. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 99.) 
 
 SUNDEW. (Drosera, from droseros, 
 dewy.) This is a most singular and beau- 
 tiful genus of plants, whose leaves are orna- 
 mented with red glandular hairs, discharg- 
 ing from their ends a drop of viscid acrid 
 
 juice, which, from its semblance to dew, 
 has given rise to the common and generic 
 name. These hairs are so irritable as to 
 contract when touched, imprisoning insects, 
 after the manner of Dioncea muscipula. In 
 their native state they are found growing 
 on mossy turfy bogs. They are all increased 
 by seeds, which should be allowed to sow 
 themselves. There are three indigenous 
 species, all perennials. The leaves are either 
 undivided or lobed, entire. Flowers ter- 
 minal, racemose, rarely solitary. Petals 
 red or white. (Paxton's Bot. Diet ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol.ii. p. 122.) 
 
 SUNFLOWER. (Helianthus, from he- 
 lios, sun, and anthos, a flower ; on account of 
 the brilliant colour of the flowers, and from 
 the erroneous idea that the flowers always 
 turned towards the sun.) An highly orna- 
 mental and extensive genus of plants ; and 
 from their tali growth they are particularly 
 adapted to the back of flower-borders or 
 the front of shrubberies, in which situations 
 they make a splendid appearance in au- 
 tumn : they grow well in any common gar- 
 den soil, the tender kinds being protected 
 in winter. (Paxtons Bot. Diet.) It ap- 
 pears to possess far more profitable qualities 
 than were hitherto supposed, and, besides 
 forming a beautiful object in a bed of 
 flowers, it may be cultivated with advan- 
 tage, and applied to many useful purposes. 
 An acre of land will contain 25,000 sun- 
 flower plants, at twelve inches distant from 
 each other. The produce will be according 
 to the nature of the soil and mode of cul- 
 tivation ; but the average has been found 
 to be fifty bushels of the seed per acre, 
 which will yield fifty gallons of oil. The 
 oil is excellent for table use, burning in 
 lamps, and for the manufacture of soaps. 
 The marc, or refuse of the seeds after the 
 oil has been expressed, made into cake, will 
 produce 1500 lb., and the stalks, when 
 burnt for alkali, will give 10 per cent, of 
 potassa. The green leaves of the sunflower, 
 when dried and burnt to powder, make 
 excellent fodder for milch cows, mixed with 
 bran. From the ease with which sunflowers 
 are produced in our gardens (for they 
 seem to flourish in any soil, and to require 
 no particular care), we may safely say that 
 an acre of land will yield a considerable 
 return. Poultry are very fond of the seeds. 
 
 SWAD. A. provincial word, or corrup- 
 tion of pod, applied to the seeds of legumi- 
 nous plants. 
 
 SWALLOW (Hirundo rustica.) The 
 swallow is a periodical visiter to this coun- 
 try, and more registers are preserved of its 
 first appearance every season than of any 
 other bird. The average of many records 
 and of many seasons seems to give the 1 Oth 
 
SWAMP. 
 
 SWEET-GRASS. 
 
 of April as the mean period of its arrival ; 
 and it remains more than six months in 
 this country, frequently on its return re- 
 visiting the precise locality it had inhabited 
 for seasons before. Swallows are occasion- 
 ally seen earlier than the date here men- 
 tioned, even in a backward spring, the 
 migration being influenced by the tempera- 
 ture of the country they proceed from. 
 They feed entirely on winged insects, which 
 are sought for in the air during the greater 
 part of the day ; the power of flight enjoyed 
 Dy these birds enabling them to remain on 
 the wing for hours in succession in pursuit 
 of their prey, without any apparent lassi- 
 tude. The nest of the swallow is formed of 
 moistened earth or clay, mixed with straw 
 and bents, and lined with feathers. The 
 eggs, four to six in number, are white, 
 speckled with ash-colour and dark red; 
 they are nine lines and a half long by six 
 lines and a half broad. The general colour 
 of the plumage is slate blue and dull black ; 
 the chin and throat are chestnut. Whole 
 length of the bird eight inches and a half, 
 of which the very elongated outside tail- 
 feathers measure nearly five inches. (Yar- 
 relVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 213.) 
 
 SWAMP. Ground habitually so moist and 
 soft as not to admit of being trod by cattle, 
 but at the same time producing particular 
 kinds of trees, bushes, and plants. A swamp 
 differs from a bog and a marsh in producing 
 trees and shrubs, while the latter produce 
 only herbage, plants, and mosses. In autumn 
 and spring, the exhalations from swamps 
 are productive of agues, consequently it is 
 important to fill them up or drain them. 
 
 SWAN. (Cygnus.) Of the noble web- 
 footed birds so called there are three Bri- 
 tish species : the Hooper, or Bewick's ; the 
 wild, and the tame sAvan. The wild swan 
 and Hooper ought, perhaps, to be regarded 
 as the only true native species. The tame 
 swan (C olor) is superior in bulk to either 
 of the wild species, and is at once distin- 
 guished by a large black callous knob on 
 the base of the bill. Our remarks in this 
 place will be exclusively directed to the 
 domesticated swan. These graceful birds 
 are rarely dressed for the table ; they are 
 considered too ornamental to destroy. They 
 are not destructive to fish, and they keep 
 the water free from weeds. Mr. Main, who 
 long studied their habits, in his work on 
 Domestic Poultry, says the tame swan is 
 herbivorous and granivorous ; that is, they 
 feed upon weeds and grain. They love also 
 bread, vegetables, &c, which they eat 
 greedily from the hand. 
 
 The swan lays from five to eight eggs in 
 the summer, and breeds only once in the 
 year. They love an islet to breed their 
 1127 
 
 young upon, for the sake of its quiet ; and 
 a little straw deposited there is all they 
 require for making their nest. The swan 
 sits a month, but if the weather is bad, they 
 are known to remain longer before they 
 hatch. The cygnets, or young swans, re- 
 main a year with their parents ; but when 
 the breeding season approaches the old cob, 
 or male bird, -drives them away. This is 
 the period to sell ; and if the birds have 
 paired, they fetch a higher price in the 
 market. Swans are not in full plumage till 
 the third year. These birds often take 
 flight at the fall of the year, therefore the 
 old birds should have the first joint of one 
 wing removed, which would prevent their 
 roving. Two pair of swans will seldom 
 agree together upon the same piece of 
 water. The cob, or male swan, is larger 
 than the female, and bolder. They require 
 feeding in very severe winters, and the ice 
 should be broken for them to swim about. 
 At other times they feed on weeds growing 
 in the water, or herbage on the banks of it. 
 Swans and cygnets are caught most easily 
 with a swan hook, which is a long pole of 
 ten or twelve feet, with a blunt hook ten 
 inches in length, bent at right angles to 
 the pole ; the angle should be turned like 
 a ring, and open in the inner side, to let in 
 the neck of the bird. The swan has a pe- 
 culiar kind of snort, but no voice. They 
 hiss when angry. See Animals, Stealing 
 or. 
 
 SWARD. Green turf; that is, the sur- 
 face of land under pasture grasses. A fine 
 sward may be called the characteristic fea- 
 ture of British landscape, not being found 
 in the same degree of perfection in any other 
 country, not even in Ireland. 
 
 SWEAL. To singe or burn off the hair, 
 as in hogs. 
 
 SWEET-BRIAR. See Eglantine. 
 
 SWEET FLAG. See Acorus and Aro- 
 matic Reed. 
 
 SWEET-GRASS. ( Glyceric from gly- 
 keros, sweet, alluding to the herbage ; whence 
 also the common name.) A genus of grasses 
 of which some of the species are aquatics. 
 Dr. Smith enumerates six indigenous spe- 
 cies : viz. the reedy sweet-grass (G. aqua- 
 tied), the floating sweet-grass (G.fluitans), 
 the reflexed sweet-grass (G. dista?is), the 
 creeping sea sweet-grass (G.maritima), the 
 procumbent sea sweet-grass {G. procinn- 
 bens), and the hard sweet-grass (G. rigida). 
 The only species which have been thought 
 worthy of trial by Mr. Sinclair and other 
 experimental cultivators of grasses are : — 
 
 1. The floating sweet-grass {G.fluitdns). 
 The panicle is oblong, branched, divaricat- 
 ing. Spikelets close pressed. Florets nu- 
 merous, obtuse, seven-ribbed, with short 
 4 c 4 
 
SWIFT. 
 
 SWINE. 
 
 intermediate ribs at the base. Nectary ob- 
 tuse, tumid. This species appears capable 
 of being cultivated as a permanent pasture 
 grass. The seed will not vegetate unless 
 kept very moist. It flowers from the first 
 or second week of July till the end of sum- 
 mer. Birds are fond of the seeds, and ge- 
 nerally strip the panicle ere the seeds are 
 all perfected. Schreber informs us that it 
 is cultivated in several parts of Germany 
 for the sake of the seeds, which are es- 
 teemed a delicacy in soups and gruels. 
 When ground into meal, they make bread, 
 very little inferior to that from wheat. 
 The bran is given to horses that have the 
 worms ; buj^ they must be kept from water 
 for some hours afterwards. Fish, particularly 
 trout, are said to be very partial to the 
 seed. 
 
 2. The reedy sweet-grass (G. aquaticd). 
 In this species the panicle is erect, repeat- 
 edly branched, spreading. Florets nume- 
 rous, obtuse, with seven ribs. Nectary 
 cloven, acute. This grass is common on the 
 banks of rivers, and frequent on the mar- 
 gins of standing pools. On the banks and 
 little islands of the Thames, where it is 
 generally mown twice in the year for hay, 
 it affords abundant crops of valuable winter 
 fodder. Mr. Curtis informs us that in flat 
 countries, which do not admit of being suf- 
 ficiently drained, it is almost the only grass 
 for hay and pasturage. In the fens of 
 Cambridge, Lincoln, &c, immense tracts 
 which used to be overflowed and produce 
 useless aquatic plants, and still retain much 
 moisture, though drained by mills, are co- 
 vered with this grass, which not only affords 
 rich pasturage in summer, but forms the 
 chief part of their winter fodder. Its 
 powerful creeping roots make it a danger- 
 ous and troublesome weed in ditches, where, 
 Avith other aquatic plants, it soon chokes 
 them up. In the fens of the Isle of Ely 
 this grass grows to the height of six feet, 
 and proves excellent fodder for milch cows, 
 though horses are not fond of it. The 
 nutritive matter of this grass contains a 
 greater proportion of sugar than exists in 
 any of the superior pasture grasses. The 
 best manner of propagating it is by plant- 
 ing the roots either in autumn or spring. 
 It flowers about the second and third weeks 
 of July, and the seed is ripe in the second 
 week of August. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 115.; Sinclair s Hort. Gram. p. 349 — 
 354.) 
 
 SWERTIA. See Felwort. 
 
 SWIFT. (Cypselns.) The name of the 
 largest and most powerful flier of the swal- 
 low tribe which visits this country. There 
 are two species now included among our 
 British birds. 
 
 112S 
 
 1. The common swift (C. murarius), 
 which generally arrives here early in May, 
 and leaves us again by the middle of Au- 
 gust. These birds build their nest of bits of 
 straw, dry blades of grass and bents, pieces 
 of rag, and a few feathers, under the eaves 
 of houses, in holes about steeples, &c. The 
 same nest is used for years in succession. 
 The swift lays from two to four white eggs, 
 which are one inch in length by eight lines 
 in breadth. Its food consists of insects. 
 The general colour of the plumage is uni- 
 form blackish brown. The whole length 
 of the bird to the end of the forked tail is 
 seven inches. 
 
 2. The alpine, or white-bellied swift (C. 
 alpmus), has occasionally visited our shores, 
 and is readily distinguished by its larger 
 size and conspicuous white belly. The 
 whole length of" the bird from the point of 
 the beak to the end of the feathers of the 
 tail, which are forked and very stiff, is eight 
 inches and three eighths. The general ha- 
 bits are the same as those of the common 
 swift. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 233 
 —241.) 
 
 SWINE. (Genus Sus.) The hog has 
 been generally described as a creature of 
 gross habits and unclean tastes, as having 
 the senses of touch and taste obtuse, and 
 even as being so insensible that mice may 
 burrow in his skin without his seeming to 
 feel. But these opinions are most unjust 
 and incorrect. Far from being unclean, 
 nature has furnished him with powerful 
 organs of digestion, enabling him to derive 
 sustenance from a variety of substances, and 
 his voracity is only the result of the extent 
 and perfection of his digestive and respira- 
 tory organs. Although one of the pachy- 
 dermatous, or thick-skinned animals, the 
 hog feels blows acutely, and manifests his 
 suffering by loud cries. Indeed, the infer- 
 ence that his sense of touch is dull, because 
 of the thick layer of fat with which his body 
 is enveloped, is most erroneous, for it is 
 well known that the plexus of nerves which 
 gives sensibility to the body is exterior to 
 this fatty layer. So far from being insen- 
 sible to pain, the hog even suffers under 
 the irritation arising from the punctures of 
 gnats, musquitoes, and other small insects, 
 and endeavours to protect himself from 
 their persecution by rolling in moist places 
 and covering himself with mud. 
 
 Natural History of the Hog. — " The hog 
 (says Prof. Low) is subject to remarkable 
 changes of form and characters, according 
 to the situations in which he is placed. 
 When these characters assume a certain 
 degree of permanence, a breed or variety is 
 formed ; and there is none of the domestic 
 animals which more easily receives the cha- 
 
SWINE. 
 
 racters we desire to impress unon it. This 
 arises from its rapid powers of increase, and 
 the constancy with which the characters of 
 the parents are reproduced in the progeny. 
 There is no kind of live stock that can be 
 so easily improved by the breeder, and so 
 quickly rendered suited to the purposes re- 
 quired ; and the same characters of external 
 form indicate in the hog a disposition to ar- 
 rive at early maturity of muscle and fat as 
 in the ox and sheep. The body is large in 
 proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, 
 the limbs are short in proportion to the 
 body ; the extremities are free from coarse- 
 ness, the chest is broad, and the trunk round. 
 Possessing these characters, the hog never 
 fails to arrive at earlier maturity, and with 
 a smaller consumption of food, than when 
 he possesses a different conformation." 
 
 The wild boar, which was undoubtedly 
 the progenitor of all the European varieties, 
 and also of the Chinese breed, was formerly 
 a native of the British Islands, and very 
 common in the forests until the time of the 
 civil wars in England. 
 
 The wild hog is now spread over the tem- 
 perate and warmer parts of the old conti- 
 nent and its adjacent islands. His colour 
 varies with age and climate, but is generally 
 a dusky brown with black spots and streaks. 
 His skin is covered with coarse hairs or 
 bristles, intersected with soft wool, and 
 with coarser and longer bristles upon the 
 neck and spine, which he erects when in 
 anger. He is a very bold and powerful 
 creature, and becomes more fierce and in- 
 docile with age. From the form of his 
 teeth, he is chiefly herbivorous in his habits, 
 and delights in roots, which his acute sense 
 of smell and touch enables him to discover 
 beneath the surface. He also feeds upon 
 animal substances, such as worms and larva?, 
 which he grubs up from the ground, the 
 eggs of birds, small reptiles, the young of 
 animals, and occasionally carrion ; he even 
 attacks venomous snakes with impunity. 
 
 The female produces a litter but once a 
 year, and in much smaller numbers than 
 when domesticated. She usually carries her 
 young for four months, or sixteen weeks. 
 
 In a wild state the hog has been known to 
 live more than thirty years, but when domes- 
 ticated he is usually slaughtered for bacon 
 before he is two years old, and boars killed 
 for brawn seldom reach to the age of five. 
 When the wild hog is tamed, it undergoes 
 the following amongst other changes in its 
 conformation. The ears become less move- 
 able, not being required to collect distant 
 sounds. The formidable tusks of the male 
 diminish, not being necessary for self-de- 
 fence. The muscles of the neck become 
 less developed, from not being so much ex- 
 1129 
 
 ercised as in the natural state. The head be- 
 comes more inclined, the back and loins are 
 lengthened, the body rendered more capa- 
 cious, the limbs shorter and less muscular ; 
 and anatomy proves that the stomach and 
 intestinal canals have also become propor- 
 tionately extended along with the form of 
 the body. * The habits and instincts of the 
 animal changes : it becomes diurnal in its 
 habits, not choosing the night for its search 
 of food; is more insatiate in its appetite, 
 and the tendency to obesity increases. 
 
 The male, forsaking its solitary habits, be- 
 comes gregarious, and the female produces 
 her young more frequently and in larger 
 numbers. With its diminished strength 
 and power of active motion, the animal also 
 loses its desire for liberty. These changes 
 of form, appetites, and habits being com- 
 municated to its progeny, a new race of 
 animals is produced, better suited to their 
 altered condition. The wild hog after it 
 has been domesticated does not appear to 
 revert to its former state and habits ; at 
 least the swine of South America carried 
 thither by the Spaniards, which have 
 escaped to the woods, retain their grega- 
 rious habits, and have not become wild 
 boars. 
 
 In its wild state the hog has six incisor 
 teeth in the upper, and six in the lower 
 jaw; but when domesticated the number is 
 reduced to three in each jaw, and this num- 
 ber is not constant. The vertebrae of the 
 back vary from fourteen to fifteen in num- 
 ber ; the lumbar and the sacral from four to 
 six ; the caudal from two to three or four, 
 the tail being often rudimental in the do- 
 mesticated races. 
 
 Mr. T. E. Eyton (Trans, of Zool. Soc. 
 Feb. 1837), amongst other osteological 
 differences in the races of hogs, points out 
 the following as applicable to the number of 
 vertebrae : — 
 
 
 English 
 male. 
 
 African 
 male. 
 
 Chinese 
 male. 
 
 Wild 
 Boar. 
 
 Domestic! 
 Hog. j 
 
 Cervical 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 
 Do r sal 
 
 15 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 ,5 ! 
 
 Lumbar 
 
 G 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 5 1 
 
 Sacral 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 4 ! 
 
 Caudal 
 
 21 
 
 13 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 23 j 
 
 
 55 
 
 44 
 
 49 
 
 50 
 
 53 i 
 
 The hog family includes several species, 
 but these have usually been divided into 
 three genera. 
 
 1. The true hog, which is the most dif- 
 fused and important class, comprehending 
 the wild boar (Sus aper) of Europe, Asia, 
 and Africa ; the babiroussa (Sus babirussd) 
 of the islands of the Eastern Archipelago, 
 which is of lighter form than the common 
 wild hog ; the Papuan hog (Sus papuensis) 
 of New Guinea, and the wood swine, or 
 
SWINE. 
 
 masked African boar (S. larvatus), of south- 
 ern Africa and Madagascar. 
 
 2. The wart-bearing hogs of Africa (Pha- 
 cochceres). 
 
 3. The peccaries of America. Of these 
 there are two species, the collared peccary 
 (Dicotyles torquatas) and the white-lipped 
 peccary (D. labiatus), both inhabiting the 
 countries of the Atlantic from British Gui- 
 ana to Paraguay. The peccaries are rather 
 smaller than the common swine of Europe : 
 they are covered with stiff bristles, very 
 long upon the neck and spine, which they 
 erect when irritated, are nearly destitute of 
 tail, and are further characterised by a 
 glandular'ftpening in the back, whence the 
 generic term dicotyles, signifying a double 
 navel. 
 
 The hog does not appear to have been 
 indigenous to America, but was taken over 
 by the early voyagers from the old world, 
 and it has now spread and multiplied 
 throughout the continent. 
 
 The first settlers of Canada, the British 
 North American settlements, and the 
 United States, carried with them the swine 
 of the parent country, and a few of the 
 breeds still retain traces of the old English 
 character. From its nature and habits the 
 hog was the most profitable and useful of 
 all the animals bred by the early settler in 
 the distant clearings. It was his surest re- 
 source during his first years of toil and 
 hardship. It arrived earlier at maturity, 
 required less care, sought out, for the most 
 part, its own food, was the least subject to 
 accidents and diseases in a new situation, 
 and therefore best repaid any portion of 
 attention bestowed on the breeding and 
 rearing it. 
 
 The widely extended foreign commerce, 
 and the long prevalence of the slave trade, 
 afforded the Americans opportunities of 
 procuring the best varieties from China, 
 Africa, and other countries. The large con- 
 sumption of pork in the United States, far 
 exceeding the consumption of any other 
 country, has also contributed mainly to the 
 improvement of the breeds, by causing the 
 Americans to pay considerable attention to 
 the rearing of swine, which have thus be- 
 come one of the most important articles of 
 commerce, and a source of considerable 
 profit to the breeder on a large scale. 
 
 Breeds. — The various breeds which have 
 been reared by crosses between those pro- 
 cured from different countries are so nume- 
 rous, that to give any thing like a detailed 
 description of all would fill a volume in- 
 stead of an essay. I shall, therefore, con- 
 fine myself to a short notice of those which 
 are either considered as the origin of some 
 peculiar race, or most generally bred for 
 1 1 30 
 
 their fattening or other profitable qualities. 
 The celebrated English breeder Culley only 
 distinguishes four breeds, the Berkshire, 
 the Chinese, the Highland, and the Irish 
 
 species. 
 
 The principal breeds of England have 
 been usually named after the particular 
 counties or localities where they have been, 
 for the most part, reared. Thus we have 
 the Berkshire, the Hampshire, the Essex, v 
 the Suffolk, and a dozen others, each sup- 
 posed to be distinguished by a certain set of 
 common characters. Those approved on 
 account of their superior size, and therefore 
 usually reared for the purpose of making 
 bacon, are the Berks, Hants, Hereford, 
 Salop, Norfolk, and Chester breeds. The 
 breed best adapted for table pork is the 
 small white Chinese. There are, however, 
 particular breeds preferred by individuals. 
 
 The Berkshire Breed. — This was one of 
 the earliest improved of the English breeds, 
 and it is now the most widely distributed, 
 as it is the most superior, of the numerous 
 varieties of England. It is a breed which is 
 distinguished by being, in general, of a 
 tawny white, or rufous-brown colour, spot- 
 ted with black or brown ; head well placed, 
 large ears, generally standing forward, 
 though sometimes hanging over the eyes; 
 body thick, close, and well made; legs 
 short, small in the bone ; coat rough and 
 curly, wearing the appearance of indicating 
 both skin and flesh of a coarse quality. 
 Such, however, is not the case, for they 
 have a disposition to fatten quickly : no- 
 thing can be finer than the bacon, and the 
 animals attain to a very great size, averag- 
 ing from fifty to sixty stone, although they 
 have not uncommonly reached to the pro- 
 digious weight of 100 stone and upwards. 
 
 The county of Berkshire has long been 
 celebrated for its famous breed of swine, 
 and the breed has, by frequent and judicious 
 crossing, been much altered for the better. 
 The original breed was of the larger race of 
 swine, and is described as being long, and 
 rather crooked-snouted, with uncouth heavy 
 ears ; body long and thick, though not very 
 deep; legs short, with much bone: although 
 slow feeders, they always made great 
 weights. The character of the true Berk- 
 shire seems to indicate that one of the ear- 
 liest means employed to improve them was 
 a cross with the wild boar. The improved 
 breed is lighter in the head and ear, shorter 
 in the carcase, with somewhat less bone, 
 and higher in the leg : in colour generally 
 dark spotted. They" have little offal, thin 
 rind and hair, and few or no stout bristles. 
 The native breed is still occasionally crossed, 
 either with the pure Chinese or (he Ton- 
 quin race ; and it is asserted, on good au- 
 
SWINE. 
 
 thority, that if not crossed once in six or 
 seven years with the Asiatic breed, they will 
 degenerate in shape and quality. The im- 
 proved Berkshires will be found excellent 
 in all respects, but particularly as a cross 
 for heavy slow-feeding hogs. The unqua- 
 lified approbation which this breed has ob- 
 tained renders it incumbent on every 
 breeder who wishes to improve his stock of 
 swine to obtain a cross with that race. 
 Although hardy and thrifty in its nature, 
 the Berkshire hog requires constant good 
 keep, or it will decline fast. 
 
 The old English Breed. — The original 
 native breeds of Great Britain may be 
 arranged into two general classes ; but be- 
 tween these extremes there are so many 
 varieties that numbers cannot be reduced 
 to either class. 
 
 1. Those of small size, with the ears 
 erect, or partly so, of which the most marked 
 are those of the Highlands and islands of 
 Scotland. They are hardy creatures, usu- 
 ally of a dusky brown colour, having an 
 arched back, with coarse bristles on the 
 neck and spine ; and approximate closely 
 in character and habits to the wild hog. 
 They are, for the most part, left to provide 
 for themselves, ranging at large over the 
 heaths and moors, grubbing up roots and 
 destroying the eggs of birds, and even 
 newly-born lambs, when they come in their 
 way. These hogs are usually very meagre 
 and thin ; flesh coarse and fibrous ; but it is 
 greatly improved when the animals are con- 
 fined and properly fed. When roaming at 
 large on the sea-coast, their flesh, from 
 feeding on shell-fish, sea-weed, and the 
 bodies of fish which are cast up by the tide, 
 acquires a rank and unctuous taste. 
 
 2. The second class comprises those of a 
 larger body, with long pendent ears. 
 
 Although their colour varies consider- 
 ably, they are, for the most part, white, or 
 white spotted with black. The character- 
 istics of this old race, where it exists with- 
 out intermixture with foreign blood (which 
 is not often the case in the present day), 
 are a huge uncouth form, large bones, long 
 limbs, arched and narrow back, low shoulder, 
 and long snout, with the ears large and flap- 
 ping, covering the greater part of the face. 
 They consume much food, are slow feeders, 
 and their only recommendation is that of 
 being prolific breeders, and attaining to a 
 large size when fattened, at the age of two 
 or three years. The old English breed, 
 and many other once celebrated local races 
 of this country, have all had their distinctive 
 characters more or less effaced by crossing. 
 
 The Chinese, or Siamese Breed. — The 
 varieties of this widely-extended race which 
 are the most common in this country were 
 1131 
 
 brought to America and England from Can- 
 ton and other Indian ports, for the most 
 part as sea stock by the vessels employed 
 in the tea trade, &c. Owing to the much 
 larger consumption of pork by the Chinese 
 than of any other animal food, they pay 
 great attention to the rearing and fattening 
 of their swine. It is said they even use the 
 milk of the sow for domestic purposes. 
 The pure Chinese breed is too delicate and 
 sensible of cold to be of much value in 
 climates liable to frequent changes of tem- 
 perature. It is chiefly, therefore, by inter- 
 mixture that its value is recognised ; and 
 it is for this reason that its introduction has 
 proved so beneficial in Englangl, by cor- 
 recting the coarseness of form, quieting the 
 restless disposition, and adding a greater 
 tendency to mature quickly and fatten 
 kindly. The flesh of the Eastern hogs is 
 more suited for pork than for bacon. Mr. 
 Culley subdivides the Chinese breed into 
 seven varieties ; but there appear to be 
 only two distinct species, — the white and 
 the black ; the former better shaped than 
 the latter, but less hardy and prolific. Both 
 are, however, small-limbed; ears and head 
 thin and transparent, small and fine ; neck 
 thick ; the body close, compact, and well 
 formed; legs very short; flesh delicate, 
 round in the carcase, thin-skinned, and the 
 head so embedded in the neck, that, when 
 quite fat, the end only of the snout can be 
 seen. They are rather difficult to rear ; the 
 sows are bad nurses ; and, from their small 
 size, they seldom reach to a greater weight 
 than from ten to twelve stone when one 
 year old, and sixteen to eighteen stone 
 when two years old. 
 
 The black race, from their valuable pro- 
 perties of fattening on a small proportion of 
 food, being very thrifty, and prolific breeders, 
 notwithstanding their inferior size, have 
 been advantageously crossed with other 
 breeds. 
 
 There is a mixed tawny breed, or patched 
 with black and white, which is valuable for 
 breeding sows and roasters. 
 
 Hampshire breed. — This is a very large 
 breed, which is longer in the neck and 
 body, but not so compact in form as the- 
 Berkshire. They are mostly of a white 
 colour, or spotted, and are well disposed 
 to fatten, coming up to a great weight when 
 properly managed in respect to food. The 
 goodness of the Hampshire hog is pro- 
 verbial ; it is principally fattened for large 
 hams and bacon. 
 
 The Shropshire breed is large and coarse ; 
 but these ^ hogs are found profitable where 
 the keep is in sufficient abundance for their 
 support ; hence they are held in estimation 
 in England by distillers, and are commonlv 
 
sw: 
 
 INE. 
 
 fed to thirty score weight and upwards. 
 They are neither so well formed as those 
 of the Berkshire breed, nor do they equal 
 them in their disposition to fatten and 
 thrive on cheap food. The standard colour 
 of the Shropshire hog appears to be white, 
 or brinded with black, and sometimes sandy 
 patches. The breed may be described as flat- 
 boned, deep and flat- sided, harsh or rather 
 wiry-haired, the ears large ; head long, 
 sharp, and coarse, leg too long, low, although 
 very substantial, yet not sufficiently wide ; 
 considering the great extent of the whole 
 frame. AVithin the last fifteen or twenty 
 years this breed has been much improved 
 by a cross ^with the Berkshire, which has 
 reduced the length both of their legs and 
 carcase, and rendered the head lighter. 
 
 The Rudgwick breed. — This is the most 
 enormous breed in Great Britain, and is 
 reared about the neighbourhood of a village 
 on the borders of Sussex and Surrey, whence 
 it takes its name. They feed to an extra- 
 ordinary size without any peculiar care, 
 and weigh, at two years old, on an average, 
 full 70 stone, which is nearly double what 
 most other kinds will weigh at the same 
 age. The Rudgwick sows are accounted 
 good mothers, very prolific and hardy, and 
 are particularly noted as being an extremely 
 large sort, having been known to weigh 
 from 80 to 116 stone, 8 lbs. to the stone. 
 Indeed, some have reached to the extraor- 
 dinary weight of 182 stone. As large 
 breeds pay the farmer the best in many 
 cases, such a breed as the Rudgwick de- 
 serves to be attended to in the system of 
 hog management. 
 
 The Suffolk and Norfolk breeds have been 
 long in repute as hardy and prolific species, 
 and when crossed with either the Dishley 
 or the Berkshire hog, produce animals which 
 are held in very general esteem. 
 
 The Norfolk breed. — This is described 
 as being a small, short set-eared, thin- 
 skinned porking sort, various in colour, 
 white, bluish, striated ; generally an inferior 
 kind. But on the Lincoln side of the 
 county there is a large spotted variety of 
 very good form and quality. 
 
 The Suffolk Breed is a small, delicate, 
 white race, which has for many years been 
 held in good estimation. They are shorter 
 and more pug-formed than the Norfolks, 
 and by their dish face and pendent belly, 
 it, is to be presumed that the variety pro- 
 ceeded originally from the white Chinese 
 breed. Their defects are, that they are 
 great consumers in proportion to their 
 .small bulk, and that they produce little 
 flesh. 
 
 77/e Woburn breed. — This is a large, hardy, 
 well-formed, and very prolific variety, in- 
 1 1 32 
 
 troduced by the late Duke of Bedford, which 
 is generally white, spotted with various 
 colours, round in the carcase, small-limbed 
 and headed, and so kindly disposed to 
 fatten, that they are said to attain about 
 twice the size and weight of other sorts of 
 hogs within the same given period of time. 
 
 The Tonkey or Tonquin breed is a cross 
 between the Berkshire and the Chinese, 
 which has produced a species possessing 
 very many good points. 
 
 The Dishley breed, reared by the cele- 
 brated cattle breeder, Bakewell,' are re- 
 markably fine-boned and delicate, besides 
 possessing considerable beauty, and are 
 said to lay on a larger quantity of meat in 
 proportion to bone and offal, than any other 
 kind known. When fat, they are nearly 
 equal in height, length, and thickness, their 
 bellies almost touching the ground, the 
 eyes being deep set and sunk from fat, and 
 the whole carcase appearing to be a solid 
 mass of flesh. As a set-off to these good 
 qualities, are the defects of their being- 
 slow of growth, tender constitutioned, bad 
 nurses, not very prolific, and requiring 
 more food in fattening than the larger 
 hogs. By a cross with a Dishley boar, 
 several of the native breeds of the different 
 English counties have been much improved. 
 A roundness has been given to the frame, 
 with a proportionate depth of body, the 
 legs have been shortened, a finer bone 
 produced, with a better appearance when 
 growing as a store, and a disposition to 
 feed quicker and more kindly in the sty. 
 
 Small white English breed. — This breed 
 of small hogs is met with in several districts, 
 but prevails most in the northern parts of 
 the island. It is of a white colour, thick, 
 compact, and well made in the body, short 
 in the leg ; the head and neck well formed, 
 ears slouching a little downwards; hardy 
 and well disposed to fatten. 
 
 The Essex breed. — The original Essex 
 breed was not held in much repute. Their 
 peculiar character was a long sharp head ; 
 round-backed ; carcase flat, long, and gene- 
 rally high upon the leg ; bones not large ; 
 colour white, or black and white ; bare of 
 hair ; quick feeders, but great consumers, 
 and of an unquiet disposition. A variety 
 known as the Essex half-blacks, which were 
 introduced some years ago by the late Lord 
 Western, as descendants from the Berkshire, 
 have now justly acquired such very great 
 celebrity, as to be considered by many 
 good judges superior to most breeds in the 
 kingdom. They are described in the Essex 
 Report as black and white, short-haired, 
 thin-skinned, with smaller heads and ears 
 than the Berkshire, but feathered with 
 inside hair, which is a distinctive mark of 
 
SWINE. 
 
 both } having short snubby noses, very fine 
 bone, broad and deep in the belly, full in 
 the hind quarters, but light in the bone 
 and offal. They feed remarkably quick, 
 grow fast, and are of an excellent quality 
 of meat. The sows are good breeders, and 
 bring litters from eight to twelve ; but they 
 have the character of being bad nurses. 
 
 The Wiltshire breed . — Originally this 
 was a long-bodied, low hog, hollow about 
 the shoulders, and high on the rump ; with 
 middling large pointed ears ; round bone ; 
 and light in colour. But of late years this 
 breed has been advantageously crossed with 
 the pug and Berkshire sorts, and a smaller 
 and better variety produced. 
 
 The Gloucester, the Yorkshire, the North- 
 ampton, and the Hereford breeds, call for 
 little notice. The Hereford appears to be 
 a descendant of the Shropshire, and is a 
 large useful race ; but the others are very 
 inferior kinds, possessing few good points. 
 
 In reviewing the various breeds of swine, 
 a brief survey of the principal continental 
 varieties and distinct races may not be out 
 of place. I shall therefore give a slightly 
 altered abridgment of a diffuse article which 
 some time since appeared in the Quart. Jour, 
 of Agr. vol. iii. p. 49. 
 
 France. In the time of Buffon, the greater 
 portion of the hogs of Vivarez and the north 
 of France were white ; while in Dauphiny, 
 Languedoc, and Provence, they were all 
 black : black pigs still prevail both in Spain 
 and Italy. The variety known in France 
 under the name of pore de nobles appears 
 to be derived from the improved English 
 breed, which originated in a cross between 
 an Anglo- Chinese sow and an emancipated 
 American boar. The French breeds of 
 swine are in general bad, ■ but excellent 
 hams are sent from Bretagne from hogs 
 reared on acorns and fatted off with maize. 
 The principal breeds of France at the pre- 
 sent time are — 
 
 1. The race of the Pays d'Auge, in which 
 the head is small and sharp, ears narrow and 
 pointed, body long, legs broad and strong, 
 hair coarse, white, and bones small. It at- 
 tains to the weight of 800 lbs. 
 
 2. The race ofPoitou. — The distinguish- 
 ing characters of which are, head long and 
 thick, with the point projecting, ears large 
 and pendulous, body long, bones large, but 
 broad and strong, bristles coarse. Its weight 
 seldom exceeds 500 lbs. 
 
 3. The race of Perigord. — Neck thick 
 and short, body broad and compact, hair 
 black. This race, crossed with others, has 
 produced the pied swine, so common in the 
 south of France. 
 
 4. The race of Champagne. — These do 
 not fatten well, they are of large dimen- 
 
 1133 
 
 sions, with long flat sides, broad pendent 
 ears, and coarse white hair. 
 
 5. The race of Boulogne are also of con- 
 siderable size, and disposed to fatten quickly ; 
 ears very broad, general colour white. This 
 breed has sprung from a cross between the 
 larger English breed and one of the com- 
 mon races of France. 
 
 The French pigs, although they have 
 excited many facetious observations from 
 travellers, and not unfrequently been com- 
 pared to greyhounds, may be fattened, we 
 are assured, at a small expense; and the 
 method of doing this is now beginning to 
 be understood. The Chinese and English 
 breeds are also getting into use for crossing. 
 The fact that 4,000,000 pigs are killed yearly 
 in France, shows of how great importance 
 they are to the small agriculturist. (For. 
 Quart. Rev.) 
 
 Other European Breeds. — In some 
 parts of Hungary the breed of swine is ex- 
 cellent. In Germany swine are common, 
 but the breed is every where indifferent. 
 Of the other continental races only a very 
 few require particular notice. 
 
 The Jutland Swine, which are of a large 
 size, and form an important branch of 
 Danish commerce, have the ears large and 
 pendent, body elongated, back somewhat 
 curved, legs long. 
 
 The Swedish Swine. - — The most peculiar 
 and characteristic breed of Sweden are sup- 
 posed to contain a cross of the wild boar, 
 and have the head broad, turned upwards ; 
 ears unusually erect, body lengthened, legs 
 long. 
 
 The Polish and Russian Pigs are gene- 
 rally small, and of a reddish or yellowish 
 colour. 
 
 Race of the Cape of Good Hope. — This 
 breed is somewhat less in size, but else ap- 
 proaches closely to the Siamese pig, and is 
 nearly identical with the breed of the South 
 Sea Islands. It probably originated in In- 
 dia. The hair is black or deep chestnut, 
 hard, and thinly scattered; the ears are 
 straight, the tail pendent and terminated 
 by a tuft of bristles. This race is now very 
 generally distributed ; it has been propagated 
 extensively in Australasia, and now occurs 
 not only in Southern Africa, but in several 
 parts of South America. 
 
 The smooth or short-legged Swine, a 
 breed derived from the Chinese, are bred 
 in Spain, Portugal, Savoy, and the north 
 and south of Italy. This pig is of small 
 size, very productive, and a ready fattener ; 
 it is usually of a copper colour, but some- 
 times occurs of a bright fiery red. The 
 head is unusually short, the jaws thick, the 
 forehead stunted; the skin falls in folds 
 above the eyes ; the ears are short, pointed, 
 
SWINE. 
 
 and almost erect; the neck is thick and 
 strong, the chest very vigorous, the body 
 round and lengthened, the legs short and 
 strong, the skin very thin, and the bristles 
 short and slender. 
 
 The Zealand Hog is of a mixed Chinese 
 race, and weighs from 1G0 to 240 lbs. about 
 the end of its second year. It has the ears 
 erect, body short, back strongly bristled, 
 tail small. 
 
 The Turkish Hog fattens in half the time 
 required by many of the larger and more 
 common breeds, and weighs from 300 to 
 400 lbs. It prevails throughout European 
 Turkey, and a great portion of the Austrian 
 dominions. Ears straight and pointed ; legs 
 short and fine ; body scarcely longer than 
 high, and covered all over with slender 
 frizzled bristles, of a grey colour, more or 
 less deep, approaching to rufous brown. 
 
 The Pig of Guinea (not the Guinea pig) 
 is a remarkable variety, which is little 
 known. The back is bare ; head small ; 
 ears long, slender, and much pointed ; tail 
 long, naked, reaching to the ground ; hair 
 short, red, shining, finer and softer than 
 that of any other known race. 
 
 In Asia only Europeans and the low 
 Hindoos eat pork. Wild hogs are abundant, 
 and do so much injury to the rice fields 
 that it is a material part of the ryot's busi- 
 ness to watch them, which he does night 
 and day, on a raised platform of bamboos. 
 
 Of the Mediterranean breeds there are 
 several, which are approved and held in 
 much estimation ; among these are the Mal- 
 tese, the Neapolitan, &c, and hogs are oc- 
 casionally brought from the sea-ports of 
 Turkey and Spain. 
 
 The Maltese breed was at one time in 
 great favour in England; it was of small 
 size, of a black colour, nearly destitute of 
 bristles, with an aptitude to fatten readily. 
 A breed from the country near Naples has 
 been recently introduced, which is exten- 
 sively employed as a cross with the existing 
 native breeds. This Neapolitan breed is 
 very similar to the Maltese breed already 
 alluded to. Their flesh is good and delicate, 
 but the animals are not hardy, and quite 
 unfit for general use. The duchy of Parma 
 is said to produce the best hogs of Italy, 
 which possess all the good qualities of those 
 about Naples. They are also more hardy, 
 and of larger size. 
 
 In Mexico they have a very fine race of 
 hogs, which are regarded as an important 
 article of commerce. They are kept very 
 clean, and often given a cold bath, as the 
 breeders find from experience that clean- 
 liness contributes mainly to their rapid 
 growth, upon less food. This is fully cor- 
 roborated by the following experiment, 
 
 which was recently made by a gentleman 
 of Norfolk. Six pigs of nearly equal size 
 were put to keeping at the same time, and 
 treated the same as to food and litter for 
 seven weeks. Three of them were left to 
 shift for themselves as to cleanliness ; the 
 other three were kept as clean as possible 
 by a man employed for the purpose, with a 
 currycomb and brush. The last consumed 
 in seven weeks fewer peas by five bushels 
 than the other three, yet weighed more 
 when killed by two stone and four pounds 
 upon the average. 
 
 Bullock informs us that the Mexicans are 
 very curious in rearing and feeding swine, 
 and that an essential requisite in a Mexican 
 swineherd is an agreeable voice, in order 
 that he may sing or charm the animals into 
 peace when they quarrel and fight, and lull 
 them to sleep at proper times, to promote 
 their fatting. ( Travels, 1 824.) There are 
 many wild swine in Paraguay. 
 
 Characteristics of a good hog. — There is 
 evidently much diversity in swine in dif- 
 ferent circumstances and situations. Like 
 other descriptions of stock, they should be 
 selected with especial reference to the na- 
 ture of the climate, the keep and the cir- 
 cumstances of the management under which 
 the farm is conducted. The chief points to 
 be consulted in judging of the breeds of this 
 animal are the form or shape of the ear, 
 and the quality of the hair. The pendulous 
 or lop ear, and coarse harsh hair, are com- 
 monly asserted to indicate largeness of size 
 and thickness of skin ; while erect or prick 
 ears show the size to be smaller, but the 
 animals to be more quick in feeding. 
 
 In the selection of swine, the best formed 
 are considered to be those which are not too 
 long, but full in the head and cheek; thick 
 and rather short in the neck; fine in the 
 bone ; thick, plump, and compact in the car- 
 case ; full in the quarters, fine and thin in the 
 hide ; and of a good size according to the 
 breed, with, above all, a kindly disposition to 
 fatten well and expeditiously at an early age. 
 Depth of carcase, lateral extension, breadth 
 of the loin and breast, proportionate length, 
 moderate shortness of the legs, and substance 
 of the gammons and fore-arms, are there- 
 fore absolute essentials. These are quali- 
 ties to produce a favourable balance in the 
 account of keep, and a mass of weight which 
 will pull the scale down. In proportion, too, 
 as the animal is capacious in the loin and 
 breast, will be generally the vigour of his 
 constitution ; his legs will be thence pro- 
 perly extended, and he will have a bold 
 and firm footing on the ground. 
 
 For head and cars, the small Berkshire or 
 Oxford pigs are good models; and for true 
 shape, the improved Shropshire, Hereford, 
 
SWINE. 
 
 and Gloucester. If colour deserve any 
 consideration, perhaps the light, sandy, and 
 yellow spotted are to be preferred, as these 
 appear to afford by far the most delicate 
 meat when dead. 
 
 Procreation. — The sow generally goes 
 with young four lunar months, but the pe- 
 riod of gestation in different species varies 
 considerably. According to the experi- 
 ments of M. Teissier on the gestation of 
 animals, it appears that the extreme period, 
 of twenty-five sows were 109 to 143 days, 
 which would lead to the inference that they 
 go on an average 127 days from the time of 
 taking the boar until they farrow ; but ex- 
 perience proves that they most commonly 
 farrow within little more than sixteen 
 weeks, although they occasionally go with 
 young twenty weeks. Both the sexes mani- 
 fest a desire for coition at seven or eight 
 months old ; and although frequently brought 
 together at a still earlier age, it is more 
 preferable to restrain them until they have 
 attained to the age of twelve months, as 
 a larger and stronger litter will be pro- 
 duced. The boar should not commence 
 serving until at least a year old, and he 
 may be considered in his prime at two years 
 old. He should not be strained by being 
 allowed to serve too many sows ; from 
 twelve to fourteen being sufficient. The 
 sow should rarely be put to the boar before 
 eight months old. See Gestation. 
 
 The animals when collectively spoken of 
 are usually either termed swine, hogs, or 
 pigs ; but when distinctively named, the 
 young gelded male is called a "barrow," the 
 male when not castrated is called a " boar," 
 and the female a " sow," or " shoot;" their 
 progeny when very young being styled 
 " sucking pigs," and when advanced some- 
 what larger in size, " porkers." 
 
 There is much difference of opinion as to 
 the best age for breeding sows. Some con- 
 sider that sows at three years old throw 
 their stock much larger and stronger than- 
 when of a less age ; while others are of opi- 
 nion that they are never such good breeders 
 as at the age of from a year and a half to 
 two years and a half old ; after which they 
 throw the pigs unevenly. 
 
 Regarding the sex of the progeny, it is 
 asserted in a recent French work on the 
 subject of generation (Giron, sur la Re- 
 production des Animaux Domestiques), that 
 among females those which receive the male 
 Jirst produce generally more males than 
 females. This is not a matter of much con- 
 sequence in swine ; but in horses and cattle 
 it is a question of some moment : and if this 
 theory is borne out by experience, the hint 
 thrown out may prove useful to breeders. 
 The sow will produce two litters in a year ! 
 
 1135 1 
 
 (occasionally five in two years), and from 
 eight to twelve pigs at each farrow. The 
 number of pigs to be kept will be easily in- 
 dicated by the number of teats which the 
 mother has ; and on no account should more 
 be attempted to be retained than nature 
 has thus provided for. 
 
 " The choice of a boar," says a modern 
 writer, " depends so much upon fancy, or 
 local prejudice, in favour of a particular 
 breed, and is so little governed by either 
 soil or climate, that no other general rule 
 can be laid down upon the subject, than to 
 avoid an animal which is not small-headed, 
 deep and broad in the chest, the chine 
 rather arched, the ribs and barrel well 
 rounded, and the haunch falling full down 
 nearly to the hock. He should also be more 
 compact in his form and rather smaller than 
 the sow ; for, if she be coarse, her progeny 
 will be improved in form and flesh by the 
 cross, and the more roomy she is, the better 
 chance will she afford of producing a large 
 and healthy litter." (Brit. Hud), vol. ii. 
 p. 51 1.) The boar cannot be too well kept ; 
 but the sow should not be highly fed before 
 taking the boar. 
 
 The plan or custom of breeding in and in 
 from close relations is a most injudicious 
 course, and seems to bring on degeneracy 
 in the offspring. In selecting both sows 
 and boars, a due regard must be paid to 
 the object for which the progeny are de- 
 signed. Small bone is desirable in stock 
 reserved for breeding, as this description 
 produces the least offal. 
 
 Uses. — A pig for its size is one of the 
 most useful animals in the whole creation, 
 inasmuch as he is food from top to toe, and 
 there is no part of him which cannot be 
 turned to account. His fat is made into 
 lard, which is used in medicine, as well as 
 by housekeepers, confectioners, and others. 
 That about the loins is the firmest and the 
 most dense. For ordinary use it must be 
 separated from the membranes, which is 
 effected by melting it over a slow fire and 
 straining through cloths. It should be 
 stirred as it cools, to prevent the separation 
 of the solid part or stearine from the eluine 
 or oily part. The flesh is either eaten 
 fresh when young, or of the adult animal, 
 bacon hog, salted in brine or with dry salt, 
 and then either kept moist as pickled porh, 
 or merely dried ; white bacon, or cured, 
 dried, and smoked bacon ; that of the hind 
 legs, ham, equally nutritive, but less easily 
 digested; the collar and head of the old 
 boars are made into brawn; the skin or 
 rind js eaten with the flesh if not smoked, 
 and is also tanned for saddle seats, shoes, 
 covers for pocket-books, &c; the bladders 
 are prepared as ox bladders. The bristles 
 
SWINE. 
 
 clean our teeth and brush our clothes : 
 those of superior quality from Russia, fetch 
 141. to 261. the cwt. ; the second quality, 
 from 51. to \0l. The abdominal fat is used ; 
 as also the blood for food, and it yields a 
 bezoar, principally from a morbid con- 
 cretion in the stomach of the wild hog. 
 Even the intestines are used for chitlings, 
 and converted into an inferior kind of lard, 
 by being cut open and washed clean, and 
 (after the water is well pressed out of them) 
 melted in the same way as lard : this sub- 
 stance is very useful for making common 
 candles, greasing wheels, and other general 
 purposes. To sum up all, the hog mul- 
 tiplies his species in a degree proportioned 
 to his usefulness. 
 
 The flesh of the hog when fresh is easy of 
 digestion and nutritive ; but it is not a 
 food capable of being eaten for a length of 
 time with impunity. It is apt to cause de- 
 rangements of the mucous membrane, and 
 diseases of the skin. 
 
 Bacon. — • In Great Britain the curing of 
 bacon, as an article of commerce, prevails 
 most in the counties of York, Hants, Cum- 
 berland, Northampton, Dumfries, Galloway, 
 and the northern and other ports of Ireland. 
 
 For bacon flitches, the larger breeds, such 
 as will weigh when killed from eighteen to 
 twenty-two imperial stone, are always pre- 
 ferred, from being the most profitable to the 
 farm and readily taking the market. In 
 selecting pigs for this purpose, the sow 
 should be of a large deep carcase ; head 
 long, with deep ears, straight chine, and of 
 equal symmetry from the shoulders to the 
 tail ; of fine skin, which shows an aptitude 
 to fatt en, and the boar should be of a thicker 
 and closer make than the sow. 
 
 Small hogs for bacon will be ready for the 
 knife in twelve weeks, and the larger from 
 sixteen to twenty weeks. The girth of fat 
 bacon hogs is about as follows : — When ten 
 score, 4 feet 1 inch ; twelve score, 4 feet 
 4 inches ; fourteen score, 4 feet 7 inches ; 
 sixteen score, 4 feet 11 inches; eighteen 
 score, 5 feet 2 inches ; twenty score, 5 feet 
 7 inches. (Hdlyard's Pract. Farm. p. 51.) 
 
 " In Hampshire, and some adjoining coun- 
 ties, after the hog is killed, they first swale 
 him, or singe off the hairs, by kindling a 
 fire round him, which is far preferable to 
 scraping off* the bristles with warm water, 
 as the latter mode softens the rind, and in- 
 jures the firmness of the flesh. He is then 
 cut into flitches, which are well rubbed with 
 common salt and saltpetre mixed, and are 
 laid in a trough, where they continue for 
 three wicks or a month, according to size, 
 and arc often turned. They are then taken 
 out, suspended in a chimney, over a wood 
 or turf fire, or in regular curing-houses, till 
 1136 
 
 they are quite dried. In Kent they are 
 dried before a slack fire, which requires a 
 similar method and time to that employed 
 in salting. They are hung up or deposited 
 on racks for use. Somersetshire or Wilt- 
 shire bacon, which is the best in England, 
 is cured as follows : — The sides of the hogs 
 are laid in large wooden troughs, sprinkled 
 with bay salt, and left unmoved for twenty- 
 four hours, to drain off' the blood and juices. 
 Then they are taken out, and wiped quite 
 dry, and some bay salt, previously heated 
 in an iron fryingpan, is rubbed into the flesh, 
 till enough of it is absorbed. This is con- 
 tinued for four successive days, during which 
 the flitches are turned every second day. 
 With large hogs, the flitches must be kept 
 in brine for three weeks, and must be turned 
 every other day, after which they are dried' 
 as usual. In these methods the hide or 
 skin is left on ; but in some counties there 
 is a different practice, which has been re- 
 commended abroad as preferable, because 
 it affords an opportunity of converting the 
 skin into leather, while the meat takes the 
 salt and is cured as well as in the former 
 mode. The hides of swine have long been 
 made into shoes in China. Where the con- 
 sumption of bacon is very rapid, the last- 
 mentioned practice may be adopted ; but it 
 is certain that bacon will in a short time 
 become rusty, and consequent loss be in- 
 curred, if it be not cured with the rind, 
 and kept in a dry room." ( The Complete 
 Grazier.} See Bacon. 
 
 Pork. — In England, mess or table pork, 
 or that for the London market, is generally 
 cured near the principal sea-ports, and along 
 the coast, from whence it can easily be 
 shipped to the metropolis. If the object of 
 breeding hogs is for pork and hams only, it 
 is evident that pork from a hog of twenty- 
 five to thirty-five stone (eight pounds to 
 the stone) is by far more profitable than 
 those from thirty-five to fifty stone ; in 
 which case a cross between the Chinese and 
 Essex will be found to answer very well, 
 as the progeny come to early maturity. 
 (BaxterLs Agr. Lib.} 
 
 The middle-sized hogs, such as the North- 
 umberland, the Berkshire, the Suffolk, and 
 Oxford breeds, are those generally pre- 
 ferred for this purpose, and their ordinary 
 weight will be from eight to ten or twelve 
 imperial stone. 
 
 For delicate pork for family use. the 
 smaller kindly-feeding pigs are chosen. The 
 Berkshire and the Suffolk breeds, when not 
 too large, will be the best for this purjwse. 
 The Chinese will answer well at six or eight 
 months old, when it will weigh fourtoeight 
 imperial stones. By higher feeding it may 
 be made, when a little older, to attain to 
 
SWINE. 
 
 double this weight ; but the meat will then 
 be found coarse. Weanlings are generally 
 fiitted in a very short period. A pig of five 
 or six months old will fatten, if in good 
 condition, in eight or ten weeks. 
 
 The fat of the hog is neither mixed with 
 the flesh nor collected at its extremities, 
 but covers the animal all over, and forms a 
 thick, distinct, and continued layer beneath 
 the integuments, and in this respect may 
 be said to resemble the whale and other 
 cetaceous animals. It is termed lard, and 
 differs in chemical composition and pro- 
 perties from the fat of the ruminating 
 animals. It more readily imbibes salt than 
 any other kind of fat ; and the same pro- 
 perty being possessed by the flesh, there is 
 no animal food better suited than pork for 
 preservation by salting. See Lard. 
 
 Statistics. — The number of swine sold in 
 Smithfield market in 1830 was 254,672, 
 which, at the average weight of ninety-six 
 pounds each (a very moderate computa- 
 tion), gives the number of pounds of pork 
 consumed annually at 24,448,512. (Yoaatt 
 on Cattle.) The swine sold in Glasgow 
 market in 1822 were 6539. The exports 
 of swine from Ireland in 1825 were 65,919; 
 in 1835, 376,191. Estimated value in the 
 latter year, 893,839/. Increase between 
 these two periods, 310,272. 
 
 In the United States of America a very 
 large number of hogs are reared ; and lat- 
 terly much attention has been paid to the 
 improvement of the breed by judicious 
 crosses. The piggeries are there on an ex- 
 tensive scale ; and it is no uncommon thing 
 in some of the States for a farmer to have 
 from 3000 to 4000 pigs. In a letter written 
 from Michigan city, dated 11th September, 
 1841, the writer, a farmer, states that he 
 had then 3500 pigs up to fatten ! In the 
 whole extent of the States, there are about 
 2,000,000 head of swine bred annually, and 
 of" these about 27,000 are kept or reared 
 in the state of New York. In 1840 the 
 number in this state was said to be 1,916,953. 
 
 Swine in the British colonies, &c. 
 
 
 1832.* 
 
 1836.t 
 
 Upper Canada 
 
 220,000 
 
 250,000 
 
 Lower Canada 
 
 350,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 New Brunswick 
 
 65,000 
 
 80,000 
 
 Nova Scotia and Cape Bre- 
 
 
 
 ton - 
 
 98,214 
 
 100,000 
 
 Prince Edward's Island 
 
 30,000 
 
 22,000 
 
 Newfoundland and Labra- 
 
 
 
 dor - 
 
 16,00 
 
 20,000 
 
 United States % 
 
 
 3,845 
 
 Mediterranean 
 
 
 Malta - 
 
 
 405 
 
 Gozo - 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 
 160,000 
 
 Mauritius - 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 Seychelles - 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 
 20,000 
 
 Swan River 
 
 
 1,000 
 
 South Australia 
 
 
 500 
 
 Bahamas - 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 * McGregor's North America, 2d ed. vol. ii. p. 589. 
 f Martin's Brit. Colonies. % Statis. Returns. 
 
 1137 
 
 Diseases. — This subject has been so 
 much neglected by practical men, that but 
 little is known in the way of cure. In 
 the absence, therefore, of scientific pre- 
 scriptions, it will be most advisable to 
 study prevention rather than hazard a trial 
 of the numerous recipes recommended as 
 cures. The diseases of swine are gene- 
 rally the result of want of care and clean- 
 liness, or arise from injudicious and irre- 
 gular feeding ; from their being kept in 
 loathsome and uncomfortable situations, in- 
 haling the most noxious vapours, and at 
 one time overfed, and another stinted in 
 their supply of food. Is it to be wondered 
 at that they become subject to internal and 
 cutaneous diseases ? Fortunately they will 
 generally eat when even sick; and salts 
 (1 to 2 oz.), sulphur (2 to 3 drachms), an- 
 timony, and such like aperients, may be 
 mixed with their food for measles, and 
 other disorders arising from an impure 
 state of the blood. If they will not eat, 
 there can of course be no cure applied. 
 
 In swine-pox, sulphur and madder may 
 be administered in small quantities, with 
 treacle, in the wash ; fresh brewer's grains, 
 or pollard, may also be given. Madder and 
 sulphur will also be found the best alterants 
 in foulness of the skin or habit. Salt, 
 mixed with ground ivy, leeks, or other 
 similar vegetables, is one of the best ap- 
 plications for the sores of swine. But for 
 cutaneous diseases in general, an ointment 
 formed of equal parts of mutton suet and 
 tar, with the addition of a little sulphur, 
 will be found beneficial. Strong beer and 
 pease porridge are recommended as tonics. 
 
 In cases of surfeit, indigestion, or injury 
 from eating slightly poisonous matter, swine 
 will refuse their food, constantly lie down', 
 and have the stomach distended. In this 
 case, two heads of garlic, mixed with 6 oz. 
 of fresh butter, will afford relief, given 
 every six hours. Soap-suds are said to 
 have the effect of emptying the stomach. 
 
 The most formidable of the diseases to 
 which swine are liable, is inflammation of 
 the lungs, and other internal parts. This 
 disease has been known to destroy a fourth 
 of the hogs in a distillery in the course of a 
 few weeks. The chief indications of the 
 disease will be the distressing cough, the 
 heaving of the flanks, and the refusal of all 
 food. Bleeding must be promptly resorted 
 to, and moderate purges cautiously ad- 
 ministered. The safest aperients are castor 
 oil or Epsom salts, after which the follow- 
 ing sedative powder may be given : fox^ 
 glove (digitalis) 2 grs., antim. powd. 2 gr j., 
 nitre half a drachm. 
 
 In cases of murrain, a species of leprosy, 
 which prevails chiefly in hot seasons, the 
 1 4 D 
 
SWINE. 
 
 best advice that can be given is to keep the 
 animal cool, and not suffer carrion or por- 
 tions of animal food to be given. 
 
 The health of swine is to be estimated by 
 their cheerfulness, by the gloss upon their 
 coats, their skin being wholly free from erup- 
 tion. If pigs snort on being disturbed, it is 
 an excellent sign of sound health and good 
 keep. The state of the excrement or di- 
 gestions will generally indicate pretty cor- 
 rectly the thriving condition of the animal, 
 for unless these are of a firm consistence, 
 the hog will not fatten rapidly. If store 
 or stock pigs are kept well and in good 
 condition, it will prevent most of the dis- 
 eases to which the animals are subject, and 
 they will also thrive and fatten at half the 
 expense when shut up for that purpose. 
 From the confinement of the hog, and the 
 nature of his food, a description of dyspepsia 
 takes place, a superabundant acid is formed 
 in the stomach, and, the skin sympathizing, 
 cutaneous eruptions display themselves ; 
 one of the best prophylactics in such a con- 
 dition of the animal are cinders or char- 
 coal. It operates as a most salutary tonic, 
 and improves the general powers of diges- 
 tion. Hogs are so fond of cinders, that 
 when a handful of them is thrown into a 
 sty, the animals fight for them. 
 
 Weaning. — If the young pigs have been 
 well fed, they may be weaned after ' six 
 weeks, and in all cases in two months. In 
 their after treatment, whan separated from 
 their mother, they should be regularly fed 
 three times a day, and their food should at 
 first consist of warm liquid food, such as 
 whey, milk, or the refuse of the dairy and 
 kitchen, &c, raised to the temperature of 
 the mother's milk by the addition of a little 
 warm water. They will soon learn to par- 
 take of more solid substances. 
 
 The rearing and fattening of the hog 
 presents little difficulty, for this animal is 
 reared equally well on a small or a large 
 scale ; by the cottager, from the wash and 
 refuse of his house and garden, or by the 
 extensive breeder, who has more abundance 
 and variety of food at command. 
 
 As the situation, climate, crops, and other 
 local circumstances must to a great extent 
 regulate the breeding and feeding of swine, 
 it is quite impossible to lay down rules of 
 general application, or to describe a prac- 
 tice which necessarily varies in almost every 
 district. I shall content myself, therefore, 
 with noticing a few of the substances upon 
 which the animals are usually fed and 
 found to thrive best. 
 
 It constitutes the principal value of 
 swine, that they can be maintained on 
 almost any kind of aliment. In America, 
 Indian corn or maize is largely used. In 
 1188 y 
 
 the West Indies, the cane tops, refuse trash 
 from the cane after the juice has been 
 expressed, and the washings of the sugar 
 coolers, boilers, distillery vats, &c. form 
 their principal food. In Newfoundland, 
 Labrador, and other parts where fish is 
 plentiful, they are freely fed upon the waste 
 refuse from the fisheries ; and although they 
 thrive well upon this food, their flesh is 
 coarse and strong. 
 
 Where the farmer or breeder has a rich 
 piece of grass or clover unemployed, hogs 
 which are not put up for feeding may be 
 turned into it with advantage ; but there is 
 an objection to this on the score of the 
 manure which is lost. When the field is so 
 situated that the hogs can return at night 
 to the well-littered sties, the practice may 
 then be found beneficial. 
 
 But roots, rather than herbage, is their 
 natural food, such as earthnuts, the roots of 
 couch grass, &c, acorns, chestnuts, beech- 
 mast, hazel nuts, and other dry seeds and 
 fruits, are eagerly consumed by them ; and 
 hence, in the countries in the south of 
 Europe, in the neighbourhood of forests 
 where these abound, they are frequently 
 suffered to range at large and collect their 
 own food. Hogs are also very partial to 
 juicy and pulpy fruits, such as the grape, 
 the orange, the refuse of apples, pears, 
 olives, &c., after the juice has been ex- 
 pressed. Although hay and dried fodder is 
 not adapted to the feeding of swine, if these 
 substances are chopped and boiled they will 
 not refuse them. 
 
 Moist succulent green food, such as 
 clover, tares, lucern, sanfoin, buckwheat, 
 succory or chicory, cabbage, lettuce, &c, is 
 more suited to their taste. Every kind of 
 farinaceous substance, such as oatmeal, 
 barley meal, bran, maize, millet, pease or 
 beans bruised, and indeed the seeds of all 
 gramineous and leguminous plants, are the 
 most fattening substances that can be given 
 to them. They will feed greedily, and 
 thrive surprisingly, on most kinds of roots 
 and tubers, such as carrots, turnips, beet, 
 potatoes, the Jerusalem artichoke, &c, par- 
 ticularly when prepared by boiling. It 
 may be taken as a general rule, that boiled 
 or prepared food is more nutritious and 
 fattening than raw or cold food ; the addi- 
 tional expense and labour will be more 
 than compensated by the increased weight 
 and quality. Thus cabbage, turnip, and 
 potato tops, the husks of peas and beans, 
 and even many green weeds, such as net- 
 tles and thistles, fatten ; and others, void of 
 poisonous qualities, will be found very fat- 
 tening if boiled and mixed with other food, 
 and given, as most food should be, luke- 
 warm. The refuse of the kitchen garden 
 
SWITZER, STEPHEN. 
 
 TANK. 
 
 and dairy, the grains and wash or liquid 
 refuse of breweries, distilleries, and sugar 
 manufactories, where they can be obtained, 
 the sweepings of barns and granaries, will 
 all be found exceedingly fattening. Animal 
 substances, particularly fish, should, how- 
 ever, be seldom or never given as food, since 
 they will necessarily impart a . strong and 
 disagreeable flavour to the meat. A little 
 salt should be generally added to all their 
 victuals, which will create thirst, and induce 
 the animals to consume a greater quantity 
 of food. Fermented wash is found to fatten 
 swine much' quicker than fresh food. 
 
 Ringing. — The practice of ringing swine, 
 which was usually performed at the time of 
 weaning, is growing into disuse, and the 
 ringing is not advisable, inasmuch as it not 
 only proves painful to the animal, but trou- 
 blesome to the owner; for it frequently 
 happens that the ring breaks, or is worn 
 out ; the cartilage gives way, and the ring 
 has to be as often replaced by a fresh opera- 
 tion. A more preferable and lasting pro- 
 cess is now adopted, which consists, in either 
 cutting the two strong tendons of the 
 snout (the cartilaginous and ligamentous 
 prolongations) about an inch and a half 
 from the nose, by a slight incision with a 
 sharp knife, or else to shave or pare off the 
 gristle on the top of the nose, which may 
 be done without prejudice to the animal 
 when about two or three months old. The 
 place heals over in a short time, and the 
 animals are thus prevented from grubbing 
 or tearing up the ground. (Prize Essay on 
 Sivine, by P. L. Simmonds ; Wilson " On 
 the Hog," Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. 
 p. 38. ; Loivs Illustrations of the Breeds of 
 Dom. Animals.) 
 
 SWINE'S CRESS. See Wart- Cress. 
 
 SWINE'S SUCCORY. See Nipple- 
 Wort. 
 
 SWINGLE-TREE. See Plough. 
 
 SWING-PLOUGH. See Plough. 
 
 SWITZER, STEPHEN, was a general 
 gardener and seedsman of the reigns of 
 Anne and George I. He was a native of 
 Hampshire. Mr. Loudon says he died in 
 1745, at which time he must have been 
 eighty years of age. He wrote 
 
 1. Icnographia Rustica ; or the Nobleman, Gentleman, 
 and Gardener's Recreation, containing Directions for 
 the general Distribution, of a Country Seat into rural 
 and extensive Gardens, Parks, Paddocks, &c, and a ge- 
 neral System of Agriculture. Illustrated with great va- 
 riety of Copperplates, done by the best hands from the 
 Author's Drawings. London, 1718. 3vols.8vo. 2. The 
 Practical Kitchen Gardener ; or a new and entire Sys- 
 tem of Directions for his Employment in the Melonry, 
 Kitchen Garden, and Potagery, in the several Seasons of 
 the Year. 1727. 8vo. 3. Compendious Method of rais- 
 ing Italian Brocoli, Spanish Cardoon, Celeriac, Finochi, 
 and other foreign Kitchen Vegetables. As also an Ac- 
 count of the La Lucerne, St. Foyne, Clover, and other 
 Grass Seeds. With the Method of burning Clay for the 
 Improvement of Land, lately communicated to the Au- 
 thor by a person of worth and honour of North Britain. 
 
 1139 
 
 London, 1728. The fifth edition is dated 1731 . 4. An 
 Introduction to a general System of Hydrostatics and 
 Hydraulics. London, 1729. 2 vols. 4to. 5. A Disserta- 
 tion on the true Cytisus of the Ancients. London, 1731. 
 8vo. 6. Universal System of Water and Water- Works, 
 Philosophical and Practical, with plates. London, 1730, 
 2 vols. 4to. The third edition, made very complete, espe- 
 cially that part which relates to the burning of clay. 7. 
 Country Gentleman's Companion ; or Ancient Hus- 
 bandry restored, and Modern Husbandry improved. 
 1732. 8vo. (G. W.Johnson's Hist, of Gard.). 
 
 SYCAMORE. See Maple. 
 SYTHE. See SCYTHE. 
 
 T. 
 
 TAG. A term applied to young sheep 
 of the first year. See Sheep. 
 
 TALLOW. (Germ, talg.) The fat ob- 
 tained by melting the suet of the ox and 
 sheep, and straining it so as to free it from 
 membrane. When pure, it is white, taste- 
 less, and nearly insipid ; but the tallow of 
 commerce has usually a yellow tinge, and 
 is divided, according to the degree of its 
 purity and consistence, into candle and soap 
 tallow. Tallow consists of stearine, eluine, 
 margarin, and traces of hircin. According 
 to Chevreul, its ultimate components are 
 78-996 of carbon + 11-708 of hydrogen + 
 0-304 of oxygen in 100 parts. It is used in 
 medicine as an emollient and a demulcent. 
 Tallow is an article of great importance. 
 It is manufactured into candles and soap, 
 and is extensively employed in the dress- 
 ing of leather and in various processes of 
 the arts. Besides our supplies of native 
 tallow, we annually import a very large 
 quantity, principally from Russia. The 
 exports of tallow from Petersburgh amount, 
 at an average, to between 3,500,000 to 
 4,000,000 poods, of which the largest por- 
 tion by far is brought to England. (M i Cul- 
 loch's Com. Diet.) 
 
 TAMARISK. (Tamarix.) This is a 
 genus of very elegant shrubs. The hardy 
 indigenous species, or French tamarisk (S. 
 Gallica), is well suited for ornamenting 
 shrubberies : it will grow in any soil or 
 situation, and is freely increased by cuttings 
 planted in the open ground, in spring or 
 autumn. Sheep feed greedily on this spe- 
 cies for the sake of its salt taste. The stem 
 is slender, with abundance of long, droop- 
 ing, smooth, red, shining branches. Leaves 
 minute, lanceolate, deciduous, spurred, 
 acute. Lateral cylindrical clusters of nu- 
 merous, nearly sessile, reddish or white 
 bracteated flowers, without scent. (Pax- 
 toris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 
 p.m.) 
 
 TANK. In gardening, a cistern or re- 
 servoir made of stone, timber, or some 
 other material. Tanks are used for col- 
 lecting and preserving water during a 
 4 d 2 
 
TANNIC ACID, 
 
 TANNING. 
 
 scarcity or drought. They are sometimes 
 built in the ground, and lined with lead or 
 cement. Where, wells cannot be sunk, and 
 water is scarce at some seasons, tanks are 
 necessary appendages to a house. 
 
 A tank, twelve feet by seven feet, has 
 been found sufficient to supply with water 
 a large family and six horses : this was sur- 
 rounded by only four and a half inch brick 
 work, resting solid against the sides, in con- 
 sequence of being, like a decanter, smaller 
 at the bottom than higher up ; and the dome 
 is constructed on the Egyptian plan, by 
 projecting horizontally each row of mate- 
 rials one third of their length beyond those 
 below, by filling up the back with earth as 
 it proceeded, to balance the weight of this 
 projecting masonry. 
 
 At the Eastbourne workhouse for four- 
 teen parishes, a tank has been made twenty- 
 three feet deep by eleven wide, of the 
 roughest materials, being only flint stones, 
 and though they require more mortar than 
 if they had been regularly shaped, only 
 ninety bushels of lime were allowed, in- 
 cluding two coats of plaster, and the work- 
 manship is executed like field walls at 10s. 
 per 100 square feet ; the only essential 
 being that no clay be used (which worms in 
 time bore through), and that the lime, or 
 Parker's cement, be good. 
 
 A current of air is said to promote the 
 purity of water in tanks, which is easily 
 effected by the earthenware or other pipe 
 which conveys the water from the roof 
 being of six or eight inches in diameter, and 
 an opening left for the surplus water to 
 run away ; and where the prevailing winds 
 do not blow soot and leaves on the house, 
 the water remains good, even for drinking, 
 without clearing out the rubbish more than 
 once a year ; but, in some cases, filtering 
 by ascension may be found useful, and ef- 
 fected by the water being delivered by the 
 pipe at the bottom of a cask or other ves- 
 sel, from which it cannot escape till it has 
 risen through the holes in a board covered 
 with pebbles, sand, or powdered charcoal. 
 See Reservoirs, Ponds, &c. 
 
 TANNER'S BARK. The bark of oak, 
 chestnut, willow, larch, and other trees 
 which abounds in tannic acid, and is used 
 by tanners for preparing leather. After 
 being exhausted of the tanning principle by 
 being chopped into small pieces, or bruised 
 and steeped in water, it is laid up in heaps 
 to dry, and sold to gardeners for the pur- 
 pose of producing artificial heat by ferment- 
 ation in pits or beds, in bark-stoves or 
 other out-houses. See Bark and Farm 
 Y ird Manure. 
 
 TANNIC ACID. This term has been 
 e peciallj applied to a substance obtained 
 1140 
 
 by Pelonge, by acting upon bruised galls by 
 common unrectified ether, in a long narrow 
 funnel or percolater. Tannic acid is a white 
 uncrystalline powder, very astringent, little 
 soluble in water, and reddening litmus. 
 When moistened and exposed to air it at- 
 tracts oxygen, is decomposed, and is con- 
 verted into^ gallic acid. It is extremely 
 astringent, and appears to be the active 
 principle of tanning substances (tannin) in 
 general. Its ultimate elements are thirty 
 atoms of carbon, eighteen of hydrogen, and 
 twenty-four of oxygen. 
 
 TANNIN. A word synonymous with 
 tannic acid, the pure astringent principle, 
 upon which their power of converting skin 
 into leather depends. Its leading character 
 is its property of producing a dense whitish 
 precipitate in a strong solution of animal 
 jelly, such, for instance, as isinglass ; and on 
 this account it condenses the gelatin of ani- 
 mal hides, and, rendering them impermeable 
 to water, converts them into leather. It 
 may be obtained tolerably pure by infusing 
 bruised grape-seeds in cold water, or more 
 circuitously by adding acetate of copper to 
 filtered infusion of galls, washing the preci- 
 pitate, and decomposing it (diffused through 
 water ) by sulphuretted hydrogen. On eva- 
 porating its solution, it is obtained as a pale 
 yellow extract of a strong astringent taste. 
 The action of astringents upon persalts of 
 iron has given rise to its distinction into 
 two varieties, the first changing them to 
 deep blue or black, the second to green. 
 The tan of galls, oak, bark, grape-seeds, &c. 
 possesses the former property ; that of ca- 
 techu and tea, the latter. (Brandes Diet, 
 of Science.) 
 
 TANNING. The art of preparing leather 
 from raw skins and hides so as to render 
 them more pliant, durable, and imperme- 
 able to water. The processes employed for 
 this purpose are various, every tanner adopt- 
 ing some peculiar or favourite method. 
 
 A discovery has recently been made which 
 seems likely to revolutionise the tanning 
 trade. By means of a tanning machine, or 
 pair of horizontal rollers fixed over a tan- 
 pit, between which is fixed a band or belt 
 of hides attached by ligatures to each other, 
 to the number of 50 to 100, and by which 
 the rollers are constantly fed or supplied, 
 the hides are lifted out of the pit on one 
 side of the machine ; as they pass between 
 the rollers, the exhausted ooze or tanning 
 liquor is pressed out of them, and they are 
 deposited in folds in the pit on the other 
 side of the machine, where they absorb an- 
 other supply of fresh tannin. The first 
 hide having been inserted between the rol- 
 lers, the others follow in succession, and 
 upon arriving at the end of the band the 
 
TANSY. 
 
 TARES. 
 
 motion of the roller is reversed, and the 
 belt is returned through the machine to re- 
 ceive another squeeze. This alternating 
 motion is constantly repeated, the pit being 
 replenished from time to time with fresh 
 solutions of tan, till the operation" is com- 
 pleted. The effects produced by this simple 
 plan, are — 1. The shortening of the time 
 of tanning to one fourth of that generally 
 required. 2. The production of a consider- 
 able increase of weight. 3. The leather 
 tanned by this method resists water longer 
 than that tanned by the old process. 4. 
 The new method is cheaper than the old. 
 5. It is applicable to the existing tan- 
 yards, at a comparatively trifling expense, 
 with a capability of working in rounds or 
 series, and of expending tan or liquor. 6. 
 That it is available for all sorts of lea- 
 ther. 
 
 TANSY. (Tanacetum.) The species of 
 tansy are not possessed of much beauty. 
 The hardy kinds succeed in any common 
 soil, and are readily increased by rooted 
 slips of the fibrous creeping root. The 
 green-house species should be grown in a 
 light rich soil. They increase freely by 
 cuttings. Withering asserts, that if meat 
 be rubbed with the leaves of tansy, the flesh- 
 fly will not touch it. The only indigenous 
 species is the common tansy (T. vulgar e). 
 The stems are about two feet high, solid, 
 unbranched, smooth. Leaves doubly pin- 
 natifid, dark green, deeply serrated, naked. 
 Flowers numerous, of a golden yellow, ter- 
 minal, densely corymbose. Every part of 
 the herb is bitter, with a strong but not un- 
 pleasant scent. The qualities are esteemed 
 of a tonic and cordial nature, expelling in- 
 testinal worms, and strengthening the diges- 
 tive powers. The plant, however, does not 
 agree with every stomach. There are two 
 varieties of this species, the variegated, and 
 the curled or double tansy, which is kept 
 for use in gardens, as being more whole- 
 some, or milder than the wild sort ; but 
 tansy pudding is out of fashion. (Paxton's 
 Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 404. ; G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Gard.) 
 
 TANSY, WILD. See Silver-Weed. 
 
 TAP-ROOT. A root which penetrates 
 deep and perpendicularly into the ground, 
 without dividing, and has few lateral fibres. 
 In shape it resembles a spindle ; hence it is 
 botanically termed a fusiform root. But 
 the main trunk of any root which pene- 
 trates vertically deep into the ground is 
 called the tap. 
 
 TAR. A dark brown viscid liquid, ob- 
 tained by charring the wood of the fir-tree ; 
 it consists of resin, empyreumatic oil and 
 acetic acid. When inspissated by boiling, it 
 is converted into pitch. The manufacture, 
 1141 
 
 which is carried on in the pine forests of 
 northern Europe, is simple. A conical hole, 
 usually in the side of a bank, being made, 
 roots and fillets of pine are let into the 
 cavity, and the whole is covered with turf, 
 which is beat firmly down above the wood. 
 The wood being kindled, a slow combus- 
 tion takes place. A cast iron pan at the 
 bottom of the cavity receives the fluid, and 
 has a spout which projects through the 
 bank and carries the tar into barrels. As 
 quickly as the barrels are filled, they are 
 closed with bungs, when the material is 
 ready for exportation. This manner of pre- 
 paring tar has been derived from the earliest 
 ages. Tar is a very compound substance ; it 
 contains modified resin, and oil of turpen- 
 tine, acetic acid, charcoal, and water. Tar 
 is used in medicine as well as in the arts. 
 It is an excellent topical stimulant when 
 made into an ointment with lard in dry 
 skin diseases. These two substances, tar 
 and pitch, are of extensive use in the arts. 
 (Low's Pract. Agr. p. 375.) See Gas Tar. 
 
 Tar may be found useful as an applica- 
 tion for cuts in sheep by clipping, and also 
 to the parts affected by the fly. It is also 
 of great use in some cases for applying as 
 a paint to boarding, &c. ; but in this use a 
 little tallow or other coarse fat should be 
 melted with it, as by this means it goes far- 
 ther, and resists the weather more effec- 
 tually. 
 
 TARE EVERLASTING. See La- 
 thyrus and Vetchling. 
 
 TARES. (Ervum, from ervo, tilled land, 
 some of the species are a pest on cultivated 
 ground.) The word tare is frequently ap- 
 plied to what is properly the common vetch 
 (Vicia sativa). There are two indigenous 
 species of tare, which are troublesome an- 
 nual weeds. 
 
 1. Smooth tare (E. tetraspermum), which 
 grows in corn-fields, hedges, and thickets, 
 particularly such as are rather moist. The 
 root is small and tapering. The herbage 
 is besprinkled with fine soft hairs, especially 
 the flower-stalks and calyx. Stem weak, 
 quadrangular, branched from the bottom, 
 leafy, climbing to the height of two or three 
 feet. Flowers mostly in pairs, small droop- 
 ing, pale grey ; the standard streaked, and 
 the keel tipped with a deep blue. Legumes 
 pendulous, oblong, bluntish, smooth. Seeds 
 most generally four. 
 
 2. Hairy tare (E. hirsutuni), which is in 
 habit much like the foregoing ; the flowers 
 are in clusters of five or seven, very small 
 pale blue, or almost white, with two dark 
 spots on the keel. Legumes short, dark 
 brown, besprinkled with hairs, to which the 
 specific name alludes. Seeds two in each 
 legume, large and prominent. (Smith's 
 
 4d 3 
 
TEAL. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. 
 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 288.) See Vetch, 
 Vetchling, Lathyrus, Soiling, &c. 
 
 TAXES. See Assessed Taxes. 
 
 TEAL. {Anas crecca.) This very pret- 
 * tily marked species, the smallest of our 
 ducks, but one of the best as an article of 
 food, is an early and constant winter visiter, 
 making its appearance by the end of Sep- 
 tember or earlier, and remaining with us till 
 spring has made considerable progress. In 
 the adult male the forehead and narrow band 
 on the top of the head are rich chestnut 
 brown ; from the eye backwards there is a 
 patch of rich glossy green ; the neck and 
 upper part of the back are a mixture of 
 black and white, in transverse lines ; breast 
 and belly white ; lower part of neck in front 
 partly covered with circular spots of black. 
 The whole length of the bird is fourteen 
 inches and a half. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. iii. p. 185.) 
 
 TEAM. A number of horses or oxen 
 drawing at once in the same plough, cart, 
 or other carriage. 
 
 It has been long a disputed point among 
 farmers whether horses or oxen form the 
 most economical and advantageous team for 
 the purpose of the cultivator in performing 
 his work. The question remains still un- 
 decided, though many intelligent farmers 
 now incline to the side of horse teams, ex- 
 cept in particular circumstances and situa- 
 tions. 
 
 TEASEL, or TEAZLE. (Dipsacus, 
 supposed to be derived fr omdipsao, to thirst ; 
 in consequence of the leaves holding water.) 
 It is a curious genus of plants : some of the 
 species are pretty flowering plants, espe- 
 cially the small teasel. They grow well in 
 any common soil, and are readily increased 
 by seeds. There are three native species, 
 all biennial. 
 
 1. The manured, or fuller's teasel (D. 
 fullorum), which, although growing about 
 hedges, can scarcely be considered wild. 
 This species is extensively cultivated in the 
 west of England, the dried heads of which 
 furnish the teasel used by fullers in dressing 
 cloth. The root is fleshy, branched, and 
 tapering. Stem five or six feet high, erect, 
 strongly furrowed, prickly, leafy, branched 
 at the top. The leaves sessile, combined, 
 serrated, with prickly ribs. Flowers whitish, 
 with pale purple anthers, very numerous, in 
 a close, obtuse, conical head, the interme- 
 diate scales bristly at the hedges; rigid 
 and hooked at the points, by which they 
 are rendered serviceable for teazing woollen 
 cloth, being fixed in several rows in wooden 
 frames with handles, adapted for that pur- 
 pose. The scales are just strong enough to 
 raise the wool, giving way before they can 
 injure the cloth. Many mechanical inven- 
 1142 
 
 tions have been attempted to set aside the 
 teasel, but without success, all of them 
 having proved inefficient or injurious. 
 The dressing of a piece of cloth consumes 
 from 1500 to 2000 teazles. They are re- 
 peatedly used in different parts of the pro- 
 cess. Some esteem this but a luxuriant 
 variety of the following, as it requires a 
 very richly manured soil to preserve its 
 characters and useful properties. 
 
 2. Wild teasel (D. sylvestris). A very 
 common species about moist hedges and by 
 road sides, less robust than the foregoing ; 
 about four feet high. Leaves opposite, ser- 
 rated. Scales of the receptacle straight- 
 Common calyx inflexed, longer than the 
 head. 
 
 3. Small teasel, or shepherd's staff (D. 
 pilosus). This species grows in moist shady 
 places on a chalky or limestone soil. It 
 blows in August and September. The stem 
 is three or four feet high, with spreading 
 branches, angular, leafy, rough, with as- 
 cending hooked bristles. Leaves deep green, 
 ovate, pointed, strongly serrated, ternate, 
 stalked, with lateral leaflets. Flowers white, 
 in small globular heads. Common calyx 
 deflexed, about the length of the head. 
 This is a useless weed, but not troublesome 
 to the farmer. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. 
 p. 192.) See Fulling. 
 
 TEATHING-. Provincially, the practice 
 of eating turnips off, upon young wheat 
 crops, in the early spring months, by live 
 stock, as sheep and bullocks. It is often 
 written tathing. 
 
 TEESDALIA. (Named in honour of 
 Robert Teesdale, F.L.S., an excellent Bri- 
 tish botanist, formerly gardener to the Earl 
 of Carlisle, author of a Catalogue of Plants 
 growing about Castle Howard. Mr. Tees- 
 dale died at Turnham Green, December 
 25th, 1804.) These are pretty little annuals, 
 well adapted for rock-work, where the 
 seeds have only to be sown, and may after- 
 wards be allowed to scatter themselves. 
 There is one indigenous species, the naked- 
 stalked, or irregular Teesdalia (T. nudicau- 
 lis). The root is slender and tapering; 
 leaves numerous, spreading on the ground, 
 partly undivided, but mostly pinnatifid. 
 Stems several, erect or spreading, the cen- 
 tral one quite straight, and always naked. 
 Flowers in little white corymbs, petals un- 
 equal. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 1 70. ; 
 Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 TEETH. See Age or Animals. 
 
 TEMPERATURE. The examination 
 of the effects of heat upon animal and vege- 
 table life, is a research of very considerable 
 interest to the tiller of the soil ; for such 
 an inquiry not only illustrates very nuviv 
 of the every-clay phenomena of all cultivated 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 lands, but a knowledge of the effects of 
 heat (or caloric of the chemists) upon living 
 substances (modified as those effects are by 
 so many ever-varying circumstances), ren- 
 ders many of the processes of agriculture 
 more easily understood, and may serve to 
 suggest new or altered farming operations. 
 The chemical philosopher, indeed, is well 
 aware what mighty results are produced in 
 this globe of ours by the presence of heat, 
 and how disastrous would be the conse- 
 quence of its withdrawal, to all animated 
 nature; for life, both animal and vegetable, 
 must, in its absence, be extinct : the ocean, 
 and all other waters, a mass of ice. Even 
 the Greek philosophers had, in some way 
 or other, arrived at a knowledge of its im- 
 portance, for they ranked fire as one of the 
 four elements of which they deemed the 
 universe to be entirely composed. The in- 
 telligent modern cultivator is also well 
 aware of many of the effects of heat upon 
 plants, and how varying the action of the 
 same degree of temperature is on different 
 soils, and even on the same soil when dif- 
 ferently placed ; that some crops will only 
 suit particular kinds of soil, and languish 
 on others whose temperature is different, 
 in spite of all the efforts, however skilfully 
 directed, of the farmer. Those, for in- 
 stance, where the bean is so profitably cul- 
 tivated, he tells you are " too cold" for 
 barley ; and those, on the contrary, where 
 the turnip flourishes so well, are much " too 
 hot" for the luxuriant growth of the bean 
 plant. Other lands, he is aware, are ex- 
 posed too much to particular winds ; others 
 are situated on elevations too considerable ; 
 others are too low down in the valley for 
 the profitable cultivation of crops, which, in 
 other situations, flourish so well. These 
 observations are thus described by an ex- 
 cellent modern farmer : — " The crops," 
 says Mr. John Morton, in his valuable work 
 On Soils, p. 216., u are never so good or so 
 early on cold tenacious clay soils, on the 
 gritstone formation, or on the moorlands in 
 Yorkshire, at the elevation of 500 feet, as 
 they are on the chalk wolds in the same 
 county at 800 feet high. This difference 
 gives to dry calcareous soils a very great 
 advantage. In England, land at an eleva- 
 tion of 1000 feet above the level of the sea 
 becomes unprofitable to the arable farmer, 
 as the crops do not ripen, except in very 
 particular seasons ; and therefore it ought 
 only to be used as pasture at such an alti- 
 tude." 
 
 The action of heat upon the earths I 
 have (ante, p. 412., Earths) endeavoured 
 to explain ; but there are other effects of 
 heat upon vegetation, modified by circum- 
 stances, as by inclination, by elevation above 
 1143 
 
 the level of the sea, and other disturbing 
 causes, which will be the subject of this 
 article ; and to this end I shall, to a great 
 extent, employ the very language of the 
 late M. Decandolle in his Essay upon the 
 effects of elevation above the level of the 
 sea, upon the geography of plants (Brandes 
 Journ. of Science, vol. iv. p. 176.), and of 
 M. Mirbel (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 35.) upon vege- 
 table nature in general. 
 
 It is hardly, perhaps, necessary to remind 
 the intelligent modern agriculturist, that as 
 all plants absorb their food in the fluid 
 state, heat alone enables them to do so ; for 
 without the presence of caloric, water and 
 all other fluids would be solid : in its ab- 
 sence, rain and dew, and the insensible 
 vapour of the atmosphere, all so essential 
 to vegetation, could not exist ; the sap of 
 plants would become solid, and their de- 
 struction inevitable. " The influence of the 
 change of seasons and of the position of the 
 sun," says Davy (Agr. Chem. p. 38.), " on 
 the phenomena of vegetation, demonstrates 
 the effects of heat on the functions of 
 plants. The matter absorbed from the soil 
 must be in a fluid state to pass into their 
 roots, and when the surface is frozen they 
 can derive no nourishment from it. The 
 activity of chemical changes likewise is in- 
 creased by a certain change of temperature, 
 and even the rapidity of the ascent of fluids 
 by capillary attraction. The last fact is easily 
 shown by placing in each of two wine 
 glasses a similar hollow stalk of grassy so 
 bent as to discharge slowly any fluid in the 
 glasses by capillary attraction ; if hot water 
 be in one glass, and cold water in the other, 
 the hot water will be discharged much more 
 rapidly than the cold water. The ferment- 
 ation and decomposition of animal and ve- 
 getable substances require a certain degree 
 of heat, which is consequently necessary for 
 the preparation of the food of plants ; and 
 as evaporation is more rapid in proportion 
 as the temperature is higher, the super- 
 fluous parts of the sap are most readily car- 
 ried off at the time its ascent is quickest." 
 
 If we examine the vegetable productions 
 of the earth under different circumstances, 
 and in various climates, we shall find an 
 instructive mass of facts with regard to the 
 habits and food of vegetation, all, however, 
 more or less connected with the temper- 
 ature which the plant is calculated to en- 
 dure, or which best suits its habits. Thus a 
 high temperature seems to produce on 
 plants an effect somewhat analogous to that 
 of heat upon animals : they become less 
 sensible of its action ; are, in other words, 
 influenced by it with increasing difficulty. 
 This observation was some years since made 
 by Mr. T. A. Knight, with his usual accu- 
 4 d 4 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 racy. He told the fellows of the Horticul- 
 tural Society, when addressing them " on 
 the ill effects of excessive heat in forcing- 
 houses during the night," — " Being fully 
 sensible of the comforts of a warm bed on a 
 cold night, and of fresh air on a hot day, 
 the gardener generally treats his plants as 
 he would wish to be treated himself, and, 
 consequently, though the aggregate tem- 
 perature of his house be nearly what it 
 ought to be, its temperature during the 
 night, relatively to that of the day, is always 
 too high. The consequences of this excess 
 of heat during the night, are, I have reason 
 to believe, in all cases highly injurious to 
 the fruit trees of temperate climates, and 
 not at all beneficial to those of tropical cli- 
 mates, for the temperature of these is, in 
 many instances, low during the night. In 
 Jamaica, and other mountainous islands of 
 the West Indies, the air upon the moun- 
 tains becomes soon after sunset chilled and 
 condensed, and, in consequence of its supe- 
 rior gravity, descends, and displaces the 
 warm air of the vallies. Yet the sugar 
 canes are so far from being injured by this 
 sudden decrease of temperature, that the 
 sugars of Jamaica take a higher price in the 
 market than those of the less elevated 
 islands, of which the temperature of the 
 day and night is subject to much less vari- 
 ation." And after commenting upon the 
 effects of heat upon the chemical compo- 
 sition of the sap of plants, he adds, — " Some 
 experiments which I have made upon ger- 
 mination have perfectly satisfied me that 
 these afford plants of greater or less vigour 
 in proportion as external circumstances 
 are favourable in producing beneath the 
 soil the necessary changes in the nutritive 
 matter they contain ; and I suspect that a 
 large portion of the blossoms of the cherry 
 and other fruit trees in the forcing-house, 
 often prove abortive because they are forced 
 by too high and uniform a temperature to 
 expand before the sap of the tree is pro- 
 perly prepared to nourish them." He then 
 proceeds to detail the successful results of 
 various experiments upon the peach-tree, 
 by keeping up a much higher temperature 
 during the day than during the night ; and 
 remarks, towards the conclusion of his 
 paper, — " Another ill effect of high temper- 
 ature during the night is, that it exhausts 
 the excitability of the tree much more 
 rapidly than it promotes the growth or ac- 
 celerates the maturity of the fruit, which is, 
 in consequence, ill supplied with nutriment 
 at the period of its ripening, when most 
 nutriment is probably wanted. The mus- 
 < ;ii <>f Alexandria, and other late grapes, 
 are, owing to this cause, often seen to wither 
 upon the branch in a very imperfect state 
 1 144 
 
 of maturity ; and this want of richness and 
 flavour in other forced fruits is, I am very 
 confident, often attributable to the same 
 cause." {Selection of Papers, p. 215.) And 
 when in another place speaking of the ascent 
 of the sap, he remarks, — " Linnaeus and 
 others have attempted to account for the as- 
 cent of the sap by the expansion of the fluids 
 within the vessels of the plant by the agency 
 of heat. But the sap rises under a decreasing, 
 as well as an increasing temperature, during 
 the evening and night (if it be not excess- 
 ively cold), as well as in the morning and 
 at noon ; and it is sufficiently evident, that 
 the heat applied to the branches of a vine 
 within the stove, cannot expand the fluids 
 in the stem and roots which grow on "the 
 outside. It is also well known that the 
 degree of heat required to put the sap in 
 motion in the plant, is not definite, but de- 
 pends on that to which the plant has been 
 previously accustomed. Thus, a vine which 
 has grown all the summer in the heat of a 
 stove, will not be made to vegetate in win- 
 ter by the heat of that stove ; but if another 
 plant of the same variety, which has grown 
 in the open air, be at any time introduced 
 after it has dropped its leaves in the au- 
 tumn, it will instantly vegetate. This effect 
 appears to me to arise from the latter plants 
 possessing a degree of irritability, which 
 has been exhausted in the former by the 
 heat of the stove, but which it will acquire 
 again during the winter by being drawn 
 out and exposed for a short time to the au- 
 tumnal frost. On the same principle, we 
 may point out the cause why seedling plants 
 always thrive better in the spring than in 
 the autumn, though the weather be appa- 
 rently less favourable. In the former sea- 
 son, the stimulus of light and heat is gra- 
 dually becoming greater than that to which 
 the plant has been accustomed ; in the lat- 
 ter season it becomes gradually less. That 
 heat is the remote cause of the ascent of 
 the sap, cannot, I think, be doubted, and 
 perhaps frequent variations of it are in 
 some degree requisite (for plants have al- 
 ways appeared to me to thrive best with 
 moderate variations of temperature) ; but 
 the immediate cause will, I think, be found 
 in an intrinsic power of producing motion 
 inherent in vegetable life." {Ibid. p. 90.) 
 
 Knight saw that the steady examination 
 of the effect of temperature on vegetation 
 was a labour likely to well reward the en- 
 quirer for the pains he might bestow upon 
 it. He again renews the question in an- 
 other part of his valuable communications. 
 " If," he says, " two plants of the vine, or 
 other tree of similar habits, or even if ob- 
 tained from cuttings of the same tree, wore 
 placed to vegetate during several successive 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 seasons m very different climates; if the 
 one was placed on the banks of the Rhine 
 and the other on those of the Nile, each 
 would adapt its habits to the climate in 
 which it was placed ; and if both were sub- 
 sequently brought in early spring into a 
 climate similar to that of Italy, the plant 
 which had adapted its habits to a cold 
 climate would instantly vegetate, whilst 
 the other would remain perfectly torpid. 
 Precisely the same thing occurs in the hot- 
 houses of this country, where a plant ac- 
 customed to the temperature of the open 
 air will vegetate strongly in December; 
 whilst another plant of the same species, 
 and sprung from a cutting of the same ori- 
 ginal stock, but habituated to the tem- 
 perature of a stove, remains apparently 
 lifeless. It appears, therefore, that the 
 powers of vegetable life in plants habituated 
 to cold climates are more easily brought 
 into action than in those of hot climates, or, 
 in other words, that the plants of cold cli- 
 mates are most excitable ; and as every 
 quality in plants becomes hereditary when 
 the causes which first gave existence to 
 those qualities continue to operate, it fol- 
 lows that their seedling offspring have a 
 constant tendency to adapt their habits to 
 any climate in which art or accident places 
 them. But the influence of climate on the 
 habits of plants will depend less on the aggre- 
 gate quantity of heat in each climate, than on 
 the distribution of it in the different seasons 
 of the year. The aggregate temperature of 
 England and of those parts of the Russian 
 empire that are under the same parallel of 
 latitude, probably does not differ very con- 
 siderably ; but in the latter the summers are 
 extremely hot and the winters intensely 
 cold, and the changes of temperature be- 
 tween the different seasons are sudden and 
 violent. In the spring, great degrees of heat 
 suddenly operate on plants which have been 
 long exposed to intense cold, and in which 
 excitability has accumulated during a long 
 period of almost total inaction, and the pro- 
 gress of vegetation is in consequence ex- 
 tremely rapid. In the climate of England 
 the spring on the contrary advances with 
 slow and irregular steps, and only very 
 moderate and gradually increasing degrees 
 of heat act on plants, in which the powers 
 of life have scarcely in any period of the 
 preceding winter been totally inactive. The 
 crab is a native of both countries, and has 
 adapted alike its habits to both : the Siberian 
 variety introduced into the climate of Eng- 
 land, retains its habits, expands its leaves and 
 blossoms on the first approach of spring, and 
 vegetates strongly in the same temperature 
 in which the native crab scarcely shows 
 signs of life, and its fruit acquires a degree 
 1145 
 
 of maturity even in the early part of an 
 unfavourable season, which our native crab 
 is rarely or never seen to attain. Similar 
 causes are productive of similar effects on 
 the habits of cultivated annual plants ; but 
 these appear most readily to acquire habits 
 of maturity in warm climates, for it is in 
 the power of the cultivator to commit his 
 seeds to the earth at any season, and the 
 progress of the plant towards maturity will 
 be most rapid where the climate and soil 
 are the most warm. Thus, the barley grown 
 on sandy soils in the warmest parts of Eng- 
 land is always found by the Scotch farmer, 
 when introduced into his country, to ripen 
 on his cold hills earlier than his crops of 
 the same kind do when he uses the seeds of 
 plants which have passed through several 
 successive generations in his colder climate ; 
 and in my own experience I have found 
 that the crops of wheat on some very high 
 and cold ground which I cultivate, ripen 
 much earlier when I obtain my seed-corn 
 from a very warm district and gravelly 
 soil, which lies a few mile distant, than 
 when I employ the seeds of the vicinity." 
 (Knight's Papers, p. 174.) 
 
 Some plants possess the power of resist- 
 ing very high temperatures in a remarkable 
 degree. The Vitex Agnus- Castus, according 
 to Mrs. Marcet, has been known to strike 
 root in water heated to 170°. And when 
 one of the hothouses of the botanical gar- 
 den at Paris was burnt, all the plants which 
 it contained perished, except the flax of 
 New Zealand, which resisted a degree of 
 heat that even consumed its leaves. (Con. 
 on Veg. Phy. p. 1 19.) 
 
 The consideration of the results produced 
 on vegetation and animal life by different 
 temperatures or climates, did not escape the 
 attention of Arthur Young. He very cor- 
 rectly told his contemporary farmers (Ann. 
 of Agr. vol. xxxix. p. 481.) that there is no 
 condition of life but circumstances may 
 occur in the culture of the earth that will 
 make a greater knowledge of these neces- 
 sary, than usually falls to the share of the - 
 generality of husbandmen. Half the opera- 
 tions of agriculture are bestowed on plants 
 exotic to the country in which they are 
 cultivated ; every day's experience gives 
 fresh instances of the vegetables of one cli- 
 mate being naturalised in another. The 
 truly English spirit which actuated Arthur 
 Young would ever and anon peep out, not- 
 withstanding his morbidly keen political 
 feelings. " An inquiry," he observed, " into 
 the best climate in the world, is an amus- 
 ing, and in some circumstances might prove 
 an useful one. The climate of Chili is, I 
 believe, the finest in the globe ; what they 
 call their winter does not last three months, 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 and even that is very moderate. Shaw de- 
 scribes in his travels a country and climate 
 as delicious as imagination can paint, ex- 
 cellent in two circumstances essential in 
 such an inquiry — health of body and vigour 
 of mind : the first is the most sold founda- 
 tion of human happiness ; the latter essential 
 to assert and protect that independence and 
 liberty, without which all the rest is of 
 little account. The soft, effeminate, and 
 indolent inhabitants of rich plains, under a 
 hot sun, are all over the world driven like 
 a flock of sheep before a handful of moun- 
 taineers." The study, indeed, of the effects 
 of temperature will be of considerable ad- 
 vantage to the cultivator in several ways. 
 It will explain to him, amongst many other 
 interesting facts, why it is that the im- 
 proved drainage of a district increases its 
 warmth ; and why judiciously placed plan- 
 tations of trees, as in belts and in hedge- 
 rows, retard the rapid evaporation pro- 
 duced by the wind, and consequently the 
 frequent sudden production of cold so com- 
 mon to exposed countries. And again, the 
 improvement of the soil by deeper plough- 
 ing, or more finely pulverising the soil, by 
 admitting more freely the access of the 
 atmospheric air, increases very sensibly its 
 mean temperature ; dressing clay soils with 
 sandy ashes or other porous materials pro- 
 duces the same effect. And hence, in the 
 more northerly portion of our island, by 
 such general improvements a very sensible 
 increase to the temperature of certain dis- 
 tricts has been experienced. " There are 
 many local causes," adds Mr. Morton, 
 " which alter and modify the temperature ; 
 amongst these we may mention the hu- 
 midity of the soil and atmosphere, large 
 tracts of pasture land, and the neighbour- 
 hood of forests, wastes, bogs, lakes, and 
 mountains, all of which have the effect of 
 decreasing the temperature of the place; 
 whereas a dry siliceous sandy soil and sub- 
 soil, a dry atmosphere, a well-drained and 
 cultivated district, have all a tendency to 
 increase the temperature of any locality." 
 (On Soils, p. 214.) 
 
 The study of the results of varying tem- 
 peratures should not be confined to those 
 produced on the vegetable world only. 
 The live stock of the farm might be in 
 many situations rendered more profitable 
 to its owner by its being better protected 
 from cold and wet. Let us proceed, how- 
 ever, with MM. Mirbel and Decandolle, 
 in a rapid glance at the effect of tempera- 
 ture upon the variety of plants with which 
 this earth of ours is so copiously tenanted, 
 not only as produced by latitude, but by 
 elevation above the level of* the sea. 
 
 "Multitudes of different species of plants," 
 1146 
 
 says M. Mirbel, " are spread over the sur- 
 face of the globe, each having its peculiar 
 wants, and, if we may be allowed the term, 
 its separate habits and instinct." Some 
 species belong to the mountains, others to 
 the valleys, and others to the plains ; some 
 affect a clayey soil, some a chalky one, 
 others one of a quartzose nature, while 
 many will thrive in no place but where the 
 soil is impregnated with common salt. 
 There are some that confine themselves en- 
 tirely to water, dividing themselves again 
 into those of the marsh, the lake, the river, 
 and the ocean. Some require the hottest 
 climates, others delight in mild and temper- 
 ate ones, others thrive nowhere but in the 
 midst of ice and frost. A large portion 
 must have a constantly humid atmosphere ; 
 several do very well in a dry air ; but the 
 major part are equally averse to the ex- 
 tremes of both dryness and moisture. 
 There are those which flourish when ex- 
 posed to the action of a strong light, while 
 others prefer the weaker action of that ele- 
 ment. The result of this variety of wants 
 is, that nearly the whole surface of the 
 earth is occupied by vegetation. Excess of 
 heat, cold, or drought, or a total privation 
 of air or light, are the only bars to vege- 
 tation ; and yet we find some agamous spe- 
 cies growing in caverns where the light has 
 never gained admission. Some species are 
 confined to the narrowest limits, and re- 
 quire, perhaps, a very particular degree of 
 heat. The Origanum Tournefortii, disco- 
 vered by Tournefort in 1700, in the little 
 island of Amorgos, upon one rock only, was 
 found eighty years afterwards, by Sibthorp, 
 upon the same island and upon the same 
 rock ; but no one has observed it any where 
 else : two of the orchideae grow upon the 
 Table Mountain at the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and Thunberg, who has described them, 
 found them in no other place. 
 
 Mountainous countries afford many of 
 these local species, such as dwell secluded 
 on the heights without ever migrating to 
 the plains below. Thus we find that the 
 Pyrenees, the Alps, the Apennines, and 
 other extensive elevations, have their pecu- 
 liar floras, and that even some separate 
 mountains of such great chains have species 
 allotted to them alone, and which are not 
 to be found on the adjoining summits. Spe- 
 culatively, we might presume that all the 
 individuals of one species would establish 
 themselves under the same or nearly the 
 same degree of latitude, as they would 
 find a nearly similar climate. But, in reality, 
 some species extend* themselves in the di- 
 rection of the longitude, and never swerve 
 to the right or to the left. This is one of 
 those anomalies of which it is not easy to 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 trace the cause. The Phalangium bicolor 
 begins to show itself in the country round 
 Algiers ; it crosses over to Spain, clears the 
 Pyrenees, and terminates its career in Brit- 
 tany. Menziesia polifolia belongs to Por- 
 tugal, France, and Ireland. The heaths 
 are confined exclusively to Europe and 
 Africa; they extend themselves from the 
 regions bordering on the pole to the Cape 
 of Good Hope, over a surface which is very 
 narrow in proportion to its length. The Ba- 
 mondia Pyrenaica, as yet found only in the 
 Pyrenees, follows, without deviating from 
 its course, the valleys in those mountains 
 which run from north to south ; and so 
 closely, that not a single plant of it has 
 been descried in those which skirt the chain 
 in the other direction. 
 
 It may be observed, that with the excep- 
 tion of the lichens, which bid defiance to al- 
 most all climates alike, a vastly greater pro- 
 portion of species is calculated to endure a 
 very high degree of warmth, than is adapted 
 to bear severe cold. The progressive course 
 of the proportion demonstrates itself more 
 clearly if we direct our view from the polar 
 towards the equinoctial regions. Botanists 
 compute that at Spitzbergen, which lies 
 near the 80th degree of northern latitude, 
 there are only about 30 species ; in Lap- 
 land, which lies in the 70th degree, about 
 534 ; in Iceland, in the 65th degree, about 
 553 ; in Sweden, which reaches from the 
 southern parts of Lapland to the 55th de- 
 gree, 1300; in Brandenburgh, between the 
 52d and 54th degree, 2000 ; in Piedmont, 
 between the 43d and 46th degree, 2000; 
 nearly 4000 in Jamaica, which is between 
 the 17th and 19th degree ; in Madagascar, 
 situated between the 13th and 24th degrees 
 under the tropic of Capricorn, more than 
 5000. But such computations are very wide 
 of the true proportion of species which be- 
 long to hot climates, as opposed, in that 
 respect, to the cold or temperate. 
 
 Vegetation within the tropics fills the 
 European traveller with amazement by the 
 majesty and vigour of its aspect. The pro- 
 portion of the woody to the herbaceous 
 species is much more considerable towards 
 the equator than in Europe ; and the dif- 
 ference is therefore in favour of the equi- 
 noctial regions, for trees give the character 
 of grandeur to vegetation. Those of the 
 [ dicotyledonous class within the tropics are 
 frequently conspicuous for the height and 
 circumference of their stems, the richness 
 and variety of their foliage, as well as by 
 the bright and well-contrasted colours of 
 their blossom. By the irregularity of their 
 forms they set off to advantage the palm 
 tribe, which have, in general, the simple 
 sober forms of our columns, of which they 
 1147 
 
 were the models. It is towards the equator 
 that the gigantic climbers, which grow to 
 the height of several hundred yards, are 
 found, as well as those magnificent herbs of 
 the Scitaminea and Musa, as tall as the trees 
 of our orchards, with flowers and foliage 
 not less pre-eminent in their dimensions. 
 For instance, the Corypha umbraculifera, 
 an East Indian palm, with leaves in the 
 form of an umbrella, and more than six 
 yards across; and the Aristolochia, which 
 grows on the river of La Madalena, the 
 flowers of which, according to Humboldt, 
 serve the children for hats. The far greater 
 part of the aromatic plants belong also to 
 the equinoctial regions. 
 
 The inferiority of the vegetation of our 
 regions will appear in a still stronger light, 
 if we compare the species of the same ge- 
 nera, or tribes, which grow both in Europe 
 and under the Line. In South America, 
 plants of the fern tribe, with a foliage and 
 fructification not very unlike our common 
 brake and polypody, grow like palms, and 
 have a stalk in the form of a column. The 
 cold and temperate climates of our quarter 
 of the globe abound in dwarf herbaceous 
 turfy graminese ; hot countries have also 
 many plants of this tribe, but they are on a 
 much larger scale. This difference begins 
 to be perceived even when we reach Italy, 
 where the millet attains the height of four 
 or five yards. The bamboos, panic-grasses, 
 and the sugar-cane of Asia, Africa, and 
 America, reach the height of eight or nine 
 yards. The heaths of the northern parts of 
 Europe are low bushes, with feeble stems 
 and small bloom ; those of the coasts of the 
 Mediterranean have also a small bloom, but 
 their stems are taller and more robust ; 
 those of the Cape fascinate by the form, 
 . splendour of colour, and size of the corolla. 
 
 All the plants of the mallow tribe with 
 us are herbaceous ; those of hot climates are 
 either shrubs or trees. A tribe of so little 
 account in Europe holds a place amongst 
 the vegetables of most note in the equinoc- 
 tial regions. There it counts amongst its 
 species the baobab and the ceiba, the giants 
 of the vegetable creation, besides the " hand 
 tree" of Mexico, so called from the form 
 and disposition of the stamens of the flower, 
 which represent very tolerably a hand, or 
 paw, with five fingers. 
 
 There are beauties in wild and unreclaim- 
 ed lands, which disappear at the approach 
 of civilisation. In Europe the soil abounds 
 only in plants which are of use to man. 
 Domestic vegetables, by the aid and pro- 
 tection of the cultivator, have so trenched 
 upon the domain of the wilderness, that 
 space is scarcely left for the existence ot 
 those for which man has no call. The 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 rimeval forests of the Gauls and Germans 
 ave disappeared. Forests in our age are 
 mere formal plantations of large extent ; 
 they are intersected in all directions by 
 roads and paths, explored without difficulty, 
 and the wild animals no longer find a safe 
 refuge in them. Generations of trees are 
 renewed in quick succession, on a soil 
 which the industry of the proprietor keeps 
 in constant requisition ; and it is mere 
 chance when a single stick is left to end 
 its career by old age. Far in the north 
 there are several forests which still preserve 
 some traces of the primeval vegetation of 
 Europe. In these the oaks, spared by the 
 axe, acquire an enormous size ; while others, 
 worn out by age, fall of themselves, are 
 decomposed, and help unceasingly to aug- 
 ment the surface of the soil covered with 
 high mosses and thick lichens, that, pre- 
 serving a prolific moisture, assist in lower- 
 ing the temperature of the district. 
 
 None, however, approach in magnificence 
 the forests which shade the equinoctial re- 
 gions of Africa and America : we are never 
 satiated in admiring, there, the endless mul- 
 titude of vegetables brought into near con- 
 tact with each other, and mingled together ; 
 so different amongst themselves, and often 
 so extraordinary in structure and progress ; 
 those enormous trees still exhibiting no 
 symptoms of decay, though their age goes 
 back to a period at but little distance from 
 the last revolution on our globe ; those 
 towering palms, contrasting by their simple 
 forms with all that surrounds them, those 
 extensive climbers, those rattans, which, 
 knitting together their long and flexible 
 branches by numberless knots and turns, 
 encircle as one group the whole vegetation 
 of these extensive regions. To clear a path 
 through these, neither fire nor the axe is 
 sufficient : the one extinguishes for want of 
 circulation in the air ; the other is broken 
 or blunted by the hardness of the wood it 
 meets. The soil cannot afford place to the 
 numberless germs which it developes. Each 
 tree disputes with others which press from 
 all sides for the soil it needs for its exist- 
 ence ; the strong stifle the weak, while rising 
 generations obliterate even the slightest 
 trace of destruction and death : vegetation 
 never flags ; and the earth, so far from be- 
 coming exhausted, acquires new fertility 
 from day to day. Hosts of animals of every 
 kind, insects, birds, quadrupeds, reptiles, 
 beings as strange and diversified as the 
 vegetation of the place itself, tenant the 
 vast canopy of these ancient thickets, hold- 
 ing them as a citadel proof against the at- 
 tack of man. 
 
 North America, under the same degree 
 of latitude as England, and with a colder 
 1148 
 
 climate, presents a far richer vegetation. 
 There large trees, such as the Siriodendron 
 and Magnolia, bear the most superb 
 flowers. Those of many other trees and 
 shrubs vie in beauty with the flowers of 
 the torrid zone ; the light waving composite 
 foliage of the Robinias and Gleditschia are 
 the counterparts of the Mimosas of the 
 tropics. The single genus of the oak com- 
 prehends within the United States more 
 species than Europe reckons within the 
 whole amount of its trees. 
 
 In the northern parts of Asia vegetation 
 differs but slightly from that of our own 
 country. We meet with the same genera, 
 and similar types prevail. But in the 
 southern parts the character of the country 
 is changed. Without water, and swept by 
 scorching winds, the drought is extreme. 
 The carpet of soft verdure, and the refresh- 
 ing shade of its northern counties and of 
 Europe, are looked for in vain. Most of the 
 plants have thinly scattered, long, narrow 
 arid leaves, unscolloped and entire at the 
 edge, and of a gloomy green ; and several 
 have none at all, or at least such as, instead 
 of leaves, may be truly termed thorns ; yet 
 many of the trees and shrubs have a showy 
 blossom. Of the former, the largest in 
 those districts belong to the myrtle tribe, 
 and have a punctured foliage, diffusing an 
 aromatic smell when bruised. There are 
 likewise many shrubs of the pulse tribe, 
 with a composite foliage, but the leaflets of 
 the leaves are only evolved on the plant 
 first rising from the seed. As it advances 
 to maturity, the naked footstalks widen 
 into simple lanceolate blades, or become 
 transformed into acicular spines, resem- 
 bling the leaves of some of the Asparagi. 
 In New Holland the Proteacece abound ; so 
 they do at the Cape of Good Hope ; but 
 the Liliacese, which decorate the African 
 promontory so profusely, are, on the con- 
 trary, rare in New Holland. It is a fact as 
 notorious as surprising, that no one vege- 
 table belonging to the countries towards 
 the southern pole produces a single fruit 
 for the food of man. 
 
 There are divers conditions, without which 
 the growth of the different species cannot 
 proceed. An uninterrupted heat is required 
 for some, a moment's decrease in it is fatal 
 to them — others withstand a considerable 
 degree of cold while their sap is quiescent, 
 but want a high degree of heat when that 
 is once in motion ; some like a moderate 
 temperature, and dread equally the excess 
 of* both heat and cold, It is upon the ob- 
 servation of such appearances that the cul- 
 tivator grounds his practice : he knows thai 
 it would be in vain for him to attempt to 
 grow, without shelter, either the date or 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 orange, beyond the forty-third degree of 
 northern latitude ; that the olive will thrive 
 a little further ; that the vine is barren out 
 of the latitude of fifty degrees, or at least 
 never brings its grape to perfection. He is 
 cautious of exposing to a southern aspect 
 the species whose sap is readily set in mo- 
 tion by the first gleam of warmth ; he knows 
 that late frosts destroy them, witness the 
 vineyards round Paris : the plantations there 
 which escape the injuries of frost, are not 
 those which look towards the south, but 
 those that face towards the north. The 
 sap of the latter is set in motion late, and 
 when the heat reaches them, the season is 
 already settled, and no risk is incurred 
 from the inroad of cold. 
 
 Local circumstances, such as the ele- 
 vation of the place, its aspect, the nature 
 as well as inclination of its soil, the 
 proximity of mountains, of forests, of the 
 sea, &c. &c, are all causes of variation 
 of temperature, and must each be at- 
 tended to in accounting for the vege- 
 tation of any particular district. For in- 
 stance, the winter is less severe on the 
 northern coasts of France, than in the in- 
 terior on the same level ; an effect of the 
 vicinity of the ocean. The sea preserves a 
 far more even temperature than the at- 
 mosphere, and is constantly at work to 
 maintain some degree of equilibrium in 
 the warmth of the air. In the summer it 
 carries off the caloric from it ; in the 
 winter it gives back a part of that which it 
 contains. It is thus that the mass of water 
 held in the vast basin of the ocean tempers, 
 on its shores, the heat of summer and the 
 cold of winter. For this reason, in Devon- 
 shire and on the coast of Calvados, the 
 myrtle, fuschia, magnolia, pomegranate, 
 Indian rose, and a swarm of other exotic 
 plants, grow in the open air, but in the 
 interior of England and France require 
 shelter. The same cause permits the cul- 
 tivation of many species in the open ground 
 about London, that near Paris will not 
 thrive out of the green -house. 
 
 In proportion as the natural temperature 
 of a country decreases, — as we advance to- 
 wards the Pole for instance, — we are sensible 
 of the change in the appearance of the ve- 
 getation. The species which require a mild 
 and temperate climate are supplanted by 
 others which delight in cold. The forests 
 fill with pines, firs, and birches, the natural 
 decoration of a northern land. The birch, 
 of all trees, is the one which bears the se- 
 verity of the climate the longest ; but the 
 nearer it approaches the Pole the smaller 
 it grows ; its trunk dwindles and becomes 
 stunted, and the branches knotty ; till at 
 last it ceases to grow at all towards the 
 1149 
 
 seventieth degree of latitude, the point 
 where man gives up fche cultivation of corn. 
 Further on, shrubs, bushes, and herbaceous 
 plants only are to be met with. Wild 
 thyme, Daphnes, creeping willows, and 
 brambles cover the face of the rocks. It is 
 in these cold regions that the berries of the 
 Rubus arcticus acquire their delicious fla- 
 vour and perfume. Shrubs disappear in 
 their turn, and are succeeded by low herbs, 
 furnished with leaves at the root, from 
 the midst of which rises a short stalk sur- 
 mounted by small flowers. Such are the 
 saxifrages, the primroses, the Androsaces, 
 Aretias, &c. These pretty plants take up 
 their quarters in the clefts of rocks ; while 
 the grasses, with their numerous slender 
 leaves, spread themselves over the soil, 
 which they cover as with a rich verdant 
 carpet. The lichen which feeds the rein- 
 deer occasionally mixes in turf ; sometimes 
 of itself covers vast tracts of country ; its 
 white tufts standing in clumps of various 
 forms, looking like hillocks of snow, which 
 the sun has not yet dissolved. If we go 
 further, a naked land, sterile soil, rocks, 
 and eternal snows are all we find. The last 
 vestiges of vegetation are some pulverulent 
 Byssi, and some crustaceous lichens, which 
 cover the rocks in motley patches. 
 
 The principal causes which induce this 
 progression of changes are three : — 1 . The 
 excess of duration in the winter, a conse- 
 quence of the obliquity and disappearance 
 of the solar rays. 2. The dryness of the 
 air, a consequence of the decrease of heat. 
 3. The prolonged action of the light, which 
 illumines the horizon through the whole 
 period of vegetation. 
 
 It is well known that too great a degree 
 of cold, by congealing the sap, occasions the 
 rupture of the vascular system in plants, 
 and thereby destroys them; but the dele- 
 terious action of cold is not confined to 
 purely mechanical results ; it has been proved 
 that heat is a stimulus that cannot be dis- 
 pensed with in vegetation. Many species 
 secrete juices in warmer regions which are 
 unknown in their economy in colder climates. 
 The ash yields manna in Calabria, but loses 
 that faculty as it approaches towards the 
 north. The grape in the south of Europe 
 abounds in saccharine matter ; in the north 
 it contains an excess of acid. So long as 
 the organic functions, which depend upon 
 the degree or duration of heat, can be carried 
 on, the ash and the vine continue to flourish ; 
 they grow even when those functions are 
 performed incompletely, but their growth 
 is stinted ; they finally disappear at that 
 point where the portion of warmth in the 
 atmosphere, though still equal to prevent 
 the freezing of the sap, is no longer able to 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 stimulate their organs or their frame into 
 action. All other vegetables, whose di- 
 mension and duration subject them to the 
 full severity of the frost, share the same 
 destiny, at a greater or less distance from 
 the torrid zone, and in proportion as their 
 constitutions require a greater or less de- 
 gree of heat ; so that nothing is found near 
 the pole but such dwarf shrubs as are 
 sheltered under the snow in winter, or 
 annuals and herbaceous species, endowed 
 with so quick a principle of life, as to rise, 
 flower, and fruit within the space of three 
 months ; or some agamous and cryptoga- 
 mous species, which adapt themselves to 
 all degrees of temperature, and are conse- 
 quently the last organic forms under which 
 vegetable life is to be descried. Heat and 
 moisture united, the farmer well knows, 
 are highly favourable to the growth of 
 plants. No countries are more abundant 
 in herbaceous vegetables, or better wooded, 
 than Senegal, Guinea, and Cayenne, where 
 both these props to vegetation are in the 
 plenitude of their force. Experiments 
 made with the hygrometer prove that the 
 moisture of the atmosphere increases as we 
 approach the equator. In hot climates, 
 when the sun sinks beneath the horizon, 
 the watery exhalations condensed are re- 
 turned to the earth in the form of dew, 
 which moistens the surface of the foliage, and 
 feeds those vegetables in which the absorb- 
 ing power of the parts above ground suffice 
 for their support : of this number are the 
 succulent plants, the Aloes, the Cacti, &c. ; 
 in these the fibrous root only serves to hold 
 them in their places, and the moisture of 
 the atmosphere is inhaled and retained by 
 the spongy parts above.- Thus, in the vast 
 plains that receive the waters from the 
 eastern declivity of the Andes, when the 
 scorching heat of summer has consumed 
 the grasses and other herbaceous kinds 
 which the rainy season has brought forth, 
 we still find some lingering Cacti, which 
 under their dry thorny coats conceal a cel- 
 lular system, by which an abundant sap 
 has been imbibed and preserved. But in 
 countries where the atmosphere holds but 
 little moisture in evaporation, either be- 
 cause the soil is wholly destitute of water, 
 or by reason of the coldness of the temper- 
 ature, we find no plants at all, or such only 
 as are of a dry hard texture. The sands of 
 Africa, unwatered by rivers, are found to 
 be utterly barren. Spitzbcrg, Nova Zembla, 
 &c, where the influence of the sun is felt 
 only for two months of the year, at most, 
 and where consequently the air is habitually 
 dry, f urnish a very scanty portion of herba- 
 ceous plants only, or some dwarf shrubs 
 with a narrow heathery foliage. 
 
 Vegetation, in ascending above the level 
 of the sea, undergoes modifications analogous 
 to those which attend its progress from the 
 line to either pole : with this distinction, — 
 that in the last case the phenomena suc- 
 ceed by almost imperceptible gradations, 
 while they crowd upon and follow each 
 other in rapid succession on the ascent of 
 mountains. The height of 4000 or 5000 
 yards in the hottest parts of the globe, 
 produces changes as distinct as the 2000 
 leagues or more which lie between the 
 equator and the polar regions. The three 
 causes of the influence of which I have just 
 spoken, all re-appear within this space ; viz. 
 a diminution of heat, dryness of the air, and 
 protracted duration of light. The higher 
 we ascend, the shallower the upper stratum 
 of air becomes ; thence the excessive cold at 
 great heights. The weight of the atmosphere, 
 which, at the level of the sea, supports a 
 column of mercury equal to twenty- eight 
 inches, diminishes as we ascend ; so that at 
 considerable elevations it will only support 
 a column of a considerably less weight or 
 power, which gradually diminishes as we 
 ascend. A consequence of this fact is, that 
 the vaporisation of fluids takes place on 
 high mountains at a very low degree of 
 heat. Notwithstanding this, however, the 
 decrease of heat is so great that the ambient 
 air is very slightly impregnated with mois- 
 ture. It is true that heights have not the 
 long days of the polar regions, but they re- 
 ceive the rays of the sun earlier than the 
 plains, and are quitted later by them ; so that 
 their nights are shorter than in levels. 
 
 This progressive varying course of vege- 
 tation on mountains had not escaped the 
 attention of Tournefort. At the foot of 
 Mount Ararat he had observed the plants 
 which grow in Armenia ; a little higher, 
 those of Italy and France ; above, those of 
 Sweden ; and upon the summits, those of 
 Lapland. Observations of the samekind have 
 been subsequently made on Mount Cau- 
 casus, the Alps, Pyrenees, and other moun- 
 tains of the old continent ; and in Britain, 
 whose hills, however, can rarely be dignified 
 with the name of mountains. Linnajus, in 
 his own way, had summed up these ob- 
 servations in an axiom. " The different 
 kinds of plants," says he, " show by their 
 stations the perpendicular height of the 
 earth." Yet it was not till lately that any 
 exact survey had been taken of this interest- 
 ing department of botanical geography. 
 
 The common heath {Erica vulgaris), says 
 M. De Candolle, which covers the sandy 
 plains that lie along the coast of Western 
 France, grows in the Pyrenees to the very 
 summit of Mount Cenis, and to the very 
 summit of Mount Calm, at nearly 3000 y art Is 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 of elevation. The cross -leaved heath {Erica 
 tetralix) is another instance ; it grows from 
 the level of the sea to 2400 yards of eleva- 
 tion. The sea-gilliflower (Statice armeria) 
 is found in Holland, in spots which lie be- 
 low the level of the sea, and on the Alps at 
 an elevation of 2500 yards. Statice Plan- 
 taginea grows on the beach of Olonne, and 
 at 2000 yards of elevation on Mount Viso. 
 The colt's-foot and the bird's-foot trefoil 
 both grow at the level of the sea all over 
 France, and are met with again above Mount 
 Jovet, at the height of about 2400 yards. The 
 scurvy grass, which is generally found at the 
 skirts of the sea, flourishes also at the edge of 
 the stream at Neouvielle in the Pyrenees, at 
 the height of about 2000 yards. Mother of 
 thyme (Thymus serpyllum), which grows in 
 every lowland spot in France, mounts also 
 to the tops of a great many of the Alpine 
 heights. Even thyme (T. vulgaris) ascends 
 the Pic d'Ereslids to above 2000 yards. 
 Foxglove, which is met with in all the low- 
 lands of the west and midland part of France, 
 grows on the Lozere at 1500 yards, and 
 nearly at the same elevation on Mount 
 Calm. 
 
 Mat-grass (Nardus stricta) grows at the 
 level of the sea, and also forms the highest 
 situated swards that are found in the Ce- 
 vennes, the Alps, and the Pyrenees ; it 
 grows indifferently in marshy places, and in 
 those which are liable to dry up ; so that it 
 is found both on the tops of mountains 
 where the snow disappears in the summer, 
 and on the sides of those from whence it is 
 never entirely absent. The sweet-scented 
 vernal grass (Anthoxanthum Odoratum), and 
 the Timothy grass (Phleum pratense), which 
 grow every where in England and France 
 at the level of the sea, ascend to the eleva- 
 tion of 2000 yards. The common juniper 
 (J. communis) attains an elevation of 3000 
 yards ; the marsh lousewort does the same ; 
 the scorpion-grass 3500 yards ; and the 
 daisy (Bellis perennis), the ox-eye daisy 
 (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum), and the 
 bladder campion (Silene inflata), ascend to 
 2000 yards; and the kidney vetch (Anthyllis 
 vulgaris) to 3000 yards. When plants, in 
 fact, not suited by their nature to support 
 an excess of either heat or cold, are found 
 to grow in different latitudes, it is always at 
 such heights as that the effect of elevation 
 compensates that of the latitude. Thus 
 many of the plants of the Alps and Py- 
 renees grow in the plains of the north of 
 France, especially in the Ardennes and 
 neighbouring provinces. Of these I have 
 already cited some instances. Again, we 
 know that many plants which belong to 
 Lapland, or other countries of the north of 
 Europe, when they are met with in France, 
 1151 
 
 grow there at considerable elevations. Saxi- 
 fraga Greenlandica grows in the Pyrenees, 
 very near to the summit of the Maladette, 
 which is 3278 yards high, and comes down 
 to below 2400 yards. Linncea borealis is 
 not found in the Alps below an elevation of 
 1800 or 2000 yards. Menziesia Dabcecia, 
 which covers the lowlands in Ireland, is 
 found in Western Pyrenees as high up as 
 1000 yards. The chestnut grows in the 
 lowlands of the north of France, upon the 
 hills of the south of France, and at a great 
 elevation on the Apennines, and at a still 
 greater on Mount Etna. 
 
 Plants which are the objects of hus- 
 bandry are controlled by laws correspond- 
 ing completely with the preceding. Such 
 as grow in all latitudes, grow likewise at 
 all elevations. Those that are found only 
 in determinate latitudes, are found only in 
 corresponding elevations. Thus we learn 
 from Humboldt, that the potato, which 
 succeeds so well in the north of our old 
 continent, is cultivated in Chili as high as 
 3600 yards. We know that the cabbage 
 thrives both down at the edge of the sea, as 
 well as on the Alps, at every elevation at 
 which man can take up his abode. Corn is 
 also cultivated at very extraordinary eleva- 
 tions. Rye is grown in France, in the de- 
 partments of the higher and lower Alps, 
 at 2200 yards, particularly above Alios in 
 Provence. Wheat does not grow so far to 
 the north as rye, neither will it do so well 
 as that grain at great elevations. Yet it is 
 grown at 1800 yards. At such elevations 
 sowing is generally done before harvest 
 time, that the plants may get strength be- 
 fore the snow falls ; which has been known 
 to lie upon the rye the year through. When 
 this has happened, the rye remained in 
 statuo quo while the snow lay, and resumed 
 its growth at the end of eighteen months, 
 when that had melted away. Barley will 
 grow well only in temperate climates : it is 
 true it may be raised under the tropics, 
 but not at a lower elevation than from 3000 
 to 4000 feet, and then it is a profitless 
 crop. 
 
 Cultivated plants which do not bear cold 
 are under a like influence as to elevation ; 
 they can only be grown at • such heights as 
 correspond in temperature with that of the 
 distance from the equator to which they 
 belong. In general it is considered that a 
 degree of latitude affects the mean tem- 
 perature nearly in the proportion of 180 or 
 200 yards of elevation. 
 
 This rule, it is true, is liable to number- 
 less modifications from local circumstances ; 
 yet I have had the curiosity to apply it, 
 adds M. Decandolle, to the different plants 
 of husbandry, and have obtained some re- 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 suits that may be worth recording. The 
 most elevated point at which I found maize 
 was grown as a crop, is in the department 
 of the lower Pyrenees, above the village of 
 Lescans, at about the elevation of 1000 
 yards. Now, if we take our departure from 
 that point, which is the forty-third degree 
 of latitude, and proceed five degrees upon 
 the same meridian line, we come to the 
 neighbourhood of Mans, and to the south of 
 the departments of Ille and Vilaine, which 
 are precisely the northernmost points where 
 maize is used for a crop. 
 
 The vines of Vela are perhaps the high- 
 est vineyards ; the elevation of the town of 
 Pay is computed at 632 yards, and the vine- 
 yards that belong to it go up to about 800. 
 Now if, setting out from that point, which is 
 a little beyond forty-five degrees of latitude, 
 you take four degrees to the north upon 
 the same meridian, you come to between 
 Rheims and Epernai ; that is to say, very 
 close upon the northernmost limit at which 
 the vine forms a branch of husbandry. With 
 regard to the olive tree, the local peculiari- 
 ties of the countries where it grows are such 
 as to make investigations of this kind very 
 intricate : it is generally cultivated in parts 
 protected on the north by some vast range 
 of mountains, where the mean temperature 
 is consequently higher than it would other- 
 wise be. When it is not sheltered by any 
 range of mountains, the northernmost point 
 in Europe at which we find the olive is 
 Ancona, in 43° 37' of latitude. In respect 
 to the other point of view, its positions have 
 been measured in several parts of Roussil- 
 lon, Languedoc, Provence, and Italy ; and 
 these have been always nearly at an eleva- 
 tion of 400 yards above the level of the sea; 
 which ought to indicate that the olive might 
 grow two degrees more to the north of An- 
 cona. Now, if we take two degrees towards 
 the north from that point on the same 
 meridian, we come to about Lake de Harde 
 and the neighbourhood of Como, which are 
 just the northernmost points at which the 
 olive is cultivated. The fig-tree, which 
 goes farther to the north than the olive, and 
 not so far as the vine, preserves a corre- 
 sponding gradation in regard to the eleva- 
 tions at which it will grow ; but we can 
 hardly determine any precise limit for a 
 tree over which aspect has more power than 
 the degree of positive heat. The same may 
 be observed in regard to the walnut-tree, 
 which reaches a little higher, both in lati- 
 tude and elevation above the sea, than the 
 vine. 
 
 The common oak ( Quercus Robur) grows 
 on the plains on a level with the sea, reaches 
 the slopes of the mountains, and ascends to 
 the height of 1600 yards. It degenerates 
 1152 
 
 in proportion as it approaches the point 
 where it ceases to vegetate. The beech 
 (Fagus sylvaticd) makes its first appearance 
 at the height of 600 yards above the sea, 
 and its last at 200 yards above the oak. 
 The silver fir [(Abies piced) and the yew 
 (Taxus communis) show themselves at 1400 
 yards, and extend to about 2000. The 
 Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris) and the Pinus 
 pumilio take their stations between 2000 
 and 2400 yards. 
 
 There the trees stop, and shrubs with a 
 juiceless foliage and low or creeping stems 
 present themselves; these lie hid beneath 
 the snow in winter. Amongst them are 
 some of the Rhododendrons, Daphnes, Salix 
 herbacea, S. reticulata, &c. Soon after, 
 we meet only small herbs with perennial 
 roots, a foliage disposed in a rosette, and a 
 naked stalk. These, with the lichens and 
 byssi, arrive at the height of 3000 and even 
 3400 yards. The first that occur are the 
 Gentiana campestris, Saxifraga, &c. ; then 
 Ranunculus alpestris, Aretia alpina, &c. ; and 
 finally Ranunculus glacialis, Saxifraga ces- 
 pitosa, oppositifolia, androsacea, and Green- 
 landica. The last brings us to the borders 
 of eternal snow. These are European ob- 
 servations ; but Humboldt and Bompland 
 have demonstrated a similar succession of 
 plants in the New World, and in one of the 
 hottest and most fertile regions of our 
 globe. 
 
 In the equinoctial countries of America, 
 vegetation displays itself to the view of the 
 observer, as on the gradually rising steps of 
 an immense amphitheatre, the base of which 
 sinks below the waters of the ocean, whilst 
 its summit reaches to the foot of the glaciers 
 which crown the Andes, 5000 yards above 
 the level of the sea ; showing that in Ame- 
 rica there are vegetables which grow at the 
 height of 1600 or 1800 yards beyond the 
 point where vegetation ceases in the Pyre- 
 nees and Alps ; a difference that does not 
 depend solely upon latitude, but also, ac- 
 cording to M. Ramond, upon the breadth 
 of the chain of mountains. In chains but 
 of little breadth, such as those of Europe, 
 the air and temperature of the plains have 
 an influence which is constantly tending 
 to confound the limits of the different kinds 
 of vegetables ; but this is not the case in 
 the chain of the Andes, which is from 48 to 
 60 leagues in breadth. 
 
 The plants which belong to dark and 
 humid abodes, such as Boletus ceratophorus, 
 Byssus speciosa, &c, are found on the vaults 
 of caverns, and the wood-work of mines, as 
 well in Mexico as in Germany, England, 
 and Italy, concealed within the bowe ls of 
 the earth. These less perfect species consti- 
 tute the last zone of vegetation. Next come 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 the plants which belong to fresh water and 
 to salt water. Of these a great portion grow 
 without preference in every degree of lati- 
 tude, the medium in which they exist pre- 
 serving a more equable temperature than 
 the atmosphere. Puck-weed (Lemna minor) 
 and the greater reed-mace, or cat's-tail (Ty- 
 pha latifolia), grow in the marshes both of 
 Asia, Europe, and America ; the latter be- 
 ing common to Jamaica, China, and Bengal. 
 Probably there is no region on the globe 
 where the gray bog-moss (Sphagnum palus- 
 tre) is not to be found. This indifference 
 to climate is still more remarkable in the 
 sea plants, such as the Fuci loreus and Ce- 
 ramics The gulf-weed (Fucus natans), de- 
 taching itself from the rocks on which it 
 grew, and forming shoals of an immense 
 extent on the surface of the water, ob- 
 structs the ship's way as well towards the 
 poles as under the line, on a level with the 
 sea ; and to a height of 1000 yards we find 
 the palms, the liliaceous plants, the plan- 
 tain trees, the balsam of Tolu, with crowds 
 of other species which grow only in a very 
 hot temperature. This is the zone of the 
 palms, a tribe conspicuous for the elegance 
 and grandeur of part of \ts species, and 
 forming one of the chief ornaments of the 
 scorching plains that lie between the tropics. 
 Some of them, however, thrive in more tem- 
 perate regions. The Ceroxylon andicola, a 
 fine palm rising sixty yards in height, grows 
 in the Andes at Solima and Quindin in 4° 
 25' of northern latitude, setting off at 1860 
 yards above the sea, and continuing to the 
 height of 2870 ; an elevation where the at- 
 mosphere is at a moderate degree of warmth. 
 Another species has been discovered at the 
 Straits of Magellan, towards the fifty-third 
 degree of southern latitude. Two sorts, the 
 fan-palm and date-tree, are even seen to 
 grow on our side of Europe, upon the coasts 
 of the Mediterranean, and not far from the 
 foot of the Pyrenees ; thus advancing their 
 tribe to beneath the forty-third degree of 
 northern latitude. But these are exceptions, 
 the palms in general confining themselves 
 to the hottest parts of the globe, and none 
 being met with towards the polar regions. 
 
 The effect of water in preserving the 
 equable temperature of the grass in water 
 meadows is excellent ; this was first clearly 
 ascertained by Sir H. Davy. See Irriga- 
 tion. 
 
 As regards the effects of vegetation upon 
 the temperature of the district ; that of 
 forests is felt far around : their usual effect 
 is to cool the atmosphere to a greater extent 
 even than the degree of latitude. When 
 France and Germany were covered with 
 wood, Europe was much colder than at 
 present ; the winters were longer ; the vine 
 1153 
 
 could not be cultivated on this side of Gre- 
 noble ; the Seine froze every year. The 
 forests of Cayenne, which have been cleared 
 of their wood by Europeans, experience in 
 summer, in its full force, the overwhelming 
 heat of the sun of the torrid zone ; while, 
 in the same season, the interior of the coun- 
 try is cooled to such a degree by forests, 
 that a fire or shelter is found necessary in 
 order to pass the night. 
 
 The causes why forests thus lower the 
 temperature are plain : — they detain and 
 condense the clouds as these pass; they 
 pour into the atmosphere volumes of water 
 dissolved in vapour ; winds do not pene- 
 trate into their recesses; the sun never 
 warms the earth they shade ; and the soil, 
 being porous, as formed in part of the de- 
 cayed leaves, branches, and stems of trees, 
 and coated over besides by a thick bed of 
 brushwood and moss, is constantly in a 
 state of moisture ; the hollows in them 
 serve as reservoirs for cold and stagnant 
 waters ; their declivities give rise to num- 
 berless brooks and rivulets ; and, as we see, 
 the best-wooded countries are ever those 
 which are watered by the largest rivers. 
 
 In proportion as man, who finds himself 
 cramped in countries of long-standing ci- 
 vilisation, extends the boundaries of his 
 domain by stripping the soil of its ancient 
 forests, so the wind and sun disperse the 
 superabundant moisture ; the springs exhaust 
 themselves ; the lakes dry up ; inundations 
 cease altogether, or confine themselves to a 
 smaller extent ; the volume of water carried 
 along by rivers diminishes, and the atmo- 
 sphere becomes warmer and drier. These 
 are results that cannot be denied ; and, with- 
 out mentioning the numerous evidences 
 which history offers, it will be sufficient to 
 adduce the United States of America as a 
 proof. It is a fact admitted by all, that 
 the clearing of the woods, begun two cen- 
 turies ago in the European countries, and 
 continued unceasingly to this day, has oc- 
 casioned a very evident diminution in the 
 quantity of water, and a perceptible eleva- 
 tion in the temperature of the atmosphere. 
 But where, from improvidence or brutul 
 selfishness, man has destroyed the woods of 
 a country without reserve, the soil, bereft 
 of the moisture requisite to the mainte- 
 nance of vegetation, has been reduced to 
 the most fearful sterility. The Cape Verd 
 Islands, once watered by numerous springs 
 and covered with lofty forests and luxuriant 
 herbage, now present to our view only 
 waterless gullies, rocks bared of their mould, 
 with here and there a patch of parched 
 herbs, some stunted bushes, and a few plants 
 of the succulent kind, such as Cacalias, 
 Spurges, &c. 
 
 4 £ 
 
TEMPERATURE. 
 
 TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM. 
 
 In mountainous countries above all others, 
 the destruction of trees produces the worst 
 effects. The forests which encircle them 
 above are the protection of the fields below ; 
 but when once the axe is used amongst 
 them without a due discretion, the rain 
 breaks up and carries off the layer of mould, 
 no longer consolidated by roots ; large and 
 deep gullies are cut by the descending cur- 
 rents on all sides ; the snow, accumulated 
 on the summits during winter, slides down 
 the declivities, and, finding no dam that 
 stops it, enormous masses are precipitated 
 with a dreadful crash to the bottom of the 
 valleys, destroying in their way the fields 
 with their cattle, and the villages with their 
 inhabitants. The rock once laid bare, the 
 rain water, which penetrates its clefts, si- 
 lently undermines it ; the frost cracks and 
 crumbles it away; it falls in ruins, accu- 
 mulating at the foot of the mountain mounds 
 of rubbish. This is an evil which has no 
 remedy. The forests, once banished from 
 highland tops, are never replaced ; while the 
 washings and rubble carried down yearly 
 by the rain, soon transform into a desert 
 the populous and flourishing valley below. 
 
 The vegetable mould produced by her- 
 baceous plants upon unsheltered lands is 
 destroyed by the action of light, heat, and 
 oxygen ; while that which is formed in the 
 shade of forests increases from day to day 
 by the remains of vegetables, as well as of 
 the animals of all kinds which seek refuge 
 in them. This is the reason why newly- 
 cleared land is endowed with such pro- 
 digious fertility. In these, either rye or 
 oats are commonly cultivated for the first 
 year; its too abundant riches causing the 
 more valuable wheat to grow rank, and 
 produce little grain. But sooner or later 
 the soil is exhausted, and recourse must be 
 had to manure, to restore the nutritious par- 
 ticles carried off by successive crops. If this 
 is neglected, the harvests begin to dwindle : 
 briars and brambles, and a thousand wild 
 plants, take the place of those produced 
 by cultivation. The flocks, too, diminish 
 rapidly ; for the increase of live stock, and 
 consequently of the human race, depends 
 above all things upon the prosperity of 
 agriculture. 
 
 That long-continued prosperity, there is 
 no reason to doubt, will, in no mean de- 
 gree, be assisted in this country by the 
 noble spirit of scientific research which is 
 now more than ever diffusing itself amongst 
 the farmers of the United Kingdom, — a 
 spirit arising from a widely diffusing con- 
 viction, that, although science must ever be 
 subordinate to practice in the cultivation 
 <»[' the earth, yet that the agriculturist who 
 understands the reasons upon which his 
 [154 
 
 own practice is founded will be the most 
 likely to avoid erroneous experiments, and 
 to make the greatest improvements in the 
 cultivation of his land. (Brit. Farm. Mag. 
 vol. vi. p. 22.) 
 
 Table calculated from Atmospherical Ob- 
 servations, made in the Parish of Cobham, 
 Surrey, during the Fight Years from 
 1833 to 1840. 
 
 THERMOMETER. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Utmost 
 Range. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Mean 
 Highest. 
 
 Mean 
 Lowest. 
 
 Difference, 
 or Solar 
 Variation. 
 
 January 
 
 60 
 
 '10 
 
 3838 
 
 52 6 
 
 14-6 
 
 38-0 
 34- 1 
 
 February 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 39-84 
 
 54-7 
 
 20 6 
 
 March 
 
 66 
 
 16 
 
 42 02 
 
 60-1 
 
 20-5 
 
 396 
 
 April 
 
 85 
 
 17 
 
 46-25 
 
 713 
 
 23-0 
 
 48-3 
 
 May 
 
 86 
 
 23 
 
 55-25 
 
 79-8 
 
 30 3 
 
 49-5 
 
 June 
 
 93 
 
 33 
 
 61-31 
 
 88-5 
 
 37-8 
 
 50-7 
 
 July 
 
 98 
 
 33 
 
 63 00 
 
 89-2 
 
 392 
 
 50-0 
 
 August 
 
 94 
 
 32 
 
 61-83 
 
 85-8 
 
 36-7 
 
 49- 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 56-32 
 
 76-0 
 
 32-3 
 
 43-7 
 
 October 
 
 79 
 
 21 
 
 49-87 
 
 68-4 
 
 25-8 
 
 42-6 
 
 Nov. 
 
 66 
 
 16 
 
 4364 
 
 58-8 
 
 21-8 
 
 370 
 
 Dec. 
 
 63 
 
 4 
 
 38-98 
 
 57-5 
 
 18-8 
 
 387 
 
 See Altitude. 
 
 TEMPLE, SIR WILLIAM, was the son 
 of Sir John Temple, and born in 1628, at 
 London, or, according to Switzer, at Sheen. 
 He died in 1700. His works have been 
 published in 2 vols, folio, and 4 vols. 8vo. 
 In the first volume of them is contained his 
 essay, entitled " The Garden of Epicurus ; 
 or, of Gardening in the Year 1685," which 
 entitles him to notice in this place. This 
 essay is devoted chiefly to inculcate that 
 taste for formal design in gardening which 
 was the prevailing one of his time. Sir 
 William acquired his taste and knowledge 
 of gardening during his stay at the Hague. 
 He introduced several new varieties of fruits, 
 especially of grapes. His name still at- 
 taches to a variety of the nectarine. He had 
 a garden at Sheen, in Surrey, to the good 
 cultivation of which Evelyn bears testimony. 
 Nothing can demonstrate more fully the 
 delight he took in gardening than the di- 
 rection left in his will, that his heart should 
 be buried beneath the sun-dial of his gar- 
 den, at Moor Park, near Farnham, in Sur- 
 rey. In accordance with which, it was 
 deposited there in a silver box ; affording 
 another instance of the ruling passion un- 
 weakened even in death. Nor was this an 
 unphilosophical clinging to that which it 
 was impossible to retain ; but rather that 
 grateful feeling common to our nature, of 
 desiring finally to repose where in life we 
 have been happy. In his garden Sir Wil- 
 liam Temple had spent the calmest hours 
 of a well-spent life, and where his heart had 
 been most peaceful he wished its dust to 
 mingle, and thus at the same time offer 
 his last testimony to the sentiment, that in 
 a garden, — Hie secura quics. el aescia fal- 
 lere vita. (G. W.Johnsons Hist, of Gard.) 
 
TENANT. 
 
 TENANT. (Tenens, from the Latin 
 tenere, to hold.) In law, one who holds or 
 possesses lands or tenements by any kind of 
 right, either in fee for life, for years, or at 
 will. See Lease. 
 
 A tenant at will is where a person holds 
 lands or tenements at the will or pleasure 
 of the lessor. This tenancy at will, how- 
 ever, is at the will of both parties, for either 
 may determine the holding, and quit his 
 connection with the other, at his own plea- 
 sure. If, however, the landlord puts his 
 tenant at will out after he has sown the 
 land, the lessee shall have the emblements, 
 and free ingress, egress, and regress, to cut 
 and carry away the profits. (Black. Com. 
 vol. ii. p. 145.) These kind of holdings are 
 regarded by the courts with no favour ; they 
 rather prefer construing them on all pos- 
 sible occasions to mean holdings from year 
 to year. (Timmins v. Rowlinson, 3 Bur- 
 roughs, 1603.) In this case Mr. Justice 
 Wilmot remarked, " In this country, leases 
 at will, in the strict legal notion of a lease 
 at will, being found extremely inconvenient, 
 exist only notion ally, and were succeeded 
 by another species of contract which was 
 less inconvenient. At first it was, indeed, 
 settled to be for a year certain, and then 
 the landlord might turn the tenant out at 
 the end of the year. It is now established, 
 that if a tenant takes from year to year, 
 either party must give a reasonable notice 
 before the end of the year, although that 
 reasonable notice varies according to the 
 custom of different counties." If, however, 
 an agreement be made to let premises so 
 long as both parties like, and reserving a 
 compensation accruing de die in diem, and 
 not referable to a year or any aliquot part 
 of a year, it does not create a holding from 
 year to year, but a tenancy at will strictly 
 so called. And though the tenant has ex- 
 pended money on the improvement of the 
 premises, that does not give him a term to 
 hold until he is indemnified. (Richardson 
 v. Langridge, 4 Taunton, 128., per Lord 
 Mansfield.) M If two parties agree that the 
 one shall let and the other shall hold so 
 long as both parties please, that is a hold- 
 ing at will, and there is nothing to hinder 
 parties from making such an agreement." 
 
 The tenant who is suffered to remain in 
 possession after his lease is expired, pend- 
 ing a negociation for a new lease, is a tenant 
 at will. (Doe v. Stennett, 2Espinasse, 617.) 
 The possession of the tenant at will has, in 
 fact, been held to be the possession of the 
 lessor. (Denn v. Fearnside, 1 Wilson, 176.) 
 A person who lives rent free by the consent 
 of the owner, is a mere tenant at will. (Rex 
 v. Collett, R. & R. C. C. 498. ; Rex v. Fil- 
 longley, 1 T. R. 458.) So is also a person 
 1155 
 
 who has been let into possession of land 
 under a contract of sale which has not been 
 completed ; he is a mere tenant at will to 
 the vendor. (Ball v. Cullimore, 2 C. M. & 
 R. 120.) 
 
 A tenant from year to year is one who 
 holds lands by an uncertain and undeter- 
 minate tenure, more especially if an annual 
 rent is reserved. (Germain v. Orchard, 
 3 Salkeld, 228.) Payment of rent is prima 
 facie evidence of a tenancy from year to 
 year. (Doe v. Dodd, 2 N. & M. 838.) In 
 Doe v. Watts, 7 T.R. 85., Lord Kenyon C.J. 
 observed, " It would be extremely unjust 
 that a tenant who occupies land should, 
 after he has sown it, be turned out of pos- 
 session by an ejectment, without any no- 
 tice : and it was in order to avoid so unjust 
 a measure, that, so long ago as the time of 
 the year books, it was held that a general 
 occupation was an occupation from year 
 to year, and that the tenant could not be 
 turned out of possession without reasonable 
 notice to quit, vide 13 Hen. VIII. 15. b." 
 And although the Statute of Frauds enacts 
 that all leases by parol for more than three 
 years shall have the effect of estates at will 
 only, yet, per Lord Kenyon C. J., " what 
 was then considered a tenancy at will has 
 since been properly construed to enure as 
 a tenancy from year to year." (Clayton v. 
 Blakey, 8 T. R. 3.) 
 
 When a tenant, therefore, takes posses- 
 sion, he is bound to keep the premises for 
 a year, for till then he cannot give the 
 proper notice, which notice being a six 
 months' notice, expiring at the period he 
 took possession ; and the same remark ap- 
 plies to the landlord, and to the executors 
 of a yearly tenant. (Shore v. Porter, 3 T. R. 
 13.) Per Lord Kenyon, "whatever chattel 
 the intestate had must vest in his ad- 
 ministrator as his legal representative." 
 The entrance of a tenant in the middle of 
 a quarter, paying up to the regular quar- 
 ter day, and afterwards paying every six 
 months during his term, makes no differ- 
 ence ; he is a tenant from the quarter day. 
 (Doe v. Johnson, 6 Esp. 1 0.) The tenant who 
 holds over after his lease is expired is a 
 tenant at will at the rent he paid under 
 the lease, till the landlord receives the first 
 quarter's rent, and then he becomes a 
 yearly tenant at the same rent. (Bishop v. 
 Howard, 3 D. & R. 293.) A tenant under 
 an agreement for a lease is a yearly tenant. 
 (Doe v. Smith, 1 M. & R. 137.) An occu- 
 pation pending a negotiation for a lease, 
 will entitle the landlord to sue upon a quan- 
 tum valebat, although no distress for rent 
 can be made. (Hamerton v. Stead, 5 D. & 
 R. 206.) But no tenancy is created where 
 the occupier got into the house without the 
 4 e 2 
 
TENCH. 
 
 THERMOMETER. 
 
 privity of the landlord, although they after- 
 wards entered into a negotiation for a 
 lease. (Doe v. Quigley, 2 Campbell, 505.) 
 
 A tenant from year to year is only liable 
 to repairs which are necessary from volun- 
 tary negligence, but he is not liable for 
 accidental fires, fair wear and tear ; his lia- 
 bility, therefore, is confined to tenantable 
 repairs, and not to those of a substantial 
 kind. (Salop v. Crompton, Cro. Eliz. 777., 
 
 Ferguson v. , 2 Espinasse, 590.) And 
 
 where there is no express contract in case 
 of fire, a landlord is not bound to rebuild. 
 (Bayne v. Walker, 3 Dowling, 283.) If 
 either, however, covenant in a lease to keep 
 in repair, then in case of a fire the party 
 must rebuild. (Digby v. Atkinson, 4 Camp. 
 275.) 
 
 A tenant from year to year may assign 
 over his interest in the estate for any por- 
 tion of time less than a year, or he may 
 sublet a portion of it in the absence of any 
 agreement to the contrary with his landlord, 
 and this he may do without having his 
 landlord's consent to the transfer ; the law 
 gives him authority to do so himself. (Rex 
 v. Aldborough, 1 East, 598.) But though a 
 yearly tenant can thus assign over his in- 
 terest, a tenant at will certainly cannot. 
 See Customs of Counties, Landlord and 
 Tenant, &c. 
 
 TENCH. (Cyprinus tenca.) A British 
 fish, which inhabits by choice stagnant 
 waters, on a loamy, clayey soil, forming a 
 soft muddy bottom. Its back is of a dusky 
 colour ; the head, sides, and belly of a 
 greenish cast, beautifully variegated with a 
 golden hue. The tench commonly weighs 
 about four pounds, though it sometimes 
 amounts to ten, and on the Continent they 
 have attained to the size of twenty pounds. 
 Tench is a simple fish, and easily taken; 
 the method of angling for it differs in no 
 material respect from that of carp, which 
 see. (Blaine's Encyclo. p. 1061.; Walton's 
 Angler.} 
 
 TENDRILS. The curling, twining 
 organs of prehension, by which some plants 
 lay hold of others. 
 
 TERRIER. There are two prominent 
 varieties of this dog — the rough and the 
 smooth. Terriers are very useful to agri- 
 culturists, for exterminating rats, pole cats, 
 and similar depredators ; and are also ser- 
 viceable in hunting badgers, foxes, rabbits, 
 &c, which they either kill or draw out 
 from their burrows. The terrier will be 
 found a very vigilant house-dog. See Dog. 
 
 TETHERING. The practice of con- 
 fining to precise limits or pasturage any 
 kind of slock, by means of light chains or 
 ropes fastened to iron pins (with swivel 
 rings) driven into the ground. For the 
 1156 
 
 small farmer with indifferent fences, or for 
 gentlemen with limited and ornamental 
 lawns, this practice, which secures shrubs 
 and pleasure-grounds from injury, is obvi- 
 ously often an advantageous system; and 
 indeed a rich lawn immediately in view of 
 a house is the fittest situation for tethering, 
 as an impoverished field would disappoint, 
 and demand a too frequent and therefore 
 troublesome change of tether. The prac- 
 tice is almost universal throughout France, 
 even in common farms. (Irish Farm. 
 Journ. ; Mart. Doyle's Husb.) 
 
 THATCH. Straw, or any other dry 
 vegetable substance, laid on the top of a 
 building, rick, &c. to keep out the wet. 
 
 There are many different sorts of ma- 
 terials that may be made use of as thatch, 
 but those which are most commonly em- 
 ployed are the straw of different sorts of 
 grain, as wheat, rye, &c, reed, stubble, 
 heather, &c. The straw of wheat and rye, 
 when well laid, forms the neatest and most 
 secure covering for general purposes. 
 
 The reed is a highly valuable article for 
 the purpose of thatch, where a lasting roof 
 is required ; but is much too expensive at 
 first, although it is cheapest in the end. 
 Reed is also thought to be too stubborn for 
 common purposes. Fern is also occasionally 
 used. See Fern. 
 
 THEAVE. A term applied to an ewe 
 of the first year. It is sometimes written 
 thave, and also thief. 
 
 THERMOMETER. (Gr.) An instru- 
 ment for measuring variations of heat or 
 temperature. It is in every-day use, and 
 is too well known to need description. 
 The great object in the construction of a 
 thermometer is to have the tube of an equal 
 bore throughout, so that the expansion of 
 the contained fluid shall be equal in every 
 part. In filling the instrument with mer- 
 cury, the bulb is first heated over a spirit 
 lamp, and the open end of the tube imme- 
 diately afterwards immersed in the fluid, 
 which is forced up into the tube by the 
 pressure of the external air ; any air in 
 the tube is then expelled by boiling the 
 mercury in it ; and, lastly, the tube is her- 
 metically sealed. A graduated scale is next 
 formed by determining the point of freez- 
 ing and of boiling water ; and dividing the 
 intermediate space into 180 equal parts; 
 carrying it upwards and downwards in the 
 same manner. The scales most in use are 
 those of Fahrenheit, Reaumur, and the 
 Centigrade. The following table, by Mr. 
 Dalton, shows the expansion of the more 
 common liquids, from 32° to 212° Fah., the 
 volume at 32° being denoted by 1. 
 Mercury - - - -0200 = 
 
 Water - - - '0466 = ^5 
 
Oil < 
 Eth« 
 Fixe 
 Alec 
 Nitr 
 Table 
 grai 
 resp 
 mete 
 
 iReau. 
 
 80 
 79 
 78 
 77 
 76 
 75 
 74 
 73 
 72 
 71 
 70 
 69 
 68 
 67 
 66 
 65 
 64 
 63 
 62 
 61 
 60 
 59 
 58 
 57 
 56 
 55 
 54 
 53 
 52 
 51 
 50 
 49 
 48 
 47 
 46 
 45 
 44 
 43 
 42 
 41 
 40 
 39 
 38 
 37 
 36 
 35 
 34 
 33 
 32 
 31 
 30 
 See M 
 
 THISTLE. 
 
 salt - -0500=^5 
 . 1-185 - -0600=--t> 7 
 1-137 - -0608 = -^ 
 . -0700=^ 
 
 - -0700 = ^ 
 
 - -0800 = ^5 
 
 - -0110=4 
 40 - -0110=£ 
 legrees of the Centi- 
 fs Thermometers cor- 
 f Reaumur s Thermo- 
 
 Reau. 
 
 Cent. 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 29 
 
 36*25 
 
 97*25 
 
 28 
 
 35- 
 
 95- 
 
 27 
 
 33-75 
 
 92*75 
 
 26 
 
 32*5 
 
 90-5 
 
 25 
 
 31-25 
 
 88-25 
 
 24 
 
 30- 
 
 86* 
 
 23 
 
 28*75 
 
 83-75 
 
 22 
 
 27-5 
 
 81*5 
 
 21 
 
 26-25 
 
 79*25 
 
 20 
 
 25- 
 
 77- 
 
 19 
 
 23-75 
 
 74-75 
 
 18 
 
 22-5 
 
 72-5 
 
 17 
 
 21-25 
 
 70-25 
 
 16 
 
 20* 
 
 68' 
 
 15 
 
 18-75 
 
 65*75 
 
 14 
 
 17*5 
 
 63-5 
 
 13 
 
 16*25 
 
 61-25 
 
 12 
 
 15- 
 
 59* 
 
 11 
 
 13-75 
 
 56-75 
 
 10 
 
 12-5 
 
 54-5 
 
 9 
 
 11-25 
 
 52-25 
 
 8 
 
 10' 
 
 50* 
 
 7 
 
 8'75 
 
 47*75 
 
 6 
 
 7*5 
 
 45-5 
 
 5 
 
 6-25 
 
 43-25 
 
 4 
 
 5- 
 
 41- 
 
 3 
 
 8-75 
 
 38-75 
 
 2 
 
 2-5 
 
 36-5 
 
 1 
 
 1-25 
 
 34-25 
 
 0 
 
 •o 
 
 32- 
 
 1 
 
 1-25 
 
 29-75 
 
 2 
 
 2-5 
 
 27-5 
 
 3 
 
 3-75 
 
 25-25 
 
 4 
 
 5- 
 
 23- 
 
 5 
 
 6*25 
 
 20-75 
 
 6 
 
 7*5 
 
 18-5 
 
 7 
 
 8-75 
 
 16-25 
 
 8 
 
 lO- 
 
 14- 
 
 9 
 
 ll -25 
 
 11-75 
 
 10 
 
 12-5 
 
 9-5 
 
 11 
 
 13-75 
 
 7-25 
 
 12 
 
 15* 
 
 5- 
 
 13 
 
 16-25 
 
 2-75 
 
 14 
 
 17-5 
 
 0-5 
 
 15 
 
 18-75 
 
 1-75 
 
 16 
 
 20- 
 
 4- 
 
 17 
 
 21-25 
 
 6*25 
 
 18 
 
 22-5 
 
 8-5 
 
 19 
 
 23-75 
 
 10-75 
 
 20 
 
 25- 
 
 13- 
 
 id Weather. 
 
 THICKET. Trees or shrubs crowded 
 together in such a manner as to form a mass 
 not easily penetrated by men or cattle. 
 
 THISTLE. A well-known prickly weed, 
 common in corn-fields and pastures. Where- 
 ever thistles grow naturally it is a sure sign 
 that the land is strong, and of a tolerably 
 good quality ; but they are at the same time 
 a great annoyance to every plant intended 
 to be cultivated. 
 
 By an excellent regulation in France, a 
 farmer may sue his neighbour who neglects 
 to thistle his land at the proper seasons, or 
 may employ people to do it at the other's 
 expense : and it were to be wished that a 
 similar law was in force here, to prevent the 
 wide -spreading mischief occasioned by the 
 seeding of this pernicious weed ; among 
 which may be reckoned, besides its choking 
 the young corn, that if wheat in particular 
 be not well thistled, the reapers take up the 
 grip so tenderly, lest they should prick 
 themselves, that, by their loose handling of 
 them, they sometimes leave upon the ground 
 corn enough to sow the whole field. There 
 are no plants over which the economical 
 farmer ought to keep a more watchful eye 
 than the thistle tribe, as they are not only 
 useless but occupy much ground, and, being 
 furnished with winged downy seeds, are 
 capable of being multiplied and carried al- 
 most to any distance : besides, they do much 
 mischief by impeding the work both in hand- 
 ling hay and corn crops. It is, of course, 
 a matter of much consequence to be well 
 acquainted with the qualities of each kind, 
 in order to enable us to judge with certainty 
 how far and by what means their destruc- 
 tion may be effected in the most certain and 
 ready manner. 
 
 There are many sorts of thistles, but those 
 which chiefly deserve the attention of the 
 farmer are either of the annual, biennial, or 
 perennial kinds. 
 
 The annual species of thistle are the musk 
 thistle (Carduus nutans), the milk thistle 
 (C. marianus), the welted or curled thistle 
 (C acanthoides), the slender-flowered thistle 
 (C. tenuifiorus), the common sow-thistle 
 (Sonchus oleraceus). The principal bien- 
 nial thistles are the spear or bull thistle 
 (C. lanceolatus), the marsh thistle (C. pa- 
 lustris), and the cotton thistle (Onopordum 
 acantheum). The perennial species are two, 
 the common sow-thistle (Sonchus arvensis), 
 and the common or field thistle (Cnicus ar- 
 vensis). The dwarf or stemless thistle (C. 
 acaidis), the star thistle {Centaur ea calci- 
 trapa), and the common carline thistle 
 (Carlina vulgaris), are more frequently 
 found to infest dry sandy pastures and cal- 
 careous soils than loamy or damp grass lands. 
 Where they prevail to a great extent, there 
 4e 3 
 
THISTLE, CARLINE. 
 
 THISTLE, PLUME. 
 
 is no remedy like breaking up the land and 
 taking a course of crops ; for palliative re- 
 medies are of little avail. Hand-weeding, 
 when the weeds are confined to local spots, 
 and are only just beginning to spread gene- 
 rally over the soil, will be found effectual ; 
 but when once the pasture becomes gene- 
 rally infected with the seeds and roots of 
 these plants, no time should be lost in using 
 the plough, harrow, and horse-hoe, and a 
 judicious course of cleansing crops before re- 
 turning the land again to permanent pasture. 
 
 Among the species of pasture weeds that 
 generally prevail in loamy soils, and are also 
 prevalent in clayey and damp soils, are the 
 marsh or red plume thistle (Cnicus palus- 
 tris), the meadow or small purple plume 
 thistle (Cnicus pratensis), and the melancholy 
 plume thistle (Cnicus heterophyllus). In 
 crops of artificial grasses, such as sainfoin, 
 lucern, &c, where the dwarf plume thistle 
 (Cnicus acaulis) prevails, and when it is im- 
 practicable, under such circumstances, to 
 draw out this weed without injuring the 
 crops, a good remedy will be found in the 
 use of common salt. Children may be em- 
 ployed to apply the salt by hand to the 
 crown of the weed. If the least part of the 
 root of the thistle be left, it springs up sea- 
 son after season. Besides possessing this 
 principle of vitality in the root, its seeds 
 are so winged with down as to render dis- 
 semination, even to a great distance, by 
 means of the wind, almost certain. 
 
 It is obvious that the annual and biennial 
 species of thistles may be readily removed 
 by preventing their running to seed and 
 disseminating themselves, which is best ef- 
 fected by carefully eradicating them, or 
 frequently mowing them over close to the 
 surface, and rolling. But in the perennial 
 kinds, from their roots continuing in the 
 earth, increasing and throwing out new 
 shoots or stems every year, there is much 
 difficulty in extirpating them, and they 
 perhaps can be no other way destroyed 
 than by rooting them out of arable land by 
 deep ploughing and frequent harrowings, 
 or by fallowing or laying the land down to 
 pasture ; the annual species seldom appear 
 in pasture lands. But for destroying the 
 common thistles the best method is by 
 weeding pincers, or the finger and thumb 
 when in loose land, cutting them over in 
 the bleeding season frequently by weed- 
 ing knives, and applying salt to the cut 
 stalk. (Holdiclis Weeds; Mart. Doyle s 
 Hush.) U 
 
 THISTLE, CARLINE. (Carlina.) 
 One species of this genus is indigenous, the 
 common carline thistle (C. vulgaris), grow - 
 inc in dry Bandy heathy pastures and fields. 
 The loot is small and tapering, biennial. 
 1158 
 
 Stem erect, firm, round, ten or twelve 
 inches high, somewhat corymbose. Leaves 
 lanceolate, sinuated, and wavy, green, veiny, 
 rigid, copiously bordered with prickles. 
 Flowers terminal, solitary, of a singular 
 aspect, and not inelegantly variegated. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 397.) 
 
 THISTLE, COTTON. (Onopodum, 
 from onos, an ass, and perdo, to destroy ; re- 
 ferring to the imaginary effects on the ass.) 
 The common cotton thistle (O. acantheum), 
 a biennial, grows very frequently in waste 
 ground, on hedge-banks, and by road-sides, 
 in a gravelly soil. The root is tap-shaped. 
 The whole herb is covered with white cot- 
 tony pubescence, which is easily rubbed off. 
 The stem is four or five feet high, branched, 
 and, when in a growing state, may be peeled 
 and boiled for the table ; but it has little 
 flavour, except some bitterness, which it 
 loses by being steeped in cold water. Leaves 
 ovate-oblong, sinuated, woolly on both sides. 
 Flowers solitary, at the ends of the branches, 
 large, of a bluish rose-colour. The calyx 
 cottony, and very prickly. The large brown 
 seeds are eaten by goldfinches, and the 
 birdcatchers about London provide them- 
 selves with heads of this thistle and Car- 
 duus marianus to entrap these and other 
 birds, on bright autumnal mornings. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 395.) 
 
 THISTLE, PLUME. (Cnicus.) This 
 is a separation from the genus Carduus made 
 by Sir J. E. Smith. They are prickly her- 
 baceous plants, and differ chiefly in the 
 down being evidently feathery, not merely 
 rough. The biennial species may be readily 
 destroyed by mowing before the flowers 
 form seed. There are nine indigenous 
 species : — 
 
 1. The spear plume-thistle (C. lanceola- 
 tus), a biennial, very common in waste 
 ground, and on banks, by road sides. Stem 
 about four feet high, flowering from June 
 to September. 
 
 2. Marsh plume-thistle (C.palustris), a 
 biennial, growing plentifully in moist mea- 
 dows or pastures, and watery spots by road- 
 sides. Stem from three to six feet high. 
 
 3. Creeping plume-thistle (C. arvensis). 
 A very troublesome perennial weed in cul- 
 tivated fields and by way-sides, from its 
 fleshy root, which is very tenacious of life, 
 creeping deeply into the earth to a great 
 extent. Stems three or four feet high. 
 
 4. Branching bog plume-thistle (C. 
 Forsteri). A perennial, flowering in July 
 and August, with a tapering root. 
 
 5. Woolly-headed plume-thistle (C. erio- 
 phorus). A large and conspicuous peren- 
 nial plant, growing in waste mountainous 
 ground, and by road-sides, on a limestone 
 or chalky soil. 
 
THORN. 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 6. Tuberous plume- thistle (C. tuberosus). 
 A perennial. 
 
 7. Melancholy plume-thistle (C. hetero- 
 phyllus). A perennial, growing in moist 
 mountain pastures in the north. 
 
 8. Meadow plume-thistle (C. pratensis). 
 A perennial, growing in low wet meadows 
 and pastures, especially among trees. Root 
 fibrous. 
 
 9. Dwarf plume-thistle (C. acaulis). A 
 perennial, growing on chalky and gravelly 
 soils. Root woody, running deep into the 
 ground. Stem entirely wanting. The large 
 bright green leaves, spreading close to the 
 ground, in a circle near a foot in diameter, 
 choke all other herbage. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 387.) 
 
 THISTLE, THE STAR. See Star- 
 Thistle 
 
 THISTLE, THE WAY. See Saw- 
 Wort. 
 
 THORN. A name given to several in- 
 digenous shrubs and small trees. See 
 Hawthorn, Black-Thorn, Buck-Thorn, 
 White-Thorn, &c. 
 
 THORN-APPLE. (Datura.) An or- 
 namental genus, but chiefly composed of 
 plants possessing very deleterious qualities. 
 One species is indigenous, the common 
 thorn-apple (D. stramonium), an annual, 
 which grows in waste grounds and dung- 
 hills. It is a bushy, fetid herb, two or three 
 feet high, of a narcotic quality, and greatly 
 in repute as a remedy for the asthma, being 
 smoked like tobacco. The leaves are ovate, 
 smooth, sinuated. The flowers are axillary, 
 erect, white, sweet-scented, especially at 
 night, about three inches long. Fruit as 
 big as a walnut in its outer coat, very 
 prickly. Seeds black. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 313.) 
 
 THOROW-WAX. See Hare's-Ear. 
 
 THRASHING, or THRESHING. The 
 act of beating out the corn from grain or 
 other crops. The flail was the implement 
 formerly used for thrashing corn, and which 
 separated the grain from the straw and 
 husks very effectually and expeditiously ; 
 but as it is now become expensive, and 
 always bruises a great many seeds, it has 
 been attempted to avoid these inconve- 
 niences by proper machines provided with 
 a number of flails, or other parts answering 
 the same purpose, made to move by the 
 power of water, wind, or horses. By this 
 means the business of thrashing is found to 
 be performed cheaper, more expeditiously, 
 and with less damage to the health of the 
 thrasher, which is frequently thought to be 
 injured by the dust, &c, which arises in 
 the common way of thrashing, as well as 
 by the extreme laboriousness of the work. 
 Various machines for effecting the purpose 
 1159 
 
 of thrashing have been lately invented. See 
 Flail, and Thrashing-Machine. 
 
 THRASHING-MACHINE. To the 
 farmer on an extensive scale the thrashing- 
 machine is absolutely necessary. He can- 
 not wait for the tedious operation of the 
 flail to prepare a delivery of corn for a 
 given day, or pressing purpose ; nor can 
 he, without the risk of pilfering and im- 
 position, keep his barn constantly open for 
 thrashers. The flail, however, is still the 
 implement in general use among all who 
 farm on a scale not sufficiently extensive to 
 require any of the complex machinery which 
 modern skill has invented. The advantages 
 of the flail are, its simplicity, the power of 
 giving employment to the labourers in the 
 barn during wet days, and the convenience 
 of having fresh straw for fodder every day. 
 (Doyle's Pract. Husb.) See Flail. 
 
 For the whole of the following descrip- 
 tion of the thrashing-machine I am indebted 
 to the valuable essay On Agricultural Im- 
 plements, by Mr. J. Allen Ransome of Ips- 
 wich. 
 
 It will not tend to throw any light upon 
 this subject to revert to the practice of an- 
 cient times, further than to state, that of 
 all the modes then adopted, " the bruising 
 with the cart wheel," " the sharp thrashing 
 instrument having teeth," " the trampling 
 under the feet of the unmuzzled ox," or 
 " the rollers plain or fluted " mentioned in 
 the later practice of continental agriculture, 
 the flail alone remains in use ; and it is with 
 this instrument, preserving very nearly its 
 original form, and by which till very lately 
 the entire growth of corn and seeds in this 
 kingdom was thrashed, that our comparison 
 of the more modern inventions of the pre- 
 sent and last century has to be made. 
 
 That the flail may be made thoroughly to 
 effect, though at great cost of labour and 
 time, the purpose of clearing the grain 
 without damage either to the corn or the 
 straw, is a point none will be inclined to 
 dispute. But the disadvantages attending 
 its use are not confined to waste of labour 
 and time ; for, though it may be granted 
 that the operation, if properly performed, 
 may be perfect, how difficult it is to secure 
 its proper performance, every agriculturist 
 whose journies to his barn have from time 
 to time interrupted his surveys of other not 
 less important agricultural operations, can 
 fully testify. It is evident that the latter part 
 of this operation will require much more 
 labour to produce a given quantity than its 
 earlier stages ; and hence the straw is fre- 
 quently passed away partially thrashed, in 
 order to procure a greater bulk in a given 
 time. Nor are these disadvantages all with 
 which we have to contend: constant in- 
 4 e 4 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 spection may, perhaps, to some extent, re- 
 medy them ; but no attention will altogether 
 suffice to remove the temptation to pilfer, 
 which is continually presented where large 
 quantities of grain are ever under the eye 
 and in the power of those to whom a small 
 portion is of great importance ; and hence 
 arises, even when undetected, and often, in- 
 deed, when not committed, a cause of painful 
 temptation on the one hand, and injurious 
 suspicion on the other. 
 
 To overcome these evils, prejudicial not 
 only to the true economy of the farm, but to 
 those feelingsof confidence which, justly to 
 sustain the social bond, should ever exist 
 in the relation between the labourer and 
 his employer, the attention of our enter- 
 prising neighbours in Scotland was first 
 directed to the construction of machinery ; 
 and in 1732, Michael Menzies, a gentle- 
 man of East Lothian, invented and patented 
 a machine for thrashing grain. We regret 
 that, as nothing but the bare record of this 
 invention is enrolled in the Patent- office, 
 we have not been able to learn more of 
 this, the germ of thrashing-machine inven- 
 tion, than that it was a contrivance by which 
 a series of flails were made to revolve upon 
 a cylinder ; but we are pleased to be able 
 in some degree to redeem it from the " con- 
 demnation of faint praise" with which we 
 find its memory generally accompanied, by 
 reference to the report of a committee ap- 
 pointed by the Society of Improvers in 
 Scotland, to inspect its operation, and de- 
 termine upon its merits. This committee, 
 after various trials, reported it to be " their 
 opinion that the machine would be of great 
 use to farmers, both in thrashing the grain 
 clean from the straw and in saving a great 
 deal of labour; for one man would be suf- 
 ficient to manage a machine which would 
 do the work of six." They further recom- 
 mended the society " to give all the encou- 
 ragement they could to so beneficial an in- 
 vention, which, being simple and plain in 
 the machinery, might be of universal ad- 
 vantage." The society approved of the re- 
 port, and acted upon the recommendation. 
 
 During the next period of twenty years 
 we are not aware of any other attempts to 
 carry out the object of thrashing by ma- 
 chinery; but in 1753-8, Michael Sterling, a 
 farmer in the parish of Dumblane, Perth, ap- 
 plied the principle of the mill in common use 
 for hulling flax to this purpose. This mill 
 had a vertical shaft, with four cross arms 
 inclosed in a cylindrical case, three feet six 
 inches high, and about eight feet in dia- 
 meter. The shaft was made to turn at 
 considerable velocity, and the sheaves were 
 gradually let, down from an opening at the 
 top; the grain and straw, alter being sub- 
 1 160 
 
 jected to this beating, were then pressed 
 through an opening in the floor, where 
 rakes and fanners completed the separation 
 of the grain from the straw and chaff. It 
 was, however, found that this machine broke 
 off the ears of barley and wheat instead of 
 clearing them of the grain, and that at best 
 it was only fit for oats. 
 
 It is curious to trace the various plans 
 by which the desideratum of thrashing by 
 machinery was attempted to be accom- 
 plished ; a few of these we shall venture to 
 bring before our readers, and a slight sketch 
 of them will suffice satisfactorily to show 
 that in following out the principles which 
 distinguish Meikle's machine (hereafter to be 
 mentioned), little of value has been lost to 
 the public of those which have fallen into 
 desuetude. In 1772, two gentlemen re- 
 siding in Northumberland, Alderton and 
 Smart, invented a machine, by which the 
 sheaves were carried round between an 
 indented drum of six feet diameter, and a 
 number of fluted rollers, which, pressing by 
 means of springs against the fluted concave, 
 rubbed out the corn from the ears ; and in 
 1785, William Winlaw, of Mary-le-bone, 
 patented an invention which he denomi- 
 nated a " mill for separating grain from 
 straw." 
 
 This mill was made on a principle similar 
 to the coffee mill, but was found to ex- 
 ceed the simple object proposed in the spe- 
 cification, by grinding the grain as well as 
 separating it from the straw. Other ma- 
 chines upon the plan of rubbing out the corn 
 were also tried, but, on account of I lie da- 
 mage done (o the grain, were discarded. In 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 addition to the mill invented by Winlaw, 
 a machine was in 1792 patented by Wil- 
 loughby of Bedford, Notts, the principle of 
 which appears to have been somewhat simi- 
 lar to that of Menzies ; how nearly so, we 
 regret we have not the opportunity of 
 judging. It comprised a series of loose 
 
 flails made to act upon a grated floor, and 
 turned rapidly round by means of a horse - 
 wheel, better perhaps explained by the ac- 
 companying cut than by any other means. 
 The straw was presented by hand to the 
 action of the flails. 
 
 willoug'hby's thrashing-machine. 
 
 In 1795, an individual of the name of 
 Jubb, residing at Lewes, obtained a patent 
 for an invention of which the principal 
 feature was the passing the straw between 
 
 two rapidly-revolving beaters, under which 
 it was held by two feeding rollers, whence 
 the corn fell into a winnowing-machine, as 
 shown in the figure below. 
 
 JUBB S THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 The inventive talent of our transatlantic 
 brethren was at this time brought to bear 
 upon this important subject. James War- 
 drop, of Ampthill, Virginia, invented a ma- 
 chine, which was introduced into this country 
 about 1796, to be worked by two men; it 
 was made with flails or elastic rods twelve 
 feet in length, of which twelve are attached 
 in series, each having a spring requiring 
 a power of twenty pounds to raise it three 
 feet high at the point ; a wallower shaft, 
 1161 
 
 with catches or teeth, in its revolution suc- 
 cessively lifted each flail in alternate move- 
 ments, so that three of the flails were 
 operated upon by the whole power, viz. 
 twenty pounds, and are seen in the accom- 
 panying cut on the point of striking, three 
 at two thirds raised, three one third raised, 
 and three at rest ; consequently, the whole 
 weight to be overcome is 120 pounds. The 
 flails beat upon a grating, to which the corn 
 is introduced by hand. 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 WARDROP S THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 In communications from M. D. Musigny 
 to the Society of Arts, a curious account is 
 given of a machine worked by one horse, 
 which, walking round a circle of forty feet, 
 caused a cylinder, upon which thirty-two 
 flails were placed, to revolve at the rate of 
 twenty revolutions to one of the horse 
 wheel. The unthrashed straw, being laid 
 on the circle to be described by the cy- 
 linder, must be difficult to confine to its 
 correct position, and awkward both to place 
 and to remove; while the corn would be 
 thrown about in a most slovenly manner. 
 
 Another plan, patented in 1796 by John 
 Steedman, of Trentham, has also been ex- 
 hibited, by which a number of flails fixed 
 on a rotatory cylinder were made con- 
 tinually to play upon a given spot on a 
 circular table; which, revolving horizon- 
 tally, brought a fresh supply of straw under 
 their influence. 
 
 In 1785, Andrew Meikle, an ingenious 
 mechanist of Tyningham, East Lothian, 
 first introduced to the public, through the 
 medium of a gentleman of the name of Stein, 
 of Kilbogie, the invention whose principle 
 
 has been the basis upon which the machines 
 in use up to the present time have been 
 mainly constructed. It appears that, his 
 attention having been long turned to the 
 subject, he discovered that the plan of 
 rubbing would never be otherwise than at- 
 tended with the disadvantage before alluded 
 to ; and his son George agreed with the gen- 
 tleman above named to erect a perfect ma- 
 chine, and in 1786 he completed the first 
 that was ever made, adopting the plan of 
 introducing between two rollers the corn, 
 which was then thrashed out by four 
 beaters fixed upon a revolving drum, each 
 striking, as it revolved, the corn held be- 
 tween the rollers. The machine alluded 
 to was erected, and found to work exceed- 
 ingly well. A patent was accordingly ap- 
 plied for, and, after some opposition from a 
 party not concerned in the invention, ob- 
 tained. From his own drawings accompany- 
 ing the specification, the following woodcuts 
 have been made, which we think will not be 
 uninteresting, as proving how comparatively 
 perfect was this early design to the full ac- 
 complishment of the purpose intended. 
 
 1162 
 
 meikle's thrashing-machine. 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 MEIKLE S THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 In the trials between the erection of the 
 original machine and the obtaining the pa- 
 tent, a new principle appears to have sug- 
 gested itself, viz. that of stripping off the 
 corn from the ear by a comparatively sharp 
 edge, or, as termed by him, " scutching out 
 the grain," instead of beating it by a flat 
 surface. The difference has been partially 
 illustrated by supposing a handful of straw 
 with the corn in the ear to be held in the 
 hand, while with the flat sides of a two-feet 
 rule the ears should be struck or beaten : 
 
 Jl 
 
 this is the operation of the common beater 
 (see fig. 1.). If, instead of striking the ears 
 with the flat side, a sharp blow be given 
 with the thin edge of the rule in the direc- 
 tion of the ear where the rule touches, it 
 will strip the corn from the ear with less 
 labour and with greater certainty. This 
 may be called the scutching principle to 
 which Meikle's beaters in his patent were 
 applied (fig 2.). 
 
 The difference is shown in the following 
 cuts : — 
 
 It will not be uninteresting to learn, upon 
 the authority of Sir John Sinclair, " that 
 the inventor of this important machine was 
 rendered comfortable in his old age, and 
 enabled to provide for his family after his 
 death, by the voluntary donations of his 
 grateful countrymen." Not less gratifying 
 is the testimony of Professor Low, in his 
 admirable treatise on the Elements of Prac- 
 tical Agriculture, that " to Andrew Meikle, 
 beyond a question, belongs the honour of 
 having perfected the thrashing-machine. 
 Changes and improvements have indeed 
 been made on certain parts of the original 
 machine ; but in all its essential parts, and 
 in the principle of its construction, it re- 
 mains as it came from the hands of its in- 
 inventor" (p. 118. 3d edit.). 
 1163 
 
 By the drawings and specification of 
 Meikle's machine, it appears that, at the 
 time of taking out this patent, the plan of 
 shaking the straw by means of circular 
 rakes had not been suggested ; and in the 
 report drawn up for the consideration of 
 the " Board of Agriculture" for the county 
 of Northumberland, Ave find that, in 1789, 
 the first machine having a circular rake at- 
 tached, and with fanners below, to perfect 
 the cleaning of the grain, was erected. Al- 
 though it is not there stated, we have good 
 reason to believe that this important im- 
 provement, occasioning the addition of but 
 one light wheel to the machine, was the in- 
 vention of J. Bailey, the enterprising occu- 
 pier of Chillingham, one of the gentlemen 
 appointed to draw up the report alluded to 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 We have thus far traced carefully, and, 
 we trust, correctly, the progress of the in- 
 vention of the thrashing-machine used in 
 Scotland, till it has arrived at very nearly 
 its present perfection. Various combina- 
 tions of mechanical powers, and many con- 
 trivances, have doubtless been since added 
 to produce particular effects, which have 
 progressively tended to its improvement and 
 ultimate perfection. 
 
 An ingenious plan of yoking the horses, 
 invented by Walter Samuel, a smith at Nid- 
 dry, is not the least important of these. 
 The following cut will explain the mode 
 by which the object of making the horses 
 pull with equal, continuous, and combined 
 effort, is accomplished : — 
 
 SAMUEL'S PLAN OF ' 
 
 The same object has been sought to be 
 obtained by a much more complicated con- 
 trivance, of weights acting by chains over a 
 pulley placed in the centre of the machine, 
 which weights were adjusted as to be 
 equivalent to the supposed power of the 
 horse to whose draught they were attached, 
 while the animal's head is tied to the shaft 
 before him. The writer has occasionally 
 seen these in use on the estate of the Earl of 
 Leicester, and in various parts of the county 
 of Norfolk ; but although the horses are 
 thus constantly kept to the collar, they 
 1164 
 
 )KING THE HORSES. 
 
 have appeared, from their strained position, 
 and from the circumstance of all the draught - 
 irons being invariably bent, to produce a 
 larger amount of disadvantage than was 
 commensurate with profit. 
 
 After inspecting many of the illustrations 
 of the Scotch machine, we have selected 
 the annexed illustrations as conveying the 
 best idea of the construction and working of 
 the instrument ; for these we are indebted to 
 Professor Low's work, from which they are 
 copied : — 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 SECTION OF SCOTCH THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 In 1795, Wigfull, of Lynn, obtained a 
 patent for an improvement m thrashing-ma- 
 chines, the principal feature in which was an 
 attempt to combine the character of the im- 
 pulse given by the stroke of the flail, with 
 that of revolving beaters ; his beaters, in- 
 stead of being fixed (as in the case of 
 Meikle's scutchers) on the drum, were made 
 loose and attached by means of short lengths 
 of chain, so that the centrifugal force pro- 
 jected them, while in rapid motion, with 
 1165 
 
 increased velocity against the corn, which, 
 passing between two rollers, was held till 
 sufficiently thrashed ; the corn was then, 
 by means of a shaking skreen, and rolling 
 cloth or endless web, carried to the blast 
 of a fan, where it was separated from the 
 chaff. 
 
 This machine is highly spoken of in the 
 Repertory of Arts. Alluding to one used 
 by Ede and Nichols, Elm, it is stated " that 
 it was made for four horses, but afterwards 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 altered for six ; that it cost one hundred 
 guineas, and will, with ease, thrash from 
 fifteen to twenty quarters of wheat, or from 
 twenty-five to thirty-five quarters of oats, 
 in a day, and would do more." 
 
 Another important step towards perfect- 
 ing the thrashing-machine was now gained 
 in one which appears to us as first embody- 
 ing the plan of feeding without the in- 
 cumbrance of rollers. It was submitted 
 
 by H. P. Lee, Esq., of Maidenhead Thicket, 
 to the Society of Arts, and their gold medal 
 was awarded him for it. A sketch of this 
 machine is here given, by which it will 
 be seen that, with some little alteration in 
 the adaptation of means for gaining speed, 
 and in the length of the concave, this is the 
 model upon which many of the machines 
 in the eastern counties continue to be made. 
 
 lee's improvements in thrashing-machines. 
 
 It will be difficult, within the limits to 
 which this article must necessarily be con- 
 fined, to enter minutely into detail, or 
 adequately to set forth the merits of the 
 various inventions and improvements on 
 this machine, for which in the course of the 
 last half century no fewer than twenty-five 
 patents have been obtained ; besides several 
 awards from the Bath and West of England 
 Society and the Society of Arts. But we 
 should do injustice to the subject, did we 
 not here mention the name of Lester, whose 
 mechanical talent and skill as an engineer 
 have not a little contributed to the establish- 
 ment of a higher style of excellence in 
 agricultural mechanics, than was coincident 
 with the then taste of the age in that much 
 neglected department. 
 
 The machines now in general use through- 
 out the eastern counties are, with few ex- 
 cept ions, portable. They are frequently the 
 property of individuals who, itinerating 
 from farm to form, thrash at a certain price 
 per quarter; the farmer finding horses, and, 
 with the exception of the proprietor, who 
 1166 
 
 feeds the machine, the necessary comple- 
 ment of men. They are simply thrashing 
 instruments, having neither circular rakes 
 nor fanners attached. The beaters, four, five, 
 or six in number, are so placed round the 
 drum that their beating edge shall radiate 
 from the centre. These strike upon the 
 straw, which is passed along a feeding-board 
 placed at an inclination of about thirty de- 
 grees, tending to a point equidistant from 
 the centre and upper part of thfc circum- 
 ference of the drum. The concave describes 
 the third part of a circle, and is formed al- 
 ternately of iron ribs and open wire-work 
 in segments, so placed that its inner surface 
 may be brought into near contact with the 
 edges of the revolving beaters, and suscep- 
 tible of adjustments by screws to increase or 
 diminish the distance. The usual plan is to 
 place it with about three quarters of an inch 
 space at the feeding part, and gradually to 
 increase the distance to an inch and a quar- 
 ter or two inches at the lower end, where 
 the straw is delivered upon a fixed harp or 
 riddle, through which such part of the grain 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 as is not driven through the wired part of 
 the concave falls, while the straw is removed 
 by forks. 
 
 The thrashing part, commonly called the 
 barn work, occupies a space of six feet by 
 four and a half feet, and, together with the 
 apparatus by which motion is communicated 
 
 (which is made either for two, three, or four 
 horses' power), may at pleasure be elevated 
 upon a pair of wheels and axle, and thus 
 removed by two horses. Illustrations of the 
 machine when packed for travelling, and 
 when fixed, are exhibited below. 
 
 It has been urged against these machines, 
 that they are apt to break the straw, and 
 so bruise and nib the barley as to render it 
 unfit for malting; but we are inclined to 
 think these faults are not so much attribut- 
 able to the principles of the machines, as to 
 the manner in which they are frequently 
 turned out of the hands of the workman ; 
 and sometimes to the want of skill and 
 1167 
 
 judgment in the parties who have the ma- 
 nagement of them. 
 
 Many of these machines are made by 
 persons who possess little claim to any 
 mechanical knowledge, and who, purchasing 
 the unfitted castings, by the help of village 
 artisans, produce an imitation of those which 
 are considered good. As the perfection of 
 these machines must depend upon mathe- 
 matical accuracy in the adjustment of all 
 their parts, and in the truth and precision 
 of their fittings, it is unreasonable to expect 
 that this can be accomplished where no 
 facilities exist beyond the forge and the 
 work-bench ; and hence arises a degree of 
 discredit, which is unfairly thrown upon the 
 principles upon which the machine is con- 
 structed. 
 
 With these machines, properly con- 
 structed, barley may be thoroughly thrashed 
 with as little or less damage than with the 
 flail, and wheat straw need not be so broken 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 as materially to diminish its usefulness even 
 for the purpose of thatching. We cannot, 
 with Sir John Sinclair, reckon the circum- 
 stance of breaking the straw one of the 
 advantages of thrashing by machinery, as 
 we do not think it desirable that any slovenly 
 performance of the thrashing-machine should 
 trench upon the legitimate occupation of 
 the chaff-engine ; and we repeat our opinion 
 that all disadvantages from the above-men- 
 tioned causes may, by a well-constructed 
 machine and a competent manager, be en- 
 tirely remedied. 
 
 The latest patent which is at present in 
 operation is one taken out by Joseph At- 
 kinson, of Braham Hall, Yorkshire, which 
 appears to be of American origin. The 
 thrashing or beating-out process is ob- 
 tained by means differing from any previ- 
 ously mentioned ; the drum being surrounded 
 by a series of pegs, so arranged as in its 
 motion to pass similar rows of pegs placed 
 at intervals in a concave, surrounding nearly 
 one half of the circumference of the drum. 
 This machine is not at present so fully in- 
 troduced as to afford opportunity for fairly 
 testing its comparative merits ; and it 
 would be unfair to give, upon slight evi- 
 dence, an opinion which may have any 
 tendency to increase the difficulty of the 
 introduction of a new article. We can 
 therefore say little more than that while 
 such trials as have fallen under our own in- 
 spection have not convinced us of its su- 
 periority, we are inclined to the belief that 
 the principle is not so defective as to pre- 
 vent its being carried out to advantage, 
 under such modifications as may be sug- 
 gested upon further trials. 
 
 We have now to draw the attention of 
 our readers to a machine in operation upon 
 Lord Ducie's example-farm at Whitfield, 
 of which it is probable in a forthcoming re- 
 port of that interesting establishment, that 
 a full account accompanied by the necessary 
 drawings will be given. Through the kind- 
 ness of the manager John Morton in ac- 
 cordance with whose suggestions it was con- 
 structed, we have been favoured with an 
 opportunity of witnessing its performance, 
 and with the following description, which we 
 give in his own words : — 
 
 " This machine is worked by a steam- 
 • engine of six-horse power. The corn is 
 brought from the stack upon waggons run- 
 ing along a tram-road upon an inclined 
 plane, to the doors of the building, whence, 
 sheaf by sheaf, it is thrown by children into 
 the buckets of an elevator, which, in its 
 rotation, carries them to the feeding board. 
 This feeding board is placed at a tangent 
 from the drum parallel with its top ; and, 
 as in Lee's machine, and the portable ma- 
 11G8 
 
 chines in Suffolk and Norfolk, the feeding 
 rollers are dispensed with, an endless web 
 gradually carries the unthrashed straw to 
 the feeding mouth, from which the re- 
 volving scutches rapidly convey it to the 
 concave. 
 
 " The drum and concave, being the part on 
 which the separating of the corn or thrash- 
 ing principle depends, we shall first de- 
 scribe : — The drum is about eighteen inches 
 diameter, formed of sheet iron strained 
 round a cast-iron skeleton accurately turned; 
 upon this the beaters, or rather scutches, 
 formed of angle iron with its edges planed, 
 are so placed as to describe an angle with 
 the surface of the drum, pointing forward in 
 the direction of its motion ; these project 
 about seven eighths of an inch. The screen 
 or concave incloses the drum to the extent 
 of about one third of its circumference, and 
 consists of four or five arched pieces of 
 grating, three inches wide, jointed together. 
 It is made of cast iron bars, having a square 
 section placed so that every one shall pre- 
 sent an edge to the passage of the straw, 
 uniting (as is not uncommon in other ma- 
 chines) the fluted concave of the Scotch 
 machine with the wired grating of the 
 English ones ; the screen is supported on 
 iron bolts, so that it approaches to within 
 about one eighth of an inch of the edge of 
 the scutcher. Spiral springs surround these 
 bolts, which permit the bars of the concave 
 to yield when too much pressure may at 
 any time occur between them and the re- 
 volving drum. The grain is thus separated, 
 most of it passing through the screen of 
 the concave; but in order that no grain 
 shall be allowed to pass away with the 
 straw, it is thrown upon the shaker below, 
 which we shall presently endeavour to de- 
 scribe." 
 
 The shaker in this machine acts upon a 
 principle altogether different from that 
 generally attached to the thrashing-ma- 
 chine : these, it will have been seen, are, in 
 fact, revolving rakes ; and of such, complaint 
 is not unreasonably made, that they not 
 only involve loss of power equivalent to 
 one horse at least, but a considerable por- 
 tion of the grain is still carried away. To 
 remedy this defect, by giving a motion 
 which may more correctly be termed 
 ' shaking,' John Morton has adopted a plan 
 which he thus describes : — "A moveable 
 harp, or screen, is made of spars, three 
 quarters of an inch from one another, two 
 inches deep, three quarters of an inch wide, 
 and six feet long ; they are thirty in num- 
 ber, and are thus arranged over a width of 
 three feet nine inches. These spars are 
 fixed to two pair of frames ; the odd num- 
 bers, 1, 3, 5, &c, being attached to one 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 pair, and the even numbers, 2, 4, 6, &c., to 
 the other pair. These frames are supported 
 by two iron shafts, each having two cranks 
 projecting three inches and a half on each 
 side of them. The frames are attached to 
 these cranks by arms with brasses, in which 
 the cranks revolve. The shafts are con- 
 nected together by a rod, so that they both 
 move at the same time. Now, suppose them 
 to be placed so that the cranks are one ver- 
 tically over the other, and suppose the 
 frame containing the odd-numbered spars 
 to be attached by its arms to the upper 
 crank, and the frame to which the even- 
 numbered spars are fixed to be in like 
 manner attached by its arms to the lower 
 crank, it is very evident that by a fourth 
 of the revolution of the shaft the one pair 
 of frames shall have ascended and the other 
 pair descended, and they will be on a level ; 
 and by the time half a revolution is com- 
 pleted their relative position will be exactly 
 reversed, the lower pair being now the 
 upper : by the time the revolution is com- 
 pleted, two elevations and two depressions 
 of the frames will have taken plaee. 
 
 " This up-and-down motion is exactly 
 that calculated to shake any thing sub- 
 jected to it. In the revolutions of the 
 cranks, every thing attached to them also 
 revolves ; so that each point of the arms, 
 frames, and spars revolves about a centre 
 belonging to itself only. At the same time, 
 the regularity in the length of the crank, 
 and the uniform motion of the two shafts, 
 has the effect of keeping the frames always 
 parallel ; their position at any one point 
 being parallel to their position at any other. 
 
 " It is very evident, from what we have 
 said, that any light substance, such as straw, 
 laid upon the frame, will, by the revolution 
 of the cranks, receive, not only a shaking 
 motion up and down, but also a progressive 
 motion forward. The first pair of frames 
 will raise it the height of the crank, three 
 and a half inches, and will, at the same time, 
 carry it forward twice that distance, seven 
 inches : its descending motion will then be 
 abruptly stopped by the ascending pair of 
 frames, the spars of which, rising between 
 the spars of the first pair of frames, raise it 
 another three and a half inches, and carry 
 it again forward seven inches. It thus, as 
 the revolutions proceed, not only receives a 
 succession of blows from below, as the 
 frames successively rise, but is, at the same 
 time, carried forward from the drum, from 
 which it is dropped on the shaker, and thus 
 makes room for that portion of straw suc- 
 ceeding it. 
 
 " When two bodies with equal velocity 
 come against one another, the collision is 
 as violent as if one were moving with double 
 1169 
 
 the velocity and the other were at rest. It 
 thus becomes evident that the straw on the 
 descending spars meets with as severe a 
 blow from the spars of the ascending frame 
 as if it were struck with twice the velocity 
 when spread out, as we originally supposed, 
 on a fixed horizontal platform. The effect 
 of this succession of blows is thus more con- 
 siderable than we might at first conceive, 
 and the efficiency of the machine is pro- 
 portionally increased. 
 
 " The length of the moveable harp is also 
 of importance ; for as the straw, when the 
 cranks are three inches and a half in length, 
 is carried forward seven inches, the num- 
 ber of blows it receives will depend on the 
 length of the shaker. In the case now de- 
 scribed, the spars being six feet long and 
 the cranks three inches and a half, the straw 
 will of course receive ten blows, and its pro- 
 gressive motion sends it off as fast as it 
 comes from the scutcher. Each portion 
 is removed before a second portion drops 
 upon it." 
 
 The motion given to the straw by this 
 shaker is the most perfect we can conceive ; 
 the blows occasioned as each series of spars 
 strike it from beneath, effectually remove 
 every particle of loose grain, while the shaker 
 rapidly carries forward the straw, and at its 
 termination deposits it in the straw house, 
 while the corn sifted out by its action falls 
 before the blast of a fanner ; (the construc- 
 tion of which is peculiar, and will be de- 
 scribed under the head Winnowing Ma- 
 chine ;) and all the light grain and short 
 straws thrown out by the first winnowing into 
 the light corn spout is then taken up by 
 another elevator, deposited again upon the 
 feeding board, and passed a second time 
 through the drum, in order effectually to 
 separate any that may remain. After pass- 
 ing through another winnower, the tho- 
 roughly cleaned corn is taken up by a third 
 elevator and dropped into a hopper, through 
 which it passes into a sack, which is placed 
 on a weighing machine, and it is there 
 weighed and left thoroughly fit for market. 
 
 We have introduced at length the de- 
 scription of this machine, or rather series of 
 machines, as being the most complete of 
 any that have fallen within the range of our 
 observation ; the most comprehensive in its 
 design, performing every operation, from 
 receiving the sheaf at the barn door to de- 
 positing its grain in a clean state weighed 
 up in the sacks, and excellent in the greater 
 part of its detail, which is carried out, both 
 as regards ingenuity and workmanship, in 
 a style very superior to the general cha- 
 racter of agricultural machines. We would, 
 however, remark upon one part of its opera-, 
 tions, which we are inclined to consider su-> 
 4 F 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 perfluous ; or rather, if there be a necessity 
 for its adoption, it argues an imperfection 
 in the working of the drum with skutching 
 beaters, which, in a perfectly constructed 
 drum, we conceive would not exist : — we 
 allude to the second elevator, whose sole 
 business appears to be to carry from the 
 light corn spout of the first winnower the 
 light corn and short straw to be re-passed 
 through the drum, for the purpose of sepa- 
 rating any grain that may remain on the 
 heads after they have once passed the drum. 
 We question whether, if a perfect separation 
 of the corn from the straw could be effected 
 in its passage between the drum and con- 
 cave (which we conceive may and ought to 
 be accomplished), there would then be any 
 advantage in a second fan. 
 
 This brings us to the consideration of 
 the comparative advantages of the scutch- 
 ing and the beating principles. We are 
 willing to believe, as in the illustration of 
 the rule used edgewise, a much lighter 
 blow is effective to clear out the corn from 
 every ear which the edge of the rule or 
 scutcher shall pass ; but it will be obvious 
 it will only act on these, and consequently 
 it will be necessary to bring the edges of 
 the scutchers so near to the concave as 
 not to allow more than the thickness of 
 one ear between them ; hence the neces- 
 sity of the drum, as described above, re- 
 volving within one eighth of an inch of the 
 concave. The tendency of the scutching 
 principle, in its attempt to carry them ra- 
 pidly through the narrow interval, will be 
 occasionally to break off some of the ears ; 
 and these ears, when no longer supported 
 by the straw, may fall behind the scutches, 
 and thus be carried through unthrashed. 
 The centrifugal force would no doubt have 
 a tendency to throw them again to the 
 action of the next bar of the concave ; but 
 it must be borne in mind, this part will be 
 pre-occupied with the straw which is in the 
 act of passing, and not until the straw is 
 released will it have opportunity to fall; 
 it must then fall with the straw, and, but 
 for the perfect operation of the shakers, be 
 carried away with it. The shaker, how- 
 ever, remedies this disadvantage ; it there- 
 fore falls into the winnower, and, being 
 lighter in proportion to its bulk than the 
 corn, is blown with the chaff into the light 
 corn spout ; and this involves, we suppose, 
 the necessity of the second elevator, whose 
 business it is continually to remind the 
 scutchers of any defect in their first per- 
 formance. We have some fear that the 
 same cause which allows the ear to pass 
 unthrashed the first time may admit of its 
 doing so the second time; and that, not 
 having any longer the straw to hold it to 
 1170 
 
 the operation of the scutcher, a single ear 
 may thus traverse the drum, the fanner, 
 and the elevator, a second or even a third 
 time, without the corn being perfectly sepa- 
 rated from it. 
 
 Having described the operation of the 
 scutching or stripping principle, we have 
 now to consider that of the beaters ; and here 
 we should take objection to the statement, 
 that by the blow with the flat side of the 
 rule this is adequately illustrated, inas- 
 much as it cannot be given with sufficient 
 force to produce the effect intended by the 
 machine, and which to be effective must be 
 severe. The principle by which the beat- 
 ing process operates, depends upon the 
 comparative velocity with which bodies of 
 different specific gravity meet atmospheric 
 resistance, when impulse has been com- 
 municated to them. This may be illus- 
 trated by wrapping a leaden bullet in 
 thin paper ; to this if a sharp blow be ap- 
 plied, the bullet will fly to a considerable 
 distance, while the lighter covering will be 
 left. If one hundred bullets so wrapped up, 
 and in a cluster, were struck with sufficient 
 velocity, the effect would be produced on 
 all. We admit the power by which this 
 impulse is communicated must be increased 
 in the ratio of their number ; but this is not 
 difficult to accomplish, and is here a ques- 
 tion of power, not of principle. But if one 
 hundred of these bullets in cluster be sub- 
 jected to the scutching or stripping opera- 
 tion, while it may be freely granted that 
 those immediately coming in contact with 
 the sharp edge will be stripped at less ex- 
 pense of power, the operation will need to 
 be repeated again and again until each has 
 come into contact with the edge, or with 
 an unyielding surface in each other; the 
 husks of corn, being -yielding surfaces, will 
 retard the perfect operation of the stripping 
 process, unless ultimately forced through 
 an interval not more than equal to the 
 bulk of each. The beaters, on the con- 
 trary, do not require to force the corn 
 through or between a narrow interval, as 
 they only need to be so far surrounded as 
 to confine the straw, which otherwise by 
 centrifugal force would be drawn out of the 
 range of the beaters. The question is, there- 
 fore, narrowed to the consideration of whe- 
 ther the power required to communicate the 
 impulse by the beaters is greater or less 
 than that which is necessary to strip the 
 ear ; it being borne in mind that the strip- 
 ping process has to be communicated to 
 each ear, to force it through a narrow in- 
 terval, and that the friction in this opera- 
 tion is not limited to the ear, but to all 
 the straw which has subsequently to pass 
 through the same narrow space. 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 From a series of experiments which we 
 have, through the kindness of practical agri- 
 culturists, been attempting, we are of opi- 
 nion, that although the operation of scutch- 
 ing may be performed at less expense of 
 power, if partially executed, and that a 
 greater quantity of straw may pass the ma- 
 chine, and consequently more corn may be 
 obtained in a given time, yet, unless the 
 scutchers are placed very near the concave, 
 the work will be imperfectly performed, 
 and much of the corn will remain in the 
 straw, and escape. But, if placed so near as 
 is requisite for clean thrashing, the liability 
 to break off the ears will be increased, which 
 will involve the need of re-thrashing ; and 
 the friction, from the narrowness of the in- 
 terval, will then require, to the full, as great 
 power as the beaters. 
 
 Every one acquainted with this subject 
 is well aware of the difficulty with which 
 trials of this implement are necessarily at- 
 tended ; the labour and loss of time attach- 
 ing to putting up and taking down heavy 
 instruments to fix others in their place 
 (which, if the experiment is to be fairly 
 tried with grain of the same quality and in 
 the same condition, cannot be dispensed 
 with), the difficulty of getting men equally 
 competent to manage them, and the trouble 
 occasioned to the manager or owner, are so 
 many drawbacks upon the facility with which 
 sufficient evidence can be obtained to guide 
 to sound conclusions on the respective merits 
 of the varieties of these machines. And to 
 this must be added, that, under certain cir- 
 cumstances, machines, which will do their 
 work admirably when every thing may be 
 favourable for them, — such as the corn in 
 good condition and the straw not of too great 
 length, — are sometimes found under adverse 
 circumstances to do their work very incom- 
 petently ; while the slower and heavier- 
 working machines, which in the first instance 
 could not keep pace with them, are found 
 efficient in the latter. We instance this to 
 show, that with all the care and pains we may 
 have taken, and it has not been little, it is 
 possible that comparative trials under other 
 circumstances and in different hands may 
 not lead to the same results. TKe impression, 
 however, produced on our minds, by a care- 
 ful weighing and balancing of evidence, is 
 — that for heavy corn, loose in the husk, 
 wheat, peas, and beans, the beating prin- 
 ciple is decidedly the best, the most perfect, 
 and obtained at least cost. For barley and 
 oats, the scutching principle is more adapted. 
 But we have still considerable doubt whe- 
 ther, even for these, the operation is so per- 
 fect as with the beaters. Our experiments, 
 it should in fairness be stated, were made 
 with scutchers on a drum only seventeen 
 1171 
 
 inches in diameter, being about the same 
 size as the drum witlfbeaters ; and it is not 
 impossible that the scutching principle; may 
 be used to better effect on a drum of larger 
 diameter. We have thus expressed our own 
 impressions, and trust that we have said 
 sufficient to induce the comparison to be 
 made by the experience and observation of 
 others, the results of which we shall be glad 
 to learn. Should further trials prove that 
 either the scutching or beating principles 
 may be used, under certain circumstances, 
 to greater advantage than the other, it 
 would not be difficult so to construct a 
 drum as that the change should be readily 
 effected. 
 
 Having thus briefly described the ma- 
 chine as regards its thrashing operation, it 
 will be expected we should address our 
 attention to the moving power, and con- 
 sider which is most advantageous in con- 
 nection with what is most readily available. 
 The uncertainty of wind renders this power, 
 if for an object to be performed at certain 
 times, comparatively of little value; and, 
 as one prominent advantage of this machine 
 lies in its ability to do a great quantity of 
 work on an emergency, we may conclude it 
 is less available as a general principle than 
 either water, steam, horses, or manual la- 
 bour. 
 
 Where the locality admits of the use of a 
 water wheel, this power is most economical 
 and easily managed ; but the advantage is 
 limited to peculiar situations. 
 
 Where the quantity of work to be per- 
 formed is sufficient to repay the interest of 
 outlay, expense of wear and tear, &c, a 
 steam-engine would be most advantageously 
 employed on the farm. Of its economy, as 
 compared with either horse or manual la- 
 bour, there need be no question. But as 
 few farms in this kingdom at present have 
 these appendages, the question for consider- 
 ation is narrowed to the comparison be- 
 tween horses and manual labour. On the 
 authority of Dr. Gregory, the dynamic 
 power of a horse at a dead pull may be cal- 
 culated in the main as equivalent to that of 
 six men, or to 420 lbs., if exerted in a direct 
 line ; but the result of experiments made 
 by Tredgold tend to prove that sustained 
 effort at the rate of three miles per hour 
 must not be calculated at more than equi- 
 valent to 120 lbs. drawn over a pulley. This, 
 taking six hours of labour per diem, as the 
 utmost he would recommend, would be the 
 maximum of useful effect. Under the cir- 
 cumstance of any deviation from a straight 
 line, this must be materially reduced ; and 
 in describing a circle of eighteen feet ra- 
 dius, the cramped position of the horse will 
 probably prevent his power from being ad- 
 4 f 2 
 
THRASHING-MACHINE. 
 
 vantageously exerted to the extent of much 
 more than half. It will, therefore, be seen 
 that a very large proportion of dynamic 
 effort is wasted ; and this not only arises 
 from the constrained position of the horse's 
 movement, but from the friction of the mill 
 by means of which motion is communicated 
 to a machine. 
 
 It is affirmed by Emerson that a man of 
 ordinary strength, turning a roller by the 
 handle, can act for a whole day against a 
 resistance equal to 30 lbs. weight ; and if he 
 works ten hours a day, he will raise this 
 weight through three feet and a half in a 
 second, or about two miles and a half per 
 hour. 
 
 Animal power is, however, so varied by 
 the character of the exertion, that it is dif- 
 ficult to arrive at a correct calculation. 
 The late Robertson Buchanan ascertained 
 that in the action of working a pump, of 
 turning a winch, of ringing a bell, or row- 
 ing a boat, the dynamic results were re- 
 spectively as the numbers 100, 167, 227, 
 and 248. See Strength. 
 
 Having caused a machine with beaters 
 to be constructed, worked by four men 
 whose force should be exerted as in the 
 manner of rowing a boat, the results, as 
 compared with a machine requiring the 
 force of four horses in a circle of eighteen 
 feet radius, we found might be taken on an 
 
 average as five to twelve. It was thought 
 the continuous effort might be for an equal 
 length of time exerted by six men relieving 
 each other at intervals, as by the same 
 number of horses relieved in the same way. 
 
 We have not yet had opportunity to re- 
 peat the experiment ; and we instance this 
 only to show that, although advantage may 
 be on the side of horse-labour for large 
 quantities, manual force is not so inappli- 
 cable to this object as most writers have 
 represented it to be ; and we are of opinion 
 that, on small farms, hand-machines may 
 with great advantage be used. The fol- 
 lowing is a drawing of a simple and effective 
 hand thrashing-machine, which was exhi- 
 bited at the Royal Agricultural Society's 
 meeting at Liverpool, and obtained the com- 
 mendation of the judges (vide their report). 
 It is worked by four men, and the moving 
 power being obtained by means of a lever on 
 the one side, and by a crank handle on the 
 other, the men working it may relieve each 
 other by change of motion. It requires one 
 man to feed the machine, and the number 
 of hands necessary to bring the sheaves and 
 remove the straw will depend upon the 
 distance it has to be conveyed. When the 
 straw is short, and the wheat of average 
 yield and in good condition, it will thrash 
 at the rate of twelve to sixteen bushels per 
 hour 
 
 ransome's hand thrashing -machine. 
 
 The cost of the thrashing-machines of I performances were very unequal. It may 
 former d;iys varied considerably, and their | not be uninteresting to compare them with 
 1172 
 
THRASHIN G-M ACHINE. 
 
 THYME, GARDEN. 
 
 those of the present day. The following are 
 extracted from the Agricultural Reports : — 
 
 Thrashing 
 per Day. 
 
 25 or 30 bolls, 
 
 or from 
 150 to 180 bush. 
 
 40 co. wheat. 
 50 co. barley^ 
 60 co. oats or 
 peas. 
 
 co. wheat. 
 30 co. barley. 
 40 co. oats or 
 
 In the reports of Roxburgh and Sel- 
 kirk in 1796, R. Douglas states that 
 mills by water, or with 4 horses, 
 would do great execution. 
 In the report of Norfolk in 1804, 
 Arthur Young gives an account of ma- 
 chines which belonged to the follow- 
 ing parties : — 
 
 Droziers, Reedham, built by Wigfull, 
 cost 120/., worked by 7 persons and 
 6 horses. 
 
 Farrow, Shipdham, built by Wigfull, 
 
 worked by 7 persons, and by 4, 5, 
 
 or 6 horses. L peas 
 
 Beck, Castle Rising, built by Wigfull, 1 32 co. wheat. 
 
 cost 200 guineas, worked by 6 per- >64 co. barley. 
 
 sons, and 4, 5, or 6 horses. J 80 co. peas. 
 
 Whiting, Tring, built by Fordyce } 24 co. wheat. 
 
 frdm Scotland, cost 200/., worked by 5-55 co. barley. 
 
 6 persons and 6 horses. J 63 to 84 co. oats. 
 
 Bevan, Riddlesworth, engineer from "> 40 co. wheat. 
 
 Leith, cost 100/., worked by 10 men >40 co. barley. 
 
 and 8 horses. J 50 co. oats. 
 
 Coke, Holkham, cost 600/., worked by > rn _.u„„ t 
 
 12 men and 8 horses. j b4 co. wneat. 
 
 Reeves, Heverland, built by Assby, ^ 30 co. wheat. 
 
 Blyboro', cost 1C0 guineas, worked S-32 co. barley. 
 
 with 2 or 3 horses. j 40 co. peas. 
 
 Styleman, Smithsham, cost 300/. : f 80 co - wneat 
 worked by 10 persons and 8 horses. 
 
 120 co. barley, 
 peas, or oats. 
 
 24 qrs. wheat. 
 32 qrs. barley. 
 40 qrs. oats. 
 
 In the report of Kent, R. Boys, in 
 1805, remarks on the only thrashing 
 mill then in Kent, which, by a num- 
 ber of improvements, and after many 
 alterations, he finds to answer ex- 
 tremely well ; and he states that it 
 requires 4 horses and 12 men to 
 work it. 
 
 In Sir John Sinclair's " System of Hus- ~ 
 bandry," published in 1812, we find 50 bolls, or about 
 an account of R. Kerr's machine, i> 300 bushels of 
 which, with 6 horses, 4 men, and wheat. 
 4 women, would thrash J 
 
 Considerable improvements have since 
 been effected. In the statements of the 
 trials of implements at the Royal English 
 Agricultural Society's meeting at Cam- 
 bridge, in 1841, the quantity of wheat 
 thrashed by two four-horse portable ma- 
 chines manufactured by J. R. and A. Ran- 
 some, of Ipswich, and R. Garrett and Son, 
 Leiston, was respectively sixty-one bushels 
 and three-quarters of a peck, and sixty- one 
 bushels and a quarter of a peck ; and the 
 corn was clean-thrashed and uninjured. 
 
 This must not be taken as a criterion on 
 which to found an average, as it was doubt- 
 less the result of stimulated exertion ; but 
 it is not unusual with machines of this con- 
 struction, with reaped wheat in fair condi- 
 tion, to thrash 100 co. or 400 bushels in a 
 day of ten hours, and the same quantity of 
 mown barley. 
 
 It should, however, be observed, that 
 these, having neither rakes nor fans, the 
 work of which is done by hand, would re- 
 quire eight men and five boys, and a change 
 of horses in the day. 
 
 THREAF. A local term signifying a 
 handful, a bundle, or a pottle. 
 
 THREAVE. A quantity of grain, con- 
 1173 
 
 sisting of twenty-four sheaves. It is some- 
 times written thrave. 
 
 THRIFT. (Statice, from statizo, to stop ; 
 in allusion to the powerful astringency of 
 some of the species.) The species of thrift 
 ought to be in every garden, on account of 
 their lively little flowers. There are three 
 indigenous species of thrift or sea-lavender, 
 all perennial, viz : — 
 
 1. The common thrift, or sea gilliflower 
 (S. Armerid), which is a common ornament 
 of rustic gardens, where it serves for edg- 
 ings of flower beds; nor does this plant 
 suffer much from the smoke even of London. 
 The flowers are numerous, rose-coloured, 
 inodorous. 
 
 2. Blue spiked thrift, or common sea- 
 lavender (S. Limonium), which grows plen- 
 tifully on muddy sea-shores, and about the 
 mouths of large rivers. The root is woody 
 and tough. Leaves leathery, glaucous, 
 usually two or three inches long. Panicle 
 of spikes of imbricated, upright, fine blue 
 flowers. 
 
 3. Matted thrift (S. reticulata), growing 
 on muddy sea- shores, chiefly on the eastern 
 coast of England. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 115.) 
 
 THRUSH. (Turdus.) A name applied 
 to several British birds. The missel thrush 
 (T. viscivorus) is one of the largest native 
 species. The general colour of the plumage 
 is brown ; the under surface of the bodyis 
 white, tinged with yellow, and covered with 
 numerous black spots. The eggs are four 
 or five in number, of a greenish-white 
 colour, spotted with dark red brown, one 
 inch three lines long, by eleven lines broad. 
 The whole length of an adult bird is eleven 
 inches. 
 
 The song-thrush (T. musicus) is not only 
 well known, but a general favourite. Its 
 song, next to that of the nightingale, is the 
 sweetest in our woods : 
 
 " The thrush 
 
 And woodlark, o'er the kind contending throng 
 Superior heard, run through the sweetest length 
 Of notes." Thomson. 
 
 It forms a nest of green moss and fine 
 roots, and lays four or five eggs of a beautiful 
 light blue, «vith a few black spots ; the eggs 
 are one inch one line in length, by ten lines 
 in breadth. The whole length of this species 
 of thrush is rather less than nine inches. 
 Mr. Yarrell includes, in his History of Bri- 
 tish Birds, a new but rare species, White's 
 thrush ( T. Wliitai), which measures twelve 
 inches and a half in length. (YawelFs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. i.) See Fieldfare and 
 Redwing. 
 
 THYME, GARDEN. (Thymus vul- 
 garis, from 3u/i6<;, courage, being considered 
 a reviver of the spirits ; or from &t-w, to sa- 
 crifice, being employed as incense.) The 
 4 f 3 
 
THYME, WILD. 
 
 varieties are, — the broad-leaved green, nar- 
 row-leaved green, variegated, and lemon- 
 scented. The variegated is grown almost 
 solely on account of its ornamental foliage. 
 A poor, light, and dry soil is best suited to 
 it. In moist or rich ones, it becomes lux- 
 uriant, but deficient in its aromatic quali- 
 ties, and generally perishes during the 
 winter. The situation cannot be too open. 
 
 Thyme is propagated both by seed and 
 rooted slips. Sowing may be performed 
 from the middle of March until about the 
 beginning of May. Slips may be planted 
 from the beginning of February until the 
 close of May. 
 
 The seed must be sown neither thin nor 
 raked in more than half an inch below the 
 surface. It is sometimes sown in drills of 
 a similar depth, six inches apart, or as an 
 edging to a bed or border. The seedlings 
 must be kept clear of weeds, and, if the 
 season is dry, watered moderately twice a 
 week. When of about six weeks' growth, 
 or when three or four inches high, they re- 
 quire to be thinned to six inches apart, 
 unless grown as an edging, when they must 
 be left thick. Those removed may be 
 pricked out at a similar distance if required. 
 Water is required occasionally until they 
 have taken root. The plants may be left 
 in the situations they are placed in at this 
 season, or be finally planted out in Sep- 
 tember or October, or in the early spring 
 of the following year. To obtain slips, 
 some old stools may be divided into as 
 many rooted portions as possible, or layers 
 maybe obtained by loosening the soil around 
 them, and pegging the lateral shoots beneath 
 the surface. They must be planted out at 
 distances similar to those raised from seed, 
 water and weeding being similarly required. 
 
 In autumn the decayed stalks should be 
 cleared, and a little fresh earth scattered 
 and turned in among the stools. 
 
 Although this herb is perennial, yet after 
 three or four years it becomes stunted and 
 unproductive, consequently requiring to be 
 raised periodically from seed. For the pro- 
 duction of seed, some plants should be al- 
 lowed to run up without being gathered 
 from in early summer. The seed is ripe 
 during July, and must be cut immediately 
 it is so, and laid on a cloth to dry, other- 
 wise the first rain will wash it out of the 
 seed-vessels. (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) 
 
 THYME, WILD. (Thymus). A ge- 
 nus of aromatic, pungent, branched, some- 
 what, shrubby plants, belonging to the na- 
 tural order Labiata. They are often diffuse 
 and of humble growth: in some instances 
 annual. The common wild thyme (T. Ser- 
 pyllum) is plentiful almost every where, 
 particularly on heaths and dry mountainous 
 1174 
 
 ground. The odour of the plant is grate- 
 fully aromatic. Bees are fond of the flowers. 
 Whether the quality of mutton is improved 
 by the sheep feeding on this plant, or on 
 fine short grasses which usually accompany 
 it, is still a matter of great doubt. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 107.) See Basil, 
 Thyme, and Calamint. 
 
 TICKS. See Sheep, Diseases of. 
 
 TILE DRAINING. See Draining. 
 
 TILLiEA. (Named in honour of M. A. 
 Tilli, an Italian botanist.) The mossy Til- 
 hea (T. muscosa) is an indigenous, small, 
 succulent, annual herb, growing on the 
 most barren sandy heaths. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 241.) 
 
 TILLER. A term applied to the branch- 
 ing of the stems of corn from the roots. 
 
 TILTH. The condition of the earth 
 after ploughing, &c. ; or the state of the soil 
 in respect to tillage as relating to manure. 
 
 TIMBER. (Germ, zirnmer ; Dut. tim- 
 merhout.) The term used to express every 
 large tree squared, or capable of being 
 squared, and fit for being employed in 
 house or ship-building. The kinds of trees 
 most useful for this purpose have been con- 
 sidered in speaking of the nature of plant- 
 ations and planting ; but they are chiefly 
 the different species of pine, the larch, the 
 birch, the common ash, the mountain ash, 
 the beech, the sycamore, the elm, the oak, 
 the horse chestnut, and the poplar. How- 
 ever, the oak, ash, elm, Scotch pine, and 
 larch are by far the most valuable for the 
 various purposes of this sort. 
 
 Timber is generally sold by the load. 
 The following are the contents of the loads, 
 or different species of timber, hewn and un- 
 hewn : — 
 
 A load of timber unhewn - 40 cubic feet, 
 squared timber - 50 
 
 1 inch plank - 600 square feet, 
 l.i inch plank - 400 
 
 2 inch plank - 300 
 21 inch plank - 240 
 
 3 inch plank - 200 
 3| inch plank - 170 
 
 4 inch plank - 150 
 
 See Trees. 
 
 TIMBER TREES. See Trees, Plant- 
 ations, and the several indigenous trees, 
 under their alphabetical heads. 
 
 TIMOTHY GRASS. See Cat's-Tail 
 Grass. 
 
 TINE. A tooth or spike placed in any 
 implement, but especially in the harrow 
 kind. See Harrow. 
 
 TIT, or TITMOUSE. (Parus.) A 
 name applied to several English birds. The 
 bearded tit, blue tit, and cole tit have already 
 been noticed under their several heads. 
 
 Those which remain to be spoken of, are, 
 
TITHES. 
 
 TOAD-FLAX. 
 
 — L The great tit (P. major) is an insecti- 
 vorous bird, which is well-known, frequent- 
 ing woods, the vicinity of gardens, and 
 other sheltered situations, in summer. It 
 makes a nest of moss, lined with hair and 
 feathers, in the hollow of a tree, or a hole 
 in a wall, and lays from six to nine eggs, 
 which are white, spotted with pale red, 
 nine lines and a half in length and seven 
 lines in breadth. The whole length of this 
 species is rather less than six inches. * 
 
 2. The crested tit (P. cristatus) is a very 
 rare species, about four and a half inches 
 long. 
 
 3. The marsh-tit (P. palustris) is about 
 the same size as the last-mentioned, and, 
 as its name implies, frequents moist mea- 
 dows and marshes. 
 
 4. The long-tailed tit (P. caudatus) is a 
 well-known and common species, which re- 
 mains in this country the whole year, fre- 
 quenting woods and shrubberies, &c. The 
 female lays from ten to twelve eggs. The 
 whole length of the bird is about five inches 
 and a half. (YarreUs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 326.) 
 
 TITHES. By the statute 6 & 7 W. 4. 
 c. 71., entitled " An Act for the Commuta- 
 tion of Tithes," a great and wholesome re- 
 volution has been effected in the law with 
 regard to this ancient impost. By this act 
 it is provided, that the commutation of 
 tithes shall be carried into effect by certain 
 commissioners, who are by the act em- 
 powered to carry it into effect, with the 
 help of certain assistant commissioners. By 
 sect. 17., meetings may be now called by 
 the owners or payers of one third in value 
 of the tithes, at which two thirds in value 
 of the owners may agree upon the sum to 
 be paid to the tithe-owners by way of rent- 
 charge, and they can bind the whole parish. 
 There is then introduced various directory 
 machinery for working the act. By sect. 29., 
 land not exceeding twenty acres may be 
 given in lieu of tithes. By sect. 32., valuers 
 are to be appointed who, by sect. 33., are to 
 apportion rent-charge. By sect. 37. the 
 value of the rent-charge is to be calculated 
 upon an average of seven years, and are to 
 be valued without any deduction on ac- 
 count of parochial or county rates. By 
 sect. 38. the commissioners have the power 
 to increase or decrease the sum to be paid 
 as the estimated annual average value. By 
 sect. 40. the tithe of hops, fruit, and garden 
 produce is to be valued, " according to the 
 average rate of composition for the tithes of 
 hops, fruit, and garden produce respectively, 
 during seven years preceding Christmas 
 1835, within a district to be assigned in 
 such case by the commissioners." And 
 there are other enactments with regard to 
 1175 
 
 the valuation of coppice wood, newly-en- 
 closed barren land, moduses, &c. The com- 
 missioners are empowered to hear and deter- 
 mine disputes ; subject, however, to appeal 
 by an issue at law, or by taking an opinion 
 of a court of law thereon. 
 
 By sect. 50. the commissioners are, after 
 the value of the tithes is ascertained, to pro- 
 ceed to award the sum to be paid for the 
 whole tithes of the parish, and which shall 
 be a rent-charge to be paid in respect of 
 the tithes of the parish ; and by sect. 57. it 
 is declared, that every rent-charge shall be 
 deemed to be of the value of such number 
 of imperial bushels, and decimal parts of an 
 imperial bushel, of wheat, barley, and oats, 
 as the same would have purchased at the 
 prices (ascertained in the way pointed out 
 by the act) in case one third part of such 
 rent-charge had been invested in the pur- 
 chase of wheat, one third part thereof in 
 the purchase of barley, and the remaining 
 third part thereof in the purchase of oats ; 
 and the average prices for the seven 
 years preceding the January in every year, 
 shall be the data by which the rent-charge 
 will in consequence be regulated. By sect. 
 62., owners of lands chargeable with rent- 
 charge may give land instead thereof, not 
 exceeding twenty acres in any one parish. 
 By sect. 67. all lands so rent-charged are 
 thenceforth free from tithe. By sect. 69. 
 such rent-charges are made subject to 
 county and parochial rates. By sect. 79., if 
 a tenant at rack-rent dissents from paying 
 the rent- charge, the landlord may take the 
 tithes during the tenancy. Sect. 81. gives 
 the power to the owner of rent-charge, after 
 twenty-one days, to distrain for it. 
 
 By the 1 Sf 2 Vict. c. 64., certain facilities 
 were afforded for the merging of tithes in 
 the land : and by the 2 3 Vict. c. 62., 
 further facilities were afforded to the same 
 end, and power is given to make parochial 
 agreements for Easter offerings, mortuaries, 
 or surplice fees, or of the tithes of fish or 
 fishing, or mineral tithes. By sect. 12. 
 power is given to subject crown lands to a 
 certain rent-charge; and by sect. 13. pro- 
 vision is made for the tithe of Lammas 
 lands, &c. ; and in the following sections 
 are certain regulations with regard to the 
 rent-charge on fruit plantations. 
 
 TOAD. (Rana Bnfo.) A well-known 
 and much dreaded, though perfectly in- 
 noxious, reptile of the frog genus, which 
 feeds on insects, flies, ants, &c. It is preyed 
 upon by owls, buzzards, snakes, &c. : other- 
 wise the toad attains to a considerable age, 
 some remarkable instances of which have 
 been recorded. 
 
 TOAD-FLAX. A name applied to two 
 perennial species of Antirrhinum. 1. The 
 4 f 4 
 
TOMATO. 
 
 creeping pale-blue toad-flax (A. repens) is 
 a rare species, growing on chalky banks or 
 rocks near the sea. The herbage is smooth 
 and glaucous, stem panicled, leaves linear, 
 scattered, partly whorled ; flowers sweet- 
 scented. 
 
 2. Common yellow toad-flax (A. Linaria), 
 which is common about hedges and the 
 borders of fields. The leaves are linear- 
 lanceolate, crowded, stem erect ; spikes ter- 
 minal ; flowers terminal, inodorous. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 133.) See Fluellin 
 and Snap-Dragon. 
 
 TOAD-FLAX, BASTARD. See Bas- 
 tard Toad-Flax. 
 
 TOMATO, or LOVE APPLE. (Lyco- 
 persicon esculatum.) There are two species 
 of the tomato at present in cultivation in 
 this country : the red-fruited and the yel- 
 low-fruited. Of each of these there are 
 several sub-varieties, chiefly differing in the 
 size and shape of their fruit. The most 
 esteemed is the common large red, though 
 for pickling some of the smaller fruited 
 varieties are preferable. 
 
 Of the red there are — 
 
 1. The common large. 2. Small. 3. Pear- 
 shaped. 4. Cherry-shaped. 
 
 Of the yellow there are — 
 
 1. The large yellow. 2. Small or cherry 
 yellow. 
 
 The soil best suited for this love apple is 
 rich, light, and mouldy, in a dry subsoil ; 
 for although a regular supply of moisture is 
 a chief requisite, yet stagnant water is very 
 injurious. Sea- weed may be applied with 
 advantage to the border on which it is 
 grown, as may kelp or common salt in small 
 quantities. The situation must be sheltered 
 It is propagated by seed, which may be 
 sown at the close of March or early in 
 April, in a hot-bed or stove, which latter is 
 to be preferred. The hot-bed must be of 
 a moderate durability, earthed about six 
 inches deep. The sowing must not be per- 
 formed until the requisite time has elapsed 
 for guarding against the danger of a violent 
 heat arising. If a hot-house is employed as 
 the nursery of the seedlings, the seed must 
 be sown in pots or boxes set on the flues or 
 round the edges of the pits. 
 
 In whatever situation sown, the seed 
 must be scattered thin, and not buried more 
 than half an inch below the surface. The 
 plants are not long in appearing; when of 
 two or three weeks' growth, in which time 
 they acquire a height of as many inches, 
 they must be thinned to three inches apart, 
 and those removed, if wanted, pricked at 
 the same distances, in a similar bed to that 
 from which they may be removed; shade 
 and water being afforded as may appear 
 necessary. Air must, be afforded freely in 
 1176 
 
 every stage of their growth ; for if, from 
 the want of this, a due exposure to the 
 light, or any other cause, they become 
 spindling and weak, they seldom or never 
 are productive. Their removal into the 
 open air and their final situation must not 
 take place until May or early June, accord- 
 ing to the geniality of the season. To pre- 
 pare them for this, the heat of the hot- bed 
 should be allowed gradually to decline ; 
 or if* in a hot-house, the pots may by de- 
 grees be removed into its cooler parts, until 
 at length they can endure the temperature 
 of the green-house, where they may be 
 kept until finally moved. But before that 
 time arrives, another thinning will be re- 
 quisite ; those in the hot-bed to six inches 
 apart, and those in the stove, each plant 
 separate, into tolerable sized pots. 
 
 They are to be finally planted five feet 
 apart, beneath a south paling or wall, to 
 which their branches must be trained ; for, 
 if allowed to trail on the ground, the fruit 
 scarcely ever ripens, and never is in per- 
 fection. The transition is rendered less 
 sudden if planted over holes filled with hot 
 dung, earthed over eight inches deep. They 
 ought never to be planted very near fruit 
 trees, as they are particular impoverishers 
 of the soil. The removal should be ac- 
 complished with as little disturbance as 
 possible to the root ; and for effecting this, 
 their being in pots is eminently advan- 
 tageous. Water and shade during mid-day 
 must be afforded until they are established ; 
 and if the nights are cold during the first 
 week or two, or the weather tempestuous, 
 the shelter of a hand-glass, or even of an 
 inverted garden-pot, is advantageously af- 
 forded. The training may commence as 
 soon as the branches are a foot long, and 
 continued throughout their growth. If the 
 plants are strong, an horizontal direction 
 is best ; if weak, a more upright one. In 
 case of a want of space of wall or paling, 
 they may be trained with stakes as espaliers, 
 but much rather on sloping banks of earth, 
 which is the practice of Mr. J. Wilmot, of 
 Islington : upon these they are pegged down, 
 and, striking root from their joints, often 
 support themselves. (Trans. Hort. Soc. 
 Load. vol. iii. p. 345.) It would be an im- 
 provement to cover the banks with slates 
 or tiles. 
 
 Care must be taken throughout the 
 summer to clear away all lateral shoots, 
 as well as to thin the leaves so as to expose 
 the fruit to the full influence of the sun. 
 
 The berries begin to ripen about the 
 middle of August, and continue to do so 
 until October, or the arrival of the first 
 frosts, which always destroy the plants. 
 For producing seed, some of the most for- 
 
TOMENTOSE. 
 
 TRADE SCANT, JOHN. 
 
 ward berries must be left until perfectly 
 ripe. The seed must be separated from 
 the pulp by washing, as directed for the 
 " Cucumber." (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen 
 Garden.) 
 
 TOMENTOSE. In botany, covered 
 with dense, close, white hairs, or down. 
 
 TOOLS. See Implements. 
 
 TOOTHWORT. (Lathrcea squamaria.) 
 A very curious little indigenous plant, 
 furnished with white fleshy scales in the 
 place of leaves. It grows wild in dry 
 shady places, mostly at the roots of hazels 
 or elms. It is very shy of cultivation, but 
 may be increased by carefully dividing the 
 roots. (Paxton's Sot. Diet.) 
 
 TOP-DRESSING. A term applied to 
 such manures as are laid upon land with- 
 out being turned in : and also to the 
 practice of dressing the surface of grass 
 land, or other crops, with some kinds of 
 highly reduced manure, that can be evenly 
 spread out or sown equally over them by 
 the hand. 
 
 A great variety of substances are in use 
 for this purpose, such as soot, ashes, the 
 dung of pigeons and other birds, rape dust, 
 gypsum, &c, the benefits of which are 
 noticed under their respective heads. 
 
 TOPICAL. A gardening term, signify- 
 ing local, or confined to a place. 
 
 TORMENTIL. (Tormentilla, alluding 
 to a supposed efficacy in toothache, as well 
 as to a belief that it could cure diseases of 
 the boAvels.) The British species are two ; 
 both perennial. They are now regarded 
 as belonging to the genus Potentilla, and 
 the natural order Rosaceoe. 
 
 1. Common tormentil or sept-foil (P. 
 officinalis or tormentilla) grows in barren 
 pastures, heaths, and bushy places. The 
 stem is slender, ascending, branched. The 
 leaves almost sessile, dark green, com- 
 pounded of three oblong, acute, deeply- 
 serrated leaflets, accompanied with stipules 
 deeply cut. The flowers are small, bright 
 yellow, with the parts of the calyx and 
 corolla in fours, on slender hairy pedicels 
 longer than the leaves. The carpels are 
 corrugated when ripe. The woody red roots 
 are so astringent as to be used in the 
 western isles of Scotland for tanning leather, 
 for which purpose they are superior even 
 to oak bark. The root is likewise one of 
 the most efficacious of our indigenous aro- 
 matic astringents, and may be used with 
 great effect in cases where medicines of 
 this class are proper ; namely, in chronic 
 purgings. It is usually given in decoction, 
 but is best administered in powder. 
 
 2. Trailing tormentil (T. reptans). This 
 species grows sparingly about the borders 
 of fields and hedges. The stems are two 
 
 1177 
 
 I feet long, hairy, prostrate, but not creeping ; 
 the leaves composed of five leaflets, obovate, 
 strongly serrated, bright green, on long 
 hairy footstalks. Flower of a full yellow, 
 twice the size of the foregoing. Stipules 
 undivided. It is also astringent, but less 
 so than its congener. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 426. ; Paxton's Bot. Diet.) 
 
 TOUCH-ME-NOT. See Balsam. 
 
 TOWER-MUSTARD. (Turritis, from 
 turris, a tower ; the foliage is so disposed 
 on the stems as to give them a pyramidal 
 form, and for the same reason the plants 
 are called tower-mustard.) The species are 
 hardy annuals : one, the smooth tower- 
 mustard (T. glabra), is indigenous, and 
 grows wild on banks and by road sides, in 
 a dry gravelly soil. The root is tapering ; 
 the stem two or three feet high, erect, slen- 
 der, leafy. The radical leaves are nume- 
 rous, spreading, toothed, rough ; the rest 
 are entire, glaucous, smooth, clasping the 
 stem, oblong, arrow-shaped. The flowers 
 are numerous, closely corymbose, pale sul- 
 phur-coloured. Pods very long and slen- 
 der, on short stalks. Seeds about sixty in 
 each cell, very small. (Paxtons Bot. Diet. ; 
 Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 215.) 
 
 TRACTION. See Carts, Road, 
 Strength, Horse, &c. The reader may also 
 consult a very able essay " On Draught" 
 in Professor Youatt's work on The Horse, 
 of which our space will not allow us to 
 give even an outline. 
 
 TRADESCANT, JOHN, a celebrated 
 collector of plants, was born in Holland. 
 He was gardener to Queen Elizabeth, as 
 his father was before him. He settled in 
 England, and founded his garden at Lam- 
 beth. About 1629, he was appointed gar- 
 dener to Charles I. : he died about 1652. 
 His son John, who followed the same trade 
 as his father, made a voyage in pursuit of 
 plants to Virginia, and brought many new 
 ones back with him. He died in 1662. 
 They introduced many new species into 
 England, and, among gardeners, "Trades- 
 cant's spiderwort," " Tradescant's aster," 
 &c, are still recognised. They were the 
 first who made any considerable collec- 
 tion of natural curiosities in this coun- 
 try, which their delight in the pursuit en- 
 abled them to do, aided as they were by 
 the liberality of contemporary men of 
 wealth. Their museum, called " Trades- 
 cant's Ark," was an object of general curi- 
 osity, and was the constant resort of the 
 great and learned. A description of it 
 was published in 1656, entitled " Mu- 
 seum Tradescantianum, or a Collection of 
 Varieties preserved at South Lambeth, 
 near London. By John Tradescant." 
 12mo. 
 
TRANSPLANTING. 
 
 TREES. 
 
 The son bequeathed the museum by a 
 deed of gift to Mr. Ashmole, who, with his 
 wife, lodged in his house for a summer, 
 and the name of Tradescant, as Pultney 
 observes, " was unjustly sunk in that of 
 Ashmole," it being now known as the Ash- 
 molean Museum. Ashmole left it to the 
 university of Oxford. The wreck of their 
 garden, as it existed in 1749, is described 
 by Sir W. Watson in the forty-sixth volume 
 of the Philosophical Transactions. 
 
 TRANSPLANTING. The act of re- 
 moving either cuttings, layers, roots, or en- 
 tire plants, from one soil into another. 
 See Planting and Propagation. 
 
 TRAVELLER'S JOY. See Clematis. 
 
 TREACLE-MUSTARD. (Erysinum, 
 from erion, to draw and cure : it is popu- 
 larly reckoned a cure for a sore throat, and 
 is also said to draw and produce blisters.) 
 An extensive genus of plants, possessing 
 warm and pungent qualities. The leaves 
 are simple, often lanceolate, and nearly en- 
 tire. Flowers corymbose, yellow, sulphur- 
 coloured, or white. Pods in very long up - 
 right clusters. There are three indigenous 
 annual species. 1. The worm-seed treacle- 
 mustard (E. cherianthoides) ; 2. the garlic 
 treacle-mustard (E. alliarid), known also 
 under the local names of Jack-by-the- 
 hedge, or sauce-alone ; 3. hare's-ear treacle- 
 mustard (E. orientale). The second is the 
 most common. The whole herb is smooth, 
 shining, deep green, and exhales, when 
 bruised, the smell of garlic ; and the seeds 
 are stronger than the other parts of the 
 plant. The stem is a foot high, somewhat 
 branched. The leaves stalked, cordate, acute, 
 veiny, and broadly serrated. The flowers 
 are white. The pods erect, smooth, on a 
 spreading stalk. The peasantry eat the 
 young leaves with bread and butter. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 200.) 
 
 TREES are divided naturally into two 
 principal classes, namely, fruit and timber 
 trees : the former includes all such as are 
 raised chiefly, or entirely, for their edible 
 fruit, an account of which, together with 
 their modes of cultivation, the reader will 
 find in alphabetical order, and also in the 
 articles Fruit, Orchard, Pruning, &c. 
 
 The second division comprehends those 
 trees the wood of which is employed in 
 ship-building, machinery, or for other use- 
 ful purposes, such as the oak, elm, larch, 
 &c, the culture of which has been discussed 
 under those respective heads. For the dis- 
 eases of trees, see American Blight, Can- 
 
 KHH, E XTRAVASATED SAP, MlLDEW, &C 
 
 By timber, in law, is intended only such 
 trees as are considered fit and proper by 
 i he custom of the country to be employed 
 in building or repairing houses; and timber 
 1 178 
 
 trees are those which are of twenty years' 
 growth. (Aubrey v. Fisher, 10 East, 456.) 
 The custom of the country naturally varies 
 with regard to the kind of trees which are 
 considered to be timber. The oak, the elm, 
 and the ash are universally deemed to be 
 such : beech is considered so in Bucking- 
 hamshire, birch in Yorkshire (Attorney- 
 General v. Fullerton, 2 V. & B. 263.), be- 
 cause it is generally used for buildings of 
 an inferior kind. Thus the chestnut, wal- 
 nut, lime, and others may, under similar 
 customs, be considered timber. If pollards 
 are sound, it seems that they must be con- 
 sidered as timber : this was the opinion of 
 Chancellor King. (Channon v. Patch, 5 B. 
 & C. 897.) 
 
 The property of the tree is in the owner 
 of the soil on which it grows ; and though 
 its roots may extend into two estates, yet it 
 belongs to the owner of the land on which 
 it was originally planted or sown. (Holder 
 v. Coats, 1 M. & M. 112. ; Waterman v. 
 Soper, 1 Lord Raym. 737. ; Masters v. Pol- 
 lie, 2 Rolls Rep. 141.) Nurseries of young 
 fruit trees, raised for filling up orchards, 
 cannot be removed by the tenant, but a 
 nurseryman may do so. (Wyndham v. 
 Wray, 4 Taunt. 316.) 
 
 The tenant for life, without impeach- 
 ment of waste, of an estate, may cut down 
 timber in a husbandlike manner. (Burgess 
 v. Lamb, 16 Ves. jun. 179.) But the Court 
 of Chancery will restrain such tenant from 
 cutting down underwood of an insufficient 
 growth (Brydges v. Stephens, 6 Madd. 279.), 
 or* ornamental or sheltering trees. (Lush- 
 ington v. Bolder s, 6 Madd. 149. ; Attorney - 
 General v. Marlborough, 3 Madd. 280.) 
 But this shelter or ornament is not to be 
 construed to mean extensive woods. (Bur- 
 gess v. Lamb, 16 Ves. jun. 175.) 
 
 By custom, but not by common law, the 
 trees growing on a copyhold estate may 
 belong to the lord. (Whitchurch v. Hol- 
 worthy, 19 Ves. jun. 213., 4 M. & S. 345.) 
 The copyholder is not guilty of waste if he 
 cut timber merely for necessary repairs. 
 (Doe v. Wilson, 11 East, 56.) Timber 
 trees growing on the estates of ecclesiastical 
 corporations are to be devoted to the re- 
 pair of the church. (Herring v. St. Paul's, 
 8 Swanston, 509.) And consequently neither 
 they nor their lessee can fell timber for their 
 own use. ( Winchester v. Wolgar, 3 Swan- 
 ston, 493.) Neither can a mortgagor cut 
 down timber if the land without it is a scanty 
 security. (Humphrey v. Harrison, 1 J. & 
 W. 581.) But the Court of Chancery will * 
 not restrain a mortgagor from cutting lim- 
 ber, unless the security is insufficient with- 
 out it. (Hippesley v. Spencer, 5 Madd. 4:2;?.) 
 Though the timber of the estate belongs to 
 
TREE-MALLOW. 
 
 TRUFFLE. 
 
 the landlord, and also such trees as are likely 
 to become timber, yet the general property 
 in bushes and trees not timber is in the 
 tenant ; and, therefore, the landlord cannot 
 maintain an action of trespass against a 
 stranger, for cutting bushes and thorns grow- 
 ing in a hedge, if the tenant afterwards 
 assented. (Berriman v. Peacock, 2 M. & 
 Scott, 524.) The tenant or lessee has no 
 right to cut timber ; and in an action for 
 waste the defendant cannot give in evidence, 
 even in mitigation of damages, that the 
 timber was cut for the purpose of necessary 
 repairs ; or, that after it was cut the timber 
 was exchanged with the lessor's consent for 
 timber more fit for the purpose intended. 
 (Simmons v. Norton, 7 Bingham, 640.) But 
 he may cut timber without waste which has 
 been cut within twenty years ; and in Kent 
 they are in the habit of cutting trees of 
 twenty-six or twenty-eight years' growth. 
 ( WoodfalVs Land. $r Ten. 461.) W indfalls 
 belong to the lord, and the Court of Chan- 
 cery will, if necessary, order it to be pre- 
 served for him who has the first estate of 
 inheritance in the land. (Peivick v. Wint- 
 field, 3 P. W. 268.) See Timber, Forests, 
 Bark, Nursery, &c 
 
 TREE-MALLOW. (Lavatera, named 
 by Tournefort in honour of his friends, the 
 two Lavaters, famous physicians and na- 
 turalists of Zurich.) The species of this 
 genus are mostly arborescent, soft, and 
 densely downy ; the pubescence in some in- 
 stances starry. 
 
 The sea tree-mallow, or velvet-leaf (L. 
 arborea), is an indigenous, but rare biennial, 
 growing on the sea-shore, flowering from 
 July to October. The root is much branched, 
 running deep into the ground. Stem from 
 six to ten feet high, straight, upright, thick, 
 scarry, branching into a leafy head. Leaves 
 greyish green, downy, with seven angles, al- 
 ternate, on long footstalks. Flowers not 
 unlike the common mallow. Capsules seven 
 or eight, reticulated, smooth. If allowed to 
 scatter its seeds in a garden this species will 
 spring up for many successive years, and the 
 young plants will now and then survive one 
 or more mild winters ; but having once blos- 
 somed, it perishes. 
 
 Tree-mallows deserve to be more gene- 
 rally cultivated, both in gardens and fields, 
 not only for their elegant flowers, which 
 abound with honey, but chiefly for the 
 valuable substitute for hemp which their 
 fibrous textile stalks afford. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 248. ; Quart. Jour, of Agr. 
 vol. iii. p. 185.) 
 
 TREFALLOW. A local term, signify- 
 ing to plough land the third time before 
 sowing. 
 
 TREFOIL. (Trifolium, from ires, three, 
 1179 
 
 and folium, a leaf. All the species have 
 trifoliate leaves. The French call it trefle, 
 and the English trefoil, or clover.) An ex- 
 tensive and well-known genus of herbaceous 
 plants, natives of cold or temperate climates, 
 either perennial or annual. Many of the 
 species are highly important as food for 
 cattle, either fresh or in the state of hay, 
 often acquiring a fragrant scent in drying. 
 The white, red, and yellow clover are 
 amongst the most valuable herbage plants 
 adopted in European agriculture. 
 
 Lucern has been recommended as supe- 
 rior to clover and sainfoin, and various 
 other leguminous plants have been highly 
 extolled ; yet the red clover for mowing, and 
 the white for pasturage, far excel all other 
 plants in these respects. All the species 
 thrive in common garden soil, and many 
 of them being very showy are well suited 
 for ornamenting the flower border. The 
 perennial kinds are readily increased by 
 dividing the plants at the roots in spring, or 
 by seeds. (Paxtoris Pot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 296. ; Sinclair's Hort. 
 Gram.) See Clover, Melilot, and Bird's- 
 Foot Trefoil. 
 
 TREFOIL, THE MARSH. See Buck 
 Bean. 
 
 TRENCH PLOUGH. See Plough. 
 
 TRENCHING. See Subsoil Ploughing. 
 
 TRICHONEMA. (From thrix, a hair, 
 and nema, a filament; the filaments are 
 hairy.) A genus of very pretty bulbs when 
 in flower. They should be planted out in 
 a pit or frame, in a mixture of sandy loam 
 and peat, and increased by offsets. 
 
 One species (T. bulbocodium) is indi- 
 genous to the channel islands. The bulb 
 is ovate, with two membranous coats ; eatable. 
 Leaves several, spreading, three or four 
 inches long. Flowers blue or purplish, on 
 simple or branched stalks. (Paxtoris Pot. 
 Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 47.) 
 
 TRIFOLIUM INCARNATUM. A 
 well-known and much esteemed species of 
 trefoil. See Clover and Trefoil. 
 
 TRITICUM See Wheat-Grass. 
 
 TROUT. (Salmo furio.) A small well- 
 known fish, inhabiting the British lakes and 
 rivers, varying in weight from five or six 
 ounces to four pounds. Trout are taken 
 at all seasons of the year, but the best 
 time for angling is in the months of June 
 and July. 
 
 TRUFFLE. (Tuber cibarium.) Around 
 fungus growing under ground, destitute of 
 roots and leafy appendages. It absorbs 
 nutriment at every point on its surface. The 
 truffle is composed of globular vesicles, des- 
 tined for the reproduction of the vegetable, 
 and short barren filaments, called by Tur- 
 pin tigellules ; and the reproductive bodies, 
 
TRUSLER, JOHN. 
 
 TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 trujinelles. Each globular vesicle is fitted 
 to give origin to a multitude of reproduc- 
 tive bodies, but a few of them only perfect 
 the young vegetable. The parent dies ; the 
 trufinelles are nourished by its dissolving 
 substance, and the cavity it originally filled 
 becomes the abode of a multitude of young 
 truffles ; but many of them die, the stronger 
 starving the weaker. As truffles spread 
 over a large space, it is difficult to say by 
 what means they progress. The truffle is 
 one of the most wholesome and nutritive of 
 the esculent fungi, and is generally disco- 
 vered by means of dogs, which are taught 
 to scent it ; so that on smelling the truffle, 
 they bark and scratch it up. Truffles are 
 highly esteemed at the tables of the luxu- 
 rious, where they are served up, either 
 roasted in a fresh state like potatoes, or 
 they are dried, shred, and dressed as ingre- 
 dients in soups and ragouts. 
 
 TRUSLER, JOHN, LL.D.,was born in 
 London in 1735. He died in 1820. Among 
 his other compilations are: 1. The Art 
 of Gardening. 8vo. London, 1793. 2. The 
 Lady's Gardener's Companion. 18mo. Lon- 
 don, 1816. 
 
 TRUSS. A bundle of hay, straw, &c. 
 It may be observed that a truss of hay must 
 contain fifty-six pounds, or half a hundred 
 weight ; a truss of straw thirty -six pounds : 
 thirty-six trusses make a load. In June, 
 July, and August, a truss of new hay must 
 weigh sixty pounds. See Hay and Straw. 
 
 TULIP. {Tulipa.) A genus of cele- 
 brated and much-prized florists' flowers. 
 They succeed well in rich loam and sand, 
 and are increased by offsets ; new varieties 
 are obtained from seed. The choicer kinds 
 require to be taken up and dried after they 
 have ceased flowering, and planted again in 
 the autumn. They should be slightly pro- 
 tected in very rainy or frosty weather, as 
 they are very liable to rot. One species, 
 the wild tulip ( T. sylvestris), is indigenous, 
 growing about old chalk-pits. It bears 
 sweet-scented, bright yellow, somewhat 
 drooping flowers in April. (Paxtoiis Bot. 
 Diet.) Although the Tulipomania, which 
 rose to such an absurd height in Holland in 
 the 17th century, is long since extinct, yet 
 the rage for producing fine tulips still 
 exists. The finest tulips are reared at 
 Haarlem. The principal florists have their 
 favourite breeders. A breeder is a seedling 
 tulip, eight or nine years from the seed, but 
 still vigorous. If the stem be tall ; the 
 petals of the flower blunt at the apex; if 
 the flower be self-coloured, or of an equal 
 uniform colour on both surfaces of the 
 pet :ils ; if the base be pure white or bright 
 yellow; and the anthers and stigmas dink 
 or black, — it is highly esteemed as a breeder. 
 1180 
 
 The bulb is planted deep in a sheltered sunny 
 place, and care is taken to prevent the 
 leaves being injured by wind or hail; the 
 stem is propped, and the flower carefully 
 secured from the hot rays of the sun, as 
 well as from wind and violent rain. The 
 seed is carefully collected, and from it 
 many fine tulips are anticipated. The va- 
 rieties at Haarlem are very numerous ; they 
 are chiefly varieties of the Tulipa Gesneriana 
 and T. suaveolens. 
 
 TULL, JETHRO. The science of 
 agriculture, although the first in importance 
 to mankind, is yet remarkable for the few 
 great names whose discoveries or general abi- 
 lities adorn its history. For an explanation 
 of this fact, we must in some measure be con- 
 tented with the common observation that 
 its advances, its improvements, are so slow, 
 as to be almost imperceptible ; are depend- 
 ent upon much more tedious experiments 
 than any other science : for instance, it is 
 true that many, very many of the processes, 
 daily witnessed and carried on by the cul- 
 tivator, are based upon chemical principles, 
 and may be illustrated, and very materially 
 assisted, by chemical experiments : but 
 those who have studied the science the most 
 carefully are fully aware that no experi- 
 ments upon the laws of dead matter even 
 nearly equal in difficulty those upon living 
 substances, for these last, in many instances, 
 seem endowed with powers which com- 
 pletely neutralize and overcome the very 
 principle of chemical attraction and repul- 
 sion. Such experiments, too, are not, like 
 those made in the philosopher's laboratory, 
 secure from interruption, and carefully and 
 readily guarded from every source of error ; 
 on the contrary, those of even the most 
 scientific, the most careful cultivators, are 
 of necessity liable to many accidents, are 
 ever the sport of the winds and the weather, • 
 require months to complete, and often the 
 duration of a life to repeat and firmly esta- 
 blish. Then, again, to add to the difficulty 
 of such investigations, there are hardly two 
 soils to be found in the kingdom whose 
 composition is even nearly the same. All 
 differ either in the proportion of some in- 
 gredient, in climate, in declination, or in the 
 nature of their substrata ; the variations in 
 their treatment, therefore, must often be as 
 different as their numerous varieties. Thus 
 encircled with difficulties, requiring for the 
 attainment of considerable eminence the 
 union of both practical experience, patient 
 and long-continued research, and scientific 
 knowledge, we need hardly feel surprised that 
 those who have made important improve- 
 ments in agriculture have been but few in 
 number, and that these illustrious excep- 
 tions to the general rule have appeared at 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 very distant intervals. The farmer, too, 
 however skilful and successful in his busi- 
 ness, however industrious and talented, is 
 but rarely induced to describe the im- 
 provements he has caused, or the imple- 
 ments he has improved or invented ; he is 
 too often content with the profit derived 
 from his own ingenuity, and too frequently 
 lets others reap all the honours of disco- 
 veries to which he is more justly entitled. 
 
 In the list, however, of distinguished En- 
 glish farmers, Jethro Tull presents us with 
 a highly honourable exception to the general 
 rule; for, utterly regardless of all selfish 
 considerations, he not only made great and 
 successful efforts for the promotion of agri- 
 culture, but he made those valuable re- 
 searches, publicly known in a work entitled 
 The Horse-hoeing Husbandry, which will 
 hand him down to all after- ages as one 
 of the chief of English farmers ; as a pa- 
 triot who, undaunted by the natural diffi- 
 culties of the attempt, attained great and 
 important advances in the cultivating and 
 increasing the fertility of the land, and in 
 enlarging the resources of the followers of 
 a business to which he was not originally 
 bred. For, as we shall presently see, Tull 
 became a farmer, not from inclination, but 
 from the effects of a sickly constitution and 
 a diseased frame. 
 
 The life of Jethro Tull will, indeed, well 
 repay the careful and often repeated study 
 of the English farmer, in more ways than 
 one, — will afford not only instruction, but 
 encouragement to him who has to contend 
 against the poorest soils, the most adverse 
 of circumstances : for, if such a cultivator 
 holds a poor, thin, hungry soil, — so did 
 Jethro Tull ; if he farms in a remote and 
 desolate district, — if he has ignorant and 
 obstinate labourers, — if he is visited by sick- 
 ness, — if he is almost driven from his pro- 
 fession by even incurable diseases, — so, let 
 him be assured, was that great farmer whose 
 labours are the subject of this memoir. 
 The dauntless intrepidity, and perseverance, 
 too, of Tull, should always be remembered 
 to his honour. Knowing, as he did, the 
 correctness of the principles for which he 
 so nobly contended, he never relaxed in 
 his endeavours to induce their general adop- 
 tion ; and if it was only after the lapse of 
 many years, when Tull had long been in 
 his grave, that those principles and those 
 mechanical inventions for which he so ener- 
 getically contended were commonly adopted, 
 the fault was not Tull's, but must be at- 
 tributed to the ignorance and the apathy 
 of the age in which he made his important, 
 his ill-requited, discoveries. 
 
 The debt of gratitude which all modern 
 farmers owe to Tull is indeed a large one ; 
 1181 
 
 he was the first who boldly and zealously 
 contended for the adoption of improved 
 machinery in all agricultural operations ; 
 the ploughs which he depicts in the engrav- 
 ings which accompany his Horse-hoe Hus- 
 bandry have not been very materially 
 improved in the last century. He invented 
 several varieties of hand and horse-hoes. 
 He was very nearly, if not quite, the first 
 who produced a practically useful drill. He 
 shared the fate of all those who, as dis- 
 coverers, have the temerity to disturb old 
 systems. He was regarded by the bulk of 
 his contemporaries as an idle, restless in- 
 novator. He was ridiculed, thwarted, and 
 opposed in every way, not, as might have 
 been reasonably expected, by the most ig- 
 norant, but by those who either did know, 
 or ought to have known, better things. His 
 neighbours regarded him as almost a lu- 
 natic ; and the tradition of the neighbour- 
 hood of Shalborn still is, that he was even 
 wicked enough to attempt to banish the flail 
 from his farm, and that he had a machine 
 in his barn at Prosperous, which worked a 
 set of sticks so readily as to thrash out his 
 corn without the assistance of the labourer. 
 This, there is little doubt, was an attempt 
 to construct a thrashing-machine; and that 
 it was, in those quiet days for agriculture, 
 regarded as a wonder, is proved by the ex- 
 istence of the tradition. When thus located 
 in a remote rural parish, on the borders of 
 the counties of Berks, Hants, and Wilts, 
 Tull wrote his Husbandry, a book which 
 is not nearly so well known as it ought to 
 be ; for, though the progress of science has 
 rendered a considerable portion of Tulfs 
 writings obsolete, yet much, very much, 
 remains unaltered by the progress of dis- 
 covery, to amply repay the farmer for a 
 careful and often repeated perusal. 
 
 Tull wrote with all the modesty and dif- 
 fidence of genius : he tells us, in the preface 
 to his Husbandry, that he knew that he 
 had undertaken a task of which he was in- 
 capable, and that it was produced during a 
 long confinement within the limits of a lonely 
 farm, in a country where he was a stranger. 
 And when we remember that he was through 
 life an invalid, — obliged to abandon his se- 
 dentary profession of the law, and seek for 
 health by foreign travel, and by country 
 pursuits, — when we think of these things, 
 we cannot but still more admire the energy 
 of mind he betrayed, and the difficulties he 
 overcame. He feelingly alludes to some of 
 these, when he says, with regard to his great 
 work — " 'Tis no wonder that the style is 
 low as the author, or as the dust that is 
 here treated of, since the whole was written 
 in pains of the stone, and other diseases as 
 incurable and almost as cruel ; but fine lan- 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 guage will not fill a farmer's barn." Every- 
 thing connected with the history of this 
 great benefactor of agriculture must be in- 
 teresting to the cultivators of this and all 
 other countries. I regret that, with some 
 industry, I have not been able to obtain 
 for the farmer more information with regard 
 to him. He was born in Oxfordshire, on 
 his paternal estate. He was educated for 
 the legal profession, became a member of 
 Staple Inn, and was called to the bar on 
 the 1 1th of December 1693, by the benchers 
 of Gray's Inn, and not at the Temple, as is 
 commonly asserted in the biographical dic- 
 tionaries. He was afflicted soon after his 
 call to the bar with a pulmonary disorder, 
 and, in consequence, abandoned his Oxford- 
 shire farm, and for some time travelled on 
 the Continent. He was for a considerable 
 period at Montpelier, in the south of France. 
 Returning to England, he took into his own 
 hands the farm called Prosperous, at Shal- 
 born, in Berkshire, where, again resuming 
 those agricultural efforts which he had 
 commenced in Berkshire, he wrote his 
 Horse-hoe Husbandry. 
 
 During his tour on the Continent, Tull 
 carefully compared the agriculture of France 
 and Italy with that of his own country, and 
 omitted no occasion to observe and note 
 every thing which supported his own views 
 and discoveries. He particularly, on more 
 than one occasion in his work, alludes to 
 the similarity of the practice followed by 
 the vine-dressers of the south of Europe, 
 in constantly hoeing or otherwise stirring 
 their ground, and his own horse-hoe hus- 
 bandry. Finding that they did not approve 
 of dunging their vineyards, Tull readily 
 adduced the fact in favour of his own fa- 
 vourite theory, that manuring a soil is an 
 unnecessary operation. 
 
 After Tull's decease, his lands in Berk- 
 shire found their way into Chancery, and 
 were sold, by order of the court in 1784, to 
 Mr. Blandy, the father of the present owner. 
 It consists of about seventy acres of free- 
 hold land, but Tull held about 130 acres 
 in addition, by a different tenure. The 
 house in which he dwelt has been modern- 
 ised, but the old-fashioned brewhouse yet 
 remains as Tull had it, and when I visited 
 Prosperous in July 1840 was still in very 
 good condition. Of the out-houses, Tull's 
 granary and his stables are yet in existence, 
 though fast verging to destruction; and at 
 the end of this granary, which Tull built, 
 is an old well in which, when cleared out 
 some years since, was found, deeply buried in 
 the accumulated mud of nearly a century, 
 a three-pronged hoe, which there is no 
 doubt belonged to Tull, and is now in the 
 museum of the Royal Agricultural Society 
 1182 
 
 of England. Into this well it was most 
 likely thrown by his men, who, adopting 
 the use of his new tools with the utmost 
 reluctance, annoyed him in many ways. 
 Against these he declaims with much bit- 
 terness : " 'Tis," he says, " the most for- 
 midable objection against our agriculture, 
 that the defection of servants and labourers 
 is such, that few gentlemen can keep their 
 lands in their own hands, but, rather than 
 make nothing of them, they let them for a 
 little to tenants who can bear to be in- 
 sulted, assaulted, kicked, cuffed, and bride- 
 welled, with more patience than gentlemen 
 are endowed with. ' This burst of feeling 
 would very clearly intimate the probable 
 truth of the case, — that Tull was energetic 
 and irritable — that his servants pillaged 
 and annoyed him — and that he did not sub- 
 mit to their impositions without struggling 
 against them in a way which his legal edu- 
 cation should have taught him to avoid. 
 
 Such was the spirit of enterprise, and 
 such was the genius of Tull, that no diffi- 
 culties, however formidable, stopped him in 
 his researches. His experiments, carried on 
 in his garden and in his house, with regard 
 to the food and the habits of plants, some 
 of which he gives in the first pages of his 
 work, betray the thirst for knowledge, the 
 industry, and tact, which he possessed. 
 
 The tradition of his neighbourhood is, that, 
 when confined to his room and to his couch, 
 by his incurable maladies, he yet managed to 
 carry on his experiments on vegetation, by 
 having large boxes and garden-pots of earth 
 placed in his room, and before his windows, 
 where he sowed his seeds, and watched their 
 progress under different modes of cultivation, 
 with all the zeal of a martyr, and the en- 
 thusiasm of an inventor. He is still spoken 
 of by the old labourers of that district, as 
 being a man whom it was impossible to op- 
 pose, in any of his plans, with eventual 
 success. He was evidently the wonder of 
 his neighbours, who would, perhaps, have 
 regarded him as a magician, if the age of 
 witchcraft had not then been nearly, if not 
 quite, over. It would seem, from what Tull 
 says (p. 50.), that it was in 1701 that he 
 constructed his first drill for planting sain- 
 foin. And the occasion of his doing so he 
 thus describes in his preface : " It was very 
 difficult to find a man that could sow clover 
 tolerably ; they had a habit (from which 
 they could not be driven) to throw it once 
 with the hand to two large strides, and go 
 twice on each cast ; thus, with nine or ten 
 pounds of seed to the acre, two thirds of 
 the ground was unplanted, and on the rest 
 it was so thick that it did not prosper. To 
 remedy this, I made a hopper, to be drawn 
 by a boy, that planted an acre sufficiently 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 with six pounds of seed ; but when I added 
 to this hopper an exceedingly light plough, 
 that made six channels eight inches asunder, 
 into which two pounds of seed to an acre 
 being drilled, the ground was as well planted. 
 This drill was easily drawn by a man, and 
 sometimes by a boy." 
 
 Jethro lull's great improvements in til- 
 lage consisted in the use of his drill, and in 
 the adoption of such wide intervals be- 
 tween his rows of turnips (several feet, three 
 to six), that the horse-hoe could be easily 
 and constantly employed. He ridiculed, 
 very justly, the delusions under which the 
 farmers then laboured with regard to the 
 unvaried advantages of thick sowing. He 
 told them that they "did not grudge to 
 bestow three or four pounds in the buying 
 and carriage of dung for an acre, but that 
 they thought themselves undone if they 
 afforded an extraordinary eighteen-penny- 
 worth of earth to the wide intervals of an 
 acre, not considering that earth is not only 
 the best, but also the cheapest entertain- 
 ment that can be given to plants." And 
 again, in another place (p. 32.), he told the 
 thick-sowing broad-cast cultivators of those 
 days, what must have not a little astonished 
 them, " that every row of vegetables to be 
 horse-hoed ought to have an empty space 
 or interval of thirty inches on one side of it 
 at least, and of nearly five feet in all sorts 
 of corn;" and he was very justly suspi- 
 cious, that what he was going to advance 
 " would seem shocking to them before they 
 have made trials." 
 
 Tull was the first English farmer who 
 advocated to its fullest extent the decided 
 advantages of constantly pulverising and 
 stirring the soil, to illustrate which almost 
 all his experiments were directed. His ex- 
 planations, however, of his own discoveries, 
 were not always so good as the object he 
 had in view, although there is little to find 
 fault with in his theory of the advantages 
 of tillage. " I have had," he says (p. 24.), 
 u the experience of a multitude of instances, 
 which confirm it so far, that I am in no 
 doubt that any soil, be it rich or poor, can 
 ever be made too fine by tillage ; for one 
 cubical foot of this minute powder may have 
 more internal superficies than a thousand 
 cubical feet of the same or any other earth 
 tilled in the common manner ; and I believe 
 no two arable earths in the world do exceed 
 one another in their natural riches twenty 
 times ; that is, one cubical foot of the rich- 
 est is not able to produce an equal quantity 
 of vegetables, cceteris paribus, to twenty 
 cubical feet of the poorest ; therefore, it is 
 not strange that the poorest, where, by pul- 
 verising, it has obtained one hundred times 
 the internal superficies of the rich untilled 
 1183 
 
 land, should exceed it in fertility ; or, if a 
 foot of the poorest was made to have twenty 
 times the superficies of such rich land, the 
 poorest might produce an equal quantity of 
 vegetables with the rich. Besides, there is 
 another extraordinary advantage when a 
 soil has a large internal superficies in a very 
 little compass ; for then the roots of the 
 plants in it are better supplied with nourish- 
 ment, being nearer to them on all sides 
 within reach, than it can be when the soil 
 is less fine, as in common tillage, and the 
 roots in the one must extend much farther 
 than in the other, to reach an equal quan- 
 tity of nourishment ; they must range and 
 fill, perhaps, above twenty times more space 
 to collect the same quantity of food. But, 
 in this fine soil, the most weak and tender 
 roots have a free passage to the utmost of 
 their extent, and have also an easy, due, 
 and equal pressure everywhere, as in water." 
 
 He did not confine his attention to the 
 advantages of thoroughly pulverising the 
 land : he was also an advocate for much 
 deeper ploughing than was usual in his 
 time, and in one or two places laments the 
 supineness of the farmers in this respect, 
 and the idleness of the ploughmen, in only 
 half penetrating the soil, for fear of injuring 
 the appearance of their horses : and he 
 illustrated the advantages of his proposed 
 mode of ploughing by the best means in 
 his power, not only by general observation, 
 but by also appealing to several very in- 
 geniously-contrived little experiments upon 
 the habits of plants. 
 
 Tull saw very clearly that this theory of 
 the advantages of pulverising and deepen- 
 ing soils would be strongly supported if it 
 could be shown that the roots of the com- 
 monly cultivated grasses would, under fa- 
 vourable circumstances, penetrate to more 
 considerable depths than the ordinary shal- 
 low soils of the farmer allowed them. He 
 paid, therefore, considerable attention to the 
 roots of plants, not only in his small expe- 
 rimental glasses and pots, but in his fields. 
 He found, by some observations on the 
 roots of some wheat plants growing in a 
 deeply-loosened soil, that their roots had 
 penetrated to more than double the depth 
 of the commonly ploughed land of the 
 farmer ; and all this I can support from my 
 own observations on the roots of the crops 
 growing on the edge of chalk and loam 
 pits, and in other situations where the soil 
 has been loosened to great depths. Tull, 
 too, noticed the very considerable and rapid 
 extension of the roots of trees growing near 
 to old dunghills, sewers, &c, and he hence 
 adduced another argument in favour of the 
 advantages which are derived from assist- 
 ing, in the best ordinary way then known, 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 the roots of plants to penetrate deeper into 
 the soil. Had Tull lived in our days he 
 would have been an ardent advocate for 
 the subsoil and subturf ploughs : he would 
 not then have confined his efforts to the 
 increased use of the common plough and 
 the trenching spade. 
 
 A century has now elapsed since Jethro 
 Tull thus earnestly endeavoured to draw 
 the attention of the farmers of England to 
 the importance of deepening, pulverising, 
 and mixing their soils. Tull, unfortunately 
 for himself, lived an age or two too soon ; had 
 to encounter the ignorance and the obstinacy 
 of his workmen, the apathy of his neigh- 
 bours, the ridicule of those who understood 
 him not, and the anger of the indolent. 
 The principles, however, which he incul- 
 cated have survived and overcome all these 
 obstacles ; are yearly more prized, because 
 better understood. Tull thought that the 
 earth, and the earth alone, did every thing 
 for vegetation : astonished at the effects 
 which were produced by merely deepening 
 and pulverising, he allowed his enthusiasm 
 to carry him too far. " Every plant," he 
 tells us, " is earth, and the growth and true 
 increase of a plant is the addition of more 
 earth ; " and in another place he adds, " too 
 much nitre corrodes a plant, too much water 
 drowns it, too much air dries the roots of 
 it, too much heat burns it ; but too much 
 earth a plant never can have." Thus im- 
 pressed with the value and the all-sufficient 
 powers of earth to support vegetation, it 
 need hardly surprise us that Tull soon 
 came to the conclusion, that, under a proper 
 management of the plough and the scarifier 
 (for a rude instrument of this kind was 
 known in Tull's days), the land might be 
 so pulverised and deepened as to bear its 
 crops without the addition of any decom- 
 posing manures. 
 
 Tull deceived himself in this instance, 
 by not attending to the quantity of finely 
 divided, slowly decomposing substances, 
 which all cultivated soils contain in some 
 shape or other. By ploughing and pulveris- 
 ing, the progress of the putrefaction of these 
 organic matters was accelerated, they were 
 rendered more soluble, and then the suc- 
 ceeding crop was, by their decomposition, 
 sufficiently nourished. But these opera- 
 tions could not be long continued ; at each 
 repetition of the experiment, the amount 
 of the stubborn, slowly decomposing mat- 
 ters of the soil became reduced, and, in 
 consequence, the crops produced under the 
 system became less. Tull's farm at Shal- 
 born was well adapted to try the effect of 
 (his theory: it is situated on the crown of 
 B rising ground, whose thin-skinned soil is 
 :i light loam mixed with gravel resting on 
 
 chalk ; of such a soil the organic matters, 
 of necessity, are speedily exhausted by crop- 
 ping and pulverising. Tull soon found this 
 out ; he struggled hard against the neces- 
 sity, but he finally had recourse to the em- 
 ployment of manures ; he found at last, 
 that, however valuable good tillage is to 
 the application of fertilisers, it is utterly 
 incapable of supplying their place. The 
 failure of Jethro Tull, therefore, in this 
 great effort was complete ; but it was the 
 failure of a man of genius. He tardily ad- 
 mitted the value of dunging the land ; but 
 he still explained its operation in such a 
 way as still to refer all the benefit to the 
 earth, when he told the farmers of those 
 days, " its use is not to nourish but to dis- 
 solve, that is, divide the terrestrial matter 
 which affords nutriment to the mouths of 
 vegetable roots." To a very considerable 
 extent Tull was correct in this explanation 
 of the mode in which common manure 
 operates in rendering the soil more fertile ; 
 for it renders the land more pervious to the 
 atmospheric gases and vapour, and, in con- 
 sequence, all vegetation growing upon the 
 land is better nourished. But the benefit, 
 as Tull imagined, does not end here ; the 
 organic matters of the compost, as they 
 slowly dissolve in the soil, gradually give 
 out a considerable proportion of various 
 gases, such as carburetted hydrogen and 
 carbonic acid gas, all of which are absorbed 
 by the plant at the moment of their extri- 
 cation, enter into new combinations, and 
 promote its vigorous growth. That this 
 is not a merely mechanical advantage is 
 proved in several ways ; for instance, the 
 benefit of the application of the decompos- 
 ing compost is proved to be just as advan- 
 tageous in some instances to the crop where 
 it is not even mixed with the soil. This is 
 shown by the effect (known to every gar- 
 dener) which is produced by placing the 
 manure in a chamber beneath the soil, so 
 that the roots of the plants neither mix with 
 nor does the soil even touch the compost. 
 The gases of putrefaction, however, arise and 
 mix with the soil, and the most luxuriant 
 effects are produced without any division 
 of " the terrestrial matter," which Tull 
 imagined to be so essential to the explana- 
 tion of the phenomenon. We need not 
 search in the works of Tull for any attempts 
 to use the drill for the application of fer- 
 tilisers, for all Tull's efforts were directed 
 to cultivate the earth without manure of 
 any kind. He admitted the necessity of 
 using it at all only with extreme reluctance : 
 he told his readers, seven years before his 
 death, that " the particular scheme of raising 
 constant annual crops of wheat without 
 dung or fallow is as yet only upon proba- 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 tion ; but, by six crops I have had in that 
 manner, I see nothing against their being 
 continued. This, it is true, requires greater 
 care in their management than any other 
 branch of the husbandry ; but he who can 
 do this without dung or fallow may easily 
 do it with one or both of them ; and there 
 may be such wet clayey land which the 
 plough cannot well pulverise, without help 
 of the ferment of dung." 
 
 Tull, in fact, let no opportunity escape 
 him to decry the ill effects of employing 
 manure. Modern gardeners would be as- 
 tonished at his zeal when he contends for 
 its banishment from the kitchen-garden. 
 " There is," he says (p. 18.), " much more 
 reason to prohibit the use of dung in the 
 kitchen-garden, on account of the ill taste 
 it gives to esculent roots and plants, espe- 
 cially such dung as is made in great towns. 
 It is a wonder how delicate palates can dis- 
 pense with eating their own and their beasts' 
 ordure, but a little more putrefied and eva- 
 porated, together with all sorts of filth and 
 nastiness, a tincture of which those roots 
 must unavoidably receive that grow amongst 
 it. Indeed, I do not admire, that learned 
 palates, accustomed to the gout of silphium, 
 garlic, and mortified venison, equalling the 
 stench and rankness of this sort of city 
 muck, should relish and approve of plants 
 that are fed and fattened by its immediate 
 contact. People who are so vulgarly nice, 
 as to nauseate the modish dainties, and 
 whose squeamish stomachs even abhor to 
 receive the food of nobles, so little different 
 from that wherewith they regale their rich- 
 est gardens, say, that even the very water 
 wherein a rich garden cabbage is boiled 
 stinks ; but that the water wherein a cab- 
 bage from a poor undunged field is boiled 
 has no manner of unpleasant savour ; and 
 that a carrot bred in a dunghill has none 
 of that sweet relish which a field carrot af- 
 fords. Dung not only spoils the fine flavour 
 of these our eatables, but it spoils good li- 
 quor. The dunged vineyards in Languedoc 
 produce nauseous wine ; from whence there 
 is a proverb in that country, that poor 
 people's wine is best, because they carry 
 no dung to their vineyards." Our author, 
 however, had a better opinion of vegetable 
 manures than those of animals, for he says, 
 " Vegetable dung, unless the vegetable be 
 buried alive in the soil, makes a much less 
 ferment in it, and, consequently, divides it 
 less than animal dung does. But the dung 
 of vegetables is much more wholesome for 
 the use of edible roots and plants than that 
 of animals." 
 
 Jethro Tull, according to Chalmers, died 
 at his house at ^Prosperous, January 3, 1740. 
 Of his works and inventions of agricultural 
 1185 
 
 machinery, I have already spoken. Five 
 chapters of his only work that I am ac- 
 quainted with, The Horse-hoe Husbandry, 
 were published in folio in 1731, the chief 
 volume in 1733 ; and in the same year some 
 additions were printed which are not found 
 in many of the copies of that year, or even 
 in that of 1751. Cobbett, however, was 
 careful to add it to an octavo edition which 
 he printed in 1829. In this, he omitted 
 only the plates of the ploughs and other 
 agricultural implements ; but he added an 
 introduction, in which he did little except 
 laud Tull, and vituperate those who had 
 adopted Tull's plans, without acknowledg- 
 ing the source of their obligation ; not re- 
 membering that many a Tullian improve- 
 ment has been often made since our author's 
 time, by plain practical farmers, who never 
 even heard the name of Tull mentioned. 
 
 Tull, as I have before remarked, pub- 
 lished his " addenda " to his Husbandry in 
 the same year that the first edition ap- 
 peared ; in these he takes more notice than 
 was perhaps necessary of certain attacks 
 which had been made upon his book, by 
 the members of a certain " equivocal so- 
 ciety," amongst whom was the celebrated 
 Stephen Switzer, the most talented seeds- 
 man, gardener, and horticultural author of 
 his day. It appears, too, that a society of 
 gentlemen in Dublin had, without his leave, 
 reprinted for distribution his five " speci- 
 men chapters," all of which annoying cir- 
 cumstances evidently irritated him ; besides 
 these controversial notices, and certain cor- 
 rections of the errors made by the printer, 
 the long addenda do not contain any thing 
 very valuable. Time has settled pretty 
 well the respective merits of the contend- 
 ing parties ; the fame of Tull is still steadily 
 increasing, while the name and works of 
 even the classical, the elegant Switzer, are 
 much too little known amongst modern 
 cultivators. 
 
 Twenty-four years after the death of 
 Jethro Tull, a paper appeared in the Gen- 
 tleman's Magazine, vol. xxxiv. p. 522., dated 
 at Hungerford, about four miles from the 
 farm where he lived and died, and signed 
 with the initials D. Y., which details - al- 
 most all that is known of the life of the 
 great introducer of the drill system. It 
 was written by one of his neighbours, who 
 had known and associated with him, and 
 valued very properly his services in the 
 cause of agriculture. He describes in that 
 essay the sensation produced by the un- 
 heard-of attempts of Tull. He says, " No- 
 velty always excites curiosity — many gen- 
 tlemen came from different parts on the 
 fame of this new method of farming, some 
 of whom were persuaded by the weight of 
 4g 
 
TULL, JETHKO. 
 
 Mr. Tull's arguments, to go hand in hand 
 with him in the course of his experiments, 
 while others, who thought themselves more 
 wise, and more discerning, took every oc- 
 casion of ridiculing the practice, and of re- 
 presenting it as a fanciful project that, after 
 a great expense, would end in nothing but 
 the ruin of the proprietor. In general, the 
 whole body of farmers and husbandmen 
 pronounced the man as a conjuror, who, by 
 sowing a third part of his land, would make 
 it produce a quantity equal to that of sow- 
 ing the whole." 
 
 The farm of Jethro Tull will ever be an 
 object of interest to the lover of agriculture. 
 Arthur Young made a pilgrimage to Pros- 
 perous (Annals of Agr. vol. xxiii. p. 173.), 
 and William Cobbett did the same. More 
 persons would visit it, if they knew where 
 it was to be found. To such it will be in- 
 teresting to know that the rural parish of 
 Shalborn is situated under the Coomb Hills, 
 about four miles south of Hungerford ; that 
 the roads are tolerable, and the present 
 holder of the farm obliging, and not in- 
 sensible of Tull's great merits. If Tull was 
 deceived in his belief of the powers of the 
 plough, to render the soil fertile without 
 the asssistance of manure, he was yet fully 
 justified in almost every thing that he pre- 
 dicted, with regard to the advantages of 
 thoroughly pulverising and increasing the 
 depth of the soil. 
 
 " The difference betwixt the operation of 
 the spade and that of the common plough," 
 he observes, " is only this, that the former 
 commonly divides the soil into smaller 
 pieces, and goes deeper ; " and he adds, 
 " how easy and natural it is to contrive a 
 plough that may equal the spade, if not ex- 
 ceed it, by going deeper, and cutting the 
 soil into smaller pieces than the spade com- 
 monly does." The explanation, too, which 
 Jethro Tull gave of the advantages or 
 theory of deep ploughing was excellent, 
 considering the chemical knowledge of his 
 days ; for the modern cultivator must re- 
 member that, in his time, the composition 
 of the atmosphere was almost entirely un- 
 known. Tull could not have known any 
 thing of the three gases, — nitrogen, oxygen, 
 and carbonic acid, of which it is now found 
 to be constituted ; and of the existence of 
 its insensible aqueous vapour he was equally 
 unacquainted ; he did not know how im- 
 ortant these are to the roots of plants, and 
 ow the access of them all is naturally pro- 
 moted by pulverising the land on which 
 they vegetate. But though Tull did not 
 know these things, yet it is certain that he 
 bad carefully observed many facts which 
 proved that vapour was absorbed by the 
 soil, and that lliis absorption was promoted 
 1186 
 
 by pulverisation. " To demonstrate," he 
 says (pp. 27, 28.), " that dews moisten the 
 land when fine, dig a hole in the hard 
 dry ground, in the driest weather, as deep 
 as the plough ought to reach ; beat the earth 
 very fine, and fill the hole therewith ; and 
 after a few nights' dews, you will find this 
 fine earth become moist at the bottom, and 
 the hard ground all round will become dry. 
 Till a field in lands : make one land very 
 fine by frequent deep ploughing, and let 
 another be rough by insufficient tillage al- 
 ternately; then plough the whole field cross- 
 wise in the driest weather, which has con- 
 tinued long, and you will perceive, by the 
 colour of the earth, that every fine land 
 will be turned up moist, but every rough 
 land will be dry as powder from top to 
 bottom. In the driest weather, good hoe- 
 ing procures moisture to roots ; though the 
 ignorant and incurious fancy it lets in the 
 drought, and therefore are afraid to hoe 
 their plants at such times." 
 
 These enlightened observations of Tull 
 have been verified and illustrated by the 
 progress of agricultural discovery, by the 
 improved modes of practice adopted by 
 modern farmers, and by the march of che- 
 mical philosophy. Evelyn had observed 
 the advantages of continually keeping the 
 ground of fruit- orchards hoed or dug. Sir 
 Henry Steuart attests, with Sir Walter 
 Scott, Withers, and a hundred others, the 
 same fact, as applicable to timber plant- 
 ations. The farmers of even the most sandy 
 soils of Norfolk, on the very same principle, 
 keep the ground between their rows of tur- 
 nips constantly stirred, just as Tull pro- 
 posed and practised a century since. And 
 when, long after Tull was in his grave, Dr. 
 Priestley discovered the oxygen gas of the 
 atmosphere, it was soon found that its pre- 
 sence was essential to the growth of plants ; 
 that it was highly grateful to the roots of 
 plants, either when applied to them in its 
 simple state, or when combined with the 
 aqueous matters of the atmosphere; and 
 that this application was very sensibly in- 
 deed promoted in either form, by increasing 
 the finely divided state of the soil ; and, 
 further, that without this division of its 
 particles, the earth was totally incapable of 
 absorbing either the necessary gases or the 
 watery vapour. 
 
 The subsoil-plough of Mr. Smith of 
 Deanston, and the subturf-plough of Sir 
 Edward Stracey, which have both proved 
 so successful in our days, only illustrate the 
 truth of Tull's principles and Tull's saga- 
 cious observations. Tull was an advocate 
 for deep ploughing, and for internal pul- 
 verisations : he did not, it is true, see the 
 necessary limits, on ordinary soils, and with 
 
 i: 
 
TULL, JETHRO. 
 
 common ploughs, to the "realisation of this 
 theory : he forgot that the inert nature of 
 many substrata would render it impossible 
 to bring them at once to the surface ; but 
 though he omitted to take this into his 
 calculation, yet still he argued correctly 
 enough, when he so strenuously urged his 
 brother farmers to increase the depth of 
 their soils by every practicable means, to 
 let in the air to the roots of their crops, and 
 to give every facility possible to the growth 
 of the roots of the plant ; for, by so doing, 
 he very plainly told them they derived be- 
 nefits which exclusively belong to the ve- 
 getable world. " There is yet," he said 
 (p. 28.), " one more benefit hoeing gives to 
 plants, which by no art can possibly be 
 given to animals ; for all that can be done 
 in feeding an animal is, to give it sufficient 
 food at the time it has occasion for it ; if 
 you give an animal any more, it is to no 
 manner of purpose, unless you could give 
 it more mouths, which is impossible ; but, 
 in hoeing a plant, the additional nourish- 
 ment thereby given enables it to send out 
 innumerable additional fibres and roots ; so 
 that hoeing, by the new pasture it raises, 
 furnishes both food and mouths to plants." 
 
 To every agricultural operation, in fact, 
 of a mechanical nature, Tull's genius was 
 admirably adapted ; his ploughs, his hoes, 
 his drills, were all of a description far su- 
 perior to those of the rest of the farmers of 
 those days. It was only where he attempted 
 to reason upon the habits and food of plants, 
 involving chemical truths, that Tull made 
 great blunders. Thus believing, as he did, 
 that earth, and earth alone, was the sole 
 food of plants of all kinds, he ridiculed the 
 opinion of Dr. Woodward, that all the con- 
 stituents of plants were conveyed to them 
 through the agency of water. Woodward 
 thought, very justly, " that water is only 
 the agent that conveys the vegetable matter 
 to the bodies of plants, that introduces and 
 distributes it to their several parts for their 
 nourishment." This theory seemed absurd 
 to J ethro Tull, who believed that all plants 
 fed upon the same kind of food, and that 
 that food was earth, and only earth. It is 
 true that Tull had a very indistinct idea 
 that something else was requisite for the 
 food of plants, and that certain " materials 
 contribute in some manner to the increase 
 of plants." And he then specifies five sub- 
 stances, at the head of which it is not a little 
 singular that he places saltpetre or nitre. 
 But how this salt operated as a fertiliser, 
 was not at all more clear to Tull than to 
 any who have succeeded him in the inves- 
 tigation. " Nitre," he says (p. 10.), " is 
 useful to divide and prepare the food, and 
 may be said to nourish vegetables, in much 
 1187 
 
 the same manner as my knife nourishes me, 
 by cutting and dividing my meat ; but when 
 nitre is applied to the root of a plant, it will 
 kill it as certainly as a knife misapplied will 
 kill a man. Nitre is, in respect of nourish- 
 ment, just as much the food of plants as 
 white arsenic is the food of rats." Tull, 
 however, had a high opinion of the powers 
 of common salt, when used as a steep for 
 seed-corn, to prevent the smut in wheat; 
 and he gives (p. 66.) this account of the 
 origin of the practice. " Brining of wheat, 
 to cure or prevent smuttiness, was acciden- 
 tally discovered about seventy years since, 
 in the following manner : A ship-load of 
 wheat was sunk near Bristol in autumn, 
 and afterwards at the ebb tide all taken 
 up, after it had been soaked in sea-water ; 
 but it being unfit for making of bread, a 
 farmer sowed some of it in a field, and when 
 it was found to grow very well, the whole 
 cargo was bought at a low price by many 
 farmers, and all of it sown in different 
 places. At the following harvest, all the 
 wheat in that part of England happened to 
 be smutty, except the produce of the brined 
 seed, and that was all clean from smutti- 
 ness." He then gives the farmer directions 
 for drying the brined seed, by rolling it in 
 quicklime, just as is now commonly prac- 
 tised by the farmer. 
 
 Water, Tull thought, was not a food for 
 plants, because it commonly contains earth, 
 to which he attributed the origin of the 
 common opinion that water is a food of 
 plants. And as to air being their food, 
 which it certainly is, Tull considered this a 
 complete " phantasie" — quite an " airy hy- 
 pothesis." In common with many of the 
 learned of his days, Tull here strangely 
 confused himself, by not attending to ob- 
 servations and experiments with regard to 
 plants, and to these only. The merit, how- 
 ever, of Tull, amid his occasional mistakes, 
 was enhanced by his modesty ; and it is im- 
 possible for us, when we reflect upon the 
 difficulties he had to encounter in the pro- 
 secution of his researches, and in the pro- 
 duction of his book, to be insensible to his 
 appeal, where he tells us, at the conclusion 
 of his preface, " One cause that made the 
 three parts of this book (that is to say, the 
 theory, or speculative part, the practical 
 part, and the description of the tools) the 
 more defective was, that all three were too 
 many for me to make perfect at once, and 
 two would have been useless without the 
 third : therefore, it was better to give but 
 a sketch of all than to have made any two 
 of them never so full and perfect, leaving 
 out the other." 
 
 Such was the modesty, such were the 
 merits of this great father of the drill and 
 4 g 2 
 
TUMBREL. 
 
 TURKEY. 
 
 the horse-hoe husbandry, to whose me- 
 mory something, I hope, will one day be 
 erected, — some memorial, to indicate the 
 agriculturist's gratitude, worthy of the En- 
 glish farmer. Tull lies buried without even 
 a stone to indicate that such a benefactor of 
 agriculture reposes beneath it. His grave 
 is even doubtfully placed. If Tull died at 
 Shalborn, as Chalmers asserts, he was not 
 buried there. There is no trace of him in 
 the parish register ; the tradition of the old 
 people of the neighburhood is, that he died, 
 and was buried in Italy. His deeds, his 
 triumphs, it is true, were of the quiet peace- 
 ful kind, with which the world in general is 
 little enamoured; but their results, their 
 value to the land of his birth, were of no 
 mean order. His drill, his horse-hoe, have 
 saved his country, in seed alone, the food of 
 millions ; and when used as a distributor of 
 manure, it has done, and it will hereafter 
 accomplish still greater things. It has 
 brought into cultivation thousands of acres 
 of the barren craig, the wolds of Lincoln- 
 shire, of the deep sands of Norfolk ; and its 
 powers are not yet nearly exhausted, for, 
 as fresh fertilisers are discovered, the drill 
 evenly and economically distributes them ; 
 and as improvements in its construction are 
 continually taking place, there is evidently 
 much yet to be achieved by its use. The 
 same remarks apply,' in a great measure, to 
 his hoe, and to his system of attempted cul- 
 tivation without manure ; for, although the 
 last was a complete failure, yet even this 
 bold attempt was not unattended with be- 
 nefit to agriculture; for the farmer was 
 hence taught, that although, by deep plough- 
 ing and complete pulverisation of the soil, 
 the use of manure could not be entirely 
 avoided, yet that by these means a much 
 smaller quantity was sufficient than under 
 the old and indolent mode of tilling the 
 land. The efibrts, too, of Tull were pro- 
 ductive of advantage in other and in in- 
 direct ways ; — his researches, his successes, 
 his example, excited a spirit of inquiry, 
 which, since his days, has hardly ever en- 
 tirely slumbered. He was certainly the first 
 who dared to boldly quit the beaten track, 
 which had been used by the farmer for 
 ages, and follow a way of his own. And 
 although he has been well followed and imi- 
 tated by succeeding cultivators, who' have 
 availed themselves of new discoveries and 
 machinery of which Tull had not the assist- 
 ance, yet there have been none who have 
 since excelled, or perhaps equalled him, in 
 the boldness and originality of his concep- 
 tions, or in the energy with which he realised 
 them. ( Qua rt. J (mm. of Agr. vol . xi. p. 342.) 
 
 TUMBREL. A sort of dung-cart, con- 
 venient for many purposes. 
 1188 
 
 TUMBRIL. A machine employed 
 chiefly in the county of Lincoln, for the 
 purpose of giving hay to sheep during the 
 winter. It resembles the basket fish-pots 
 used by fishermen, and consists of a cir- 
 cular cage or crib, which may be made of 
 osiers, willows, or other pliant brushwood 
 of any kind. The whole is about ten feet 
 in circumference, and closely wattled to the 
 height of about one foot, above which it is 
 left open for the space of eighteen inches, 
 it is then wattled again to the height of eight 
 or ten inches, and an opening, about eigh- 
 teen inches in breadth, is left at the top, for 
 putting in the roots or other food, whether 
 green or dry. The staves which form the 
 skeleton of it are ten inches asunder, so that 
 twelve sheep may feed at the same time in 
 each tumbril. 
 
 TURF. A term often applied to the 
 green surface or sward of grass lands. Also 
 the name given to peat, which is used in 
 several parts as fuel. It varies much in its 
 nature in different places, being sometimes 
 hard and of a dark or black colour, while 
 in others it is soft and spongy. It is a 
 substance very useful in burning calca- 
 reous stones into lime. See Moss, Lime, 
 Peat. 
 
 TURKEY. (Meleagris gallo-pavo.) A 
 wild fowl, originally introduced from the 
 West Indies and America. They are very 
 useful and domestic birds, but they require 
 care in their infancy. The black turkey is 
 the best sort, both for size and delicacy. 
 Turkeys are particularly clean birds, lov- 
 ing sweet food and delighting in air. They 
 prefer roosting in trees, for which reason an 
 evergreen, such as a yew tree, spruce fir, 
 &c, is a great advantage, planted in the 
 centre of a poultry-yard. Turkeys and 
 pea-fowl hop up gradually from the low 
 branches, and are sheltered from frost. 
 But where this is not the case, the turkey- 
 house must be dry and warm in winter, and 
 cool in summer ; it must be kept free from 
 vermin, and the dung and litter of feathers, 
 &c. should be often swept away. The 
 perches must be large for their talons to 
 grasp ; and there should be plenty of ven- 
 tilation, by gratings or holes bored in the 
 floor. 
 
 Turkeys seek quiet places to lay in, and 
 often stray far from home. Their nest must 
 be watched, and the newly laid egg ex- 
 changed for one made out of chalk, every 
 day. The turkey hen lays from twelve to 
 twenty eggs ; and when she desires to sit 
 place her in the turkey-house on her eggs, 
 and coop her up with them, if she is un- 
 willing to remain, till she become settled. 
 Do not disturb the hen while silling, or 
 attempt to assist the chick in piercing the 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 shell. When the young ones are born, keep 
 them in the nest for some time, as they love 
 warmth, but do not handle them. Keep 
 them warm and dry. When the red colour 
 of the head appears, they are considered safe 
 from the diseases of their infancy. Do not 
 allow a turkey to sit twice in a season ; the 
 young ones never succeed unless they are 
 full feathered before Michaelmas. Feed 
 young turkeys three or four times a day, 
 and let the food be a thickish paste made 
 of fine barley meal, mixed with finely 
 chopped onions, nettles, and pot-herbs. The 
 French give their turkeys plentiful sup- 
 plies of nettles, of which they are very fond ; 
 it is a warming and nutritious herb. Let 
 the food be given fresh every day, and place 
 it on a board with a shallow pan of water. 
 Coop the hen while the young ones feed, 
 or she will eat it herself. When the chicks 
 begin to follow the turkey into the poultry- 
 yard, do not let them out till the dew is off 
 the ground. Vetch and marrowfat peas 
 are poisonous to young turkeys; lettuce 
 brings on looseness ; and hemlock and hen- 
 bane should be destroyed near all poultry- 
 yards. 
 
 Turkeys love oats, boiled potatoes mashed 
 with the meal of buckwheat, barley, or 
 beans ; or plain barley like other fowls. Let 
 the water always be sweet and clean. A 
 turkey is six weeks fattening ; if possible, 
 feed two or three together, as they do not 
 love solitary confinement. Let them eat 
 as much as they like T but let the food be 
 fresh every day, and let it be the paste 
 above mentioned, softened by melted lard. 
 Cramming turkeys is a cruel practice, and 
 is not often done. They will feed well 
 enough and fast enough, if plenty of sweet 
 food is placed before them, and if they are 
 allowed some little space to move about in. 
 It is a curious fact, that turkeys in America 
 feed on the caterpillars that are found on 
 the tobacco plant with impunity. 
 
 Turkey eggs are very good in pastry, 
 and mixed with hen eggs they improve 
 omelets. Turkey's dung, properly mixed 
 with other composts, makes a valuable 
 manure. 
 
 TURNIP. (Brassica rapa.) No vege- 
 table has had such influence in advancing the 
 husbandry of Great Britain as the turnip. 
 By whom and at what period turnips were 
 first used in England as the food of cattle, 
 however, does not appear ; but from various 
 accounts, their culture and uses were known 
 in the Low countries as far back as there 
 are any records. The ancients appear to 
 have been well acquainted with the value 
 of this root; Columella, speaking of the 
 several kinds of vegetables adapted for the 
 farm, recommends the cultivating of rapa 
 1189 
 
 in plenty, because, says he, those roots that 
 are not wanted for the table will be eaten 
 by the cattle. Worledge, in his Mystery of 
 Husbandry, &c, printed in 1669-81, says, 
 that " although turnips be usually nourish- 
 ed in gardens, and be properly a garden 
 plant, yet are they, to the very great ad- 
 vantage of the husbandman, sown in his 
 fields in several places in England, not only 
 for culinary uses, as about London and other 
 great cities, but also for the food of cattle." 
 Again, he says, " that in Holland, they slice 
 their turnips with the tops, and rape-seed 
 cakes and grains, &c, and therewith make 
 mashes for the cows and give it them warm, 
 which the cows eat like hogs." He likewise 
 complains of the very great neglect and defi- 
 ciency of English husbandry in this particu- 
 lar. Some time since, a very excellent 
 paper " on the Cultivation of the Turnip 
 Crop on Light Soil, by Mr. M. Milburn," 
 appeared in the Transactions of the York- 
 shire Agricultural Society, from which this 
 paper is chiefly extracted. 
 
 It is generally supposed that the culti- 
 vation of turnips, as a field crop, was intro- 
 duced into Norfolk by Lord Townshend ; 
 but there is still further evidence that they 
 were known as such some time before the 
 date assigned for their introduction. They 
 are mentioned in Houghton's Collection of 
 Papers, vol. i. p. 213., as food for sheep, in 
 1684. Since that period considerable im- 
 provements in their cultivation have taken 
 place, and a great variety of very inferior 
 soils have been made capable of growing 
 considerable crops of them by judicious 
 management and proper selection of ma- 
 nure. 
 
 On the value and importance of the tur- 
 nip crop it is unnecessary to expatiate. 
 Not only does it enable the farmer to supply 
 the consumer with fresh meat during the 
 winter, instead of the salted food upon which 
 our ancestors had almost exclusively to de- 
 pend, but also partially supplies the place 
 of a fallow ; it imparts to the land a degree 
 of fertility which ensures, under proper 
 management^ a succession of crops for the 
 following years of the rotation. It is in- 
 deed the sheet-anchor of light soil cultiva- 
 tion, and the basis of the alternate system 
 of husbandry, to which every class of the 
 community is so much indebted. 
 
 Preparation of the Soil. — Turnips gene- 
 rally succeed a crop of wheat. In "some 
 cases, on very poor soils, the clover leys are 
 broken up for turnips; and on others, a 
 crop of winter tares, either mown or depas- 
 tured, are taken off between the wheat crop 
 and ploughing for turnips. As a regular 
 system, the former cannot be pursued ; for 
 the frequent recurrence of the turnip and 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 clover crops would operate injuriously, and 
 defeat the object of the cultivator ; and the 
 latter is only applicable to soils quite free 
 from root weeds, of a superior staple, or in 
 a very high state of cultivation. 
 
 As soon as the corn crop is secured, 
 and the stock have passed over the stubble, 
 it is desirable to have it ploughed, to sub- 
 ject the soil to the ameliorating influence of 
 the frosts of winter. In all cases the plough 
 should be below the couch grass, which is 
 usually most abundant on inferior soils, but 
 seldom below the mould. In ordinary cases, 
 nothing is more necessary than to prevent 
 the water from standing in any part during 
 the winter ; where the land is intended for 
 Swedes, an effort should be made to have it 
 partly or entirely cleared of weeds before 
 the winter. 
 
 When the land is free from weeds, the 
 cross-ploughing may be begun, as soon as 
 the dryness will admit of it. It may take 
 place in February with advantage; inas- 
 much as it exposes a new and more exten- 
 sive surface to the action of the frosts 
 which generally succeed. If allowed to re- 
 main a month or two longer, it may advan- 
 tageously be crossed withFinlayson's harrow. 
 Where the couch grass, however, is abund- 
 ant, it is positively injurious to cross-plough 
 early, as the operation breaks the roots, and 
 renders the clearing of the land afterwards 
 tedious and difficult. Where very abundant 
 the operation should be delayed until the 
 soil is dry, even if it should be the latter 
 end of April or the beginning of May; 
 more will be effected by one ploughing in 
 this case than by two under different cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 When the dryness admits of it, usually 
 in two or three days, the land should be 
 harrowed across ; first with the patent or 
 hinge harrows, and subsequently with the 
 loose harrows, which separate the rubbish 
 more effectually from the soil ; and then 
 the weeds should be raked off, which is ge- 
 nerally performed by women. 
 
 As soon as the couch roots, &c. are 
 cleared off, either by carting into large, or 
 burning in small heaps, the land may be 
 dragged with Finlayson's or any approved 
 drag ; and the same course followed alter- 
 nately, so long as any roots remain. When 
 they are unable to rake them off, they 
 should be hand gathered, and no depend- 
 ance whatever should be placed on the de- 
 sf ruct ion of any by the sun's rays, until the 
 25th of June, a time when, on most soils, 
 the sowing should be concluded. It is de- 
 sirable that the hind should lie a week or 
 ten days before tin- hist, ploughing is given 
 to it, us it, admits of the germination of such 
 seeds of weeds as may be lying dormant in 
 1190 
 
 the soil, and is likewise favourable to the 
 accumulation of moisture in a dry season. 
 The turnip seed should be sown immedi- 
 ately, however, after the last ploughing. 
 
 Manure. — In treating of the manures 
 with which the turnips should be dressed, 
 farm-yard manure stands the foremost, be- 
 cause it is what every farmer possesses, and, 
 with the exception of the calcareous soils in 
 the East Riding of Yorkshire, is almost in- 
 variably employed in the cultivation of tur- 
 nips. In general, it never will, and never 
 can be superseded ; and though every de- 
 ference is due to the practical knowledge of 
 the East Riding farmers, there can be no 
 doubt that if their straw were more care- 
 fully made into manure, and applied to the 
 turnip crop, in conjunction with bones, it 
 would be decidedly advantageous. It is 
 unnecessary to say that house-made ma- 
 nure, and by fattening cattle, especially 
 such as are consuming artificial food, is the 
 best; and that of horses, cows, pigs, &c. 
 should be mixed as intimately as possible, 
 the hot character of horses' dung neutralis- 
 ing the coldness of that of the cow, and vice 
 versa. It is desirable to cart this mixture to 
 the fields intended for turnips in January 
 and February, during the frost, or at such 
 other times as convenience may dictate ; 
 but the earlier the better. About three 
 weeks before used it should be turned 
 over ; the sides of the mixen being carefully 
 turned into the middle. Without entering 
 in particular into the much disputed ques- 
 tion of the fermentation of dung being 
 useful or otherwise, thus much every farmer 
 will know well the truth of, that on light 
 soils, and for turnips, well rotted dung is 
 indispensable, where it is used at all. When 
 fermentation is progressing so fast as to 
 induce destructive heat, or mouldiness, it 
 may be checked by treading the mixen and 
 covering it with soil ; and when it is slug- 
 gish, it may be excited by turning and 
 watering. 
 
 For sandy or gravelly soils, farm-yard 
 manure is an almost necessary ingredient 
 in producing a crop of turnips. The rapid 
 decomposition of vegetable matter which 
 takes place on such soils requires that 
 there should be a supply for that succulent 
 crop; and, as before stated, there can be 
 no doubt of its utility to calcareous soils ; 
 but for peaty descriptions, where there is 
 abundance of vegetable matter, it is less 
 useful. 
 
 The time for laying on the manure de- 
 pends on the method of sowing adopted, 
 and clearness of the land from weeds. If 
 the plough drill he used, it is desirable to 
 
 immediately precede the plough; if the 
 Norfolk or large drill, it is better to lay it 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 on a week or two before sowing, to allow 
 it to mix intimately with the soil, especially 
 if other manure is intended to be used, and 
 the soil pretty free from weeds. The quan- 
 tity to be applied will vary with circum- 
 stances; twelve to fourteen tons per acre 
 may be stated as an average, and more if 
 the soil be poor, and no other manure in- 
 tended ; while less may be used, in propor- 
 tion as other manures are applied. 
 
 Lime stands next in importance, as a 
 dressing. The object of all manure is to 
 supply some deficiency, remedy some me- 
 chanical inconvenience, or correct some 
 detrimental agent in the soil. When dung, 
 for instance, has been applied for several 
 successive crops, a quantity of undecom- 
 posed vegetable matter accumulates, which 
 the natural soluble properties of the soil 
 cannot dissolve, and it remains inert. A 
 dose of lime will correct this, and bring 
 every particle of such inert matter, with 
 which it comes in contact, available as food 
 to the plants. It also assists in the intimate 
 pulverisation of the soil, as well as corrects 
 any acidity which may exist in it, from 
 causes which the agriculturist can seldom 
 foresee, nor correct, except by its use. It 
 is also destructive to weeds in the soil, 
 and hence exceedingly valuable ; for every 
 farmer knows that weeds, being indigenous, 
 are much more ready to grow in the soil 
 than his crops, which are artificial, and 
 often exotic. ^For peaty soils, an occasional 
 dressing of quick lime is invaluable, espe- 
 cially if there is an addition of clay, road 
 scrapings, &c, to give the requisite firmness 
 to the soil. It should be laid on as soon as 
 convenient after bringing from the kiln, 
 and in as hot a state as possible. The time 
 for laying on lime is a few weeks before 
 the sowing, in order that the subsequent 
 ploughings may mix it thoroughly with the 
 soil, and thus its effects be more immediate 
 after the sowing. The quantity per acre 
 entirely depends upon the character of the 
 lime in the locality. Two to four chal- 
 drons per acre are used ; but as it is ap- 
 plied for turnips generally in conjunction 
 with other fertilisers, the former may be 
 stated as the better quantity. If dung is 
 also applied, they should be used at as great 
 a distance of time between each other as 
 circumstances will admit of, and the latter 
 not long before the sowing. 
 
 Bones form one of the most valuable 
 manures for turnips on all light soils, on 
 account of their portable and stimulating 
 character ; they are least useful on a gra- 
 velly or loamy soil. They have converted 
 barren moor lands into rich fertile and pro- 
 ductive farms, luxuriating in every valuable 
 product of the earth. Their value is be- 
 1191 
 
 yond all praise. The East Riding of York- 
 shire affords a specimen of what they have 
 effected ; and they require only to be known 
 to be extensively applied. In many cases 
 they are used alone ; in others, in conjunc- 
 tion with farm-yard manure, with ashes, 
 and with lime. Ashes are sometimes drilled 
 with them as a substitute, by diminishing 
 the quantity of the bones. Lime is a valu- 
 able auxiliary, on " old going land,' 1 or soil 
 which has been long under cultivation. On 
 peaty soils, having a substratum of sand, 
 they have produced wonderful crops, by 
 supplying them with the necessary animal 
 matter. The quantity varies from twelve 
 to thirty bushels per acre. Sixteen bushels 
 per acre will produce a fair crop, on average 
 soils ; and some farmers say that more than 
 that quantity is waste. It is desirable to 
 mix them with a quantity of ashes, when 
 they are drilled in the above quantity. This 
 facilitates the early progress of the plants, 
 and supports them until the bones become 
 available. English bones are generally pre- 
 ferred to foreign ; but from experiments 
 made by the writer, he prefers foreign to 
 English, and also to recent bones ; for, al- 
 though the latter have more of their juices 
 than the former, the former sooner decom- 
 pose ; and the fat and animal juices require 
 considerable chemical changes before they 
 are available as food for the plants. A mix- 
 ture might be judicious, but he has not 
 tried it, nor is he aware of the trial having 
 been made. 
 
 Other manures of a miscellaneous cha- 
 racter are used for turnips. Pigeon's dung 
 is most valuable ; rape dust has been used 
 successfully; and animalised carbon has 
 also been advantageously employed. Six- 
 teen bushels per acre, when drilled, is the 
 quantity generally applied. Malt culms are 
 useful as a top-dressing. (Trans. York. 
 Agr. Soc.) 
 
 A machine for sowing turnip seed with 
 bone dust is described in the second volume 
 of Trans. High. Soc. p. 205. ; and the re- 
 sults of some experiments with different 
 manures is given, Trans. High. Soc. vol. i. 
 p. 66. 72., vol. iv. p. 233. 
 
 Varieties. — There are numberless va- 
 rieties and subvarieties of turnips, which 
 arrange themselves under four heads : — 1 . 
 Swedish turnips, or Ruta baga ; 2. Yellow 
 and white turnips ; 3. Yellow turnips ; and 
 4. White turnips. Professor Low has di- 
 vided them into three classes, distinguished 
 by their form : — 1 . The round, or globular ; 
 2. The depressed ; and 3. The fusiform. 
 These may be considered as types, to which 
 the different cultivated kinds more or less 
 approach. Many varieties are cultivated 
 which are more fanciful than useful. For 
 4 g 4 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 the main particulars of the following list I 
 am chiefly indebted to an interesting Essay 
 on Turnips published by Dr. William Ellis 
 of Caistor, Lincolnshire, and to Messrs. Law- 
 son's excellent Agriculturists Manual. 
 
 Swedish Turnips. — The Swedish turnip 
 is hardier and more nutritious than any of 
 the common sorts, and in addition to its 
 being more esteemed as food for horses 
 throughout the turnip season, is better 
 adapted for spring feeding generally. It, 
 however, requires a somewhat deeper and 
 superior class of soils, together with a 
 greater allowance of manure. Swedish tur- 
 nips are generally sown from about the mid- 
 dle to the end of May, and two to two pounds 
 and a half of seed per imperial acre are, 
 under ordinary circumstances, considered 
 sufficient. They possess an advantage over 
 the others in being easily transplanted, so 
 that the blanks in the rows, either of the 
 Swedes or other sorts (when they occur), 
 are by that means easily filled up. 
 
 Skirvings new improved Purple-topped 
 Swede. — Mr. William Skirving of Walton 
 Nursery, near Liverpool, who has for many 
 years directed his attention to the improve- 
 ment of agricultural roots and plants, in- 
 troduced last season for the first time the 
 above variety. From comparison with every 
 known variety of turnip, Avhich Mr. Skir- 
 ving has been at pains to collect from all 
 quarters, both in this country and the con- 
 tinent, it appears to have shown itself to 
 possess all the good qualities of a turnip, 
 and gives a greater weight per acre of sound j 
 nutritive bulb : it is also hardier, and keeps 
 longer than any other variety. The leaves 
 of Mr. Skirving's Swede appear to partake 
 considerably of the character of those of 
 the common turnips, being less smooth and 
 more serrated at the edges, and deficient 
 in that glaucous bloom which distinguishes 
 the leaves of the genuine Swedish turnip, 
 which leads me to suspect that he has at- 
 tained the size by hybridizing with some of 
 the larger varieties of yellow turnips. 
 
 Ballantyne's new improved Purple-topped 
 Swede. — This improved variety takes its 
 name from its original introducer, Mr. Bal- 
 lantyne, nursery and seedman, Dalkeith. 
 If is, for symmetry of shape, equality of 
 size, and for the uniform deep purple co- 
 lour of its top, unsurpassed by any other 
 variety which has come under our notice. 
 
 Scott's Prize Purple-topped Swede. — 
 The introducer of this approved variety is 
 Mr. Scott of Southend, near Tranent, in 
 Easl Lothian. It is ox-heart shaped, pur- 
 ple above ground, and yellow fleshed, with 
 a small top. 
 
 laing's new Purple-tppped Swede . is 
 a decidedly distinct variety. It has a leaf 
 1 \\)> 
 
 something like that of a lettuce. The leaves 
 are so inserted in the top of the turnip as 
 to give it much the appearance of that of a 
 pine-apple. It grows to a good size, keeps 
 well, and bears a very high character among 
 the agriculturists of Berwickshire and Nor- 
 thumberland, where it is extensively cul- 
 tivated. The crop has a most beautiful 
 appearance when in full leaf. 
 
 Green-topped Yellow Swede. — This va- 
 riety is of longer standing than the purple- 
 topped, since the introduction of which less 
 attention has been bestowed by cultivators 
 in procuring improved stocks of the green- 
 topped Swede, which has on that account 
 fallen somewhat in the estimation of growers ; 
 but, where the same care is taken in se- 
 lecting the roots grown for seed, the green- 
 topped may be considered as being equal in 
 merit to the purple. 
 
 Scott's Prize Green-topped Yellow Swede 
 is an improved variety of the above. The 
 purple-topped Swedes are at present more 
 popular, as we before mentioned ; but where, 
 as is the case with Mr. Scott's, equal care 
 has been bestowed on the selection of stocks, 
 and in the subsequent management, the 
 green is in no way inferior to the purple- 
 topped variety. 
 
 Hilly ard's Thorpeland Swede. — This va- 
 riety was introduced some years ago by Mr. 
 Hillyard. It has the appearance of a true 
 Swedish turnip, and closely resembles some 
 which I saw two or three years ago, the 
 produce of seed procured from the Botanic 
 j Garden at Upsal. It is said to be more 
 nutritive, bulk for bulk, than some of the 
 larger varieties, which may or may not be 
 the case. Its dwarfish size, and the im- 
 possibility of raising any great weight of 
 food per acre from it, must, notwithstand- 
 ing its other merits, be a great obstacle to 
 its making its way among the larger sorts 
 which now invite the attention of cul- 
 tivators. 
 
 Cox's new Imperial Swede. — This va- 
 riety may be considered as intermediate in 
 colour between the purple and green -topped 
 sorts ; its roots often attain a large size, but 
 are rather irregular, and of a somewhat 
 coarse-like quality. 
 
 White Swede. — The roots of this turnip 
 are very irregularly shaped, with number- 
 less fangs : they are white under the sur- 
 face of the ground, and greenish above. It 
 is impossible to say what improvement may 
 do for even this kind, but at present we are 
 acquainted with no variety of white Swede 
 worthy of cultivation. 
 
 Yellow and White Turnips. — Com- 
 mon turnips are divided into two important 
 classes, viz. the white and yellow-rooled ; 
 
 the former comprehending those which are 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 most tender and arrive soonest at maturity, 
 and which are best fitted for using during 
 the earlier part of the season ; and the latter, 
 with trifling exceptions, such as from their 
 hardiness and period of arriving at perfec- 
 tion, are intermediate between the white 
 sorts and the Swedes, and, like the latter, 
 require a somewhat superior soil and an 
 additional allowance of manure. The period 
 of sowing common turnips should be re- 
 gulated according to the length of time that 
 the variety to be grown requires to arrive 
 at maturity ; for when allowed to remain in 
 the ground in what may be termed grow- 
 ing weather, or before winter sets in, after 
 they attain to a full size, they become soft, 
 spongy, and of inferior quality. A general 
 rule, however, is, to commence with the 
 yellow sorts about a fortnight after the 
 Swedes, or about the beginning of June, 
 and to follow with the white sorts from the 
 middle till towards the end of that month. 
 
 Yellow Turnips. — Altringham Yellow. — 
 This turnip — although from its being rather 
 below the medium size attained by yellow 
 turnips in general, it is more particularly 
 suited for garden culture — is also in good 
 repute in some quarters as a field turnip. 
 It is recommended for its fine globular 
 shape, and the superior solidity of its flesh. 
 It has a light greenish top, very small neck, 
 and tap-root. 
 
 Aberdeenshire Sugar Yellow. — This is a 
 very hardy turnip ; it buries itself con- 
 siderably in the ground, is highly nutri- 
 tious, and one of the most approved of the 
 varieties lately introduced. 
 
 Border Imperial Purple-topped Yellow. 
 — This variety was first introduced by Mr. 
 R. Hogg, nursery and seedsman, of Dunse, 
 in Berwickshire. The following particulars 
 respecting it are given by Mr. Hogg : — 
 " This turnip possesses all the qualities of 
 the Swedish, with the advantage of being a 
 much freer grower. It succeeds well on 
 every variety of turnip soil, produces a 
 larger crop than the white globe, is a good 
 feeder, and stands the winter better than 
 any of the common yellows. It is in full 
 perfection for using in February, and con- 
 tinues for as long a period as the Swedes ; 
 and should the latter fail, the border im- 
 perial being sown as late as the month of 
 June, will yield a crop equal, if not superior, 
 to what might have been expected from the 
 Swedes, had they succeeded." 
 
 Green- topped Bullock Yellow. — This 
 turnip attains a medium size. Its shape 
 is globular, or somewhat flattened, with a 
 very small tap-root; it is an old variety, 
 and is held in deserved estimation. 
 
 Purple - topped Bidlock Yelloiv. — This 
 variety differs from the former chiefly in 
 1193 
 
 the colour of the top ; the size, shape, and 
 quality of the roots being pretty nearly the 
 same. It is also highly esteemed, and is 
 considered by some to come nearest to the 
 Swedes in hardiness and solidity of texture. 
 
 Skirving's improved Purple-topped Bul- 
 lock Yellow. — This improved variety of the 
 above obtained for its introducer — Mr. 
 William Skirving, of Liverpool — the medal 
 of the Highland Society of Scotland. It 
 has been generally grown for a number of 
 years by the first agriculturists in Lanca- 
 shire and the north-western counties. 
 
 Green and Purple-topped Yellow Scotch 
 differ but little in any of their essential 
 properties from green and purple-topped 
 bullock yellow. The roots are flatter, and 
 grow more in the ground. 
 
 Ox-heart Yellow is an excellent turnip ; 
 although it comes early to maturity, and 
 attains a considerable size, it is by no 
 means deficient in hardiness. 
 
 Yellow Globe. — This is a superior turnip, 
 both for field and garden culture. Its roots 
 are of medium size, globular, and always 
 nearly under the surface of the ground ; top 
 greenish, leaves rather small and spreading. 
 
 Yellow Sone. — This variety differs from 
 the last in growing more out of the ground, 
 and having a greener top ; in other respects 
 it is pretty similar. 
 
 Brown-topped Tankard Yellow. — Root 
 bright yellow, with a purple or brownish 
 top, of a somewhat irregular long or tankard 
 shape. This variety is in great repute in 
 Aberdeenshire. A sub-variety, of not so 
 very long a shape, is preferred by some 
 growers. They are both excellent turnips. 
 
 Green- topped Tankard Yellow differs 
 from the above chiefly in the colour of the 
 top. Of this there is also a sub-variety, of 
 a flatter shape. 
 
 Large Laurencekirk Yellow Tankard, in- 
 troduced by Mr. Robert Scott, of Laurence- 
 kirk. It resembles Dale's hybrid in many 
 particulars, like which it grows a good deal 
 out of the ground, but is distinguished by 
 its more oblong and more uniformly shaped 
 roots. Like Dale's hybrid, it arrives early 
 at maturity, but is generally considered as 
 rather less hardy, although it yields an 
 equally bulky crop. 
 
 Dale's Hybrid. — This highly esteemed 
 variety, which is a cross between the green- 
 topped Swede and white globe, procured 
 j by repeated impregnations, was first raised 
 and brought into notice by Mr. Robert 
 ! Dale, an intelligent farmer, at Liberton 
 | Mains, near Edinburgh. Mr. Dale obtained 
 a few ounces of the seed of a new hybridal 
 variety from Berwickshire, but which is 
 supposed to have found its way thither from 
 Aberdeenshire, from the stock of that in- 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 defatigable veteran improver of turnips, 
 Mr. Gordon, of Orrok. Its most distin- 
 guishing characteristics are as follow : — fo- 
 liage strong and luxuriant, roots of a large 
 size, oblong shape, and of a lightish yellow 
 colour, with light green top, having also a 
 small neck and tap-root. The form of the 
 root however, although generally oblong, 
 is rather apt to vary, being sometimes al- 
 most globular ; but its more material cha- 
 racteristics, of large size and luxuriance of 
 growth, are always the same. Compared 
 with any other of the yellow field sorts, it 
 is found to arrive sooner at maturity, and 
 consequently may be sown at a later period 
 of the season ; while at the same time it is 
 equally hardy, or at least has been found 
 sufficiently so, to withstand the severest 
 winters which have occurred since its in- 
 troduction. 
 
 Gordon's Yellow. — This very superior 
 variety derives its name from Mr. Gordon, 
 of Orrok, the father of turnip husbandry in 
 Aberdeenshire. It is of a rather oblong 
 shape, deep green colour on the top, which 
 is generally very slightly tinged with red. 
 It is very nearly allied to Dale's hybrid, 
 being a cross between the Aberdeenshire 
 bullock yellow and the Swede. Sir F. A. 
 Mackenzie, Bart., upon whose extreme ac- 
 curacy as an experimentalist the utmost 
 reliance may be placed, grew last year a 
 considerable number of the most approved 
 kinds of turnips, on his farm at Conan Mains, 
 near Dingwall, in Ross-shire, with the view 
 of selecting such as might be found most 
 worthy of being kept in cultivation as best 
 suited to the soil and climate of Ross-shire. 
 The result of his experiments was, that of. 
 Swedes, Skirving's is decidedly the best, 
 Gordon's yellow the best of the yellow- 
 fleshed, and Scott's purple-topped hybrid 
 and the old white globe, of the white-fleshed 
 kinds. 
 
 Hood's new large Yellow is a very supe- 
 rior, large, globular- shaped, hardy turnip, 
 remarkably perfect in symmetry, , with 
 rather a lightish green top. It was intro- 
 duced by Charles Hood, Esq., an eminent 
 farmer at Inverbrora, Sutherlandshire, a 
 gentleman who has devoted much attention 
 to the cultivation and improvement of 
 field turnips generally. 
 
 Pollexfen Yellow. — This turnip derives 
 its name from its introducer, Thomas Pol- 
 lexfen, Esq., of Cairston. From his pecu- 
 liar method of selecting and transplanting 
 the bulbs, as well as of stacking and pre- 
 serving the seed, the turnip seed of Mr, 
 Pollexfen's growth has long been held in 
 deserved estimation in Scotland, and has 
 commanded the highest prices. The insular 
 situation of Orkney, although in latitude 
 1194 
 
 59° north, renders its climate less exposed 
 to the extremes of heat and cold than in 
 more continental situations farther south, 
 the winters being mild, and the frost so gen- 
 tle, that the ice is seldom sufficiently strong to 
 sustain the weight of a man. Its climate is 
 on that account peculiarly favourable to 
 the growth of turnips, and turnip seed 
 grown in Orkney is accordingly highly 
 prized by the Scotch farmers. The Pol- 
 lexfen yellow is a green-topped turnip of a 
 large size, rather flattish in shape, skin very 
 smooth and thin ; the flesh is firm and nu- 
 tritious, being slightly impregnated with 
 the green-topped Swedish. It is adapted 
 for winter and spring feeding, and is not 
 liable to injury from frost. This turnip 
 obtained the prize at the meeting of the 
 Highland and Agricultural Society of Scot- 
 land, held at Inverness in 1836, in the 
 report of which it is highly commended. 
 
 White Turnips. — White Globe. — Roots 
 globular ; skin smooth, and perfectly white, 
 neck and tap-root small; Although the 
 above description embraces the principal 
 characteristics of the white globe turnip, 
 yet there is a considerable variety in those 
 to which the name is applied, arising from 
 the degree of care and attention bestowed 
 by growers in selecting their seed-roots ; 
 and the shape is often not a little affected 
 by the kind and state of the soil in which 
 they are grown. Thus globes of any kind, 
 and particularly the variety here mentioned, 
 when grown on a very superior rich soil, 
 may be said to be forced beyond their 
 natural size, and thereby acquire somewhat 
 of a monstrous or overgrown appearance, 
 losing in a great measure their natural 
 symmetry of shape. 
 
 Pomeranian Globe. — This variety was 
 introduced some years since from Pome- 
 rania, and may be considered the most per- 
 fect globe turnip in shape, as well as the 
 most regular or uniform grower. Its skin 
 is of a smooth white, and somewhat shining 
 or transparent-like in appearance ; leaves 
 smoothish, of a dark green colour, with 
 whitish nerves. 
 
 Green Globe. — Roots of a fine globular 
 shape, with a small neck and tap-root; very 
 white beneath, and green above the surface 
 of the ground, of medium size, hardy and 
 firm of texture, but scarcely so much so as 
 the green round, although it arrives at 
 maturity rather earlier. 
 
 Stone Globe. — This is considered to be 
 the hardiest of all the entire white globe 
 turnips. It grows naturally deeper in the 
 soil than the others, and has stronger and 
 darker green foliage. 
 
 Red Globe. — Roots medium-sized, glo- 
 bularly shaped, and firm in texture. This 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 is an old, and, in some districts, a pretty 
 extensively cultivated variety. It is me- 
 dium early, and generally allowed to be 
 particularly well suited for light soils and 
 exposed elevated situations. 
 
 White Round is known in Lincoln by the 
 name of spring white. It is the largest of 
 the round turnips, and at the same time the 
 softest and most irregular in shape. It is 
 generally hollowed towards the neck, and, 
 being so, is apt to be injured by retaining 
 moisture, which renders it unfit for using, 
 except in the beginning of the winter sea- 
 son. 
 
 Green Round. — The round turnips are 
 all of a peculiar flattish shape, rather hol- 
 lowed towards their neck, as also on their 
 under side, and when grown to a large size 
 they become more or less of an irregular 
 round, or somewhat cornered shape. The 
 green-topped variety possesses these cha- 
 racters in a less degree than the former, 
 and is generally of a pretty regular round 
 shape, flattened, but not much hollowed, on 
 the upper and under surface, the former of 
 which is of a green colour, and the latter 
 white. It is also the hardiest of the round 
 turnips. 
 
 Red Round. — This sort is inferior in 
 size to the two former, but rather firmer in 
 texture, and more regular in shape. It 
 should also be used in the early part of the 
 season. 
 
 White Tankard. — The tankards, like the 
 three preceding kinds, are unsuitable for 
 winter feeding, not so much on account of 
 their softness, as from their standing mostly 
 above ground, and being thereby much 
 exposed to frost. They are generally earlier 
 in arriving at maturity than the others. 
 The white tankard has its roots more than 
 half out of the ground, oblong, or tankard- 
 shaped, but often bent or crooked. It is 
 the largest of the tankards, but is also 
 softer in texture than either red or green ; 
 its leaves are large and luxuriant : it is the 
 earliest in maturing of any, but will not 
 stand the frost. 
 
 Green Tankard. — The roots of this species 
 are also more than half above ground ; of a 
 greenish colour, except on the under sur- 
 face, which is white. 
 
 Red Tankard. — In size, form, and tex- 
 ture, this variety may be considered as oc- 
 cupying an intermediate place between the 
 white and green tankard. It is of a bright 
 red colour on the upper surface, and white 
 on the under. 
 
 Lawton Hybrid. — This variety, which 
 was raised by James Wright, Esq., of Law- 
 ton, near Perth, may be considered as bear- 
 ing the same relation to the Swede as Dale's 
 hybrid. Its leaves are darkish green, ra- 
 1195 
 
 ther small and smoothish, roots roundish, 
 or somewhat heart-shaped, being often ta- 
 pered on the under side ; white below and 
 green above the surface of the ground : 
 they are hardy, and possessed of more 
 solidity and firmness of texture than most 
 of the white sorts. {Quart. Journ. of Agr. 
 vol. v. p. 618.) 
 
 Scott's improved Purple-topped Hybrid. 
 — This variety, which obtained the prize of 
 the Highland Society of Scotland at the 
 meeting at Glasgow, in 1839, owes its origin 
 to the exertions of Mr. Scott, of Southend, 
 near Tranent. For a white-fleshed turnip 
 it is remarkably solid, and attains a great 
 size. This turnip was decidedly the best 
 in point of size, symmetry of shape, uni- 
 formity of growth, and quality of flesh, of 
 all the white-fleshed varieties grown by us 
 last season in our experimental ground. It 
 occupied the same pre-eminent place among 
 those made trial of by Sir F. A. Mackenzie, 
 Bart. 
 
 Lewisham Green-topped Ox-heart. — This 
 is an excellent variety, grown in some of 
 the southern districts of England and in 
 Scotland. It acquired this name from 
 having been first introduced by Messrs. 
 Willmot and Co. of Lewisham. 
 
 Autumn, Stubble, or Six Weeks. — Roots 
 much above ground, rather large, of an ir- 
 regular globular shape, or in form between 
 the white globe and white round, and rather 
 soft. This sort arrives sooner at maturity 
 than any of the others, the tankard turnips 
 perhaps excepted ; and from its natural 
 softness of texture should always be sown 
 late, and used before the severe frosts set 
 in. As descriptive of its forwardness, it 
 has received the above names, being suited 
 for sowing in early situations in autumn 
 after the corn crop has been removed, and 
 it is also valuable for making up blanks in 
 turnip fields, where the first sowing may 
 have partially failed. 
 
 The comparative nutritive powers of the 
 different varieties of turnips appear to be 
 as follow : — 
 
 Grainy of 
 Nutritive Matter. 
 64 drachms of the Swedish turnip 
 
 afford - - 110 
 
 Stone or garden turnip - - 85 
 
 Norfolk white turnip - 83 
 Common or white loaf - 80 
 Tankard or long rooted - 76 
 {Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 406.) 
 
 Methods of sowing. — The modes of sowing 
 are various ; but the general principle to be 
 attended to is, to get the seed into the 
 nearest possible connection with the manure 
 used, so that it may have all the advantage 
 of its fertilising influence in the earliest 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 stage. This is forestalling, because it de- 
 cides the drill method to be the most valu- 
 able, before we describe the others ; but it 
 is a* principle so necessary and obvious as 
 to strike every reflecting person at the 
 outset. The old broadcast plan was, to 
 spread on the manure, plough it in, and then 
 very carefully sow the seed with the hand. 
 This practice is almost every where aban- 
 doned, nor can it be justified or recom- 
 mended in any case. 
 
 The plough drill is used where farm-yard 
 manure only is employed. The manure is 
 spread on the ground, and the plough follows 
 with the drill, being fixed to the right-hand 
 side of the plough, and thus deposits the 
 seed immediately in the seam made by the 
 plough, and directly upon the manure just 
 covered by the plough. The plough- drill 
 is only useful where very bulky manure 
 alone is applied. See Drill. 
 
 The ridge or Scotch method is used with 
 success, especially on inferior and thin soils, 
 and has its decided advantages. The ridges 
 are made either with a single cast of the 
 double mould-board plough, or a double 
 one of the common or ribbing plough, and 
 from twenty to twenty-eight inches apart. 
 A cart with manure follows, and women are 
 generally employed to drop the manure 
 into the seams made by the plough. The 
 plough again follows, and closes the ridges, 
 covering the manure; and the drill suc- 
 ceeds, drawn by one horse, and sows one 
 ridge at a time. A light roller goes over 
 the sown ridges to cover the seed, and 
 sometimes the ridges are rolled before the 
 sowing. This plan takes more time and 
 labour to elfect it, but the turnips generally 
 succeed; and if they should be destroyed 
 by the flea-beetle, they can be resown with 
 more probability of success than by any 
 other method. See Fly. 
 
 The general and most expeditious way is 
 by the large drill. This is constructed to 
 deposit the bones, ashes, &c. with the seed, 
 upon the level surface, drilling six or seven 
 rows at once. It is drawn by three horses, 
 and will drill twelve acres per day. The 
 seed does not run down the same funnel 
 as the bones, but has a separate apparatus 
 immediately behind the latter, and the 
 coulters of the drill generally cover the 
 whole. A pair of light harrows are usually 
 passed over once, after the sowing ; and 
 should much heavy rain succeed, it is de- 
 sirable to give it another turn with the 
 harrows immediately before it is dry, to 
 prevent it from scarping. The quantity of 
 seed sown, by each of these methods, is from 
 two to three pounds per acre. 
 
 After Culture. — When the turnip plants 
 Bore of about three weeks' growth they 
 119G 
 
 require to be thinned, and the weeds de- 
 stroyed. This is usually performed by 
 hand-hoeing ; but in some cases Swedes 
 are hand-thinned by women, and subse- 
 quently horse-hoed, which can be done in 
 all cases where they are sown in ridges, and 
 is a considerable saving of labour. No two 
 plants should be left together at the first 
 hoeing, but they should be thoroughly 
 singled ; and a second hoeing must take 
 place about two or three weeks afterwards, 
 to destroy the weeds. For ordinary crops, 
 they should be left seven to twelve inches 
 distant, according to the richness or poverty 
 of the soil ; if the latter is the case, they 
 should be at shorter distances, as they will 
 grow to a smaller size. The whole of the 
 ground should be gone over, as it loosens 
 the earth, and promotes the growth of the 
 plants. The double operation is usually 
 performed for from 6*. to 7*. per acre. 
 Sometimes the crop requires hand-weeding 
 in the autumn, especially if the soil is in- 
 fested with charlock. 
 
 Diseases. — The extensive and repeated 
 culture of the turnip has fostered the rapid 
 increase of its natural enemies : and after 
 all the pains, labour, and expense of the 
 cultivator, he often sees his crop entirely 
 destroyed, or seriously injured. The re- 
 medies he can apply for many of these can 
 only be termed palliative ; but still he has 
 much in his power ; and as the knowledge 
 of natural history and field-entomology ad- 
 vances, he may expect more and more 
 assistance. See Insects. 
 
 The turnip flea-beetle (Haltica nemoruni) 
 is one of the worst enemies which attack 
 the turnip plant, which it does when in 
 its seed-leaf state, and often destroys a 
 crop, and even the second and third sow- 
 ings. Various steps have been taken in 
 order to prevent its attacks, and several 
 steeps for the seed used, but without suc- 
 cess ; top-dressings of a saline and astrin- 
 gent character have been applied, but have 
 failed ; machines have even been invented, 
 but none of these have succeeded. The 
 only directions which can be given are : 
 sow plenty of seed ; use stimulating ma- 
 nure, to excite the plants to vigorous growth 
 in their first stages, and secure a suffi- 
 ciency of moisture in the soil at the time 
 of sowing ; especially keeping seedlings in 
 turnip fields clear of charlock, which nurses 
 the flea. 
 
 The black caterpillar, larva of the Athalia 
 ccnti ifolice, also preys upon the leaves in a 
 more advanced stage, appearing on the 
 plants when they are about three weeks' 
 old. Sec Saw-Fly. 
 
 Another disease to which the turnip is 
 liable, is vulgarly called " fingers and toes :" 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 about a month after the plants have made 
 their appearance, they begin to flag their 
 leaves, and in a few sunny days literally 
 die by acres together. On examination, 
 the fibres of the roots are found enlarged, 
 and the root covered with tumours and 
 excrescences of every conceivable shape. 
 (See Anbury.) A naked fallow is a remedy 
 for it ; but all applications to the soil and 
 plant have been ineffectual. The reader 
 may consult some articles on this disease, 
 Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 232. 242, 
 338. ; Quart. Jour. Agr. vol. i. p. 429. 
 
 The wire-worm is a sad enemy. (See 
 Wire-Worm.) The swarms of aphides, or 
 plant lice, severely injure the turnips ; and, 
 from the smallness of their size, are often 
 unobserved. In 1836 they committed ter- 
 rific ravages. They suck the juices of the 
 plant, ana appear in countless numbers. 
 They are both oviparous and viviparous, 
 and increase with amazing rapidity. Hap- 
 pily they are always followed by swarms of 
 lady-cows, which feed on them, as well as 
 insectivorous birds, which destroy vast num- 
 bers. No remedy can be applied with any 
 probability of success. Every farmer should 
 carefully protect swallows, red-breasts, &c, 
 which are great destroyers of the aphides. 
 
 Slugs are, especially on newly ploughed 
 soils, great devourers of the turnip plant in 
 all its stages. Ducks will devour them, 
 but always injure the plants. Three bushels 
 of quick lime per acre, scattered over the 
 plants early in the morning, when the slugs 
 are active, is a certain method of destroying 
 them. Perhaps the very best preservative 
 from all the above diseases may be stated 
 to be — liberal manuring, adapted to the 
 soil ; thorough clearing of the land from 
 weeds; and, in short, pursuing the steps 
 above detailed for securing a full crop. 
 The vigour of the plants in such cases, and 
 their rapid vegetation, often enable them to 
 overcome many serious attacks. 
 
 Storing. — There are different modes of 
 performing this useful practice. The com- 
 mon way is to take up the turnips, choosing 
 dry weather, cutting off the leaves and tap- 
 roots (provincially called topping and tail- 
 ing), which operation should be performed 
 with as much exactness as possible, so as 
 not to wound the bulb, as this would cause 
 the turnip to rot ; nor yet to leave much of 
 the leaves, as this would make the turnip 
 vegetate on receiving a slight degree of 
 heat ; after this the turnips are placed in a 
 well-aired situation, adjoining to the feed- 
 ing byre, in a narrow tapering ridge, similar 
 to potato pits, and this is covered with 
 straw and secured with ropes. The situ- 
 ation chosen for the store should be as dry 
 as possible. The heaps must not be covered 
 1197 
 
 with earth, like potatoes; for this would 
 cause the turnips to heat and completely 
 destroy them. 
 
 But as this practice of storing is only 
 adapted for the Swedish and yellow va- 
 rieties, the white globe variety possessing 
 too much water to be preserved for any 
 length of time, another method is often 
 practised by what is called placing. The 
 tap-roots being taken off, the bulbs, with 
 the leaves, are placed close together in the 
 position they grew, upon some dry place 
 near to where they are to be consumed. 
 In this way they will keep longer than if 
 they had been left in the field, as they are 
 not so apt to run to seed. 
 
 But even the placing system has its ob- 
 jections ; for if a tract of dry weather set 
 in, the turnips, from being merely on the 
 surface, become soft and shrivelled, and not 
 so palatable to the cattle, and will even 
 continue so for a considerable time, although 
 the weather should be rainy, until the fibres 
 begin to take hold of the soil ; and another 
 objection is, that if the turnips are not 
 placed near the steading, the destruction 
 from game, hares, wood-pigeons, &c. is 
 very great, particularly if the turnip be 
 Swedish. 
 
 In order, therefore, to remedy these ob- 
 jections, another method has been adopted, 
 which has been found to answer every pur- 
 pose intended. The turnips are brought 
 from the field, without either " topping or 
 tailing," to a piece of dry ground near the 
 straw-yard ; then a man with one horse in 
 a plough makes a straight furrow ; the tur- 
 nips are then placed in the furrow quite 
 close together, till the whole is filled from 
 end to end ; then the man with the plough 
 moves round to where he commenced, draw- 
 ing another furrow just as close to the tur- 
 nips as to enable him to cover them, and so 
 on alternately, the men making the furrow 
 and covering the turnips, while the women 
 and girls lay in the turnips. By this method 
 the turnips keep as fresh, preserving all 
 their natural juices, and are as well relished 
 by the cattle as though they were taken 
 from the field ; thus allowing the land to be 
 sowed with wheat. 
 
 The report of the Harleston Farmers' 
 Club for 1839 affirms that the best method 
 of preserving roots during the winter, is by 
 clamping them, both as regards protection 
 from frost and maintaining their quality ; 
 and that the following is a very effectual 
 method of making the clamps : — Select a 
 convenient and dry situation, and pack the 
 roots carefully, with their crowns outside, 
 in a row about six feet wide at the bottom, 
 and terminating in a narrow ridge at the 
 top ; then dig a trench, commencing imme- 
 
TURNIP. 
 
 TURNIP CUTTERS. 
 
 diately at the edge of the roots, two feet 
 wide and one deep, turning the mould from 
 the heap ; thatch the latter carefully with 
 straw, commencing in the trench, so that 
 all the rain may drain off the heap into it. 
 The clamp may be left two or three weeks 
 in this state, that the evaporation from the 
 roots may escape ; the mould already taken 
 out of the trench is then to be laid on the 
 straw, commencing at the bottom of the 
 thatch, and covering the heap twelve inches 
 thick throughout, finishing with a sharp 
 edge. Half the trench originally made will, 
 of course, by this plan be filled up with 
 straw and mould ; the other half will re- 
 main as a channel for the water falling off 
 the heap ; and, as sufficient mould will not 
 have been raised from the original excava- 
 tion, it will be advisable, in procuring more, 
 to make the channel left round the heap a 
 few inches deeper, as well as wider. If the 
 roots are stored late in the season, and the 
 probability of frost setting in, renders it 
 
 necessary to cover the heap with mould as 
 soon as it is made, it would be better to 
 leave the top uncovered for a week or ten 
 days longer, that the heat may escape. 
 There is no objection to the roots being 
 wet and dirty when they are clamped : the 
 tops should be cut off, but not too close to 
 the crown ; the roots and fibres should be 
 left on. {Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. i. 
 p. 271. ; Lows Elem. of Pract. Agr.; Trans. 
 York. Agr. Soc.) 
 
 TURNIP CART. We here subjoin a 
 sketch of an ingenious adaptation of the 
 disc turnip cutter to the turnip cart. The 
 disc is put in motion by a face-wheel fixed 
 upon the nave of the cart-wheel, which as 
 it revolves communicates by means of cog- 
 wheels with the axis of the cutting-plate. 
 It offers a very convenient mode of feeding 
 sheep on pastures or lawns, and was intro- 
 duced about the year 1834, by Arthur Bid- 
 dell, farmer, of Playford, the inventor of the 
 well-knoAvn scarifier, which bears his name. 
 
 TUItNIP CART, WITH CUTTING APPARATUS ATTACHED. 
 
 TURNIP CUTTERS. Although there 
 are several kinds of turnip cutters, the prin- 
 ciples upon which they are constructed do 
 not embrace much variety : setting aside 
 the simple application of the knife with a 
 lever handle, the others may be divided 
 into two classes ; first, those which have their 
 knives placed on a disc; and secondly, 
 those with their cutting edges arranged on 
 a cylinder. 
 
 As the object to be effected is simple, 
 :ni«l involves little mechanical contrivance, 
 1 1 98 
 
 a short description will suffice. We sub- 
 join a sketch of that one which appears to 
 as the most convenient of any with which 
 we are acquainted : the disc is attached to 
 the side of a barrow, which serves as a 
 hopper ; the knife is nearly the length of 
 the radius, and when required to cut the 
 turnip in slices is alone used ; if it be ne- 
 cessary to cut small slices for sheep, the 
 small cross-knives are by a simple contriv- 
 ance adjusted to dissect the slice; and in 
 this case the barrow is useful, as it is easily 
 
TURNIP CUTTERS. 
 
 moved from trough to trough, into which 
 the small slices may be made to fall. 
 
 The illustration we adopt for the cylin- 
 drical cutter is one which though of recent 
 invention, yet is now so generally known as 
 to need no further description than is af- 
 forded by the wood-cut given below. It is 
 
 intended to cut into small slices for sheep, 
 and is generally acknowledged to be the 
 best implement for the purpose that is at 
 present in use. Our farming readers will 
 not fail to recognise in it Gardners Patent 
 Turnip Cutter. 
 
 1199 
 
 GARDNER S PATENT TURNIP CUTTER 
 
TURNSTONE. 
 
 TUSSER, THOMAS. 
 
 INTERIOR OF GARDNER'S PATENT TURNIP CUTTER. 
 
 TURNPIKE. See Highway and Road. 
 
 TURN-REST PLOUGH. See Plough. 
 
 TURNSTONE. (Strepsilas interpret.)- 
 This bird, in habit, resembles some of the 
 smaller plovers or the sanderling. It fre- 
 quents our coast, either singly or in small 
 flocks, from August throughout the winter 
 till May, when it leaves us to go northward 
 to breed, and returns in August with its 
 young, which, at that time, have none of 
 the fine rich red, black, or white colours so 
 conspicuous in the adult birds. It feeds 
 on the smaller Crustacea, and the soft-bodied 
 animals inhabiting thin shells, turning over 
 stones, and searching among sea-weed for 
 its food. The whole length of the bird is 
 nine inches and a half. (YarreWs Brit. 
 Birds, vol.ii. p. 422.) 
 
 TURPENTINE. A transparent oleo- 
 resinous substance, which exudes naturally, 
 but is chiefly obtained by incision, from 
 various species of pine. There are several 
 kinds of turpentine, namely, common, Bor- 
 deaux, Canadian, Strasburg, Venice, and 
 American white. The Chian turpentine is 
 the production of the Pistacia Terebinthus ; 
 but all of them possess the same general 
 and chemical properties. 
 
 TUSSER, THOMAS, a celebrated 
 agricultural writer. Five-and-twenty years 
 alter the publication of the first English 
 work upon agriculture (Fitzherberf s Bake 
 o/Husbandrye), appeared (in 1557) the One 
 Hundred Points of Good Husbandry, by 
 Thomas Tusser. This celebrated work 
 must be regarded more as a scries of poet- 
 1200 
 
 ical good farming, and domestic directions 
 and axioms, than as a regular treatise upon 
 agriculture. All that is known of the 
 author of this curious production has been 
 collected by Dr. Mavor, in his able edition of 
 Tusser's book, and by my brother, Mr. George 
 W. Johnson, in his History of English Gar- 
 dening ; and both these authors have been 
 obliged to content themselves chiefly with 
 Tusser's own account of himself ; for Tus- 
 ser did what few men ever attempt, — he 
 wrote his own life, and in a manner still 
 more rare, in verse. His life was full of 
 adventure ; for he evidently had all the 
 restlessness of genius, with the unsettled 
 habits too commonly confirmed by con- 
 tinued change of occupation. 
 
 He was born about the year 1515, at 
 Rivenhall, a village on the high road be- 
 tween the towns of Witham and Keldevon, 
 in Essex, of a family allied by marriage to 
 the higher ranks of society. He says of 
 himself, — 
 
 " It came to pass that born I was. 
 Of lineage good, of gentle blood, 
 In Essex layer, in village fair, 
 
 That Rivenhall hight ; 
 Which village ly'd by Banktree side : 
 There spend did I mine infancy ; 
 There then my name, in honest fame, 
 
 Remain'd in sight." 
 
 He was, considerably against his inclin- 
 ation, educated for, and became, a chorister 
 at the collegiate chapel of Wallingford in 
 Berkshire. His voice, it seems, was excel 
 lent ; and, in consequence, he was pressed, 
 as the despotic custom then permitted, lor 
 
TUSSER, 
 
 THOMAS. 
 
 the choir of St. Paul's Cathedral. He 
 speaks feelingly of a chorister's miseries : 
 
 " O painfull time, for every crime ! 
 What touzed ears, like baited bears ! 
 What bobbed lips, what jerks, what nips ! 
 
 What hellish toys ! 
 What robes how bare, what college fare ! 
 What bread how stale, what penny ale ! 
 Then Wallingford, how were thou abhorr'd 
 
 Of seely boys ! " 
 
 From London he was sent to Eton, and 
 became a student there, under Udall, about 
 1534, whose severity of discipline he has 
 recorded. He then proceeded to Trinity 
 Hall, Cambridge ; but leaving it on account 
 of ill health, he was dissuaded from return- 
 ing by William Lord Paget, who kept him 
 about the court, as one of his retainers 
 (most likely as a chorister), for ten years : 
 he left that nobleman, however, without 
 any improvement of his fortune. Retiring 
 to Katwade (Catiwade), in Suffolk, he took 
 a farm, and it was here that he composed his 
 Book on Husbandry. He says of himself : 
 
 " When court 'gan frown, and strife in town, 
 And lords and knights saw heavy sights ; 
 Then took I wife, and led my life 
 
 In Suffolk soil. 
 There was I fain, myself to train, — 
 To learn too long, the farmer's song, 
 For hope of pelf, like worldly elf, 
 
 To moil and toil ! " 
 
 The ill state of his wife's health induced 
 him, after some years, to quit his farm, and 
 reside at Ipswich, where she died. He was 
 then married a second time, to a Miss Amy 
 Moon, and settled at West Dereham, in 
 Norfolk, — 
 
 " A place for wood, that trimly stood ; 
 With flesh and fish as heart could wish." 
 
 But the temper of his youthful wife, and 
 the harshness of his landlord, induced him 
 to move to Norwich, where, under the 
 patronage of Dean Salisbury, he appears 
 once more to have become a chorister. He 
 thus alludes to his second marriage, and its 
 expenses : 
 
 " For lo ! for guile, what haps the wile, 
 Through Venus toys, in hopes of joys, 
 I chanced soon to find a Moon, 
 
 Of cheerful hue. 
 
 * * * 
 
 Behold of truth, with wife in youth, 
 For joy at large, what daily charge, . 
 Through children's hap ; what opened gap, 
 
 To more begun : 
 The child at nurse, to rob the purse, 
 The same to wed, to trouble head ; 
 For pleasure rare, such endless care, 
 
 Hath husband won." 
 
 Ill health induced him again to remove ; 
 and he then took the glebe land of Fair- 
 stead in Essex, near his native village. 
 Fearing the death of the clergyman, he 
 moved to London ; but hastened thence, in 
 1574, to Trinity College, Cambridge, that 
 he might be beyond the influence of the 
 plague. The time he spent at Fairstead 
 1201 
 
 was evidently far from agreeable to Tusser, 
 
 for he says, — 
 
 " From thence so sent, away I went, 
 With sickness worn, as one forlorn, 
 To house my head at Fairsted, 
 
 Where whiles I dwelt 
 The tithing life, the tithing strife, 
 Through tithing ill of Jack and Gill, 
 The daily pays, the miry ways, — 
 
 Too long I felt. 
 
 " When charges grew, still new and new, 
 And that I spy'd, if parson dy'd, 
 (All hope in vain) to hope for gain, 
 
 Fmight go dance ; 
 Once rid my hand, of parsonage land, 
 Thence, by and by, away went I, 
 To London straight, to hope and wait, 
 
 For better chance." 
 
 He returned, however, to the metropolis, 
 and died there, about 1580, certainly before 
 1585, as is proved by the title-page of the 
 edition of his work published that year. 
 That he possessed religious and moral feel- 
 ings of the most excellent kind, peeps out 
 in many parts of his works. He thus con- 
 cludes, for instance, the sketch of his own 
 life: 
 
 " Friend, all things weigh'd, that here is said, 
 And being got, that pays the shot, 
 Methinks of right, have leave I might, 
 
 (Death drawing near) 
 To seek some ways, my God to praise, 
 And mercy crave, in time to have, 
 And for the rest, what He thinks best, 
 
 To suffer here." 
 
 He was buried in the church of St. Mil- 
 dred in the Poultry, according to StoAve, 
 with this epitaph : 
 
 " Here Thomas Tusser, clad in earth, doth lie, 
 That sometime made the Points of Husbandry : 
 By him then learn thou may'st ; here learn we must, 
 "V\ hen all is done, we sleep, and turn to dust: 
 And yet through Christ to heaven we hope to go; 
 Who reads his books, shall find his faith was so." 
 
 This is an outline of all that is known of 
 this extraordinary man. In whatever ca- 
 pacity he at various times lived he acted 
 with ability, yet never so as to benefit his 
 fortune. That he excelled as a singer is 
 certain ; for none but those of more than 
 ordinary powers are admitted into the royal 
 choir. As a courtier he was unfrowned upon 
 till the disgrace of his patron. As a farmer 
 it is evident that he possessed a correct 
 knowledge, from his work upon the subject. 
 The same book testifies that, as an author 
 and a poet, he was far above mediocrity. 
 Fuller, in his Worthies of Essex, describes 
 him, in his usual quaint manner, as " a mu- 
 sician, schoolmaster, serving man, husband- 
 man, grazier, poet, more skilful in all than 
 thriving in any vocation. He spread," he 
 adds, " his bread with all sorts of butter, 
 yet none would stick thereon." The tes- 
 timony of Fuller to the excellent private 
 character of Tusser is valuable as coming 
 from one who must have been the contem- 
 porary of many persons who well remem- 
 bered our author. " I hear," says Fuller, 
 4 H 
 
TUSSER, 
 
 THOMAS. 
 
 " no man to charge him with any vicious 
 extravagancy or visible carelessness." The 
 true reason of his ill success in life is 
 to be found, perhaps, in the verses of a 
 poet almost his contemporary. Peacham, 
 in his Minerva, a book of emblems, pub- 
 lished in 1612, has a device of a whetstone 
 and a scythe, with this beneath : 
 
 " They tell me, Tusser, when thou wert alive, 
 
 And hadst for profit turned every stone, 
 "Where'er thou earnest thou couldst never thrive, 
 Though hereto best couldst counsel every one ; 
 As it may in thy Husbandry appear, 
 Wherein afresh thou liv'st among us here. 
 So, like thyself, a number more are wont 
 To sharpen others with advice of wit, 
 When they themselves are like the whetstone blunt." 
 
 With the remarks of Dr. Mavor on the 
 ill fortune of Tusser, I will conclude this 
 rapid sketch of his life : — " The precepts 
 of Tusser, indeed, are so excellent, that few 
 can read them without profit and improve- 
 ment ; but between the cool collected good 
 sense that sometimes appears in an author's 
 works, and his conduct, as influenced by 
 the temptations and perplexities of life, the 
 discordance is often extreme. Some men 
 are the shuttlecocks of fortune, and, with 
 the best intentions, are always wrong ; with 
 the most serious resolutions of consistency 
 and propriety, are easily driven from their 
 course when they come in contact with the 
 world. Between a courtier and a practical 
 farmer the contrast is so great, and espe- 
 cially between a poet and a plodding man 
 of business, that we need not be surprised 
 our author was unsuccessful in the manage- 
 ment of rural affairs. Yet he appears to 
 have possessed such a degree of pious re- 
 signation to the will of God, of Christian 
 charity, and of good humour under all his 
 miscarriages, that his character rises high in 
 our esteem, independent of his merits as a 
 writer." 
 
 Tusser' s work first appeared in 1557, en- 
 titled " A Hundreth Good Pointes of Hus- 
 bandrie : 
 
 " A hundreth good points of husbandry 
 Maintaineth good household, with huswifry. 
 Housekeeping and husbandry, if it be good, 
 Must love one another like cousinnes in blood. 
 The wife, to, must husband as well as the man, 
 Or farewel thy husbandry do what thou can. 
 
 Imprinted at London, in Flete strete, 
 Avithin Temple barre, at the sygne of the 
 hand and starre, by Richard Totell, the 
 third day of February, An. 1557. Cum 
 privilegio ad imprimendum solum." 
 
 A copy of this edition, which Dr. Mavor 
 considers to be unique, is in the British 
 Museum. It consists of only thirteen quarto 
 leaves. 
 
 The Book of Huswifry^ it is supposed, 
 was nl, first printed by itself; it was after- 
 wards added to the editions of the Hus- 
 bandry, 
 
 1202 
 
 Editions of this work appeared in 1561, 
 1562 ; and another, "newly corrected and 
 amplified," 1570, 1571 (Watts). To these 
 succeeded an enlarged edition bearing the 
 following title : " Five hundred points of 
 good husbandry, united to as many of 
 good huswifery, first devised and now lately 
 augmented with diverse approved lessons 
 concerning hopps and gardening and other 
 rieedeful matters, together with an abstract 
 before every moneth containing the whole 
 effect of the sayd moneth, with a table 
 and a preface in the beginning, both ne- 
 cessary to be reade for the better under- 
 standing of the booke. Set forth by Thomas 
 Tusser, gentleman, servant to the honor- 
 able lorde Paget of Beudesert. Imprinted 
 at London, &c, by Rychard Tottell ; Anno 
 1573." Reprints appeared successively in 
 1577, 1580 (the first complete edition), 
 1585, 1586, 1590, 1593, 1597, 1599, 1600, 
 1604, 1610, 1614, 1620, 1630, 1638, 1672, 
 1692, all in quarto, black-letter, except that 
 of 1600, which is stated to be in folio. 
 Martyn mentions another edition, in 1651. 
 One, entitled Tusser Redivivus, was edited 
 by a Mr. Hilman, in 1710, 8vo. and with 
 further notes in 1744. An edition was 
 edited by Dr. W. Mavor in 1812, 4to. and 
 8vo. with many notes and additions. 
 
 To this I am indebted for nearly the 
 whole of the preceding information con- 
 cerning the editions of Tusser. 
 
 To this Book of Husband?y, says Weston, 
 is often joined The Booke of Regarde, con- 
 taining the Castle of Delight, the Garden of 
 Unthriftinesse, the Arbour of Virtue, and 
 the Castle of Repentance. Another work is* 
 ascribed by Haller to the pen of Tusser, 
 viz. Tractatus de Agricultura Versibus An- 
 giitis. London, 1638-72. Both these last- 
 mentioned works are extremely rare. 
 
 Tusser dedicated his book first to Lord 
 William Paget, in an acrostic, and after his 
 death to " the Lord Paget of Beaudesert," 
 his son and heir. From this we find that 
 Tusser shared an author's very common 
 fate, for he tells us — 
 
 " By practice and ill speeding, 
 These lessons had their breeding, 
 And not by hearsay or reading, 
 
 As some abroad have blown ; 
 Who will not thus believe me, 
 So much the more they grieve me, 
 Because they grudge to give me, 
 What is of right mine own." 
 
 Its price, when first published, as de- 
 scribed in his prefatory address to the 
 reader, was only 4d. or 8d. He says, 
 
 " What is a groat 
 Or twain to note, 
 Once in the life, 
 For man or wife ? " 
 
 The style in which Tusser wrote his hook 
 is plain, and sometimes rather hobbling ; 
 
TUSSEK, 
 
 THOMAS. 
 
 but, at the same time, it is a metre easily- 
 remembered ; and verse is well adapted to 
 impress upon the memory the mass of use- 
 ful truths and rural directions contained in 
 the work. In the rhyming preface, " to the 
 buyer of this book " (for Tusser seemed to 
 do every thing in verse), he says, — 
 
 " What look ye, I pray you shew what ? 
 Terms pointed with rhetorick fine ? 
 Good husbandry seeketh not that, 
 Nor is't any meaning of mine." 
 
 His tenth chapter consists of a series of 
 sixty-three excellent " Good Husbandry 
 Lessons, worthy to be followed of such as 
 will thrive." He omitted no opportunity 
 to give occasion for seasonable reflec- 
 tions : 
 
 " As bud, by appearing, betok'neth the spring, 
 And leaf, by her falling, the contrary thing ; 
 So youth bids us labour to get as we can, 
 For age is a burden to labouring man." 
 
 He commends the system of moderate 
 corn rents, and was evidently no enemy to 
 the sports of the field : 
 
 " To hunters and hawkers take heed what ye say, 
 Mild answer with courtesy, drives them away ; 
 So where a man's better will open a gap, 
 Resist not with rudeness, for fear of mishap." 
 
 He begins his monthly husbandry with 
 September, for that was then the period, as 
 now, when arable land was commonly en- 
 tered upon by the farmer. He says, in his 
 opening stanza, — 
 
 " At Michaelmas lightly, new farmer comes in, 
 New husbandry forceth him ; new to begin ; 
 Old farmer, still taking, the time to him given, 
 Makes August to last untill Michaelmas even." 
 
 In furtherance of his object, that of giving 
 some very minute directions to the incoming 
 tenant, he even gives a catalogue of farming 
 implements in verse, in which he manages 
 with some adroitness to include several ap- 
 parently impracticable names, such as, — 
 
 " A hand-barrow, wheel-barrow, shovel, and spade, 
 A curry-comb, mane-comb, and whip for a jade." 
 
 It was the approved practice in Tusser's 
 days to " sow timely thy white wheat, sow 
 rye in the dust." They were used also to 
 put rye-meal into their wheat-flour : 
 
 " But sow it not mixed to grow so on land, 
 Lest rye tarry wheat till it shed as it stand." 
 
 Thick and thin sowing had even then 
 their respective advocates : 
 
 " Though beans be in sowing ; but scattered in, 
 Yet wheat, rye, and peason, I love not too thin: 
 Sow barley and dredge with a plentiful hand, 
 Lest weed, stead of seed, overgroweth thy land." 
 
 It is evident that in those days the far- 
 mers were not able to grow their corn on 
 many soils where the modern holders find 
 no obstacles. Thus he speaks of the diffi- 
 culty they found in producing barley in the 
 parish of Brantham, in Essex, where he 
 farmed some land ; and, again, he tells us, 
 1203 
 
 what will surprise the modern skilful Suf- 
 folk farmers, — 
 
 " In Suffolk, again, whereas wheat never grew. 
 Good husbandry used, good wheat land I knew." 
 
 And he adds, — 
 
 " As gravel and sand, is for rye and not wheat." 
 
 He mentions several varieties of wheat 
 then grown by the farmers of the reign of 
 good Queen Bess, such as white and red 
 rivet, white and red pollard, Turkey and 
 grey. But of this last he says, — 
 
 " Oats, rye, or else barley, and wheat that is grey, 
 Brings land out of comfort, and soon to decay." 
 
 The land, however, was evidently farmed 
 with little skill : 
 
 " Two crops of a fallow, enricheth the plough, 
 Though t'one be of pease, it is land good enough : 
 One crop and a fallow some soil will abide, 
 Where, if ye go further, lay profit aside." 
 
 He warns the farmers to beware of corn- 
 stealers, and to keep their soil in good heart ; 
 to manure their land with the earth from 
 headlands and old banks : he commends the 
 use of night-soil for gardens ; and recom- 
 mends the manure of the farm-yard to be 
 laid up " round on a hill." And he had the 
 wisdom to perceive the advantages of shed- 
 feeding live-stock : 
 
 " The houseing of cattle, while winter doth hold, 
 Is good for all such as are feeble and old ; 
 It saveth much compass and many a sleep, 
 And spareth the pasture for walk of thy sheep." 
 
 Grazing has, since Tusser's days, been 
 more and more on the decline, as soiling 
 has been better appreciated. A distin- 
 guished modern witty divine, in a letter to 
 a friend, thus zealously denounces the graz- 
 ing system : " Grazing is an absolute bar- 
 barism ; it is just the same as if you desired 
 your servants to trample and roll over your 
 bread and butter." 
 
 For faint cattle he recommends the use o^ 
 bay-salt ; and in his February's husbandry 
 gives some directions for the management 
 of their dung, which betrays a deplorable 
 want of knowledge in its economy : 
 
 " Who l&yeth on dung, ere he layeth on plow, 
 Such husbandry useth, as thrift doth allow : 
 One month ere ye spread it, so still let it stand, 
 Ere ever to plow it, ye take it in hand. 
 
 Place dung-heap alow, by the furrow along, 
 Where water, all winter-time did it such wrong: 
 So make ye the land to be lusty and fat, 
 And corn thereon sown, to be better for that." 
 
 In another place, however, he recom- 
 mends the farmer to use the mud from 
 ditches and ponds as a dressing for their 
 land. 
 
 They harvested their corn, it seems, then, 
 much after the same manner as at the 
 present day. They reaped their wheat and 
 mowed their stubbles ; and this they carried 
 as we do now, as soon as possible after 
 harvest : 
 
 4 h 2 
 
TUSSEK, 
 
 " For fear of destroying with cattle or rain, 
 The sooner ye load it more profit ye gain." 
 
 And as to barley, Tusser says, — 
 
 * " The mowing of barley, if barley do stand, 
 Is cheapest and best, for to rid out of hand : 
 Some mow it, and rake it, and set it on cocks ; 
 Some mow it, and bind it, and set it on shocks." 
 
 They let out, at the period when Tusser 
 wrote, it seems, the harvest-work either by 
 the acre or by the day ; of which modes of 
 getting in the corn he seems to prefer the 
 latter : 
 
 " By great will deceive thee, with ling'ring it out, 
 By day will dispatch, and put all out of doubt." 
 
 His directions to the farmer with regard 
 to the treatment of his harvestmen and the 
 poor gleaners, and his warm hopes for the 
 farmer's success, betray the excellent bene- 
 volent spirit with which he was actuated. 
 He says, — 
 
 " Corn carried, let such as be poor go and glean, 
 And after thy cattle, to mouth it up clean ; 
 Then spare it for rowen till Michel be past, 
 To lengthen thy dairy, no better thou hast. 
 
 In harvest-time, harvest folk, servants and all, 
 Should make altogether, good cheer in the hall ; 
 And fill out the black bowl of blythe to their song, 
 And let them be merry all harvest-time long. 
 
 Once ended thy harvest, let none be beguil'd ; 
 Please such as did help thee — man, woman, and child. 
 Thus doing, with alway, such help as they can ; 
 Thou winnest the praise of the labouring man. 
 
 Now look up to God-ward, let tongue never cease 
 In thanking of Him for his mighty increase, 
 Accept my good will, — for a proof go and try ; 
 The better thou thrivest, the gladder am I." 
 
 Having commenced his directions with 
 the outgoing tenant, his last stanza con- 
 cludes with a reference to the incoming : 
 
 " New farmer he thinketh each hour a day, 
 Untill the old farmer be packing away." 
 
 " Thus endeth and holdeth out 
 August's Husbandry till 
 Michaelmas Eve. Tho. Tusser." 
 
 The Book of Husbandry of Tusser is also 
 interesting from the information it gives us 
 with regard to the customs and habits of 
 the farmers of more than two centuries and 
 a half since. It is evident that the-y then 
 lived very much upon salt fish, for in his 
 directions for the farmer's diet, he men- 
 tions for Lent herrings and salt fish — at 
 Easter they had veal and bacon — at Martin- 
 mas, beef — before the feast of St. John, 
 mackerel — fresh herrings at Michaelmas — 
 at Hallowtide, sprats and spurlings — for 
 Christmas fare they seemed to have all the 
 modern standing dishes, — 
 
 " Good bread and good drink, a good fire in the hall, 
 Brawn-pudding and souse, and good mustard withal ; 
 Beef, mutton, and pork, shred pies of the best, 
 Pig, veal, goose, and capon, and turkey well drest." 
 
 They evidently, however, lived generally 
 very frugally : 
 
 " Where fish Is scant and fruit of trees, 
 Supply that want with butter and cheese, 
 Quoth Tusser." 
 
 1204 
 
 THOMAS. 
 
 They bought, in Tusser's time, such stocks 
 of salt fish as would amaze a modern farmer 
 in these protestant days, -when, by the in- 
 crease of green winter food, cattle and sheep 
 are kept easily through the winter, and 
 fresh meat is always to be had. Few farmers 
 would now think of undertaking a journey 
 to buy fish ; yet he directed the farmer of 
 the sixteenth century, — 
 
 " When harvest is ended, take shipping or ride, 
 Ling, salt-fish, and herring for Lent to provide ; 
 Get home that is bought, and go stack it up dry, 
 With pease-straw between it, the safer to lie." 
 
 They had a rude way of measuring time, 
 
 it seems : 
 
 " As huswives are teached, instead of a clock, 
 How winter nights passeth by crowing of cock." 
 
 The care of the garden evidently fell to 
 the wife's share, who had also to see to the 
 feeding of the household. It seems that the 
 labourers had then a great fondness for por- 
 ridge, for Tusser tells us, — 
 
 " No spoon-meat, no bellyfull, labourers think." 
 
 In other days, too, it is evident that spin- 
 ning was no mean part of the mistress's 
 avocation, for it is here said, — 
 
 " Wife, pluck fro thy seed hemp the fimble hemp clean; 
 This looketh more yellow, the other more green. 
 Use t'one for thy spinning, leave Micheil the t'other, 
 For shoe-thread and halter, for rope and such other : 
 Now pluck up thy flax for the maidens to spin." 
 
 Tusser never seems to have forgotten, on 
 any occasion, to recommend to the land- 
 holder the payment of his just dues ; even 
 the question of the tithes, once so obnoxious 
 to the farmer, was not overlooked by him. 
 He advised his farming brethren to 
 
 " Tithe duly and truly, with hearty good will, 
 That God and his blessing may dwell with thee still ; 
 Though parson neglecteth his duty for this, 
 Thank thou thy Lord God, and give ev'ry man his." 
 
 The Points of Huswifery, united to the 
 comfort of Husbandry, by Thomas Tusser, 
 Gentleman, was, it is concluded, first pub- 
 lished with The Husbandry in 1561 or 1562. 
 It is written in rather a more lively style 
 than the former, and has an epistle dedica- 
 tory, " to the right honorable, and my 
 especiall good lady and mistress, the Lady 
 Paget," which he thus commences : 
 
 *• Though danger be mickle, 
 And favour so fickle ; 
 Yet duty doth tickle 
 My fancy to write : 
 Concerning how pretty, 
 How fine and how netty, 
 Good huswife should jetty 
 From morning to night." 
 
 This work contains an abundance of di- 
 rections, in his usual style of versification, 
 for the conduct of household duties. He 
 directs the servants, before breakfast, to be 
 set to work : 
 
 " Let some to peel hemp, or else rushes to twine, 
 To spin, or to card, or to seething of brine." 
 
TUSSER, THOMAS. 
 
 UDDER. 
 
 At breakfast time the wife was, in those 
 days, the carver for the farm- servants : 
 
 " Let huswife be carver, let pottage be heat, 
 A mess to each one with a inorsell of meat." 
 
 In the cookery department the now nearly 
 extinct race of turnspits were indispensable 
 attendants upon the cook : 
 
 " Good diligent turnbroche, and trusty withal." 
 
 In his washing section he is rather more 
 terse than gentle in his conclusion : — 
 
 " Maids, wash well, and wring well, but beat, ye wot how, 
 If any lack beating, I fear it be you." 
 
 In his directions for malt-making he al- 
 ludes to the use of straw and wood, but 
 does not mention the modern fuel, coke, or 
 cinders. They used, it seems, to dine at 
 noon : 
 
 " By noon, see your dinner be ready and neat ; 
 Let meat tarry servant, not servant his meat." 
 
 The mistress of the house then made, as 
 now in some parts of England, her own 
 candles, it seems : — 
 
 " Provide for thy tallow, ere frost cometh in, 
 And make thine own candle, ere winter begin." 
 
 Twice a week, Sundays and Thursdays, 
 the ploughmen were entitled to roast meat 
 for supper ; and to a harvest goose when the 
 corn was gathered in. At harvest-home the 
 mistress was enjoined, — 
 
 " Remember thou therefore, though I do it not, 
 The seed-cake, and pasties, and furmety pot." 
 
 In Tusser's time a very unwholesome 
 custom prevailed, in the absence of carpets, 
 of strewing the citizens' houses with rushes, 
 and those of the country with flowers. He 
 gives, therefore, a list of " strewing flowers 
 of all sorts," in which we find only the com- 
 mon sorts of flowers now cultivated, such as 
 cowslips, daisies, lavender, roses, sage, tansy, 
 violets, &c. 
 
 Such were the works of Tusser, writings 
 which were long in the hand-book of the 
 English country gentleman. That they were 
 popular is evidenced by the rapid succession 
 of copious editions which fell to their lot ; 
 that they were read with delight is shown 
 by the way in which he is commonly quoted 
 by the farmer of all grades. If he had 
 spoken in prose, as has been sometimes sug- 
 gested, he might certainly have been more 
 instructive to the few, but he would not 
 have been read by the many. 
 
 The popular details and histories of all 
 nations escaping from rudeness are com- 
 monly written in verse ; and multitudes can 
 learn these by heart who never were taught 
 to read Tusser, therefore, is deserving of 
 the gratitude of the English farmer, for his 
 labours tended to improve, to refine, to ele- 
 vate the profession he celebrated in his 
 1205 
 
 verses. The attempt at any thing like a 
 systematic treatise on farming had no^ 
 when Tusser died, been deemed possible. 
 (Quai't. Journ. Agr. vol. xii. p. 69.) 
 
 TUTSAN. See John's Wort. 
 
 TWAYBLADE. (Listera ; named in 
 honour of Martin Lister, M.D. a famous 
 English physician and naturalist ; best 
 known as a conchologist and entomologist.) 
 A genus of curious little native plants, 
 growing wild in shady places. They may 
 be grown in a mixture of peat and loam, 
 and are increased by divisions of the roots. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.) 
 
 TWIFALLOW. A term applied to a 
 second ploughing over, or fallowing the 
 land. 
 
 TWIG-RUSH. (CZadium, from Mados, 
 a branch or twig, referring to the appear- 
 ance of the plant.) This is a genus of hard, 
 harsh, rushy, often prickly-edged plants, 
 whose stems, whether round or triangular, 
 are more or less clothed with alternate 
 sheathing leaves or scales. Spikes nume- 
 rous, brown or blackish, aggregate, gene- 
 rally panicled : one species only is indige- 
 nous. The prickly twig-rush (C.mariscus), 
 which is perennial, and grows about fens 
 and in boggy places, flowering in July and 
 August. The long and creeping roots 
 stretch under the moss, and throw up erect, 
 polished, angular stems, from three to four 
 feet high, bearing keeled, taper-pointed, 
 sharply serrated leaves. The flowers are 
 in erect corymbose panicles, with furrowed 
 branches, consisting of two flowering spikes 
 of a rusty brown hue. The fruit is a drupe, 
 containing a hard, brown, angular nut. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol.i. p. 36.) 
 
 TWITCH. See Couch. 
 
 TWITE. See Linnet. 
 
 u. 
 
 UDDER. The glandular organ of a 
 cow, mare, ewe, or other animal which is 
 destined for the secretion of milk. There 
 are four teats, each of which consists of two 
 granular lobated glands, comprehending 
 bloodvessels, nerves, and milk ducts, all of 
 which first unite into eight or ten principal 
 ducts, and these again into one, which per- 
 forates the skin of the teat at its apex. 
 The granular part is the secreting organ ; 
 but how the milk is separated from the 
 blood is not known. It is known to be 
 affected in the vesicles of the granules, which 
 open and pour the secretion into the ducts ; 
 but how or in what manner the chemical 
 change takes place to form blood into milk, 
 is a mystery which may never be solved. 
 See Cattle, Milk, &c. 
 
 4 h 3 
 
UMBEL, 
 
 VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY. 
 
 ULCER. See Cancer. 
 - ULMUS. See Elm. 
 
 UMBEL. In botany, a particular ar- 
 rangement of the flowers in certain plants, 
 of which the carrot is a familiar example ; 
 the peduncles and pedicles spring from a 
 common centre, and rise till they form a 
 somewhat flat tuft. The umbel is a loose 
 inflorescence, the primary axis of which is 
 short, and the secondary long ; and the 
 umbel becomes compound when the se- 
 condary axes are developed, in the same 
 manner as the primary. Both the primary 
 and the secondary umbel is generally fur- 
 nished with bractes at the point of its di- 
 vergence. The secondary umbel is termed 
 umbelMe. The difference between an umbel 
 and a corymb is, that in the latter the flowers 
 form a flat head, the secondary axes arising 
 alternately from different points of the pri- 
 mary, not, as in the former, springing from 
 a common centre. See Inflorescence. 
 
 UMBER. See Grayling. 
 
 UNDERWOOD. A term applied to 
 coppice, or any wood not accounted timber. 
 See Coppice, Forest, and Plantation. 
 
 URE. A provincial term applied to the 
 udder of a cow, sheep, &c. 
 
 URINE. A saline fluid secreted from 
 the blood of animals by the kidneys, col- 
 lected in the urinary bladder, and emitted 
 by the canal of the urethra. Urine differs 
 in different animals, and varies in its cha- 
 racters, according to the kind of food em- 
 ployed. The usual salts contained in it are, 
 sulphates, phosphates, and chlorides, all of 
 which are fertilising substances. The urine 
 also of oxen and horses is alkaline ; it un- 
 dergoes decomposition less rapidly than 
 that of carnivorous animals : it contains hip- 
 purates, but no lithic acid, that substance 
 which forms red gravel in man. Hippuric 
 acid contains 7 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 Urine, therefore, is of much use as a ma- 
 nure, improving most kinds of soil. Colu- 
 mella has asserted that, stale, it is excellent 
 for the roots of trees. And Hartlib com- 
 mends the Dutch for preserving the urine 
 of cows as carefully as they do the dung, to 
 enrich their lands. 
 
 It is a fluid capable of being employed 
 with great benefit both on meadows and on 
 arable land. (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. 
 p.41G.) See Liquid Manure and Night- 
 
 SOIL. 
 
 CJRITH. Provincially the etherings or 
 bindings of hedges. 
 
 DIM VICS. A term applied tg nets to 
 catch hawks with. 
 
 URRY. A kind of blue or black clay, 
 lying near a vein of coal. 
 
 USTILAGO. ( Fron i ustus, scorched ap- 
 pearance.) A genus of fungi, parasitical, 
 120G 
 
 which are found preying upon the cereal 
 and other grasses. See Smut. 
 
 V. 
 
 VAGS. A term provincially applied to 
 turfs cut and dried for fuel. 
 
 VALERIAN". ( Valeriana.) A genus of 
 plants, most of the species of which are 
 very ornamental in flower borders. The 
 perfectly hardy kinds succeed well in com- 
 mon garden soil ; those from warmer cli- 
 mates should be grown in pots, in a mixture 
 of loam, sand, and peat, and placed in a 
 frame or green-house in winter. They are 
 all readily increased by division at the root. 
 There are three perennial indigenous species. 
 
 1. The red valerian (V. rubra), a peren- 
 nial which grows on chalk cliffs and old 
 walls, bearing a corymb of elegant rose- 
 coloured scentless flowers from June to 
 September. The plant is glaucous, and 
 rises two feet in height ; the leaves are lan- 
 ceolate and entire, occasionally toothed 
 near the base. 
 
 2. The small marsh valerian (V.dioica), 
 which is also perennial, very common in 
 moist boggy meadows, flowering in June. 
 It is a small plant, seldom more than eight 
 inches high. The leaves are entire. The 
 flowers are flesh-coloured, with short, blunt 
 spurs. 
 
 3. Great wild valerian (V. officinalis), a 
 perennial, found in marshes, and about the 
 banks of pools and rivers, flowering in 
 June. The roots are attached to a creep- 
 ing rhizome ; the stem four feet high, bears 
 coarsely serrated leaves, broad and ovate 
 below, and becoming linear as they rise on 
 the stem. The flowers are in corymbose 
 panicles, and of a pale black colour. The 
 odour of the root is strong. It contains 
 oil, resin, and an acid : being considered 
 eminently antispasmodic, it is very fre- 
 quently prescribed with success in hyste- 
 rical cases. The unpleasant ■ flavour of 
 valerian is best counteracted by a small 
 addition of mace ; but this flavour is useful 
 in hysterics. 
 
 4. The heart-leaved valerian (V. pyre- 
 naica) grows in various woods in Scotland. 
 It is not so tall a plant as the last, the. stem 
 is furrowed, and the stem-leaves heart- 
 shaped, serrated, and the upper ones on 
 downy footstalks. The flowers are of a 
 light rose colour, with a short spur. It ex- 
 hales nearly the same odour as the last 
 species. (Paxtori's Sot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 42.) 
 
 VALERLIN, GREEK. See Jacob's 
 Ladder. 
 
 VALUATION. See Appraisement. 
 VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY is that 
 
VEGETABLE 
 
 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 branch of the science of chemistry which 
 relates to vegetable substances. Under 
 the heads Analysis, Chemistry, Organic 
 Chemistry, Gases, Earths, Water, Salts, 
 Temperature, &c. I have endeavoured to 
 include all the facts supplied by this im- 
 portant science for the assistance of the 
 farmer with which I am acquainted ; I shall, 
 therefore, merely insert in this place the 
 chemical analysis of the inorganic sub- 
 stances found in several of the commonly 
 cultivated crops of the farmer ; and this I 
 take from p. 318. of the valuable Lectures 
 on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology, 
 by J. F. Johnston ; see also Liebig's Or- 
 ganic Chemistry. 
 
 Besides the elements of the organs of 
 plants, other substances, obtained from in- 
 organic nature, are necessary for certain 
 organs destined to special functions pecu- 
 liar to each family of plants. In the ashes 
 of the plants left after burning them, these 
 substances are found. Almost all plants 
 contain acids, in combination with soda, po- 
 tassa, lime, alumina, or magnesia. The quan- 
 tity of these salts varies at different periods 
 of the growth of the plant : thus unripe 
 grasses contain more bitartrate of potassa 
 than the ripe, and the potato more potassa 
 before it blossoms than afterwards. The 
 nature of a soil, as has already been de- 
 tailed, alters the quantity of salts found in 
 plants. The Salsola Kali, raised from seeds 
 of plants near the sea, in an inland garden, 
 contains both potassa and soda ; but the 
 plants from the seed of this contain potassa 
 only.' But these facts I have detailed under 
 the head Salts, &c. ; I shall therefore only 
 subjoin the following tables. 
 
 In examining the results of these ana- 
 lysations, the farmer must remember, that 
 the acids and their bases do not exist in 
 plants in an uncombined state, but in com- 
 bination with each other ; that is, as salts. 
 
 1. Of the Ash of Wheat — According to 
 the analysis of Sprengel, 1000 lbs. of wheat 
 leave 11-77 lbs. and of wheat straw 35*18 
 lbs. of ash, consisting of — 
 
 
 Grain of 
 Wheat. 
 
 Straw of 
 Wheat. 
 
 Potash 
 
 2-25 lbs. 
 
 0-20 lbs. 
 
 Soda - 
 
 2-40 
 
 0-29 
 
 Lime 
 
 0-96 
 
 2-40 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 0-90 
 
 0-32 
 
 Alumina, with a traee 
 
 
 
 of iron 
 
 0'26 
 
 0-90 
 
 Silica 
 
 4-00 
 
 28-70 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-37 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0-40 
 
 1-70 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 o-io 
 
 0-30 
 
 
 11 -7 7 lbs. 
 
 35.18 lbs. 
 
 1207 
 
 2. Of the Ash of Barley. — A thousand 
 pounds of the grain of barley (two-rowed, 
 Hordeum distichon), leave 23 T * lbs. and of # 
 the ripe dry straw 52*42 lbs. of ash. This 
 ash consists of — 
 
 3. Of the Ash of Oats. — In 1000 lbs. of 
 the grain of the oat are contained about 
 26 lbs. and of the dry straw about 57§ lbs. 
 of inorganic matter, consisting of — 
 
 4. Of the Ash of Bye. — The weight of 
 ash contained in 1000 lbs. of the grain of 
 rye is 10^ lbs. and of the straw 28 lbs. 
 This ash consists of — 
 
 5. Of the Ash of Beans, Peas, and 
 Vetches. — The ash of the seed and straw 
 of the field bean, the field pea, and the 
 4 h 4 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 JTOlcLoH — - 
 
 9-7S lhc 
 
 1 -SO IVic 
 
 Soda - 
 
 2-90 
 
 0-48 
 
 Lime 
 
 1-06 
 
 5-54 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 1-80 
 
 0-76 
 
 Alumina 
 
 0-25 
 
 1-46 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 a trace. 
 
 0-14 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 
 
 0-20 
 
 Silica - 
 
 11-82 
 
 38-56 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-59 
 
 1-18 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 2-10 
 
 1-60 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 0-19 
 
 0-70 
 
 
 23-49 lbs. 
 
 52-42 lbs. 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash 
 
 1-50 lbs. 
 
 8-70 lbs. 
 
 Soda - - - 
 
 1-32 
 
 0-2 
 
 Lime - 
 
 0-86 
 
 1-52 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 0-67 
 
 0-22 
 
 Alumina 
 
 014 
 
 0-06 
 
 Oxide cf iron 
 
 0-40 
 
 0-02 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 
 o- 
 
 0-02 
 
 Silica - 
 
 19-76 
 
 45-88 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-35 
 
 0-79 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0-70 
 
 0-12 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 o-io 
 
 0*05 
 
 
 25-80lbs. 
 
 57-40 lbs. 
 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash - \ 
 
 5.32 lbs. 
 
 0-32 lbs. 
 
 Soda - - J 
 
 o-ii 
 
 Lime - 
 
 1-22 
 
 1-78 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 044 
 
 0-12 
 
 Alumina 
 
 0-24 1 
 
 0-25 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 0-42 J 
 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 
 0*34 
 
 
 Silica 
 
 1-64 
 
 22-97 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-23 
 
 1-70 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 0-46 
 
 051 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-17 
 
 
 10-40 lbs. 
 
 27-93lbs. 
 
VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY. 
 
 common vetch (Vicia sativa), dried in the I organic compounds in the following pro- 
 air, contains in 1000 lbs. the several in- | portions : — 
 
 
 Field Bean. 
 
 Field Pea. 
 
 Common Vetch. 
 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Seed. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Potash - 
 
 4*15 
 
 16*56 
 
 8'10 
 
 2*35 
 
 8*97 
 
 18*10 
 
 Soda 
 
 8*16 
 
 0'50 
 
 7 "39 
 
 
 6*22 
 
 0"52 
 
 Lime - 
 
 1-65 
 
 6-24 
 
 0-58 
 
 27-30 
 
 1-60 
 
 19-55 
 
 Magnesia - 
 
 1-58 
 
 2-9 
 
 1-36 
 
 3 42 
 
 1-42 
 
 3-24 
 
 Alumina - 
 
 0-34 
 
 o-io 
 
 0-20 
 
 0-60 
 
 0-22 
 
 0-15 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 
 0-07 
 
 o-io 
 
 0'20 
 
 0-09 
 
 0-09 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 
 
 0-05 
 
 
 0-07 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-08 
 
 Silica - 
 
 1-26 
 
 2-20 
 
 4-10 
 
 9-96 
 
 2-00 
 
 4-42 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 0-89 
 
 0-34 
 
 0*53 
 
 3-37 
 
 0-50 
 
 1-22 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 2-92 
 
 2-26 
 
 1-90 
 
 2-40 
 
 1-40 
 
 2-80 
 
 Chlorine ... 
 
 0'41 
 
 0-80 
 
 0-38 
 
 0-04 
 
 0*43 
 
 0-84 
 
 
 21-36 
 
 31-21 
 
 24-64 
 
 49-71 
 
 22-90 
 
 51*01 
 
 6. The Ash of the Turnip, Carrot, Pars 
 
 - 1 tne y 
 
 are carried from 
 
 the field, contair 
 
 lip, and Potato. — These four 
 
 roots, as | respectively in 
 
 10,000 lbs.— 
 
 
 
 Turnips. 
 
 
 
 Potatoes. 
 
 
 
 
 Carrot. 
 
 Parsnip. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Roots. 
 
 Leaves. 
 
 
 
 Roots. 
 
 Tops. 
 
 Potash - 
 
 23-86 
 
 32-3 
 
 35-33 
 
 20-79 
 
 40-28 
 
 81-9 
 
 Soda .... 
 
 10-48 
 
 22-2 
 
 9-22 
 
 7-02 
 
 23-34 
 
 0-9 
 
 Lime - 
 
 7-52 
 
 62-0 
 
 6*57 
 
 4-68 
 
 3-31 
 
 129-7 
 
 Magnesia - 
 
 2-54 
 
 5-9 
 
 3'84 
 
 2-70 
 
 3-24 
 
 17-0 
 
 Alumina 
 
 0-36 
 
 0-3 
 
 0-39 
 
 0-24 
 
 0-50 
 
 0-4 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 0*32 
 
 1-7 
 
 0*33 
 
 0-05 
 
 0-32 
 
 0-2 
 
 Oxide of manganese - 
 
 
 
 0-60 
 
 
 
 
 Silica - 
 
 3-88 
 
 12-8 
 
 1-37 
 
 1-62 
 
 0-84 
 
 49*4 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 
 8-01 
 
 25-2 
 
 2-70 
 
 1-92 
 
 5-40 
 
 4-2 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 3-67 
 
 9-8 
 
 5-14 
 
 1* 
 
 4-01 
 
 19*7 
 
 Chlorine - 
 
 2-39 
 
 8-7 
 
 0-70 
 
 1-78 
 
 1-60 
 
 5-0 
 
 
 63-3 
 
 180-9 
 
 66-19 
 
 41-80 
 
 82-83 
 
 308*4 
 
 7. Of the Ash of the Grasses and Clovers. 
 — The following table might have been 
 much enlarged. I have thought it neces- 
 sary, however, to introduce in this place 
 only those species of grass and clover 
 which are in most extensive use. I have 
 also calculated the weights given below for 
 these plants in the state of hay only, as the 
 
 succulency of the grasses — that is, the 
 quantity of water contained in the green crop 
 — varies so much, that no correct estimate 
 could be made of the quantity of inorganic 
 matter present in hay or grass, from a know- 
 ledge of its weight in the green state only. 
 The annexed quantities are contained in 
 1000 lbs. of the dry hay of each plant : — 
 
 
 Rye-grass 
 Hay. 
 
 Red Clover. 
 
 White Clover. 
 
 Lucern. 
 
 Sainfoin. 
 
 Potash 
 
 8*81 
 
 19-95 
 
 31*5 
 
 13*40 
 
 20*57 
 
 Soda 
 
 3*94 
 
 5*29 
 
 5*79 
 
 6*15 
 
 4*37 
 
 Lime - 
 
 7*34 
 
 27-80 
 
 23*48 
 
 48*31 
 
 21*95 
 
 Magnesia - 
 
 0-90 
 
 3-33 
 
 3*05 
 
 3*48 
 
 2*88 
 
 Alumina - 
 
 0-31 
 
 0*14 
 
 1*90 
 
 0*30 
 
 0*66 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 
 
 0-63 
 
 0*30 
 
 
 Oxide of manganese 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Silica - 
 
 27-72 
 
 3*60 
 
 14-73 
 
 3*30 
 
 5' 
 
 Sulphuric acid 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 3-53 
 
 4*47 
 
 3-53 
 
 4*04 
 
 3*41 
 
 0-25 
 
 6*57 
 
 5*05 
 
 13*07 
 
 9*16 
 
 Chlorine - 
 
 0-06 
 
 3*62 
 
 2-11 
 
 3*18 
 
 1-57 
 
 
 52-86 
 
 74*78 
 
 91-32 
 
 95*53 
 
 69-57 
 
 1208 
 
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY is that 
 science which treats of the vegetable king- 
 dom, its habits, properties, and organisa- 
 tion, in the most comprehensive manner. 
 Its objects have been clearly stated by Mrs. 
 Marcet, in her excellent Conversations on 
 Vegetable Physiology, when describing the 
 lectures of M. Decandolle on this science ; 
 and what she has so well described, it is 
 needless for me to give in other words. " So 
 far from confining himself to the classifica- 
 tion of plants, the physiologist examines the 
 vegetable kingdom in its most comprehen- 
 sive and philosophical point of view. In de- 
 scribing the structure, he investigates the 
 habits and properties of plants, and shows, 
 not only how wonderfully they have been 
 formed to fulfil the purposes of their own 
 multiplication and preservation, but how 
 admirably they answer the high purpose 
 which nature has assigned to them, of minis- 
 tering to the welfare of the animal creation, 
 and more especially to that of man. He 
 turns his attention particularly to point out 
 the means by which the science of botany 
 can promote that with which it is most in- 
 timately and importantly connected, — agri- 
 culture. He makes ready the soil and sows 
 the seed for the husbandman ; he extracts the 
 healing juices and the salutary poisons for 
 the physician ; he prepares materials for the 
 weaver, colours for the dyer ; in a word, as 
 he proceeds, there is scarcely an art on 
 which he does not confer some benefit, 
 either by pointing out a new truth, or 
 warning against an old established error." 
 From this description of the objects of the 
 science of vegetable physiology, the reader 
 will see that almost all its different branches 
 are treated of separately in articles which 
 are dispersed through this volume. It is 
 only, therefore, a few scattered fragments 
 which I propose to gather together in this 
 place. See Botany, Temperature, Light, 
 Earths, Gases, Salts, Water, Acceimat- 
 ation, Putrefaction, &c. 
 
 The description of the cambium or de- 
 scending sap of plants was omitted in its 
 proper place, and the effect of gravity or 
 attraction upon plants was referred to this 
 head. The sap having ascended into the 
 leaves, and being in its course gradually al- 
 tered into a fluid suitable for the nourish- 
 ment of the plant, descends principally 
 through the liber, or inner layer of bark, 
 but a small portion also descends through 
 the young wood or alburnum. This move- 
 ment, ' especially through the plants with 
 pendant branches, is materially facilitated 
 by motion, as by the action of the wind. 
 " Mr. Knight," adds Mrs. Marcet, " has 
 made a variety of interesting experiments 
 1209 
 
 on this subject. He confined both the stem 
 and branches of a tree in such a manner 
 that it could not be moved by the wind. 
 The plant became feeble, and its growth 
 much inferior to those of a similar tree 
 growing in its natural state. He confined 
 another tree, so that it could be moved 
 only by the north and south winds, and 
 obtained the singular result of an oval 
 stem, the sides accessible to the wind grow- 
 ing more vigorously than those sheltered 
 from its influence. Every species of re- 
 straint, and especially such as tend to ren- 
 der plants motionless, impedes their growth. 
 Stakes by which young trees are propped, 
 nailing them to walls or trellises, green- 
 houses, or confined situations where the air 
 has not free access, check and injure the 
 vigour of vegetation, and render plants dimi- 
 nutive and weakly. The cambium descends 
 almost entirely through the liber or most 
 internal and youngest layer of the bark ; if, 
 therefore, a ring is cut completely through 
 the bark this fluid is arrested in its course, 
 and, accumulating around the upper edge 
 of the intersected bark, will cause an an- 
 nular protuberance. The descent of the 
 cambium thus being obstructed, it will 
 accumulate in that part of the tree above 
 the intersection, afford it a superabundance 
 of nourishment, creating a proportional vi- 
 gour of vegetation and a corresponding ex- 
 cellence and profusion of produce." This 
 operation, or ringing, is often performed 
 on the non-productive branches of fruit 
 trees. 
 
 The effect of gravitation or attraction upon 
 plants is of the highest importance to their 
 germination and their growth. From the 
 very nature, however, of this essentially pre- 
 sent power, a principle known only to us by 
 its effects, the research is surrounded with 
 difficulties. Mr. Knight, the late excellent 
 president of the Horticultural Society, de- 
 scribed some of the effects of gravity upon 
 plants in his usual happy manner, when, in 
 addressing the fellows of the Royal Society, 
 he observed, " It can scarcely have escaped 
 the notice of the most inattentive observer 
 of vegetation, that in whatever position a 
 seed is placed to germinate, its radicle inva- 
 riably makes an effort to descend towards 
 the centre of the earth, while the elongated 
 germen takes precisely the opposite direc- 
 tion ; and it has been proved by Duhamel, 
 that if a seed during its germination be fre- 
 quently inverted, the pomts both of the 
 radicle and germen will return to the first 
 direction. Some naturalists have supposed 
 these opposite effects to be produced by 
 gravitation ; and it is not difficult to con- 
 ceive that the same agent, by operating on 
 
VEGETABLE 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 bodies so differently organised as the radicle 
 and germen of plants are, may occasion the 
 one to descend and the other to ascend." 
 The hypothesis of these naturalists it was 
 the intention of Knight to examine by cer- 
 tain experiments, which he thus proceeds 
 to describe. " I conceived that if gravitation 
 were the cause of the descent of the radicle, 
 and the ascent of the germen, it must act 
 either by its immediate influence on the 
 vegetable fibres and vessels during their 
 formation, or on the motion and consequent 
 distribution of the true sap afforded by the 
 cotyledons ; and as gravitation could pro- 
 duce these effects only while the seed re- 
 mained at rest, and in the same position 
 relative to the attraction of the earth, I 
 imagined that its operation would become 
 suspended by constant and rapid change of 
 the position of the germinating seed, and 
 that it might be counteracted by the agency 
 of centrifugal force. Having a strong rill of 
 water passing through my garden, I con- 
 structed a small wheel similar to those used 
 for grinding corn, adapting a wheel of a 
 different construction, and formed of very 
 slender pieces of wood, to the same axis. 
 
 " Round the circumference of the latter, 
 which was eleven inches in diameter, nu- 
 merous seeds of the garden bean, which had 
 been soaked in water to produce the greatest 
 degree of expansion, were bound at short 
 distances from each other. The radicles of 
 these seeds were made to point in every 
 direction, some towards the centre of the 
 wheel, and others in the opposite direction ; 
 others at tangents to its curve ; some point- 
 ing backwards and others forwards rela- 
 tive to its motion, and others pointing in 
 opposite directions in lines parallel with the 
 axis of the wheels. The whole was enclosed 
 in a box and secured by a lock, and a wire- 
 grate was placed to prevent the ingress of 
 any body capable of impeding the motion of 
 the wheels. The water being then admitted, 
 the wheels performed something more than 
 150 revolutions in a minute, and the posi- 
 tion of the seeds relatively to the earth was 
 as often perfectly inverted within the same 
 period of time, by which I conceive that the 
 influence of gravitation must have been 
 wholly suspended. In a few days the seeds 
 began to germinate ; I soon perceived that 
 the radicles, in whatever direction they were 
 protruded from the position of the seed, 
 turned their points outwards from the cir- 
 cumference of the wheel, and in their sub- 
 sequent growth receded nearly at right 
 angles from its axis. The germens, on the 
 Contrary, took the opposite direction, and 
 in a few days their points all met in the 
 (•ciitrc of (lie wheel. Three of these plants 
 were Buffered to remain on the wheel, and 
 1210 
 
 were secured to its spokes to prevent their 
 being shaken off by its motion. The stems 
 of these plants soon extended beyond the 
 centre ; but the same cause which first oc- 
 casioned them to approach its axis still 
 operating, their points returned and met 
 again at its centre. The motion of the 
 wheel being in this experiment vertical, 
 the radicle and germen of every seed oc- 
 cupied during a minute portion of time in 
 each revolution precisely the same position 
 they would have assumed had the plants 
 vegetated at rest; and as gravitation and 
 centrifugal force also acted in lines parallel 
 with the vertical motion and surface of the 
 wheel, I conceived that some slight objec- 
 tions might be urged against the conclu- 
 sions I felt inclined to draw. I therefore 
 added to the machinery I have described 
 another wheel, which moved horizontally 
 over the vertical wheels; and to this, by 
 means of multiplying wheels of different 
 powers, I was enabled to give many dif- 
 ferent degrees of velocity. Round the cir- 
 cumference of the horizontal wheel, whose 
 diameter was also eleven inches, seeds of 
 the bean were bound as in the experiment 
 which I have already described, and it was 
 then made to perform 250 revolutions in a 
 minute. By the rapid motion of the water- 
 wheel, much water was thrown upwards on 
 the horizontal wheel, part of which sup- 
 plied the seeds upon it with moisture, and 
 the remainder was dispersed in a light and 
 constant shower over the seeds in the ver- 
 tical wheel, and on others placed to vege- 
 tate at rest in different parts of the box. 
 
 "Every seed on the horizontal wheel, 
 though moving with great rapidity, neces- 
 sarily retained the same position relative to 
 the attraction of the earth, and therefore 
 the operation of gravity could not be sus- 
 pended, though it might be counteracted in 
 a very considerable degree by centrifugal 
 force, and the difference I had anticipated 
 between the effects of rapid vertical and 
 horizontal motion soon became sufficiently 
 obvious. The radicles pointed downwards 
 about ten degrees below, and the germens 
 as many degrees above, the horizontal line 
 of the wheel's motion, centrifugal force 
 having made both to deviate eighty degrees 
 from the perpendicular direction each would 
 have taken had they vegetated at rest. Gra- 
 dually diminishing the rapidity of the hori- 
 zontal wheel, the radicles descended more 
 perpendicularly, and the germens grew more 
 upright, and, when it did not perform more 
 than eighty revolutions in a minute, the ra- 
 dicle pointed about forty-five degrees below, 
 and the germen as much above, the horizon! al 
 line ; the one always receding from, and the 
 other approaching to, the axis of the wheel. 
 
VEGETABLE 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 " I would not, however, be understood to 
 assert that the velocity of 250 or 80 ho- 
 rizontal revolutions in a minute will always 
 give accurately the degrees of depression 
 and elevation of the radicle and germen 
 which I have mentioned ; for the rapidity 
 of the motion of my wheels was somewhat 
 diminished by the collection of fibres of 
 confervas against the wire grate, which ob- 
 structed in some degree the passage of the 
 water ; and the machinery having been the 
 workmanship of myself and my gardener, 
 cannot be supposed to have moved with all 
 the regularity it might have done had it 
 been the work of a professed mechanic. 
 But I conceive myself to have fully proved 
 that the radicles of germinating seeds are 
 made to descend, and their germens to as- 
 cend, by some external cause, and not by 
 any power inherent in vegetable life ; and 
 I see little reason to doubt that gravitation 
 is the principal, if not the only, agent em- 
 ployed in this case by nature. I shall, 
 therefore, endeavour to point out the means 
 by which I conceive the same agent may 
 produce effects so diametrically opposite to 
 each other. 
 
 " The radicle of a germinating seed (as 
 many naturalists have observed) is increased 
 in length only by new parts successively 
 added to its apex or point, and not at all 
 by any general extension of parts already 
 formed, and the new matter which is thus 
 successively added unquestionably descends 
 in a fluid state from the cotyledons. On 
 this fluid, and on the vegetable fibres and 
 vessels while soft and flexible, and whilst 
 the matter which composes them is chang- 
 ing from a fluid to a solid state, gravitation 
 would, I conceive, operate sufficiently to 
 give an inclination downwards to the point 
 of the radicle ; and as the radicle has been 
 proved to be obedient to centrifugal force, 
 it can scarcely be contended that its direc- 
 tion would remain uninfluenced by gravi- 
 tation. I have stated that the radicle is 
 increased in length by parts successively 
 added to its point ; the germen, on the con- 
 trary, elongates by a general extension of 
 its parts previously organised, and its ves- 
 sels and fibres appear to extend themselves 
 in proportion to the quantity of nutriment 
 they receive. If the motion and consequent 
 distribution of the true sap be influenced 
 by gravitation, it follows that when the 
 germen, at its first emission or subsequently, 
 deviates from a perpendicular direction, the 
 sap must accumulate on its under side ; and 
 I have found, in a great variety of expe- 
 riments on the seeds of the horse-chestnut, 
 the bean, and other plants, when vegetating 
 at rest, that the vessels and fibres on the 
 under side of the germen invariably elon- 
 1211 
 
 gate much more rapidly than those on the 
 upper side ; and hence it follows that the 
 points of the germen must always turn up- 
 wards. And it has been proved that a 
 similar increase of growth takes place on 
 the external side of the germen, when the 
 sap is impelled there by centrifugal force, 
 as it is attracted by gravitation to its under 
 side when the seed germinates at rest. This 
 increased elongation of the fibres and ves- 
 sels of the under side is not confined to the 
 germens, nor even to the annual shoots of 
 trees, but occurs and produces the most 
 extensive effects in the subsequent growth 
 of their trunks and branches. The imme- 
 diate effect of gravitation is certainly to 
 occasion the further depression of every 
 branch which extends horizontally from 
 the trunk of the tree, and when a young 
 tree inclines to either side, to increase that 
 inclination ; but it at the same time at- 
 tracts the sap to the under side, and this 
 occasions an increased longitudinal exten- 
 sion of the substance of the new wood on 
 that side. The depression of the lateral 
 branch is thus prevented, and it is even 
 enabled to raise itself above its natural 
 level when the branches above it are re- 
 moved ; and the young tree, by the same 
 means, becomes more upright, in direct op- 
 position to the immediate action of gra- 
 vitation, nature, as usual, executing the 
 most important operations by the most 
 simple means. 
 
 "It has, however, been objected by Du- 
 hamel (and the greatest deference is always 
 due to his opinions) that gravitation could 
 have little influence on the direction of the 
 germen were it, in the first instance, pro- 
 truded, or were it subsequently inverted, 
 and made to point perpendicularly down- 
 wards. To enable myself to answer this 
 objection I made many experiments on 
 trees of the horse-chestnut and of the bean, 
 in the box I have already described ; and 
 as the seeds there were suspended out of 
 the earth, I could regularly watch the pro- 
 gress of every effort made by the radicle 
 and germen to change their positions. The 
 extremity of the radicle of the bean, when 
 made to point perpendicularly upwards, 
 generally formed a considerable curvature 
 within three or four hours when the wea- 
 ther was warm. The germen was more 
 sluggish ; but it rarely or never failed to 
 change its direction in the course of twenty- 
 four hours ; and all my efforts to make it 
 grow downwards by slightly changing its 
 direction were invariably abortive. 
 
 "Another, and apparently a more weighty 
 objection to the preceding hypothesis (if 
 applied to the subsequent growth and form 
 of trees) arises from the facts that few of 
 
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 their branches rise perpendicularly up- 
 wards, and that their roots always spread 
 horizontally ; but this objection may^ I 
 think, be readily answered. The luxuriant 
 shoots of trees, in whatever direction they 
 are first protruded, almost uniformly turn 
 upwards, and endeavour to acquire a per- 
 pendicular direction, and to this their points 
 will immediately return if they are bent 
 downwards during any period of their 
 growth, their curvature upwards being oc- 
 casioned by an increased extension of the 
 fibres and vessels of their under sides, as in 
 the elongated germens of seeds. The more 
 feeble and slender shoots of the same trees 
 will, on the contrary, grow in almost every 
 direction; probably because, their fibres 
 being more dry, and their vessels less amply 
 supplied with sap, they are less affected by 
 gravitation. Their points, however, gene- 
 rally show an inclination to turn upwards ; 
 but the operation of light, in this case, has 
 been proved by Bonnet to be very con- 
 siderable. 
 
 " The radicle tapers rapidly as it descends 
 into the earth, and its lower part is much 
 compressed by the greater solidity of the 
 mould into which it penetrates. The true 
 sap, also, continues to descend from the 
 cotyledons and leaves, and occasions a con- 
 tinued increase of the growth of the upper 
 parts of the radicle, and this growth is 
 subsequently augmented by the effects of 
 motion, when the germen has risen above 
 the ground. The true sap is, therefore, ne- 
 cessarily obstructed in its descent, numerous 
 lateral roots are generated, into which a 
 portion of the descending sap enters. The 
 substance of these roots, like that of the 
 slender horizontal branches, is much less 
 succulent than that of the radicle first 
 emitted, and they are, in consequence, less 
 obedient to gravitation, and therefore meet- 
 ing less resistance from the superficial soil 
 than from that beneath it, they extend 
 horizontally in every direction, growing 
 with most rapidity, and producing the 
 greatest number of ramifications, wherever 
 they find most warmth, and a soil best 
 adapted. As these horizontal or lateral 
 roots surround the base of the tree on every 
 6ide, the true sap, descending down its bark, 
 enters almost exclusively into them ; and the 
 first perpendicular root, having executed 
 its office of securing moisture to the plants 
 whilst young, is thus deprived of proper 
 nourishment, and, ceasing almost wholly to 
 grow, becomes of no importance to the tree. 
 
 "As trees possess the power of turning the 
 upper surfaces of their leaves and the points 
 01 their shoots to the light, and their ten- 
 drils in any direction to attach themselves 
 to contiguous objects, it may be suspected 
 1212 
 
 that their lateral roots are by some means 
 directed to any soil in their vicinity which 
 is best calculated to nourish the plant to 
 which they belong ; and it is well known 
 that much the greater part of the roots of 
 an aquatic plant which has grown in a dry 
 soil, on the margin of a lake or river, have 
 been found to point to the water, whilst 
 those of another species of tree which thrives 
 best in a dry soil have been ascertained to 
 take an opposite direction : but the result 
 of some experiments I have made is not 
 favourable to this hypothesis ; and I am 
 inclined to believe that the roots disperse 
 themselves in every direction, and only be- 
 come more numerous where they find most 
 employment, and a soil best adapted to the 
 species of plant." {Selection of Papers, p. 
 129.) 
 
 A tree growing upon a wall at some dis- 
 tance from the ground, and consequently 
 ill supplied with food and water, has also 
 been observed to adapt its habits to its 
 situation, and to make very singular and 
 well-directed efforts to reach the soil be- 
 neath by means of its roots. During the 
 period in which it is making such efforts 
 little addition is made to its branches, and 
 almost the whole powers of the plant appear 
 to be directed to the growth of one or more 
 of its principal roots. To these much in 
 consequence is annually added, and they 
 proceed perpendicularly towards the earth, 
 unless made to deviate by some opposing 
 body ; and as soon as the roots have at- 
 tached themselves to the soil, the branches 
 grow with vigour and rapidity, and the 
 plant assumes the ordinary habits of its 
 species. 
 
 In some other experiments of Knight to 
 illustrate these highly interesting habits of 
 plants, pieces of alum, and of the sulphate 
 of iron (green vitriol), blue vitriol (sulphate 
 of copper), were placed at small distances 
 perpendicularly beneath the radicles of 
 germinating seeds of different species, to 
 afford an opportunity of observing whether 
 any efforts could be made by them to avoid 
 poisons ; but they did not appear to be at all 
 influenced except by actual contact of the 
 injurious substances. The growth of their 
 fibrous lateral roots was, however, obviously 
 accelerated when their points approached 
 any considerable quantity of decomposing 
 vegetable or animal matter ; and when the 
 growth of the roots was retarded by want of 
 moisture, the contiguity of water in the 
 adjoining mould, though not apparently in 
 actual contact with them, operated bene- 
 ficially : but I had reason to suspect that 
 the growth of roots was, under these cir- 
 cumstances, promoted by actual contact 
 with the detached and fugitive particles of 
 
VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 the decomposing body and the evaporating 
 water. 
 
 The way in which plants establish them- 
 selves in opposition to the various obstacles 
 they have to encounter, as, for instance, in 
 withstanding violent winds, is very remark- 
 able : thus, as the author I have already 
 quoted so much remarks in another place, 
 u The growth and forms assumed by the 
 roots of trees of every species are, to a great 
 extent, dependent upon the quantity of 
 motion which their stems and branches 
 receive from winds ; for the effects of mo- 
 tion upon the growth of the root and of the 
 trunk and branches are perfectly similar. 
 Whatever part of a root is moved and bent 
 by winds or other causes, an increased de- 
 position of alburnous matter upon that 
 part soon takes place, and consequently the 
 roots which immediately adjoin the trunk 
 of an insulated tree in an exposed situation 
 become strong and rigid, whilst they di- 
 minish rapidly in bulk as they recede from 
 the trunk, and descend into the ground; 
 by this sudden diminution of the bulk of 
 the roots the passage of the descending sap 
 through their bark is obstructed, and it, 
 in consequence, generates, and passes into 
 many lateral roots, and these, if the tree be 
 still much agitated by winds, assume a- 
 similar form, and consequently divide into 
 many others. A kind of net-work, com- 
 posed of thick and strong roots, is thus 
 formed, and the tree is secured from the 
 danger to which its situation would other- 
 wise expose it. In a sheltered valley, on 
 the contrary, where a tree is surrounded 
 and protected by others, and is rarely agi- 
 tated by winds, the roots grow long and 
 slender, like the stem and branches, and 
 comparatively much less of the circulating 
 fluid is expended in the deposition of al- 
 burnum beneath the ground ; and hence it 
 not unfrequently happens that a tree in the 
 most sheltered part of a valley is uprooted, 
 whilst the exposed and insulated tree upon 
 the adjoining mountain remains uninjured 
 by the fury of the storm." {Selection of 
 Papers, p. 163.) 
 
 All such investigations as these are fraught 
 with instruction to the cultivator of the 
 earth. They not only illustrate the every- 
 day operations of the farmer, but they guard 
 him against the adoption of specious no- 
 velties and unscientific efforts to increase 
 the fertility of the soil. Such researches, 
 too, will hardly fail to instruct and elevate 
 the character of the tiller of the earth in 
 more ways than one. They will teach him, 
 as M. Mirbel long since well remarked, that 
 every operation " is connected in the vast 
 system of the globe, and that order emanates 
 from the equipoise of conflicting phenomena. 
 1213 
 
 Animals carry off the oxygen of the atmo- 
 sphere, replacing it by carbonic acid gas ; and 
 are thus at work to adulterate the constitu- 
 tion of the air and render it unfit for re- 
 spiration. Vegetables take up carbonic acid 
 gas, retain the carbon, and give out oxy- 
 gen ; and are thus purifying the air tainted 
 by animals, and re-establishing the neces- 
 sary proportions between its elements. 
 In Europe, while our vegetables, stripped 
 by the severity of the season of their foli- 
 age, no longer yield the air contribut- 
 ing to life, the salutary gas is borne to 
 us by trade winds from the southernmost 
 regions of America. Breezes from all 
 quarters of the world intermingle thus the 
 various strata of the atmosphere, and keep 
 its constitution uniform in all seasons and 
 at all elevations. The substances which 
 are produced by the dissolution of animal 
 and vegetable matter are absorbed by 
 plants, and constitute a portion of the nou- 
 rishment' by which they are maintained ; 
 plants, in their turn, become the food of 
 animals, and these again the prey of others 
 which subsist on flesh. Yet, in spite of this 
 perpetual state of war and destruction, 
 nothing perishes, for all is regenerated. 
 Nature has ordained that the two great 
 divisions of organised beings should depend 
 the one upon the other for support, and 
 that both the life and death of individuals 
 should be equally serviceable in preserving 
 the harmony of the universe. 
 
 " If we come to consider vegetation as it 
 regards ourselves, we shall find that this 
 great agent of nature, subjected in a cer- 
 tain degree to the control of man in a 
 state of society, is the main source of his 
 prosperity or of his misery. How many 
 countries have the greedy ambition of 
 princes, and the degradation and ignorance 
 of the people, made barren ! Recollect 
 what Asia Minor, Judea, Egypt, the pro- 
 vinces at the foot of Mount Atlas, have 
 been, and behold what they are at this day. 
 Recollect Greece, once the country of sci- 
 ence and of liberty, now that of ignorance 
 and slavery ; she can be only recognised in 
 her ruins, and her monuments of the dead. 
 Man had denied his labour to the earth, 
 and the earth her treasures to man : all 
 vanished with agriculture. The traveller 
 who passes that country of so great renown, 
 finds, in the place of the fine forests that 
 crowned its mountains, of the rich harvests 
 reaped by twenty busy nations, of the nu- 
 merous flocks that enriched its fields, only 
 naked rocks and sterile sands, with here 
 and there a miserable village. He seeks in 
 vain for several rivers recorded in history ; 
 they are gone ! Thus the rage of conquest 
 and of rule not only overturns cities, de- 
 
VEGETABLE MARROW. 
 
 VESTRY. 
 
 populates whole countries, and brings back 
 barbarism, but it dries up the very springs 
 from which the natural riches of the earth 
 have flowed. To these melancholy results 
 of our passions we might oppose the more 
 cheerful ones of our industry ; but they are 
 more properly within the province of the 
 arts of cultivation than of vegetable phy- 
 siology." 
 
 VEGETABLE MARROW. {Cucurbita 
 ovifera, var.) The fruit of the succada 
 gourd is uniformly of a pale yellow colour, 
 and of an elliptic-oblong shape ; when full 
 grown it is about nine inches in length and 
 four in diameter, and is by far the best 
 adapted for culinary purposes of any species 
 of the gourd tribe. For culture see Gourd. 
 The vegetable marrow, according to Mr. 
 Sabine, may be used at any stage of its 
 growth : when very young it is good fried 
 with butter ; when large or about half grown 
 it is excellent either plain boiled or stewed 
 with rich beef gravy; for either of these 
 purposes it should be cut in slices. The 
 flesh has a peculiar tenderness and softness, 
 from which circumstance it has received its 
 name. {Baxters Libr. of Agr. p. 623.) 
 
 VELVET LEAF. See Tree-Mallow. 
 
 VENISON. The flesh of deer. See 
 Meat and Deer. 
 
 VENUS'S COMB. See Shepherd's 
 Needle. 
 
 VERJUICE. An acid liquor, prepared 
 from the twigs of the vine, or from grapes 
 or apples that are unfit to be converted 
 into wine or cider. It is also made from 
 the wild crab apples. 
 
 VERMIN. A general name for all birds, 
 animals, insects, &c, which prey upon or 
 prove injurious to the cultivator's crops, 
 and to his live stock. 
 
 The greatest animal plagues are rats and 
 mice, weasels, stoats, polecats, moles, foxes, 
 and hedgehogs. These are more or less 
 injurious, according to their number, &c. 
 Their habits, and the best modes of keeping 
 them within due bounds, have been already 
 noticed under their several heads. 
 
 Among birds, those which come under 
 the term vermin are the kite, sparrow-hawk, 
 and all the granivorous birds. See Hedge- 
 row Birds. 
 
 The insects, &c. comprise the most ex- 
 tensive and fearful class of depredators. 
 Among these are the aphides, caterpillars, 
 ants, beetles, and their grubs, wire-worm, 
 slugs, earth-worms, &c. 
 
 VERNAL GRASS. See Anthoxan- 
 
 THUM. 
 
 V ERSATILE. In botany, signifies swing- 
 ing lightly on the stalk, so as to be con- 
 1 inually changing direction. It is illustrated 
 in the leaves of the aspen. 
 1214 
 
 VERTICILLATE. Disposed in a whorl. 
 
 VERVAIN. {Verbena; said to be de- 
 rived from its Celtic name Ferfaen.) This 
 is a genus of extremely beautiful orna- 
 mental plants while in flower, either when 
 grown in pots in the greenhouse or when 
 planted out in the flower-garden ; and they 
 will all succeed well in the open ground, 
 during the summer months. The flowers 
 of V. teucrioides have a delightful jasmine- 
 like odour. They all flourish well in a 
 light loamy soil, with careful drainage when 
 kept in pots. The herbaceous perennial 
 kinds increase rapidly by cuttings, planted 
 in sand under a glass ; the greenhouse kinds 
 in a little heat. The annuals and biennials 
 should be raised on a gentle hot-bed. 
 
 One species is indigenous, the common 
 vervain {V. officinalis), a perennial which 
 grows by road sides and in dry waste 
 grounds, or pastures about villages. The 
 root is woody, somewhat creeping. Stem 
 . ascending, one foot and a half high, leafy, 
 roughish, with minute prickles or bristles. 
 Leaves deeply cut. Spikes slender, several 
 composing a sort of panicle of small bluish 
 inodorous flowers. This species has scarcely 
 any aromatic or other sensible quality. The 
 root worn about the neck with a string is 
 an old superstitious remedy or charm for 
 the king's evil. {Paxtoris Bot Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 71.) 
 
 VESTRY. A parochial assembly, com- 
 monly convened in the vestry of the church. 
 Parish vestries, in the absence of any local 
 act, are regulated by the 1 & 2 W. 4. c. 60., 
 the 58 G. 3. c. 69., and the 59 G. 3. c. 85. 
 At all parish vestries the minister has a 
 right to preside, but his presence is not 
 essential. {Manley v. Barbet, 2Espinasse, 
 687.) By this act all persons rated to the 
 poor in respect of an annual rent of not 
 exceeding 50/. are entitled to one vote at 
 the parish vestry, and an additional vote 
 for every additional 251. for which they 
 may be rated, not exceeding six votes in 
 the whole. A person is not disqualified 
 from voting in a vestry by non-payment of 
 church-rates. {Falkener v. Elger, 6 D & 
 R. 517.) When vestries are held in the 
 parish church the Ecclesiastical Court has 
 jurisdiction ratione loci over their proceed- 
 ings. {Wilson v. M'Math, 4B. & Aid. 241.) 
 Select vestries may be held by act of par- 
 liament or by custom, but it cannot be 
 constituted by a faculty from the bishop 
 {Berry v. Banner, Peakc, 156.) ; and such 
 a vestry may be continued by custom by 
 self election. {Golding v. Fenn, 7 B. & C. 
 765.) To constitute a valid assembly of a 
 select vestry appointed under the 58 & 
 59 G. 3. a majority of the whole number 
 should be present. {Broclictt v. Blizard, 
 
VESICLES. 
 
 VETCH. 
 
 4 M. & R. 641 .) The magistrates are bound 
 under the 59 G. 3. c. 12. to appoint all per- 
 sons nominated and elected by the parish- 
 ioners to be members of the select vestry. 
 {Rex v. The Justices of Kent, 4 N. & M. 
 299.) Such select vestryman may be either 
 a magistrate or an overseer, although the 
 latter is a member by virtue of his office. 
 (Ibid.) 
 
 VESICLES. In botany, inflated hollow 
 excrescences, like bladders or blisters. 
 
 VETCH. (Vicia, from vincio, to bind 
 together, because the species have tendrils 
 by which they encircle other plants.) Some 
 of the species of this genus are well worth 
 cultivating in the flower-border for the 
 beauty of their flowers. They are of the 
 easiest culture in any common garden soil. 
 The perennial kinds may be readily in- 
 creased by dividing the root or by seeds. 
 The seeds of the annual kinds only require 
 to be sown in the open border in spring. 
 V. sativa and its varieties are extensively 
 cultivated, and well known by the common 
 name of vetch or tares; they are used as 
 early fodder for all kinds of cattle, and are 
 allowed to be more nutritive and profitable 
 than hay or any other herbage. The seeds 
 also form the food of pigeons. There are 
 ten indigenous species of vetch, the prin- 
 cipal of which are the tufted vetch, wood 
 vetch, common vetch, and bush vetch. Of 
 all the different vetches (says Sinclair) that 
 were submitted to experiment, the winter 
 tare, or common vetch (V. sativa, var.), 
 afforded the most nutritive matter. Sixty- 
 four drachms of the herbage, cut at the 
 time of flowering, afforded four drachms four 
 grains of nutritive matter ; while spring t ares 
 only yielded three drachms three grains, 
 which confirms the justice of that preference 
 which practice has given to the former. 
 
 1. The tufted vetch. (V. Cracca.) A 
 perennial, very common in a wild state in 
 hedges, thickets, osier grounds, and bushy 
 low meadows. The stems are two or three 
 feet high, furrowed, rather downy, climbing 
 by means of their long many-branched 
 tendrils, by which they choke and overtop 
 other herbs. Leaflets numerous, elliptic- 
 lanceolate, downy, or, rather, silky on both 
 sides. Stipules half-arrow-shaped, mostly 
 entire. Flowers numerous, in dense clus- 
 ters, beautifully variegated with tints of 
 bright violet blue, and some purple. Le- 
 gume scarcely an inch long, smooth, with 
 four or five dark globular seeds, the size of 
 a lentil. This vetch is said to be nutritious 
 food for cattle, but it has not come into use, 
 probably from the difficulty of gathering, 
 or of cultivating, so pertinacious a climber. 
 Dr. Plot, in his History of Staffordshire, 
 says that this and the Vicia sijvatica ad- 
 1215 
 
 vance starved or weak cattle above any 
 thing yet known ; and Dr. Anderson, in his 
 Essays, speaks highly of this plant. It is 
 inferior to the wood vetch, or common 
 tare ( V. sylvatica), in the quantity of nu- 
 tritive matter it affords, but contains much 
 less superfluous moisture. This must give 
 it a superiority, in regard to nutrient pro- 
 perties, over tares which contain an excess. 
 But it has a strong creeping root, that will 
 always prevent its admission to arable 
 lands. It might be best cultivated on 
 tenacious soils, and used after the manner 
 of lucern, to which it is much superior in 
 nutritive qualities, though greatly deficient 
 in the weight of crop. Forty-three grains 
 of nutritive matter consisted of — 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Saccharine matter, or sugar - 20 
 
 Mucilage - - - - 12 
 
 Insoluble and saline matter - 11 
 
 The tufted vetch flowers about the 
 middle of July or the beginning of August, 
 and the seed is ripe at the beginning of 
 September. 
 
 2. The wood vetch (V. sylvatica) grows 
 in our woods and hedges, chiefly in the 
 more mountainous parts of Britain, and is 
 one of our most elegant wild plants, well 
 worthy to decorate shrubberies, or to be 
 trained over a trellis or bower. The habits 
 of this vetch are similar to those of the 
 species last described, but it seems more 
 impatient of exposure, and thrives best 
 where it has the support of bushes. The 
 root is creeping, perennial; herbage smooth. 
 Stems numerous, much branched, climbing 
 to the height of six or seven feet, and 
 spreading widely, decorating the bushes 
 which support them with a profusion of 
 delicate flowers, elegantly variegated with 
 blue and white, streaked with grey. Ten- 
 drils branched. Leaflets light green, el- 
 liptical. Stipules crescent-shaped, deeply 
 toothed. Legume the size of the last, 
 bright brown, minutely dotted. When 
 transplanted to open situations, the pro- 
 duce is inconsiderable compared with that 
 of the tufted vetch or the bush vetch, 
 though in its natural place of growth the 
 produce is six times that of either of these 
 species ; it is likewise superior in the quan- 
 tity of nutritive matter it affords. Horses, 
 cows, sheep, and the South American llamas, 
 ate this vetch with more eagerness than 
 they did the other vetches or natural 
 grasses that were on several trials offered 
 to them. The wood vetch flowers in July 
 and August, and the seed is ripe in Sep- 
 tember. 
 
 3. Common vetch or tare (V. sativa) is 
 an annual plant, which is in general culti- 
 
VETCH. 
 
 VETERINARY COLLEGE. 
 
 vation, and therefore too well known to 
 need description ; 3000 grains of the green 
 herbage of the common vetch consist of 
 
 Grains. 
 
 Woody or indigestible substance - 557 
 Water ... - 2250 
 
 Nutritive matter - - - 193 
 
 Hence 1,135 grains of the woody fibre of 
 tares are combined with 27^ grains of saline 
 matter. 
 
 Vetches are very commonly sown upon a 
 wheat stubble, and no crop better repays 
 the addition of any organic fertilisers. 
 
 The bush vetch (V. sepium) has been 
 already noticed. See Bush Vetch. 
 
 The other native species of vetch or tare 
 are the narrow-leaved crimson vetch (V. 
 angustifolia), spring vetch ( V. lathy roides), 
 rough-podded yellow vetch (V. luted), hairy- 
 flowered yellow vetch ( V. hybrida), smooth- 
 podded sea vetch (V. laevigata), and rough- 
 podded purple vetch (V. bithyrica). These 
 call for no detailed description. (Sinclair's 
 Hort. Gram. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 279.) See Tare and Vetchling. 
 
 VETCH, THE BITTER. (Orobus, 
 from oro, to excite, and bous, an ox ; the 
 orobos of Theophrastus was the name of a 
 plant used for fattening oxen.) The plants 
 of this genus deserve to have a place in 
 every flower-border, on account of their 
 very elegant papilionaceous blossoms. Any 
 soil suits them, and they are readily in- 
 creased by dividing the plants at the roots 
 in spring, or raised by seeds. There are 
 two native species, both perennials. 
 
 1. The common bitter vetch, or heath 
 pea (O. tuberosus), grows in elevated or 
 mountainous pastures, thickets, and woods. 
 The root is creeping, externally blackish, 
 swelling here and there into oblong knobs. 
 Herbage smooth, darkish green. Stems 
 simple, erect, a foot high, compressed and 
 winged. Leaves alternate, pinnate, of two 
 or three pair of elliptic-lanceolate leaflets, 
 the axis projecting beyond them, but not 
 bearing a tendril. Stipules half-arrow- 
 shaped, toothed at their base. Flowers in 
 loose, long-stalked, axillary clusters, ele- 
 gantly variegated and veined, with purple, 
 crimson, and shades of blue and flesh co- 
 lour. Legumes pendulous, long, cylindrical, 
 black when ripe. The roots have a sweetish 
 taste, and afford some luxuries and re- 
 freshments to the hardy independant High- 
 lander. There is considerable elegance in 
 the flowers, and in the plant altogether. 
 
 2. Wood bitter vetch. (O. sylvaticus.) 
 In this species the root is woody and tough, 
 deeply fixed in the ground. The stems are 
 numerous, spreading or recumbent, one to 
 two feet long, hairy, more or less branched. 
 
 12 1G 
 
 The leaves consist of numerous pairs of 
 ovate-lanceolate leaflets, with arrow-shaped, 
 single-toothed stipules. Clusters of nu- 
 merous flowers, which have a hairy calyx, 
 are cream-coloured, streaked, and tipped 
 with purple. The legumes are ovate-ob- 
 long, smooth, compressed, and shorter than 
 usual in the genus. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iii. p. 271.) 
 
 VETCH, HORSE-SHOE. See Horse- 
 shoe Vetch. 
 
 VETCH, KIDNEY. See Kidney- 
 
 VETCH, MILK. See Milk- Vetch. 
 
 VETCHLING. (Lathyrus.) A nu- 
 merous herbaceous genus of annual or 
 perennial plants. The flowers are stalked, 
 axillary, either solitary, in pairs, or in clus- 
 ters ; either crimson, purplish, blue, or 
 yellow. The herbage commonly affords 
 good fodder ; the seeds are scarcely used for 
 any purpose. There are seven indigenous 
 species of vetchling, or everlasting pea ; 
 the yellow vetchling (L. aphaca), the crim- 
 son vetchling or grass vetch (L. Nissolia), 
 the rough-podded vetchling (L. hirsutus), 
 the yellow meadow vetchling, or tare ever- 
 lasting (L. pratensis), narrow-leaved ever- 
 lasting pea (L. sylvestris), broad-leaved 
 everlasting pea (L. latifolius), and the blue 
 marsh vetchling (L.palustris) : most of these 
 species have been already noticed under 
 the heads Everlasting Pea and La- 
 thyrus. The latifolius is that species usu- 
 ally cultivated in gardens on account of 
 the beauty of the flowers It has been re- 
 commended for field cultivation, but the 
 advice has not been followed. Bees pro- 
 cure much honey from the flowers. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 273. ; Paxtoiis Bot. 
 Diet. ; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. p. 188.) 
 
 VETERINARY COLLEGE. The 
 Highland Society of Scotland have insti- 
 tuted a veterinary school in connection 
 with their establishment, which is under 
 the management of Professor Dick. By 
 diffusing generally a practical knowledge 
 of veterinary medicine, it cannot fail to be 
 attended with the happiest consequences to 
 the community at large. A veterinary col- 
 lege has long been established in London ; 
 and that useful periodical, the Veterinarian, 
 edited by Professor Youatt, has added much 
 valuable information to our stock of know- 
 ledge on the diseases of animals. See Far- 
 riery and Hippopathology. 
 
 The London Veterinary College was first 
 established in the year 1792, at St. Pancras. 
 Mr. Boardman, in his Dictionary of the 
 Veterinary Art, remarks that " the public 
 are indebted for this national foundation to 
 the exertions of the Agricultural Society of 
 Odiham, in Hampshire. The first professor 
 
VILLOUS. 
 
 VINE. 
 
 was M. St. Bel, a Frenchman, who had 
 previously signalised himself in this country 
 as a veterinary anatomist, by dissecting the 
 famous race-horse Eclipse. This college is 
 supported by public subscription. The an- 
 nual contribution is two guineas, but pay- 
 ment of twenty guineas at once constitutes 
 a subscriber for life. 
 
 " The views and objects of the college 
 appear in the following statement, printed 
 by the authority of the governors : the 
 grand object, they observe, is the improve- 
 ment of veterinary knowledge, in order to 
 remedy the ignorance and incompetency of 
 farriers, so long and universally complained 
 of. For this end, a range of stables, a 
 forge, a theatre for dissections and lectures, 
 with other buildings, have been erected : a 
 gentleman of superior abilities has been 
 appointed professor, with other requisite 
 officers. 
 
 " The anatomical structure of quadru- 
 peds, as horses, cattle, sheep, dogs, &c, the 
 diseases to which they are subject, and the 
 remedies proper to be applied, are investi- 
 gated and regularly taught ; by which 
 means enlightened practitioners of liberal 
 education, whose whole study has been 
 devoted to the veterinary art in all its 
 branches, may be gradually dispersed over 
 the kingdom, on whose skill and experience 
 confidence may be securely placed. 
 
 " Subscribers have the privilege of send- 
 ing their diseased animals to the college, 
 without further expense than that of their 
 daily food, and these in general form a 
 sufficient number of patients for the prac- 
 tice of the professor and pupils. On fixed 
 days, the professor prescribes for animals 
 belonging to subscribers who find it incon- 
 venient to spare them from home, provided 
 the necessary medicines be furnished and 
 compounded at the college ; subscribers' 
 horses are also there shod at the ordinary 
 prices." 
 
 VILLOUS. A term in botany, signify- 
 ing covered with soft, close, long, loose 
 hairs, resembling shag. 
 
 VINE. (Vitis, from the Celtic gwid, 
 signifying the best of trees. Wine is de- 
 rived from the Celtic word gwin.) A va- 
 luable genus of plants. The common grape 
 vine (V. vinifera), with its very numerous 
 garden varieties, is in general cultivation 
 for its much esteemed fruit. None of the 
 other species are worth cultivating. The 
 acids of grapes are chiefly the tartaric and 
 acetic; but malic acid is also present in 
 them. {PaxtorCs Bot. Diet.) Mr. Loudon, 
 in his Encyclo. of Gardening, thus bota- 
 nically describes the vine : — " The grape 
 vine is a trailing, deciduous, hardy shrub, 
 with a twisted irregular stem, and long 
 1217 
 
 flexible branches, decumbent, like those of 
 the bramble ; or supporting themselves, 
 when near other trees, by means of ten- 
 drils, like the pea. The leaves are large, 
 lobed, entire, or serrated and downy, or 
 smooth ; green in summer, but when ma- 
 ture, those varieties in which the pre- 
 dominating colour is red constantly change 
 to, or are tinged with, some shade of that 
 colour ; and those of white, green, or yellow 
 grapes as constantly change to a yellow, 
 and are never in the least tinged with 
 purple, red, or scarlet. The breadth of the 
 leaves varies from five to seven or ten 
 inches, and the length of the footstalks 
 from four to eight inches. The flowers are 
 produced on the shoots of the same year, 
 which shoots generally proceed from those 
 of the year preceding ; they are in the form 
 of a raceme, of a greenish- white colour, ap- 
 pearing in the open air in this country in 
 J une ; and the fruit, which is of the berry 
 kind, attains such maturity as the season 
 and situation admit by the middle or end 
 of September. The berry or grape is gene- 
 rally globular, but often ovate, oval, ob- 
 long, or finger-shaped; the colours are 
 green, white, red, yellow, amber, or black, 
 or a variegation of two or more of these 
 colours. The skin is smooth; the pulp and 
 juice of a dulcet, poignant, elevated, ge- 
 nerous flavour. Every berry ought to 
 enclose five small heart or pear-shaped 
 stones; but as tlrey are partially abortive, 
 they have seldom more than three ; and 
 some varieties, as they attain a certain age, 
 as the Ascalon or Sultana raisin, have none. 
 The weight of a berry depends not only 
 on its size, but on the thickness of its skin, 
 and texture of the flesh, the lightest being 
 the thin-skinned and juicy sorts, as the 
 sweet-water or Muscadine." 
 
 Although we presume the excellent 
 treatise of Mr. Clement Hoare on the Cul- 
 ture of the Vine is in the hands of most of 
 our readers, yet, as there is no other stand- 
 ard work of reference on this subject, we 
 must necessarily draw upon this for our 
 extracts. 
 
 Of all the productions of the vegetable 
 world (observes this experienced cultivator), 
 which the skill and ingenuity of man have 
 rendered conducive to his comfort and to 
 the enlargement of the sphere of his enjoy- 
 ments, and the increase of his pleasurable 
 gratifications, the vine stands forward as 
 the most preeminently conspicuous. Its 
 quickness of growth, the great age to 
 which it will live, — so great, indeed, as to 
 be unknown ; its almost total exemption 
 from all those adverse contingencies which 
 blight and diminish the produce of other 
 fruit-bearing trees ; its astonishing vege- 
 
VINE 
 
 tative powers; its wonderful fertility, and 
 its delicious fruit, applicable to so many- 
 purposes, and agreeable to all palates, in all 
 its varied shapes, — combine to mark it out 
 as one of the greatest blessings bestowed 
 by Providence to promote the comfort 
 and enjoyments of the human race. 
 
 From the remotest records of antiquity, 
 the vine has been celebrated in all ages as 
 the type of plenty and the symbol of hap- 
 piness. The pages of Scripture abound 
 with allusions to the fertility of the vine as 
 emblematic of prosperity ; and it is em- 
 phatically declared, in describing the peace- 
 ful and flourishing state of the kingdom of 
 Israel during the reign of Solomon, that 
 " Judah and Israel dwelt safely, every man 
 under his vine and under his fig tree, from 
 Dan even to Beersheba." The source of 
 enjoyment thus mentioned to record the 
 happy state of the Jewish nation may be, 
 with reference to the vine, literally pos- 
 sessed by the greater portion of the inhabit- 
 ants of this island. 
 
 The native country of the vine is gene- 
 rally considered to be Persia. The finest 
 grapes in the world are those of Shiraz and 
 of Casvin. The latter city, says M. Mo- 
 rier, is environed by vineyards and or- 
 chards, and the former yield a grape which 
 is celebrated throughout Persia. It is along 
 the line of mountains that stretch from the 
 Persian Gulf *to the Caspian Sea, that the 
 best vine districts are situated ; but the 
 grape vine has been found wild in America, 
 and has now become naturalised in all the 
 temperate regions of the world. In the 
 northern hemisphere it forms an important 
 branch of rural economy, from the 21st 
 to the 51st parallel of latitude ; and by an 
 improved method of culture very fine 
 grapes may be annually grown on the sur- 
 face of walls, in the open air, as far north 
 as the 54th parallel, and even beyond that 
 in favourable seasons. The vine is sup- 
 posed to have been introduced into Britain 
 at the commencement of the Christian era. 
 It certainly did not exist before the Roman 
 invasion, as neither Csesar, Pliny, nor Ta- 
 citus notices it in the description of our 
 island. Bede informs us, that in the com- 
 mencement of the eighth century the cul- 
 tivation of the vine had made some progress 
 in Great Britain : vines are mentioned in 
 the laws of Alfred. History, indeed, amply 
 proves, that for a long series of ages vine- 
 yards were very common in the southern 
 parts of this island, and that the quantity 
 of wine produced from them was so great 
 as to be considered one of the staple pro- 
 ducts of the land. Lambarde {Topogra- 
 phical Dictionary of England) informs us, 
 that at Hailing, near Rochester, the bishop's 
 1218 
 
 vineyard yielded such excellent wine, that 
 a present of it was sent to Edward II. when 
 he was at Bakingfield. There was a royal 
 vineyard at Rockingham, in the fifth year 
 of King Stephen ; and William of Malms- 
 bury, speaking of the vale of Gloucester, 
 says, " this district, too, exhibits a greater 
 number of vineyards than any other county 
 in England, yielding abundant crops, and 
 of superior quality." The same author also 
 says, that in the Isle of Ely the soil is " co- 
 vered with vines, which either trail along 
 the ground or are trained on high, and 
 supported on poles." In the time of Ri- 
 chard II., also, the vine grew so plentifully 
 in Windsor Little Park, that part of the 
 wine made there was sold for the king's 
 profit. From some cause or other, how- 
 ever, the cultivation of the vine has fallen 
 into general neglect, although good grapes 
 might be grown on vines trained as espa- 
 liers, or in the same manner as in the vine- 
 yards abroad, from which excellent wine 
 could be made, at a cost that would not 
 exceed that of moderately strong beer. 
 Why vineyards should have so completely 
 disappeared, it is difficult to say, since there 
 are many thousands of acres of poor land 
 that are of little value in an agricultural 
 point of view, but on which vines would 
 nourish, and produce abundant crops of 
 grapes, and yield thereby a most profitable 
 return. 
 
 Fruit-bearing Powers of the Vine. — 
 From a long course of experiments, Mr. 
 Hoare has computed the following scale of 
 the greatest quantity of grapes which any 
 vine can perfectly mature, in proportion to 
 the circumference of its stem measured 
 just above the ground. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 lb. 
 
 Circum. 
 
 lb. 
 
 3 inches - 
 
 - 5 
 
 7 inches - 
 
 - 45 
 
 
 - 10 
 
 n 
 
 - 50 
 
 4 
 
 - 15 
 
 8 
 
 - 55 
 
 H 
 
 - 20 
 
 81 
 
 - 60 
 
 5 
 
 - 25 
 
 9 
 
 - 65 
 
 5£ 
 
 - 30 
 
 n 
 
 - 70 
 
 6 
 
 - 35 
 
 10 
 
 - 75 
 
 6^ 
 
 - 40 
 
 
 
 No vine should be suffered to ripen fruit 
 until its stem measures three inches in girt. 
 In general, vines are allowed to bear a 
 much greater quantity of grapes than the 
 above scale represents, but in all such cases 
 it will be found that they are not perfectly 
 ripened ; and moreover, by producing a 
 superabundance of fruit, the plants are 
 crippled for many years. 
 
 Aspect — The warmer the aspect, the 
 greater perfection does the grape attain in 
 our climate, provided all other circum- 
 stances are alike ; and if the greatest quan- 
 tity of the sun's rays shining on the surface 
 
VINE. 
 
 of a wall were alone to be considered as 
 constituting the best aspect, there would, 
 of course, be no difficulty in naming a due 
 southern one as better than any other. But 
 warmth alone is not sufficient ; shelter from 
 the withering influence of the wind is 
 equally necessary. The best aspects are 
 those that range from the eastern to the 
 south-eastern, both inclusive. The next 
 best are those from south-east to south. 
 
 Soil. — The natural soil which is most 
 congenial to the growth of the vine, and to 
 the perfection of its fruit in this country, is 
 a light, porous, rich, sandy loam, not more 
 than eighteen inches in depth, on a dry 
 bottom of gravel, stones, or rocks. A strong 
 argillaceous soil is injurious to the vine : it 
 checks the expansion of the roots, and re- 
 tains too much moisture. In calcareous 
 soils the vine always flourishes, especially if 
 the bottom be stony or gravelly. No sub- 
 soil can possess too great a quantity of 
 these materials for the roots of the vine, 
 which run with eagerness into all the 
 clefts, crevices, and openings in which such 
 subsoils abound. In these dry and warm 
 situations, the fibrous extremities, pushing 
 themselves with the greatest avidity, and 
 continually branching out in every possible 
 direction, lie secure from that excess of 
 moisture which frequently accumulates in 
 more compact soils*; and, clinging like ivy 
 round the porous surfaces of their retreats, 
 extract therefrom a species of food, more 
 nourishing than that obtained by them 
 under any other circumstances whatever. 
 All borders, therefore, made expressly for 
 the reception of vines, ought to be com- 
 posed of a sufficient quantity of dry mate- 
 rials, such as stones and brickbats, broken 
 moderately small, lumps of old mortar, 
 broken pottery, oyster shells, &c, to enable 
 the roots to extend themselves freely in 
 their search after food and nourishment; 
 to keep them dry and warm by the free ad- 
 mission of air and solar heat, and to admit 
 of heavy rains passing quickly through, 
 without being retained sufficiently long to 
 saturate the roots, and thereby injure their 
 tender extremities. The sweepings ob- 
 tained from a turnpike road, or from any 
 other high road kept in a good state of 
 repair by the frequent addition of stones, 
 and on which there is a considerable traffic 
 of horses or other cattle, is the very best 
 compost that can be added to any border 
 intended for the reception of vines. Its 
 component parts, consisting chiefly of sand, 
 gravel, pulverised stones, and the residuum 
 of dung and urine, afford a greater quan- 
 tity of food, and of a richer and more last- 
 ing nature, than can be found in any other 
 description of compost that I have ever 
 1219 
 
 seen or heard of being used for that pur- 
 pose. Borders in which vines are planted 
 should never be cropped nor digged. 
 
 Manure. — The best species of manure 
 for the vine are those which afford a con- 
 siderable degree of nourishment, but at the 
 same time slowly decompose in the soil. 
 Such are bones, whole or crushed, the horns 
 and hoofs of cattle, the entire carcases of 
 animals, cuttings of leather, woollen rags, 
 feathers, and hair, and the leaves of the 
 vines themselves. Liquid manures are 
 also valuable, and forcing in their effect ; of 
 this class the most powerful are urine, soot 
 water, blood, the drainings of dung-heaps, 
 and soap suds. It should, however, always 
 be recollected, that the more manure is 
 used the poorer the wine procured from the 
 grapes. As a top-dressing, and to be forked 
 into the border, night-soil, refuse fish, sta- 
 ble manure, and the excrements of all birds 
 and animals, will be found highly enriching 
 substances as fertilisers, and their nutritive 
 and stimulating properties have been fre- 
 quently alluded to in the progress of this 
 work ; but if rich manures are used, they 
 should be mixed with turf and sand. In the 
 Alto Douro is a law which prohibits the vine 
 being " littered ; " as this operation, though 
 it considerably augments the produce, tends 
 to deteriorate the quality of the wine. 
 
 On the Construction of Walls. — No ge- 
 neral rule can be laid down as to the height 
 of the wall, which must necessarily vary 
 under different situations and circumstances. 
 Mr. Hoare states, that in unsheltered situ- 
 ations and exposed aspects he has never 
 seen fine grapes produced much higher than 
 eight feet from the ground. 
 
 But, in favourable situations, height is no 
 consequence. If built for the express pur- 
 pose of rearing grapes, low walls of not 
 more than six feet are to be preferred, as 
 more convenient for pruning and training 
 the vines. Brick walls are undoubtedly 
 the best, the surface being smooth and even. 
 A considerable heat is obtained by blacken- 
 ing the wall. 
 
 Propagation. — Vines are propagated in 
 the open ground by layers and by cuttings. 
 The former is the most expeditious mode, 
 provided the shoots be laid down in pots, 
 and planted out the same summer. The 
 latter mode is much the best. To provide 
 cuttings to be planted at the proper season, 
 select at the autumnal pruning a sufficient 
 number of shoots of the preceding summer's 
 growth. Choose such as are well ripened, 
 of a medium size, and moderately short- 
 jointed. Cut them into convenient lengths 
 of six or eight buds each, leaving at the 
 ends not less than a couple of inches of the 
 blank wood for the protection of the ter- 
 4 i 2 
 
VINE 
 
 minal buds. Stick these temporary cuttings 
 about nine inches in the ground, in a warm 
 and sheltered situation, where they will be 
 effectually protected from the severity of 
 the winter. The best time to plant them 
 out is about the middle of March, but any 
 time from the 1st of that month to the 10th 
 of April will do very well. 
 
 Pruning and training are so closely con- 
 nected together, and so mutually dependent 
 on each other, that they almost constitute 
 one operation. The judicious pruning of a 
 vine is one of the most important points of 
 culture throughout the whole routine of its 
 management. The object is to get rid of 
 all the useless and superabundant wood, for 
 those shoots of a vine which bear fruit one 
 year never bear any afterwards. There 
 are three methods of pruning vines in prac- 
 tice amongst gardeners ; namely, the long- 
 pruning, spur-pruning, and the fan or fruit- 
 tree method. The first is considered to be 
 the most eligible method, and is that which 
 is practised and recommended by Mr. Hoare. 
 As the sole object in view in pruning a 
 vine is to increase its fertility, the best 
 method to accomplish this is to leave a 
 sufficient supply of bearing shoots on the 
 least possible proportionate quantity of old 
 wood. 
 
 Long-pruning appears to recommend 
 itself by its simplicity ; by the old wood of 
 the vine being annually got rid of; by the 
 small number of wounds inflicted in the 
 pruning ; by the clean and handsome ap- 
 pearance of the vine ; and by the great ease 
 with which it is managed, in consequence 
 of its occupying but a small portion of the 
 surface of the wall. 
 
 Mr. Hoare lays down the following prac- 
 tical general rules for the guidance of the 
 pruner : — 
 
 1st. In pruning, always cut upwards, and 
 in a sloping direction. 
 
 2d. Always leave an inch of blank wood 
 beyond the terminal bud, and let the cut be 
 on the opposite side of the bud. 
 
 3d. Prune so as to leave as few wounds 
 as possible, and let the surface of every cut 
 be perfectly smooth. 
 
 4th. In cutting out an old branch, prune 
 it even with the parent limb, that the 
 wound may quickly heal. 
 
 5th. Prune so as to obtain the quantity 
 of fruit desired on the smallest number of 
 shoots possible. 
 
 Gth. Never prune in frosty weather, nor 
 when a frost is expected. 
 
 7th. Never prune in the months of March, 
 April, or May. Pruning in either of these 
 months causes bleeding, and occasions there- 
 by a wasteful and an injurious expenditure 
 of sap. 
 
 1220 
 
 8th. Let the general autumnal pruning 
 take place as soon after the first of October 
 as the gathering of the fruit will permit. 
 
 Lastly, use a pruning-knife of the best de- 
 scription, and let it be, if possible, as sharp 
 as a razor. 
 
 Training. — To train a vine (Mr. Hoare 
 goes on to observe) on the surface of a 
 wall is to regulate the position of its 
 branches, the principal objects of which 
 are, to protect them from the influence of 
 the wind ; to bring them into close contact 
 with the wall, for the purpose of receiving 
 the benefit of its warmth ; to spread them 
 at proper distances from each other, that 
 the foliage and fruit may receive the full 
 effect of the sun's rays, and to retard the 
 motion of the sap, for the purpose of in- 
 ducing the formation of fruit-buds. The 
 flow of sap, it must be remembered, is al- 
 ways strongest in a vertical direction, and 
 weakest in a downward one. For this 
 reason, the method of serpentine training 
 may be considered preferable to every other, 
 being calculated in a greater degree to 
 check the too rapid ascent of the sap, and 
 to make it flow more equally into the fruit- 
 ing shoots, and those intended for future 
 bearers. On walls that are much less than 
 five feet high, a portion of the shoots must 
 be trained horizontally. 
 
 Varieties of Grapes. — The following 
 twelve sorts of grapes are those best adapted 
 for culture on open walls in our climate : — 
 
 1. Black Hamburgh. As a splendid 
 table fruit, this is, in every respect, one of 
 the most valuable grapes that can be grown 
 on open walls. It is a prolific bearer, hardy 
 in its nature, and under judicious culture 
 will ripen with as small a portion of direct 
 solar heat as any grape we have. 
 
 2. Black Prince. This is a very fine 
 grape, and nearly if not quite equal to the 
 black Hamburgh ; both of these sorts ripen 
 in a south-eastern aspect, about the middle 
 of October. 
 
 3. Esperione. The Esperione vine is 
 very hardy, extremely prolific, and ripens 
 its fruit perfectly in any season, however 
 unfavourable. 
 
 4. Black Muscadine. This is also a pro- 
 lific bearer, but it requires a good aspect to 
 ripen it perfectly. 
 
 5. Miller's Burgundy. This is a very 
 hardy and prolific grape, and ripens per- 
 fectly in any season. Its leaves, which arc 
 very thick, distinguish it from every other 
 sort, being covered on both sides with a 
 hoary down, which, when they are young, 
 is nearly white; hence it is called the 
 " miller 's " grape. 
 
 C. Claret grape. This is a very fine wine 
 grape. It requires a good aspect. Early 
 
VINEGAR. 
 
 in the summer its leaves change to a russet 
 red, and die in the autumn of a deep purple 
 blood colour. 
 
 7, 8, 9. Black, grizzly, and white Fron- 
 tignan. The flavour of these three sorts 
 is so extremely delicious, that no good vine 
 wall should be without them. They ripen 
 well in favourable aspects, and where the 
 soil is very dry; but being thin-skinned, 
 and constitutionally disposed to decay after 
 they become fully ripe, they cannot be kept 
 long on the vine, particularly if the wall 
 against which they are growing be destitute 
 of a projecting coping.. 
 
 10. White Muscadine. This is an ex- 
 ceedingly fine grape, and a prolific bearer ; 
 and from its hardy nature, and the certainty 
 with which it ripens in any season, it may 
 be considered as the best white grape that 
 can be grown on open walls. 
 
 11. Malmsey Muscadine. This resembles 
 the preceding, except that the berries are 
 smaller, and the branches not so regularly 
 formed ; but the juice is sweeter, and pos- 
 sesses a higher flavour. 
 
 12. White sweetwater. This is a de- 
 licious grape ; but, owing to its tenderness 
 when in blossom, the berries sit very un- 
 evenly on the branches. 
 
 If it be desired to have a very early sort, 
 to the preceding may be added the early 
 black July ; which, though the branches and 
 berries are smaller, and the latter in general 
 unevenly set, is a very sweet and also a 
 well-flavoured grape. (Hoare on the Cul- 
 tivation of the Grape Vine on open Walls, 
 3d edition; Phillips's Hist, of Fruits, p. 
 177.) 
 
 VINEGAR is the acetous and acetic 
 acids of the chemist, containing a variety of 
 foreign admixtures, some colouring matter, 
 and an ethereal substance or spirit, which 
 gives it a grateful aroma. Vinegar has 
 been known from a very early age. It 
 was by far the earliest known acid of com- 
 merce. That it was drunk in remote periods, 
 diluted with water, by the labourers and 
 soldiers, is very certain. It is repeatedly 
 mentioned in the Old Testament. But then 
 they had several descriptions, one of which, 
 a kind of small wine, which they called pesca 
 or sera, is supposed to be that offered to 
 Ruth (Ruth, ii. 14.), and to our Saviour by 
 the Roman soldiers (Matt, xxvii. 48.). The 
 stronger variety of vinegar is alluded to in 
 another place (Prov. x. 26.). They mixed it 
 also with nitre, or properly speaking natron, 
 which was an alkali that by neutralising 
 destroyed its sharpness. u As vinegar upon 
 nitre, so is he that singeth songs to an heavy 
 heart." (Prov. xxv. 20.) They made it in 
 those days from wine. (Numb. xi. 3.) It 
 is known to every one, that when wine or 
 1221 
 
 beer is exposed to the influence of the 
 atmosphere, it becomes sour or acid ; now 
 this acid is the acetic. In the wine coun- 
 tries it is chiefly made from the produce 
 of the vine, weak or low wines ; the shoots 
 of the vine, &c. being also employed for that 
 purpose. It may be readily made from merely 
 sugar and water. That of commerce in 
 England is usually made from wort from 
 malt liquor or cider. Vinegar is of a yel- 
 lowish or reddish colour, an acid taste, and 
 pleasant odour. Its specific gravity is com- 
 monly between 1-0135 and 1-0251. It usu- 
 ally holds in solution various foreign sub- 
 stances, such as colouring matters, sulphate 
 of lime, mucilage, sulphuric acid, and the 
 ethereal spirit already mentioned. Vinegars 
 differ greatly in strength and in purity. 
 The best known in this country for domestic 
 purposes are, the French white wine vine- 
 gar; but the Vinaigre d'Orleans, made 
 from the red wine of the Orleanois, is that 
 most esteemed in France; and that im- 
 ported from Bourdeaux, although named 
 Champagne vinegar, is often made from red 
 wine. The density of French vinegars va- 
 ries from 10-14 to 10-22. The free sul- 
 phuric acid in British vinegar is permitted 
 by the English excise laws to the amount 
 of one part in one thousand, but it is often 
 added to four times that amount. 
 
 Vinegar is readily purified from its im- 
 purities by distillation, and in this form is 
 the transparent distilled vinegar of com- 
 merce. But even then it is united with a 
 considerable portion of water. 
 
 The specific gravity determines this point. 
 Thus, at 10-14 it contains 10 per cent, of real 
 acetic acid, at 10-22 15 per cent., at 10-25 
 18 per cent., at 10*35 26 per cent., at 10-60 
 50 per cent., and so on, until it reaches 
 10*635, which is the strongest liquid acetic 
 acid. 
 
 When deprived of all impurities and wat er, 
 by chemical means, pure acetic acid is com- 
 posed, according to the analysis of M. Ber- 
 zelius, of — 
 
 . Parts. 
 
 Carbon - - - 46*83 
 
 Oxygen - - - 46-82 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 6-35 
 
 100 
 
 Some plants contain acetic acid naturally. 
 M. Vauquelin found it in the sap of various 
 trees, and in the chick pea. Scheele de- 
 tected it in the elderberry.. It has been 
 found also in the date palm tree, and in 
 several others ; and few plants exist in which 
 acetic acid in the form of salts, such as the 
 acetates of lime or potassa, is not found. 
 
 In England, for domestic purposes, it is 
 4i 3 
 
VIOLET. 
 
 WAGGON. 
 
 prepared in several very considerable ma- 
 nufactories from a mixture of barley or 
 malt with water, by keeping the wash ex- 
 posed in open vessels to the influence of the 
 atmosphere, in rooms heated to a particular 
 temperature. The formation of the acetic 
 acid in this manner is in these works pro- 
 moted by the addition of a certain small 
 proportion of acetic acid. 
 
 An excellent vinegar for domestic pur- 
 poses may be readily made by exposing a 
 mixture of one part of brown sugar by 
 weight with seven parts of water and some 
 yeast, in a cask whose bung-hole is only 
 slightly covered over (as by a piece of gauze 
 pasted down to keep out insects), for some 
 weeks to the action of the atmosphere and 
 the sun. The acetic fermentation and the 
 goodness of the vinegar are promoted by 
 the addition of vine leaves. 
 
 Although vinegar is familiarly used in 
 small quantity as an agreeable and useful 
 addition to food, yet in large quantities it 
 interrupts digestion, and induces emaciation. 
 In combination with water, it is an ex- 
 cellent cooling and invigorating substance 
 when employed for sponging the body, 
 especially in febrile conditions of it : its va- 
 pour inhaled with the vapour of hot water 
 relieves hoarseness ; and when moderately 
 diluted it forms an excellent gargle in in- 
 flamed or sore throats. See Acids and 
 Pyroeigneous Acid. 
 
 VIOLET. (Viola.) All the species of 
 this genus deserve to be cultivated, either 
 for the beauty or the scent of their flowers. 
 The hardy perennial kinds are well fitted 
 for ornamenting the front of flower-borders 
 or rock-work, but the smaller species suc- 
 ceed best when grown in pots, in a mixture 
 of loam, peat, and sand. The species natives 
 of America thrive best in vegetable mould 
 or peat, and are readily increased by parting 
 the roots or by seeds. The greenhouse and 
 stove species should be grown in a mixture 
 of loam and peat ; the herbaceous kinds are 
 increased by seed or dividing the roots, and 
 the shrubby kinds by cuttings, which root 
 readily when planted under a glass. The 
 annual species may be sown in the open 
 borders or on rock-work. The Neapolitan 
 violet may be made to flower throughout 
 the winter and early in spring, by placing 
 it in a stove or warm pit. The dog's violet 
 (V. canina) is said, but without truth, to 
 be a famous agent for removing cutaneous 
 diseases. There are eight native species of 
 violet. The hairy violet (V. hirta), the 
 sweet violet ( V. odorata ), the marsh violet 
 ( V. palmtrii). the dog's violet (V. canina), 
 the cream-coloured violet (V. lactea), the 
 dwarf yellow-spurred violet ( V.flavu ■onus), 
 the fancy violet, or heart's ease (V. trico- 
 1222 
 
 lor), and the yellow mountain violet, or 
 pansy (V. lutea). The common sweet vio- 
 let is highly fragrant, and gives its name 
 to a peculiar deep purplish-blue colour, as 
 well as to a delicious scent, resembling its 
 own, or that in the root of Iris fiorentina and 
 a few cryptogamic vegetables. A syrup 
 prepared with the petals is used as a test 
 for alkalies. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 300.) 
 
 VIOLET, CALATHIAN. See Gentian. 
 
 VIOLET, DAME'S. See Damewort. 
 
 VIOLET, WATER. See Featherfoie. 
 
 VIPEE'S BUGLOSS. See Bugloss, 
 Viper's. 
 
 VULTURE. (Neophron percnopterus.) 
 The Egyptian vulture has on one or two 
 occasions been captured in this country, and 
 has hence been included in his History of 
 British Birds by Mr. Yarrell. Vultures are 
 most numerous in warm countries, where a 
 high degree of temperature induces rapid 
 decomposition. Their food is chiefly animal 
 substance in a decaying state ; and their bu- 
 siness in nature, as observed by Mr. Vigors, 
 is to clear away with rapidity those putrefy- 
 ing remains which, if allowed to accumulate, 
 might produce pestilence and death. The 
 same services rendered to man by numerous 
 storks in the cities of India, and by troops 
 of dogs in Constantinople, are performed 
 on a much more extended scale by vultures. 
 So valuable are those services, that vultures 
 are almost universally protected from mo- 
 lestation or injury, either by local legisla- 
 tion or by common consent. 
 
 In the adult bird, the whole length from 
 the point of the beak to the end of the tail 
 is from twenty-six to twenty-nine inches ; 
 and specimens from Africa are observed to 
 be the largest in size. The general colour 
 of the plumage is white. .( YarrelVs British 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 1 .) 
 
 W. 
 
 WAGER. See Gaming, Horse-Racing, 
 &c. 
 
 WAGES. The price or hire paid to la- 
 bourers or servants for performing different 
 sorts of farm work. 
 
 These differ greatly in different districts 
 and situations, and according to the cha- 
 racter and employment of the workmen, but 
 in all they are considerably increased within 
 the last fifteen or twenty years. They may 
 perhaps be stated as varying, under dif- 
 ferent circumstances, from 9*. to 18s. by the 
 week, and from 9/. to 157. or 18/. by the 
 year. See Labour, Farm Servant, and 
 M ISTEH and Servant. 
 
 WAGGON". A wheel carriage, of which 
 
WAGTAIL. 
 
 there are several varieties, accommodated 
 to the different uses which they are intended 
 to serve. 
 
 In the business of husbandry, waggons 
 constructed in different forms, and of va- 
 rious dimensions, are made use of in dif- 
 ferent districts or parts of the kingdom; 
 and mostly 'without much attention to the 
 nature of roads, or the articles which are 
 to be conveyed by them ; being in general 
 heavy, clumsy, and inconvenient. There is, 
 however, a waggon much employed in Berk- 
 shire, which is constructed on a more simple 
 and convenient principle than those mostly 
 met with in the other southern parts of the 
 island, not having the height or weight of 
 them, while it possesses sufficient strength, 
 and is easy in the draught. 
 
 Waggons require more power in the 
 draught than carts, which is certainly an 
 objection, though they carry a much greater 
 load, and are far from being so handy and 
 convenient ; and Mr. Parkinson is of opi- 
 nion, that more work may be done in any 
 particular time, with the same number of 
 horses, by carts than by waggons, in the 
 general run of husbandry business, especially 
 where the distance is small between loading 
 and unloading ; a fact which has long been 
 known and attended to in Scotland. 
 
 Where waggons are used for husbandry, 
 they should be made wide and low. Ma- 
 nures may be carried in this sort of waggon 
 - almost as well as in carts. Broad wheels 
 are improper for passing and repassing upon 
 tillage lands ; for, if in fallow, they press 
 the land too much, and make it so hard as 
 to prevent its being ploughed till wet comes ; 
 but on grass land broad wheels are proper 
 for all uses, as there they operate as rollers. 
 
 Waggons are probably the best convey- 
 ances for different sorts of heavy loads to 
 a distance; but for home business, especially 
 harvest and other work, which requires to 
 be speedily performed in the field, carts with 
 proper shelving will be found preferable. 
 See Cart and Highway. 
 
 WAGTAIL. (Motacilla.) Of this well- 
 known bird the following British species 
 have been described 
 
 1. The pied wagtail (M. Yarrellii, Gould) 
 of this country, though a very common bird, 
 is deservedly admired for the elegance of 
 its form, as well as for the activity and airy 
 lightness exhibited in all its actions. It is 
 ever in motion, running with facility by a 
 rapid succession of steps, in pursuit of its 
 insect food, moving from place to place by 
 short undulating flights, uttering a cheerful 
 chirping note while on the wing, alighting 
 again on the ground with a sylph-like buoy- 
 ancy, and a graceful fanning motion of the 
 tail, from which it derives its name. It 
 1223 
 
 frequents the vicinity of ponds and streams, 
 moist pastures, and the grass plots of plea- 
 sure-grounds, and may be frequently seen 
 wading in shallow water, seeking for various 
 aquatic insects. The nest is formed of moss, 
 dead grass, and fibrous roots, lined with 
 hair and a few feathers ; the nest is some- 
 times placed on the ground on a ditch bank, 
 sometimes in a hole of a wall, or thatch of 
 an outbuilding, and it is frequently fixed in 
 the side of a wood stack or hayrick ; occa- 
 sionally it has been found occupying a cavity 
 in a peat stack, or a wall of turf sod, but 
 always in the vicinity of water. The eggs 
 are four or five in number, white, speckled 
 with ash-colour, nine lines in length, and 
 seven lines in breadth. The pied black and 
 white plumage is too well known to need 
 description. The whole length of a male 
 bird is seven inches and a half. The female 
 is half an inch shorter. The pied wagtail 
 is exceedingly common over the whole of 
 the United Kingdom, and in all the southern 
 parts it is resident throughout the year. 
 The continental white wagtail (M. alba), 
 which has generally been confounded with 
 M. Yarrellii, has some slight but peculiar 
 distinguishing characters. 
 
 2. The grey wagtail. (M. boarula.) The 
 habits of this bird are r in many respects, 
 very similar to those of the pied wagtail 
 last described ; but, as a species, it is far 
 less numerous, and, with some exceptions, 
 it may be generally considered as a summer 
 visiter to the more northern counties, mi- 
 grating in autumn, to become a winter 
 visiter in those of the south ; these changes 
 of locality being generally made in Sep- 
 tember and April. It is even rather more 
 an aquatic bird than our pied wagtail, being 
 seldom seen except about marshes and 
 water meadows, or on the banks or sides of 
 streams. The nest of this bird is placed 
 on the ground, seldom very distant from 
 the stream it frequents, and generally on 
 some rugged place on its banks, the in- 
 equalities of the ground affording conceal- 
 ment. The eggs are from five to six in 
 number, yellowish white, mottled with pale 
 brown, varying sometimes in the depth of 
 the tint : they are eight lines and a half in 
 length, and seven lines in breadth. The 
 whole length of this species is seven inches 
 and three quarters, of which the tail-fea- 
 thers measure nearly half. 
 
 3. The grey-headed wagtail. (M. neg- 
 lecta.) The food of this species is flies, 
 moths, small green caterpillars, and aquatic 
 insects. The length of the male is six 
 inches and a half. 
 
 4. Ray's wagtail. (M. Rayi.) The com- 
 mon yellow wagtail of England, first de- 
 scribed by our countryman and naturalist 
 
 4 i 4 
 
WAIF. 
 
 WALNUT TREE. 
 
 John Ray, which Mr. Yarrell, for distinc- 
 tion's sake, calls Ray's wagtail, is a constant 
 summer visiter to this country, making its 
 appearance about the end of March or the 
 beginning of April, and leaves our southern 
 shores in September. It frequents arable 
 land, and inhabits fields of peas and tares, 
 in both of which I have found its nest : it 
 also frequents open downs and sheep pas- 
 tures, fields of young green corn, and not 
 unusually dry fallows, where, perched on a 
 clod of earth or upon a stone, this bird may 
 be seen fanning his tail, and exhibiting his 
 rich yellow breast to the greatest advan- 
 tage. The nest is placed on the ground, 
 and is generally formed of dried bent and 
 fibrous roots, lined with hair. The eggs 
 are from four to six in number, of a whitish 
 colour, mottled nearly all over with yellow 
 brown and ash brown ; they are eight lines 
 and a half long, by six lines and a half 
 broad. The whole length of the bird is six 
 inches and a half. (YarrelFs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. i. pp. 362^-383.) 
 
 WAIF. An old feudal term signifying 
 a strayed animal, &c, which, for want of 
 the owner's appearance after it had been 
 cried and published in the neighbouring 
 markets, is forfeited to the lord of the 
 manor. 
 
 WAIN. A name applied to an ox cart, 
 without any side rails, or ladders, in some 
 districts ; but in others shelvings are added, 
 and the body is large and open. They are 
 rarely met with at present. In Gloucester- 
 shire they adapt them to harvest work by 
 fixing ladders and rathes on them. In the 
 lower part of the vale they are called dung- 
 pots ; but in the forest districts, where drawn 
 by oxen, wains. 
 
 WAKE-ROBIN. See Cuckow-pint. 
 
 WALL-CRESS. See Cress, Waix. 
 
 WALL-FLOWER. ( Cheiranthus.) 
 These are all ornamental dwarfish plants, 
 and the common kinds thrive well in light 
 soils ; the rest require it somewhat richer, 
 and the protection of a frame or green- 
 house in winter. There is one indigenous 
 species, the wild wallflower (C. fruticu- 
 losus), which grows on old walls, flowering 
 in April and May. The stem is shrubby, 
 erect, bushy, branched in a determinate 
 manner; branches angular, leafy, horny, 
 with close, bristly, silvery hairs. Leaves 
 crowded, stalked, lanceolate, acute, deep 
 green. Flowers corymbose, sweet-scented ; 
 their petals always of an uniform bright 
 yellow, not stained with brown or blood-red, 
 as i n the garden wallflower (C. Cheiri), from 
 which this is a distinct species : the calyx 
 is purplish. Tods racemose, erect, one inch 
 and a balfor two inches long. (Paxton's Bot. 
 Did.; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. ». 203.") 
 1224 
 
 WALL-PELLITORY. (Parietaria, from 
 paries, a wall ; whence also the common 
 name.) These are mere weeds, which are 
 usually found growing on old walls, stony 
 ground., &c. ; they are of no beauty, and of 
 the easiest culture. There is one native 
 species (P. officinalis), a perennial, flower- 
 ing from June to September. The root 
 is rather woody. The stems are annual, 
 branched, quadrangular, hairy, reddish, suc- 
 culent, very impatient of frost ; clothed with 
 numerous alternate, stalked, elliptic-lan- 
 ceolate, acute leaves, of a dull green, a little 
 hairy ; paler beneath. Flowers numerous, 
 small, axillary. The whole plant is muci- 
 laginous, and has been used in medicine as 
 an emollient, but is of no value. {Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 222.) 
 
 WALL -PEPPER. See Stone-crop. 
 
 WALNUT TREE. (Juglans, from 
 Jovis glans ; literally the nut of Jove.) All 
 the species of the ornamental genus to which 
 the well-known walnut-tree belongs are 
 tall, stately-growing trees, well adapted for 
 parks and lawns. They grow freely in any 
 rich loamy soil, and are raised from seeds. 
 This deciduous tree was formerly held in 
 great esteem in this country for its wood, 
 which is often very finely veined ; but, on 
 account of its aptness to be worm-eaten, it 
 has long since given place to the mahogany. 
 As a fruit tree, independent of its timber, 
 which is still of much value, it merits at- 
 tention, and it is also useful as an ornamental 
 tree. There are several species capable of 
 being cultivated with advantage both for 
 their wood and fruit ; as the common wal- 
 nut, the white walnut, and the black walnut 
 tree. 
 
 The common walnut (J. regia) is a very 
 large and lofty tree, which has strong 
 spreading boughs. The leaves are pinnate, 
 with a very strong but not unpleasant 
 smell ; the leaflets three pairs (sometimes 
 two or four), nearly equal, except that the 
 odd one is largest ; they are entire, smooth, 
 and shining. The male flowers are in close, 
 pendulous, subterminating filaments ; the 
 females scattered, frequently two or three 
 together. Fruit an ovate, coriaceous, 
 smooth drupe, inclosing an irregularly 
 grooved nut, which contains a four-lobed, 
 oily, eatable kernel, with an irregular 
 knobbed surface, and covered with a yellow 
 skin. This tree is a native of Persia. 
 
 It has been noticed by Martyn, " that as 
 they all vary again when raised from the 
 seed, and that as nuts from the same tree 
 will produce different fruit, those who plant 
 the walnut for its fruit should make choice 
 of the trees in the nurseries, when ( hoy have 
 their fruit upon them." 
 
 The common walnut has several varieties, 
 
WALNUT TREE. 
 
 as the oval walnut, the round walnut, the 
 large walnut, the small -fruited walnut, the 
 double walnut, the early walnut, the late 
 walnut, the tender thin- shelled walnut, and 
 the hard thk-k-shelled walnut. 
 
 There are two other species, the hickory- 
 nut, or white walnut (J. alba), and the black 
 walnut (J. nigra). Both these are natives 
 of Virginia ; but their fruit being, though 
 well-flavoured, very small, they are seldom 
 cultivated in Britain, except as timber trees. 
 
 The best manure for the walnut is ashes, 
 spread in the beginning of winter, the land 
 having been first ploughed or trenched over 
 in an effectual manner. 
 
 The length of time in which the walnut 
 bears well from the nut is about twenty 
 years. 
 
 Mr. Knight has suggested that this tree 
 will bear much sooner when raised by graft- 
 ing, with bearing branches, by approach. 
 But where the trees are intended for tim- 
 ber, it is a good practice to plant them out 
 at once where they are to grow, as they 
 thrive faster, and form better trees, by that 
 method of raising them. 
 
 These trees should not be planted nearer 
 together than forty feet, and even more dis- 
 tant, if they are designed for fruit. They 
 delight in a firm, rich, loamy soil, or such 
 as is inclinable to chalk or marl ; and will 
 thrive very well in stony ground, or on 
 chalk hills, as is evident from those large 
 plantations near Leatherhead, Godstone, and 
 Carshalton in Surrey, where great numbers 
 of these trees planted upon the downs pro- 
 duce annually large quantities of fruit, to 
 the no small advantage of their owners. 
 
 In order to preserve this fruit, it should 
 be left upon the tree till it is thoroughly 
 ripe, and then, as it would be exceedingly 
 troublesome to gather it by hand, it may 
 be beaten off, but not with such violence as 
 is commonly used, from a mistaken notion 
 that the tree is improved thereby ; for most 
 certainly it cannot be benefited by that 
 rough way of forcing off the young wood 
 upon which this fruit grows. 
 
 The fruit is used in two different stages 
 of its growth : as when green, to pickle ; 
 and when ripe, to eat the kernel. For the 
 first purpose, the young green walnut, when 
 about half or near three parts grown, before 
 the outer coat and internal shell shall be- 
 come hard, is most excellent, for which 
 they' are generally ready in July or the 
 following month, and should be gathered 
 by the hand, choosing such as are as free 
 from specks as possible. But the fruit is 
 discovered to be fully ripe by the outer 
 husk easily separating from the nut, or by 
 the husks sometimes opening at the valve, 
 and the nuts dropping out, which occurs 
 1225 
 
 usually about the latter end of September. 
 In trees of considerable growth, it is com- 
 monly beaten down with long poles ; for, as 
 the walnuts grow mostly at the extremity 
 of the branches, it would, in very large 
 spreading trees, be troublesome and tedious 
 work to gather them by hand. As soon as 
 gathered, they should be laid in heaps a few 
 days to heat and sweat, to cause their outer 
 husks, which closely adhere, to separate 
 from the shell of the nuts ; after which they 
 should be cleaned from the rubbish, and 
 deposited in a dry room for use, covering 
 them over close with dry straw, a foot thick, 
 where they will keep three or four months. 
 They always command a ready sale at mar- 
 ket, in large towns, where, at their first 
 coming in, they are brought with their 
 husks on, and sold by the sack, or bushel, 
 but afterwards cleaned, and sold both by 
 measure and by the thousand. 
 
 Plantations of these trees are therefore 
 profitable, in their annual crops of fruit, 
 while growing, and in their timber when 
 felled or cut down. 
 
 It is stated in the Gloucestershire Report, 
 that " it will grow almost in any soil, wants 
 no pruning nor care, and in less time than 
 the oak it will make a large tree. The 
 wood is too valuable to apply to the usual 
 purposes of timber trees, but is always used 
 either in cabinet work or for gun-stocks ; 
 for the latter, indeed, so great has been the 
 demand for a few years past, from the Bir- 
 mingham gun-makers, that the county has 
 been ransacked for this wood, and high 
 prices have been held out to tempt the sale 
 of it. In consequence of this, the stock has 
 been much diminished, and, with very few 
 exceptions, only here and there is a solitary 
 walnut tree seen growing. In the parish 
 of Arlingham there are more, perhaps, than 
 in many other parishes combined." 
 
 Were it only for the oil that these nuts 
 afford, the trees which produce them would 
 be worth some care. It has been observed 
 by Evelyn, that one bushel of them will 
 yield fifteen pounds of peeled kernels, and 
 that these will yield half that weight of oil, 
 which the sooner it is drawn, is the more 
 in quantity, though the drier the nut the 
 better is its quality. He adds, that the lee, 
 or marc of the pressing, is excellent for 
 fattening hogs. Certainly it would be good 
 manure for land ; as are the cakes of lin- 
 seed, rape, &c, after the oil has been 
 squeezed out of them. The green husks 
 boiled, without any mixture, make a good 
 colour to dye a dark yellow brown. The 
 kernel being rubbed upon any crack or 
 chink of a leaking vessel, stops it better 
 than either clay, pitch, or wax. (Phillips s 
 Fruits, p. 342.) 
 
WALPOLE, HORACE. 
 
 WARBLER. 
 
 WALPOLE, HORACE, Earl of Or- 
 ford, the youngest son of Sir Robert Wal- 
 pole, prime minister of George I., was born 
 in 1718, was educated at Eton, and King's 
 College, Cambridge. He died March the 
 2d, 1797. 
 
 That the Earl of Orford was a man of 
 taste and an encourager of the men of 
 genius of his age is the best light in which, 
 as a public character, we can look upon 
 him ; that he was gifted with a strong 
 genius, though often asserted, is very doubt- 
 ful ; that his researches were frequently 
 superficial his writings testify. He very 
 powerfully contributed to abolish the ma- 
 thematical style of gardening, being one of 
 the most strenuous advocates of landscape- 
 gardening, as is manifested in his only lite- 
 rary production that we shall mention, 
 being an Essay on Modern Gardening, 
 written in 1770, forming the concluding 
 chapter of his Anecdotes of Painting in 
 England, which, though printed in 1771, 
 did not appear until 1780. 
 
 In this essay, being determined to demon- 
 strate that rural gardening was the true 
 and new taste, to establish the opinion, his- 
 torians, both sacred and profane, which ap- 
 peared to militate against his doctrines, are 
 passed over with indifference and contempt. 
 To his sketch of the improvements intro- 
 duced by Bridgeman and Kent, and those 
 garden artists their immediate successors, 
 we may afford the best praise. He appears 
 to be a faithful, and is an eloquent, annalist. 
 (G. W.Johnson's Hist Eng. Gard.) 
 
 WALTON, IZAAK, was born at Staf- 
 ford in 1593. Although ranking high as a 
 biographer, he claims our notice here as the 
 patriarch of anglers, and his treatise on that 
 recreation has gone through numerous edi- 
 tions. 
 
 The Complete Angler, or Contemplative 
 Man's Recreation, was first published in 
 1653, and other editions appeared during 
 Walton's life in 1655, 1664, 1668, and 1676. 
 Editions were also published by Sir John 
 Hawkins and his son in 1760 and 1797. It 
 is well remarked, in the advertisement to 
 the ninth edition, that " The English lan- 
 guage does not perhaps contain a book of 
 more general and undivided popularity than 
 The Complete Angler ; it is praised and 
 loved by persons of all conditions; and so 
 far from being confined to those who are 
 devoted to the sport of which it mainly 
 treats, it is a favourite with many men who 
 never handled an angling-rod in their lives." 
 Good honest Izaak Walton died on the 15th 
 December, 1683, and lies buried in the 
 cathedral church of Winchester, close by 
 the bright and swift-flowing trout-waters of 
 the Itcnen, whose streams he used to haunt, 
 1226 
 
 and whose gallant fish he has so well de- 
 scribed. (Farmer's Almanac, vol. i. p. 51. ; 
 Watkins's Biog. Diet. ; life prefixed to Wal- 
 ton and Cotton's Angler.) 
 
 WARBLE. See Sitfast, Galls, and 
 Back-sore. 
 
 WARBLER. A name applied to several 
 species of native singing-birds. Some few 
 of this family have already been noticed. 
 See Blackcap, Blue-throated Warbler, 
 and Dartford Warbler. 
 
 There are six other species which remain 
 to be noticed, namely : — 
 
 L The grasshopper warbler. (Salicaria 
 locustella, Selby and Yarrell.) It has re- 
 ceived its common and specific name from 
 its very peculiar and almost incessant 
 cricket-like note. This warbler is a visiter 
 to us from the south, whence it comes to 
 this country for the summer, and is first to 
 be heard, and occasionally seen about the 
 middle of April, and leaves us again in 
 September. The food of the grasshopper 
 warbler is small snails, slugs, and insects. 
 The top of the head, back, and wings 
 are greenish brown ; the centres of the 
 feathers darker brown, producing a spotted 
 appearance. Chin, throat, breast, and belly, 
 pale brown, spotted with darker brown 
 on the neck and breast; legs, toes, and 
 claws, pale brown. The whole length of 
 the bird is five inches. 
 
 2. The sedge warbler (Salicaria phrag- 
 mitis), the second example of this small 
 aquatic division, is more numerous as a 
 species than either of the other two, and is 
 generally to be found during summer in 
 most thick patches of reeds or willows in 
 marshes, or on the low sides of rivers, or on 
 islands, where, from the loose and soft nature 
 of the soil, aquatic herbage grows thick and 
 strong. This bird arrives in this country in 
 April, and leaves us again in September. 
 The nest of the sedge warbler has frequent ly 
 been confounded with that of the reed war- 
 bler ; but it is usually placed much nearer 
 the ground, and seldom depends on reeds 
 for its support. The eggs are five or six in 
 number, eight lines long by six lines in 
 breadth, of a pale yellowish brown, slightly 
 mottled, and sometimes streaked with darker 
 brown. The back and wing-coverts are pale 
 reddish brown ; chin and throat, white ; 
 breast, belly, flanks, &c, buff colour. The 
 whole length of the bird is four inches and 
 three quarters. 
 
 3. The reed warbler (Salicaria arundi- 
 nacea) comes to this country in April, and 
 departs again in September; and is in its 
 habits and manner, as well as in the locali- 
 ties it frequents, so similar to the sedge war- 
 bler, that wherever one species is found, 
 the other is almost certain to be within a 
 
WARBLER. 
 
 WARPING OF LAND. 
 
 short distance; and the birds themselves, 
 from a certain resemblance in appearance, 
 have been frequently confounded. The 
 length of the male bird is five inches and a 
 half. 
 
 4. The garden warbler (Curruca horten- 
 sis) is a summer visiter, closely resembling 
 the blackcap in habits, being lively, active, 
 and restless, seldom remaining long in any 
 one place, secreting itself in dense foliage, 
 oftener heard than seen, but sometimes sing- 
 ing from a branch at the top of a tree. As 
 a songster the garden warbler ranks next 
 to the blackcap. These birds arrive to- 
 wards the end of April or the beginning of 
 May. They frequent thick hedges, shrub- 
 beries, and gardens, feeding on insects, peas, 
 various fruits, cherries in particular, and 
 some berries. Their nest is placed in a low 
 bush, or among rank herbage ; the mate- 
 rials, which consist of goose-grass, bents, with 
 a little wool and moss, lined with fine fibrous 
 roots and a few hairs, are but loosely put 
 together. 
 
 The eggs are four or five in number, of a 
 greenish white, spotted and streaked with 
 ash-green and light brown ; the length nine 
 lines by six lines and a half in breadth. The 
 upper surface of the body is of a uniform 
 hair brown ; the plumage of the under sur- 
 face dull brownish white. The whole length 
 of the bird is rather less than six inches. 
 
 5. The wood warbler. (Sylvia sibillatrix.) 
 This bird, with the willow warbler and chiff- 
 chaff, are the only British species now in- 
 cluded in the genus Sylvia as at present 
 restricted. They differ from the warblers 
 already described in the general colour of 
 their plumage, in not being fruit-eaters ; 
 they almost invariably build their nests on 
 the ground, and their nests are covered or 
 domed at the top. The wood warbler sel- 
 dom arrives in this country till near the 
 end of April, and is generally distributed 
 through the wooded districts, preferring old 
 plantations and woods containing tall trees, 
 particularly those of oak or beech. Its food 
 appears to be insects and their larvae ; some 
 are taken on the wing, and others are sought 
 for among the upper foliage of trees. The 
 nest is oval, always placed on the ground 
 among herbage, and is formed of dry grass, 
 dead leaves, and some moss, and invariably 
 lined with finer grass and long hairs, but 
 no feathers, which are used as lining to 
 some extent by both the other species of 
 this genus, and serve to distinguish their 
 nests, which are also placed on the ground, 
 from that of the wood warbler. This bird 
 lays six eggs, white, spotted, and speckled 
 all over, almost hiding the ground-colour, 
 with purple red and ash-colour; the eggs 
 eight lines in length by six lines in breadth. 
 
 1227 
 
 The adult male has a streak of bright sul- 
 phur yellow passing from the base of the 
 upper mandible,- behind the nostril, over the 
 eye, and over the ear-coverts ; the top of 
 the head, neck, smaller wing-coverts, back, 
 and upper tail-coverts, are olive-green, 
 tinged with sulphur yellow ; the chin, throat, 
 breast, and flanks, delicate sulphur yellow ; 
 belly and under tail-coverts clear white. 
 
 6. The willow warbler (Sylvia trochilus) 
 frequents woods, plantations, shrubberies, 
 thick hedgerows, and bushes on commons, 
 is lively and amusing in its actions, hopping 
 or flying from branch to branch, and cap- 
 turing any small insect that comes in its 
 way. The eggs are six or seven in number, 
 white, with numerous small specks of pale 
 red ; they are seven lines and a half long by 
 six lines broad. The food of this species is 
 flies, aphides, and insects generally in their 
 different states ; and it is one of the gar- 
 dener's best friends, from the number of 
 insects it consumes daily. The feathers on 
 the crown of the head, neck, back, and up- 
 per tail-coverts, are dull olive-green ; wing 
 and tail feathers darker brown ; chin, throat, 
 breast, flanks, and under tail-coverts whitish, 
 but strongly tinged with yellow ; belly al- 
 most white. The whole length of the bird 
 is about five inches. (YarrelVs Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 261—316.) See Chiff- 
 chaff, Nightingale, Redstart, Regulus, 
 Wheateab, Whitethboat, &c 
 
 WARP. A provincial term applied to 
 cows, signifying to miscarry or slink their 
 calves. See Abortion. 
 
 WARP. A slimy deposit or ooze left 
 upon land by the receding sea tides in par- 
 ticular' situations. See Alluvium and 
 Warping. 
 
 WARPING OF LAND. A mode of 
 fertilising and improving tillage lands prac- 
 tised in particular situations on the borders 
 of large rivers and waters into which the 
 sea tides flow, and where the level of the 
 ground is such as to admit of their being 
 flooded with great facility. The practice is, 
 for the most part, confined to the districts 
 situate on the coasts of Lincolnshire and 
 Yorkshire. The water of the tides that 
 come up the Trent, Ouze, Dun, and other 
 rivers which empty themselves into the 
 great estuary of the Humber, is muddy to 
 an excess ; insomuch that in summer, if a 
 cylindrical glass, twelve or fifteen inches 
 long, be filled with it, it will presently de- 
 posit an inch, and sometimes more, of what 
 is called warp : a circumstance which ren- 
 ders them so fertile. 
 
 The fertility of Egypt, of the lands bor- 
 dering on the shores of the Ganges, and 
 some of the large American rivers, I have 
 already shown to be attributable to the 
 
WARPING 
 
 OF LAND. 
 
 periodical overflowing of the waters, which 
 are surcharged with a large quantity of 
 earthy substances which they hold in solu- 
 tion. 
 
 " The effect of warping is very different 
 from that of irrigation; for it is not the 
 water that works the effect, but the depo- 
 sition of the mud, so that in floods the 
 business ceases, as also in winter ; and the 
 object of this practice is not to manure the 
 soil, but to create it. The quality of the 
 land intended to be warped is not of the 
 smallest consequence; a bog, clay, sand, 
 peat, or a barn floor, are all one ; as the warp 
 raises it in one summer from six to sixteen 
 inches thick, and in the hollows, or low 
 places, two, three, or four feet, so as to 
 leave the whole piece level. Thus a soil of 
 any depth you please is formed, which con- 
 sists of mud of a vast fertility, though con- 
 taining not much besides sand." 
 
 This is a practice which is begun in the 
 month of July, and is proceeded with during 
 the summer season ; and as it can only be 
 performed at that period, every occasion of 
 having it executed should be embraced, by 
 having the work in perfect repair, that 
 every tide may be made to produce its full 
 effect. With regard to the advantage of 
 doing this work in the summer months, it 
 may be remarked that at these times the 
 lands not only become the soonest dry, a 
 circumstance which must always fully take 
 place before the process of cultivation can be 
 carried on, but the tides are less mixed 
 with fresh water, in which situation they 
 are constantly found the most effectual. 
 
 The method of executing the work is 
 thus described, in the Agricultural Survey 
 of the West Riding of Yorkshire, by Lord 
 Hawke : — 
 
 " The land to be warped must be banked 
 round against the river. The banks are 
 made of the earth taken on the spot from 
 the land : they must slope six feet, that is, 
 three feet on each side of the top or crown 
 of the bank, for every foot perpendicular of 
 rise : their top or crown is broader or nar- 
 rower, according to the impetuosity of the 
 tide and the weight and quantity of water; 
 and it extends from two to twelve feet : 
 their height is regulated by the height to 
 which the spring tides flow, so as to ex- 
 clude or let them in at pleasure. In these 
 banks there are more or fewer openings, 
 according to the size of the ground to be 
 warped, und to the choice of the occupier ; 
 but in general they have only two sluices, 
 one called the flood-gate, to admit, the 
 Other called the clough, to let off the water 
 gently; these are enough for ten or fifteen 
 acres. When the spring tide begins to ebb, 
 the flood-gate is opened to admit the tide, 
 1228 
 
 I the clough having been previously shut by 
 the weight of the water brought up the 
 river by the flow of the tide. As the tide 
 ebbs down the river, the weight or pres- 
 sure of water being taken from the outside 
 of the clough next the river, the tide water 
 that has been previously admitted by the 
 flood-gate opens the clough again, and dis- 
 charges itself slowly but completely through 
 it. The cloughs are walled on each side, 
 and so constructed as to let the water run 
 off between the ebb of the tide admitted 
 and the flow of the next ; and to this point 
 particular attention is paid. The flood- 
 gates are placed so high as only to let in 
 the spring tides when opened. They are 
 placed above the level of the common 
 tides. 
 
 " Willows are also occasionally planted 
 on the front of the banks, to break the force 
 of the tides, and defend the banks by 
 raising the front of them with warp thus 
 collected and accumulated ; but these wil- 
 lows must never be planted on the banks, 
 as they would destroy them by giving the 
 winds power to shake them." 
 
 It is stated that the first cost of a sluice 
 for warping, that is, five feet in height and 
 seven feet in width, may be estimated at 
 from 400Z. to 500/. ; and that such a sluice 
 will in general be adequate to the warping 
 of fifty acres annually, and, where the soil 
 is contiguous to the river, for seventy or 
 more. 
 
 The following is given as the substance 
 of a note by a commissioner employed in 
 warping : — " Warp leaves one eighth of an 
 inch every tide on an average ; and these 
 layers do not mix in an uniform mass, but 
 remain in distinct layers. 
 
 " If only one sluice, then only every 
 other tide can be used, as the water must 
 run perfectly off, that the surface may in- 
 crust; and if the canal be not empty, the 
 tide has not the effect. 
 
 " As a new soil is created by this practice, 
 it is of little consequence what the original 
 nature of the land may be, almost all kinds 
 being improved by it. But at the same 
 time it may be the most beneficial in such 
 light soils as are very open and porous, and 
 such stiff ones as are defective in calcareous 
 matter, and which require substances of 
 this kind to render them less tenacious. 
 Land, when once well warped, will continue 
 for a vast length of time in a good state of 
 fertility ; but still it is suggested by some 
 experienced warpers as a better practice 
 to apply, a small portion of warp whenever 
 the land is in the state of fallow, which will 
 be about every five or six years, as by this 
 means the farmer will be more secure of 
 having good crops. The depth to which 
 
WARRANTY. 
 
 WART-CRESS. 
 
 the lands are covered by the tides must be 
 regulated according to their levels, and the 
 height of the tides in the rivers from which 
 they proceed. It may be admitted to the 
 height of three or four, or more feet ; but 
 the deposit of sediment is in some measure 
 proportionate to the height of the water, 
 though the same effects may be obtained 
 from much smaller quantities of water by 
 continuing the process a great number of 
 tides." 
 
 The expense of this mode of improving 
 lands must necessarily differ much in dif- 
 ferent cases, according as the circumstances 
 of situation and distance vary ; but, ac- 
 cording to Mr. Young, it can seldom exceed 
 121. or 151. the acre, and in most instances 
 it must be greatly below such estimates. 
 
 Warped lands are found capable of grow- 
 ing most kinds of crops in great plenty, but 
 particularly oats, beans, wheat, flax, pota- 
 toes, and grass seeds. 
 
 WARRANTY. In horsemanship, &c, 
 a term applied to the assurance of the 
 animal's being sound when purchased. If 
 a person warrants a horse to be sound (and 
 the cases in general apply to all other 
 animals, whether sold in a fair, or market, 
 or by private contract), he does it at his 
 own peril, whether he knew the horse to be 
 sound or not. (Anon. Lofft, 146.) And he 
 is bound by what his servant or agent says 
 at the time of the sale (Helyear v. Hawke, 5 
 Espinasse, 52.), who has an implied autho- 
 rity to warrant (Alexander v. Gibson, 2 
 Campbell, 555.) ; and even if a horse- 
 dealer's servant was told expressly by his 
 master not to do so. But a person not a 
 horse-dealer is not bound by the forbidden 
 act of his servant (Scotland v. Watson, 1 
 Dowling, 45.) ; and the warranty must begin 
 at the time of the sale, and is not binding 
 if merely given by the servant employed to 
 deliver the horse. (Hoodin v. Burford, 2 
 C. & M. 391.) An infant, of course, cannot 
 warrant. (Howlett v. Halswell, 4 Campbell, 
 118. ; Green v. Greenbank, 2 Marshall, 485.) 
 A verbal representation of the seller to the 
 buyer of a horse, in the course of dealing, 
 that he " may depend upon it that the horse 
 is perfectly quiet and free from vice," is a 
 warranty (Cane v. Coleman, 3 M. & R. 2.) ; 
 or that "he could warrant" (Sutton v. 
 Carder, 7 Taunton, 405.) ; but a warranty 
 does not extend to manifest and visible de- 
 fects (Margetson v. Wright, 5 M. & P. 
 606.) ; proof that a horse is a good drawer, 
 will not satisfy a warranty that he is " a 
 good drawer and pulls quietly in harness." 
 (Coltherd v. Puncheon, 2 D. & R. 10.) If 
 the seller says, at the time of the sale, " I 
 never warrant, but the horse is sound as 
 far as I know ; " this is a qualified warranty, 
 1229 
 
 and the purchaser may maintain an action 
 if he can show that the horse was unsound 
 to the knowledge of the seller. (Wood v. 
 Smith, 5 M. & R. 124.) 
 
 In an action on a warranty of a horse 
 the plaintiff must positively prove that the 
 horse was unsound (Eaves v. Dixon, 2 
 Taunton, 343.) ; and this is a question en- 
 tirely for the jury to determine. (Lewis v. 
 Peahe, 7 Taunton, 153.). Even a temporary 
 lameness, if it renders a horse less fit for 
 service, is a breach of a warranty of sound- 
 ness. (Elton v. Brogden, 4 Campbell, 281.) 
 But roaring is not unsoundness, unless it 
 proceed from disease or some organic de- 
 fect. (Bassett v. Collis, 2 Campbell, 523. ; 
 Onslow v. Eames, 2 Starkie, 81.) A nerved 
 horse is unsound (Best v. Osborne, R. & M. 
 290.) ; but crib-biting is not. (Broennen- 
 burgh v. Haycock, Holt, 630.) The goggles 
 in sheep is an unsoundness (Jolliffy. Rendell, 
 R. & M. 136.) ; and any fraud in the sale of 
 a warranted horse will avoid it, although it 
 does not amount to a breach of the war- 
 ranty. (Steward v. Cosvelt, 1 C. & P. 23.) 
 See Buying and Selling. 
 
 WARREN. A franchise, or place pri- 
 vileged, either by prescription or grant 
 from the king, to keep beasts and fowls of 
 warren in; as rabbits, hares, partridges, 
 pheasants, &c. 
 
 By statute 21 Edw. 3. a warren may lie 
 open, and there is no need of closing it in, 
 as there is a park. 
 
 In the forming a warren, great caution is 
 to be used for the fixing upon a proper 
 place and a right situation. It should al- 
 ways be upon a small ascent, if possible, 
 and exposed to the east or the south. The 
 soil that is most suitable is that which is 
 sandy ; for when the soil is clayey or tough 
 the rabbits find great difficulty in making 
 their burrows, and never do it so well ; and 
 if the soil be boggy or moorish, there would 
 be very little advantage from the warren ; 
 for wet is very destructive to these animals. 
 See Rabbit. 
 
 WART-CRESS. (Senebiera; named 
 by Decandolle in honour of the Rev. John 
 de Senebier of Geneva, an eminent phy- 
 siological botanist.) Of these interesting 
 plants there are two native species, both 
 annuals. 
 
 1. The common wart-cress, or swine's- 
 cress (S. Coronopus), which grows plenti- 
 fully in waste ground and by road-sides. 
 The root is tapering. Stems spreading, 
 quite flat on the ground, branched, leafy, 
 smooth. Leaves somewhat glaucous, deeply 
 pinnatifid. Flowers opposite to the leaves, 
 white, small, densely corymbose. Pouches 
 in dense clusters, much shorter than the 
 leaves, kidney-shaped, elegantly notched 
 
WASP. 
 
 WATER. 
 
 and furrowed. The whole plant is nau- 
 seously acid and fetid, and must require 
 much boiling to render it eatable. 
 
 2. Lesser wart-cress. (S. didyma.) This 
 species grows in waste ground near the sea, 
 at the south-west extremity of Britain. In 
 habit it much resembles that last described. 
 The root is small and fibrous. Stems pro- 
 cumbent, a foot or more in length, branched, 
 leafy, finely hairy. The leaves are smooth, 
 flat, deeply pinnatifid. The flowers are in 
 clusters, opposite to the leaves, numerous, 
 small, white. The pouch consists of two 
 distinct turgid lobes, with a nearly sessile 
 stigma. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 179.) 
 
 WART-WORT. See Spurge. 
 
 WARTY SPURGE. See Spurge. 
 
 WASP. (Vespa.) An extensive genus 
 of insects, of which three species are com- 
 mon to Britain. 
 
 1. The hornet ■ (V. crabro), which has 
 been already noticed. 
 
 2. The common wasp (V. vulgaris) is 
 from half an inch to three quarters of an 
 inch long. It is divided into three classes, 
 queens, males, and mules. The queens, or 
 females, are furnished with stings, and are 
 much larger than any other wasp, on ac- 
 count of the numerous eggs they contain. 
 The males are smaller in size than the 
 females, and sting less. The number of 
 these two classes in a nest is nearly equal, 
 amounting, in general, to 200 or 300. The 
 mules are principally employed in con- 
 structing the nests, and in providing the 
 other wasps and the young insects with 
 food ; like the females, they are furnished 
 with long stings. 
 
 Wasps build their nests in the ground, 
 where the females who survive the winter 
 deposit their eggs : these are hatched, and, 
 in the course of three weeks, the young in- 
 sects are fed and nourished by the mother 
 until they pass through the different states 
 of larvae or grubs, and of chrysalids, when 
 they become perfect wasps. The mules 
 come first into existence, immediately enlarge 
 the hole, and form the nest with fibres of 
 wood, leaves, &c, sweep out the passages in 
 the nests, and carry out all the filth ; they 
 feed the young males and females, adapting 
 the quantity and nature of such provision 
 to the weakness of their stomachs. This 
 food consists of a variety of substances, 
 sugar, fruit, wine, the first of the juices ex- 
 tracted from fruits and meat, but afterwards 
 of the bodies of insects. As soon as each 
 wasp acquires sufficient strength, it flies 
 into the fields and gardens, where the fruit 
 is plundered and bees are killed with a 
 view of obtaining their honey. The wasp 
 may be regarded as the instinctive inventor 
 Of paper, as its nest is constructed of a ma- 
 1230 
 
 terial so closely resembling paper that it 
 would be difficult to point out the distinc- 
 tion. The number of cells in one vespiary 
 often amounts to more than 10,000, in all 
 of which an egg is deposited ; and, as each 
 cell serves for three generations in one 
 year, the numbers in each vespiary are 
 30,000; which circumstance readily accounts 
 for the difficulty of destroying them. The 
 mother in the vespiary is like the queen 
 bee in a hive ; " when she perishes, the 
 neuters cease their labours, lose their in- 
 stincts, and die." (Kirby's Introd. to Ent. 
 vol. ii. p. 109.) 
 
 3. The small wasp (V. coarctata) is, in 
 habit, like the preceding. The nest, which 
 is constructed of woody fibre reduced to a 
 fine substance resembling paper, is of an 
 oval form, and is usually suspended from 
 the branches of trees, and covered with a 
 kind of varnish that renders it impervious 
 to rain and other moisture. 
 
 Wasps are not only destructive to grapes, 
 peaches, and the more delicate kinds of 
 fruit, but also to bees, the hives of which 
 they attack and plunder, frequently com- 
 pelling these industrious insects to change 
 their habitation. The nests of those wasps 
 which build in the earth may be destroyed 
 with hot water or oil ; those on trees are 
 best suffocated by lighted brimstone. (Kol- 
 lar on Insects, p. 79.) 
 
 Wasps are much affected by cold ; so that 
 when winter begins to set in they become 
 less bold and savage, and they all perish, 
 except a few females, as soon as the frost 
 begins. This is a wise provision of nature ; 
 for, did they survive the winter, they would 
 soon rival the locust in their destructive 
 depredations. 
 
 WASTE LAND. The following is an 
 account of the quantity of land uncultivated 
 and waste in the British dominions, in- 
 cluding Scotland, Ireland, and the British 
 Islands, according to the evidence of Mr. 
 Cowling before the Emigration Committee 
 in 1827 : — 
 
 
 Uncultivated 
 
 Unprofitable 
 
 
 Acres. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 England - 
 
 3,454,000 
 
 3,256,000 
 
 Wales 
 
 530,000 
 
 1,105,000 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 5,950,000 
 
 8,523,930 
 
 Ireland - 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 2,416,664 
 
 British Islands - 
 
 166,000 
 
 569,469 
 
 
 15,000,000 
 
 15,871,463 
 
 WATER. A well known, universally 
 diffused substance, which in ordinary tem- 
 peratures is fluid, but is solid when cooled 
 down to 32° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, 
 and is converted into vapour at 212°. It 
 
» 
 
 WATER. 
 
 is composed, by weight, of oxygen eight 
 parts, and hydrogen one part. 
 
 Water is one of the most useful elements 
 in the arts and manufactures, as well as in 
 rural and domestic economy. The exten- 
 sive utility of water for imparting motion 
 to machinery, and for domestic purposes, 
 is too well known to require explanation ; 
 and as we have already treated of its bene- 
 ficial properties for irrigating land, under 
 this head we shall have principally to con- 
 fine ourselves to its uses to plants. 
 
 Its uses to vegetation. — The value of 
 water to vegetation very early attracted 
 the attention of mankind. In the most 
 ancient of all books, Genesis, ii. 10., we 
 are told that " a river went out of Eden 
 to water the garden." And the earliest 
 of the Greek and Egyptian philosophers, 
 astonished and confused by the magic ef- 
 fects which water produced upon the rank 
 and luxuriant lands of the warm Eastern 
 climates, were, loud in their praises of the 
 unaided powers of water to support vege- 
 tation. They not only regarded it as one 
 of the four elements of which the world 
 was composed, but Hippocrates considered 
 it to be the substance which nourishes and 
 supports plants and animals. Theophrastus 
 even considered that all metals were pro- 
 duced from water. The opinion that pure 
 water, and water only, was able to support 
 vegetation, was in succeeding ages long the 
 opinion of many philosophers distinguished 
 for their laborious investigations, and their 
 ardent love of truth. Amongst these may 
 be named Van Helmont, Bonnet, Duhamel, 
 Tillet, and the illustrious Boyle. These 
 great men deceived themselves, however, 
 by not sufficiently attending to the purity 
 of the water with which they experimented, 
 or guarding with rigid accuracy against 
 other sources of error. Of the many re- 
 searches which they instituted to determine 
 this point, none was more apparently con- 
 clusive than that of the well-known willow 
 tree experiment of Van Helmont, which 
 long deceived, from its apparent accuracy, 
 the philosophers of that age. This cele- 
 brated experimentalist planted a willow 
 which weighed five pounds in a common 
 earthern vessel filled with 200 lbs. of 
 soil, which had been previously thoroughly 
 dried in an oven, and then moistened with 
 only rain water. This earthen vessel he 
 placed in the earth in a garden, covering it 
 over in a such a manner that all access of 
 dust, &c. was prevented. For five years 
 this willow continued to grow, although 
 moistened only with either rain or distilled 
 water. At the end of that period, it was 
 found to weigh 169 J lbs., although the 
 earth in which it was planted, when again 
 1231 
 
 dried and weighed, was found to have lost 
 only two ounces of its original weight. 
 Here, then, said the contemporaries of Van 
 Helmont, is an increase of 164 lbs., and 
 yet the only food the willow had was water ; 
 it is evident, therefore, that pure water, and 
 water only, is quite sufficient to support 
 vegetation. 
 
 Various sources of error were, however, 
 speedily discerned to prove that this ex- 
 periment was totally insufficient to decide 
 this question. The illustrious Bergman, in 
 1773, showed that the rain water employed 
 by Van Helmont, so far from being chemi- 
 cally pure, contained sufficient earthy mat- 
 ters to supply the whole of that found in 
 the willow tree. And, in addition to this, 
 it was afterwards shown that unglazed 
 earthen vessels readily imbibe and trans- 
 mit the moisture of the soil in which they 
 are placed ; now this moisture abounds with 
 a variety of solid matters, both organic, 
 earthy, and saline. {Thomson, vol. iv. p. 
 313.) 
 
 Still more accurate experiments have 
 been since instituted with water chemically 
 pure, with very different results. In this 
 way all attempts to raise plants have in 
 every instance totally failed, although, as I 
 have in another place had occasion to re- 
 mark, I have fruitlessly varied the attempt 
 in several ways. See Liquid Manure. 
 
 Although, however, it is, from the result 
 of these laborious researches, pretty clearly 
 proved that water is not the sole food of 
 plants, yet it must be evident to the most 
 casual observer what an indispensable food 
 this universal fluid is to vegetation. To 
 all vegetation, in fact, it is an indispensable 
 necessary of life, although almost every 
 species of plant requires to be supplied 
 with it in varying proportions : some, such 
 as the aerial epidendron, and other Ori- 
 ental plants, being able to supply them- 
 selves from merely the aqueous portion of 
 it which always exists in the atmosphere ; 
 while some, such as the rice plant, and the 
 aquatics, cannot prosper without being sup- 
 plied with it in such copious quantities as 
 would be destructive to the ordinary crops 
 of the farmer. In some proportion or 
 other, however, they all require it, and all 
 attempts have been in vain made to cause 
 plants to grow in situations where moisture 
 was absolutely removed both from the earth 
 and their surrounding atmosphere. 
 
 M. Berthollet was of opinion that the 
 leaves of plants have the power of decom- 
 posing water when exposed to the light of 
 the sun. The oxygen gas, according to 
 this distinguished philosopher, which is al- 
 ways emitted under these circumstances, is 
 derived partly from the decomposition of 
 
WATER. 
 
 the water. " Indeed," adds Dr. Thomson, " if 
 we consider the great quantity of hydrogen 
 contained in plants, it is difficult to con- 
 ceive how they should obtain it, provided 
 the water they absorb does not contribute 
 to furnish it." {System of Chem. vol. iv. p. 
 349.) These views open a field for future 
 and highly interesting researches, which 
 will probably lead to the establishing of 
 new facts highly important to the culti- 
 vator. And as Davy, the chief of che- 
 mists, well said, " We can only reason from 
 facts. We cannot imitate the powers of 
 composition belonging to vegetable struc- 
 tures, but at least we can understand 
 them, and as far as our researches have 
 gone, it appears that in vegetation com- 
 pound forms are uniformly produced from 
 simpler ones ; and the elements in the soil, 
 the atmosphere, and the earth, absorbed 
 and made parts of beautiful and diversified 
 structures." (Lectures, p. 314.) 
 
 Pure water, therefore, is certainly not 
 capable of entirely supporting vegetation. 
 Yet, although it cannot produce effects so 
 extensive as these, yet its uses are many 
 and important, and it is more than pro- 
 bable that it is decomposed by plants, its 
 oxygen partially evolved, and its hydrogen 
 assimilated with carbon and oxygen into 
 a variety of vegetable substances, most of 
 which contain hydrogen in some form or 
 other : thus 
 
 Sugar is composed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 6*18 
 
 Oxygen _ - - 49-38 
 
 Carbon - 44*44 
 
 100 
 
 Gum, of — 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 6*43 
 
 Oxygen - - - 51*46 
 
 Carbon - 42*11 
 
 100 
 
 Starch, of — 
 
 Hydrogen - - - 6*22 
 
 Oxygen - - - 49*78 
 
 Carbon - 44* 
 
 100 
 
 It would be difficult indeed to account 
 for the large proportion of hydrogen pre- 
 sent in vegetable substances, without we 
 allow that in some instances water is de- 
 composed by the plant. " All the hydro- 
 gen," says Professor Liebig, rather too 
 sweepingly, «* necessary for the formation 
 pf an organic compound is supplied to a 
 plant by the decomposition of water." 
 {Organ. Chem. p. GC.) 
 1232 
 
 That plants have a strong attraction for 
 water is evident from a variety of circum- 
 stances ; thus by their leaves and roots they 
 separate the aqueous vapour of the at- 
 mosphere from the gases in which it is 
 contained, and that too in all ordinary tem- 
 peratures. This unvaried presence of aque- 
 ous vapour in the atmosphere is not less 
 remarkable by the immense importance it 
 is to vegetation ; for without the assistance 
 which the farmer's crops derive from it in 
 dry weather, the warmth of the sun would 
 too often in the summer months wither 
 and destroy them. This beautiful arrange- 
 ment of creative wisdom did not escape the 
 attention of Davy, who noted too the va- 
 riations in its quantity according to the 
 changing demands of vegetation. The 
 quantity of water, he remarked {Elements 
 of Agr. Chem. p. 207.), which exists in air 
 as vapour, varies with the temperature. In 
 proportion as the weather is hotter the 
 quantity is greater. At 50° of Fahrenheit's 
 thermometer, air contains about one fiftieth 
 of its volume of vapour ; and as the specific 
 gravity of vapour, is to that of air nearly as 
 ten to fifteen, this is about one seventy-fifth 
 of its weight. At 100°, supposing that it 
 has a free communication with water, it 
 contains about one fourteenth part in vo- 
 lume, or one twenty-first in weight. It is 
 the condensation of vapour by the diminu- 
 tion in the temperature of the atmosphere 
 which is probably the principal cause of 
 the formation of clouds, and of the depo- 
 sition of dew, mist, snow, or hail. The 
 leaves of living plants appear to act upon 
 the vapour likewise in its elastic form, and 
 to absorb it. Some vegetables increase in 
 weight from this cause when suspended in 
 the atmosphere, and unconnected with the 
 soil ; such are the house-leek, and different 
 species of the aloe. In very intense heats, 
 adds Davy, and when the soil is dry, the 
 life of plants seems to be preserved by the 
 absorbent power of their leaves ; and it is a 
 beautiful circumstance in the economy of 
 nature, that aqueous vapour is most abun- 
 dant in the atmosphere when it is most 
 needed for the purposes of life, and that 
 when other sources of its supply are cut 
 off this is most copious. 
 
 And again, when water is combined with 
 saline substances, the roots of plants sepa- 
 rate it from them in a very remarkable 
 manner. Some curious experiments of this 
 kind were made by M. Saussure. See 
 Salts, their Uses to Vegetation. 
 
 That plants have the power, when nou- 
 rished only with pure water, of decomposing 
 the carbonic acid gas of the atmosphere, 
 has been shown by some very careful expe- 
 riments of M. Saussure. He found that 
 
WATER. 
 
 some sprigs of peppermint, when supplied 
 with pure water only, and allowed to vege- 
 tate for some time in the light, nearly 
 doubled the portion of carbon which they 
 originally contained. The quantity of water 
 which, under ordinary circumstances, plants 
 absorb, is very considerable; thus, Dr. 
 Hales ascertained that a cabbage transmits 
 into the atmosphere, by insensible vapour, 
 about half its weight of water daily ; and 
 that a sunflower, three feet in height, tran- 
 spired in the same period nearly two pounds 
 weight. (Veg. Statics, vol. i. p. 5. 15.) Dr. 
 Woodward found that a sprig of mint, 
 weighing 27 grains, in 77 days emitted 
 2543 grains of water. A sprig of spear- 
 mint, weighing 27 grains, emitted in the 
 same time 2558 grains. A sprio- of common 
 nightshade, weighing 49 grains, evolved 
 3708 grains, and a lathyrus of 98 grains 
 emitted 2501. (Phil. Trans. 1699, p. 193.) 
 
 In a previous page of this Encyclopedia, 
 I have endeavoured to show the various 
 uses of the earths to vegetation. (See 
 Earths.) The cultivator will observe how 
 many of their chief fertile properties are 
 connected with their attraction for the 
 aqueous vapour of the atmosphere, their 
 powers of absorption, their capability of re- 
 taining it. It is in vain, indeed, by any 
 contrivance to attempt to make plants of 
 any description vegetate in absolutely dry 
 earth, or in air from which the aqueous 
 vapour is entirely withdrawn. It is true 
 that some of the flowering roots of the East, 
 and some of the mosses of our own country, 
 almost appear to do so ; but such plants 
 support themselves by absorbing a certain 
 degree of moisture, even when suspended, 
 as in oriental countries, by a silken cord 
 from the ceiling of the room, or from appa- 
 rently dry brick walls ; for when by che- 
 mical means the moisture is entirely re- 
 moved from them, even these hardy plants 
 cease to vegetate. 
 
 Various foreign substances have been 
 supposed to exist in minute proportions in 
 rain-water, to which its fertilising effects 
 have been chiefly ascribed : thus ammonia 
 is believed by Professor Liebig to exist 
 in rain-water. Nothing, however, is more 
 likely to lead to erroneous general conclu- 
 sions than the detection of minute portions 
 of foreign substances in water. Such hasty 
 generalisations have often deceived the 
 most excellent philosophers : thus the great 
 Boyle, by digesting pure water for a length- 
 ened period in glass vessels hermetically 
 sealed, found that it deposited a minute 
 quantity of flint in powder ; and hence he 
 was led to conclude that water was in this 
 way converted by long boiling into silica, 
 an error which several other philosophers 
 1233 
 
 adopted, until the celebrated Lavoisier and 
 Dr. Priestley proved that the flint deposited 
 arose from the water having, by long boil- 
 ing, partially dissolved the glass. In the 
 same way, even Davy, the most cautious of 
 experimentalists, once thought that chlorine 
 and soda might, by the influence of the 
 voltaic pile, be obtained from water abso- 
 lutely pure ; but more careful and rigid 
 experiments soon convinced him of the ex- 
 treme difficulty of procuring entirely pure 
 water, the vessels in which the water was 
 procured communicating, with every appa- 
 rent caution, sundry impurities; and this 
 difficulty I think it very likely the skilful 
 chemists of Germany have not successfully 
 escaped. 
 
 Water exists in all cultivated land in 
 some proportion or other. The quantity, 
 however, necessary to be present in the 
 farmer's soils to obtain the maximum ad- 
 vantage, varies with their nature, the cli- 
 mate, and the crop. For instance, the rice 
 fields of India require a degree of moisture 
 which would be utterly destructive to the 
 grain crops of the English farmer. The 
 most porous sandy land in a rainy climate 
 will be prolific, when the same soil in a dry 
 warm country will be absolutely barren. 
 Even the drifting sands of Arabia, for in- 
 stance, if placed under the incessant rains 
 of the American Andes, would certainly be 
 speedily covered with vegetation. Some of 
 the richest water-meadows of the south of. 
 England and of Scotland are formed on 
 subsoils of broken flints, gravel, and the 
 roughest shingle. And again, the meadow 
 lands often need such copious supplies of 
 moisture as would be the means of destroy- 
 ing the corn crops. The surface water 
 which tenants many uncultivated soils is 
 generally surcharged with a variety of fo- 
 reign substances, very commonly with vege- 
 table matters. That in the gravelly soils is 
 usually surcharged with oxide of iron; that 
 resting on calcareous soils, with sulphate of 
 lime (gypsum) ; whilst those from peat lands 
 commonly abound with sulphate of iron, or 
 the red oxide of the same metal. 
 
 In most of the soils which the farmer has 
 to bring into cultivation, the removal of 
 these waters is his first care ; for such an 
 abundance of moisture is not only pernicious 
 from the usual bad quality of the land 
 water, but from the quantity being far too 
 great for the habits of the plants which the 
 farmer intends to cultivate : such waters 
 too dissolve, and sometimes carry off from 
 the soil, in their imperceptible drainage, all 
 the soluble richest portion of the soil. For 
 many reasons, therefore, draining has been 
 long very justly held to be the foundation 
 of all agricultural improvements ; since its 
 4 K 
 
WATER. 
 
 good effects are not confined to the low 
 marsh land, but its beneficial influence is 
 extended to the most upland soils. It re- 
 moves the land springs, and dries the sur- 
 face of thousands of acres of even the most 
 elevated of the English gravels. 
 
 Almost to an equally beneficial extent 
 has the addition of water to plants for a 
 lengthened period been carried on by the 
 cultivator in a variety of modes ; by the 
 gardener, either in steam in his conserva- 
 tories, or by the watering-pot in the open 
 ground. Almost endless, indeed, are the 
 varieties of artificial irrigation, from the 
 minor applications of the gardener to the 
 more gigantic efforts of the managers of the 
 water-meads. It is this branch of the in- 
 vestigation of the uses of water to vegeta- 
 tion which is the most interesting to the 
 farmer, and to the head Irrigation I must 
 refer the reader. In regarding the uses 
 of water to vegetation in this manner, how- 
 ever, the cultivator must remember that 
 it is not pure water that he is thus using 
 for his crops, but, as I have before re- 
 marked, water surcharged with a variety of 
 earthy, saline, and organic matters, to whose 
 presence a chief portion of the fertilising 
 effect of such streams must be attributed ; 
 for it is found that the most foul and im- 
 pure waters are much the best for the pur- 
 poses of irrigation : thus the water of a 
 river below a town is found to be much 
 more fertilising than the same water before 
 it has been mixed with the contents of the 
 sewers. These are facts well known, for 
 instance, to the owners of the fine water 
 meadows of the valleys of the Itchen, the 
 Kennet, and the Avon. That of the Thames 
 above the influence of the tide, is not nearly 
 so valuable to the grazier as it is after it 
 has had mixed with its waters the huge 
 mass of impure matters from the London 
 sewers. Then, again, by far the richest 
 irrigating waters, because the very foulest 
 of all, are those of the sewers of the city of 
 Edinburgh, which produce such singularly 
 luxuriant crops of grass on the Craigintinny 
 meadows. This observation is not confined 
 to the English graziers : those of the duchy 
 of Milan long since made the same remark. 
 Half a century since Mr. Songa, when de- 
 scribing the meads of the banks of the 
 Brembo, says, " that water is found excel- 
 lent which passes through the fosses of the 
 town of Treviglio, and discharges itself 
 from them by forming a canal of eight or 
 1'n feet broad, and one foot, or one foot 
 and a half, deep. The lands irrigated with 
 this water seem to receive every time the 
 advantage of a dunging, and on this ac- 
 count sell from a third to a half dearer 
 than any other of an equal quality of soil." 
 1234 
 
 {Young's Annals, 1793, p. 182.) Watering 
 the land to add to its fertility is a very 
 ancient practice. 
 
 Such, then, are a few of the well ascer- 
 tained facts with regard to the application 
 of water to vegetation, uses which are so 
 valuable when well understood by the far- 
 mer. In all his operations this universal 
 fluid will be found to influence his arrange- 
 ments ; and in a due and regular supply of 
 it to his crops, consists in fact the success 
 of most of his efforts. If, for instance, 
 a farmer would judge of the value of a par- 
 ticular field from merely a specimen of its 
 soil, the attraction of the previously dried 
 earth for the moisture of the atmosphere 
 will afford a very tolerable indication of its 
 comparative value ; those soils which attract 
 the most water being commonly those which 
 obtain the highest rents. 
 
 All researches like these, in many obvious 
 and indirect ways, are attended with con- 
 siderable advantage to the cultivator. For, 
 the more he becomes acquainted with the 
 uses and properties of water, the more 
 readily will he be able to avail himself of 
 every opportunity which may present itself 
 for extending its sphere of usefulness. It 
 is idle to conclude that every thing pos- 
 sible has been effected with regard to the 
 agricultural uses of water ; for, saying no- 
 thing of the inferior extent of our water- 
 meads to those of even the banks of the 
 Italian rivers, much still remains to be ac- 
 complished in rendering available, not only 
 the liquid drainage of our large towns, but 
 in the use of the steam-engine for the pur- 
 poses of irrigation ; an agent to which I have 
 in this work already alluded, and for ob- 
 taining whose magic assistance the farmers 
 of no other country are so well situated as 
 those of our own island. To the cultivator, 
 therefore, an examination of the powers 
 and properties of water will in many ways 
 be attended with benefit : for if the farmer 
 once seriously contemplates the powerfully 
 invigorating and enriching qualities of the 
 waters near to which he is very often 
 placed, the abundance of organic matters 
 which they contain, and the advantages to 
 be derived from their judicious application, 
 he will speedily devise some means or 
 other by which he may avail himself of 
 this too often neglected agent. The finely 
 divided earthy and organic matters which 
 now so copiously pollute the waters of our 
 rivers are in fact the only great drawbacks 
 upon the otherwise gradually increasing pro- 
 ductiveness of the land. (See Alluvium and 
 Warping.) These, be it remembered, are 
 ever quietly yet incessantly acting as drains 
 upon the fertility of the land; they never 
 cease the work of impoverishment ; and it is 
 
WATER- ALOE. 
 
 W ATE R- P ARSNEP. 
 
 only by the efforts of the merchant, the fisher- 
 man, and the irrigator, that any portion of 
 these finely divided matters ever return 
 again to the cultivated soils of our country. 
 (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. v. p. 157.) See Rain. 
 
 WATER-ALOE, or WATER SOL- 
 DIER. (Stratiotes aloides ; from stratos, an 
 army, in allusion to its long sword-like 
 leaves.) An ornamental native aquatic, 
 which fills our ditches in summer with a 
 close phalanx of sword-like leaves, and in- 
 creases so fast in the ponds where it is 
 planted as to become almost a troublesome 
 weed. In its wild state it inhabits deep 
 ditches and pools, and is a stoloniferous 
 smooth floating herb, with numerous radical 
 leaves, and a solitary central flower-stalk, 
 but no stem. The parent plant sinks to the 
 bottom after flowering, and sends out long 
 simple runners, each terminating in a leaf, 
 bud, or young plant, which first takes root 
 in the mud, by several long fibres, and in 
 the following summer rises to the surface 
 of the water, blossoms and then again sub- 
 sides to ripen its seeds and throw out fresh 
 runners, each tuft of leaves flowering but 
 once. The leaves are a span long or more, 
 acute, highly vascular, fringed with very 
 sharp saw -like teeth. Flowers white, large 
 and handsome, the stalk firm, stout, two- 
 edged, much shorter than the leaves. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 34.) 
 
 WATER COWBANE. See Cowbane. 
 
 WATER-CRESS. See Cress. 
 
 WATER DROPWORT. See Drop- 
 
 WORT. 
 
 WATER ELDER. See Guelder Rose. 
 WATER FARCY. See Farcy. 
 WATER HEMLOCK. See Cowbane. 
 WATER-LILY, THE FRINGED. See 
 
 BlJCKBEAN. 
 
 WATER-LILY, YELLOW. See Lily, 
 Water. 
 
 WATER-LILY, WHITE. See Lily, 
 Water. 
 
 WATER-MEADOW. See Irrigation. 
 
 WATER-MILL. See Mills. 
 
 WATER-PARSNEP. (Sium, from the 
 Celtic siw, water, the habitat of most of 
 the species.) A genus of acrid and danger- 
 ous herbs, mostly aquatic and perennial. 
 The succulent roots of S. sisarum, a native 
 of China, were formerly much esteemed in 
 cookery under the name of skirret. There 
 are six indigenous species of water-parsnep, 
 all perennial. 
 
 1. -Broad-leaved water-parsnep (S. lati- 
 folium), growing in rivers, ditches, and fens. 
 The root is fleshy, with numerous long 
 fibres, creeping. Stems from two to six 
 feet high, erect, angular and deeply fur- 
 rowed, leafy, hollow, smooth, very little 
 branched. Leaves from six to twelve inches 
 1235 
 
 in length, pinnate ; leaflets oblong, lanceo- 
 late, equally serrated. Umbels terminal or 
 axillary, of numerous snow-white small 
 flowers. Fruit elliptic-ovate, small. The 
 flavour of the seeds is aromatic, and less 
 acrid than the rest of the plant, which, like 
 all the tribe when growing in water, par- 
 takes of a poisonous quality. This herb is 
 eaten by horses and swine, but is disliked 
 by sheep. 
 
 2. Narrow-leaved water-parsnep (S. an- 
 gustifolium). This species is not uncommon 
 in ditches and rivulets. The root is exten- 
 sively creeping. The whole plant is about 
 half the size of the foregoing. The stem 
 is round, striated, erect, much branched. 
 Leaves simply pinnate, with leaflets un- 
 equally lobed and serrated. Umbels stalked, 
 opposite to the leaves. Fruit roundish 
 ovate, with three dorsal ribs and two lateral 
 ones to each side. 
 
 3. Procumbent water-parsnep (S. nodi- 
 florum). The stems of this species are pro- 
 cumbent, or floating, often creeping, various 
 in length, branched, round, hollow, striated. 
 Leaflets ovate, equally serrated. Footstalks 
 with a broad membranous border. Umbels 
 nearly sessile, opposite to the leaves. The 
 flowers small, greenish white. The fruit 
 like that of the last, but sharper in the ribs. 
 The juice of this herb is recommended 
 by Dr. Withering and* others in cutane- 
 ous disorders. Three large spoonsful are 
 given, mixed with milk, twice a day. But 
 such general recommendations are not only 
 indiscreet, but likely to be productive of 
 much danger, as no two cutaneous disorders 
 demand the same treatment, or depend on 
 the same cause. 
 
 4. The creeping water-parsnep (S.repens) 
 grows in boggy meadows or on watery com- 
 mons. It is still smaller than the last de- 
 scribed, with several slender quite prostrate 
 creeping stems. Leaflets roundish, deeply 
 toothed. 
 
 5. Least water-parsnep (S. inundatum). 
 This species grows in ditches, pools, and 
 wet ground overflowed in the winter. The 
 stems are procumbent or floating, branched, 
 round, leafy, throwing out fibrous radicles. 
 Leaves on dilated clasping footstalks, alter- 
 nate, oblong ; those above water simply 
 pinnate, with five or seven wedge-shaped, 
 cut, somewhat succulent leaflets ; the im- 
 mersed ones in many compound capillary 
 segments. Flower-stalks opposite to the 
 leaves, and nearly as long, each bearing a 
 pair of stalked distant umbels of five white 
 flowers. 
 
 6. Whorled water-parsnep (S. verticil- 
 latum), growing in salt marshes. The roots 
 are fleshy, spindle-shaped, aggregate. Stem 
 solitary, twelve or eighteen inches high, 
 
 4 k 2 
 
WATER-PLANTAIN. 
 
 WAX. 
 
 erect, round, striated, almost naked, slightly 
 subdivided or corymbose at the top. Leaves 
 chiefly radical, with short, sheathing foot- 
 stalks, pinnate, with numerous pairs of ses- 
 sile leaflets, each deeply cut into many 
 narrow, linear, almost capillary segments, 
 which spread so as to form a series .of 
 whorls. Flowers copious, white, with pur- 
 plish anthers. The seeds are slightly but 
 not agreeably aromatic. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 55.) 
 
 WATER-PLANTAIN. (Alisma, from 
 the Celtic alts, water.) A genus of pretty 
 little, aquatic, perennial, smooth plants, 
 with simple, entire leaves, and numerous, 
 stalked, white, yellowish or purplish, pa- 
 nicled or umbellate inodorous flowers. There 
 are four native species. 
 
 1. The greater water-plantain, or thrum - 
 wort (A. Plantago), which is very common 
 in pools, ditches, and about the margins of 
 rivers. The root is fibrous. Leaves all 
 radical, on long stalks, erect, ovate, acute, 
 ribbed, in deep or running water length- 
 ened out more or less. Flower-stalk rising 
 two or three feet above the water, panicled, 
 with innumerable whorled, compound, 
 spreading, bracteated branches and subdi- 
 visions. Flowers terminal, solitary, small, 
 of a delicate pale purple. Capsules ranged 
 side by side in a circle, obtusely triangular. 
 It has been recommended in hydrophobia ; 
 but, like many other wonder-working re- 
 medies, it is worthless. 
 
 2. Star-headed water-plantain (A. Da- 
 masonium), found in ditches and pools on a 
 gravelly soil, but not common. "The root 
 consists of .many long pale fibres. The 
 leaves all radical, floating, bluntish or ob- 
 long, heart-shaped at the base. Footstalks 
 very broad, with many ribs, and a mem- 
 branous border, tapering upwards. Flower- 
 stalks scarcely a span high, bearing one or 
 two whorls of white flowers, yellow in the 
 middle. Capsules six, spreading in the 
 form of a star, half ovate. 
 
 3. Floating water-plantain (A. natans). 
 In this species, which frequents the lakes of 
 North Wales and Cumberland, the stems 
 are floating, thread-shaped, varying in length 
 from three to ten feet, according to the 
 depth of the water, and throwing out ra- 
 dicles, as well as a few leaves and flowers, 
 from every joint. The leaves are also 
 floating, about an inch long, on still longer 
 footstalks, with membranous, ovate, con- 
 cave stipules. There are numerous radical, 
 membranous, ribbed, tapering footstalks, 
 time or four inches long, bearing no leaves. 
 Flower-stalks one or two from each joint, 
 erect, simple, single-flowered. Capsules 
 from six to i vyelve, oblong, recurved, beaked, 
 copiously striated. 
 
 1936 
 
 4. Lesser water-plantain (A. ranuncu- 
 loides). This grows in swamps and turfy 
 bogs, but is not a very common species. 
 The leaves are linear-lanceolate, on long, 
 flattish, or semi-cylindrical highly vascular 
 stalks. Flower-stalks erect, radical, from 
 three to ten inches high, bearing one or two 
 whorls of light purple flowers. Capsules 
 angular, acute, numerous, in a globular head. 
 
 5. Creeping water-plantain (A. repens). 
 This has only been found with us on the 
 margins of some of the lakes in North 
 Wales. It is like the last in general ap- 
 pearance, but differs essentially in having 
 several procumbent leafy stems, throwing 
 out radicles, with one or two leaves, and as 
 many flowers here and there from the 
 joints, in the manner of A. natans. To- 
 wards the end of the stems it appears that 
 the flowers are not accompanied by leaves. 
 The petals are pale purple. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 203.) 
 
 WATER SOLDIER. See Water- 
 Aloe. 
 
 WATER-STARWORT. See Star- 
 wort, Water. 
 
 WATER VIOLET. See Featherfoie. 
 
 WATERWORT. (Elatine, from the 
 Greek elate, signifying a fir ; its leaves have 
 been compared to those of the fir-tree.) 
 A genus of curious little aquatic plants, of 
 no beauty. One species is indigenous, the 
 small waterwort (E. tripetala). It grows 
 on the margins of ponds and ditches, in a 
 sandy soil. Roots annual, of many long 
 white fibres. Leaves opposite, rough, with 
 minute points. Flowers mostly three-cleft, 
 reddish or pale flesh-coloured. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 243.) 
 
 WATSON, SIR WILLIAM, deserves 
 our notice more as the friend of horticul- 
 ture than as ranking among the authors of 
 works on that art. He was born in 1715, 
 and educated at Merchant Tailors' School, 
 and was early distinguished for his love of 
 botany. In 1741 the Royal Society elected 
 him a Fellow. To its Transactions he con- 
 tributed many papers in almost every 
 branch of natural history. His death oc- 
 curred May 10th, 1787. His chief writ- 
 ings relating to horticulture are : — 
 
 1. Critical Remarks on the Rev. Mr. Pickering's Paper 
 concerning the Seeds of Mushrooms. This appeared in 
 the Phil. Trans, vol. xlii. p. 599. vol. xliii. p. 51. 2. Ac- 
 count of the Remains of the Garden formerly belonging 
 to the Tradescants at Lambeth. Phil. Trans, vol. xlvi. 
 p. 160. 3. Account of the Garden at Fulham'i formerly 
 belonging to Dr. Henry Compton, Bishop of London. 
 Phil. Trans, vol. xlvii. p. 241. (<?. W. Johnson's Hist, 
 of (i unletting.) 
 
 WAX. (Germ, wachs.) A solid concrete 
 abounding in the vegetable kingdom, 
 whence it is erroneously supposed that it 
 is collected by bees, liees' wax is a secre- 
 tion in the body of the bee, and is aecumu- 
 
WAX. 
 
 WAY, PRIVATE RIGHT OF. 
 
 lated in what are called the wax-pockets. 
 Bees confined to a hive, and fed merely on 
 sugar, form wax. It constitutes the parti- 
 tions of the cells in which they store their 
 honey. It it obtained by melting the comb. 
 Wax, when pure, is of a whitish colour ; it is 
 destitute of taste, and has scarcely any 
 smell. Bees' wax, indeed, has a pretty strong 
 aromatic odour; but this seems chiefly owing 
 to some substance with which it is mixed ; 
 for it disappears almost completely by ex- 
 posing the wax, drawn out into thin ribands, 
 for some time to the atmosphere to blanch, 
 frequently changing the surface thus ex- 
 posed, by remelting'it, and reducing it again 
 to thin flakes. By this process, which is 
 called bleaching, the yellow colour of the 
 wax disappears. White wax is principally 
 used in making candles, and in white oint- 
 ments, for the sake of its colour. Wax is 
 insoluble in water; nor are its properties 
 altered though kept under that liquid. 
 When heat is applied to wax it becomes 
 soft; and at the temperature of 142° if un- 
 bleached, or of 155° if bleached, it melts 
 into a colourless transparent fluid, which 
 concretes again, and resumes its former ap- 
 pearance, as the temperature diminishes. If 
 the heat be still further increased, the wax 
 boils and evaporates ; and if a red heat be 
 applied to the vapour, it takes fire and burns 
 with a bright flame. It is this property 
 which renders wax so useful for making 
 candles. W"ax combines readily with fixed 
 oils when assisted by heat, and forms with 
 them a substance of greater or less consis- 
 tency, according to the quantity of oil. This 
 composition, which is known by the name of 
 cerate, is much employed by surgeons. 
 
 According to the experiments of Gay- 
 Lussac and Thenard (Rech. Physico-Chim. 
 vol. ii. p. 316.), 100 parts of wax are com- 
 posed of — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Oxygen - 5*54 
 Hydrogen - 12.67 
 Carbon - - - 81-78 
 
 100 
 
 Wax is sometimes adulterated with the 
 white oxide of lead to increase its weight, 
 with white tallow, and with potato starch. 
 The first is detected by melting the wax 
 in hot water, when the oxide falls to the 
 bottom undissolved ; the presence of tal- 
 low is indicated by the wax being of a 
 dull opaque white, and wanting the trans- 
 parency which distinguishes pure wax ; and 
 starch may be detected by applying strong 
 sulphuric acid to the suspected wax, as the 
 acid carbonises the starch without acting on 
 the wax. 
 
 1237 
 
 Notwithstanding the large supply of wax 
 produced at home, a considerable quantity 
 is imported from abroad ; but it is subject 
 to the high duty of 1/. 10s. per cwt. The 
 price varies, duty included, from 51. to 10/. 
 per cwt. (Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. p. 103. ; 
 Thomson's Dispensatory ; M'-CullocKs Com. 
 Diet.) 
 
 WAX-WING. See Bohemian Wax- 
 wing. 
 
 WAY BENNET, or WALL BARLEY. 
 See Hordetjm. 
 
 WAYFARING TREE. See Guelder 
 Rose. 
 
 WAY-GOING CROP. That which is 
 taken from the land the year the tenant 
 leaves a farm. 
 
 WAY, PRIVATE RIGHT OF. This 
 may arise either from grant or by prescrip- 
 tion and usage from time immemorial, for 
 this is in law supposed to arise from a grant. 
 A right of way may be to a particular per- 
 son to go over the grantor's land to church, 
 to market, or to any particular close. Such 
 a special permission is, however, to be con- 
 strued strictly : the grantee cannot, under 
 such a grant, justify going beyond the place 
 specified in the grant ; nor can he take any 
 other person with him ; neither can he as- 
 sign over this right, — it dies with him. 
 And a grant for agricultural purposes does 
 not authorise the grantee to use the road 
 for commercial or general purposes (Jack- 
 son v. Stacey, Holt, 455.) ; neither does a 
 prescriptive right of way for all kind of 
 carriages, prove a right of way for all man- 
 ner of cattle. (Ballard v. Dyson, 1 Taunt. 
 279.) A rector cannot claim, unless by 
 prescription or grant, a permanent right of 
 way to carry off his tithe. (James v. Dods, 
 2 C. & M. 266.) But if the grantor convey 
 a piece of ground in the middle of his own 
 land, the law will presume that he also 
 granted a way to it. (Howton v. Frearson, 
 8 T. R. 56.) " When," said Lord Kenyon, 
 in this case, " they made the conveyance, it 
 must be taken for granted that they in- 
 tended to convey some beneficial interest ; 
 but he can derive no benefit whatever from 
 the grant unless he has a right of way to 
 the land." But if by purchasing other land, 
 or new circumstances afterwards arise by 
 which he can approach the public road, 
 then the right of way ceases with the neces- 
 sity. (Holmes v. Goring, 9 Moore, 166.) 
 And if a private way is granted, that does 
 not justify a person for going over the 
 land by the side of it, even if the road is 
 overflown with water from an adjoining 
 river. (Taylor v. Whitehead, Doug. 716. ; 
 Bullard v. Harrison, 4 M. & S 387.) Lord 
 Ellenborough C. J. said, in this case, " It is 
 a thing founded in grant, and the grantor 
 4 k 3 
 
WEANING. 
 
 WEATHER. 
 
 of a private way does not grant a liberty to 
 break out of it at random over the whole 
 surface of his close." 
 
 By the 2 & 3 W.4. c. 71. it is enacted, 
 that in all claims for right of way by pre- 
 scription, where it has been enjoyed for 
 twenty years, such right shall only be de- 
 feated or destroyed by showing that such 
 right was first expired at any time previous 
 to such twenty years ; and where it has 
 been enjoyed for full forty years, the right 
 shall be absolute and indefeasible, unless it 
 shall appear that the same was enjoyed by 
 some consent or agreement by deed or 
 writing. 
 
 WEANING. The means employed to 
 reconcile a young animal to the loss of its 
 mother's milk, and habituate it to take 
 common food. Under the head Foal, we 
 have already given directions for their 
 management during and after weaning. 
 The process of weaning calves is variously 
 managed by different farmers. When not 
 let run with the cow, the most advisable 
 mode, as it regards the calf, is to place it 
 loose in a crib, and to suckle it by hand 
 with the mother's new milk, of which it will 
 consume for some time not more than about 
 four quarts per day : the quantity, how- 
 ever, must then be gradually increased, as 
 it will, in the course of a few weeks, require 
 as much as three gallons. If the weather 
 be fine, it should be, within a fortnight or 
 three weeks, turned out daily in the or- 
 chard, or some well-sheltered enclosure of 
 sweet herbage ; and, as it will in the course 
 of ten or twelve weeks have acquired some 
 relish for the pasture, it may be regularly 
 weaned by gradually diminishing the quan- 
 tity of milk, and then substituting the 
 skimmed for the new. Calves may, how- 
 ever, be reared with skimmed milk and 
 meal, without any portion of new milk, 
 except the first few days' biestings, and 
 many persons give them nothing but 
 water gruel and hay tea within a fortnight 
 after they have been removed from the 
 cow. Sago and linseed jelly are also very 
 nutritious, and calves may be weaned on 
 them without any other food. (Brit Husb. 
 vol. ii. p. 441.) 
 
 The time of weaning lambs differs mate- 
 rially, according to the locality of the farms 
 and the quality of the pasture. Four months 
 old is about the period usually selected. 
 
 The lambs should be turned into some- 
 what, better pasture than that to which they 
 had been accustomed, in order to compen- 
 sate l or the loss of the mother's milk. Many 
 farmers are very fanciful as to the provision 
 for the weaned Lambs. The clover or the 
 Sainfoin, or the after-math, are selected by 
 some ; Others put their smaller and more 
 1238 
 
 weakly lambs to weed the turnip crops ; 
 but there can be nothing more desirable 
 than a fresh pasture, not too luxuriant, and 
 yet sufficient to maintain and increase their 
 condition. (Youatt on Sheep, p. 516.) For 
 directions as to weaning pigs, see Swine. 
 
 WEASEL. (Felis vulgaris.) A dimi- 
 nutive predatory animal, frequenting barns, 
 granaries, and outhouses : its body seldom 
 exceeds six or seven inches in length, and 
 the legs are remarkably short. The female 
 brings forth six or eight young at a birth, 
 which are born blind, but soon acquire 
 their sight. Like the ferret and the pole- 
 cat, the weasel emits a very offensive odour. 
 Although beneficial in some respects by 
 keeping rats, mice, and moles within due 
 bounds, weasels are very destructive to 
 poultry, game, and rabbits, and also devour 
 large numbers of eggs. They may be rea- 
 dily caught by the hutch or box trap, baited 
 with an egg or small bird, and are also de- 
 stroyed by sal ammoniac mixed and beat 
 up with the white of an egg, wheat-flour, 
 and honey, laid in small pieces in coppices, 
 hedge-rows, or other places which they 
 frequent. 
 
 WEASEL-SNOUT. (Galeobdolon lu- 
 teum.) The weasel- snout, yellow archangel, 
 or dead nettle, is a pretty indigenous pe- 
 rennial plant, found abundantly in most 
 parts of England, in marshy, shady places. 
 The root is somewhat tuberous, moderately 
 creeping. The stems are eighteen inches 
 high, simple, leafy, covered with close de- 
 flexed hairs. Leaves stalked, ovate, acute, 
 serrated, slightly hairy, bright green, various 
 in breadth. Whorls numerous, each com- 
 posed of many large, handsome, inodorous 
 yellow flowers, whose lower lip is spotted 
 with red, the middle segment stained with 
 orange-colour. The flowers afford to bees 
 an abundant supply of honey. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 96.) 
 
 WEATHER. (Sax.) A term applied to 
 denote the state or disposition of the at- 
 mosphere, with regard to heat and cold, 
 drought and moisture, fog, fair or foul, 
 wind, rain, hail, frost, snow, &c. 
 
 A knowledge of this is of vast import- 
 ance to the farmer, as the securing of his 
 produce in a perfect manner greatly de- 
 pends upon it ; and as it is in and by means 
 of the atmosphere that plants are nourished, 
 and animals live and breathe, any alter- 
 ation in its density, heat, purity, &c. must, 
 of course, necessarily be attended with pro- 
 portionable effects on organisation. 
 
 The great but regular alterations a little 
 change of weather makes in many parts of 
 inanimate matter is fully shown in the com- 
 mon instances of barometers, thermometers, 
 hygrometers, &c. ; and it is owing partly to 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 our inattention, and partly to other causes, 
 that man, like other animals, does not feel 
 as great and as regular ones in the tubes, 
 chords, and fibres of his own body. 
 
 In order fully to establish a proper theory 
 of the weather, it would be necessary to 
 have registers carefully kept in different 
 parts of the globe for a long series of years, 
 whence we might be enabled to determine 
 the directions, breadth, and bounds of the 
 winds, and of the weather they bring with 
 them ; with the correspondence between 
 the weather of divers places, and the differ- 
 ence between one sort and another at the 
 same place ; and thus, in time, learn to fore- 
 tel many great emergencies ; as extraor- 
 dinary heats, rains, frosts, droughts, &c. 
 But hitherto very few, and only partial, re- 
 gisters or accounts of the weather have been 
 kept. The Meteorological Society of Great 
 Britain, and the British Association for the 
 Advancement of Science, have latterly done 
 much towards increasing our stock of me- 
 teoric knowledge, and have collected an im- 
 mense body of facts and registers, from which 
 many useful inferences have been drawn, 
 and some important theories deduced. The 
 general conclusions that have been drawn 
 from the experiments that have been made 
 on this subject are — that barometers gene- 
 rally rise and fall together, even at very 
 distant places, and a consequent conformity 
 and similarity of weather ; but this is the 
 more uniformly so, as the places are nearer 
 together, as might be expected; — that the 
 variations of the barometer are greater as 
 the places are nearer to the pole : thus, for 
 instance, the mercury at London has a 
 greater range by two or three lines than at 
 Paris ; and at Paris, a greater than at Zurich ; 
 and at some places near the equator there is 
 scarcely any variation at all ; — that the rain 
 in Switzerland and Italy is much greater 
 in quantity for the whole year than in Essex ; 
 and yet the rains are more frequent, or 
 there are more rainy days, in Essex than 
 at either of these places ; — that cold 
 contributes greatly to rain, apparently by 
 condensing the suspended vapours, and so 
 making them descend ; thus, very cold 
 months, or seasons, are commonly followed 
 immediately by very rainy ones, and cold 
 summers are always wet ones ; — that high 
 ridges or mountains, as the Alps, and the 
 snows with which they are covered, not only 
 affect the neighbouring places, but even dis- 
 tant countries, as England, often partake of 
 their effects. 
 
 The science of meteorology, or the study of 
 the changing phenomena of the atmosphere, 
 &c. has from the earliest periods occupied 
 a greater or less share of attention from the 
 tiller of the soil, the gardener, and those en- 
 1239 
 
 gaged in the pasturage of animals. To no in- 
 dividual (the mariner, perhaps, excepted) is 
 a foreknowledge of the probable future state 
 of the weather of more consequence and 
 importance than the agriculturist ; for on 
 this must mainly depend the progress and 
 success of his field operations, his seedtime 
 and his harvest, and the greater or less re- 
 turn afforded by his crops. 
 
 It may not comport with the dignity of the 
 man of science, or the elevated learning of 
 the erudite philosopher, to have his eyes and 
 ears open to the plain and simple rules and 
 guides which nature lays out before him. 
 Perhaps he has little of leisure to note the 
 every-day phenomena which the atmosphere 
 and all animate and inanimate nature hold up 
 to observation, as in .a glass, where all who 
 use their eyes may read as they run. The 
 companions of his study are the more costly 
 and elaborately-prepared philosophical in- 
 struments : how much, however, might their 
 value be enhanced by a careful and compara- 
 tive observation of the "skyey influences," as 
 the poet terms them ? But to these closet 
 companions, the husbandman, the shepherd, 
 the traveller, the fisherman, and the mariner 
 have rarely access, while engaged in the 
 busy out-of-door occupations of their several 
 avocations. Those who till the land, or who 
 go down to the sea in ships, of all others, 
 are they who become, by habits of observ- 
 ation and reflection, most conversant with 
 the signs and changes of the heavens ; the 
 sun, the moon, and the stars are to them 
 monitors and instructors, whose warning 
 voices meet a prompt and ready response. 
 The ripple of the wave, the curl of the 
 smoke, the passing shadow of the cloud, the 
 budding of the tree, the arrival and depar- 
 ture of the migratory birds, the frolicsome 
 gambols of animals, every leaf that quivers 
 in the sunbeam, every plant that drinks the 
 dew of heaven, the myriads of insects, and 
 creeping things innumerable, that inhabit 
 each leaf and opening flower, are all fraught 
 with instruction and information to the ex- 
 perienced and watchful observer. 
 
 Around, above, beneath, all animate and 
 inanimate creation, animals, vegetables, the 
 elements, a thousand objects in a thousand 
 directions, in every recurring season, fur- 
 nish their quota of information towards our 
 stock of meteoric knowledge, and foretel the 
 approaching variations of atmospheric phe- 
 nomema. The experienced fisherman and 
 the watchful and wary mariner will predict 
 the coming storm, by the tiny cloud and 
 other unerring criteria which frequent and 
 attentive observance of the sky has ren- 
 dered familiar, long before its approach is 
 visible to the ken of the ordinary and inat- 
 tentive observer. 
 
 4 k 4 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 It has been well remarked, that " the 
 shepherd, whose sole business it is to ob- 
 serve what has a reference to the flock 
 under his care, who spends all his days and 
 many of his nights in the open air, under 
 the wide-spread canopy of heaven, is obliged 
 to take particular notice of the alterations 
 of the weather ; and when he cares to take 
 a pleasure in making such observations, it 
 is amazing how much progress he makes in 
 them, and to how great a certainty he ar- 
 rives at last, by mere dint of comparing 
 signs and events, and connecting one ob- 
 servation with another. Every thing in 
 time becomes to him a weather-gauge : the 
 sun, the moon, the stars, the clouds, the 
 winds, the mists, the trees, the flowers, the 
 herbs, and almost every insect, animal, and 
 reptile with which he is acquainted — all 
 these become, to such a person, instruments 
 of real knowledge." 
 
 To the farmer, a careful study of the 
 weather, and of the inferences to be drawn 
 from precedent, and from natural and ar- 
 tificial data, come fraught with numerous 
 and important considerations. Like the 
 angler, the husbandman " must observe the 
 wind, sun, and clouds by day ; the moon, 
 stars, and wanes of the air by night." Few 
 are so entirely dependent on the caprice of 
 the weather, for the commonest routine 
 operations of the farm, as the agriculturist. 
 And how soon may his fairest crops be 
 blighted by adverse and unfavourable sea- 
 sons, or by the baneful effects of scorching 
 and arid winds, of severe frosts, of heavy 
 rains. Some winds come fraught with dis- 
 ease and death ; murrain, malaria, and epi- 
 demics, in hot dry seasons, commit fearful 
 ravages among his live stock; and these are 
 frequently to be attributed to some mys- 
 terious atmospheric agency : other winds 
 bring swarms of noxious insects and pre- 
 datory birds to our shores ; the lightning 
 and the whirlwind level his plantations or 
 fire his ricks ; the hail storm, and the frost, 
 and excess of rain, damage and destroy his 
 growing crop, or that to which he has 
 looked for reward and profit for all his toil 
 :md outlay. 
 
 The various casualties and diseases to 
 which his crops are liable are frequently at- 
 tributable to, and certainly much aided by, 
 lhe state of the weather and the condition 
 of the atmosphere. This is confirmed by the 
 ♦ •pinions of the ancients, who were certainly 
 careful observers of the weather and its 
 results upon vegetation. Pliny considered 
 flint tlx; mildew always occurred at the 
 now or lull moon, and during the absence 
 of the sun. Tlic farmers of tin; present 
 day fanev that the mists which frequently 
 prevail during mid-day, in the hottest pe- 
 1240 
 
 riods of summer, are the cause of mildew. 
 Duhamel believed that mildew was brought 
 on by mild hazy or gloomy weather, being 
 succeeded by a hot sun, when the wheat 
 crops will become mildewed in a few days. 
 He always observed wet springs very in- 
 ducive of this disease ; but it rarely occurs 
 in clear, dry, hot years. Heavy showers 
 after a hot sun, and chilly wet seasons, or a 
 succession of cold rains while the grain is 
 forming, is very conducive to mildew ; and 
 although the researches of science have 
 proved that the disease is the result of a 
 parasitical fungus, yet there can be no 
 doubt that the moist and unwholesome 
 state of the atmosphere has considerable 
 effect in extending its ravages. Blight 
 often occurs in spring, when the bleak 
 keen frosty winds nip and destroy the ten- 
 der shoots of the plant, by stopping the 
 current of juices. Blight from sultry and 
 pestilential vapour occurs in summer, when 
 the grain has nearly attained its full growth. 
 Such was the blight that used to ravage 
 the vineyards of ancient Italy, and which 
 frequently damages extensively the hop- 
 plantations and wheat crops of Britain. 
 The Romans observed that it generally 
 happened after short but heavy showers 
 occuring about noon, and followed by clear 
 sunshine, at the season when the grapes were 
 ripening, and that the middle of the vine- 
 yard suffered the most. This agrees pretty 
 nearly with the manner in which the blight 
 traverses the hop districts in the present 
 day. See Fire Blast. 
 
 Although, in the limits afforded me in 
 this article, it would be impossible to do 
 any thing like full justice to the interesting 
 subject under review, or to give even a 
 bare sketch of the science of meteorology, 
 yet, rejecting crude fancies, without omit- 
 ting altogether some of the popular opinions 
 which" have passed into proverbs, I shall 
 base my remarks principally upon popular 
 facts, and endeavour to explain the various 
 meteoric phenomena which are daily occur- 
 ring, and thence pass on to deduce, and in- 
 cidentally advert to, the various data by 
 which the state of the weather may be fore- 
 told. 
 
 Much information on this important sub- 
 ject will be found already dispersed under 
 the heads — Dew, Fogs, Frost, Hail, 
 Hoar Frost, Rain, Snow, Lightning, 
 &c. 
 
 The means of prognosticating the future 
 state of the weather are usually deduced 
 from three sources; from natural data, arti- 
 ficial data, and from precedent. A fourth 
 help has lately been called into very exten- 
 sive request, viz. planetary influence com- 
 bined with electricity. 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 The natural data for this study are : — 
 
 1. The vegetable kingdom; many plants 
 shutting or opening their flowers, contract- 
 ing or expanding their parts, &c. on ap- 
 proaching changes in the humidity or tem- 
 perature of the atmosphere. 
 
 2. The animal kingdom; most of those 
 familiar to us exhibiting signs on approach- 
 ing changes, of which those by cattle and 
 sheep are more especially remarkable. 
 
 3. The animal kingdom; stones, earths, 
 metals, salt, and water of particular kinds, 
 often affording indications of approaching 
 changes. 
 
 4. Appearances of the atmosphere, the 
 moon, the general character of seasons, &c. 
 The characters of clouds, the prevalence of 
 particular winds, and other signs, are very 
 commonly attended to. 
 
 The artificial data are the various mete- 
 orological instruments, as the barometer, 
 hygrometer, pluviometer, and thermometer, 
 &c, which are all extremely useful aids to 
 the farmer. 
 
 How various are the climates of the earth, 
 and vet how uniform is each climate in its 
 temperature, notwithstanding the fact that 
 we traverse annually a circle in space whose 
 diameter extends over 190,000,000 of miles! 
 In each particular climate we behold races 
 of animals and plants, many of which would 
 not prosper elsewhere. Though apparently 
 rains and winds and frosts are very irre- 
 gular, yet we find a remarkable constancy 
 in the average weather and seasons of each 
 place. Very hot summers, or very cold 
 winters, have little effect in raising or de 
 pressing the mean annual temperature of 
 any one climate above or below its general 
 standard. We must be convinced, from ob- 
 servation, that the structure of plants and 
 the nature of many animals are especially 
 adapted to the climate in which they are 
 located. A vegetable, for example, which 
 flourishes where the mean temperature is 
 fifty-five degrees, would perish where the 
 average is only fifty. If our temperature 
 were raised or lowered by five degrees, our 
 vegetable world would be destroyed, until a 
 new species suited to the altered climate 
 should be substituted for that which we 
 possess at present. An inhabitant of the 
 equatorial regions, whose mean temperature 
 is eighty, would hardly believe that vege- 
 table life could exist in such a climate as 
 ours. We have the same opinion of the 
 arctic regions. Both are equally mistaken ; 
 the care of a presiding Providence is limited 
 to no climate, — it 
 
 " Lives through all space, extends through all extent, 
 Spreads undivided, operates unspent." 
 
 At the equator we find the natives of the 
 Spice Islands, the clove and nutmeg trees, 
 1241 
 
 pepper, and mace. Cinnamon bushes clothe 
 the surface of Ceylon ; the odoriferous san- 
 dal-wood, the ebony tree, the teak tree, the 
 banyan, grow in the East Indies. In the 
 same latitudes in Arabia the Happy, we find 
 balm, frankincense, and myrrh, the coffee- 
 tree and the tamarind. But in those coun- 
 tries, at least in the plains, the trees and 
 shrubs which decorate our more northerly 
 climes are wanting. And as we go north- 
 wards, at every step we change the vege- 
 table group, both in addition and by sub- 
 traction. In the thickets to the west of the 
 Caspian Sea we have apricot, citron, peach, 
 walnut, &c. In the latitude of Spain, Sicily, 
 and Italy, we find the dwarf plum, the cy- 
 press, the chestnut, the cork tree ; the orange 
 and lemon tree perfume the air with their 
 blossoms ; the myrtle and pomegranate grow 
 wild among the rocks. We cross the Alps, 
 and we find the vegetation which belongs 
 to northern Europe, of which England is an 
 instance. The oak, the beech, and the elm 
 are natives of Great Britain ; the elm tree 
 seen in Scotland and the north of England 
 is the wych elm. As we travel still farther 
 to the north, the forests again change their 
 character. In the northern provinces of 
 the Russian empire are found forests of the 
 various species of firs ; the Scotch and spruce 
 fir, and the larch. In the Orkney Islands 
 no tree is found but hazel, which occurs 
 again on the northern shores of the Baltic. 
 As we proceed into colder regions we still 
 find species which appear to have been made 
 for these situations. The hoary or cold elder 
 makes its appearance north of Stockholm ; 
 the sycamore and mountain ash accompany 
 us to the head of the Gulf of Bothnia ; and 
 as we leave this, and traverse the Dophrian 
 range, we pass in succession the boundary- 
 lines of the spruce fir, the Scotch fir, and 
 those minute shrubs which botanists distin- 
 guish as the dwarf birch and the dwarf wil- 
 low. Here, near to or within the arctic 
 circle, we yet find wild flowers of great 
 beauty, the mezereum, the yellow and white 
 water-lily, and the European globe-flower. 
 And when these fail us, the reindeer moss 
 still makes the country habitable for animals 
 and man. ( The Vegetable Kingdom.) 
 
 So also there are boundaries to the growth 
 of corn, the vine, and the olive. Wheat ex- 
 tends over certain tracts from England to 
 Thibet ; it does not flourish in the polar re- 
 gions nor within the tropics, except in situ- 
 ations considerably raised above the level 
 of the sea. The temperature required for 
 the successful cultivation of the vine must 
 not be under fifty, nor much above sixty- 
 three, degrees ; though in the warm climates 
 elevation of situation will correct the ex- 
 cess of heat. Maize and olives have their 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 favourite regions in France, Italy, and Spain. 
 We first meet with rice west of Milan ; it 
 extends over the northern provinces of Per- 
 sia, and over all the southern districts of 
 Asia where there are facilities for irrigation. 
 Millet is one of the principal grains of Africa. 
 Cotton is cultivated in the new world no 
 higher than latitude forty degrees; in the 
 old, it extends to latitude forty-six degrees, 
 being found in Astrachan. Exceptions, in- 
 deed, occur with respect to the sugar cane, 
 the indigo tree, the plantain, and the mul- 
 berry, all natives of India and China ; for 
 these productions have found a genial cli- 
 mate in the West Indies and South America. 
 The genuine tea tree seems indisposed to 
 flourish out of China, although the South 
 American Indians have something like it. 
 The cassava, yams, the bread-fruit tree, the 
 sago palm, and the cabbage tree, are all ap- 
 parently special pro visions for the islands in 
 which they are peculiarly found to flourish. 
 It is impossible, we think, to reflect upon all 
 this variety of natural wealth, and upon the 
 adaptation of each species to the climate in 
 which it is found, without perceiving that 
 the distribution of those productions (no 
 one climate yielding a perfect substitute, 
 generally speaking, for that of another) was 
 originally designed to prompt and to con- 
 tinue throughout human existence that 
 commercial and friendly intercourse which 
 has been long since established between the 
 inhabitants of countries the most remote 
 from each other. See Temperature. 
 
 The following passages from Tacitus's 
 Life of Agricola (cap. 12.), written more 
 than eighteen centuries ago, tend to prove 
 that no very material alteration has taken 
 place in the soil and climate of England : — 
 
 " The sky in this country is deformed by 
 clouds and frequent rains ; but the cold is 
 
 never extremely rigorous The soil, 
 
 though improper for the olive, vine, and 
 other productions of warmer climates, is fer- 
 tile, and suitable for corn. Growth is quick, 
 but maturation slow ; both from the same 
 cause, the great humidity of the ground and 
 the atmosphere." 
 
 It is a very common error to predict the 
 future state of the season from some single 
 appearance in the commencement of it, as an 
 early bee, an early bud or blossom, the pre- 
 mature appearance of a swallow ; but this is 
 both unphilosophical and fallacious, for these 
 appearances are frequently the consequence 
 of a mild winter, or fine weather in the pre- 
 ceding autumn. One swallow does not, in- 
 deed, make a summer ; but a congeries of 
 seasonal phenomena carefully noted by ac- 
 cural e observers will orenerally afford a very 
 fair criterion of the mildness or severity and 
 of the dryness or moisture of future seasons. 
 1242 
 
 A moist autumn, succeeded by a mild win- 
 ter, is generally followed by a dry and cold 
 spring, in consequence of which vegetation 
 is greatly retarded. Should the summer be 
 uncommonly wet, the succeeding winter will 
 be severe ; because the heat or warmth of 
 the earth will be carried off by such unusual 
 evaporation. Farther, wet summers are 
 mostly attended with an increased quantity 
 of fruit on the whitethorn (Mespilus Oxya- 
 canthd) and dog rose (Rosa canina) ; nay, the 
 uncommon fruitfulness of these shrubs is 
 considered as the presage of an intensely 
 cold winter. 
 
 A severe winter is supposed to be indi- 
 cated by the appearance of birds of passage 
 at an early period in autumn ; because they 
 never migrate southward till the cold season 
 has commenced in northern regions. Great 
 storms, rains, or other violent commotions 
 of the clouds, produce a kind of crisis in 
 the atmosphere ; so that they are attended 
 with a regular succession either of fine or 
 of bad weather for some months. An un- 
 productive year mostly succeeds a rainy 
 winter, as a rough and cold autumn prog- 
 nosticates a severe winter. Very cold 
 months or seasons are commonly followed 
 immediately by very rainy ones, and cold 
 summers are always wet ones. 
 
 Plants. — The sensitive indications af- 
 forded us by many plants first claim at- 
 tention, and will be found amply to repay 
 the time that may be bestowed upon the 
 singular properties inherent to them. 
 
 Very many of our most common plants 
 are unerring guides for the foretelling rain 
 and other atmospheric changes. The open- 
 ing and shutting of some flowers depends 
 not so much on the action of the stimulus 
 of light as on the existing state of the at- 
 mosphere, and hence their expansion or 
 contraction betokens change. 
 
 The common chickweed, or stitchwort 
 (Stellaria media), may be considered a 
 natural barometer ; for if the small white 
 upright flowers are closed, it is a certain 
 sign of rain; while during dry weather 
 they expand freely, and are regularly open 
 from nine in the morning till noon. After 
 rain they become pendent, but in the course 
 of a few days they again rise. 
 
 The purple sandwort (Arenaria rubra) 
 is another example of a true prophet prior 
 to a coming shower. The beautiful pink 
 flowers expand only during sunshine, and 
 close at the approach of evening or before 
 rain. 
 
 The pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis) has 
 been very justly named " the poor man's 
 weather-glass." This little plant blooms 
 in June in our stubble fields and gardens, 
 and continues in flower all the summer. 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 When its tiny brilliant red flowers are 
 widely expanded in the morning, we may 
 generally expect a fine day ; on the con- 
 trary, it is a certain sign of rain when its 
 delicate petals are closed. 
 
 The goat's-beard (Tragopogon praten- 
 sis) will not unclose its flowers in cloudy 
 weather. From its habit of closing its 
 flowers at noon, this plant has received 
 the common name of " Go-to-bed-at-noon," 
 and, in many districts, the farmers' boys re- 
 gulate their dinner hour by the closing of 
 the goat's-beard. 
 
 It is stated in Keith's Botany, that if the 
 Siberian sow-thistle shuts at night, the en- 
 suing day will be fine ; and if it opens, it 
 will be cloudy and rainy. 
 
 When the African marigold remains 
 closed after seven o'clock in the morning 
 or evening, rain may be expected. If the 
 trefoil and the convolvulus contract their 
 leaves, thunder and heavy rain may be 
 expected. Lord Bacon tells us, that the 
 stalks of the trefoil swell and grow more 
 upright previous to rain. 
 
 The dark and lovely gentianella opens 
 its blue eyes to greet the mid- day sun, but 
 closes its petals against the shower. 
 
 The germander speedwell (Veronica 
 Chamadrys), so universal a favourite in 
 every hedgerow, closes its blue^ corolla 
 before rain comes on, opening again when 
 it ceases. The red campion (Lychnis di- 
 urna) uncloses its flowers in the morning. 
 The flowers of the white campion (Lychnis 
 vespertina) open and expand themselves to- 
 wards the approach of night. The wood 
 sorrel (Oxalis acetosella, " la Petite Oseille," 
 or Suselle, of the French), an unobtrusive 
 elegant little inhabitant of the moist, shaded 
 bank, as soon as night approaches, as it is of 
 too delicate a structure to bear the storm, 
 closes up its curious triple leaves, hanging 
 its flowers towards the earth, thus preserv- 
 ing the more tender parts from injury. ; .but 
 as soon as the morning sun arises, these ex- 
 pand and regain their beauty. Most of the 
 Hieraciums, or hawk-weed tribe, also open 
 their flowers with the morning light, going 
 to sleep again in the afternoon. The clear, 
 bright, and gay flowers of the succory (Ci- 
 chorium Intybus) foretel the commencement 
 of the daylight. Another of the components 
 of Flora's clock, which deserves a passing 
 word, is the common daisy (Bellis perennis), 
 opening at sunrise, and closing its flowers at 
 sunset : hence by Chaucer called the " Eie 
 of Day." The great white ox-eye (Chrysan- 
 themum leucanthemum), foretelling the coming 
 storm, closes its flowers. The flowers of the 
 alpine whitlow grass (Draba alpina), the 
 bastard feverfew, the winter green (Tri- 
 entalis europcea), all hang down in the night 
 1243 
 
 as if the plants were asleep, lest rain or the 
 moist air should injure the fertilising pollen. 
 The common nipplewort (Lapsana com- 
 munis}, that lovely gem the white water- 
 lily (Nymph&a alba, " the naiad of the 
 river)," and several of the diadelphous tribe 
 of plants, in serene calm weather, expand 
 their leaves in the day-time, and contract 
 them during night. 
 
 Animals. — Among quadrupeds the fol- 
 lowing are believed to indicate, by their 
 restlessness and peculiar actions, a fore- 
 knowledge of approaching changes of wea- 
 ther. When horses stretch forth their necks, 
 neigh much, snuff the air with distended 
 nostrils, and assemble in the corner of a field 
 with their heads to leeward, rain may be 
 expected. 
 
 Sheep are seen running to and fro, jump- 
 ing from the ground, and in their gambols ap- 
 parently fighting, previously to a change of 
 weather. Fine weather may be expected to 
 continue when cattle lie in the open field, or 
 in the courts instead of the sheds ; when 
 sheep take up their lair for the night on the 
 brow of a knoll ; when pigs lie down for the 
 night without covering themselves up in lit- 
 ter. Bad weather is said to be prognosti- 
 cated when asses hang their ears forward, or 
 rub themselves against walls or trees. Swine 
 also become uneasy, restless, grunting 
 loudly, and return to their sties. Before 
 rain, dogs are apt to groAv very sleepy and 
 dull, and to lie all day before the fire, show- 
 ing a reluctance to food, except grass. 
 When cats lose their vivacity, remaining 
 within doors, wet or windy weather may be 
 expected. Finally, when rats and mice are 
 more than usually restless, forsaking the 
 fields and ditches, approaching rain may be 
 anticipated. 
 
 Fallow-deer, and many other animals, 
 becoming restless from the uneasiness they 
 feel owing to the altered condition of the 
 atmosphere, prognosticate the approach of 
 rain. If frogs croak more than usual — if 
 toads issue from their retreats in great 
 numbers — if earthworms come forth from 
 their holes — if moles throw up the soil 
 more than usual — if pigs shake and spoil 
 the stalks of the corn — if oxen lick their 
 forefeet, all these signs are said to indicate 
 rain. 
 
 It may be remarked that, in summer, 
 when sheep rise early in the morning it is a 
 sure sign of either rain or a very hot day ; 
 and that in all seasons when they jump and 
 play about it is a sign of rain or wind (but 
 generally both) in the summer, and very 
 stormy weather in the winter. 
 
 In winter, when the sheep lie under a 
 hedge, and seem loth to go off to pasture, 
 and bleat, it is considered a sign of a storm. 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 When rabbits come out to feed early in 
 the evening, it is a sign of rain in the night 
 in summer, and of either rain or snow in 
 winter ; and when it is likely to be a bad 
 night, they will be apt to return to their 
 burrows before it is dark. 
 
 Next, with respect to birds .- there is an 
 old saying that " when swans fly it is a sign 
 of rough weather," and the correctness of 
 this saying would appear to be proved. A 
 late writer states that he had invariably 
 found that when the swan flies any distance 
 against the wind, however fine the weather 
 may be at the time, so sure will a wind, 
 almost amounting to a hurricane, arise 
 within twenty-four, and generally twelve, 
 hours after the bird has taken flight. The 
 early appearance of woodcocks, snipes, field- 
 fares, and other birds of passage, &c, are 
 prognostics of severe winters. When owls 
 hoot and screech during bad weather, it is 
 a sign of coming fine weather. The mis- 
 seltoe thrush (Turdus viscivorus) frequently 
 sings particularly long and loud before rain, 
 and sometimes even during severe storms : 
 hence it is termed the " storm cock." The 
 blue macaw is said to be a true indicator 
 of the changes of the weather. Dr. Thorn- 
 ton is stated to have had one some years 
 ago, whose blue feathers assumed a greenish 
 hue in rainy weather, or grey in clear wea- 
 ther, if likely to change for wet. 
 
 When cranes fly exceedingly high, in 
 silence, and ranged in order, it is said to 
 indicate fine weather ; but if their flight is 
 in disorder, and they speedily return with 
 cries, it foretels wind. If fowls roll them- 
 selves in the sand more than usual, it de- 
 notes rain ; also when the cocks crow in 
 the evening, or at unusual hours. When 
 peacocks cry at night, rain may shortly be 
 expected. When peacocks roost on the 
 tops of houses, when the raven sails round 
 and round high up in the air, and when the 
 song birds carol late in the evening, the 
 weather will continue fair. 
 
 The croaking of crows is said to indicate 
 fine weather. When ducks and geese fly 
 backwards and forwards, and frequently 
 plunge into the water, or send forth cries, 
 or when pigeons return slowly to their 
 houses, the probability is that the succeeding 
 day will be rainy. It is a sign of rain or wind 
 when sparrows chirp a great deal ; if the 
 redbreast be seen near houses ; or swallows 
 fly near the ground, or brush the surface of 
 the water. When sea- fowl and other aquatic 
 birds retire to the seashore, or more inland, 
 it generally indicates a change of weather. 
 If lurks or kites soar high, and continue so 
 for some time, it is generally a sign of fine 
 weal her. If the kingfisher disappear, ex- 
 pect fine weather. If the cuckoo be no longer 
 1244 
 
 heard, expect autumnal weather. If swal- 
 lows and martins fly lower than usual, foul 
 weather may be expected. The cause of 
 this is, that they pursue flies, which delight 
 in warm air ; and these insects, escaping from 
 the excess of moisture above, descend nearer 
 to the surface of the earth, and are there 
 pursued by these birds. When the corn- 
 crake (Rallus crex) ventriloquises in the 
 corn or. grass, when the partridge calls in 
 the evening to his mate, and when the snipe 
 booms in the air in the evening, a continu- 
 ation of fine weather may be expected. 
 
 When those rare birds the dotterel and 
 golden plover are seen in the sheep-walks 
 late in the autumn, an early and rigorous 
 winter is certain. The migration of birds 
 is also fraught with interest to the careful 
 observer of the weather. The late roosting 
 of crows (rooks) is a fair criterion of ap- 
 proaching rain. The cause is apparent : 
 they feed upon larvas and earthworms ; and 
 these, especially the latter, come most abroad 
 in the evenings before rain. 
 
 Mr. Yarrell, in his History of British 
 Birds, vol. iii. p. 117., records an instance 
 of instinct, showing how useful an attention 
 to the movements of animals, &c, might 
 occasionally prove : — " I am indebted to the 
 kindness of Lord Braybrooke for the fol- 
 lowing account of a female swan, on the 
 small stream at Bishop's Stortford. This 
 swan was eighteen or nineteen years old, 
 had brought up many broods, and was 
 highly valued by the neighbours. She ex- 
 hibited, some eight or nine years past, one 
 of the most remarkable instances of the 
 power of instinct that was ever recorded. 
 She was sitting on four or five eggs, and 
 was observed to be very busy in collecting 
 grass, weeds, &c, to raise her nest ; a farm- 
 ing man was ordered to take down half a 
 load of haulm straw, with which she most 
 industriously raised her nest and the eggs 
 two feet and a half; that very night there 
 came down a tremendous fall of rain, which 
 flooded all the malt shops, and did great 
 damage. Man made no preparation; the 
 bird did. Instinct prevailed over reason ; 
 her eggs were above, and only just above, 
 the water." 
 
 The same author, in his account of the 
 green woodpecker (Picus viridis), known 
 in some localities as the " rain-bird," from 
 being very vociferous when rain is impend- 
 ing, alludes to the probable means by which 
 birds and some other animals become cog- 
 nisant of approaching changes in the wea- 
 ther. The following is the rationale referred 
 to : — 
 
 " It is highly probable that no change 
 takes place in the weather without some 
 previous alteration in the electrical condi- 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 tion of the atmosphere, and we can easily 
 understand that birds, entirely covered as 
 they are with feathers, which are known to 
 be readily affected by electricity, should be 
 susceptible of certain impressions, which 
 are indicated by peculiar actions : thus, birds 
 and other animals, covered only with the 
 production of their highly sensible skin, be- 
 come living barometers to good observers." 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 136.) 
 
 Insects, being very sensible of every change 
 in the atmosphere, are good weather guides. 
 
 When gnats collect themselves before the 
 setting sun, and form a sort of vortex in 
 the shape of a column, it announces fine 
 weather. If they play up and down in the 
 open air near sunset, they presage heat ; if 
 in the shade, mild and warm showers ; but 
 if they sting those passing them, cold wea- 
 ther and much rain may be expected. 
 
 If garden spiders break off and destroy 
 their webs, and creep away, expect con- 
 tinued rain and showery weather. 
 
 If spider webs (gossamer) fly in the au- 
 tumn, with a south wind, expect an east 
 wind and fine weather. 
 
 The following curious observations on 
 the singular foreknowledge possessed by the 
 spider are extracted from a little work en- 
 titled The Pocket Barometer. This despised 
 insect oftentimes indicates a coming change 
 in the weather ten, twelve, or fourteen days 
 previous to its taking place. The follow- 
 ing directions will be a guide to the curious 
 in their observations of this insect : — If the 
 weather is likely to become rainy, or windy, 
 spiders fix the terminating filaments on 
 which the whole web is suspended unusually 
 short. If the terminating filaments, on the 
 contrary, are very long, the weather will 
 be serene, and continue so for fourteen 
 days. If spiders be totally indolent, rain 
 generally ensues ; though their activity 
 during rain is a certain proof of its short 
 duration, and that it will be followed by 
 fine and settled weather. Spiders usually 
 make some alteration in their webs every 
 twenty-four hours. If this take place be- 
 tween the hours of 6 and 7 p.m., it fore- 
 tels a clear and serene night. 
 
 The weather is about to become cloudy and 
 change for wet, when flies sting and are more 
 troublesome than usual. Most insects be- 
 come torpid when their temperature is much 
 reduced. When it approaches the freezing 
 point, they fall into a lethargic state, and 
 require no food. Ants present a remark- 
 able exception to this rule ; for they are 
 not benumbed till the thermometer is 27° of 
 Fahr., or 5° below freezing point. When 
 bees do not range abroad as usual, but 
 keep in or about their hives, it is a sign of 
 rain. 
 
 1-245 
 
 In the summer season much information 
 relative to the change of the weather may 
 be gained from watching the movements of 
 ants. The finer the day the more busily 
 are they employed, as they never bring out 
 their corn to dry but when the weather is 
 clear and the sun very hot. A celebrated 
 naturalist relates the following curious an- 
 ecdote : — He one day observed these little 
 creatures, after having brought out their 
 corn at eleven in the forenoon, removing 
 the same, contrary to their usual custom, 
 before one in the afternoon. The sun being 
 very hot, and the sky remarkably clear, he 
 could perceive no reason for it ; but half an 
 hour after, his surprise ceased — the sky 
 began to be overcast, and there fell a shower 
 of rain, which caused all this bustle, no 
 doubt, among these active little creatures : 
 they evidently foresaw rain, and provided 
 accordingly ; and were we minutely to ex- 
 amine into the economy and management 
 of these wonderful artificers, many other 
 similar and equally curious facts might be 
 gleaned relative to the weather. 
 
 The leech also possesses the peculiar pro- 
 perty of indicating approaching changes of 
 the weather in a most eminent degree. In 
 fair and frosty weather it remains motion- 
 less and rolled up in a spiral form at the 
 bottom of the vessel ; previous, however, 
 to rain or snow, it will creep to the top, 
 where, should the rain be heavy, or of long 
 continuance, it will remain for a consider- 
 able time, — if transient, it will descend. 
 Should the rain or snow be accompanied 
 with wind, it will dart about with great 
 velocity, and seldom cease its evolutions 
 until it blows hard. If a storm of thunder 
 or lightning be approaching, it will be ex- 
 ceedingly agitated, and express its feelings 
 in violent convulsive starts at the top of 
 the glass. It is remarkable, that however 
 fine and serene the weather may be, and to 
 our senses no indication of a coming change, 
 either from the sky, the barometer, or any 
 other cause, yet, if the leech shifts its po- 
 sition, or moves about sluggishly, the coin- 
 cident results will undoubtedly occur within 
 twenty- six hours. 
 
 Signs of Rain. — Although we have in- 
 cidentally glanced already at some of these 
 indications, it may be well to sum them up 
 in a body, as being more easy of reference. 
 
 A white mist in the evening over a mea- 
 dow or a river will be drawn up by the 
 sun next morning, and the day will be 
 bright. Five or six fogs, successively drawn 
 up, portend rain. Where there are high 
 hills, and the mist which hang over the 
 lower land draws toward the hills in the 
 morning, and rolls up to the top, it will be 
 fair ; but if the mist hangs upon the hills, 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 and drags along the woods, there will be 
 rain soon. A general mist before the sun 
 rises, near the time of full moon, is a. sign 
 of fair weather. When there are mists in 
 the new moon, there will be rain in the old ; 
 and if there are mists in the old moon, there 
 will be rain in the new. 
 
 Against much rain, the clouds grow 
 bigger and increase very fast, especially 
 before thunder. When the clouds are 
 formed like fleeces, but dense in the middle, 
 bright towards the edge, with the sky 
 bright, they are signs of a frost, with hail, 
 snow, or rain. If clouds breed high in the 
 air, in the white train like locks of wool, 
 they portend wind, and probably rain. 
 When a general cloudiness covers the sky, 
 and small black fragments of clouds fly un- 
 derneath, they are sure signs of rain, and 
 probably it will be lasting. Two currents 
 of clouds always portend rain, and in sum- 
 mer thunder. 
 
 If the dew lies plentifully on the grass 
 after a fair day, it is a sign of another fine 
 day. If not, and there is no wind, rain will 
 follow. A red evening portends fair wea- 
 ther ; but if spread too far upward from the 
 horizon in the evening, and especially morn- 
 ing, it foretels wind or rain, or both. When 
 the sky in rainy weather is tinged with sea- 
 green, the rain will increase ; if deep blue, 
 it will be showery. 
 
 If there be a haziness in the air, which 
 fades the sun's light, and makes the orb 
 appear whitish or HI- defined ; or at night, if 
 the moon and stars grow dim, and a ring 
 encircles the former, rain must follow. If 
 the sun appears white at setting, or goes 
 down into a bank of clouds in the horizon, 
 bad weather is expected. If the moon 
 looks pale and dim, we expect rain ; if 
 red, wind ; and if the natural colour, with 
 a clear sky, fair weather. If the moon is 
 rainy throughout, it will be clear at the 
 change, and perhaps the rain return a few 
 days after. If fair throughout, and rain 
 at the change, the fair weather will pro- 
 bably return on the fourth or fifth day. 
 If the setting sun appears yellow or gold 
 colour, and particularly if accompanied with 
 purple streaks, the following day will be 
 fine. 
 
 If the wind veers about much, rain is 
 pretty sure. If, in changing, it follows the 
 course of the sun, it brings fair weather; 
 the contrary, foul. Whistling or howling 
 of the wind is a sure sign of rain. 
 
 The aurora borealis, after warm days, is 
 generally succeeded by cooler air. Shoot- 
 ing stars are supposed to indicate wind. 
 
 Before rain, swallows fly low; dogs grow 
 sleepy and eat ^rass ; waterfowls dive much ; 
 fish will not bite ; flies are more trouble- 
 124G 
 
 some ; toads crawl about ; moles, ants, bees, 
 and many insects, are very busy ; birds fly 
 low for insects; swine, sheep, and cattle 
 are uneasy, and even the human body. 
 
 " The air, when dry, I believe, refracts 
 more red or heat-making rays ; and as dry 
 air is not perfectly transparent, they are 
 again reflected in the horizon. I have ge- 
 nerally observed a coppery or yellow sun- 
 set to foretel rain ; but, as an indication of 
 wet weather approaching, nothing is more 
 certain than a halo round the moon, which 
 is produced by the precipitated water ; and 
 the larger the circle the nearer the clouds, 
 and consequently the more ready to fall." 
 (Sir H. Davy.) 
 
 To turn now to the atmosphere : the bulk 
 of our most valuable meteorological observ- 
 ations are, of course, deducible from its 
 electrical condition, and the precise kind 
 of electricity present ; from the power of 
 evaporation exercised, from the state and 
 direction of the wind, from a careful ex- 
 amination of the clouds ; in fact, the phe- 
 nomena of the atmosphere are well nigh 
 endless. But, though endless in the variety 
 of their forms and consequence, and for the 
 most part uncertain in the time of their 
 occurrence, yet they are successively the 
 same in their nature to parts and properties, 
 and are all the production of simple causes. 
 The principal agents in producing these 
 phenomena have already been noticed under 
 the head Meteorology. I need not en- 
 large further upon the advantages to science 
 in general derivable from the accurate and 
 careful investigation of meteorological re- 
 searches, aided by the excellent instru- 
 ments that are now attainable, and at a 
 moderate expense. From the accumula- 
 tion of a multitude of such facts can we 
 alone hope at some future time to derive 
 that accurate knowledge and insight into 
 the secret springs that would appear to be 
 the movers of these phenomena. This may 
 not be too much to effect from the ana- 
 logies of the seasons and the results of 
 experience ; and this, we may venture to 
 predict, will be the crowning reward of 
 meteorological research. (Trans, of Met, 
 Soc. vol. i. 1839.) 
 
 Clouds. — The following definition of the 
 descriptive terms now employed by meteor- 
 ologists to define various clouds, may prove 
 useful to those in the habit of consulting 
 meteorological registers, which are occa- 
 sionally published in newspapers and sci- 
 entific journals. It is taken from lire's 
 Chemical and Miner. Diet., article " Cloud," 
 p. 338. 
 
 A cloud is a mass of vapour, more or less 
 opaque, formed and sustained at consider- 
 able heights in the atmosphere, probably by 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 the joint agencies of heat and electricity. 
 The first successful attempt to arrange the 
 diversified forms of clouds, under a few 
 general modifications, was made by Luke 
 Howard, Esq. We shall here give a brief 
 account of his ingenious classification. 
 
 The simple modifications are thus named 
 and defined — 1. Cirrus; parallel, flexuous, 
 or diverging fibres, extensible in any or in 
 all directions. 2. Cumulus; convex or co- 
 nical heaps, increasing upwards from a 
 horizontal base. 3. Stratus; a widely ex- 
 tended continuous horizontal sheet, increas- 
 ing from below. 
 
 The intermediate modifications which re- 
 quire to be noticed are — 4. Cirro-cumulus ; 
 small well-defined roundish masses in close 
 horizontal arrangement. 5. Cirro-stratus; 
 horizontal or slightly inclined masses, at- 
 tenuated towards a part or the whole of 
 their circumference, bent downward, or un- 
 dulated, separate or in groups, consisting of 
 small clouds having these characters. 
 
 The compound modifications are — 6. Cu- 
 mulo-stratus ; the cirro-stratus blended with 
 the cumulus, and either appearing inter- 
 mixed with the heaps of the latter, or super- 
 adding a wide spread structure to its base. 
 
 7. Cumulo-cirro-stratus, vel Nimbus ; 
 the rain cloud, a cloud or system of clouds 
 from which rain is falling ; it is a horizontal 
 sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while 
 the cumulus enters it laterally and from 
 beneath. 
 
 The cirrus appears to have the least den- 
 sity, the greater variety of extent and di- 
 rection, and to appear earliest, in serene 
 weather, being indicated by a few threads 
 pencilled in the sky. Before storms they 
 appear lower and denser, and usually in the 
 quarter opposite to that from which the 
 storm arises. Steady high winds are also 
 preceded and attended by cirrus streaks 
 running quite across the sky in the direction 
 they blow in. 
 
 The cumulus has the densest structure, is 
 formed in the lowest atmosphere, and moves 
 along with the current next the earth ; a 
 small irregular spot first appears, and is as 
 it were the nucleus on which they increase. 
 The lower surface continues irregularly 
 plain, while the upper rises into conical or 
 hemispherical heaps, which may afterwards 
 continue long nearly of the same bulk, or 
 rapidly rise into mountains : they will begin 
 in fair weather to form some hours after 
 sunrise, arrive at their maximum in the 
 hottest part of the afternoon, then go on 
 diminishing, and totally disperse about 
 sunset. Previous to rain the cumulus in- 
 creases rapidly, appears lower in the atmo- 
 sphere, and with its surface full of loose 
 fleeces or protuberances. The formation of 
 1247 
 
 large cumuli to leeward in a strong wind 
 indicates the approach of a calm with rain ; 
 when they do not disappear or subside about 
 sunset, but continue to rise, thunder is to 
 be expected in the night. The stratus has 
 a mean degree of tensity, and is the lowest 
 of clouds, its inferior surface commonly 
 resting on the earth or water. This is pro- 
 perly the cloud of night, appearing about 
 sunset. It comprehends all those creeping 
 mists which in calm weather ascend in 
 spreading sheets (like an inundation of 
 water) from the bottom of valleys and the 
 surfaces of lakes and rivers. On the return 
 of the sun the level surface of this cloud 
 begins to put on the appearance of cumulus, 
 the whole at the same time separating from 
 the ground. The continuity is next de- 
 stroyed, and the cloud ascends and eva- 
 porates, or passes off with the appearance 
 of nascent cumulus. This has long been 
 experienced as a prognostic of fair weather. 
 
 The cirrus having continued for some time 
 increasing or stationary, usually passes either 
 to the cirro-cumulus or the cirro-stratus, at 
 the same time descending to a lower station 
 in the atmosphere. This modification forms a 
 very beautiful sky, and is frequent in summer, 
 as an attendant on warm and dry weather. 
 The cirro-stratus, when seen in the distance, 
 freqently gives the idea of shoals of fish (a 
 mackerel sky). It precedes wind and rain ; 
 is seen in the intervals of storms, and some- 
 times alternately with the cirro-cumulus in 
 the same cloud, when the different evolu- 
 tions form a curious spectacle. A judg- 
 ment may be formed of the weather likely 
 to ensue, by observing which modification 
 prevails at last. The solar and lunar halos, 
 as well as the parhelion and paraseline 
 (mock sun and mock moon), prognostics of 
 foul weather, are occasioned by this cloud. 
 The cumulo- stratus precedes, and the nimbus 
 accompanies, rain. 
 
 When there are small round clouds, of 
 a dapple -grey colour, with a north wind, 
 it may be concluded that there will be fair 
 weather for two or three days, but that large 
 clouds like rocks are a sign of great showers. 
 And when small clouds increase it is a sign 
 that there will be much rain, but if the large 
 clouds are seen to lessen there will be fair 
 weather. 
 
 In summer or harvest, when the wind has 
 been south two or three days, and it grows 
 very hot, and clouds are seen to rise with 
 great white tops like towers, as if one were 
 on the top of another, and joined together 
 with black on the lower side, it may be 
 considered a sign that there will be thunder 
 and rain suddenly. When two such clouds 
 rise, one on each hand, it is time to make 
 haste to shelter. 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 When a cloud is seen to rise against the 
 wind or side wind, it is a sure sign that 
 when the cloud comes up near you, the wind 
 will blow the way that the cloud carne. 
 It is the same with the motion of a clear 
 place, when all the sky is thick except one 
 edge. 
 
 At all times, when the clouds look black 
 in the west it is sure to rain, or if raining 
 it is sure to continue, whatever quarter the 
 wind may be in ; and, on the contrary, if it 
 breaks in the west it is sure to be fair. 
 
 If clouds appear white, and drive to the 
 north-west, it is a sign of several days' fine 
 weather; and if the rising sun be encom- 
 passed with an iris, or circle of white clouds, 
 and they disperse equally, it is a sign of 
 fair weather. 
 
 It is often observed, on those clear sunny 
 mornings which occur in summer and au- 
 tumn, that it is very likely, if not certain, 
 to rain before evening; and there is fre- 
 quently much truth in the remark. The 
 reason is, that when moisture accumulates 
 in the air, before it begins to be precipitated, 
 it imparts to it a higher refractive power ; 
 and it becomes, in consequence, more bright 
 and transparent. (British Almanac, 1830.) 
 
 The gradual diminution of clouds, till 
 they are no longer observable, is a sign also 
 of fine weather. So, likewise, is the con- 
 tinuance or abundance of dew upon the 
 grass, after a serene day. 
 
 During winter, fleecy clouds being thick 
 and close in the middle, and very white at 
 the edges, the surrounding sky being re- 
 markably blue, indicate hail or snow, or 
 cold chilling showers of rain. 
 
 Where the clouds appear moving in two 
 opposite currents, and the lowest is wafted 
 rapidly before the wind, it is a certain sign 
 of rain ; and if this occurs during summer, 
 or generally in hot weather, it announces 
 a thunder storm. 
 
 It may be a useful piece of information 
 for agriculturists, or those concerned in 
 getting in their crops, to describe the ap- 
 pearance of a small cloud, which, from its 
 rapid formation and disappearance, is likely 
 to escape the observation of most persons, 
 but which, from my own experience, I have 
 found a very faithful forewarner of foul 
 weather. It appears mostly in the mild 
 weather of spring, summer, and autumn, 
 when its warning token becomes most ac- 
 ceptable. It is a small delicately soft, thin, 
 white, curved cloud, formed suddenly upon 
 ihc summit of those fine heaped clouds 
 (termed cumuli) which often prevail in 
 worm weather, and appear to tower; up to a 
 prodigious height. It is necessary to keep 
 a watchful eye upon the summit, of the cu- 
 mulus. When tins little film, which I term 
 1248 
 
 " the storm cap," appears, it lies closely 
 over the rounded summit, like a white silken 
 web ; in a very few seconds it will dis- 
 appear, sinking, I suppose, into the cumu- 
 lus ; but in a little time, and when heavy 
 foul weather threatens, the film again ap- 
 pears, disappearing as shortly as before. 
 (Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 444.) 
 
 The following indications have been re- 
 corded, as shown by the predominance of 
 certain of the prismatic colours of the rain- 
 bow, but they are too fastidious and fanciful 
 to be deserving of much credence. — 1 . red ; 
 if this colour be very predominant, wind, or 
 wind and rain, may be expected. 2. orange ; 
 when the orange colour appears strong and 
 very full, it generally indicates approaching 
 rain. 3. yellow ; when yellow is more con- 
 spicuous than the other colours, it foretels 
 dry weather. 4. green ; approaching rain 
 may be expected when the green is very 
 predominant. 5. blue ; fine weather may be 
 expected when the blue is particularly full. 
 6. purple ; if the purple be a very full co- 
 lour, wind and rain may be expected. 7. 
 violet; the violet, when very clear, ge- 
 nerally indicates approaching fine weather. 
 See Rainbow. 
 
 The Wind. — The earth is surrounded to 
 the extent of sixty miles with an atmosphere, 
 on which all nature mutually depends for 
 life. This aerial ocean revolves with our 
 earth round the sun, is very susceptible of 
 motion, and some parts of it is constantly 
 in restless commotion. These commotions 
 are called winds, and are principally caused 
 by heat from the rays of the sun, which, 
 rarifying the air, causes it to ascend ; and 
 the vacuum thus formed is filled up with a 
 colder air from the north and south. 
 
 Wind has been explained in the follow- 
 ing manner : — Heated air has a tendency 
 to rise, and cold air rushes in to supply its 
 place. Thus the heated air of the equa- 
 torial regions rises and gives place to a cur- 
 rent sent from the polar regions, which is 
 a process that serves to equalise the tem- 
 perature of the world. But the polar coun- 
 tries lying near to the axis of the sphere, 
 the air from those regions has not received 
 so much motion as that about the equator, 
 or greatest distance from the axis ; where- 
 fore it arrives at the equator, wliere the 
 motion of the earth is greater. If it had no 
 motion before, an cast wind would be the 
 consequence, and the force of that wind 
 would be as the difference between the mo- 
 tion of the earth where the air came from 
 and that where it arrived : but then it has 
 a motion to the south ; for it is rushing into 
 a vacuum left by the air which rises; so that 
 the wind will not be from the east, but north- 
 east ; and the number of degrees north of 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 the east from which it will blow will depend 
 upon the comparative force of the current 
 of air from the north to the difference 
 between the earth's motion at the equator 
 and at the polar region, whence the air 
 comes. As there must be a corresponding 
 efflux from the equator higher up, according 
 to this theory the wind should every where 
 be north-east or south-Avest, but it blows in 
 very different directions at different timCs 
 and places ; and this probably depends on 
 the variations in temperature at different 
 times and places. {Foster s Researches on 
 Atmospheric Phenomena.) 
 
 The winds are the grand disturbers of 
 the weather, and to them we may proxi- 
 mately ascribe the occurrence of clear 
 skies, fogs, clouds, rain, &c. 
 
 From observing the wind, a fair idea of 
 the coming weather may oftentimes be 
 drawn ; and yet, as Solomon observes, " he 
 that considers the wind shall never sow;" 
 that is, he that busies himself too much 
 about the wind will become superstitious. 
 I shall mention a few of the many rules that 
 have been deduced from actual experience. 
 If the wind be north-north-west or east, 
 then veer to the north-east, and remain 
 there two or three days without rain, and 
 if it then change quickly, though perhaps 
 with little rain, to the north-east, and re- 
 main there, such fine weather may occa- 
 sionally last for two months. 
 
 If there be, within four, five, or six days, 
 two or three changes of the wind from the 
 north through the west to the south without 
 much rain and wind, and then again through 
 the west to the north with rain and wind, ex- 
 pect continued rainy and showery weather. 
 
 If the north-west or north wind during 
 three or four more days blow with rain and 
 wind, or snow in the winter, and then pass 
 through the west to the south, expect con- 
 tinued rain and showers. 
 
 The following remarks further illustrate 
 the changes in the weather, as resulting from 
 the position of the wind. When the north 
 wind first clears the air, expect a fine day. 
 When the wind turns to the north-east, 
 without rain for two days, and does not 
 return to the south with rain, it is likely to 
 be fair eight or nine days. If the north 
 wind turn out of the south to the north- 
 east with rain, and continue there two days 
 without rain, expect fair weather for two 
 or three months. If the wind be north- 
 east during the former part of summer, the 
 weather will probably continue dry. When 
 it rains with an east wind, it will probably 
 continue twenty-four hours. Heavy rains ge- 
 nerally begin when the wind is blowing east, 
 and gradually veering round to the south ; 
 1249 
 
 nor does the rain cease till the wind has got 
 west, or a little to the north-west. It thunders 
 more when the wind blows from the south, 
 and less when it blows from the east, in hot 
 weather. If it rain from the south with a 
 high wind for two or three hours, and the 
 wind then fall, continuing still to rain, it 
 will not abate for twelve hours. When 
 the wind is south-west during summer or 
 autumn, and the air cold for the season, 
 much rain may be expected. When the 
 wind turns from the south to south-west, 
 after having been variable for some time, it 
 will continue in that quarter very likely 
 several weeks. The wind being north-north- 
 west, indicates a change of weather, and 
 frequently produces a " weather dog," which 
 is a sign of much rain. The strongest winds 
 turn from south to north and by west, and 
 mostly bring fair weather. 
 
 The south-east, if it blows fresh in hot 
 weather, always brings a tempest ; and the 
 wind going out or to southward, in the case 
 of a westerly wind prevailing, indicates rain. 
 The late Dr. Kirwan states, as the result of 
 his observations, that when there has been 
 no particular storm about the time of the 
 spring equinox, March 21., if a storm arise 
 from the east on or before that day, or if 
 a storm from any point of the compass arise 
 near a week after the equinox, then, in 
 either of these cases, the succeeding summer 
 is generally dry, four times in five. But if 
 a storm arise from the south-west or west- 
 south- west, on or just before the equinox, 
 then the summer following is generally wet, 
 five times in six. 
 
 In all countries particular winds are 
 noted for being accompanied with either 
 wet or dry weather. Thus the south and 
 south : west winds bring much moisture into 
 Britain ; while those from the north and 
 north-east are cold, dry, and penetrating. 
 Hence the old proverb — 
 
 " When the wind 's in the south, 
 It 's in the rain's mouth." 
 
 Not only does this arise from the im- 
 mense surface of ocean over which these 
 winds sweep south of the equator, the eva- 
 poration from which must be prodigious ; 
 but from these southerly winds being of a 
 higher temperature, whereby they hold a 
 greater quantity of vapour in suspension or 
 solution, the condensation of which must be 
 proportionally greater on arriving in this 
 colder climate. Accordingly, it has been 
 observed that the wind will turn from the 
 north to the south quietly and without rain ; 
 but on returning from the south to the 
 north, will blow hard and bring much rain. 
 Again, if it begin to rain from the south 
 4 L 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 with a high wind for two or three hours, 
 the wind falls ; but if the rain continues, it 
 is likely to rain for twelve hours or more, 
 and does usually rain until a strong north 
 wind clears the air. For the same reason, 
 winds from the west and south-west are 
 considered to bring with them wet weather. 
 {Chambers' Information for the People, No. 
 58. New Series.) 
 
 A change in the warmth of the weather 
 is often followed by a change in the wind. 
 Thus, the northerly and southerly winds, 
 though commonly accounted the causes of 
 cold and warm weather, are really the ef- 
 fects of the cold or warmth of the atmo- 
 sphere ; of which Dr. Derham assures us 
 he had so many confirmations that he makes 
 no doubt of the fact. Thus, it is common 
 to see a warm southerly wind suddenly 
 changed to the north by the fall of snow 
 or hail ; or to see the wind in a cold frosty 
 morning north, when the sun has well 
 warmed the air wheel towards the south ; 
 and again turn northerly or easterly in the 
 cold evening. 
 
 Mr. Towers (Quart. Jour, of Agr. vol. ix. 
 p. 39.) relates the case of a person in Somer- 
 setshire who had been haymaking nearly 
 forty years, and had hardly, in one instance, 
 failed to carry in good condition. He had 
 observed that in the month of June, earlier 
 or later, there are three or more days wherein 
 the wind blows from the north-east, and 
 that period is invariably dry. When that 
 wind first occurred, he seized the oppor- 
 tunity of cutting his grass and carrying the 
 crop before the wind veered to the south. 
 This theory holds good as respects the south- 
 western counties, where the wind from any 
 quarter between north and east is the sure 
 concomitant of dry weather. 
 
 The following predictions of the weather 
 are met with in the Holy Scriptures ; and, 
 applying with equal correctness in the pre- 
 sent day as at the time they were written, 
 I subjoin them : — A south wind, or great 
 heat in summer, portends a whirlwind. 
 (Job, xxxvii. 9.) -Cold or fair weather is 
 indicated by the north wind, which drives 
 away rain. (Ibid, xxxvii. 9. 22.) A red 
 sky in the evening foretels fair weather; 
 in the morning, foul. " When it is evening 
 ye say, It will be fair weather, for the sky 
 is red. And in the morning, It will be foul 
 weather to-day, for the sky is red and 
 lowering." (Matthew, xvi. 2, 3.) " When ye 
 Bee ;i cloud rise out of the west, straightway 
 ye say, There cometh a shower ; and so it 
 is. And when ye sec the south wind blow, 
 y< say, There will be heat; and it cometh 
 to pass." (Luke, xii. 54, 55.) 
 
 (( remits from observations made by M. 
 1250 
 
 Schouw, that in the north of Europe the 
 western winds are more frequent than the 
 eastern. This rule is without exception ; 
 but the western winds diminish more and 
 more as we approach the centre of the Con- 
 tinent, being more frequent in England, 
 Holland, and France than in Denmark and 
 the greater part of Germany ; and more 
 frequent in these latter countries than in 
 Russia and Sweden. At London, the east 
 wind is to the west as 1* to 1*7 ; at Am- 
 sterdam, as 1 to 1*6; at Copenhagen, as 1 
 to 1*5; at Stockholm, as 1 to 1*4; at Pe- 
 tersburg, as 1 to 1 *3. The west winds seem 
 to incline the more to the south according 
 to the propinquity of the Atlantic sea ; to- 
 wards the interior of the Continent they 
 incline more to the north-west. The north 
 winds appear to increase towards the east. 
 Amongst the winds which come from the 
 west, that of the south-west predominates 
 in England, Holland, and France ; that of 
 direct west in Denmark and the greater 
 part of Germany ; at Moscow the north- 
 west predominates ; at Petersburg and 
 Stockholm the north wind is much more 
 frequent than in the western parts of Eu- 
 rope. In the western and middle districts 
 of northern Europe, such as England, 
 France, Denmark, Germany, and Norway, 
 the west winds are much more frequent 
 during the summer than during the winter 
 or spring. This does not appear to be the 
 case in Sweden and Russia. During the 
 winter the west winds are more southerly ; 
 during the summer more direct and more 
 northerly. (Jahrb. der Phys. und Chemie, 
 1828.) 
 
 A correspondent of the Magazine of Na- 
 tural History (vol. i. p. 180.) states, that, 
 having paid particular attention to the 
 weather for twenty-two years, he always 
 observed that the wind blew from the 
 eastward at the beginning of May. Those 
 who are concerned in the progress of ve- 
 getation during the vernal months, must 
 often have had to witness the withering 
 effects of the east wind on the tender 
 plants, flowers,, and shoots of the season : 
 its parching effects on the garden, and 
 its hurtful consequences to the young 
 barley in the fields, are frequent com- 
 plaints. These easterly winds are generally 
 attended by a blue mist, haze, or fuliginous 
 vapour, which is considered to have a 
 blighting effect. At least, the sun's heat 
 being then intense, the aphides and other 
 predatory insects are drawn forth from 
 their hiding places, and the pregnant fe- 
 males commence their nidification, and 
 countless generations are brought forth. 
 
 The moon has long been supposed to ex- 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 ercise considerable general influence on the 
 weather, and the subjoined table has been 
 constructed to show the probabilities of a 
 
 change of weather after, or in coincidence 
 with, the situations occupied by the moon 
 during every revolution in her orbit : — 
 
 Situation of the Moon. 
 
 New moon - - 1 
 
 First quarter - 
 
 Full - - -| 
 
 Third quarter - 1^ 
 
 Perigee 
 Apogee 
 
 The ascending equinox 
 The descending equi-I 
 nox - - J 
 
 The northern, or boreal J 
 lunistice - - j 
 
 The southern, or aus-T 
 tral lunistice - J 
 
 Situation explained. 
 
 "When she exerts her influence in conjunction with 
 the sun ------ 
 
 When she is 90° distant from the sun 
 
 When she exerts her influence in opposition to the 
 sun 
 
 When she is in the middle point of her orbit, being 
 equidistant from the points of conjunction and 
 opposition - 
 When she is at the least distance from the earth 
 When she is at the greatest distance from the earth 
 When she is crossing the equator towards the north 
 
 When she is crossing the equator to the south 
 
 When she approaches nearest to our zenith during 
 the period which intervenes between one new 
 moon and another - 
 
 When she is at the greatest distance from our zenith 
 
 Chances that 
 the Weather 
 will change. 
 
 G to 1 
 5 — 2 
 
 }- 
 
 4 
 — 1 
 
 The following table, which appears in 
 almost every almanac, has been very com- 
 monly, but erroneously, attributed to Sir 
 William Herschell. It is a fair approxima- 
 
 tion to correctness, but there are many in- 
 fluencing causes which will derange the 
 ensuing weather, and upset any predictions. 
 
 New and Full Moon. 
 
 If it be a new or a full moon, 
 or the moon entering into I 
 the first or last quarter at 
 noon, or between 12 and 2 
 2 and 4 afternoon 
 
 6 — 
 
 6 evening 
 8 evening 
 
 8 — 10 evening 
 10 — 12 night - 
 
 12 — 2 morning 
 
 2 — 4 morning 
 4 — 6 morning 
 6 — 8 morning 
 
 8 — 10 morning 
 
 10 — 12 noon - 
 
 Very rainy 
 
 Changeable 
 Fair 
 
 Fair, if wind at N. W. ; rainy, 
 if wind at S. or S. W. - 
 
 Ditto 
 
 Fair - 
 Ditto 
 
 Cold, with frequent showers 
 Rain - 
 Wind and rain 
 
 Changeable 
 
 Frequent showers 
 
 Snow and rain. 
 
 Fair and mild. 
 Fair. 
 
 f Fair and frosty, if wind at 
 4 N. or N.E. 
 L Rain or snow, if S. or S. W. 
 Ditto. 
 
 Fair and frosty, 
 f Hard frost, unless wind S. 
 \ or S.W. 
 
 Snow and stormy. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Stormy weather, 
 f Cold rain, if wind be W. ; 
 \ snow, if E. 
 
 Cold, with high wind. 
 
 The barometer (says Dr. Lardner) has 
 been called a weather-glass. Rules are at- 
 tempted to be established by which, from 
 the height of the mercury, the coming state 
 of the weather may be predicted ; and we 
 accordingly find the words " rain," " change- 
 able," "fair," "frost," &c, engraved on the 
 scale attached to common domestic baro- 
 meters, as if, when the mercury stands at 
 the height marked by these words, the 
 weather is always subject to the vicissitudes 
 expressed by them. These marks are, how- 
 1251 
 
 ever, entitled to no attention ; and it is only 
 surprising to find their use continued in the 
 present times, when knowledge is so widely 
 diffused. They are, in fact, to be ranked 
 scarcely above the Vox Stella?wm, or as- 
 trological almanac. Two barometers, one 
 near the level of the river Thames, and the 
 other on the heights of Hampstead, will 
 differ by half an inch, the latter being 
 always half an inch lower than the former. 
 If the words, therefore, engraved upon the 
 plates are to be relied on, similar changes 
 4 l 2 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 of weather could never happen at these two 
 situations. But, what is even more absurd, 
 such a scale would inform us that the weather 
 at the foot of a high building, such as St. 
 Paul's, must always be different from the 
 weather at the top of it. It is observed 
 that changes of weather are indicated, not 
 by the actual height of the mercury, but • 
 by its change of height. One of the most 
 general, though not absolutely invariable, 
 rules is, that where the mercury is very 
 low, and therefore the atmosphere very light, 
 high winds and storms may be expected, 
 The following rules, given by Mr. C. Mac- 
 kenzie, may generally be relied upon, at 
 least to a certain extent : — 
 
 1. The rising of the mercury presages, 
 in general, fair weather ; and its falling 
 shows the approach of foul weather, as rain, 
 snow, high winds, and storms. 
 
 2. In very hot or sultry weather, espe- 
 cially if the wind be south, the falling of 
 the mercury foretels thunder. 
 
 3. In winter the rising presages frost ; 
 and in frosty weather, if it falls three or 
 four divisions, there will follow a thaw ; but 
 if it rises in a continued frost, snow may be 
 expected. 
 
 4. Whatever change of weather sud- 
 denly follows a change in the barometer, 
 may be expected to last but for a short 
 time. Thus, if foul weather happens soon 
 after the falling of the mercury, expect but 
 little of it ; and infer the same, if fair 
 weather succeeds shortly after the rise. 
 
 5. When the mercury continues to rise for 
 several days before the foul weather is over, 
 expect a continuance of fair weather to follow. 
 
 6. In fair weather, when the mercury 
 falls much and low, and continues so for 
 two or three days before the rain comes, 
 then expect a long continuance of foul 
 weather will possibly ensue, with much wet, 
 and probably high winds. 
 
 7. The mercury generally rises very fast 
 after great storms of wind, when before it 
 was very low. Dr. Halley mentions that 
 he once observed it to rise an inch and a 
 half in six hours, after a long continued 
 storm of south-west wind. 
 
 8. A fluctuating and unsettled state of 
 the mercurial column indicates uncertain 
 or changeable weather. 
 
 The words on the plate of a barometer 
 are not strictly to be adhered to, though 
 they will in general agree; for, the height 
 of the mercury does not so much indicate 
 the weather, as its motion up and down: 
 to know, therefore, whether the mercury 
 is actually rising or falling, observe, — 
 
 1st. If the surface of the mercury is con- 
 vex (or stands high in the middle), it is then 
 
 2d. If the surface is concave (standing 
 low in the middle), it is then falling. 
 
 3d. If the surface is plain, or a little con- 
 vex, it may be considered as stationary. 
 
 4th. A small shake of the tube will some- 
 times bring the mercury to its approaching 
 height. 
 
 The foregoing rules are chiefly to be de- 
 pended on ; but the following are not un- 
 worthy of regard : — 
 
 1st. The greatest heights of the mer- 
 cury are on easterly and north-easterly 
 winds ; and its lowest station on southerly 
 or westerly winds. 
 
 2d. A continuance of fair weather, the 
 wind being in the north, and the mercury 
 high or rising, is never succeeded by rain 
 till the wind changes southerly. t 
 
 3d. A continuance of rain from the south 
 is scarcely ever succeeded by settled fair 
 weather before the wind changes either to 
 the west, or to some point of the north. 
 
 4th. If the mercury falls when the wind 
 is full south, it scarcely ever fails to be a 
 sign of rain. 
 
 5th. If the weather is about to be cold, 
 frosty, or foggy, it rises pretty high ; but if 
 going to be windy or tempestuous, it will 
 then sink very low, and, as soon as the first 
 storm is over, it will rise again apace. 
 
 The domestic barometer would become a 
 much more useful instrument if, instead of 
 the words usually engraved on the plate, a 
 short list of the best established rules, such 
 as the above, accompanied it, which might 
 be either engraved on the plate or printed 
 on a card. It would be right, however, to 
 express the rules only with that degree of 
 probability which observation of past phe- 
 nomena has justified. There is no rule re- 
 specting these effects which will invariably 
 hold good. 
 
 The barometer never fails to show the 
 true cause of the alterations of the weather, 
 and we are thereby prepared to expect 
 them ; but it may sometimes happen that 
 the column of mercury will not alter its alti- 
 tude agreeably to the foregoing rules ; for, 
 when the atmosphere is charged with more 
 aqueous matter than it can well dissolve, or 
 hold in a state of suspension, the surplus 
 will form clouds ; and those will produce 
 showers of rain when the mercury stands 
 very high ; and, for the contrary reason, 
 there may be sometimes no rain when the 
 mercury is very low. Hence it follows, that 
 we are generally satisfied by a glance at 
 the barometer, as to the weather we may 
 at all times expect, though sometimes the 
 contrary may happen. A general monitor, 
 therefore (to any wise man), is better than 
 none at all. {Farmers Magazine.) See 
 Barometer. 
 
WEATHER. 
 
 WEEDS. 
 
 Tables calculated from Atmospherical Ob- 
 servations, made in the Parish of Cobham, 
 Surrey, during the Eight Years from 1833 
 to 1840. 
 
 THERMOMETER. 
 
 BAROMETER. 
 
 Month. 
 
 Utmost 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Mean 
 
 Mean 
 
 Differ- 
 
 Range. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 ence. 
 
 January 13083 
 
 28-97 
 
 29-986 
 
 [30-59 
 
 29-17 
 
 1-42 
 
 February 30'6*2 
 
 2862 
 
 29-819 
 
 30-44 
 
 29-04 
 
 1-40 
 
 March 
 
 80-68 
 
 28-70 
 
 29-915 
 
 30-47 
 
 29-24 
 
 1-23 
 
 April 
 
 30-53 
 
 29-02 
 
 29 999 
 
 30-41 
 
 29-34 
 
 1-07 
 
 May 
 
 30- 62 
 
 29-42 
 
 29-960 
 
 30-42 
 
 29 54 
 
 0-88 
 
 June 
 
 30-42 
 
 29 29 
 
 30-008 
 
 30-35 
 
 29-55 
 
 0-80 
 
 July 
 
 30-47 
 
 2937 
 
 30-039 
 
 30 36 
 
 29-57 
 
 0-79 
 
 August 
 
 30-48 
 
 29-11 
 
 30-023 
 
 3035 
 
 29-42 
 
 0-93 
 
 Sept. 
 
 30-58 
 
 28-99 
 
 31182 
 
 30-34 
 
 29-26 
 
 1-08 
 
 Oct. 
 
 30-71 
 
 28 9S 
 
 29997 
 
 30-50 
 
 29-24 
 
 1-26 
 
 Nov. 
 
 30-48 
 
 28-67 
 
 29-822 
 
 30-38 
 
 29 00 
 
 1-38 
 
 Dec. 
 
 30- 6G 
 
 29-04 
 
 30 038 
 
 30-50 
 
 29 28 
 
 1-22 
 
 The mean temperature, mean highest, and 
 mean lowest, have been calculated from 
 observations made on registering thermo- 
 meters, hung on a post two feet eight inches 
 from the grass, facing the north, and in no 
 way sheltered. The barometer is in a ves- 
 tibule No corrections of any kind have been 
 made in registering the barometer. {Johnson 
 and Shaw's Farmer s Almanac, vol. i. p. 157.) 
 
 I shall conclude this article with a register 
 of the state of the weather in the summers 
 of the last quarter of a century which ap- 
 pears in the Farmer s Almanac. 
 
 The Summers from 1816 to 1840.— 1816. 
 Extremely cold and wet throughout ; one 
 of the worst harvests ever known. — 1817. 
 Very cold and wet in July and August, but 
 extremely fine in September, which favoured 
 the harvest. — 1818. Intensely hot and dry; 
 the thermometer twice at 89°, and often 
 above 80°. — 1819. A very fine hot summer ; 
 the month of August intensely warm ; 
 scarcely any thunder. — 1820. A fine summer 
 on the whole, and very productive. — 1821. 
 Some very hot days occasionally, but for 
 the most part cold and showery. Immense 
 rains during harvest, which did great da- 
 mage. — 1822. A splendid year ; hot and dry 
 for the most part, but heavy rain at times, 
 with much thunder. A very abundant har- 
 vest. — 1823. A cold showery summer. In 
 July it rained every day except the 24th ; 
 very little thunder. — 1824. Very fine and 
 warm throughout, but never intensely hot. 
 1253 
 
 The thermometer stood highest Septem- 
 ber 1st, and was at 79°. — 1825. Very hot 
 almost throughout. July 18th, the ther- 
 mometer stood at 90°, which is the highest 
 observation in the course of all these sum- 
 mers. — 1826. The hottest and driest sum- 
 mer ever known ; it began early and con- 
 tinued late. The thermometer was twice at 
 88° and often at 84°.— 1827. Hot and dry, 
 but not to such extremity as in the preced- 
 ing summer; much thunder. — 1828. Im- 
 mense rains, which began July 9th, and 
 continued almost without cessation. Large 
 floods July 16th and 30th. Heavy thunder- 
 storms ; bad harvest. — 1829. A very cold 
 stormy summer. In September the rains 
 were extremely heavy. — 1 830. Very cold and 
 wet, especially in J une ; much thunder. — 
 1831. Warm, gleamy, showery, and electri- 
 cal. A sickly summer; great number of 
 insects, especially house-flies. — 1832. Mo- 
 derate for the most part, without much in- 
 clination either one way or the other. — 
 1833. Very fine, the early part especially. 
 An abundant harvest. — 1834. A fine ge- 
 nial summer, but heavy rains in the end of 
 July. An early and productive harvest. — 
 
 1835. Hot and dry, with some showery ex- 
 ceptions. Another abundant harvest. — 
 
 1836. Very variable in different parts of 
 the kingdom. , In the midland counties, dry 
 weather predominated. Remarkable for the 
 almost entire destruction of the turnip crop 
 by the fly. Harvest not amiss. — 1837. A 
 fair average of hot weather, but preceded 
 by a very severe spring.- Harvest deficient, 
 — 1838. A cold wet summer, and a late 
 unproductive harvest. — 1839. Very heavy 
 rains, almost without cessation. A large 
 flood August 2., and smaller ones frequent. 
 The harvest not unproductive, but much 
 damaged. — 1840. A fine warm summer, with 
 intense heat in August ; fine harvest weather, 
 but seed deficient from the want of rain. — 
 1841. Fine and warm in May and June; 
 wet and cold in July and the beginning of 
 August ; fine harvest weather at the end 
 and in September. (The Weather Guide, 
 by P. L. Simmonds ; Quart. Journ. of 
 Meteor. Soc. vol. i. p. 5—74.) 
 
 WEEDS. The clearing of all kinds of 
 crops, and keeping them free from weeds, 
 is an essential part of cultivation : if this 
 be omitted, neglected, or but partially per- 
 formed, a portion of the crop will be lost, 
 in proportion to the prevalence of such 
 weeds, from defective preparation or partial 
 extirpation. The nourishment drawn from 
 the ground by the roots of all vegetables 
 being somewhat similar, where that nourish- 
 ment is suffered to be drawn by weeds it is 
 lost to the intended crop, which will there- 
 fore be reduced in produce in proportion 
 
 Month. 
 
 Utmost 
 Range. 
 
 Mean. 
 
 Mean 
 Highest. 
 
 Mean 
 Lowest. 
 
 Difference, 
 or Solar 
 Variation. 
 
 January 
 
 60 
 
 10 
 
 38-38 
 
 526 
 
 14-6 
 
 38-0 
 
 February 
 
 60 
 
 14 
 
 39-84 
 
 54-7 
 
 20 6 
 
 34- 1 
 
 March 
 
 66 
 
 16 
 
 42 02 
 
 60-1 
 
 20-5 
 
 39 6 
 
 April 
 
 85 
 
 17 
 
 46-25 
 
 71-3 
 
 23- 0 
 
 48-3 
 
 May 
 
 86 
 
 23 
 
 55-25 
 
 79-8 
 
 30 3 
 
 495 
 
 June 
 
 93 
 
 33 
 
 6131 
 
 88-5 
 
 37-8 
 
 50-7 
 
 July 
 
 98 
 
 33 
 
 63-00 
 
 89-2 
 
 392 
 
 50-0 
 
 August 
 
 94 
 
 32 
 
 61-83 
 
 85-8 
 
 36-7 
 
 49- 1 
 
 Sept. 
 
 82 
 
 27 
 
 56-32 
 
 76-0 
 
 323 
 
 43-7 
 
 October 
 
 79 
 
 21 
 
 49-87 
 
 68-4 
 
 25-8 
 
 42-6 
 
 Nov. 
 
 66 
 
 16 
 
 43 64 
 
 58-8 
 
 21-8 
 
 37-0 
 
 Dec. 
 
 63 
 
 4^ 
 
 38-98 
 
 57-5 
 
 18-8 
 
 38-7 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 as it lias been deprived of nutriment from 
 the soil, and prevented from occupying its 
 whole extent of ground. The same ob- 
 servation will apply to pastures, to hedges 
 and plantations, and to all parts of the 
 earth's surface reclaimed, occupied, and 
 cultivated for the use of man ; for therein 
 the growth of noxious or useless plants 
 will be injurious to the success of the useful 
 ones, and in proportion as the former abound, 
 the latter must prove defective. 
 
 The clearing of crops from weeds must 
 be effected in two ways : 1 . In the pre- 
 paration ; and, 2. During the growth of 
 the crop. In the preparation, attention 
 must be given to distinguish root weeds from 
 seedlings, as their destruction must be 
 effected upon different principles. In the 
 spring of the year particularly, attention 
 should be paid to hoeing and weeding. 
 
 And old Tusser's advice may be followed 
 with advantage : — 
 
 " In May get a weed-hook, a crotch, and a glove, 
 And weed out such weeds as the corn doth not love ; 
 For weeding of winter corn, now it is best, 
 But June is the better for weeding the rest. 
 
 The May-weed doth burn, and the thistle doth fret, 
 The fitches pull downward, both rye and the wheat, 
 The brake and the cockle be noisome too much, 
 Yet like unto boodle no weed there is such. 
 
 " Slack never thy weeding, for dearth nor for cheap, 
 The corn shall reward it, ere ever ye reap ; 
 And 'specially where ye do trust for to seed, 
 Let that be well used, the better to speed." 
 
 The plants we term weeds, considered as 
 respecting mankind, are not totally use- 
 less ; many of them have valuable medical 
 qualities, and some of them may be applied 
 to useful purposes, so as to pay something to- 
 wards the expense of clearing them from the 
 ground Thus, sow-thistles {Sonchus) afford 
 food for rabbits or hogs ; the hog-weed, or 
 cow-parsnip {Heracleum sphondylium), is 
 good for either swine or cattle ; horses and 
 asses are fond of young thistles when par- 
 tially dried, and the seed may be prevented 
 from spreading by gathering the down, 
 which makes good pillows ; however, there 
 is some danger of trusting them to this 
 stage of growth, as a high wind would, and 
 frequently does, disperse them over a whole 
 country. Charlock, when drawn, may be 
 given to cows, who are very fond of it, par- 
 ticularly of the smooth kind ; and, in the 
 Oxford Report, it is stated that it can be 
 converted into good hay. Nettles, fern, 
 and live more bulky hedge-weeds, are, in 
 Staffordshire, collected annually about mid- 
 summer and burnt ; their ashes being after- 
 Wards formed into balls, which are of con- 
 siderable value, being used in composing a 
 lev for scouring and cleaning linen and other 
 clothes. 
 
 It is said that pigeons arc of use in pick- 
 1254 
 
 ing up the seeds of many weeds that would 
 otherwise vegetate ; and I have no doubt 
 but that a prodigious quantity of the seeds 
 of weeds are eaten by small birds, par- 
 ticularly of most of the snake-weeds {Poly- 
 gonums), of the spurrey {Spergula), and, in 
 severe weather, of the different sorts of 
 charlock {Sinapis, Brassica, and Raphanus), 
 and of many other kinds. It has been ob- 
 served that bees have not thriven so well 
 in this island since the extirpation of weeds 
 has been more attended to. Jn China and 
 J apan, it is said not a weed is to be seen, 
 and that they only make use of night-soil 
 as a manure, partly with a view of prevent- 
 ing any rise of weeds. 
 
 Weeds, like all other vegetables, may be 
 distinguished into annuals, biennials, and 
 perennials, according to their term of du- 
 ration. 
 
 Annuals are those which continue only one 
 year, the plants dying after perfecting their 
 seeds : these are generally very prolific in 
 seed. Biennials are those which continue two 
 years, and die after perfecting their seed : 
 these also produce an abundance of seed. 
 Perennials are those which continue many 
 years : some of these perfect their seeds 
 every year, and others being very tenacious 
 of growth by their roots, and having the 
 faculty of reproducing themselves in this 
 way, are less prolific in seeds ; but many of 
 them increase both by seeds and roots. 
 
 The weeds of agriculture are very nu- 
 merous, but by far the greater part are 
 underlings, and are little noticed ; these 
 are comparatively innocent, and a very 
 great portion of them have no local or 
 common names. Mr. William Pitt, in his 
 essay On the Extirpation of Weeds {Com. 
 to Board of Agr. vol. v. p. 233.), enu- 
 merates fifty-five weeds, and the list might 
 have been greatly extended ; but few far- 
 mers, whose knowledge is bounded by the 
 soils they respectively cultivate, would think 
 themselves troubled with more than a dozen 
 to twenty ; that is, four or five which 
 trouble them in their fallows ; four or five, 
 the seeds of which infest their samples of 
 corn ; and a few besides, which are locally 
 prevailing and obtrusive, but (as seems to 
 have been too generally considered) not 
 very hurtful. 
 
 The fact was, that, before the improved 
 agriculture became so generally known, those 
 weeds which did not hurt the samples the 
 farmers cared little about; not considering 
 how much they hurt the crops : and hence 
 it has been, that on the different soils corn 
 poppy, charlock, blue-bottles, corn mari- 
 gold, May-weed, &c. have been suffered to 
 abound. 
 
 The weeds of agriculture may be divided 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 into, 1. Those which infest samples of 
 corn ; 2. Rooted or fallow weeds, and 
 such others as are hard to destroy ; 3. 
 Those which are principally objection- 
 able as they encumber the soil ; 4. Under- 
 ling weeds, such as never rise with the 
 crop nor come into the sickle. Under 
 their respective heads, in alphabetical 
 order, we have already treated of the de- 
 teriorating qualities and mode of destruc- 
 tion of each weed ; but, following the above 
 arrangement, we shall classify them, and 
 add such further remarks as may be re- 
 quired. 
 
 1. Weeds which infest Samples of Corn. — 
 The weeds of this description do not exceed 
 ten in number, and it very rarely happens 
 that more than two sorts are found asso- 
 ciated in one sample of wheat. They vary 
 as to soil so much, that some of the worst 
 weeds in fens and marshes are not known at 
 all on clay, cold soils, and are but very 
 little seen on any sort of dry turnip land. 
 Light loams, and deep loose soils, gene- 
 rally have most weeds by nature. The 
 weeds which infest the sample are, darnel 
 (Bromus seealinus and mollis), cockle 
 (Agrostemma Githago), tares (Frvum te- 
 traspermum and hirsutum), melilot (Meli- 
 lotus officinalis), wild oats (Avena fatua), 
 hariff (Galium Aparine), crow-needles, or 
 shepherd's needle (Scandix pecten Veneris), 
 black bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus), 
 annual snake-weed (Polygonum lapathifo- 
 Uum), and charlock seeds in barley some- 
 times. 
 
 Of these ten weeds whose seeds infest 
 samples of corn, five are principally inju- 
 rious to wheat ; the others are partial, and 
 more common in barley and oats. 
 
 2. On Fallow Weeds. — The objects of a 
 fallow are, and always were, first, to era- 
 dicate root weeds, and cleanse and open the 
 soil to the fibres of future crops ; second, to 
 pulverise and break down the texture of 
 clay soils, and mix them with manure, in 
 order to bring the land periodically into a 
 mild and fertile condition. Seedling weeds 
 are destroyed incidentally; and good fal- 
 lows, with good seasons, kill a great many, 
 though it be not the object of fallowing. 
 
 The fallow weeds are principally the fol- 
 lowing : couch, including Triticum repens, 
 Agrostis repens, Holcus mollis, and Poa 
 pratensis, rest-harrow (Ononis arvensis), 
 saw-wort, the common way-thistle, or pas- 
 ture thistle (Ca?*duus arvensis), curled dock 
 (Rumex crispus), tall oat-like soft-grass 
 (Holcus avenaceus), colt's-foot (Tussilago 
 Farfard), corn bindweed (Convolvulus ar- 
 vensis), corn mint (Mentha arvensis), sur- 
 face-twitch (Agrostis stolonifera- angusti- 
 folia), black foxtail-grass (Alopccurus 
 1255 
 
 agrestis), common knot-grass (Polygonum 
 aviculare), wild carrot (Daucus Carota), 
 hedge parsley, or dill (Torilis infesta), 
 common Tool's parsley (JEthusa Cynapium), 
 spingel or fennel (Meum Fceniculum.) 
 
 3. Weeds which arc principally objection- 
 able as they encumber the Soil, or whose 
 Boots are annual, and whose Seeds pass the 
 Corn-sieve. — Of this class of weeds the 
 following deserve particular notice : char- 
 lock (several species), corn poppy (Papaver 
 JRhceas), blue-bottle (Centaurea Cyanus), 
 stinking May-weed (Anthemis cotula), corn 
 marigold (Chrysanthemum segetum). 
 
 To extirpate these weeds, clean corn- seed 
 must be used, not a single plant of these 
 weeds must be suffered to perfect seed in 
 the hedgerows, and a judicious rotation of 
 crops adopted, so as to admit of the un- 
 sparing use of the horse-hoe, as well as of 
 the hand in weeding ; by which means these 
 noxious and disgraceful pests of corn-fields 
 will be overcome, and banished from the 
 soil. 
 
 The corn poppy particularly accumu- 
 lates upon gravelly soils of low quality, 
 also on dry sandy soils, and generally on all 
 dry and shallow lands which are over- 
 cropped and neglected. But much better 
 soils, as loamy gravel, &c, are infested with 
 it ; only here the crops are generally g?od 
 enough to keep it under, and being less 
 abundant, it is much easier subdued by 
 weeding. But the corn poppy is never so 
 triumphant as in a iipt and dry season, in 
 which case many fields which should have 
 been corn are wholly covered with it. One 
 of three things must be done by way of 
 remedy : 1st, the soil must be clayed or 
 marled ; 2d, or it must be fed with much 
 larger quantities of farm-yard dung or com- 
 post ; 3d, if neither of these be easily practi- 
 cable, the rotation must be changed. 
 
 4. Of the Weeds called Underlings, or such 
 as never rise in the Crop, nor come into the 
 Sickle. — These are groundsel or Simson 
 (Senecio vulgaris), annual meadow-grass 
 (Poa annua), chickweed (Stellaria media), 
 shepherd's purse (Thlapsi bursa pastoris), 
 spurry (Spergida arvensis), camomile 
 feverfew (Matricaria Chamojnilla), fat hen 
 or wild spinach (Chenopodium album), corn 
 salad, or lamb's lettuce (Fedia olitoria), 
 flixweed (Sisymb?ium Sophia), common 
 fumitory (Fumaria officinalis), and sand 
 mustard (Si?iapis muralis). 
 
 Land may be rendered inert or unfertile 
 from an excess of manure, as well as from 
 the want of it ; severe and avaricious crop- 
 ping, long persevered in, being understood 
 in both cases. Over- stimulus, as in the first 
 instance, wears out, or renders inert, the 
 principle of fertility in the kind ; and, in 
 4 l 4 
 
WEEDS. 
 
 the latter instance, the want of stimulus 
 produces, the same effect. The underling- 
 weeds above mentioned nourish and pros- 
 per under this state of the land, brought 
 on by either cause. The remedy is there- 
 fore obvious, viz. rest, or a clear-out sum- 
 mer fallow ; and if in the first mentioned 
 case (which is to be met with in deep fen 
 land and in old garden mould), apply a 
 dressing of lime, and sow down with the 
 superior pasture-grasses and clovers, to re- 
 main for not less than five years. In the 
 latter case, or when the fertility of the soil 
 is worn out by injudicious cropping, and a 
 niggardly supply of manure, joined to the 
 naturally thin and poor staple of the soil, 
 then a full application of manure, or marl 
 and manure, the latter consisting as much 
 as possible of cow-dung, should be given, 
 and the land sown down with the superior 
 permanent pasture-grasses suited to the 
 soil, with a due admixture of clover. 
 
 5. Pasture Weeds. — Some farmers seem 
 to suppose that if they keep the weeds sub- 
 dued in the growing crops, they have per- 
 formed wonders (and too many have reason 
 to congratulate themselves if they do this), 
 while all kinds of nuisances in the shape of 
 weeds disfigure and overrun their pastures. 
 But thistles, milkweed, everlasting John's- 
 wort, sweet elder, &c, flourish undisturbed, 
 and fill the earth with seeds or roots in 
 readiness to spread and grow whenever the 
 earth is moved for their reception. Any 
 plant not wanted on a farm, or not required 
 in course of cultivation, should never be 
 allowed to perfect its seeds on any part of 
 it ; if they are, the farmer will find, to his 
 sorrow, that he has suffered an enemy to 
 steal a march upon him, one which it may 
 require much time and labour to subdue. 
 Allow, then, nothing to go to seed on your 
 farm you do not mean to cultivate ; dig 
 them up root and branch, or, if this is not 
 practicable, take your scythe and cut them 
 at once. 
 
 The following weeds are more frequently 
 found to infest dry, sandy pastures, and 
 calcareous soils, than loamy or damp grass 
 lands. Dwarf-thistle (Carduus acaulis), 
 common camomile (Anthemis nobilis), ox- 
 eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucantheinum), 
 great fleabane, or ploughman's spikenard 
 ( Conyza squarrosa), cheese refining, or yel- 
 low ladies' bedstraw (Galium verum), long- 
 rooted hawk- weed, wild thyme (Thymus ser- 
 yllum), sheep's sorrel (llumex AcetoseUd), 
 not-grass, or snake-weed (Polygonum avi- 
 Ctikre), yellow rattle (lihinanthus crista- 
 galti), common Carline thistle (Carlina 
 vulgaris). 
 
 Where the-.,' are found i<» prevail to a 
 great extent, there is no remedy like break - 
 1256 
 
 ing up the land and taking a course of crops' 
 for palliative remedies are of little avail. 
 The thistles, sheep's sorrel, and knot-grass, 
 are the most formidable. Hand weeding, 
 when the weeds are confined to local spots, 
 and are only just beginning to spread ge- 
 nerally over the soil, will be found effectual ; 
 but when once the pasture becomes ge 1 
 nerally infected with the seeds and roots of 
 these plants, no time should be lost in using 
 the plough, harrow, and horse-hoe, and a 
 judicious course of cleansing crops before 
 returning the land again to permanent 
 pasture. 
 
 The pasture weeds which generally pre- 
 vail in loamy soils, and such also as are 
 prevalent in clayey and damp soils, are prin- 
 cipally as follows : — yellow goat's beard 
 (Tragopogonpratensis), marsh, or red thistle 
 (Carduus palustris), melancholy plume-this- 
 tle (Cnicus heterophyllus), meadoAV plume- 
 thistle (Carduus pratensis), common butter- 
 bur (Tussilago Petasites), ragwort (Senecio 
 Jacobaa), common daisy (Bellis perennis), 
 black knap-weed, or matfellow (Centaurea 
 nigra), broad-leaved dock (Rumex obtusi- 
 folius) ; several species of orchis, common 
 cow parsnip, or hog-weed (Heracleum 
 Sphondylium), and sedge (Car ex). 
 
 The means to be adopted for the extirpa- 
 tion of these noxious weeds in pastures 
 must be regulated by the nature of the 
 soil and the comparative prevalence of the 
 weeds. In good pasture land, where, from 
 accident or neglect, these weeds, in part or 
 wholly, have insinuated themselves, hand- 
 weeding may most advantageously be had 
 recourse to ; and particularly for the larger 
 weeds, such as thistles, rag- weed, docks, 
 and knapweed, it will be found the best 
 temporary remedy. Should the coarseness 
 of the pasture have been occasioned by too 
 frequent haying, then depasturing closely 
 for two or three years, with a good top- 
 dressing of dung compost applied in the 
 early part of the spring or late in the au- 
 tumn, with strict attention to hand-weeding, 
 will be found effectual to recover the pas- 
 ture and extirpate the weeds. Frequent 
 top-dressings are of the greatest use in 
 effecting the above improvements on de- 
 teriorated thin pasture lands, as regards the 
 destruction of weeds, as well as of improv- 
 ing the quality of the pasture. When the 
 sedges, marsh-thistle, pestilent wort, &c. 
 prevail in meadows, then recourse must be 
 had to other means than that of hand- 
 weeding, viz. draining, paring and burning, 
 liming, and a judicious rotation of crops 
 under the horse-hoe husbandry, until every 
 vestige of the seeds and roots of these nox- 
 ious weeds disappear. The ground may 
 then be laid down to permanent pasture, 
 
WEIGH. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 with the seeds of the most valuable species 
 adapted to the soil, and where water can 
 be commanded, converted to water mea- 
 dow, by which the value of the land will be 
 considerably increased. (HoldicKs Weeds; 
 Pitt's Essays on Weeds.) 
 
 WEIGH. A weight of cheese, wool, &c, 
 containing 256 lb. avoirdupois. Of corn, 
 the weigh contains forty bushels ; of barley 
 or malt, six quarters. A weigh of cheese 
 or butter in Suffolk is 256 lbs., and in Essex 
 336 lbs. 
 
 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. The 
 proportions or quantities by which various 
 sorts of agricultural or other produce are 
 disposed of. They vary greatly in different 
 districts of the kingdom, and even in dif- 
 ferent places of the same district or county. 
 
 In a general sense the term measure is 
 applied to that by which any thing is com- 
 pared in respect of quantity. Thus we 
 have measures of extension, of weight, time, 
 force, resistance, temperature, &c. ; in 
 short, of every thing of which greater or 
 less can be predicated ; and it frequently 
 happens that the unit or measure is not 
 taken in the thing or property which is the 
 immediate subject of consideration, but in 
 something else which depends on it, or is 
 proportional to it. Angular space, for ex- 
 ample, is measured by an arc of a circle ; 
 time, by the rotation of the earth upon its 
 axis, or its revolution around the sun ; force, 
 by the quantity of motion it impresses on a 
 body ; degrees of heat, by the expansion of 
 metals or other substances ; muscular 
 strength, by the resistance of a spring. See 
 Dynamometer, Strength, Thermometer, 
 &c. 
 
 By measure, in an absolute sense, is 
 understood the unit, or standard, by which 
 we measure extension. We have, there- 
 fore, measures of length, of superficies, and 
 of volume or capacity ; but as the two lat- 
 ter may be deduced in - all cases from the 
 former, it is only necessary to establish a 
 unit, or standard of length. The choice of 
 such a standard, and the different multiples 
 and parts of it taken for the uses of society, 
 
 form a metrical system, or system of me- 
 trology. 
 
 As no precise notion can be formed of 
 the magnitude of a line in any other way 
 than by comparing it with another line of a 
 known length, the necessity of having re- 
 course, for the interchange of ideas, to mea- 
 sures not entirely arbitrary, but fixed by 
 nature and intelligible alike to all mankind, 
 seem to have been perceived in the earliest 
 ages. Hence originated the foot, the cubit, 
 or length of the arm from the elbow to the 
 tip of the middle finger ; the ulna, arm, or 
 yard ; the span ; the digit, or finger ; the 
 palm ; the fathom, or space from the ex- 
 tremity of one hand to that of the other, 
 when they are both extended in opposite 
 directions ; the pace, the barley corn, the 
 hair's breadth, and other denominations of 
 measure taken from parts of the human 
 body, or from natural objects, which, 
 though not of an absolute and invariable 
 length, have a certain mean value suffi- 
 ciently definite to answer all the purposes 
 required in a rude state of society. But as 
 civilisation advanced, the necessity of adopt- 
 ing more precise standards would be felt, 
 and the inadequacy of such measures as 
 the foot, the cubit, &c. (referred only to the 
 human body) to convey accurate notions, 
 would be rendered most apparent in their 
 application to itinerary measures, or the 
 estimation of great distances. 
 
 English System of Lineal Measures. — 
 The unit of lineal measure in this country is 
 the yard, all other denominations being either 
 multiples, or aliquot parts of the yard. The 
 yard is divided into 3 feet, and the foot 
 subdivided into 12 inches. The multiples 
 of the yard are the pole or perch, the fur- 
 long and the mile ; 5^ yards being a pole, 
 40 poles a furlong, and 8 furlongs a mile. 
 But the pole and furlong are now scarcely 
 ever used, itinerary distances being reck- 
 oned in miles and yards. 
 
 The relations of these different denomi- 
 nations are exhibited in the following 
 table : — 
 
 Inches. 
 
 Feet. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Furlongs. 
 
 Miles. 
 
 1 
 
 0-083 
 
 0'028 
 
 0-00505 
 
 0-00012626 
 
 0-0000157828 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 0-333 
 
 0-06060 
 
 0-00151515 
 
 0-00018939 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 
 0-1818 
 
 0-004545 
 
 0-00056818 
 
 198 
 
 16-5 
 
 5'5 
 
 1 
 
 0-025 
 
 0-003125 
 
 7920 
 
 GGO 
 
 220 
 
 40 
 
 
 0-125 
 
 63360 
 
 5280 
 
 1760 
 
 320 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Of the different measures of length used 
 in European countries, the foot is the most 
 universally prevalent. We subjoin the re- 
 lation between the foot of different coun- 
 tries and the English foot. 
 1257 
 
 Russian foot 
 Paris foot 
 
 Prussian and Danish foot 
 Bavarian foot 
 Hanoverian foot 
 
 English toot. 
 
 - V 
 
 - 1-C65765 
 
 - 1-029722 
 
 - 0-957561 
 ■ 0-958333 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 English Foot. 
 
 Saxon foot - - - 0*929118 
 
 Austrian foot - - 1-037128 
 
 See Foot, League, Mile, &c. 
 
 Measures of Superficies. — In square 
 measure the yard is subdivided, as in gene- 
 ral measure, into feet and inches ; 144 
 square inches being equal to a square foot, 
 and 9 square feet to a square yard. For 
 
 Square Feet. 
 
 Square Yards. 
 
 Poles. 
 
 Roods. 
 
 Acres. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 272-25 
 10890 
 43560 
 
 0-1111 
 1 
 
 30.25 
 1210 
 4840 
 
 0-00367309 
 0-03305798 
 1 
 40 
 160 
 
 0-000091827 
 
 0-000826448 
 
 0-025 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 0-000022957 
 
 0-000206612 
 
 0-00625 
 
 0-25 
 
 1 
 
 iana measure tne multiples ot the yard are 
 the pole, the rood, and the acre ; 30£ (the 
 square of 5|) square yards being a pole, 
 40 poles a rood, and 4 roods an acre. (See 
 Acre.) Very large surfaces, as of whole 
 countries, are expressed in square miles. 
 
 The following are the relations of square 
 measure : — 
 
 Land is usually measured by a chain of 
 4 poles or 22 yards, which is divided into 100 
 links. Three chains in length and one in 
 breadth make an acre, which equals 160 
 square perches, or 4840 square yards. 
 
 Land Measure. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Land 
 Measure. 
 
 English 
 Square 
 Yards. 
 
 No. equal to 
 10 English 
 Acres. 
 
 England - 
 
 Acre - 
 
 4840 
 
 10000 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 
 6150 
 
 7860 
 
 Ireland 
 
 
 7840 
 
 6173 
 
 France 
 
 Hectare 
 
 11960 
 
 4046 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Morgen 
 
 3053 
 
 15853 
 
 Hamburgh 
 
 
 11545 
 
 4192 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 
 9722 
 
 4978 
 
 Dantzic 
 
 
 6650 
 
 7278 
 
 Measures of Volume. — Solids are mea- 
 sured by cubic yards, feet, and inches ; 
 1728 cubic inches making a cubic foot, and 
 27 cubic feet a cubic yard. For all sorts 
 of liquids, corn, and other dry goods, the 
 standard measure is declared by the act of 
 1824 to be the imperial gallon, the capacity 
 of which is determined immediately by 
 weighty and remotely by the standard of 
 length. See Gallon. 
 
 The parts of the gallon are quarts and 
 pints, 2 pints being a quart, and 4 quarts a 
 gallon. Its multiples are the peck, the 
 bushel, and the quarter ; the peck being 
 2 gallons, the bushel 4 pecks, and the quar- 
 ter 8 bushels. The following are the rota- 
 tions : — 
 
 Tints. 
 
 Quarts. 
 
 Galls. 
 
 Pecks. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Quarters. 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 0-o 
 
 0*125 
 
 0-0621 
 
 0 0 15625 
 
 0-00 1<)531 25 
 
 1 
 
 0-25 
 
 0 125 
 
 0-03125 
 
 0=00390625 
 
 8 
 
 B 
 
 1 
 
 05 
 
 0-125 
 
 0-016625 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 025 
 
 0-03125 
 
 M 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 01 25 
 
 1512 
 
 25G 
 
 4G 
 
 32 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 Cubic or Solid Measure. 
 
 1728 cubic inches make - 1 cubic foot. 
 
 27 cubic feet | - - 1 cubic yard. 
 
 40 feet of rough timber 1 . , 
 
 50 feet of hewn timber J 1 loaa * 
 
 This comprehends length, breadth, and 
 
 thickness 
 
 And 108 solid feet, that is, 12 feet in 
 length, 3 feet in breadth, and 3 feet deep, 
 or commonly 14 feet long, 3 feet 1 inch 
 broad, and 3 feet 1 inch deep, are a stack of 
 wood. 
 
 And 128 solid feet, that is, 8 feet long, 
 4 feet broad, and 4 feet deep, are a cord of 
 wood. 
 
 Grain Measures. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 No. of equal 
 to English 
 Quarters. 
 
 Name of 
 Measure. 
 
 England - 
 
 1000 
 
 8800 
 
 
 Scotland - 
 
 1022 
 
 7827 
 
 
 France - 
 
 4427 
 
 1807 
 
 Setier. 
 
 Holland - 
 
 3157 
 
 2534 
 
 Mudde. 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 1479 
 
 5409 
 
 Scheffel. 
 
 Spain 
 
 1599 
 
 5003 
 
 Fanega. 
 
 Poland - 
 
 1451 
 
 5513 
 
 Korzee. 
 
 (Loudon's Encyclo. of Agr. p. 20.) 
 
 English Corn Measures. 
 
 4 gills = 1 pint = 341} cubic in. 
 
 2 pints — 1 quart = 69$ 
 
 4 quarts = 1 gallon = 277£ 
 2 gallons = 1 peck = 544^ 
 8 gallons = 1 bushel = 2218+ 
 
 8 bushels = 1 quarter = lo| cubic ft. 
 
 5 quarters = I load = 51£ 
 
 Sec Bushel, Peck, Quarter. 
 
 1258 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 Table of Winchester Quarters from 1 to 100, 
 with their Equivalents in Imperial Quar- 
 ters. 
 
 Winchester 
 Quarters. 
 
 Equivalents 
 in Imperial 
 Quarters. 
 
 Winchester 
 Quarters. 
 
 Equivalents 
 in Imperial 
 Quarters. 
 
 1 
 
 0-96945 
 
 51 
 
 49-44180 
 
 2 
 
 1-93889 
 
 52 
 
 50-41124 
 
 3 
 
 2*90834 
 
 53 
 
 51-38069 
 
 4 
 
 3-87779 
 
 54 
 
 52-35014 
 
 5 
 
 4-84724 
 
 55 
 
 53-31959 
 
 6 . 
 
 5-81668 
 
 56 
 
 54-28903 
 
 7 
 
 6-78613 
 
 57 
 
 55-25848 
 
 8 
 
 7-75558 
 
 58 
 
 56-22793 
 
 9 
 
 8-72502 
 
 59 
 
 57-19737 
 
 10 
 
 9.69447 
 
 60 
 
 58T6682 
 
 11 
 
 10-66392 
 
 61 
 
 59-13627 
 
 12 
 
 11-63336 
 
 62 
 
 60-10571 
 
 13 
 
 12-60281 
 
 63 
 
 61-07516 
 
 14 
 
 13-57226 
 
 64 
 
 62-04461 
 
 15 
 
 14-54171 
 
 65 
 
 63-01406 
 
 16 
 
 15-51115 
 
 66 
 
 63-98350 
 
 17 
 
 16-48060 
 
 67 - 
 
 64-95295 
 
 18 
 
 17*45005 
 
 68 
 
 65-92240 
 
 19 
 
 18-41949 
 
 69 
 
 66-89184 
 
 20 
 
 19-38894 
 
 70 
 
 67-86129 
 
 21 
 
 20-35839 
 
 71 
 
 68-83074 
 
 22 
 
 21-32783 
 
 72 
 
 69-80018 
 
 23 
 
 22-29728 
 
 73 
 
 70-76963 
 
 24 
 
 23-26673 
 
 74 
 
 71-73908 
 
 25 
 
 24-23618 
 
 75 
 
 72-70853 
 
 26 
 
 25-20562 
 
 76 
 
 73-67797 
 
 27 
 
 26-17507 
 
 77 
 
 74-64742 
 
 28 
 
 27-14452 
 
 78 
 
 75-61687 
 
 29 
 
 28-11396 
 
 79 
 
 76-58631 
 
 30 
 
 29-08341 
 
 80 
 
 77-55576 
 
 31 
 
 30-05286 
 
 81 
 
 78-52521 
 
 32 
 
 31-02230 
 
 82 
 
 79-49465 
 
 33 
 
 31-99175 
 
 83 
 
 80-46410 
 
 34 
 
 32-96120 
 
 84 
 
 81-43355 
 
 35 
 
 33-93035 
 
 85 
 
 82-40300 
 
 36 
 
 34-90009 
 
 86 
 
 83-37244 
 
 37 
 
 35-86954 
 
 87 
 
 84-34189 
 
 38 
 
 36-83899 
 
 88 
 
 85-31134 
 
 39 
 
 37-80843 
 
 89 
 
 86-28078 
 
 40 
 
 38-77788 
 
 90 
 
 87-25023 
 
 41 
 
 39-74733 
 
 91 
 
 88-21968 
 
 42 
 
 40-71677 
 
 92 
 
 89-18912 
 
 43 
 
 41-68622 
 
 93 
 
 90-15857 
 
 44 
 
 42-65567 
 
 94 
 
 91*12802 
 
 45 
 
 43-62512 
 
 95 
 
 92-09747 
 
 46 
 
 44-79456 
 
 96 
 
 93-06691 
 
 47 
 
 45-56401 
 
 97 
 
 94-03637 
 
 48 
 
 46-53346 
 
 98 
 
 95-00581 
 
 49 
 
 47*50290 
 
 99 
 
 95-97525 
 
 50 
 
 48-47235 
 
 100 
 
 96-94470 
 
 Weights are used to ascertain the gravity 
 of bodies, a quality depending partly on 
 their magnitude and partly on their den- 
 sity. The determination of the gravity or 
 weight of different bodies, supposes the in- 
 vention of the balance. Nothing is known 
 of the steps which led. to its introduction ; 
 but it was used in the remotest antiquity. 
 Weights have frequently been derived from 
 1259 
 
 grains of corn. Hence in this, and in some 
 other European countries, the lowest deno- 
 mination of weight is a grain; and 32 of 
 these grains are directed by the ancient 
 statute, called Compositi'o Mensurarum, to 
 compose a pennyweight, whereof 20 make 
 an ounce, 12 ounces a pound, and so up- 
 wards. 
 
 Tables of Weights and Measures according 
 to the Imperial Standard. 
 Avoirdupois Weight. 
 
 1 drachm 
 
 16 drachms 
 
 ounce 
 16 ounces 1 pound 
 28 pounds 1 quarter 
 
 4 quarters 1 cwt. 
 20 cwt. 1 ton 
 
 French grammes. 
 
 1-771 
 28-346 
 453-544 
 12-699 kilogram. 
 50-796 
 1015-920 
 
 The stone is generally 1 4 lbs. avoirdupois 
 weight, but for butchers' meat or fish it is 
 8 lbs. Hence the cwt. equals 8 stone of 
 14 lbs., or 14 stone of 8 lbs. 
 
 Hay and straw are sold by the load of 
 36 trusses. See Hay and Truss. 
 
 The custom of allowing more than 16 
 ounces to the pound of butter used to be 
 very general in several parts of the country. 
 
 Wool weight. Like all other bulky ar- 
 ticles, wool is weighed by avoirdupois 
 weight, but the divisions differ thus, 
 
 7 pounds 
 2 cloves 
 2 stone 
 6i tods 
 2 weys 
 12 sacks 
 
 1 clove. 
 1 stone. 
 1 tod. 
 1 wey. 
 1 sack. 
 1 last. 
 
 Cheese and butter : 
 
 8 pounds = 1 clove. 
 
 sa 1 wey in Essex. 
 
 32 cloves 
 42 cloves 
 56 pounds 
 
 1 wey in Suffolk. 
 1 firkin of butter. 
 
 Of wood-fuel, English measure. — .Wood- 
 fuel is assized into shids, billets, faggots, 
 fall-wood and cord-wood. A shid is to 
 be 4 feet long, and according as they are 
 marked and notched, their proportion must 
 be in the girth; viz. if they have but 1 
 notch they must be 16 inches in the girth, 
 if 2 notches 23 inches, if 3 notches 28 
 inches, if 4 notches 33 inches, and if 5 
 notches 38 inches about. Billets are to be 
 3 feet long, of which there should be three 
 sorts, viz., a single cask, and a cask of 2 ; 
 the first is 7 inches the second 10 inches, 
 and the third 14 inches, about : they are 
 sold by the 100 of 5 score. Eaggots are to 
 be 3 feet long, and at the band 24 inches 
 about, besides the knot of such faggots ; 50 
 go to the load. Bavins and spray wood 
 are sold by the 100, which are accounted a 
 load. Cord wood is the bigger sort of fire 
 wood, and it is measured by a cord or line, 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 whereof there are 2 measures ; that of 14 
 feet in length, 3 feet in breadth, and 3 feet 
 in height. The other is 8 feet in length, 
 4 feet in height, and 4 feet in breadth. 
 
 Measures of Wood. 
 1000 billets of wood = 1 cord. 
 10 cwt. of wood = 1 cord. 
 1 cord of wood = \ chaldron of coals. 
 
 100 lbs. of wood = 1 quintal of wood. 
 
 Method of ascertaining the weight of cattle 
 while living. This is of the utmost utility 
 for all those who are not experienced judges 
 by the eye, and, by the following directions, 
 the weight can be ascertained within a mere 
 trifle. Under the head Cattle we have al- 
 ready given a useful table on this subject ; but 
 the annexed rules will be found of service. 
 Take a string, put it round the beast, stand- 
 ing square, just behind the shoulder blade, 
 measure on a foot-rule the feet and inches 
 the animal is in circumference, this is called 
 the girth ; then with the string measure 
 from the bone of the tail, which plumbs the 
 line with the hinder part of the buttock ; 
 direct the line along the back to the fore 
 part of the shoulder-blade ; take the dimen- 
 sions of the foot-rule, as before, which is the 
 length, and work the figures in the follow- 
 ing manner : — Girth of the bullock, 6 feet 
 4 inches ; length, 5 feet 3 inches ; which, 
 multiplied together, make 31 square super- 
 ficial feet ; that again, multiplied by 23 (the 
 number of pounds allowed to each super- 
 ficial foot of all cattle measuring less than 
 7 and more than 5 feet in girth), makes 
 713 lbs. ; and allowing 14 lbs. to the stone, 
 is 50 stone 13 lbs.; and where the animal 
 measures less than 9 and more than 7 feet 
 in girth, 31 is the number of pounds to each 
 foot. Again, supposing a pig or any small 
 beast should measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 
 feet along the back, which, multiplied to- 
 gether, make 4 square feet, that multiplied 
 by 11, the number of pounds allowed for 
 each square foot of cattle n easuring less 
 than 3 in girth, makes 44 lbs. ; which, di- 
 vided by 14, to bring it to stones, is 3 stones 
 
 2 lbs. Again, suppose a calf, sheep, &c. 
 should measure 4 feet 6 inches in girth, and 
 
 3 feet 9 inches in length, which multiplied 
 together, makes 16| square feet; that mul- 
 tiplied by 16, the number of pounds allowed 
 to all cattle measuring less than 5 feet and 
 more than 3 in girth, makes 264 lbs; which, 
 divided by 14, to bring it to stones, is 18 
 stones 12 lbs. The dimensions of the girth 
 and length of black cattle, slice]), calves, or 
 hop, may be as exactly taken this way as 
 ii is at nil necessary for any computation or 
 valuation of stock, and will answer exactly 
 to ill'- C«»ur quarters, sinking the offal, and 
 which every man who can get even a bit of 
 
 1260 
 
 chalk may easily perform. A deduction 
 must be made for a half-fatted beast of 1 
 stone in 20 from that of a fat one, and for a 
 cow that has had calves, 1 stone must be 
 allowed, and another for not being properly 
 fat. 
 
 The last act of the legislature on the 
 subject of weights and measures, is the 
 5 & 6 W. 4. c. 63., which contains some im- 
 portant provisions. It abolishes all local or 
 customary measures under a penalty of 406*. 
 for every sale made by them; it prohibits 
 the mischievous practice of selling by 
 heaped measure ; it enacts that coals shall 
 in all cases be sold by weight ; that with the 
 exception of the precious metals, jewels, 
 and drugs, all other articles sold by weight 
 shall be sold by avoirdupois weight only ; 
 and that a stone shall in all cases consist of 
 14 lbs. avoirdupois ; a hundred weight of 
 eight such stones, &c. Lead and pewter 
 weights are not to be stamped. 
 
 The act sets out with repealing the 4 & 
 5 W. 4. c. 49., and the provisions in the 
 acts 5 G. 4. c. 74. and 6 G. 4. c. 12., which 
 require that all weights and measures shall 
 be exact models or copies in shape or form 
 of the standards deposited in the exche- 
 quer ; and those allowing the use of weights 
 and measures, not in conformity with the 
 Imperial standard, established by said acts ; 
 or that allow goods or merchandise to be 
 bought or sold by weights or measures 
 established by local custom, or founded on 
 special agreement. It then goes on to enact 
 as follows : 
 
 Local and customary measures abolished. 
 — From and after the passing of this act, 
 the Winchester bushel, the Scotch ell, and 
 all local or customary measures shall be 
 abolished ; and every person who shall sell 
 by any measure other than one of the Im- 
 perial measures, or some multiple or aliquot 
 part thereof, shall be liable to a penalty 
 not exceeding 40.9. for every such sale : but 
 nothing herein shall prevent the sale of any 
 articles in any vessel, where such vessels is 
 not represented as containing any amount 
 of Imperial measure, or of any fixed, local, 
 or customary measure heretofore in use. 
 -§6. • 
 
 Heaped measure abolished. — From and 
 after the passing of this act, so much of the 
 said acts as relates to heaped measure is 
 hereby repealed, and the use of heaped 
 measure shall be abolished, and all bar- 
 gains, sales, and contracts made after the 
 passing of this act, by heaped measure", 
 shall be null and void ; and every person 
 who shall sell any articles by heaped mea- 
 sure shall be liable to a penalty not ex- 
 ceeding 40s. for every such sale. — § 7. 
 
 Articles sold by heaped /nea.s/tn\ how to 
 
WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
 
 WESTON, RICHARD. 
 
 be sold. — Whereas some articles hereto- 
 fore sold by heaped measure are incapable 
 of being stricken, and may not be con- 
 veniently sold by weight ; it is enacted, 
 that all such articles may henceforth be 
 sold by a bushel measure, corresponding in 
 shape with the bushel prescribed by the 
 5 G. 4. c. 74. for the sale of heaped mea- 
 sure, or by any multiple or aliquot part 
 thereof, filled in all parts as nearly to the 
 level of the brim as the size and shape of 
 the articles will admit ; but nothing herein 
 shall prevent the sale by weight of any 
 article heretofore sold by heaped measure. 
 — § 8. 
 
 Coals to be sold by weight. — From and 
 after the 1st of January, 1836, all coals, 
 slack, culm, and cannel of every descrip- 
 tion shall be sold by weight, and not by 
 measure, under a penalty of 40s. for every 
 sale. — $9. 
 
 All articles to be sold by avoirdupois, ex- 
 cept, Sfc. — From and after the passing of 
 this act, all articles sold by weight shall be 
 sold by avoirdupois weight, except gold, 
 silver, platina, diamonds, or other precious 
 stones, which may be sold by troy weight ; 
 and drugs, which, when sold by retail, may 
 be sold by apothecaries' weight. — $ 10. 
 
 The stone, hundred weight, Sfc. — From 
 and after the passing of this act, the weight 
 denominated a stone shall, in all cases, con- 
 sist of fourteen standard pounds avoir- 
 dupois, the hundred weight of eight such 
 stones, and the ton of twenty such hundred 
 weights ; but nothing herein shall prevent 
 any bargain, sale, or contract being made 
 by any multiple or aliquot part of the 
 pound weight. — §11. 
 
 Fiar prices. — In Scotland, from and 
 after the passing of this act, the fiar prices 
 of all grain in every county shall be struck 
 by the Imperial quarter, and all other re- 
 turns of the prices of grain shall be set 
 forth by the same, without any reference 
 to any other measure whatsoever ; and any 
 sheriff clerk, clerk of a market, or other 
 person offending against this provision shall 
 forfeit not exceeding 51. — § 16. 
 
 Penalty on price lists, SfC. — From and 
 after the 1st of January, 1836, any person 
 printing, or clerk of any market or other 
 person making any return, price list, price 
 current, or any journal or other paper con- 
 taining price list or price current, in which 
 the weights and measures quoted or re- 
 ferred to denote or imply a greater or less 
 weight or measure than is denoted or im- 
 plied by the same denomination of Imperial 
 weights and measures under the provisions 
 of this act, shall forfeit and pay not ex- 
 ceeding 105. for every copy of every such 
 return, price list, price current, journal, 
 1261 
 
 or other paper which they publish. — § 31. 
 (Branded Diet, of Science; M'-Cullock \v 
 Com. Diet.) 
 
 WELD. {Reseda luteola.) The dyer's 
 yellow rocket, or yellow weed, is an indi- 
 genous annual plant, growing in waste 
 ground, especially on a chalky soil, as well 
 as in fallow fields, and on walls. The root 
 is tapering. The stem wand-like, striated, 
 leafy, somewhat branched, smooth, like the 
 rest of the herb ; two or three feet high. 
 The leaves are sessile, of a darkish green, 
 linear-lanceolate, obtuse, entire, single- 
 ribbed. The flowers are in terminal clus- 
 ters, erect, many-flowered, dense, pointed. 
 The flowers themselves, which blow in 
 July, are small, greenish white, without 
 much scent. Weld is cultivated for the 
 sake of its stalks, flowers, and leaves, which 
 are employed for dyeing wool and other 
 substances yellow, or mixed with indigo, 
 green. The whole plant is fetid when 
 bruised. When it has attained maturity, 
 which is about the time of flowering, it is 
 pulled, and made into bundles and dried, 
 in which state it is used as a dye stuff. 
 Weld is preferred to all other substances 
 for giving the lively green lemon-yellow : 
 but to render the yellow permanent, the 
 wool must be previously prepared with a 
 mordaunt of alum and tartar. Being an 
 exhausting crop, and liable to failure from 
 many causes, the cultivation of the dyer's 
 rocket is only partially carried on in Essex, 
 and a few other places. (Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 347. ; Bancroft on Colours, vol. ii. 
 p. 95.) 
 
 WELL. (Sax.) A term sometimes ap- 
 plied to a chimney or vent hole left in a 
 rick or mow of hay or other similar mate- 
 rials, to prevent its overheating. 
 
 WESTON, RICHARD, was a literary 
 man, but agriculture and gardening " had 
 been his principal study and amusement 
 for many years." He resided at Kensing- 
 ton-Gore, near London. Pie was author of 
 the following works : — 
 
 1 . Tracts on Practical Agriculture and Gardening, in 
 which the Advantage of imitating the Gardpn Culture in 
 the Field is fully proved by a Seven Years Course of Ex- 
 periments. To which is added a complete Chronolo- 
 gical Catalogue of English Authors on Agriculture, Gar- 
 dening, &c. London. 1769. 8vo. Anonymous. An en- 
 larged edition appeared in 1773 with the author's name. 
 2. The Universal Botanist and Nurseryman, containing 
 Descriptions of the Species and Varieties of all the Trees, 
 Shrubs, Herbs,"Flowers, and Fruits, Natives and Exotics, 
 at present cultivated in the European Nurseries, Green- 
 houses, and Stoves, as described by modern Botanists; 
 arranged according to the Linna?an System, and their 
 Names in English. To which are added a copious Bo- 
 tanical Glossary, several useful Catalogues and Indexes. 
 Plates. London. 1770-74. 4 vols. 8vo.t 3. The Gar- 
 dener and Planter's Calendar ; containing the Method 
 of raising Timber Trees, Fruit Trees, and Quick for 
 Hedges ; with Directions for forming and managing a 
 Garden every Month in the Year. Also many new Im- 
 provements in the Art of Gardening. London. 1773. 
 Svo. 4. A Catalogue of Greenhouse and Stove Plants, 
 on five sheets. 1775. 5. Tracts on Alabaster or Gypsum, 
 
WESTON, SIR RICHARD 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 describing its powerful effects as a very cheap Manure, 
 &c. London. 1791. 8vo. G. A Catalogue of Trees, 
 Shrubs, Plants, and Fruits. 1775., and a Supplement in 
 1780. 8vo. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of Eng. Gardening.) 
 
 WESTON, SIR RICHARD, of Sutton 
 in Surrey, was ambassador from the court 
 of James I. in 1619, to Frederick V. Elec- 
 tor Palatine, and King of Bohemia. He 
 deserves a record here from his having 
 written a work on the Agriculture of 
 Flanders, which, as it has been remarked 
 {Philosophic Transactions), has profited 
 England to the amount of many millions, 
 by rendering us acquainted with the prac- 
 tice of that country. It is entitled, 
 
 A Discourse of Husbandrie used in Brabant and Flan- 
 ders, showing the wonderful Improvement of Land 
 there, and serving as a Pattern for our Practice in this 
 Commonwealth. 4to. 1645. The second edition, en- 
 larged, was edited by Hartlib, in 1652. Besides which he 
 wrote, Brief Discoveries of Ways and Means for Manur- 
 ing and Improving Land. 1646. He 'was present at the 
 battle of Prague, of which he has left a curious account 
 still preserved "in MS. The Discourse of Husbandrie 
 was dedicated to Samuel Hartlib, who published it with- 
 out knowing at the time who was the author. In an- 
 other edition (Weston thinks in 1655) Hartlib annexed 
 Dr. Beati's annotations to it. It has always been es- 
 timated as an excellent work. (G. W. Johnson's Hist, of 
 Eng. Gardening.) 
 
 WHATELY, THOMAS, (some write 
 it Wheatley), of Nonsuch Park near Ep- 
 som in Surrey, was I presume the son of 
 the Rev. Joseph Whately. He became 
 possessed of that residence by the will of 
 his uncle, Joseph Thompson, Esq. who left 
 it to him on condition that he should take 
 priest's orders, which he did, and resided 
 there until he died. In 1770 — 1, he pub- 
 lished his work on Gardening, but soon 
 after becoming secretary to the Earl of 
 Suffolk, a member of Parliament, and Se- 
 cretary of the Treasury, he had little time 
 unemployed for literary persuits. He died 
 in 1772. (Preface to 2d edit, of his Re- 
 marks on Shakespeare.) I have seen him 
 mentioned as Sir Thomas Whately. The 
 work which deserves our particular notice 
 is entitled, Observations on Modern Gar- 
 dening, illustrated by descriptions, London. 
 8vo. 1770. Martyn says an edition in his 
 possession is the third, dated the next year. 
 Another edition in 4to. appeared in 1798, 
 with Walpole's History of Gardening in- 
 serted in the form of notes ; and an Ap- 
 pendix containing an Essay on the different 
 natural situations of Gardens, which had 
 some years previously been published with- 
 out an author's name, by Dodsley. It was 
 translated very speedily into French by 
 Latapie, and afterwards by Masson de 
 Blamont; and was praised though not above 
 its merits by all the continental Reviews. 
 Elisor pronounced its style inimitable. 
 Loudon pronounces it "the grand funda- 
 mental, and standard work on English 
 Gardening." Of the principles of taste 
 which it advocates J shall not mention any 
 1262 
 
 thing here. It treats first of the materials 
 the landscape gardener has to work with ; 
 secondly, of the scenes producible with 
 them; and lastly, the subjects of gardening. 
 He illustrates his principles by descriptions 
 of Blenheim, Claremont, Esher, Hagley, 
 Ham, Leasowes, Painshill, Peirsfield, and 
 Stowe. (G. W. Johnson's English Gar- 
 dening^) 
 
 WHEAT. (Triticum.) This is undoubt- 
 edly the most important genus of the order 
 Graminece; for wheat is that species of 
 grain which is more generally cultivated 
 than any other, and from the universal de- 
 mand and high price it obtains, best repays 
 the European farmer's toil and outlay. 
 
 The flour of wheat is the most nutritious 
 and palatable of all the cereal grasses used 
 as the food of man. Linnasus comprehended 
 all the different varieties of wheat known 
 in his day under six species ; but modern 
 botanists enumerate about thirty species, 
 and some hundreds of subvarieties brought 
 into existence by continued cultivation. It 
 has been well observed that for mere prac- 
 tical purposes it is sufficient to have two 
 general classes, namely, white and red, and 
 the varieties distinguished by their spike - 
 lets, as the smooth or bearded, the woody- 
 chaffed, or the hairy-chaffed. There are 
 some varieties, characterised also as spring 
 or winter (Lammas) wheats, though these 
 are frequently apt to lose their distinguish- 
 ing characters, and to accommodate their 
 habits to the season in which they are 
 sown. 
 
 " It is to be presumed," says Colonel le 
 Couteur, " from the passage ' In the sweat 
 of thy face shalt thou eat bread' {Gen. iii. 
 19.), that wheat was coeval with the crea- 
 tion ; and that upwards of a thousand years 
 before the Christian era, some improvement 
 in its culture and some knowledge of a 
 superior variety had been attained, by the 
 circumstance of its being stated that ' Judah 
 traded in wheat of Minnith' " (Ezek. 
 xxvii. 7.) 
 
 Columella, who wrote about the time of 
 our Lord, makes some interesting remarks 
 on wheat : 
 
 " The chief and the most profitable corns 
 for men," he observes, " are common wheat 
 and bearded wheat. We have known se- 
 veral kinds of wheat ; but of these we must 
 chiefly sow what is called the red wheat, 
 because it excels both in weight and bright- 
 ness. 
 
 " The white wheat must be placed in the 
 second rank, of which the best sort in bread 
 is deficient in weight. 
 
 " The trimcstrian shall be the third, 
 which husbandmen are mighty glad (o 
 make use of ; for when, by reason of great 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 rains or any other cause, the early sowing 
 has been omitted, they have recourse to 
 this for relief ; it is a kind of white wheat. 
 Pliny says, that this is the most delicious 
 and the daintiest of any sort of wheat, ex- 
 ceeding white, but without much substance 
 or strength, only proper for moist tracts of 
 land, such as those of Italy, and some parts 
 of Gaul ; that it ripens equally, and that 
 there is no sort of corn that suffers delay 
 less, because it is so tender that such ears 
 of it that are ripe presently shed their 
 grains ; but in the stalk it is less in danger 
 than any other corn, for it holds its ear 
 always upright, and does not contain the 
 dews which occasion blasting and mildew." 
 (This description of Pliny's seems to accord 
 with the spring wheat of the present day, 
 which, be it remembered, came to us from 
 Spain.) 
 
 " The other sorts of wheat are altogether 
 superfluous," continues Pliny, "unless any 
 man has a mind to indulge a manifold 
 variety, and a vain glorious fancy. But, of 
 bearded wheat, we have commonly seen 
 four sorts in use ; namely, that which is 
 called clusinian, of a shining bright white 
 colour ; a bearded wheat, which is called 
 venuculum, one sort of it is of a fiery red 
 colour, and another sort of it is white, but 
 they are both heavier than the clusinian. 
 The trimestrian, or that of three months' 
 growth, which is called halicastrum ; and 
 this is the chief, both for its weight and 
 goodness. But these sorts, both of ordinary 
 common wheat, and of bearded wheat, 
 must, for these reasons, be kept by hus- 
 bandmen ; because it rarely happens that 
 any land is so situated that we can content 
 ourselves with one sort of seed, some part 
 of it happening, contrary to our expect- 
 ation, to be wet or dry. But common 
 wheat thrives best in a dry place, and 
 bearded wheat is lest affected by moisture." 
 
 Hence it appears the Romans were aware 
 of the propriety of selecting their wheat, 
 and that it was then believed that winter 
 or beardless wheat was best suited to dry 
 uplands, and bearded wheat to low or 
 moist lands ; In addition to the winter 
 wheats, some of which he states to be 
 bearded, he distinctly alludes to the tri- 
 mestrian or spring wheat, of which I shall 
 speak hereafter. In the edition of Gerard's 
 Herbal, printed in London in 1660, only 
 five kinds of wheat are enumerated; and, 
 although this was the leading botanical 
 work of the day, these are most indistinctly 
 described. 
 
 Modern writers generally are equally 
 vague ,- they merely designate a number of 
 varieties ; but no attempt appears to have 
 been made to class them correctly, or to 
 1263 
 
 ascertain their relative values by com- 
 parison. 
 
 In Sinclair's Hortus Gramineus Woburn- 
 ensis, forty-two of the cultivated varieties 
 are enumerated as winter or spring wheats, 
 according to the arrangement of Linnams, 
 which this illustrious writer has merely 
 given as a sort of botanical classification. 
 
 The Maison Rustique for 1835 enume- 
 rates thirty-nine varieties ; and, although a 
 short notice is given of them, it is by no 
 means sufficient, as their farinaceous qua- 
 lities are not explained. Mr. Paxton, in 
 his Botanical Dictionary, enumerates twenty- 
 five distinct species, besides several varieties. 
 
 A classification of wheat is much required, 
 pointing out the relative value of varieties, 
 in their quantity of meal, the weight of 
 bran and pollards, with the weight of straw 
 of each, and their adaptation to soils. That 
 this is a desideratum no one, I imagine, 
 will deny ; but that it requires time, atten- 
 tion, and perseverance, to make such dis- 
 coveries, will also be conceded, when it is 
 stated that I already possess upwards of 
 150 varieties or sub-varieties. {Le Cou- 
 teur on Wheat, p. 6.) 
 
 The most popular description of the dif- 
 ferent species of wheat which admit of cul- 
 tivation for their seed is that given by 
 Professor Low, in his work on the Elements 
 of Agriculture, and I shall therefore avail 
 myself of his scientific description. 
 
 Specific character. — The calyx of wheat 
 consists of two valves or glumes, enclosing 
 several florets. In each of these florets 
 there are two valves, forming the corolla, 
 and enclosing the seed. Sometimes the co- 
 rolla encloses a perfect seed, and sometimes 
 the seed is not perfected. Each calyx, with 
 the florets which it encloses, is termed a 
 spikelet. The part to which the spikelets 
 are attached is termed the rachis or shaft, 
 and the spikelets placed one above the 
 other, on each side of the rachis, form the 
 ear or head. The rachis is jointed, and the 
 spaces between the joints are termed the 
 internodii. 
 
 Species. — 1. Spring or summer wheat 
 (T. cestivum) has awns both on the calyx 
 and corolla. Each spikelet has usually five 
 florets, of which two are barren. The 
 grain is too tender to bear the frosts of the 
 winter, but as quick in progress from its 
 first shoot to ripeness as barley, oats, or 
 any other spring corn. It requires a shorter 
 period to complete its vegetation than any 
 of the other kinds. Summer wheat is the 
 prevailing species of warmer countries, and 
 is cultivated in many parts of Europe. It 
 is much used in France, where it is called 
 ble cle Mars, from the season in which it is 
 usually sown, and in some provinces bleds 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 tremois, from the time it takes between 
 seedtime and harvest. In Spanish it is 
 called trigo de margo ; in Portuguese trigo 
 tremes ; and in German sommer waitzen, 
 all which names mark distinctly the differ- 
 ence between this and winter corn. It 
 does not appear from the older books on 
 husbandry, that it was at any period much 
 cultivated in England ; the more modern 
 ones are, in general, silent on the subject of 
 it ; they mention, indeed, under the name 
 of spring wheat, every kind of winter wheat, 
 which will ripen when sown after turnips 
 in February. This is probably the reason 
 why the real spring wheat has been so little 
 known ; agriculturists in general conceiving 
 themselves to be actually in the habit of 
 sowing spring wheat, when, in reality, they 
 were substituting winter wheat in its place, 
 have been little inclined to inquire into the 
 properties of the true spring wheat when 
 they had an opportunity of so doing. 
 
 Its grains are, for the most part, small, 
 and the produce of the straw is less than 
 that of some other species, when cultivated 
 under the same circumstances. Professor 
 Low says, that " the trials which have been 
 made with it in this country have shown it 
 to be inferior in productiveness and quality 
 to the better kinds of winter wheat. The 
 advantage which it possesses is the earlier 
 period of its ripening, on which account it 
 may be sown so late, even in this climate, 
 as the beginning of May." The Board of 
 Agriculture being desirous of bringing 
 spring wheat into general cultivation, in 
 1805 offered large premiums to those who 
 should, in the spring of that year, sow the 
 greatest quantity of land with spring wheat. 
 In one of the communications made to the 
 Board, Sir Joseph Banks states that " in 
 the countries best acquainted with its cul- 
 ture, spring wheat is preferred to all other 
 corn for raising a crop of seeds. This is 
 owing to the small quantity of leaf it bears, 
 less, perhaps, than any other corn, and to 
 the short duration of the leaf, which fades 
 and falls down almost as soon as it has at- 
 tained its full size. 
 
 " In cases where red wheat has been 
 damaged by the wire-worm, a mischief 
 which seems of late years to have increased 
 in this island, spring wheat appears to hold 
 out an easy and simple remedy. In the 
 first week of May the ravages of the worm 
 have somewhat abated ; if then the seed 
 of spring wheat is at that time dibbled, or 
 only inked with a garden rake, into the 
 naked spots left by the worm, though it 
 will not attain the growth at which the 
 worm begins to prey upon it till he has 
 changed his state for that of a winged 
 beetle, it will certainly be ripe as soon as the 
 12G4 
 
 winter wheat, and may be thrashed out and 
 sold with it ; or, if it is preferred, may be 
 reaped separately, as the appearance of the 
 ears, which, in the Lincolnshire sort, have 
 longer beards or awns than the rivet or 
 cone wheat, will point it out to the reapers 
 in such a manner that no great error can 
 happen in separating it from the Lammas." 
 (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. v. p. 181.) 
 To the miller this mixture of grain can be 
 of no consequence ; but it would be scarcely 
 safe to employ the produce as seed. 
 
 From the analysis of Sir H. Davy it may 
 be inferred that bread made of the flour of 
 spring wheat is more nutritious than that 
 made of winter wheat, because the former 
 contains a larger proportion of gluten or 
 half animalised matter. He found that 
 
 100 parts of best Sicilian 
 
 wheat contained - 
 100 parts of spring wheat 
 
 of 1804 - 
 100 parts of good English 
 
 wheat of 1803 
 100 parts of blighted wheat 
 
 of 1804 - 
 
 Gluten. 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Insoluble 
 Matter. 
 
 21 
 
 75 
 
 5 
 
 24 
 
 70 
 
 6 
 
 19 
 
 77 
 
 4 
 
 13 
 
 52 
 
 44 
 
 2. Winter, or lammas wheat (T. La- 
 burnum), is distinguished from the last by 
 its appearance, being much more vigorous 
 in the stem, more erect and thick in the 
 ear, by having no awns upon the calyx, and 
 only short awns upon the corolla, near the 
 summit of the spike. But the awns not 
 being a good botanical character, many 
 botanists have conceived the species to be 
 the same. The characters, however, of 
 either kind being permanent and remaining 
 under given circumstances unchanged for an 
 unknown period, they may be regarded as 
 species. The winter wheat has usually five 
 or six florets, of which two are barren. 
 
 Winter wheat is that which is the most 
 important with relation to its cultivation 
 in Northern Europe. It is in this country 
 generally sown in autumn, or previously to 
 the winter months, and ripens its seed in 
 the following summer ; but it is an annual 
 plant, and may be sown in spring. 
 
 " Slight varieties of this species are ex- 
 ceedingly common in different localities, 
 and are probably attributable to some pe- 
 culiarities in the mode of culture. The 
 common varieties of winter wheat are dis- 
 tinguished from each other according to 
 the colour of the tunic enveloping the grain, 
 and the difference observable in their chaff. 
 The colours are usually divided into white 
 and red, the latter of these, including many 
 different shades of brown. Red wheat is 
 commonly said to be more hardy than 
 white; it is therefore thought better suited 
 for cultivation in bleak and upland districts. 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 The plant is, however, not so productive as 
 the white, and the flour which it yields is 
 seldom of so desirable a quality." (Baxter s 
 Lib. of Agr. p. 640.) 
 
 3. Compact wheat (T. compactuni) is 
 allied to the two last named species, and 
 may be merely a variety of them. In it 
 the internodii of the rachis are very short. 
 It is partially produced in different parts of 
 Europe. " I have received specimens of 
 it," says Professor Low, " from France and 
 Sweden, and have cultivated them without 
 observing any change of characters. Whe- 
 ther, however, the characters which distin- 
 guish it are sufficiently permanent to entitle 
 it to be regarded as a species, has not been 
 determined. In the meantime, following 
 the authority of Host (Icones et Des. Gram. 
 Aust), I have placed it amongst the species. 
 
 4. Egyptian, or many spiked wheat (T. 
 compositum), is distinguished from the others 
 by its branched or compound spike, which 
 no other species tends under any circum- 
 stance, to produce. Its seeds are numerous, 
 and the produce abundant. It requires a 
 good climate and a fertile soil, for in un- 
 favourable situations the branches of the 
 spike are not evolved, and then it assumes 
 the appearance of ordinary wheat. It is 
 cultivated in Egypt and the east, as it is 
 in the south of Europe and different parts 
 of Italy. It was known in Germany about 
 240 years ago, and in France it is said to 
 have been cultivated for about eighty years, 
 having been brought from the east under 
 the name of wheat of Smyrna. In England 
 it has been partially cultivated as the sub- 
 ject of experiment. It is uncommonly 
 fruitful, and the straw is very strong and 
 tough, whence it has received the name of 
 reed wheat. 
 
 The grains, however, do not yield so 
 large a proportion of flour or meal as any 
 of the other species and their varieties, and 
 the flour is scarcely superior to that obtained 
 from the finest barley. Egyptian wheat will 
 bear great degrees of heat and drought 
 without harm, so that it is found to yield 
 abundantly in situations where other kinds 
 would be greatly injured if not destroyed; 
 a circumstance which points it out as ad- 
 mirably adapted to the arid lands whereon 
 it is chiefly cultivated. It would be more 
 cultivated in England if its form did not 
 cause it to hold the wet at harvest time, and 
 hence it is very liable to be laid. 
 
 5. Turgid wheat. (T. turgiduni). In this 
 species the corolla is awned but not the 
 calyx; the spikes are covered with soft 
 hairs, and in some varieties change to a 
 dark colour, and the awns drop off as the 
 seeds become ripe, in which respect it differs 
 from summer wheat. It is known in different 
 
 1265 
 
 localities under the several names of grey 
 wheat, duck's bill wheat, grey pollard, rivet, 
 pole rivet, cone, pendulum, &c. This species 
 grows very tall, with a thick and rigid stem 
 The spikes are large and heavy, and nod to 
 one side as the grain increases in weight. 
 The kinds or minor varieties are distin- 
 guished by the farmer from their qualities 
 of earlier or later ripening, and greater or 
 less productiveness. One of the most es- 
 teemed of these is cone wheat, so named 
 from the conical form of its spike. The 
 turgid wheats are productive in corn and 
 straw, but the grain is coarse and hard, 
 and the flour much browner and of an in- 
 ferior quality. They are chiefly suited to 
 the inferior clays, upon which in England 
 they are extensively cultivated. They are 
 valued under such circumstances for their 
 productiveness in grain and their large 
 growth of straw ; but being inferior to the 
 winter wheats in the quality of their pro- 
 duce, the cultivation of them is not likely 
 to be extended in this country. 
 
 6. Dark-spiked wheat (T. atratum), is 
 allied to the last species, if it is not rather 
 to be regarded as a variety of it. It has 
 merely been made the subject of experi- 
 ment, but not of extended cultivation. It 
 is not superior in productiveness to the 
 turgid wheats in common use. 
 
 7. Barley-like wheat ( T. hordieiforme), 
 so named from its peculiar form, resembling 
 that of barley, seems, like that last described, 
 to be derived from Africa. The florets are 
 awned, and the calyx and corolla become 
 dark as the seeds ripen. But it resembles 
 the class to be next referred to, termed 
 spelt-wheat. 
 
 8. Far (T. Zea), is one of the class of 
 spelt-wheats. It is distinguished by the 
 distance of its spikelets from one another. 
 The straw is rigid ; the calyx and corolla 
 adhere closely to the seed, and the spikelets 
 again so closely to the rachis, that they can- 
 not be separated from the rachis without 
 breaking it. This wheat is cultivated in 
 some parts of Europe on inferior soils. 
 
 9. Spelt-wheat (T. Spelta), is distin- 
 guished like the last by its spikelets being 
 firmly attached to the rachis, and by its 
 rigid calyx and corolla closely enveloping 
 the seed. Spelt is much cultivated in the 
 south of Europe. It is grown extensively 
 in the southern provinces of France, in Swit- 
 zerland, Italy, in several parts of Germany, 
 and in Arragon, Catalonia, and other parts 
 of Spain, as well as in the north of Africa, 
 and at the Cape of Good Hope. Spelt could 
 be raised in this country with facility, and 
 it is probable on soils low in the scale of 
 fertility. It has been cultivated in Scot- 
 land, 600 feet above the level of the sea. 
 
 4 M 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 It is said that spelt-wheat is better adapted 
 than any of the more delicate kinds for 
 culture in Australia, and probably it will 
 be found the more preferable sort in all the 
 more southern wheat-growing countries. 
 
 There are two distinct varieties of spelt, 
 distinguished as the awned and the awnless ; 
 the latter is perhaps the most naked of all 
 the cerealia. The grains of this are large, 
 but the ear contains only a small number 
 of them, as a portion of the flowers prove 
 barren. It is generally, if not always, a 
 spring sown crop ; grows strongly, and its 
 stalks are nearly solid. Bread made of its 
 flour is said to be of a dry quality. It is 
 well known in commerce that the incom- 
 parable Nuremberg and Frankfort starch 
 and flour are solely obtained from spelt- 
 wheat. The grain cannot be divested of 
 its husks by thrashing, and therefore re- 
 quires to be passed through a mill. It 
 should however be sown or drilled with the 
 husks on. 
 
 10. One-grained wheat, or St. Peter's 
 corn (T. monoccocum), is readily distin- 
 guished from all the other wheats by its 
 general appearance, in which it resembles 
 barley. Its spikelet consists of three or 
 four florets, one of which only is for the 
 most part fertile, and hence its name of one- 
 grained wheat. The fertile floret has a 
 long awn. The stem of this species of 
 wheat is slender and rigid ; and, from being 
 both hard and fine, the straw is excellent 
 for thatching. It is allied to the spelts, 
 with which it was classed by some of the 
 older botanical writers. This species is 
 principally cultivated in the mountains of 
 Switzerland and other elevated regions of 
 Europe, and in barren soils. In conse- 
 quence of its containing less gluten than 
 common sorts, it answers better for being 
 boiled into gruel than for being baked into 
 bread. The four-sided form of the ripe 
 ear is so regular, that it has the appearance 
 of being carved in ivory. It has never 
 formed an object of cultivation in this 
 country, and does not appear to possess pro- 
 perties to entitle it to be introduced. 
 
 11. Polish wheat (T. polonicum.) This 
 species has long awns, and is distinguished 
 from all the others bv its long and leafy- 
 calyx and corolla. It is cultivated in Ger- 
 many, in Poland, and in Spain. It was 
 brought into notice, and partially culti- 
 vated, in some of the counties of England, 
 in the latter part of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury ; and it is said to have been valued on 
 account of it^ productiveness of flour. 
 But, although it may be possessed of this 
 quality, its florets are often infertile, and it 
 does not merit a more extended culture in 
 this country. Unless sown sparingly, it is 
 
 12G6 J 
 
 apt to lodge, in consequence of which the 
 quality of the corn is impaired. 
 
 Varieties. — The minor varieties of any spe- 
 cies of wheat are not permanent in their cha- 
 racter, though, under given conditions, they 
 will remain unchanged for an indefinite 
 period. Under other circumstances, however, 
 they degenerate ; and hence particular kinds 
 that were once valued have now ceased to 
 be so. The best advice that can be given, 
 therefore, in the choice of varieties and sub- 
 varieties, is to select those which the prac- 
 tice and experience of the principal farmers 
 of the neighbourhood have stamped as the 
 best. Colonel Le Couteur, one of the best 
 authorities on the culture of wheat, has 
 given us the result of his experiments and 
 great experience, upon four of the best 
 pure and improved varieties of wheat lately 
 introduced into England. (Journ. Roy. 
 Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 113.) 
 
 1. White downy. This excellent variety 
 is believed to be the same that is so well 
 described by Boys in his General View of 
 the Agriculture of Kent, as the " Hoary 
 White," or " Velvet- eared," said by him to 
 have been much prized by the millers, but 
 then entirely lost. The seed after being 
 washed and steeped was sown in drills seven 
 inches apart, at the rate of two bushels or a 
 little more to the acre. The wheat was 
 carefully hand-hoed in the month of May, 
 which caused it to tiller freely. The pre- 
 ceding crop was potatoes. This wheat will 
 withstand the most severe weather. The 
 season 1837 to 1838 was a very trying one, 
 both as to wetness and severity of cold, 
 the thermometer having fallen to 18° below 
 freezing ; but the crops of this wheat raised 
 by my neighbours were perfectly insensible 
 to it, and of great produce. This wheat is 
 not remarkable for its early maturity, though 
 it cannot be called a tardy variety. It is 
 not subject to degenerate, and if attention 
 is paid to sowing the seed pure, and annually, 
 or even occasionally, varying the manure 
 intended for it, it is possible that it may 
 never degenerate. The only objection to it 
 is the huskiness or velvety ear, which in 
 damp weather is retentive of moisture ; and 
 in snatchy seasons the grain is more apt to 
 sprout than the smooth-chaffed varieties. 
 It is not much affected with dust-brand; 
 and when pickled and limed, has never been 
 found with smut-balls. It is little liable to 
 shed, even when over-ripe, and will resist 
 very heavy gales without being laid or 
 broken. 
 
 2. Jersey Dantzic. — The seed is de- 
 scribed as having been raised from n single 
 car, originating from seed procured from 
 Dantzic, selected from the finest "high 
 mixed." It is, however, suspected to he 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 identical with some excellent sorts, called 
 in Sussex, Kent, and some parts of Surrey, 
 the " Chittums ;" in other parts " Peggie - 
 sham ;" in Berkshire, " Trump ;" in Essex, 
 " Hardcastle ; " in some counties, " Old 
 Suffolk ;" in Scotland, " Hunter's White ;" 
 and assuming several other names. This 
 wheat is not quite so hardy as the " hoary ;" 
 it is, nevertheless, considered sufficiently so 
 to succeed throughout the kingdom, ex- 
 cepting the northern parts of Scotland. In 
 rich soils it tillers amazingly, and pro- 
 duces a longer straw than the hoary, nor is 
 it so liable to sprout in a moist climate 
 from being smooth-chaffed : in very severe, 
 moist, and stormy weather, it will be laid 
 sooner than the hoary. 
 
 It ripens a week earlier at least than the 
 variety last described, and should be reaped 
 while the grain can be marked by pressure 
 from the thumb-nail, as it is rather liable 
 to shed if over-ripe, a disadvantage which 
 the hoary is peculiarly free from, as it is 
 tenacious to the ear. In a dry season this 
 wheat will afford a beautiful, clean, white 
 straw, fit for bonnet-making, or any pur- 
 pose of thatching : it is firm and tenacious. 
 In wet seasons it is rather subject to rust, 
 which, under such circumstances, almost all 
 wheat suffers from. 
 
 3. Whittington Wheat. — The seed was 
 obtained from Mr. Whittington himself, 
 and was a very fine pure sample. The 
 grain is large, full, and plump, rather of a 
 whitish-red cast, and a little thick-skinned. 
 The seed was washed, pickled, drained, and 
 limed, then sown in drills seven inches 
 apart, about three bushels to the acre. 
 When the seed is large, it is considered 
 prudent to add half a bushel or more to the 
 acre. I consider this to be a very hardy 
 wheat, affording much herbage and straw, 
 very fit for being eaten down by sheep in 
 the spring when sown early in the fall. 
 The Whittington is rather a late wheat, 
 ripening a week or ten days later than the 
 Jersey Dantzic before described, though it 
 was in bloom on the same day. From the 
 purity of the seed, and the uniform appear- 
 ance of the crop, it does not appear likely 
 to degenerate, nor does it seem more liable 
 to disease than other wheats. The straw 
 is brittle, and many ears break off. I am 
 of opinion from what I have witnessed, that 
 the value of this description of wheat is 
 much over-rated : the millers dislike it, and 
 in certain situations it is apt to blight. 
 
 4. Bellevue Talavera. — This admirable 
 variety is invaluable where it is adapted to 
 the soil and climate. The seed being large, 
 a greater quantity of it should be allowed 
 than usual. This wheat has succeeded in 
 the north of Scotland, and is sufficiently 
 
 1267 
 
 hardy to withstand the winter in its grassy 
 state, but it is otherwise more valuable as a 
 spring Crop : without doubt it may be sown 
 as late as the first week in February in all 
 the milder parts of England, with a pro- 
 spect of reaping quite as good an average 
 crop from it as from any other wheat, but 
 with a certainty of obtaining more flour 
 than from most. There is no tendency to 
 degenerate observable in this wheat, as far 
 as the experience of five or six years goes ; 
 nor, from its early habits, is it at all likely 
 to become intermixed by fecundation from 
 other varieties, though sown about the same 
 period, as it will, in such cases, flower a 
 fortnight or three weeks before them. It 
 is not more liable to disease than ordinary 
 white wheats, and affords a very fine clear 
 white straw : it is, indeed, one of the Italian 
 bonnet-making varieties. There is, how- 
 ever, one disadvantage in it, which is, that 
 the ear is so heavy that it is apt to break 
 down, though not break off, when swept by 
 a gale about the period of ripening ; but it 
 has a countervailing good quality, of ripen- 
 ing the grain equally well though bent 
 down ; as is the case with spring wheats, 
 which ripen their seed well though quite 
 laid, which with winter wheats is doubt- 
 ful. Another peculiarity is the tenacity of 
 the chaff to the ear, more remaining on it 
 after passing through the thrashing-machine 
 than any other variety I am acquainted 
 with. 
 
 The following sorts I have also grown 
 experimentally, but not having raised them 
 in quantities sufficient to warrant a positive 
 opinion, which probably might only tend to 
 mislead, they are merely named. 
 
 The "golden drop" is one of the best 
 red wheats, affording great produce in corn 
 and straw, and a larger quantity of flour 
 than some Avhite wheats. 
 
 " Hickling's prolific red" is a productive 
 variety, but rather coarse. The properties 
 of this wheat are, straw long, stout at the 
 bottom, and tapering at the head ; head 
 short, thick, close, and heavy ; kernels four 
 in the row across the ear, and red in colour, 
 with the chaff white ; in sample the wheat 
 is short, plump, thin-skinned, and looks as 
 if it would flour well : colour dark orange- 
 red. 
 
 Brown's " ten-rowed chevalier," or pro- 
 lific, is well named, where it suits the soil 
 and climate : it is, when pure, a very fine 
 variety. " 
 
 " Gale's Hampshire" is a very enormously 
 productive sort of bearded wheat. '* Essex 
 red" a very good variety. " The duck's- 
 bill" wheat is very productive, but shedding 
 greatly, and not very farinaceous. (J[ounu 
 of Roy. Eng. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 113.) 
 4 h 2 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 In order to present the particular points 
 of comparison between the four principal 
 
 varieties above-described, the results are 
 appended in a tabular form : — 
 
 Varieties. 
 
 01 . 
 
 Manure 
 
 Quantity 
 of Seed 
 per Acre. 
 
 Time of 
 Sowing. 
 
 Har- 
 vested. 
 
 Produce per Acre. 
 
 Produce 
 per Acre in 
 
 Produce of Bread from 
 18 lbs. of Flour. 
 
 Net Profit. 
 
 Grain. 
 
 Straw. 
 
 Chaff. 
 
 Height of 
 Bushel. 
 
 Finest Flour. 
 
 Flour, &c. (Pollard 
 and Bran.) 
 
 White 7 
 
 Argillaceous 
 
 
 
 
 
 bsh. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 L. s. d. 
 
 Kelp Ashes, 9 qrs. 
 
 2 bushels.- 
 
 Jan. 29. 
 
 Aug. 16. 
 
 48 
 
 4557 
 
 315 
 
 62 
 
 2402 
 
 542 
 
 25 
 
 7 4 9 
 
 Downy, j 
 
 Schist, light 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and rich. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jersey 7 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Aug. 12 
 
 
 4681 
 
 430 
 
 63 
 
 2161 
 
 606 
 
 25f 
 
 5 9 9 
 
 Dantzic S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whit- I 
 
 Do. on a red 
 
 2 hhds. of lime. 
 
 3 bushels. 
 
 Jan. 8. 
 
 Aug. 24 
 
 33 
 
 7786 
 
 483 
 
 61 
 
 1454 
 
 524 
 
 23| 
 
 2 7 6 
 
 tington. j 
 
 clay bottom. 
 
 6 qrs. lime ashes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 qrs. kelp ashes. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belle- ~1 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 Ditto. 
 
 3 bushels. 
 
 Feb. 3. 
 
 Aug. 17. 
 
 52 
 
 5480 
 
 282 
 
 61 
 
 2485 
 
 626 
 
 25 
 
 8 12 9 
 
 vueTa- \- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lavera. J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 N.B, In the estimate of profit in the last column the calculation is not made with relation to the respective values 
 of the wheats as to their productiveness in flour, which it might be, but according to the ordinary marketable 
 value of good wheat ; the straw is valued as intended for manure. 
 
 The following is an excellent account of 
 an experiment on the relative values of 
 several varieties of wheat by Mr. John 
 Morton, which I have extracted from the 
 first volume of the Journ. of the Eng. Agr. 
 JSoc, p. 39. It is from practical and care- 
 fully carried out experiments, such as 
 these, that we shall be able to arrive at the 
 proportionate value of different species and 
 new varieties of wheat, and from which we 
 may be enabled to select the good and 
 reject the bad kinds. 
 
 The profits of farming, whether the land 
 be pasture or arable, and the tenant be a 
 feeder of stock or a tiller of the ground, 
 may be increased in two ways. The stock- 
 farmer knows very well that the return he 
 obtains from his cattle depends, not only 
 on the kind of food given to them, and the 
 manner in which it is supplied, but also on 
 the feeding qualities of the breed to which 
 they belong ; and he increases his chance of 
 profit as much when, on purchasing from 
 the breeder, he selects with judgment, as 
 when he adopts an improved mode of feed- 
 ing. The intelligent farmer of arable land, 
 again, expects a greater crop, the more he 
 has been able to improve the texture of 
 the soil, and the better the nature and 
 state of the manure which it contains. He 
 expects it, because he knows that it de- 
 pends on the nature of the food given to 
 the plants, and the manner in which they 
 are provided with a constant supply of it. 
 The crop does not, however, depend only 
 on this : for as two beasts fed in exactly the 
 Same manner may not be equally profitable, 
 owing to :i difference between thein regard- 
 in"- the quantity and quality of the meat 
 1268 
 
 they afford, so two different kinds of wheat, 
 though sown on land precisely similar, and 
 in equally good condition, may give un- 
 equal returns, owing to a difference between 
 them regarding the quantity and quality 
 of the flour they afford. Hence the import- 
 ance, too often overlooked by farmers, not 
 only of preparing the land for the crop in 
 a good and sufficient manner, but also of 
 selecting that kind of seed which experi- 
 ence has pointed out as being most valu- 
 able and productive. It was with a view, 
 not only of ascertaining the relative value, 
 hardiness, and other properties of several 
 of the most commonly-planted wheats, but 
 also of effecting an improvement in the 
 best of them, that the following experiment 
 was commenced on the 1st of November, 
 1837. To insure accuracy in the results, it 
 was necessary that the seeds of each variety 
 should be planted so as to have them all at 
 equal distances. To effect this, two boards 
 were used, each six inches wide, nine feet 
 long, and half an inch thick. Along the 
 centre of each board was a row of holes, 
 three inches apart and one inch in dia- 
 meter. A dibble was made to fit into the 
 holes, having a shoulder at the distance of 
 2^ inches from the point. 
 
 When the board was placed on the 
 ground, and the dibble put through each 
 hole in succession, a series of holes was 
 thus made, two inches deep, and three 
 inches apart from centre to centre. 
 
 After this had been done through the 
 first board, the second, which was touching 
 it, and parallel to it, was served in the 
 same way; and then the first was taken up, 
 and placed on the other side of the second. 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 By proceeding thus, the whole ground was 
 finished, and then one grain of wheat was 
 dropped into each hole. The rows were 
 thus exactly six inches apart, and the 
 grains in the rows were three inches from 
 one another. The regularity with which 
 the planting was performed was thus ma- 
 thematically accurate. The ground planted 
 lies on the lower edge of the great oolite 
 formation, and the soil is a stone brash, 
 about ten inches in thickness. Crops of 
 potatoes had been taken off it for a succes- 
 sion of eight years ; and it had been ma- 
 nured every alternate year, with a compost 
 of equal bulks of stable-dung and earth, at 
 the rate of about twenty cubic yards per 
 
 acre. It was sixty-seven feet in length ; 
 and three rows of each variety of wheat 
 were planted, except the first and last num- 
 bers, of which there were four rows. The 
 outer row of each of these, however, was 
 not taken into account, because their roots 
 had a much greater extent of ground for 
 their growth than the others, whose roots 
 touched one another all round. The end 
 plants of each row were also rejected for 
 the same reason. Sixty-six feet in length 
 of ground were thus taken up, and three 
 rows of each variety occupied in width \^ 
 foot : the ground occupied by each variety 
 was thus ninety-nine square feet, the 440th 
 part of an acre. 
 
 Name of 
 Wheat. 
 
 Old red Lam 
 
 mas. 
 Golden drop 
 Ten rowed 
 
 Thick-set 
 Suffolk. 
 
 Hickley's pro- 
 lific. 
 
 White Taun- 
 ton. 
 
 Silver drop. 
 
 Scotch white- 
 
 Talavera. 
 
 Smithers' 
 Hereford 
 white. 
 
 A red wheat.' 
 
 Egyptian 
 cone. 
 
 Red straw 
 Lammas. 
 
 Blue cone. 
 
 Red cone. 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 Produce 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of 99 sq 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 <N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 S £ 
 
 Feet. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 EC 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Whence 
 obtained. 
 
 No. of Seeds plan 
 
 Loss of Seeds fr 
 1 Birds, Frost, & 
 
 | Plants or Roots. 1 
 
 Heads of Grain. 
 
 1 No. of Ears in One 
 Foot. 
 
 Average No. of Hea 
 Root. 
 
 Weight of Grain pro 
 from 99 square Fi 
 
 Weight of 
 Wheat per 
 Acre. 
 
 I No. of Bushels per 
 | at 64 lbs. per Bus 
 
 Length of Stra 
 
 j Weight of Straw proi 
 1 from 99 square Fe< 
 
 Weight of 
 Straw per 
 Acre. 
 
 Weight of Roots wii 
 of Stem. 
 
 Weight of 
 Roots per 
 Acre. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Tons 
 
 cwt. 
 
 □rs.lbs. 
 
 
 ft.in. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Tons. cwt 
 
 
 .lbs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Tons 
 
 .cwt 
 
 qn 
 
 .lbs. 
 
 'Pusey, Berks. 
 
 792 
 
 387 
 
 105 
 
 2165 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 8 
 
 
 5 8 
 
 16.L 
 
 3 5 
 
 q 2 
 
 24 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 792 
 
 291 
 
 501 
 
 2542 
 
 25 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2 8 
 
 46f 
 
 5 6 
 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 3 
 
 5* 
 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Hareby, Lin- 
 
 792 
 
 391 
 
 101 
 
 1955 
 
 19 
 
 3h 
 
 n 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 2 16 
 
 27* 
 
 5 5 
 
 13 
 
 2 10 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 colnshire. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Leek, Lincoln- 
 shire. 
 Lyford, Berks 
 
 792 
 
 273 
 
 519 
 
 2028 
 
 20 
 
 4£ 
 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 2 16 
 
 27 
 
 5 6 
 
 121 
 
 2 12 
 
 0 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 792 
 
 120 
 
 672 
 
 3039 
 
 30 
 
 *k 
 
 104 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 0 
 
 72i 
 
 5 8 
 
 191 
 
 3 5 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 7*. 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 2 1 
 
 Old Bucking- 
 
 792 
 
 132 
 
 G57 
 
 2886 
 
 29 
 
 
 10J 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 3 3 
 
 69| 
 
 5 7 
 
 J6J 
 
 3 5 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 65 
 
 1 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 S 
 
 ham, Nor- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 folk. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wallingford, 
 
 792 
 
 305 
 
 187 
 
 2695 
 
 27 
 
 5| 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 20 
 
 Hi 
 
 5 6 
 
 15| 
 
 3 0 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 5i 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Berks. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lyford, Berks 
 
 792 
 
 218 
 
 574 
 
 2582 
 
 26 
 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 1 20 
 
 55 
 
 5 6 
 
 184 
 
 3 12 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3. 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 792 
 
 379 
 
 413 
 
 258, i 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4 
 
 2 C 
 
 45 
 
 5 9 
 
 16.5 
 
 3 5 
 
 2 
 
 24 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Taunton. 
 
 792 
 
 431 
 
 358 
 
 1985 
 
 20 
 
 n 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 0 
 
 2 14 
 
 56 
 
 5 8 
 
 1 1 > 
 
 2 16 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 Cirencester 
 
 792 
 
 319 
 
 473 
 
 2529 
 
 25 
 
 5| 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 1 8 
 
 65^ 
 
 5 6 
 
 17i 
 
 3 8 
 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 
 0 
 
 *9 
 
 2 
 
 0 
 
 (Smith;. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 792 
 
 252" 
 
 540 
 
 3453 
 
 35 
 
 Si 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 1 12 
 
 S2i 
 
 5 0 
 
 22 
 
 4 7 
 
 0 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 1 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 792 
 
 528 
 
 264 
 
 711 
 
 7 
 
 H 
 
 51 
 
 0 
 
 13 
 
 0 24 
 
 23 
 
 6 0 
 
 
 1 11 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 0 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 792 
 
 510 
 
 282 
 
 2096 
 
 21 
 
 7i 
 
 H 
 
 0 
 
 16 
 
 2 16 
 
 27 
 
 5 8 
 
 14*. 
 
 2 16 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 
 0 
 
 19 
 
 2 
 
 6 
 
 
 792 
 
 2C4 
 
 528 
 
 1 626 
 
 16 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 28 
 
 til 
 
 6 0 
 
 9f 
 
 1 16 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 792 
 
 45 6 
 
 356 
 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 19 
 
 1 4 
 
 6s-; 
 
 5 3 
 
 121 
 
 ^ 9 
 
 0 
 
 0 
 
 4| 
 
 0 
 
 18 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 11 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 Note Specimens, in the straw, of each of the varieties mentioned in the Table were laid before the Society. 
 
 Although the tabular form in which this 
 experiment is detailed explains itself by 
 the headings of each column, yet it is con- 
 sidered necessary to give a somewhat fuller 
 account of it. The seed from which the 
 first ten varieties were raised was carefully 
 selected from specimens of each obtained in 
 the ear. The others were from samples, 
 and here, also, the greatest care was taken 
 that the seed from which each was raised 
 should be the best and plumpest that could 
 be obtained. 
 
 The first five columns need no explana- 
 tion beyond what is given at the head of 
 each : the sixth shows the number of grains 
 lost from casualties. If the frost had been 
 the only agent in the destruction of so 
 many of the seeds, this column might have 
 been considered as a very accurate index 
 of the relative hardiness of each varietv. 
 1269 
 
 This, however, is not the case, for the havoc 
 which the birds made must also be taken 
 into account. It was thought, at the time, 
 that more injury was sustained, from the 
 latter cause, by those varieties planted on 
 the 21st, than by any of the others; but 
 this does not appear to have been the case, 
 for, if the great loss sustained by these had 
 been wholly owing to the havoc committed 
 by the birds, it is evident that the varieties 
 marked Nos. 12. and 15. would not have 
 been so slightly injured, while Nos. 11., 13, 
 14. and 16. suffered so severely. The 
 figures in this column may, therefore, be 
 said to indicate with tolerable accuracy the 
 relative ability of each variety to withstand 
 the effects of a severe and changeable win- 
 ter, such as that during which the experi- 
 ment was made. 
 
 The number of plants of each variety 
 4m 3 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 which came to perfection, is placed oppo- 
 site the name of each in the seventh column. 
 This was ascertained by pulling each as 
 they respectively ripened, and counting the 
 plants of each before proceeding to the 
 others. In this way, by a simple subtrac- 
 tion, the numbers contained in, the sixth 
 column also were ascertained. 
 
 When all the plants of any variety had 
 been pulled, the number of ears also be- 
 longing to them was counted, and the re- 
 sults are placed in the eighth column. 
 
 By dividing these by ninety-nine, the 
 number of square feet which each variety 
 occupied, we obtain the number of ears in 
 each square foot ; and this is placed opposite 
 the name of each wheat, in the ninth column. 
 
 The average number of ears to each root, 
 ascertained by dividing the number of ears 
 by that of the roots, is placed in the tenth 
 column. This column shows the degree in 
 which each species possesses the important 
 property of spreading and shooting out 
 stems, or, as it is technically termed, of til- 
 lering ; and it will be seen that they vary 
 in this respect greatly. 
 
 After having been pulled and dried, the 
 wheat was carefully rubbed out ; and after 
 the light and imperfect grains had been 
 separated, the weight of the remainder was 
 taken, and placed opposite each sort, in the 
 eleventh column. 
 
 The thirteenth column contains the num- 
 ber of bushels per acre raised from each 
 variety. As the quantity produced was so 
 small, there was some difficulty in obtaining 
 the particulars which this column contains. 
 
 The mode adopted was this. The ave- 
 rage weight of several of the varieties was 
 ascertained by weighing eight pints of each, 
 to be at the rate of sixty-four pounds 
 per bushel, some being rather more, and 
 others less. The number of bushels were 
 then obtained from the weight of Avheat per 
 acre, by dividing it by sixty-four. 
 
 The weight of straw, which is placed in 
 the fifteenth and sixteenth columns, was 
 ascertained after the roots had been cut 
 off, and after it had remained out suffi- 
 ciently long to dry it perfectly. 
 
 After the earth had been removed from 
 the roots, which had been cut off with about 
 two inches of the stem, they were weighed, 
 and the result placed in the seventeenth 
 and eighteenth columns. The object of 
 this was to ascertain the amount of vege- 
 table matter left in the soil after the wheat 
 Crop has been removed, and the result 
 greatly exceeds any conception of it that 
 had been previously entertained. 
 
 The inferences which, it is presumed, may 
 lx; drawn from (lie above details, are the 
 following : — 
 1270 
 
 1st. With regard to the hardiness of the 
 varieties, which, as we have already said, 
 may, to a certain extent, be deduced from 
 the particulars contained in the sixth co- 
 lumn, that they may be placed in three 
 classes. Nos. 5, 6. 8. 12. 15. 4. and 2. being 
 the hardiest ; Eos. 13, 14. 16. and 10. being 
 the most delicate; and Nos. 1. 3. 7. 9. and 
 11. occupying an average station. 
 
 2d. With regard to the property of tiller- 
 ing, of which we have already spoken, that 
 Nos. 12. 14. 16. and 1. possess it in the 
 greatest degree ; that IsTos. 3. 13. 4, 5, 6. 15. 
 8. and 2. possess it in the least ; and that 
 Nos. 7. 9, 10, and 11. hold a medium rank. 
 
 3d. That with respect to the relative 
 value of each variety mentioned in the table, 
 ~No. 12. is undoubtedly the best of any, in 
 productiveness, and in being sufficiently 
 hardy; that No. 13. is as undoubtedly the 
 worst of any, as will be seen by a reference 
 to any of the columns ; and that the others 
 vary greatly, some possessing nearly three 
 times the productiveness of others. 
 
 These sixteen different sorts of wheat, 
 with the exception of Nos. 13. 15, 16. which 
 are bearded, are merely varieties of one 
 species of the genus Triticum ; and the 
 circumstance of differences existing among 
 them, some possessing three times the value 
 of others, shows that any variety is capable 
 of improvement. This, indeed, is shown by 
 many other plants besides the wheat. The 
 originals of the potato, the carrot, and the 
 turnip, were comparatively insignificant and 
 useless in their application as food, and it 
 was only by careful and repeated cultivation 
 that they were at length brought to their 
 present condition, and made to hold such an 
 important rank among the many nutritive 
 plants cultivated for the food of man and 
 beast. It is supposed then, and where it 
 has been tried experience shows it to be a 
 fact, that, by first ascertaining the best of 
 many A r arieties of wheat, and planting the 
 finest and plumpest seeds selected from the 
 best sample that could be obtained of it, 
 the last of a succession of crops, the first 
 of which was raised in this manner, and all 
 the others from seeds selected out of the 
 produce of the preceding harvests, would, 
 at length, afford a wheat of a more pro- 
 ductive and valuable kind than has hitherto 
 been used by the farmer. The experiment 
 here 1 detailed is, then, merely the first step 
 in the process ; it merely points out the 
 best of the varieties which were tried. The 
 improvement of these by repeated culti- 
 vation still remains to be effected. 
 
 During the growth of the wheat, a journal 
 was kept, an extract from which is given 
 here, as it refers to an insect which was 
 observed after the blossoming of the plants, 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 and to which the destruction of many of the 
 seeds was owing. 
 
 Observations of this kind might be easily 
 and generally made, and they would be 
 useful as information regarding the nature 
 and habits of the insects which attack 
 wheat ; and answers to the how ? when ? 
 and where ? on the subject, which would 
 thus be obtained, afford the only guide to 
 the invention of means for their destruction. 
 
 1838. Extract from Journal. 
 
 July 5th. — All the wheat is in blossom, ex- 
 cept Nos. 13. and 15. 
 
 14th. — Very rainy and windy weather. 
 
 Whether will this be found to 
 injure or improve the quality 
 of the grain ? 
 
 16th. — Since the rain of the 14th, an 
 orange -coloured substance, like 
 rust, has been observed in the 
 seed-vessels of some of the ears, 
 as if the rain had got in and 
 rotted the pollen. A very 
 small fly has been observed 
 about the ears in the evening. 
 Many of the ears are tilling 
 rapidly, some are already full, 
 and others are only in blossom. 
 
 19th. — In the ears of wheat, which were 
 before-mentioned as having 
 abortive grains, owing, as was 
 thought, to the pollen having 
 been rotted by the rain, I now 
 find small orange-coloured 
 grubs, about the tenth of an 
 inch long, doubtless the off- 
 spring of the small fly ob- 
 served about a week ago. 
 Aug. 4th. — All these grubs have disappeared. 
 
 27th. — Nos. 4. 10. and 11. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 28th. — Nos. 3. 5. and 6. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 29th. — Nos. 7. 8. and 9. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 30th. — Nos. 2. 12. and 16. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 Sept. 1st. — Nos. 1. and 14. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 2d. — Nos. 13. and 15. are ripe and 
 pulled. 
 
 The account of this experiment is thus 
 finished, and there now remains but to 
 state what will have already occurred to the 
 reader, especially if he be a practical man, 
 that it is not one nor many experiments, if 
 conducted on a small scale, which will ac- 
 curately determine the point this tends to 
 ascertain. 
 
 Soil. — Although wheat can be cultivated 
 on any soil, yet heavy loams, strong clays, 
 and marls are considered to be the best 
 wheat soils, and the longer the proportion 
 of alumin in the soil, the heavier will be 
 1271 
 
 the grain, and the more productive the 
 crop. 
 
 Sandy soils (says a modern writer) are 
 unfavourable to the growth of wheat, for 
 they are deficient in that degree of firmness 
 which is necessary to support the roots of 
 the plants. It is therefore a crop which 
 should never be sown on such land ; or if 
 grown, it should only be upon one plough- 
 ing of a clover ley, and then afterwards 
 folded by a flock of sheep. {Brit. Hush. 
 vol. ii. p. 140.) 
 
 Very fine descriptions of wheat are grown 
 on gravelly, chalky, and flinty soils, which 
 have a dry subsoil. 
 
 The cultivation of wheat varies in dif- 
 ferent districts, and according to the nature 
 of the soil. Upon heavy clays, the course 
 of cropping is commonly a twelvemonth's 
 fallow, with from four to six plough ings, 
 &c, and a dressing of manure or lime, or 
 both. On this description of land, wheat 
 also very commonly follows beans, which 
 have been carefully cleaned ; and, thirdly, 
 is sown extensively upon clover leys. On 
 lighter soils, a crop of turnips or rape sown 
 in May, and fed off by sheep early in the 
 autumn, is frequently substituted with ad- 
 vantage instead of a year's naked fallow. 
 And, again, a practice, but which I strongly 
 condemn, is still followed in several parts of 
 England, of sowing dressed or folded rye- 
 grass leys with wheat. (See Rotation of 
 Crops.) On soils adopted for turnips, and 
 where the drill and horse hoe are employed, 
 a course I much approve from the ley's 
 return, from a small expenditure, consists 
 of : 1st, turnips ; 2d, oats or barley ; 3d, 
 clover ; 4th, beans or peas ; and then, 5th, 
 wheat. 
 
 The quantity of seed varies considerably ; 
 and, although I have witnessed large crops 
 grown from one bushel of seed drilled per 
 acre, the rows at foot intervals, yet the 
 general practice may be taken at from two 
 to three bushels per acre. The time of 
 sowing is from September to March ; the 
 winter varieties should be in the ground 
 by the end of November, and the spring 
 varieties as early as the season will admit. 
 For the diseases of wheat, see Mildew, 
 Rust, and Fly in Wheat. And I may 
 observe that, although subject to several 
 diseases, yet upon the whole it is the 
 hardiest of the cereal grasses, and flourishes 
 under a greater variety of seasons and 
 climate. See Temperature. 
 
 Sowing. — Wheat is either sown broad- 
 cast, or by the drill or dibble. Drilling is 
 the most preferable mode. W T hen it is sown 
 in drills the usual distance between the rows 
 is from nine to twelve inches ; but it is con- 
 ceived that the larger intervals are the 
 4 m 4 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 better, and that they may in most cases be 
 even more than twelve inches. The best 
 period of sowing, it has been said, is from 
 about the middle to the end of September. 
 The early part of October, however, is well 
 suited to the sowing of wheat, and it may 
 be continued till the middle of November. 
 
 The proportion of seed that is necessary 
 must depend upon and be regulated by a 
 variety of different circumstances, but in 
 general from two to three bushels, accord- 
 ing to the state of the soil, the nature of the 
 climate, and the period in which it is put 
 into the ground may be the most suitable 
 proportion for soils of a medium state of 
 fertility, under the broadcast method of 
 husbandry; but where the drill or dibble 
 system of culture is practised, a consider- 
 ably less quantity may be sufficient for the 
 purpose. See Seed. 
 
 In the case of summer fallow the quantity 
 of seed need not exceed two bushels to the 
 acre. When the sowing takes place in spring, 
 the quantity may be extended to three 
 bushels, rather less than more. 
 
 The cultivation of wheat is very rapid by 
 either of the following methods : 1 . By se- 
 lecting the grains of superior ears and dib- 
 bling them in a seedling bed, four inches 
 apart every way. 2. By dividing and trans- 
 planting the roots. 
 
 The same weight of Rostock and Dantzic 
 flour from wheat grown in the Baltic, made 
 only twenty-three pounds of bread, very 
 light and good, but not' so white by many 
 shades or well flavoured, as that made from 
 the two first varieties of home growth. 
 
 These experiments having been made in 
 my own presence, may be relied on. The 
 dough was worked in the French mode, not 
 pushed down, turned and worked with closed 
 hands, but drawn up into long strings, and 
 repeatedly lifted, in order to expose it' to 
 the action of the air as much as possible, 
 which tends greatly to improve the bread, 
 by rendering it more light and easy of 
 digestion. See Bread. 
 
 The superiority of the hoary variety of 
 wheat which furnished three pounds more 
 bread on a baking of eighteen pounds of 
 flour, or an increase of one sixth, over the 
 Dantzic and Rostock, which was also a very 
 fine sample of flour, is thus clearly esta- 
 blished. (Le Couteur on Wheat, p. 44.) 
 
 Securing the crop. — I have already 
 briefly adverted under the head Reaping 
 to <li<' advantages to be derived from har- 
 vesting the gram before it is fully ripe, but 
 have reserved to this place some further 
 experimenta and details corroborative of the 
 benefit and profit resulting therefrom, by 
 Mr. John Hannam of North Deighton, near 
 Wetherby. This gentleman remarks, — 
 1272 
 
 " Haying selected a field of ' old square- 
 headed red wheat' for the experiments, on 
 August 4. 1840, I cut a sheaf. At this 
 time it was quite green, i. e. both straw 
 and ears were in full vigour, and full of 
 sap. Though the grain appeared perfectly 
 formed, the chaff still adhered so firmly to 
 it that it was scarcely possible to separate 
 them by friction in the hands. When sepa- 
 rated it was large and plump, but so full of 
 milk, that the slightest pressure reduced 
 the whole to a juicy consistency or pulp. 
 
 " This sheaf stood in the field for a fort- 
 night, when it was housed. On the same 
 day, August 18, I cut another. The wheat 
 was, of course, yet ' green,' speaking posi- 
 tively, or ' not ripe,' if we speak nega- 
 tively, — being what farmers commonly 
 term ' raw.' That is, the straw, though 
 appearing at a distance green, when ex- 
 amined closely, was of a hue fast approxi- 
 mating to yellow ; while, for about a foot 
 upwards from the ground, it was quite yel- 
 low. The ears, too, were more open, the 
 chaff tinged with various shades of yellow 
 and green, and the grain itself, when sepa- 
 rated, soft and pulpy, but not near so full 
 of fluid as before. The judgment of the 
 farmer will, however, best tell him the con- 
 ditions of the wheat, both at this and at the 
 preceding cutting, when I say, that in an- 
 other fortnight the whole field was ripe. At 
 the end of this fortnight (September 1.), I 
 housed the sheaf cut on August 18., and 
 which had remained exposed to the weather 
 in the interval, and cut a third. This 1 
 have said was ' ripe;' but by the term I 
 don't mean that degree of ripeness when 
 the straw breaks, the ears curl, and the 
 grain shakes out ; but that condition in 
 which it is customary to commence reaping 
 it, — when the straw, from the roots to the 
 ear, is uniformly yellow, and has lost all 
 symptoms of vivid health. 
 
 " On the 14th of September the third 
 sheaf was taken from the field and carefully 
 preserved, along with the other two, till the 
 1st of November, when, out of each sheaf, 
 I selected 100 ears, and put each parcel into 
 a separate bag. The straw from each of 
 these parcels of ears was preserved care- 
 fully. 
 
 " The ears in one bag (No. 1, or that cut 
 very green) were now thrashed, the chaff 
 carefully separated, and the gross weight of 
 the corn yielded ascertained by an ex- 
 tremely accurate balance. The weights of 
 a fixed measure of a certain number of 
 grains were next found. To avoid error, 
 this was repeated several times. 
 
 " No. 2. (cut raw) and No. 3 (ripe) un- 
 derwent the same process: for the results 
 of Avhich see the following table : — 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Comparative Weights of Wheat reaped at 
 different periods. 
 
 Time of reaping and 
 Condition. 
 
 Gross 
 Produce. 
 
 Equal 
 Measure. 
 
 Equal 
 Number of 
 Grains. 
 
 No. 1. August 4. 
 
 
 
 
 (very green) - 
 
 576 
 
 568 
 
 19j{ 
 
 No. 2., Aug. 18. 
 
 
 
 
 (raw) - 
 
 736 
 
 580 
 
 23J 
 
 No. 3., Sept. 1. 
 
 
 
 
 (ripe) - 
 
 650 
 
 570 
 
 22\ 
 
 " As this table is merely comparative 
 (the weights used being in parts, and deci- 
 mal parts of the same, for the convenience 
 of minute experiments), it may not be un- 
 necessary to give the following table of the 
 absolute weights of each sample in ounces, 
 drachms, scruples, and grains Troy : — 
 
 
 Gross 
 Produce. 
 
 Equal 
 Measures. 
 
 Equal Num- 
 ber of Grains. 
 
 No. 1. 
 No. 2. 
 No. 3. 
 
 5 5 6 gr- 
 
 4 0 0 0 
 
 5 0 2 13 
 4 4 0 6 
 
 3 56 gr- 
 
 3 7 1 13 
 
 4 0 0 13 
 3 7 2 0 
 
 1 3 e gr- 
 0 1 0 5f 
 
 0 1 0 171 
 
 0 1 0 15| 
 
 " The straw belonging to each sample 
 was now weighed (all the parcels having 
 previously been made of the same length, 
 commencing from the bottom of the ear), 
 when the following was the result ; — 
 
 Comparative Weights of 100 Straws, of an 
 equal length, belonging to the samples Nos. 
 1, 2, 3. 
 
 No. 1. (green) = 550. 
 
 No. 2. (raw) = 475. 
 
 No. 3. (ripe) = 450. 
 
 " The next thing to be ascertained was 
 the quality of the produce, or the compara- 
 tive worth of each description. Believing 
 in the old saying, that, 
 
 ' The proper value of a thing 
 Is just as much as it will bring,' 
 
 on the 5th of November I attended market, 
 and asked the opinion of an extensive corn- 
 grower as to the values of the respective 
 samples, according to the prices of the day. 
 His opinion was, 
 
 No. 1. - - 61s. per quarter. 
 No. 2. - - 64«. ditto. 
 No. 3. - - 62*. ditto. 
 
 Putting the same samples into the hands of 
 an extensive corn-factor and miller, his 
 opinion of its value, and what he would give 
 to buy, was for 
 1273 
 
 No. 1. - - 6I.9. per quarter. * 
 No. 2. - - 63s. ditto. 
 No. 3. - - 61s. ditto. 
 
 Adding these values respectively together, 
 and taking the mean price of each (by which 
 we shall obtain as near an approximation to 
 the truth as possible), we have 
 
 No. 1. = 61s. Od. per quarter. 
 No. 2. = 63s. 6t/. ditto. 
 No. 3. = 61s. 6d. ditto. 
 
 " The loss or gain on these samples, by 
 reaping at different periods, will be best seen 
 from the following 
 
 Table of the relative Weights and Value of 
 Wheat cut August 4, August 18, and Sep- 
 tember 1 ,* that cut last (or ripe) being 
 taken as the standard, and unity assumed 
 as its value in each column. 
 
 
 
 cS 
 
 c S 
 
 
 
 
 0 5 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 JS 
 
 
 Weight 
 Gross Proc 
 
 Weight of < 
 Measure 
 
 Weight of 
 equal Nun 
 of Grain 
 
 Value. 
 
 Weight of 
 Straw. 
 
 No. 3. Sept. 1. 
 
 (ripe) 
 No. 2. Aug. 
 
 (raw) 
 No. 1. Aug. 
 
 (green) - 
 
 1 
 
 A 325 
 
 284 
 
 325 
 
 1 
 
 284 
 
 285 
 
 If 
 
 1 
 
 life 
 
 1 
 
 h\ 
 1§ 
 
 " According to this table, it is evident 
 that the wheat reaped a fortnight before it 
 was ripe has the advantage of the ripe in 
 every point : 
 
 1st, In weight of gross produce 3 4 ^, or 13| per 
 cent. 
 
 2d. In weight of equal measures ^, or nearly 
 i per cent. 
 
 3d. In weight of equal number of grains 9 2 T , 
 or nearly 2± per cent. 
 
 4th. In quality and value T | 5 , or above 3^ 
 per cent. 
 
 5th. In weight of straw or above 5 per 
 cent. 
 
 On the other hand, that reaped a month be- 
 fore it was ripe, has an advantage of 22 per 
 cent, in weight of straw, compared with the 
 ripe, but in every other point has the dis- 
 advantage : thus, 
 
 1st. In weight of gross produce 3 3 5 7 5 , or 11^ 
 per cent. 
 
 2d. In weight of equal measures or 
 rather more than g per cent. 
 
 3d. In weight of equal number of grains |f, 
 or better than 13^ per cent. 
 
 4th. In quality and value rather more 
 than I per cent. 
 
 " It may be here necessary to mention 
 that the sample No. 3 (ripe) was very bold, 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 but rather coarse, feeling rough in the hand ; 
 while No. 2 (raw) was quite as bold, but 
 very fine and thin in the skin. No. 3 (green) 
 was also a good and clear sample, hut much, 
 smaller than either of the other. This will 
 account for the apparently anomalous fact 
 of there being scarcely any difference in 
 the marketable value of the green compared 
 with the ripe, while there is a difference of 
 13 per cent, in favour of the ripe in weight 
 of equal numbers of grains ; for the sam- 
 ple being dry and good, the buyer lost little 
 by this inferiority in the size of grain, as 
 the weights of equal measures were the 
 same, — the difference of scarcely 
 making i lb. in the sack. 
 
 " Before venturing to draw any deduc- 
 tions from these experiments, let us put 
 their results in a still more practical point of 
 view. 
 
 " Suppose we have three acres of wheat, 
 one of which, reaped when ripe, yields us 
 30 bushels of corn and one ton of straw ; 
 what will be the gross value of the same ? 
 And what the value of the other two acres, 
 according to the data furnished by the fore- 
 going experiments, supposing each acre to 
 be exactly equal in crop, and the one reaped 
 a fortnight and the other a month before the 
 ripe.) 
 
 " Before answering this, we must fix a 
 value for the straw — say 2d. per stone, 
 which, taking into account that used by the 
 farmer himself — and many cannot sell 
 any — is as much as it is actually worth. 
 Whence we have, for the acre of ripe, 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 30 bushels of wheat, at 61s. 6d. 
 
 per quarter (the price of sample 
 
 No. 3.) - - - - 11 10 1h 
 1 ton of straw, at 2d. per stone - 16 8 
 
 Gross produce - £12 17 3i 
 
 " Let us next take the acre cut ' raw? 
 Before we can come to its value, we must 
 first resolve the question, How much, in 
 measure, will the acre produce us, supposing 
 it to produce 30 bushels, if cut when ripe ? 
 
 " In solving this, as we must assume each 
 crop to be exactly equal if cut at the same 
 time, it is obvious that, if we would deter- 
 mine the difference caused by reaping at an 
 earlier period, we cannot found our calcu- 
 lations upon the gross weight of the two 
 samples (Nos. 2 and 3) ; for, although there 
 is no doubt but that this weight was materi- 
 ally affected by the condition of the wheat 
 at the time of reaping (indeed, the difference 
 in the weight of equal numbers of* grains 
 prove the fact), it is possible that, in select- 
 ing the 100 ears from the sheaf, I might 
 take out of one sheaf ears with a greater 
 1274 
 
 number of grains in them than those taken 
 out of the other. This then, would affect 
 the total or gross weight ; and, therefore, it 
 cannot be taken into account in the present 
 case, where both acres are supposed to have 
 an equal number of grains. 
 
 " To the weights of equal measures, and 
 of equal numbers of grains, both the result 
 of many careful trials, this objection cannot 
 be urged ; and they are amply sufficient to 
 enable us to tell the produce of an acre 
 of ' raw,' when that of the ' ripe ' is 30 
 bushels. Thus, in the first table, we have, 
 
 Weight of equal Weight of equal 
 
 Measures. Numbers of Grains. 
 No. 2. (raw) - 580 - - 23*25 
 
 No. 3. (ripe) - - 570 - - 22*75 
 
 Now put m= this measure, and n— the 
 number of grains weighed of each sort ; then 
 
 22* IS 
 
 n : 22*75 : : 1 : -^ = the weight of one grain 
 of No. 3., whence 
 
 : 1 ::570 : |^.==the number of grains 
 of No. 3. in the measure m. 
 
 Again, similarly, n : 23*25 : : 1 : weight 
 of one grain of No. 2., and 
 
 . 1::580 : ^25 = the number of grains 
 of No. 2. in the measure m. 
 
 » , 570rc 22-75?ra . , 
 
 And ft* -s- 2275= 570» =the space occupied 
 by one grain of No. 3. (ripe) ; and 
 
 580w 2325m ", ... 
 
 m "*~ 22T25 = 580« " = tne s P ace occupied by one 
 grain of No. 2. (raw). 
 
 Now, as there are the same number of grains 
 upon each acre, and as the acre of ripe yields 
 30 bushels, we have 
 
 W : l8r" 30 bushels * 30*1307313 
 bushels, the produce of one acre cut a fort- 
 night before the ripe. 
 
 Again, by reference to page 27, in the 
 second table, we have 1 and 1 T ' 5 as the relative 
 weights of the straw No. 3. and No. 2. ; 
 whence, as No. 3. is supposed to produce one 
 ton, 
 
 1 : 1-^::160 stones : 168| stones, the weight 
 upon the acre reaped when raw. And for the 
 whole produce of the acre, we have 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 30*1307 bushels of wheat, at 63s. 
 
 6d. per quarter - - - 11 19 If 
 168 stones of straw, at 2d. per 
 
 stone 1 8 If 
 
 £13 7 3> 
 
 Adopting the same course for the produce of 
 the acre cut first, i. e. a month before the ripe, 
 and which corresponds with sample No. 1., we 
 
 get 
 
 l&Ts = tne num ber of grains of the green in 
 the measure m ; whence 1 ^ 68 ^ 7l =the space oc- 
 cupied by one grain of green. 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 But (vide above), 2 |^ = space by one grain 
 
 of the ripe ; whence l^ll 30 bushels : 
 
 26-1356 bushels, the produce of the acre cut a 
 month before the ripe. And (vide " Table of 
 relative weights," &c, page 27.) 
 
 1 : 1| :: 160 stones : 195§ stones of straw, 
 the produce of the same ; whence we have 
 
 £ s. d. 
 
 26*1356 bushels of wheat, at 61s. 
 
 per quarter - - - ■ 9 19 3] 
 195§ stones of straw, at 2d. per 
 
 stone 1 12 7 
 
 £11 11 101 
 
 The total products of the three acres stand 
 
 thus: ~ £ s. d. 
 
 No. 3. Reaped when ripe - - 12 17 3± 
 No. 2. Reaped a fortnight earlier - 13 7 3| 
 No. 1. Reaped a month before the 
 
 ripe 11 11 101 
 
 Showing a loss of l/. 5s. 5d., or about 10 per 
 cent., by cutting very green ; and a gain of 
 10s. per acre, or nearly 4 per cent., by reaping 
 in a raw state, or a fortnight before it was 
 ripe. 
 
 " From the above details, it would appear 
 that it is the farmer's interest to cut his 
 wheat before it becomes thoroughly ripe. 
 Many, no doubt, will be disposed to doubt 
 deductions of such importance, drawn from 
 such limited experiments. This objection 
 the writer anticipates, because it is a natural 
 one, which he felt himself, when he con- 
 sidered the most important conclusions 
 which resulted ; when, however, he retraced, 
 step by step, his investigations, without any 
 variation in that result, he could no longer 
 refuse to believe it true till he proved it 
 untrue. He is aware that there are other 
 points of consideration in this subject — 
 that there are peculiarities in the nature of 
 land, of seed, or of season, and that there 
 is, as in all mans investigations, a pos- 
 sibility of error ; any of which circumstances 
 might materially affect the result of experi- 
 ments upon so limited a scale as the present 
 one ; and for this reason he will, if all be 
 well, give the subject a trial in the ensuing 
 harvest, on a much more comprehensive 
 scale. That the results of these experi- 
 ments will be corroborative in the main 
 points, he has no doubt, and for this cause 
 he feels no hesitation in laying the preceding 
 ' details ' before the agricultural world ; 
 moreover, as he has in no case given a de- 
 duction without the grounds upon which it 
 rested, the degree of ' acceptation' which 
 the reader may give it rests with himself. 
 The most sceptical he, however, flatters 
 himself will think it ' worthy ' of being 
 tested, if of nothing more. 
 
 " In testing, however, the conclusion 
 1275 
 
 which the foregoing experiments warrant, 
 there are some other advantages which 
 strengthen that conclusion, which must not 
 be forgotten. That they have not been 
 considered in the preceding pages, is not 
 because they are of no import, but, on the 
 contrary, because they are of such con- 
 sequence, that the writer could not assign 
 them an adequate momentary value. And 
 had he attempted to do so, he would „have # 
 at once made the details of his experiments 
 valueless by mixing the real results of prac- 
 tice with the imaginary ones of opinion. 
 Before the subject, however, can be 
 thoroughly sifted, they must be considered. 
 The circumstances are these : — independ- 
 ently of the 4 per cent, gain (according to 
 the foregoing experiments) by reaping our 
 wheat a fortnight before it is ripe, we have, 
 " 1st, Straw of a better quality. 
 " 2d, A better chance of securing the 
 crop ; and, 
 
 " 3d, A saving in securing it. 
 " 1st, ' Straw of a better quality.' This 
 is easily demonstrated, both for the purpose 
 of food and manure. 
 
 " As an article of food, the value of any 
 vegetable depends upon the gross quantity, 
 or upon the combination of certain sub- 
 stances termed soluble, from their entering 
 into union with water. This rule applies 
 particularly to the grasses which are used 
 for the purpose of feeding stock. The sub- 
 stances generally found in these grasses are 
 saccharine matter or sugar, mucilage or 
 starch, and gluten or albumen, and bitter 
 extract and saline matters. Of these the 
 sugar is, no doubt, the most, and the ex- 
 tractive matter the least, nutritive; the 
 latter having been found, by experiment, to 
 come away in the dung of the animal con- 
 suming it, while the other matters were ab- 
 sorbed by the body. 
 
 " Now, wheat is a species of grass, and 
 the value of the straw, as an article of food, 
 depends upon the quantity of nutritive 
 matter contained in it. ' This nutritive 
 matter must be very small in straw, as now 
 generally used,' the practical farmer will 
 say, ' for straw per se is but poor food, 
 and scarcely able to sustain l'fe.' This is 
 true ; ' from 400 grains of dry )arley straw,' 
 says Sir H. Davy, 'I obtained 8 grains of 
 matter soluble in water, which had a brown 
 colour, and tasted like mucilage. From 
 400 grains of wheaten straw, I obtained 5 
 grains of a similar substance.' With this 
 paucity of nutritive matter in the straw 
 before us, how can we account for the fact 
 that, in the sap of wheat, the straw, and in 
 all succulent plants, there is naturally a 
 great proportion of mucilaginous and saccha- 
 rine matter ? The answer is this : in all 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 grasses and succulent plants, the greatest 
 proportion of this is present before the 
 flower is dead ripe. So in wheat, when 
 we allow the straw to remain till thoroughly 
 ripe, a portion of the sugar is converted, by 
 the action of light, heat, &c, into mucilage, 
 and a great proportion of the nutritive 
 powers of the grass absorbed by the at- 
 mosphere, or lost in some manner; for, as 
 Mr. Sinclair observes in his Report of Ex- 
 periments on Grasses, ' there is a great dif- 
 ference between straws or leaves that have 
 been dried after they were cut in a succu- 
 lent state, and those which are dried (if I 
 may so express it) by Nature while grow- 
 ing. The former retain all their nutritive 
 powers, but the latter, if completely dry, 
 very little, if any! 
 
 " As a manure, too, the straw cut " raw " 
 is equally superior to the ripe ; for, as it is 
 an agricultural axiom, that the better the 
 food of an animal is, the better the manure 
 from it ; the manure from a stock consum- 
 ing this straw, containing a fair 'proportion 
 of nutritive matter, must be more valuable 
 than that from stock consuming the ripe 
 with scarcely any in it. 
 
 " But a great proportion of the farmer's 
 straw is converted into manure without un- 
 dergoing the process of mastication and 
 digestion. For this purpose the unripe 
 straw is equally preferable, as all unripe 
 vegetables are manures without preparation ; 
 the soluble and nutritive extracts which 
 they contain, being the principal agents 
 in forming vegetable manure ; as they not 
 only combine to render the process of de- 
 composition the more rapid, by breaking 
 down the woody fibres, &c. in the manure 
 heap, but are also, in their pure and separate 
 states, stimulants to vegetation. 
 
 " It may be urged, that the increased 
 value of the straw is more in favour of that 
 cut very green (No. 1.) than that cut a 
 fortnight later (No. 2). This is true; but 
 to produce this increase of value, if we cut 
 our wheat so early as No. 1, we have a 
 desiccation of the grain to such an extent as 
 to diminish the measured produce above 12 
 per cent. ; while, by reaping with No. 2, we 
 are, so far from injuring either sample or 
 measure, actually improving both, and at 
 the same time gaining above 5 per cent, 
 in the weight, and at least as much in the 
 quality of the straw. For the increase of 
 weight in the latter is not produced by a 
 greater produce, but by the presence of a 
 greater portion of those soluble substances 
 wliich are alike necessary to animal and 
 vegetable life— are alike the nutritive part 
 of food and the quickening principle of 
 manure. 
 
 "■2d, We come now i<> the second advan- 
 127G 
 
 tage, the ' better chance of securing the 
 crop.' 
 
 " This is self-evident. We gain a fort- 
 night at the commencement of harvest. If 
 the weather be good, we can secure a great 
 portion of our wheat before we should 
 scarcely have begun upon the old system. 
 If not, we can wait ; so, under any circum- 
 stances, our chances of securing the grain 
 must be greater. Moreover, if we take a 
 retrospect of the harvests for a number of 
 years, we shall find that nearly all the early 
 harvests have been what we term ' good ' 
 ones, i. e. good as regards weather, and the 
 condition in which the grain was secured. 
 When the peculiarities of our climate, its 
 general fickleness, and its still greater lia- 
 bility to change as the autumn advances, 
 are considered, this will require no expla- 
 nation. 
 
 " If we look, too, at the later harvests, 
 we shall, I venture to say, find, that in nine 
 cases out of ten, the grain which was first 
 cut was secured in the best condition. As 
 an example of this, the crop of 1839 will 
 suffice. The crops were late, the beginning 
 of reaping the same, and the result was, 
 that in the North of England full 75 per 
 cent, of the whole wheat crop was damaged. 
 And full 75 per cent, of that which was 
 uninjured, I will also venture to say, was 
 that which was cut the first. In Yorkshire 
 this was especially seen ; for the earliest 
 wheat was, with the greatest difficulty, se- 
 cured. In this village (North Deighton) 
 not a sheaf was in stack till the day before, 
 and on some farms, the very day on which 
 the rainy weather set in. 
 
 " The frequent recurrence of such years 
 as this, will teach the value of even a fort- 
 night, better than any thing that can be 
 said here. And that they will recur is be- 
 yond a doubt. What has happened once 
 may happen again, but what has frequently 
 happened (as this sort of harvest has), with 
 the same causes in operation, we are war- 
 ranted in saying will happen again, and 
 often. 
 
 " 3d, The saving in securing the crop is a 
 double one. In the first place, there is less 
 waste in moving or reaping, and no danger 
 of ' shaking ' or 4 necking ' in strong winds. 
 In the second place, there is an absolute 
 economy in the expense of reaping the crop, 
 which may be thus illustrated. 
 
 " The busy period of harvest with the 
 farmer generally extends over four or five 
 weeks. In this month a certain portion of 
 his work is done by his own hands, i. e. by 
 the regular labourers and servants of the 
 farm ; therefore, by beginning a fortnight 
 sooner, and extending the season of harvest 
 over six weeks instead of four, it is evident 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 that these regular servants would cut a 
 much greater proportion of his crop — in 
 fact one-half more. By this he is rendered 
 less dependent on those extraneous ' helps ' 
 or * takers ' who in the seasons of hurry and 
 anxiety, fix their own terms. 
 
 " To assign a value for these advantages 
 is, as has been said before, for the farmer 
 himself; and it will not be an insignificant 
 one. For if beginning harvest a fortnight 
 earlier enables him to save a crop from 
 spoiling once in a lifetime, — if the improved 
 quality of his straw as food for his stock, 
 allows him to plough out an acre more, or 
 to pasture another acre of clover with feed- 
 ing stock, instead of mowing it for his lean 
 stock, every grain saved, every extra bushel 
 of com produced, and every extra head of 
 stock fed, is a benefit to the whole com- 
 munity as well as to himself, — is so much 
 added to the gross produce and wealth of 
 the country : there being, in fact, an in- 
 creased return without an increased outlay.' 1 '' 
 (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. xii. p. 24.) 
 
 In a recent obliging communication, with 
 reference to this important subject, made 
 to me (March, 1842) by Mr. John Hannam, 
 he observes in reference to the experi- 
 ments above detailed, " At the time I 
 wrote you last I stated that the bulk of the 
 wheat reaped by me during the present 
 harvest was unthrashed. I could therefore 
 only give you an idea of the quality of the 
 raw and the ripe by public opinion from a 
 sample sheaf. Since then the various cut- 
 tings (for I made several) have been thrashed 
 and ground. The result of which was, 3^ 
 bushels of the ripe gave 10 st. 11 lb. of 
 good flour, 1 st. 9 lb. of seconds (technically 
 termed ' sharps '), and 2 st. 5 lb. of bran, 
 3i bushels of raw gave 12 st. 6 lb. of flour, 
 12 lbs. of sharps, and 2 st. 1 lb. of bran. 
 From which it appears that the raw cut 
 wheat gave 6f lbs. of flour to the bushel 
 more than the ripe gave, while the latter 
 gave 3-f lbs. more sharps and \± lb. more 
 bran than the former per bushel. 
 
 " Your question as to the effect of early 
 reaping upon the vegetative powers of the 
 seed I have not answered, because I can 
 give no answer but what depends more 
 upon opinion than fact. I have never seen 
 a practical trial made of wheat, as seed, in 
 the various conditions necessary to warrant 
 a final and definite conclusion. An American 
 writer, commenting upon my experiments, 
 while he coincides with my conclusions as 
 incontrovertible, says that it is ' equally 
 indisputable ' that the ripe wheat is prefer- 
 able for seed. For all this, I am not dis- 
 posed to assent blindly to any such doctrine, 
 because I have seen early cut wheat used 
 with perfect success as seed many times." 
 1277 
 
 Produce. — The fair produce of wheat 
 (as is well observed by the author of British 
 Husbandry) varies so much upon different 
 kinds of land, and is so much governed by 
 climate and mode of cultivation, that it is 
 difficult to form any acreable estimate of 
 the amount or soils of average quality in 
 ordinary seasons and under the common 
 course of management ; it may, however, 
 be fairly calculated at 3 quarters, or, per- 
 haps, 28 bushels per imperial acre.. To 
 produce the latter quantity, circumstances 
 must, however, be favourable, and anything 
 beyond that may be considered large, though 
 on some land four to five quarters are not 
 unusual. The weight may average 60 lbs. 
 per bushel. The straw is generally reckoned 
 to be about double the weight of the grain ; 
 an acre producing three quarters of wheat 
 of the ordinary quality may therefore be 
 presumed to yield about 26 cwt. 
 
 The use to which the grain is applied is 
 almost exclusively that of food in its various 
 preparations, and chiefly in that of bread, 
 though a considerable quantity — but gene- 
 rally of an inferior or damaged kind — is 
 employed in the manufacture of starch. 
 This preference is due, not only to the 
 superiority of its nutritive properties, but 
 also to their peculiar nature ; for " more 
 water is consolidated in bread made from 
 barley, and still more in that from oats ; 
 but the gluten in wheat being in a much 
 larger quantity than in any other grain, 
 seems to form a combination with the starch 
 and water which renders it more digest- 
 ible than any other." (Lects. on Agr. 
 Chem., p. 121.) See Flour, Bread, and 
 Gluten. 
 
 STATEMENT of the Decennial Fluctuations in the 
 Price of Wheat, from 1646 to 1815; from 1816 to 1828 ; 
 and from 1829 to 1841; exhibiting the Highest and 
 Lowest Annual Average in each Decennial Period, 
 and the Per-centage Amount of Difference. 
 
 Periods. 
 
 .Annual Average 
 Price. 
 
 Highest. Lowest. 
 
 Per- 
 centage 
 Differ- 
 ence. 
 
 
 
 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 
 d. 
 
 
 
 
 '1646 to 1655 
 
 77 
 
 10 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 227- 
 
 
 
 1656 
 
 „ 1665 
 
 67 
 
 9 
 
 37 
 
 1 
 
 82' 
 
 
 
 1666 
 
 ,„ 1675 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 33 
 
 0 
 
 90- 
 
 
 
 1676 
 
 „ 1685 
 
 55 
 
 
 34 
 
 9 
 
 58- 
 
 
 
 1686 
 
 „ 1695 
 
 61 
 
 .? 
 
 23 
 
 0 
 
 169- 
 
 
 
 1696 
 
 „ 1705 
 
 65 
 
 0 
 
 26 
 
 11 
 
 141- 
 
 
 
 1706 
 
 „ 1715 
 
 71 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 9 
 
 202- 
 
 
 
 1716 
 
 „ 1725 
 
 44 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 9 
 
 40- 
 
 1st Period 
 
 
 1726 
 
 „ 1735 
 
 49 
 
 11 
 
 24 
 
 4 
 
 105- 
 
 
 
 1736 
 
 „ 1745 
 
 46 
 
 5 
 
 22 
 
 9 
 
 104- 
 
 
 
 1746 
 
 „ 1755 
 
 40 
 
 10 
 
 29 
 
 8 
 
 37- 
 
 
 
 1756 
 
 „ 1765 
 
 55 
 
 0 
 
 27 
 
 7 
 
 99- 
 
 
 
 1766 
 
 „ 1775 
 
 59 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 41- 
 
 
 
 1776 
 
 „ 1785 
 
 54 
 
 
 34 
 
 8 
 
 56- 
 
 
 
 1786 
 
 „ 1795 
 
 75 
 
 I 
 
 40 
 
 0 
 
 87- 
 
 
 
 1796 
 
 „ 1805 
 
 119 
 
 
 51 
 
 10 
 
 130- 
 
 
 
 .1806 
 
 ; , 1815 
 
 126 
 
 i 
 
 65 
 
 7 
 
 92- 
 
 2d Period 
 
 
 1816 
 
 „ 1828 
 
 96 
 
 n 
 
 44 
 
 7 
 
 117" 
 
 3d Period 
 
 
 1829 
 
 „ 1841 
 
 70 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 4 
 
 79- 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Parliamentary Papers relating to Wheat and other Grain. 
 
 Statement of the Quantities of each Kind of Grain imported, from 1828 to 1841. 
 
 
 Quantities imported. 
 
 Quantities entered for 
 Home Consumption. 
 
 Quantities remaining 
 in Warehouse at the 
 End of each Year. 
 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Total. 
 
 WHEAT and 
 WHEAT FLOUR. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1828 (from 15th July) 
 
 1829 - 
 
 1830 - 
 
 1831 - - - 
 
 1832 - 
 
 1833 - 
 
 1834 - 
 
 1835 - 
 
 1836 - 
 
 1837 - 
 
 1838 - 
 
 1839 - 
 
 1840 - 
 1841* - 
 
 570,799 
 1,715,442 
 1,592,768 
 2,083,812 
 345,386 
 183,229 
 109,734 
 43,801 
 234,503 
 544,150 
 1,355,314 
 2,862,833 
 2,284,289 
 2,524,443 
 
 20,130 
 10,339 
 70,515 
 226,158 
 124,516 
 114,336 
 66,587 
 23,104 
 7,240 
 15,792 
 16,643 
 12,772 
 148,476 
 259,159 
 
 590,929 
 1,725,781 
 1,663,283 
 2,309,970 
 469,902 
 297,565 
 176,321 
 66,905 
 241,743 
 559,942 
 1,371,957 
 2,875,605 
 2,432,765 
 2,783,602 
 
 740,458 
 1,434,096 
 1,667,228 
 1,369,044 
 182,770 
 1,330 
 290 
 124 
 1 ,045 
 210,897 
 1,818,828 
 2,698,981 
 2,287,637 
 2,388,072 
 
 20,021 
 8,605 
 60,559 
 135,696 
 193,985 
 82,706 
 64,684 
 28,430 
 29,062 
 33,375 
 29,647 
 12,742 
 113,799 
 259,736 
 
 760,479 
 1,442,701 
 1,727,847 
 1,506,740 
 376,755 
 84,036 
 64,974 
 28,554 
 30,107 
 244,272 
 1,848,475 
 2,711,723 
 2,401,436 
 2,647,808 
 
 32,005 
 246,092 
 143,131 
 801,527 
 673,673 
 764,984 
 715,132 
 627,180 
 599,463 
 630,310 
 
 24,229 
 174,188 
 102,845 
 
 212 
 1,660 
 11,236 
 99,925 
 28,620 
 57,868 
 59,053 
 53,978 
 31,980 
 14,361 
 1,500 
 1,494 
 36,563 
 
 32,217 
 247,752 
 154,367 
 901,445 
 702,293 
 822,852 
 774,185 
 681,158 
 631,443 
 644,671 
 
 25,729 
 175,682 
 139,408 
 
 Total 
 
 16,450,503 
 
 1,115,767 
 
 17,566,270 
 
 14,800,860 
 
 1,075,047 
 
 15,875,907 
 
 
 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828 (from .15th July) 
 
 1829 - 
 
 1830 - 
 
 1831 - 
 
 1832 - 
 
 1833 - 
 
 1834 - 
 
 1835 - 
 
 1836 - 
 
 1837 - 
 
 1838 - 
 
 1839 -. 
 
 1840 - 
 1841* - 
 
 125,490 
 305,798 
 132,210 
 368,809 
 101,713 
 85,221 
 88,562 
 67,796 
 83,483 
 87,791 
 2,203 
 579,405 
 625,437 
 264,460 
 
 - 
 
 223 
 97 
 
 525 
 
 125,490 
 305,798 
 132,210 
 369,032 
 * 101,810 
 85,221 
 88,562 
 67,796 
 83,483 
 87,791 
 2,203 
 ' 579,405 
 625,437 
 264,985 
 
 195,075 
 209,799 
 
 48,505 
 514,395 
 
 77,891 
 1,226 
 
 11,071 
 136,853 
 110,021 
 
 47,475 
 8,192 
 594,301 
 619,801 
 222,312 
 
 - 
 
 215 
 97 
 
 525 
 
 195,075 
 229,799 
 
 48,505 
 514,610 
 
 77,988 
 1,226 
 
 11,071 
 136,853 
 110,021 
 
 47,475 
 8,192 
 594,301 
 619,801 
 222,837 
 
 699 
 64,979 
 147,025 
 1,889 
 17,504 
 98,341 
 165,717 
 51,762 
 7,078 
 37,053 
 11,409 
 1,121 
 9,110 
 
 - 
 
 699 
 64,979 
 147,025 
 1,889 
 17,504 
 98,341 
 165,717 
 51,762 
 7,078 
 37,053 
 11,409 
 1,121 
 9,110 
 
 Total 
 
 2,918,378 
 
 845 
 
 2,919,223 
 
 2,816,917 
 
 837 
 
 2,817,754 
 
 
 
 
 OATS and OAT- 
 MEAL. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828 (from 15th July) 
 
 1829 - 
 
 1830 - 
 
 1831 - - - 
 
 1832 - 
 
 1833 - 
 
 1834 - 
 
 1835 - 
 
 1836 - 
 
 1837 - 
 
 1838 - 
 
 1839 - 
 
 1840 - . - 
 1841*- 
 
 147,251 
 548,588 
 511,936 
 615,117 
 31,138 
 23,334 
 175,026 
 113,188 
 131,466 
 418,885 
 55,539 
 670,453 
 541,400 
 123,006 
 
 580 
 61 
 1,555 
 7,099 
 
 709 
 
 4 
 60 
 4,863 
 8,019 
 
 147,831 
 548,649 
 513,491 
 622,216 
 31,847 
 23,334 
 175,026 
 113,188 
 131,466 
 418,885 
 55,543 
 670,513 
 546,263 
 131,025 
 
 11,790 
 
 189,815 
 902,917 
 348 666 
 2,150 
 975 
 
 55,620 
 176,142 
 
 97,197 
 334,024 
 
 1 1 ,068 
 862,729 
 513,338 
 
 20,769 
 
 580 
 61 
 1,555 
 6,826 
 
 932 
 
 4 
 60 
 3,714 
 7,149 
 
 12,370 
 189,876 
 904,472 
 355,492 
 3,082 
 975 
 
 55,620 
 176,142 
 
 97,197 
 334,024 
 
 11,072 
 862,789 
 517,052 
 
 27,918 
 
 143,606 
 443,451 
 25,726 
 282,251 
 225,175 
 226,384 
 331,521 
 239,688 
 216,660 
 253,854 
 242,199 
 15,845 
 15,011 
 
 233 
 975 
 
 143,606 
 443,451 
 25,726 
 282,484 
 225,175 
 226,384 
 331,521 
 239,688 
 216,660 
 253,854 
 242,199 
 15,845 
 15,986 
 
 Total 
 
 4,106,327 
 
 22,950 
 
 4,129,277 
 
 3,527,200 
 
 20,881 
 
 3,548,081 
 
 
 
 
 * Note. — The Returns for 1841 will be liable to alteration (although not to any considerable extent) when the 
 Accounts of that year shall have been finally adjusted. 
 
 1278 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 
 Quantities imported. 
 
 Quantities entered for 
 Home Consumption. 
 
 Quantities remaining in 
 Warehouse at the End of 
 each Year. 
 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 (Total. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Foreign. 
 
 Colonial. 
 
 Total. 
 
 RYE, from 15 
 July — 
 
 1828 - - 
 
 1829 - - 
 
 1830 - - 
 
 1831 - - 
 
 1832 - - 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 1834 - - 
 
 1835 - - 
 
 1836 - - 
 1837 
 
 1838 - - 
 1839 
 
 1840 - - 
 1841* - - 
 
 Qrs. 
 28,172 
 67,392 
 44,784 
 93,006 
 4,646 
 3.370 
 ' 10 
 
 6,626 
 30,711 
 1,781 
 153,673 
 3,332 
 15,600 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 _ 
 
 Qrs. 
 28,172 
 67,392 
 44,784 
 93,006 
 4,646 
 3,370 
 10 
 
 6,626 
 30,711 
 
 1,781 
 153,673 
 
 3,332 
 15,600 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 144 
 64,963 
 19,189 
 56,203 
 60 
 1 
 
 22 
 3 
 18 
 19,576 
 2,517 
 152,582 
 1,857 
 518 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 144 
 
 64,963 
 19,189 
 56,203 
 60 
 1 
 
 22 
 3 
 18 
 19,576 
 2,517 
 152,582 
 1.857 
 518 
 
 Qrs. 
 31,609 
 26,435 
 17,604 
 20,703 
 4,054 
 5,720 
 5,108 
 3,450 
 6,805 
 12,047 
 5,079 
 3,036 
 3,326 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 : : 
 - - 
 
 Qrs. 
 31.609 
 26,435 
 17,604 
 20,703 
 4,054 
 5,720 
 5,108 
 3,450 
 6,805 
 12,047 
 5,079 
 3,036 
 3,326 
 
 Total 
 
 453,103 
 
 
 453,103 
 
 317,653 
 
 
 317,653 
 
 
 
 
 PEAS, from 15 
 July — 
 
 1828 - - 
 
 1829 - - 
 
 1830 - - 
 
 1831 - - 
 
 1832 - - 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 1834 - - 
 
 1835 - - 
 
 1836 - - 
 1837 
 
 1838 - - 
 1 839 
 
 1840 - - 
 
 1841 * - - 
 
 41,295 
 39,272 
 32,667 
 58,925 
 20,190 
 15,879 
 67,595 
 23,566 
 78,289 
 111,254 
 29,753 
 139,734 
 154,270 
 132,769 
 
 1,499 
 1,140 
 1,905 
 582 
 8 
 11 
 285 
 650 
 10 
 7 
 95 
 278 
 4,216 
 16,728 
 
 42,794 
 40,412 
 34,572 
 59,507 
 20,198 
 15,890 
 67,880 
 24,216 
 78,299 
 111,261 
 29,848 
 140,012 
 158,486 
 149,497 
 
 42,269 
 35,271 
 42,598 
 57,365 
 16,587 
 18,081 
 57,417 
 24,525 
 80,918 
 87,608 
 11,525 
 169,991 
 155,202 
 118,113 
 
 1,499 
 1,140 
 1,909 
 612 
 8 
 11 
 285 
 659 
 10 
 7 
 93 
 279 
 4,255 
 14,744 
 
 43,768 
 36,411 
 44,507 
 57,977 
 16,595 
 18,092 
 57,702 
 25,184 
 80,928 
 87,615 
 11,618 
 170,270 
 159,457 
 132,857 
 
 8,338 
 10,207 
 192 
 699 
 3,088 
 315 
 9,935 
 7,705 
 3,154 
 22,929 
 35,120 
 3,867 
 2,904 
 
 : : 
 i 
 
 8,338- 
 10,207 
 192 
 699 
 3,088 
 315 
 9,935 
 7,705 
 3,154 
 22,929 
 35,121 
 3,867 
 2,904 
 
 Total - 
 
 945,458 
 
 27,414 
 
 972,872 
 
 917,470 
 
 25,511 
 
 942,981 
 
 
 
 
 BEANS, from 
 15 July— 
 
 1828 - - 
 
 1829 - - 
 
 1830 - - 
 
 1831 - - 
 
 1832 - - 
 
 1833 - - 
 
 1834 - - 
 
 1835 - - 
 
 1836 - - 
 1837 
 
 1838 - - 
 1839 
 
 1840 - - 
 
 1841 * - - 
 
 37,230 
 46,487 
 16,909 
 22,345 
 27,914 
 22,859 
 47,756 
 34,380 
 93,056 
 105,607 
 64,358 
 109,810 
 129,361 
 294,532 
 
 - 
 
 57 
 
 37,230 
 46,487 
 16,909 
 22,345 
 27,914 
 22,859 
 47,756 
 34,380 
 93,056 
 105,607 
 64,358 
 109,810 
 129,418 
 294,532 
 
 72,863 
 61,406 
 18,697 
 17,678 
 7,439 
 6,028 
 44,566 
 69,824 
 87,796 
 109,076 
 54,240 
 123,597 
 129,460 
 267,697 
 
 _ 
 
 57 
 
 72,863 
 61,406 
 18,697 
 17,678 
 7,439 
 6,028 
 44,566 
 69,824 
 87,796 
 109,076 
 54,240 
 123,597 
 129,517 
 267,697 
 
 17,951 
 2,557 
 808 
 5,305 
 20.962 
 37,223 
 38,557 
 2,306 
 7,374 
 4,519 
 14,314 
 701 
 760 
 
 _ 
 
 17,951 
 2,557 
 808 
 5,305 
 20,962 
 37,223 
 38,557 
 2,306 
 7,374 
 4,519 
 14,314 
 701 
 760 
 
 Total 
 
 1,052,604 
 
 57 
 
 1,052,661 
 
 1,070,367 
 
 57 
 
 1,070,424 
 
 
 
 
 Previously* to 1833, the monthly returns of the importation and consumption of foreign and colonial corn were 
 collected together, in annual periods, commencing on 1st January, and terminating on 31st December. From 1833, 
 downwards, they have been made up, like the other accounts of this department, in periods commencing on 6th Ja- 
 nuary in each year, and terminating on 5th January in the year succeeding. This circumstance is necessary to be 
 noted, inasmuch as it explains why the aggregate imports and consumption of the several years, from 1828 to 1832 
 inclusive, as exhibited in the present statement, will be found to differ to a small extent from the quantities shown 
 in other accounts, which have been compiled, not, as in this case, from special monthly returns of the corn trade, but 
 from the ordinary records of the general commerce of the country. 
 
 * Note. — The returns for 1841 will be liable to alteration (although not to any considerable extent) when the ac- 
 counts of that year shall have been finally adjusted. 
 
 Statement of the Septennial Prices of each kind of Grain, as prepared for the Purposes of the Tithe Commission, 
 
 in each Year, from 1835 to 1841. 
 
 Periods of Seven Years 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Prices per Imperial Bushel 
 
 
 
 
 
 ending Christmas. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Barley . 
 
 Oats. 
 
 R> 
 
 e. 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Peas. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 s. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 5. 
 
 d. 
 
 1835 
 
 7 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 61 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1836 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 llf 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 4 
 
 It 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 1837 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 n* 
 
 2 
 
 f 
 
 4 
 
 4i 
 
 4 
 
 ,? 
 
 4 
 
 I* 
 
 1838 
 
 6 
 
 p 
 
 3 
 
 9f 
 
 2 
 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 ? 
 
 4 
 
 1839 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 
 H 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 1840 
 
 6 
 
 115 
 
 4 
 
 l 
 
 2 
 
 10f 
 
 4 
 
 3 »i 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 10i 
 
 1841 
 
 7 
 
 3| 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 1H 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 ( 
 
 4 
 
 10A 
 
 1279 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of the Quantities of "Wheat returned as sold in England and Wales, by the Corn Inspectors, in each Week 
 and each Year, from 11th July, 1828, to 31st December, 1841 (omitting the Years 1829 and 1831). 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 1841. 
 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 First 
 
 Weeks. 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 Week 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ending 
 
 
 lTjuly. 
 
 i n jarf 
 
 6 Jan. 
 
 4° Jaru 
 
 3 Jar/? 
 
 2 Jan. 
 
 1 Jan. 
 
 ^"janf 
 
 | n jariT 
 
 Tjan! 
 
 Tjarf 
 
 1 JanT 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 _ 
 
 vjrs. 
 
 
 
 67,704 
 
 63 715 
 
 69 846 
 
 64 959 
 
 76,915 
 
 77 034 
 
 76 407 
 
 69,137 
 
 67 867 
 
 68 287 
 
 
 
 
 60 067 
 
 67 243 
 
 68 018 
 
 65 1 16 
 
 67 120 
 
 72 870 
 
 75 940 
 
 71 853 
 
 58 975 
 
 
 08,991) 
 
 3 
 
 
 70'652 
 
 67319 
 
 n, 107 
 
 73342 
 
 80,'ll5 
 
 91346 
 
 80326 
 
 73 303 
 
 50354 
 
 79350 
 
 69,815 
 
 
 
 65,434 
 
 67,541 
 
 70 774 
 
 68 681 
 
 73 974 
 
 93 075 
 
 76 591 
 
 76 748 
 
 43 702 
 
 73 052 
 
 
 5 
 
 : : 
 
 56,770 
 
 62343 
 
 68366 
 
 72385 
 
 88,626 
 
 92387 
 
 54,306 
 
 71,774 
 
 43365 
 
 70333 
 
 67361 
 
 g 
 
 
 69 904 
 
 66 117 
 
 66 171 
 
 70 192 
 
 82 333 
 
 79 560 
 
 63 618 
 
 68 246 
 
 40 713 
 
 71 055 
 
 78,236 
 
 
 
 72 652 
 
 60 000 
 
 61 031 
 
 69'969 
 
 78 720 
 
 81 110 
 
 62 865 
 
 66 922 
 
 39 409 
 
 75 218 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 70 506 
 
 57 323 
 
 62 429 
 
 67 093 
 
 76 351 
 
 98 979 
 
 
 78 499 
 
 44 253 
 
 75 607 
 
 77378 
 
 9 
 
 
 75 304 
 
 55 436 
 
 61 235 
 
 65 503 
 
 71 757 
 
 90 240 
 
 78 007 
 
 74737 
 
 48 466 
 
 79 087 
 
 76,813 
 
 10 
 
 
 78 742 
 
 58 097 
 
 56 534 
 
 60342 
 
 67 056 
 
 77 348 
 
 74,127 
 
 76 026 
 
 51 074 
 
 84 764 
 
 
 U 
 
 
 67' 126 
 
 62317 
 
 59 243 
 
 58324 
 
 70 252 
 
 71 800 
 
 78 290 
 
 86 91 1 
 
 46 331 
 
 76 614 
 
 69 287 
 
 12 
 
 
 72345 
 
 60,951 
 
 60 736 
 
 53 361 
 
 71398 
 
 68 623 
 
 71 200 
 
 86 842 
 
 40 208 
 
 80 706 
 
 68 753 
 
 13 
 
 
 78'795 
 
 56 790 
 
 67 203 
 
 57329 
 
 72 318 
 
 81 056 
 
 71 826 
 
 75 665 
 
 37 018 
 
 
 73,502 
 
 14 
 
 
 71,613 
 
 57,247 
 
 64 678 
 
 59,345 
 
 70 204 
 
 72,071 
 
 69.646 
 
 72 740 
 
 33 183 
 
 67 073 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 66372 
 
 57358 
 
 60 061 
 
 65373 
 
 62 953 
 
 76 787 
 
 
 64 521 
 
 44 226 
 
 68 696 
 
 61 088 
 
 16 
 
 : - 
 
 67383 
 
 62376 
 
 53',759 
 
 69360 
 
 67382 
 
 87382 
 
 73,865 
 
 67334 
 
 44344 
 
 76,475 
 
 57J 30 
 
 17 
 
 
 63,276 
 
 64,481 
 
 56,178 
 
 73,131 
 
 63,696 
 
 81,864 
 
 79,901 
 
 71 990 
 
 48 219 
 
 59 836 
 
 64 716 
 
 18 
 
 
 62343 
 
 65365 
 
 59341 
 
 74,762 
 
 64339 
 
 65342 
 
 85398 
 
 87321 
 
 48389 
 
 61362 
 
 70310 
 
 19 
 
 
 54,592 
 
 68,144 
 
 56 474 
 
 72,067 
 
 79 829 
 
 69 484 
 
 70 383 
 
 90 371 
 
 46 605 
 
 71 261 
 
 65 351 
 
 20 
 
 
 51 308 
 
 65396 
 
 62 507 
 
 59,847 
 
 75361 
 
 83 115 
 
 68 503 
 
 85 996 
 
 57 242 
 
 70 237 
 
 60 214 
 
 21 
 
 
 57,383 
 
 59313 
 
 
 65 459 
 
 75 631 
 
 80 607 
 
 74 851 
 
 87 996 
 
 57 668 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 52,926 
 
 65,481 
 
 55 404 
 
 62 855 
 
 68 744 
 
 69 559 
 
 82 080 
 
 95 631 
 
 50 215 
 
 69 807 
 
 68293 
 
 23 
 
 
 55343 
 
 66,481 
 
 56 335 
 
 68301 
 
 78 628 
 
 70 244 
 
 85 248 
 
 100 234 
 
 52 518 
 
 76 384 
 
 69 071 
 
 24 
 
 
 55,495 
 
 68384 
 
 61 776 
 
 69,553 
 
 77632 
 
 83396 
 
 86 103 
 
 98 469 
 
 55 096 
 
 66 156 
 
 71 294 
 
 25 
 
 
 59,417 
 
 70,717 
 
 69 624 
 
 73 313 
 
 66 547 
 
 82 564 
 
 84 738 
 
 87 514 
 
 58 301 
 
 uo,ouu 
 
 71 201 
 
 26 
 
 
 62352 
 
 62^138 
 
 71 637 
 
 65 626 
 
 56 419 
 
 72,415 
 
 73'501 
 
 97 189 
 
 52 100 
 
 69 976 
 
 79 898 
 
 27 
 
 
 54,775 
 
 56,263 
 
 70 287 
 
 67,223 
 
 58 720 
 
 69 221 
 
 62 375 
 
 80 672 
 
 55 086 
 
 70 421 
 
 71 Q52 
 
 28 
 
 42,607 
 
 51 '806 
 
 45 660 
 
 CO fV70 
 
 60 370 
 
 59 597 
 
 61 413 
 
 53 976 
 
 
 54 977 
 
 74 826 
 
 
 29 
 
 42324 
 
 53324 
 
 49376 
 
 84,874 
 
 60324 
 
 65381 
 
 56395 
 
 61J08 
 
 75377 
 
 54 J 54 
 
 84J32 
 
 85328 
 
 30 
 
 57,476 
 
 53,130 
 
 47,735 
 
 78 806 
 
 64 071 
 
 73 261 
 
 52 123 
 
 71 153 
 
 72 254 
 
 54 576 
 
 83 587 
 
 94 647 
 
 31 
 
 69367 
 
 46329 
 
 52317 
 
 84 332 
 
 70341 
 
 74355 
 
 66365 
 
 71377 
 
 85388 
 
 6o'l31 
 
 100344 
 
 108387 
 
 32 
 
 76 526 
 
 39 160 
 
 53 867 
 
 
 73 500 
 
 64 772 
 
 80 204 
 
 78 815 
 
 91 371 
 
 69 433 
 
 107 179 
 
 110 076 
 
 33 
 
 69*945 
 
 31 458 
 
 47 695 
 
 56 498 
 
 76 592 
 
 62 701 
 
 82 098 
 
 84 312 
 
 1 n» vrn. 
 
 iwo,o/ 0 
 
 61 610 
 
 84 687 
 
 111 346 
 
 34 
 
 '66 064 
 
 32 743 
 
 40 761 
 
 
 69 949 
 
 51 216 
 
 56 344 
 
 
 
 66 569 
 
 86 1 95 
 
 
 35 
 
 57 846 
 
 28 019 
 
 45 966 
 
 71 039 
 
 71 507 
 
 53 472 
 
 48 997 
 
 5o'o90 
 
 62596 
 
 62 703 
 
 88 461 
 
 
 36 
 
 60 51 1 
 
 31 867 
 
 63 247 
 
 74 984 
 
 77 797 
 
 61 046 
 
 56 584 
 
 61 192 
 
 48 906 
 
 72 156 
 
 58 725 
 
 
 37 
 
 51 726 
 
 43 266 
 
 70 920 
 
 
 79 385 
 
 69 913 
 
 69 678 
 
 
 71 538 
 
 59 140 
 
 
 38 
 
 68 305 
 
 55 356 
 
 78 667 
 
 ob,717 
 
 95 153 
 
 86 234 
 
 96 296 
 
 83 216 
 
 66 697 
 
 81 621 
 
 77 247 
 
 54*347 
 
 39 
 
 77 2 11 
 
 56,262 
 
 81 533 
 
 89,271 
 
 85 817 
 
 95 225 
 
 92 585 
 
 87 935 
 
 76 462 
 
 
 88 718 
 
 66,192 
 
 40 
 
 76 107 
 
 63 184 
 
 76 084 
 
 82 988 
 
 
 95 971 
 
 1 c\(\ hop. 
 
 85 970 
 
 87 285 
 
 98 922 
 
 89 258 
 
 77 382 
 
 41 
 
 87,617 
 
 69 669 
 
 71 535 
 
 
 91 568 
 
 98 261 
 
 91 125 
 
 81 516 
 
 83 130 
 
 87 580 
 
 74 677 
 
 81 301 
 
 42 
 
 76 867 
 
 66 128 
 
 72 809 
 
 74318 
 
 78 412 
 
 93 753 
 
 94 309 
 
 74 638 
 
 75 007 
 
 75 980 
 
 69 896 
 
 00,cFUU 
 
 43 
 
 64'312 
 
 57,'l72 
 
 68',442 
 
 75,212 
 
 84,838 
 
 85336 
 
 101329 
 
 70337 
 
 73^530 
 
 77301 
 
 61 391 
 
 79,760 
 
 44 
 
 59,231 
 
 54,028 
 
 63,173 
 
 72,546 
 
 83,239 
 
 78,411 
 
 100,623 
 
 71,349 
 
 72,649 
 
 77,446 
 
 61,423 
 
 71,731 
 
 45 
 
 64,681 
 
 57,692 
 
 67,966 
 
 71,707 
 
 84,274 
 
 83,664 
 
 101,966 
 
 69,000 
 
 70,059 
 
 75,422 
 
 64,964 
 
 72,175 
 
 46 
 
 58,633 
 
 60,142 
 
 69,747 
 
 69,896 
 
 75,902 
 
 82,834 
 
 127,252 
 
 78,536 
 
 77,322 
 
 82,401 
 
 67,325 
 
 67,541 
 
 47 
 
 56,805 
 
 61,985 
 
 75,279 
 
 77,909 
 
 89,071 
 
 91,956 
 
 140,572 
 
 80,627 
 
 70,371 
 
 74,539 
 
 67,0§7 
 
 56,889 
 
 48 
 
 48,582 
 
 66,454 
 
 75,561 
 
 70,673 
 
 92,024 
 
 88.404 
 
 97,882 
 
 83373 
 
 77,890 
 
 75,083 
 
 64,706 
 
 70,908 
 
 49 
 
 46,379 
 
 64,601 
 
 79,351 
 
 76,100 
 
 80,019 
 
 89,172 
 
 89,954 
 
 92,777 
 
 81,524 
 
 76,236 
 
 65,269 
 
 65,133 
 
 50 
 
 52,038 
 
 67,599 
 
 74,189 
 
 72,313 
 
 78,674 
 
 88,463 
 
 102,401 
 
 97,345 
 
 80,045 
 
 78,252 
 
 76,487 
 
 59,309 
 
 51 
 
 54,885 
 
 67,182 
 
 67,763 
 
 74,732 
 
 82,783 
 
 88,702 
 
 96,442 
 
 92,956 
 
 74,190 
 
 85,907 
 
 79,431 
 
 63,905 
 
 52 
 
 58,947 
 
 70,966 
 
 60,379 
 
 69,280 
 
 81,254 
 
 90,907 
 
 96,082 
 
 77,091 
 
 72,150 
 
 82,931 
 
 76,937 
 
 68,605 
 
 53 
 
 
 61,829 
 
 
 
 
 91,845 
 
 
 
 
 
 64,296 
 
 Total 
 
 1545,004 
 
 3152,857 
 
 3296,381 
 
 3576,653 
 
 3768,602 
 
 3927,620 
 
 4393,025 
 
 3889,007 
 
 4064,305 
 
 3174,680 
 
 3850,278 
 
 3913,927 
 
 1'260 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of the Total Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour imported into and exported from Great Britain, 
 
 in each Year from 1G97 to 1841. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Year.s. 
 
 Imported. 
 
 Exported. 
 
 Joy/ 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 400 
 
 14,698 
 
 1746 
 
 
 131,105 
 
 1795 
 
 313,793 
 
 18,839 
 
 inoo 
 ioy& 
 
 1,689 
 
 6,886 
 
 1747 
 
 
 270,491 
 
 1796 
 
 879,200 
 
 24,679 
 
 
 486 
 
 557 
 
 1748 
 
 6 
 
 545,240 
 
 1797 
 
 461 ,767 
 
 54,525 
 
 1700 
 
 
 49,057 
 
 1749 
 
 382 
 
 631,007 
 
 1798 
 
 396,721 
 
 59,782 
 
 
 1 
 
 98,324 
 
 1750 
 
 280 
 
 950,483 
 
 1799 
 
 463,185 
 
 39,362 
 
 1702 
 
 
 on oQfi 
 
 1751 
 
 3 
 
 662,957 
 
 1800 
 
 ' 1,264,520 
 
 22,013 
 
 1703 
 
 50 
 
 106,615 
 
 1752 
 
 
 430,117 
 
 1801 
 
 1,424,765 
 
 28,406 
 
 1704 
 
 2 
 
 90,314 
 
 1753 
 
 
 300,754 
 
 1802 
 
 G47,<;63 
 
 149,304 
 
 1705 
 
 
 96,185 
 
 1754 
 
 201 
 
 356,781 
 
 18Q3 
 
 373,725 
 
 76,580 
 
 1706 
 
 77 
 
 188,332 
 
 1755 
 
 
 237,466 
 
 1804 
 
 461,140 
 
 63,073 
 
 1707 
 
 
 174,155 
 
 1756 
 
 5 
 
 102,752 
 
 1805 
 
 920,834 
 
 77,955 
 
 1708 
 
 86 
 
 83,969 
 
 1757 
 
 141,562 
 
 11,545 
 
 1806 
 
 310,342 
 
 29,566 
 
 1709 
 
 1 ,552 
 
 71,618 
 
 1758 
 
 20,353 
 
 9,234 
 
 1807 
 
 404,946 
 
 25,113 
 
 1710 
 
 400 
 
 16,607 
 
 1759 
 
 162 
 
 227,641 
 
 1808 
 
 84,889 
 
 98,005 
 
 1711 
 
 
 80,941 
 
 1760 
 
 3 
 
 393,614 
 
 1809 
 
 455,987 
 
 31,278 
 
 1712 
 
 
 148,539 
 
 1761 
 
 
 441,956 
 
 1810 
 
 1,567,126 
 
 75,785 
 
 1713 
 
 
 179,969 
 
 1762 
 
 56 
 
 295,385 
 
 1811 
 
 336,131 
 
 97,765 
 
 1714 
 
 16 
 
 180,665 
 
 1763 
 
 72 
 
 429,538 
 
 1812 
 
 290,710 
 
 46,325 
 
 1715 
 171G 
 
 
 173,237 
 75,876 
 
 1764 
 1765 
 
 1 
 
 104,547 
 
 396,857 
 167,126 
 
 1813 
 
 559,000 
 
 C Records 
 destroyed. 
 
 i/i/ 
 
 
 25,637 
 
 1766 
 
 11,020 
 
 164,939 
 
 1814 
 
 852,567 
 
 1 1 1,477 
 
 1718 
 
 
 74,381 
 
 1767 
 
 497,905 
 
 5,071 
 
 1815 
 
 384,475 
 
 227 947 
 
 1719 
 
 20 
 
 130,533 
 
 1768 
 
 349,268 
 
 7,433 
 
 1816 
 
 332 491 
 
 121 611 
 
 1720 
 
 
 84,343 
 
 1769 
 
 4,378 
 
 49,892 
 
 1817 
 
 1 08Q 
 
 317 524 
 
 1721 
 
 
 82,748 
 
 1770 
 
 34 
 
 75,449 
 
 1818 
 
 1 HQ4 Ofil 
 
 58,668 
 
 1722 
 
 
 178,915 
 
 1771 
 
 2,510 
 
 10,089 
 
 1819 
 
 69^ CQC 
 
 44,689 
 
 1723 
 
 
 158,082 
 
 1772 
 
 25,474 
 
 6,959 
 
 1820 
 
 996 479 
 
 94,657 
 
 1724 
 
 148 
 
 247,162 
 
 1773 
 
 56,857 
 
 7,637 
 
 1821 
 
 707,384 
 
 iyy,o4o 
 
 1725 
 
 12 
 
 211,175 
 
 1774 
 
 289,149 
 
 15,928 
 
 1822 
 
 
 iou,4yy 
 
 1726 
 
 
 143,626 
 
 1775 
 
 560,988 
 
 91,037 
 
 
 A O \ nin 
 
 145,951 
 
 1727 
 
 
 31,030 
 
 1776 
 
 20,578 
 
 210,664 
 
 1824 
 
 441,591 
 
 61,680 
 
 1728 
 
 74,574 
 
 3,935 
 
 1777 
 
 233,323 
 
 87,686 
 
 1825 
 
 787,606 
 
 38,796 
 
 1729 
 
 40,315 
 
 18,993 
 
 1778 
 
 106,394 
 
 141,070 
 
 1826 
 
 80*7 1 97 
 
 oy/,u/ 
 
 20,054 
 
 1730 
 
 76 
 
 94,530 
 
 1779 
 
 5,039 
 
 222,261 
 
 1827 
 
 71 1,868 
 
 57,323 
 
 1731 
 
 4 
 
 130,650 
 
 1780 
 
 3,915 
 
 224,059 
 
 
 1 A\ n Qnn 
 
 76.489 
 
 1732 
 
 
 202,612 
 
 1781 
 
 159,866 
 
 103,021 
 
 1829 
 
 9 l on r\G c; 
 
 / 5,097 
 
 1733 
 
 7 
 
 427,425 
 
 1782 
 
 80,695 
 
 145,152 
 
 1830 
 
 9 9fl^ *7t\l 
 
 37,149 
 
 1734 
 
 7 
 
 498,747 
 
 1783 
 
 584,183 
 
 51,943 
 
 1831 
 
 £,oO/ ,OOU 
 
 65,875 
 
 1735 
 
 9 
 
 155,280 
 
 1784 
 
 216,947 
 
 89,288 
 
 1832 
 
 
 9CO 
 
 1736 
 
 18 
 
 118,218 
 
 1785 
 
 110,863 
 
 132,685 
 
 1833 
 
 1,166,457 
 
 96,212 
 
 1737 
 
 32 
 
 466,071 
 
 1786 
 
 51,463 
 
 205,466 
 
 1834 
 
 981,486 
 
 159,482 
 
 1738 
 
 3 
 
 588,284 
 
 1787 
 
 59,339 
 
 120,536 
 
 1835 
 
 750,808 
 
 134,076 
 
 1739 
 
 23 
 
 285,492 
 
 1788 
 
 148,710 
 
 82,971 
 
 1836 
 
 861,156 
 
 256,978 
 
 1740 
 
 5,469 
 
 54,391 
 
 1789 
 
 112,656 
 
 140,014 
 
 1837 
 
 1,109,492 
 
 308,420 
 
 1741 
 
 7,540 
 
 45,417 
 
 1790 
 
 222,557 
 
 30,892 
 
 1838 
 
 1,923,400 
 
 158,621 , 
 
 1742 
 
 1 
 
 295,698 
 
 1791 
 
 469,056 
 
 70,626 
 
 1839 
 
 3,110,729 
 
 42,512 
 
 1743 
 
 3 
 
 375,979 
 
 1792 
 
 22,417 
 
 300,278 
 
 1840 
 
 2,526,645 
 
 87,242 
 
 1744 
 
 2 
 
 234,274 
 
 1793 
 
 490,398 
 
 76,869 
 
 1841 
 
 2,923,189 
 
 30,390 
 
 1745 
 
 8 
 
 325,340 
 
 1794 
 
 327,902 
 
 155,048 
 
 
 
 
 Note. — This Account includes the Trade with Ireland. 
 
 1281 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of the Quantities of the several kinds of Grain and Meal imported from each Country, and likewise of 
 the Quantities re-exported from the Warehouse to each Country, in each Year from 1828 to 1840 (omitting 
 1829 and 1831.) 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland - ] 
 Belgium - J 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Proper • 
 
 Azores 
 
 . Madeira 
 
 Spain 
 
 Canaries 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 Turkey 
 
 Egypt m ". - 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
 giers, and Morocco 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 E. India Company's 
 Territories and 
 Ceylon 
 
 British Settlements 
 in Australia 
 
 British North Ame- 
 rican Colonies - 
 
 United States of 
 America - 
 
 Chili 
 
 Peru 
 
 Channel Islands - 
 Total 
 
 WHEAT. 
 
 Quantities imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 Qrs. 
 18,096 
 1,303 
 
 41,150 
 251,206 
 142,396 
 
 167,025 
 
 29,452 
 
 22,216 
 5,216 
 
 1830. 1832, 
 
 Qrs. 
 235,302 
 2,937 
 
 88,032 
 517,844 
 364,961 
 
 76,711 
 15,219 
 
 1,141 
 
 39,493 
 
 28,612 
 7,268 
 
 58,963 
 6,086 
 
 32,079 
 
 Qrs. 
 91,290 
 
 33,548 
 119,320 
 43,046 
 
 1,062 
 10 
 
 1,642 
 
 945 
 
 25 
 
 59,516 
 
 6,286 
 180 
 
 Qrs. 
 18,656 
 357 
 
 7,958 
 87,903 
 49,421 
 J" 276 
 
 692 
 
 2,696 
 752 
 79,410 
 
 1834. 1835. 1836. 1837 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 11,732 
 29,826 
 42,770 
 
 1,616 
 
 471 
 1,766 
 44,907 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 9,758 
 3,236 
 11,577 
 8 
 111 
 
 2,158 
 
 1,107 
 
 336 
 1 
 
 14,326 
 
 22,359 
 
 715,242 1475,314] 391,417 248,171 133,091 42,628 168,647 455,871 1241,460 2634,556 1993,383 
 
 Qrs. 
 1,036 
 
 10,258 
 100,199 
 51,562 
 3,984 
 
 Qrs. 
 11,244 
 251 
 
 18,240 
 315,121 
 87,665 
 10,741 
 420 
 746 
 
 1 
 
 1,483 
 
 257 
 
 310 
 
 1838. 
 
 Qrs. 
 41,339 
 
 111,499 
 550,826 
 312,442 
 82,010 
 17,396 
 53,190 
 15 
 
 30,264 
 11,647 
 5,370 
 3,150 
 
 555 
 20,531 
 
 Qrs. 
 371,693 
 392 
 360 
 196,730 
 740,203 
 409,729 
 116,480 
 23,141 
 278,182 
 26,382 
 1,561 
 616 
 17,741 
 
 4,573 
 335,612 
 16,370 
 13,928 
 43,740 
 
 1,729 
 
 3,360 
 3 
 
 27 
 3,766 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Russia 
 
 Norway 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Prussia 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland - > 
 Belgium - J 
 France 
 
 Portugal, Proper - 
 
 Azores ■ 
 
 Madeira - 
 
 Spain 
 
 Canaries [ 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 Italy 
 
 Malta 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 Mauritius - 
 E. India Company's 
 
 Territories and 
 
 Ceylon 
 China 
 
 British Settlements 
 in Australia 
 
 British North Ame- 
 rican Colonies 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 United States of 
 America - 
 
 Brazil 
 
 States of the Rio de 
 
 la Plata - 
 Channel Islands - 
 
 T otal ■_ 
 
 1282 
 
 Quantities re-exported from the United Kingdom. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1,849 
 23,904 
 
 1,328 
 100 
 
 2,996 
 23,804 
 
 68,646 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 2,900 
 20,660 
 
 C70 
 
 82( 
 25,050 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1,677 
 75,017 
 147,443 
 883 
 450 
 3,595 
 
 1,212 
 
 63 
 1,927 
 
 3,411 
 
 35,888 
 
 1833- 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 '5,187 
 1,182 
 50 
 1,351 
 150 
 5,609 
 3,966 
 
 3,346 
 
 5,971 
 1,027 
 
 3,33!) 
 1,577 
 
 84,480 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 3,772 
 29 
 
 961 
 68,891 
 
 7,117 
 3,403 
 1,035 
 2,404 
 2,030 
 5,748 
 
 8,420 
 3,051 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 713 
 1,283 
 
 281 
 1,083 
 1,818 
 111 
 874 
 580 
 
 19,118 
 10,540 
 423 
 390 
 6,222 
 923 
 
 !i<:<; 
 
 2-l,5f,9 
 1,200 
 
 7,486 
 1,029 
 
 200 
 8,460 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 3,360 
 2,398 
 
 40 
 800 
 
 1 
 
 539 
 
 3,769 
 250 
 
 10,235 
 
 4,442 
 
 1,122 
 
 708 
 
 
 872 
 3,313 
 
 2,180 
 4,437 
 
 1,371 
 1,109 
 
 10,393 
 
 1,718 
 
 896 
 
 64,055 
 6 
 
 99,522 
 121 
 
 67,368 
 
 80,972 
 114 
 
 87,418 
 
 14,530 
 
 3,300 
 
 8,658 
 
 5,146 
 
 173,934 
 
 215,837 
 
 96,402 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 2,100 
 818 
 
 602 
 
 1,179 
 
 7,770 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of Quantities of Grain and Meal imported, and Quantities re-exported, in each Year from 
 
 1828 to 1840— continued. 
 
 
 BARLEY. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 
 UANTITIES IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 ■ 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 1,824 
 
 7,989 
 
 4,062 
 
 42,568 
 
 8,820 
 
 1 ,579 
 
 1,270 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 338 
 
 18,338 
 
 4,657 
 
 owed en - - 
 
 1,393 
 
 5,179 
 
 579 
 
 1,719 
 
 - - 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,499 
 
 23,783 
 
 Norway ■ » 
 
 
 143 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 233 
 
 820 
 
 Denmark. - - 
 
 96,044 
 
 144,262 
 
 75,537 
 
 1 15,658 
 
 54,85J 
 
 70,651 
 
 82,781 
 
 65,692 
 
 21 ,77'.) 
 
 2'.iJ>'M 
 
 11 
 
 210,134 
 
 252,037 
 
 Prussia - • 
 
 21,297 
 
 49,615 
 
 29,508 
 
 60,886 
 
 1 1 ,37c 
 
 8,734 
 
 2,166 
 
 822 
 
 29,586 
 
 28,442 
 
 469 
 
 139,153 
 
 188,167 
 
 Germany 
 
 33,031 
 
 55,193 
 
 27,722 
 
 1 16,928 
 
 16,208 
 
 4,21C 
 
 2,161 
 
 1,267 
 
 24,327 
 
 24,780 
 
 1,384 
 
 75,694 
 
 81,017 
 
 no nana - / 
 Belgium - j 
 
 9,137 
 
 4,182 
 
 1,184 
 
 12,284 
 
 _ 
 
 f 2 
 
 178 
 
 7 
 
 6,333 
 735 
 
 3,585 
 404 
 
 - 
 - 
 
 13,057 
 4,318 
 
 5,584 
 
 France - - 
 
 3,227 
 
 9,845 
 
 - 
 
 18,738 
 
 4,381 
 
 ■ 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 45S 
 
 3,706 
 
 - 
 
 105,326 
 
 58,207 
 
 Portugal, Proper - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 555 
 
 Spain and theBalearic 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Islands 
 
 - 
 
 139 
 
 - 
 
 2,318 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 677 
 
 C'lniric 
 
 
 
 
 419 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy and the Italian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Islands - - 
 
 
 
 
 3,003 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 2,696 
 
 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,660 
 
 594 
 
 1 urkey 
 
 
 
 
 624 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,772 
 
 
 fcgypt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 604 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 5,676 
 
 Cape of Good Hope - 
 East IndiaCompany 's 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Territories and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon — — 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 - - 
 
 3 
 
 British North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 can Colonies 
 
 
 
 
 223 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America m — 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jersey, Alderney, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Man (Foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goods) 
 
 2,718 
 
 5,159 
 
 6,528 
 
 1,128 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 262 
 
 8 
 
 
 6,621 
 
 3,661 
 
 Total - 
 
 168,672 
 
 281,713 
 
 145,119 
 
 376,513 
 
 95,839 
 
 85,221 
 
 88,561 
 
 67,796 
 
 83,483 
 
 87,790 
 
 2,203 
 
 579,405 
 
 625,438 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities re-exported from the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Russia — — 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 618 
 
 7,444 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden — — 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 24,471 
 
 3,192 
 
 634 
 
 1,087 
 
 
 
 uenmarK *■ • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 292 
 
 385 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prussia • ■ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Holland - / 
 Belgium - j 
 
 
 10 
 
 568 
 
 495 
 
 6,995 
 
 f : 
 
 200 
 
 100 
 
 
 118 
 
 86 
 
 
 France 
 
 633 
 
 9,033 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 194 
 
 
 1,968 
 
 Portugal, Proper - 
 
 - 
 
 50 
 
 135 
 
 
 
 2,562 
 
 3,750 
 
 8,153 
 
 7,162 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 202 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 271 
 
 1,177 
 
 
 
 
 204 
 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 201 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 v«ape oi oooq nope 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 746 
 
 5 
 
 264 
 
 ou ntriciic* — — 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 240 
 
 41 
 
 20 
 
 IVTauritius — — 
 
 - 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 162 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 
 East India Company's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Territories and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon - - 
 
 652 
 
 383 
 
 465 
 
 123 
 
 322 
 
 315 
 
 436 
 
 495 
 
 458 
 
 403 
 
 524 
 
 180 
 
 239 
 
 Sumatra, Java, and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 other Islands in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indian Seas 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 23 
 
 33 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 British Settlements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Australia 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 18 
 
 35 
 
 26 
 
 52 
 
 278 
 
 690 
 
 1,431 
 
 188 
 
 220 
 
 .New Zealand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 British North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 can Colonies - 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 
 6 
 
 2,333 
 
 1,935 
 
 3,234 
 
 6,443 
 
 13,398 
 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 44 
 
 94 
 
 18 
 
 99 
 
 70 
 
 16 
 
 36 
 
 TTnitpH Qfofoc r*f 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America - 
 
 
 
 
 
 290 
 
 
 300 
 
 1,167 
 
 3,387 
 
 m 261 
 
 622 
 
 7 
 
 20 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 121 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 States of the Rio de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la Plata - 
 
 
 24 
 
 
 
 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jersey, Alderney, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Man (Foreign 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Goods) 
 
 2,583 
 
 772 
 
 
 
 174 
 
 
 175 
 
 
 428 
 
 1,932 
 
 693 
 
 169 
 
 1,607 
 
 Total - 
 
 4,117 
 
 10,297 
 
 1,285 
 
 642 
 
 7,822 
 
 3,210 
 
 9,865 
 
 44,365 
 
 18,219 
 
 10,605 
 
 19,817 
 
 620 
 
 4,379 
 
 1283 4 n 2 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of Quantities of Grain and Meal imported, and Quantities re-exported, in each Year from 
 1828 to 1840 (omitting 1829) — continued. 
 
 
 OATS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Quantities imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 rvussia - • — 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 — ■ — — 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 35,036 
 
 122,015 
 
 371,710 
 
 17,696 
 
 18,047 
 
 13,017 
 
 12,370 
 
 1,731 
 
 151,205 
 
 10,229 
 
 316,823 
 
 167,248 
 
 Sweden 
 
 13,601 
 
 8,732 
 
 20,663 
 
 - 
 
 1,124 
 
 19,667 
 
 26,785 
 
 5,735 
 
 2,307 
 
 - 
 
 3,604 
 
 17,047 ' 
 
 Norway 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 480 
 
 - 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 65,403 
 
 118,203 
 
 96,996 
 
 7,992 
 
 2,888 
 
 79,128 
 
 52,591 
 
 23,321 
 
 26,109 
 
 3,085 
 
 46,235 
 
 78,919 
 
 Prussia 
 
 12,063 
 
 130,961 
 
 70,597 
 
 
 83 
 
 11,189 
 
 4,051 
 
 18,749 
 
 99,251 
 
 198 
 
 99,521 
 
 105,629 
 
 Germany 
 
 25,354 
 
 68,324 
 
 31,434 
 
 2,273 
 
 530 
 
 26,717 
 
 12,210 
 
 36,086 
 
 91,897 
 
 15,879 
 
 75,010 
 
 114,668 
 
 Holland - - / 
 Belgium - -J 
 
 10,523 
 
 39,891 
 
 15,641 
 
 221 
 
 C 174 
 
 22,835 
 2,422 
 
 5,035 
 
 45,413 
 
 40,082 
 130 
 
 23,681 
 467 
 
 101,336 
 21,196 
 
 50,215 
 266 
 
 France 
 
 1,508 
 
 15,684 
 
 7,936 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 80 
 
 
 5,640 
 
 606 
 
 Portugal, Proper 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 300 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy and the Italian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Islands 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,361 
 
 
 - 
 
 83 
 
 Cape of Good Hope - 
 East India Company's 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Territories and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 _ 
 
 4 
 
 British North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ctin Colonics - 
 
 580 
 
 1,223 
 
 6,329 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies - 
 
 
 
 
 672 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America 
 
 
 
 599 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,306 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 2,351 
 
 1,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 452 
 
 745 
 
 Total - 
 
 166,423 
 
 506,637 
 
 621,940 
 
 28,858 
 
 23,334 
 
 174,975 
 
 113,067 
 
 131,056 
 
 416,424 
 
 53,544 
 
 670,117 
 
 540,736 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities 
 
 RE-EXPORTED 
 
 from the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1831 . 
 
 
 1833. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 lo30. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Ixussia - - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 505 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 524 
 
 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 165 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 450 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Prussia 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 6,791 
 
 
 2,450 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland - 
 Belgium - 
 
 _ 
 
 2,427 
 
 
 56,731 
 
 f 157 
 
 \ 6967 
 
 
 
 
 130 
 
 713 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 - 
 
 9,131 
 
 
 16,495 
 
 200 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,043 
 
 
 
 Portugal, Proper 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ zc \res 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■ Madeira 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 797 
 
 229 
 
 
 
 
 
 Canaries 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,719 
 
 
 457 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cape ot Good Hope - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 363 
 
 5 
 
 1,192 
 
 1,725 
 
 1,604 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 - 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 108 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 90 
 
 20 
 
 20 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 9 
 
 43 
 
 200 
 
 2,167 
 
 430 
 
 3,449 
 
 2,312 
 
 5,281 
 
 6,319 
 
 7,591 
 
 1 ,573 
 
 4,105 
 
 East India Company's 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Territories and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ceylon 
 
 563 
 
 79 
 
 369 
 
 783 
 
 372 
 
 606 
 
 719 
 
 854 
 
 622 
 
 1,613 
 
 478 
 
 466 
 
 Sumatra, Java, and 
 other Indian Islands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 
 China 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 60 
 
 23 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 British Settlements 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in Australia 
 
 546 
 
 64 
 
 53 
 
 19 
 
 23 
 
 19 
 
 190 
 
 1,823 
 
 1,676 
 
 2,097 
 
 770 
 
 913 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 British North Ameri- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 can Colonies 
 
 27 
 
 137 
 
 39 
 
 1,257 
 
 5,777 
 
 1,447 
 
 3,328 
 
 16,951 
 
 9,067 
 
 8,789 
 
 2,436 
 
 31 
 
 British West Indies - 
 
 4,849 
 
 5,588 
 
 4,802 
 
 3,703 
 
 3,601 
 
 6,801 
 
 14,908 
 
 20,491 
 
 28,791 
 
 29,073 
 
 33,138 
 
 25,155 
 
 Hayti - 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 71 
 
 Cuba and other Fo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 reign West Indies 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 186 
 
 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 United States of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,223 
 
 8,906 
 
 79 
 
 160 
 
 38 
 
 10 
 
 Columbia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Brazil 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 25 
 
 27 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 States of the Itio dc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la Plata 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 254 
 
 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 641 
 
 300 
 
 108 
 
 138 
 
 141 
 
 422 
 
 3,55'2 
 
 1,224 
 
 180 
 
 
 
 4,065 
 
 Total - 
 
 6,694 
 
 26,140 
 
 5,571 
 
 83,79! 
 
 19,491 
 
 13,446 
 
 30,792 
 
 56,184 
 
 46,917 
 
 54,424 
 
 40,205 
 
 36,486 
 
 1284 
 
 i 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of Quantities of Grain and Meal imported, and Quantities re-exported, in each Year from 
 1828 to 1840 — continued. 
 
 
 RYE. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Quantities imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 12,469 
 
 29,478 
 
 15,625 
 
 53,911 
 
 4,627 
 
 3,363 
 
 _ 
 
 
 998 
 
 2,105 
 
 _ 
 
 14,030 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 - - 
 
 1,432 
 
 333 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 - " 
 
 273 
 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 86 
 
 G06 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 1,154 
 
 6,103 
 
 1,151 
 
 5,832 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,100 
 
 
 16,460 
 
 333 
 
 Prussia 
 
 13,909 
 
 19,693 
 
 21,460 
 
 18,447 
 
 
 
 
 
 5,542 
 
 24,057 
 
 1,290 
 
 97,834 
 
 2,932 
 
 Germany 
 
 2,025 
 
 8,662 
 
 5,785 
 
 7,103 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 67 
 
 360 
 
 16,588 
 
 8 
 
 Holland - - f 
 Belgium - -J 
 
 
 4,531 
 
 153 
 
 4,205 
 
 r 
 
 { 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,401 
 370 
 
 131 
 
 6,170 
 215 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 137 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,738 
 
 
 Italy and the Italian 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 United States of 
 
 
 
 
 1,867 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 59 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 Jersey, Alderney, 
 and Man (Foreign 
 Goods) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 45 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 365 
 
 
 * Total 
 
 29,562 
 
 65,910 
 
 45,155 
 
 91,565 
 
 4,627 
 
 3,369 
 
 10 
 
 
 6,626 
 
 30,710 
 
 1,781 
 
 153,673 
 
 3,332 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities re-exported from the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 Countries. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1829. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 468 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sweden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,491 
 
 
 
 Norway 
 
 
 
 250 
 
 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 620 
 
 220 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 15,925 
 
 3,075 
 
 460 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland - - ~\ 
 Belgium - -j 
 
 720 
 
 4,299 
 
 19,813 
 
 33,660 
 
 11,110 
 
 ^ 856 
 
 600 
 
 419 
 
 
 
 504 
 
 3,161 
 
 
 France 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,121 
 
 Portugal, Proper 
 
 150 
 
 
 
 
 6,646 
 
 665 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British North Ame- 
 rican Colonies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,290 
 
 888 
 
 - 
 
 1,550 
 
 300 
 
 
 United States of 
 America - ' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,010 
 
 5,044 
 
 2,535 
 
 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 Jersey, Alderney, 
 and Man (Foreign 
 Goods) 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 10 
 
 Total 
 
 886 
 
 7,861 
 
 35,408 
 
 36,735 
 
 18,216 
 
 1,521 
 
 600 
 
 926 
 
 3,300 
 
 5,932 
 
 1 
 
 6,080 
 
 4,192 
 
 1,215 
 
 1285 
 
 4 n 3 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Statement of Quantities of Grain and Meal imported, and Quantities re-exported, in each Year from 
 1828 to 1840 (omitting 1829) —continued. 
 
 
 BEANS AND PEAS. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Quantities imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Russia 
 
 1,642 
 
 788 
 
 6,418 
 
 1,364 
 
 146 
 
 197 
 
 87 
 
 1 
 
 3,121 
 
 1,126 
 
 3,104 
 
 270 
 
 Sweden 
 
 2,324 
 
 516 
 
 34" 
 
 
 108 
 
 2,686 
 
 752 
 
 - 222 
 
 144 
 
 
 1,506 
 
 3,688 
 
 Denmark 
 
 35,796 
 
 5,181 
 
 3,966 
 
 7,044 
 
 8,599 
 4,734 
 
 165 
 26,927 
 
 _ 
 
 13,420 
 
 34 
 37,838 
 
 37,010 
 
 23,875 
 
 484 
 29,579 
 
 46,207 
 
 Prussia 
 
 13^624 
 
 23,931 
 
 37,318 
 
 14,869 
 
 12,131 
 
 7,778 
 
 44,556 
 
 64,873 
 
 8,656 
 
 113,610 
 
 110,076 
 
 Germany 
 
 Holland - - ? 
 Belgium - - i 
 
 43,506 
 
 19,063 
 
 21,627, 
 
 15,550 
 
 15,282 
 
 64,455 
 
 34,881 
 
 79,448 
 
 71,041 
 
 53,951 
 
 50,521 
 
 74,194 
 
 10,456 
 
 1,411 
 
 7,543 
 
 29 
 
 T 5,104 
 
 6,734 
 518 
 
 1,007 
 
 8,114 
 
 692 
 
 21,077 
 1,388 
 
 4,776 
 1,648 
 
 19,109 
 2,351 
 
 12,684 
 5 
 
 France 
 
 1,881 
 
 15 
 
 1,576 
 
 8 
 
 649 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 9,567 
 
 30 
 
 28,580 
 
 18,780 
 
 The Azores 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 536 
 
 Spain 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 '6 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 390 
 
 Gibraltar 
 
 
 
 
 
 4,760 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Italy 
 
 1 936 
 
 
 3 691 
 
 2,295 
 
 1 215 
 
 
 103 
 
 8,115 
 
 
 g 
 
 15 191 
 
 Malta 
 
 
 
 1 031 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 313; 
 
 
 
 1 459 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, Al- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 giers, and Morocco 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Western Coast of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 57 
 
 Egypt 
 
 12,904 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauritius - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 East India Com- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 pany s lennunca 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 55 
 
 
 
 and Ceylon 
 
 10 
 
 1 
 
 136 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 36 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 British North Ame- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rican Colonies 
 
 1,868 
 
 1,424 
 
 461 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 283 
 
 650 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 39 
 
 279 
 
 4,216 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 United States of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America - 
 
 100 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Channel Islands - 
 
 246 
 
 185 
 
 92 
 
 
 
 280 
 
 
 329 
 
 203 
 
 39 
 
 654 
 
 96 
 
 Total 
 
 126,299 
 
 52,533 
 
 83,904 
 
 41,825 
 
 38,749 
 
 115,635 
 
 58,596 
 
 171,355 
 
 216,868 
 
 94,207 
 
 249,823 
 
 287,905 
 
 
 
 
 Quantities re-exported from the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1831, 
 
 1832. 
 
 1833. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 Denmark 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Germany 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 470 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Holland - - ? 
 
 - 
 
 50 
 
 
 1,689 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Belgium - -J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 France 
 
 676 
 
 
 
 ;215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Portugal, Proper - 
 
 
 
 456 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . Azores 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Madeira - 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Spain 
 Gibraltar 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 2,085 
 
 1 
 
 27 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 Italy 
 
 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Egypt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Western Coast of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 62 
 
 St. Helena - 
 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mauritius 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 
 10 
 
 72 
 
 143 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 Arabia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 E. I. Co.'s Territo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 278 
 
 
 
 
 
 ries and Ceylon 
 
 271 
 
 255 
 
 58 
 
 137 
 
 197 
 
 240 
 
 246 
 
 200 
 
 159 
 
 l 
 
 149 
 
 Sumatra, and other 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Indian Islands 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 Phillippine Islands 
 China 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 40 
 
 32 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 3 
 
 Australia 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 124 
 
 75 
 
 335 
 
 153 
 
 82 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 12 
 
 British North Ame- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 826 
 
 
 
 
 rican Colonies 
 
 154 
 
 151 
 
 182 
 
 128 
 
 '60 
 
 126 
 
 137 
 
 356 
 
 1,349 
 
 45 
 
 23 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 683 
 
 104 
 
 357 
 
 370 
 
 542 
 
 194 
 
 1,233 
 
 1,510 
 
 3,375 
 
 1,501 
 
 1,816 
 
 1,436 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 Cuba unci other Fo- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 reign West Indies 
 
 
 104 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 158 
 
 1,983 
 
 21 
 
 8 
 
 Brazil 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 States of the Rio de 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 la Plata - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Chili 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 4 
 
 Channel Islands 
 
 1,121 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 80 
 
 50 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 38 
 
 199 
 
 254 
 
 Total 
 
 2,977 
 
 677 
 
 597 
 
 3,011 
 
 1,381 
 
 672 
 
 3,792 
 
 2,379 
 
 4,8131 
 
 5,389 
 
 2,446 
 
 2,055 
 
 1286 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 Countries. 
 
 WHEAT-MEAL AND FLOUR. 
 
 Quantities imported into the United Kingdom. 
 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Russia .... 
 Sweden .... 
 Denmark - 
 Prussia - 
 Germany - 
 
 Holland - - -) 
 Belgium - - - -J 
 France - 
 
 Portugal, Proper ... 
 Spain and the Balearic Islands 
 
 Italy and the Italian Islands 
 
 Western coast of Africa 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 E. 1. Co.'s Territories and Ceylon 
 
 China .... 
 
 British Settlements in Australia - 
 
 North American Colonies 
 
 West Indies 
 
 United States of America 
 
 Channel Islands (Foreign Goods) - 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 226 
 2 
 
 2,417 
 6,426 
 6,846 
 60 
 1,534 
 4,485 
 
 16,575 
 1 
 
 47,470 
 64,992 
 
 Cwts. 
 1,740 
 79 
 246 
 7,936 
 3,570 
 
 8 
 
 . 5,112 
 
 9 
 53 
 
 61,916 
 3 
 
 623,745 
 2,660 
 
 Cwts. 
 51 
 
 10 
 534 
 
 247 
 
 89 
 
 30,219 
 
 48,831 
 3 
 
 114,909 
 1 
 
 Cwts. 
 1 
 
 7,895 
 41,749 
 3,541 
 
 {: : 
 
 21,898 
 137 
 
 40,386 
 8 
 
 34,974 
 712 
 
 Cwts. 
 
 8,577 
 37,292 
 5,196 
 
 32 
 
 36 
 15,897 
 
 9,735 
 6 
 
 6,809 
 1,389 
 
 Cwts. 
 2 
 
 32,560 
 79,790 
 97,649 
 179 
 709 
 14 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 7,172 
 
 2 
 
 18,025 
 125 
 1,183 
 
 18,374 
 
 Cwts. 
 1 
 
 41,370 
 122,959 
 120,133 
 919 
 
 956 
 883 
 42 
 
 1,677 
 1 
 
 44,667 
 1 
 
 9,527 
 130 
 20,974 
 
 Cwts. 
 241 
 
 77,233 
 123,119 
 131,936 
 
 3,639 
 26,740 
 
 199 
 2,596 
 1 
 
 40 
 
 5 
 
 18,911 
 14 
 
 39,745 
 
 5 
 
 19,550 
 12,756 
 
 Cwts. 
 3,946 
 
 39,395 
 96,360 
 66,528 
 1,474 
 6,061 
 115,502 
 
 185 
 422 
 19,488 
 
 60 
 
 88 
 17,532 
 
 27,094 
 1 
 
 432,742 
 3,251 
 12,917 
 
 Cwts. 
 63 
 23 
 10,951 
 23,433 
 21,795 
 175 
 
 1,070 
 
 2 
 
 73 
 
 13,026 
 10 
 24 
 
 478,969 
 
 984,467 
 1 
 
 3,753 
 
 Total ... 
 
 151,038 
 
 707,082 
 
 194,896 
 
 151,306 
 
 84,969 
 
 255,831 
 
 364,248 
 
 456,739 
 
 843,046 
 
 7,838 
 
 Countries. 
 
 Quantities re-exported from the United Kingdom. 
 
 1828. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1832. 
 
 1834. 
 
 1835. 
 
 1836. 
 
 1837. 
 
 1838. 
 
 1839. 
 
 1840. 
 
 Russia - 
 
 Sweden - - - - 
 
 15 
 
 
 15 
 2 
 
 168 
 
 3 
 
 14 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 Norway - 
 
 Denmark - - 
 
 Prussia - - - - 
 
 Germany - 
 
 Holland - - -7 
 Belgium - - -J 
 France - 
 
 Portugal, Proper ... 
 
 Azores ... 
 
 Madeira - 
 
 Spain and the Balearic Islands 
 
 Canaries - 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 Italy and the Italian Islands 
 Malta .... 
 Ionian Islands - 
 Morea and Greek Islands - 
 Turkey - 
 
 Egypt .... 
 
 Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco 
 
 Western Coast of Africa 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 Cape Verd Islands 
 
 St. Helena ... 
 
 Mauritius - 
 
 Isle of Bourbon - 
 
 Arabia .... 
 
 E. I. Co.'s Territories and Ceylon 
 
 Sumatra, Java, &c. 
 
 Philippine Islands 
 
 China .... 
 
 British Settlements in Australia - 
 
 New Zealand ... 
 
 British North American Colonies 
 
 ■ West Indies 
 
 Hayti .... 
 Cuba and other Foreign West Indies 
 United States of America - 
 Mexico .... 
 Guatemala - - - - 
 Columbia .... 
 Brazils - 
 
 States of the Rio de la Plata 
 Chili .... 
 Peru .... 
 Channel Islands (Foreign Goods) - 
 
 - - 
 
 93 
 
 22 
 9 
 
 21 
 
 9 
 
 497 
 
 700 
 2,563 
 61 
 
 1,781 
 
 5 
 
 408 
 
 14,925 
 27,776 
 119 
 
 7 
 
 174 
 
 288 
 5,709 
 1,623 
 52 
 9 
 
 1,980 
 
 17 
 - - 
 
 349 
 
 24 
 
 88 
 
 2 
 15 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 437 
 379 
 
 313 
 2,514 
 
 1,997 
 23 
 61 
 
 914 
 52 
 11,776 
 9,149 
 5 
 26 
 86 
 35 
 
 19 
 
 3,999 
 853 
 196 
 48 
 381 
 
 42 
 
 3 
 370 
 
 20,255 
 
 27,469 
 3,119 
 138 
 4,591 
 4,332 
 87 
 9,741 
 41 
 12 
 2 
 
 33 
 
 14 
 
 871 
 93 
 
 984 
 11,676 
 
 2,418 
 37 
 - 3 
 
 1,465 
 
 19,719 
 36,966 
 16 
 119 
 207 
 28 
 
 38 
 25,338 
 559 
 37 
 64 
 12,169 
 
 3 
 88 
 2 
 
 f 130 
 
 1 io 
 
 35 
 
 1,293 
 24 
 
 208 
 14 
 44 
 2 
 
 23 
 
 2,258 
 231 
 46 
 
 943 
 4,901 
 21 
 
 2,949 
 379 
 21 
 241 
 
 1,963 
 
 9,785 
 57,776 
 12 
 12 
 86 
 28 
 
 40 
 74,357 
 928 
 72 
 81 
 1,557 
 
 31 
 
 2,054 
 48 
 
 1,680 
 5 
 174 
 
 9 
 
 232 
 513 
 
 1,152 
 9,217 
 
 35 
 2,581 
 525 
 9 
 
 340 
 9,365 
 
 5,269 
 79,875 
 424 
 530 
 6,921 
 32 
 
 9 
 
 41,328 
 432 
 1,683 
 833 
 
 90 
 8 
 
 178 
 73 
 1,739 
 30 
 
 105 
 28 
 6 
 2 
 
 14 
 4 
 
 5 
 9 
 717 
 4,776 
 
 2,039 
 8,557 
 
 39 
 4,271 
 1,533 
 
 277 
 16,422 
 
 49,091 
 133,645 
 1,375 
 66 
 15,780 
 200 
 
 14 
 
 42,567 
 61 
 43 
 84 
 
 94 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 12 
 10 
 
 7 
 
 1,547 
 2,790 
 883 
 73 
 24 
 5 
 7 
 3 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 728 
 2,561 
 5 
 
 3,492 
 9,379 
 
 27 
 2,911 
 31 
 11 
 145 
 5,331 
 
 65,700 
 181,462 
 2,364 
 1,752 
 1,233 
 62 
 40 
 900 
 39,363 
 50 
 122 
 67 
 29 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 9 
 9 
 4 
 15 
 7 
 
 11 
 
 49 
 12 
 7 
 
 12 
 3 
 16 
 
 547 
 3,891 
 3 
 
 557 
 3,332 
 
 3 
 
 2,646 
 1,081 
 
 210 
 7,776 
 30 
 58,202 
 102,131 
 1,344 
 131 
 • 600 
 12 
 
 16 
 29,107 
 
 222 
 43 
 53 
 
 344 
 
 52 
 
 _ 7 
 
 21 
 
 35 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 3 
 
 344 
 9,640 
 
 1,357 
 3,861 
 
 5 
 
 1,396 
 2 
 
 56 
 10,525 
 2,626 
 6,006 
 57,288 
 
 14 
 113 
 12 
 18 
 
 28 
 11,901 
 931 
 333 
 26 
 2,283 
 
 200 
 2 
 
 240 
 5 
 16 
 68 
 7 
 2 
 
 1,462 
 5 
 5 
 12 
 50 
 63 
 21 
 2 
 40 
 5 
 
 691 
 27,199 
 
 1,368 
 15,343 
 
 16 
 
 5,521 
 234 
 19 
 153 
 65,151 
 3,535 
 4,609 
 23,775 
 194 
 69 
 378 
 18 
 5 
 16 
 20,848 
 115 
 158 
 108 
 9,559 
 
 Total 
 
 58,846 
 
 33,768 
 
 83,073 
 
 160,731 165,309 
 
 283,862 
 
 323,244 
 
 212,461 
 
 108,920 
 
 181,306 
 
 1287 
 
 4 n 4 
 
WHEAT. 
 
 An Account of the Total Quantities of each kind of Grain, Foreign and Colonial, with the Total Amount of Duty 
 paid upon each kind, and the average Kate thereof during the whole Period from July, 1828, to December, 1841. 
 
 
 FOREIGN CORN, MEAL, AND FLOUR. 
 
 CORN, MEAL, AND FLOUR, 
 the Produce of, and imported from, 
 British Possessions out of Europe. 
 
 
 Quantities charged 
 with Duty for Home 
 Consumption, under 
 Act 9 G. IV. c. 60., 
 from the passing of 
 the Act (15th July, 
 1828) to the 5th 
 January, 1842. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates of Duty, 
 taken on the 
 Average of 
 the whole 
 
 Quantities charged 
 with Duty for Home 
 Consumption, under 
 Act 9 G. IV. c. 60., 
 from the passing of 
 the Act (15th July, 
 1828) to the 5th 
 January, 1842. 
 
 Amount of 
 Duty received 
 thereon. 
 
 Rates of Duty, 
 taken on the 
 Average of 
 the w "° le 
 
 Wheat - 
 Barley - 
 
 Oats --- 
 Rye - 
 Peas - 
 
 Beans - - - 
 Indian corn 
 Buck wheat 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 13,555,471 
 2,826,397 
 3,534,627 
 319,842 
 919,227 
 1,071,369 
 140,164 
 40,024 
 
 £ 
 
 3,779,417 
 659,559 
 1,137,940 
 49,195 
 266,374 
 371,698 
 26,940 
 12,357 
 
 Per Qr. 
 s. d. 
 
 5 7 
 
 4 8 
 
 6 5 
 3 1 
 
 5 10 
 
 6 11 
 3 10 
 6 2 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 o»y,ui i 
 839 
 9,060 
 
 25,872 
 57, 
 8,365 
 
 £ 
 
 89 
 303 
 
 1,786 
 1 
 
 456 
 
 Per Qr. 
 s. d. 
 3 7 
 2 1 
 
 0 8 
 
 1 5 
 
 0 6 
 
 1 1 
 
 Wheat Meal and Flour 
 Oatmeal 
 
 Cwts. 
 4,303,981 
 1,422 
 
 428,083 
 253 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 s. d. 
 
 2 0 
 
 3 7 
 
 Cwts. 
 1,704,528 
 18,877 
 
 81,479 
 932 
 
 Per Cwt. 
 s. d. 
 
 0 11 
 
 1 0 
 
 Statement of the Quantities of each kind of Grain and of Malt imported into Great Britain from Ireland, in each Year 
 
 from 1800 to 1841. 
 
 Years 
 
 CORN OF I-RISH GROWTH IMPORTED INTO GREAT BRITAIN FROM IRELAND. 
 
 
 Barley, in- 
 cluding Bere 
 or Bigg. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wheat and 
 Wheat Flour. 
 
 Oats and 
 Oatmeal. 
 
 Rye. 
 
 Yeas, 
 
 Beans. 
 
 Malt. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 Qrs 
 
 Qrs. 
 
 1800 
 
 749 
 
 78 
 
 2,411 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,238 
 
 1801 
 
 150 
 
 
 375 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 525 
 
 1802 
 
 108,751 
 
 7,116 
 
 341,151 
 
 282 
 
 113 
 
 1,655 
 
 2,303 
 
 461,371 
 
 1803 
 
 61,267 
 
 12,879 
 
 266,359 
 
 753 
 
 611 
 
 1,653 
 
 25 
 
 343,547 
 
 1804 
 
 70,071 
 
 2,521 
 
 240,022 
 
 206 
 
 1,078 
 
 3,060 
 
 
 316,958 
 
 1805 
 
 84,087 
 
 15,656 
 3,237 
 
 203,302 
 
 235 
 
 1,634 
 
 2,010 
 
 
 306,924 
 
 1806 
 
 102,276 
 
 357,077 
 
 330 
 
 1,389 
 
 2,361 
 
 
 466,760 
 
 1807 
 
 44,900 
 
 23,048 
 
 389,649 
 
 431 
 
 1,390 
 
 3,777 
 
 
 463,195 
 
 1808 
 
 43,497 
 
 30,586 
 
 579,974 
 
 573 
 
 75 
 
 2,065 
 
 
 656,770 
 932,478 
 
 1809 
 
 £6,944 
 
 16,619 
 
 845,783 
 
 425 
 
 38 
 
 
 
 1810 
 
 126,388 
 
 8,321 
 
 492,741 
 
 20 
 
 216 
 
 3',541 
 
 
 631,227 
 
 1811 
 
 147,245 
 
 2,713 
 
 275,757 
 
 21 
 
 50 
 
 4,081 
 
 
 429,867 
 
 1812 
 
 158,352 
 
 43,138 
 
 390,629 
 
 178 
 
 51 
 
 5,008 
 
 
 597,356 
 
 1813 
 
 217,154 
 
 63,560 
 
 691,498 
 
 420 
 
 77 
 
 4,455 
 
 
 977,164 
 
 1814 
 
 225,478 
 
 16,779 
 
 564,010 
 597,537 
 
 4 
 
 460 
 
 5,731 
 
 
 812,462 
 
 1815 
 
 159,544 
 
 27,108 
 
 207 
 
 425 
 
 6,371 
 
 
 821,192 
 
 1816 
 
 121,631 
 
 62,254 
 
 683,714 
 
 43 
 
 239 
 
 5,984 
 
 
 873,865 
 
 1817 
 
 55,481 
 
 26,766 
 
 611,117 
 
 
 12 
 
 2,275 
 
 
 695,651 
 
 1818 
 
 105,179 
 
 25,387 
 
 1,069,385 
 
 4 ' 
 
 10 
 
 4,768 
 
 
 1,204,733 
 
 1819 
 
 153,850 
 
 20,311 
 
 789,613 
 
 2 
 
 
 3,904 
 
 
 967,680 
 1,415,722 
 
 1820 
 
 403,407 
 
 87,095 
 
 916,251 
 
 134 
 
 439 
 
 8,396 
 
 
 1821 
 
 569,700 
 
 82,884 
 
 1,162,249 
 
 550 
 
 2,474 
 
 4,959 
 
 
 1,822,816 
 
 1822 
 
 463,004 
 
 22,532 
 
 569,237 
 
 353 
 
 728 
 
 7,235 
 
 
 1,063,089 
 
 1823 
 
 400,068 
 
 19,274 
 
 1,102,487 
 
 198 
 
 586 
 
 5,540 
 
 
 1,528,153 
 
 1824 
 
 356,384 
 
 44,699 
 
 1,225,085 
 
 112 
 
 756 
 
 5,791 
 
 1,173 
 
 1,634,000 
 
 1825 
 
 396,018 
 
 154,256 
 
 1,629,856 
 
 220 
 
 1,431 
 
 1 1 ,355 
 
 10,826 
 
 2,203,962 
 
 1826 
 
 314,851 
 
 64,885 
 
 1 ,303,734 
 
 77 
 
 1 ,452 
 
 7,190 
 
 1 ,203 
 
 1,693,392 
 
 1827 
 1828 
 
 405,255 
 
 67,791 
 
 1,343,267 
 
 256 
 
 1,282 
 
 10,037 
 
 572 
 
 1,828,460 
 
 652,584 
 
 84,204 
 
 2,075,631 
 
 1,424 
 
 4,826 
 
 7,068 
 
 853 
 
 2,826,590 
 
 1*29 
 
 519,017 
 
 97,140 
 189,745 
 
 1,673,628 
 1,471,252 
 
 568 
 
 4,435 
 
 10,445 
 
 2,01 1 
 
 2,307,244 
 
 1830 
 
 529,717 
 
 414 
 
 2,520 
 
 19,053 
 
 2,820 
 
 2,215,521 
 
 1831 
 
 557,498 
 
 185,409 
 
 1 ,655,701 
 
 515 
 
 4,142 
 
 15,029 
 
 10,888 
 
 2,129,182 
 2.990,767 
 
 1 832 
 
 790,293 
 
 123,639 
 
 2,051,867 
 
 294 
 
 1,915 
 
 14,530 
 
 8,229 
 
 1 833 
 
 844,21 1 
 
 101,767 
 
 1,762,520 
 
 166 
 
 2,646 
 
 19,114 
 
 7,017 
 
 2,737,441 
 
 1X54 
 
 779,505 
 
 217,855 
 
 1 ,769,503 
 
 983 
 
 2, 1 76 
 
 ix.771 
 
 :f,s<;r, 
 
 2,792,658 
 2,679,438 
 
 1 835 
 
 661,776 
 
 156,242 
 
 1 ,822,767 
 
 614 
 
 3,447 
 
 24,235 
 
 io,:i. r .7 
 
 1836 
 
 598,757 
 
 184,156 
 
 2,132,138 
 
 483 
 
 2.! 120 
 
 17,604 
 
 22,214 
 
 2,958,272 
 
 1837 
 
 534,465 
 
 187,473 
 
 2,274,675 
 
 1,016 
 
 60 
 
 25,630 
 
 4,174 
 
 3,030,293 
 3,474,302 
 
 1838 
 
 542,583 
 
 156,467 
 
 2,742,807 
 
 <m 
 
 5,232 
 
 21,584 
 
 5,001 
 
 1*39 
 
 258,331 
 
 61,676 
 
 1,904,933 
 
 2,31? 1 
 
 1,484 
 
 1 1 ,r>:<r, 
 
 2,861 
 
 2 243,151 
 2,327,782 
 
 1840 
 
 174,439 
 
 95,954 
 
 2,037,835 
 
 122 
 
 1,408 
 
 14,573 
 
 3,456 
 
 1841 
 
 218,708 
 
 75,568 
 
 2,539,380 
 
 172 
 
 855 
 
 15,907 
 
 4,935 
 
 2,S.V...V_>. r , 
 
 (Parliamentary Returns, 1842.) 
 
 1288 
 
WHEAT, COW. 
 
 WHEAT-GRASS. 
 
 WHEAT, COW-. (Melampyrum, from 
 melas, black ; andpyros, wheat.) A genus of 
 branched, spreading, annual, nearly smooth 
 herbs, growing to the height of twelve or 
 eighteen inches. The seeds, which resemble 
 grains of wheat in shape and colour, turn 
 black in drying. There are four indigenous 
 species of cow -wheat, namely : — 
 
 1. Crested cow- wheat (M. cristatum), 
 which grows in woods and thickets, and 
 sometimes in cornfields, flowering in July. 
 The stem is leafy, with wide-spreading 
 branches, roughish to the touch. Leaves 
 long and narrow, almost linear, rough- 
 edged, one inch and a half or two inches in 
 length. Spikes solitary, terminal, with close 
 pectinated purplish bracteas, each tipped 
 with a green leafy point. Flower rather 
 small, not quite closed, variegated with 
 cream-colour and light purple ; the palate 
 yellow. The seed-vessel is a crescent-shaped 
 capsule, containing two large seeds in each 
 cell. 
 
 2. Purple cow -wheat (M. arvense). This 
 species grows in cornfields on a light soil, and 
 flowers in July. Stem one foot and a half high, 
 purplish, acutely quadrangular ; the branches 
 more upright than in the foregoing. Leaves 
 lanceolate, rough-edged. Spikes long, many- 
 flowered. Bractes loosely spreading, deeply 
 pectinated or pinnatifid, the upper ones 
 entirely, and the lower ones partially, 
 coloured of a delicate purplish rose-colour. 
 The flowers are large and scentless. The 
 seeds are two or three in each capsule, but 
 one is often abortive. This is one of the 
 most beautiful of our indigenous wild 
 plants. It will grow from fresh seeds in a 
 dry garden, and is well worthy of cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 3. Common yellow cow-wheat (M. pra- 
 tense). This is a very common species in 
 woods and bushy places, especially on clay 
 or loamy soil. It flowers in July and Au- 
 gust. Stem smooth, with several wide- 
 spreading branches. Leaves bright green, 
 lanceolate. Flowers axillary, solitary, op- 
 posite, turned in pairs to one side. The 
 capsules have a curved point. Cows are 
 reported to be fond of this plant ; and Lin- 
 naeus says the best and yellowest butter is 
 made where it abounds. 
 
 4. Wood cow- wheat (M. sylvaticum). 
 This species grows in alpine woods, espe- 
 cially in forests of fir. It agrees with the 
 last in general habit, but is rather smaller, 
 especially the flowers, and the capsule is 
 less pointed. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 123.) 
 
 WHEATEAR. (Saxicola oenanthe). The 
 wheatear, or fallowchat, as it is sometimes 
 called, is a summer visiter, which generally 
 makes its appearance from the southward 
 1289 
 
 about the middle of March. These birds, 
 arriving in numbers, probably along the 
 whole line of our southern coast, soon dis- 
 perse themselves over the downs, warrens, 
 and fallow lands. The wheatear feeds prin- 
 cipally on worms, and various insects, some 
 of which are taken on the wing, the bird 
 returning to its former elevated position on 
 a lump of earth, or the top of a stone, from 
 whence it keeps a sharp look-out, both as a 
 measure of precaution as well as for food. 
 The nest is formed of dried bents, feathers, 
 and rubbish. The eggs are about six in 
 number, of a uniform pale blue, measuring 
 ten lines and a half in length, and seven 
 lines and a half in breadth. The adult 
 male in the breeding season has the beak, 
 the space between the beak and the eye, 
 a small line under the eye, and the ear- 
 coverts, black. Head, back, and scapulars, 
 of a fine light grey ; chin and throat, buff 
 colour ; belly, flanks, &c, pale buffy white ; 
 legs, toes, and claws, black. The whole 
 length of the adult bird is six inches and a 
 half. The wheatear is highly esteemed for 
 the table. (YarrelFs Brit. Birds, vol. i. 
 p. 253.) 
 
 WHEAT-GRASS. (Triticum). Of this 
 genus, to which belongs our cultivated 
 wheat, there are five indigenous spe- 
 cies : — 
 
 1. Sea rushy wheat-grass (T. junceum), 
 which is frequent on the sandy sea-coast, is 
 a perennial, and flowers in July. The root, 
 with its widely creeping, numerous woolly 
 fibres, is well calculated for binding the 
 loose sand, which purpose it serves in com- 
 mon with Elymus arenarius, Arnndo are- 
 naria, &c. The whole plant is glaucous and 
 rigid, like those grasses. Stem twelve or 
 eighteen inches high, simple, inclining, 
 smooth, even and polished, tinged with a 
 bright violet hue below, striated above. 
 Leaves involute, sharp-pointed. 
 
 2. Creeping wheat-grass, or couch-grass 
 (!T. repens). This is a common pest every- 
 where, in waste as well as cultivated land. 
 The long-jointed creeping root-stock, or 
 rhizome, strikes so deeply and widely, as to 
 be very difficult of extirpation. It is, in 
 fact, an underground stem, vivacious, and 
 consequently shooting up stems and leaves 
 at every joint. The stem above ground is 
 slender, two feet high, and leafy. Leaves 
 linear, flat, of a dull somewhat glaucous 
 green, most numerous on the lower part of 
 the stems. But the plant is so well known 
 that it requires no description. Forking 
 out the roots after the plough is doubtless 
 the best mode of extirpating this noxious 
 weed; but the process must not be dis- 
 continued while a particle of the root-stock 
 is suspected to remain in the soil, as the 
 
WHEATGRASS. 
 
 WHEEL. 
 
 least portion will grow, and the land being 
 so much broken and loosened by the opera- 
 tion, gives double encouragement for the 
 rapid growth of the plant. It does not 
 thrive well when combined with other 
 grasses, but is naturally more common in 
 hedges. The root-stock contains a large 
 proportion of nutritive matter ; it is esteemed 
 abroad for feeding horses. At Naples the 
 root-stocks are collected in large quantities 
 for this purpose, and brought to market. 
 The nutritive matter from the leaves con- 
 tains an excess of bitter extractive and 
 saline matters. Dogs eat the leaves, and 
 also those of the Holcus avenaceus, to ex- 
 cite vomiting ; hence it is sometimes called 
 dog's grass, and in other places bears the 
 name of quitch or quicks. See Couch. 
 
 3. Fibrous-rooted, or bearded wheat- 
 grass ( T. caninum). This differs essentially 
 from the common couch-grass last described 
 in having the root fibrous, without a rhi- 
 zome. It grows in woods and shady hedges, 
 on a chalky or limestone soil. The stems 
 are two feet high, very smooth. Leaves 
 nearly upright, lanceolate, taper-pointed, 
 thin, flat, bright green, rough on both sides. 
 As this grass yields a large supply of early 
 spring herbage, and produces a sufficiency 
 of seeds, which vegetate quickly on all 
 soils except such as are tenacious or reten- 
 tive of moisture, it might be cultivated to 
 advantage on soils of an inferior quality 
 instead of r^e grass. But for soils of the 
 best quality, it does not, as yet, uphold a 
 sufficient claim, the awns of the spike being 
 objectionable, and the produce of the latter- 
 math very inconsiderable. 
 
 4. Crested wheat-grass (T. cristatum), 
 a native of Scotland. The roots of this 
 species consist of several long, strong 
 woolly fibres, suited to a sandy soil. The 
 culms are ascending, twelve or eighteen inches 
 high, simple, rigid, slender, leafy ; hairy at the 
 top. This grass seems well adapted, from 
 its comparative merits, for culture on light 
 heath soils ; the produce of early herbage 
 in the spring being superior to most of the 
 alpine grasses, or those which affect sandy 
 dry soils. The latter-math is productive, 
 and very nutritious. It flowers about the 
 second week of July, and the seed is ripe 
 about the end of August. 
 
 5. Dwarf sea wheat-grass (T. loliaceum). 
 This is an annual species, growing on the 
 sandy sea-coast, flowering in June and 
 July. The root is formed of many long 
 downy fibres. Stem rigid and wiry, branched 
 from the hot lom, generally two or three 
 inches high, but various in luxuriance, 
 Leafy, very smooth, and polished, erect or 
 decBmbent. Leaves linear, acute, nearly 
 smooth, involute when dry. {Smith's Eng. 
 
 1290 
 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 181.; Sinclair 's Hort. Gram. 
 Wob.) 
 
 WHEEL. A circular piece of wood, 
 metal, or other substance, that revolves on 
 an axis. It consists of three principal parts, 
 the nave, heel, or the centre ; the spokes or 
 radii, and the periphery or ring. The 
 strength of the wheel depends much on the 
 framing and the arrangement of the spokes, 
 every one of which should stand perpen- 
 dicularly to the nave. The best wood for 
 making naves is elm, as it bears the cutting 
 of the mortices truer than any other. In 
 making wheels, after they are loosely put 
 together, they are either left to season in a 
 current of air for some weeks, or they are 
 exposed to a heat of 140° Fah. in a kiln. 
 After this they are examined, and if every 
 thing is correct, the tire or iron hoop is 
 put on, whether made of one hoop or sepa- 
 rate pieces. Some years since a patent 
 was taken out by Mr. Theodore Jones for 
 making iron wheels, many of which are now 
 in use. These wheels are not conical nor 
 what is termed dished, but cylindrical, 
 which enables them to run lighter and also 
 prove less destructive to roads. They are 
 not heavier than wooden wheels, they re- 
 quire less draught, and are more durable. 
 Some improvements have been made on 
 Mr. Jones's wheel by Mr. William Howard, 
 but the merits of this has not yet been 
 fully proved. 
 
 The utility of wheels to carriages may 
 be said to be twofold; namely, by dimi- 
 nishing or more easily overcoming the re- 
 sistance or friction from the carriage, and 
 more easily overcoming obstacles in the 
 road. In the first the friction on the 
 ground is transferred in some degree from 
 the outer surface of the wheel to its nave 
 and axle, and in the latter they serve easily 
 to raise the carriage over obstacles and 
 asperities met with on the roads. In both 
 these cases the height of the wheel is of 
 material consideration ; as the spokes act as 
 levers, the top of an obstacle being the 
 fulcrum, their length enables the carriage 
 more easily to surmount them, and the 
 greater proportion of the wheel to the axle 
 serves more easily to diminish or to over- 
 come the friction of an axle, as has been 
 shown by Jacob in his work on Wheel 
 Carriages. 
 
 Carriages with four wheels are much 
 more advantageous than carriages with two 
 wheels, as carts ; for with two wheels, it is 
 plain, the tiller horse carries part of the 
 weight in one way or other ; in going down 
 hill the weight bears upon the horse, and 
 in going up hill the weight falls the other 
 way and lifts the horse, which is still worse. 
 Ucsides, as the wheels sink into the holes 
 
WHEELBARROW. 
 
 WHITE-ROT. 
 
 in the roads, sometimes on one side some- 
 times on the other, the shafts strike against 
 the tiller's sides, which destroys many horses ; 
 moreover, when one of the wheels sinks into 
 a hole or rut, half the weight falls that 
 way, which endangers the overturning of 
 the carriage. 
 
 With respect to the utility of broad 
 wheels in amending and preserving the 
 roads, it has been so long and generally 
 acknowledged as to have occasioned the 
 legislature to enforce their use. At the 
 same time the proprietors and drivers of 
 carriages seem to be convinced, by ex- 
 perience, that a narrow-wheeled cart is 
 more easily and speedily drawn by the 
 same number of horses than abroad-wheeled 
 one of the same burthen; probably be- 
 cause they are much lighter, and have less 
 friction on the axle. 
 
 WHEELBARROW. A small well- 
 known hand-cart used for the carriage of 
 light loads by manual labour about the 
 garden or farm. See Barrows. 
 
 WHEEL CARRIAGE. See Carts and 
 Waggons. 
 
 WHEEL PLOUGH. See Plough. 
 
 WHEY. A provincial term applied to 
 the serous part of the milk, from which the 
 curd has been separated. See Dairy and 
 Milk. 
 
 WHIMBREL. (Numerius phceopus.) In 
 its plumage, haunts, and habits, the whim- 
 brel very closely resembles the curlew, but 
 is by no means so numerous as a species, 
 and is also very considerably smaller in 
 size, so much so that it has in some counties 
 obtained the names of half-curlew and jack- 
 curlew, in reference to its diminished com- 
 parative proportions. Although to be seen 
 occasionally on many parts of our shores 
 in winter, it is generally most plentiful in 
 May, and again in autumn. The eggs are 
 four in number, of a dark olive brown, 
 blotched with darker brown ; they are pear- 
 shaped, and very much like those of the 
 curlew, but smaller, measuring two inches 
 five lines in length, by one inch eight lines 
 in breadth. The birds feed on insects and 
 worms, and their note is said to resemble 
 the words " tetty, tetty, tetty, tet," quickly 
 repeated. An adult male measures sixteen 
 inches, the beak three inches; the female 
 about eighteen inches, the beak three inches 
 and a half. The flesh of the curlew and 
 the whimbrel are alike excellent. ( YarrelVs 
 Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 516.) 
 
 WHIN, or GORSE. See Furze. 
 
 WHINCHAT. (Saxicola rubetra.) The 
 whinchat or furzechat is in its habits, and 
 also in the localities it frequents, very 
 similar to the stonechat, already described. 
 Its obvious partiality to furze, which is 
 1291 
 
 also in many parts of England called whin, 
 has induced its most common names ; and, 
 like the stonechat, it darts along with an 
 undulating flight from bush to bush, always 
 perching upon one of the uppermost twigs. 
 The Avhincat makes its appearance about 
 the middle or end of April. Its song is 
 agreeable, generally given from an elevated 
 position on a furze-bush, or while hovering 
 in the air over it. Like most song birds it 
 is prone to imitate the notes of others. 
 The food of the whinchat is worms, in- 
 sects, small testaceous mollusca, slugs, and 
 berries. In the month of August, when 
 fat, though smaller in size than the wheatear, 
 they are not otherwise inferior to it as an 
 article of food for the table. The nest, 
 generally placed on the ground, is similar 
 to that of the stonechat, formed with a 
 little moss and bents of grass, lined with 
 finer bents ; the eggs are five or six in 
 number, of an uniform bluish green, with 
 some minute specks of dull reddish brown ; 
 nine lines long by six lines and a half in 
 breadth. The top of the head, neck, back, 
 and smaller wing-coverts are a mixture of 
 pale brown and very dark brown ; over the 
 eye and ear-coverts there is an elongated 
 streak of white ; the throat and breast are 
 delicate fawn-colour, passing into pale buff 
 on the belly. The whole length of the 
 bird is rather short of five inches. (Yar- 
 relVs Brit. Birds, vol. i. p. 249.) 
 
 WHISKEY. A British spirit obtained 
 by distillation from corn, sugar, or molasses, 
 though generally from the former. Whiskey 
 is the " national spirit," if we may so term 
 it, of Scotland and Ireland ; but that dis- 
 tilled in the former is generally reckoned 
 superior to that of the latter. 
 
 WHITE-ROT. (Hydrocotyle; from hydor, 
 water, and cotyle, a cavity ; in reference to 
 the plants growing in moist situations, and 
 the leaves being hollowed like cups.) One 
 species only is indigenous, the common 
 white-rot or marsh penny-wort (II. vid- 
 garis), which grows very frequent on moist _ 
 heaths, boggy commons, and the margins 
 of little clear rivulets. It is perennial in 
 habit, flowering in May or June. The 
 roots are fibrous; stems creeping to the 
 extent of two or three feet, slender, smooth, 
 often subdivided, quite prostrate. Leaves 
 solitary or aggregate, on upright simple 
 footstalks two or three inches high ; orbi- 
 cular, peltate, smooth, cloven at "the base. 
 Umbels very small, of diminutive white or 
 reddish nearly sessile flowers. Fruit some- 
 what wrinkled, compressed. This herb is 
 acrid, and, probably, like others of the 
 umbelliferous tribe growing in wet places, 
 poisonous. But whether it causes the rot 
 in sheep, and indeed whether these animals 
 
WHITE-THROAT. 
 
 WHORTLE-BERRY. 
 
 ever touch it, is doubtful. Too moist a 
 pasture is known to produce that disease, 
 and there the Hydrocotyle is generally to 
 be found. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. 
 p. 95.) See Rot. 
 
 WHITE-THORN. See Hawthorn. 
 
 WHITE-THROAT. (Curruca.) Of this 
 bird there are two British species. 
 
 1. The common white-throat (C. cinerea), 
 which is probably more numerous as a 
 species, and more generally diffused here, 
 than any other of those summer warblers 
 which annually visit this country. It makes 
 its appearance about the third week in 
 April, and frequents the sides of great 
 woods, thickets, hedgerows with broad 
 banks, and grassy lanes partially over- 
 grown with low brambles, nettles, and other 
 wild weeds or herbage : hence one of the 
 most common provincial names by which 
 this bird is known, that of " nettle creeper." 
 The nest is sometimes placed in a low 
 bush, or among a tangled mass of long 
 grass, weeds, and brambles. It is formed 
 of dried grass stems, lined with finer bents. 
 The eggs are four or five in number, of a 
 greenish white ground, spotted and sprinkled 
 with ash-brown, and two shades of ash- 
 green ; the long diameter nine lines, trans- 
 verse diameter six lines and a half. The 
 food of this species consists of insects in 
 their various states, particularly white 
 caterpillars, and most of the smaller sized 
 fruits and berries, to obtain some of which 
 they visit the kitchen-garden, and bring 
 their young with them, in July and August. 
 The general colour of the plumage is brown 
 of various shades ; chin and throat white ; 
 the lower part of the neck, breast, belly, 
 flanks, &c, pale brownish white, tinged with 
 rose colour. The whole length of the bird 
 is five inches and a half. The female is 
 without the rosy tints on the breast. 
 
 2. The lesser white-throat (C.garrula) 
 is readily distinguished from the more com- 
 mon white-throat by being rather shorter, 
 as well as more slender in form. Its eggs 
 are also rather smaller, measuring but eight 
 lines in length by six lines in breadth. Its 
 food and habits are much the same. The 
 whole length of the bird is five inches and 
 a quarter. The head, neck, and back are 
 smoke-grey; the chin, throat, breast, and 
 belly, nearly pure white, the latter tinged 
 with red as far as the vent. (Yarrelts Brit. 
 Birds, vol. i. p. 289—296.) See Warblers. 
 
 WHITLOW-GRASS. (Draba, from 
 drdbe, acrid, biting, alluding to the taste of 
 the Leaves.) Some of the species of this 
 genus are very pretty, being well adapted 
 lor ornamenting rock-work or growing in 
 pots among other alpine plants. A mixture 
 of loam and peat suits them best; and they 
 1292 
 
 increase with facility, either by dividing at 
 the root or by seeds. (Paxtoris Bot. Diet.} 
 There are five native species, the common 
 whitlow-grass (D. verna) ; the yellow alpine 
 whitlow-grass (D. aizoides) ; the simple- 
 haired whitlow-grass (D. hirta) ; the twisted- 
 podded whitlow-grass (D. incand) ; and the 
 speedwell-leaved whitlow-grass (D. muralis). 
 The leaves are undivided ; the flowers 
 either white or yellow. {Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 157.) 
 
 WHORTLE-BERRY. (Vaccinium.) A 
 genus of shrubs mostly of very humble 
 growth, with simple, alternate, evergreen, 
 or deciduous leaves. Flowers stalked, soli- 
 tary or aggregate, reddish or white, very 
 elegant. Berries blue, black, or red, acid 
 and eatable. The genus is chiefly American, 
 and the foliage turns red in decay. All the 
 species are well worth cultivating, some of 
 them for the sake of their fruit, some for 
 curiosity, and others for ornament. The 
 different kinds of whortle-berry and bilberry 
 succeed well in peat soil or very sandy loam. 
 Some of them grow best in moist situations, 
 and others in dry. They may be raised 
 from root suckers, creeping roots, trailing 
 rooting stems, or from seeds. There are 
 four indigenous species, namely : — 
 
 1. The black whortle-berry, or bilberry 
 (V. myrtillus), a shrub growing on stony 
 heaths, and in woods where the soil is turfy, 
 chiefly in mountainous countries, abundantly 
 flowering in May. The stem is bushy, from 
 one to two feet high, with irregular, smooth, 
 green, leafy, angular branches. Leaves 
 stalked, ovate, serrated, about an inch long, 
 bright green, smooth, thin, delicate ; and 
 veiny ; deciduous. Flowers on simple, 
 axillary, solitary, drooping stalks. Corolla 
 ovate, bright red, with a waxy transparency. 
 Berries bluish-black, of five cells, acid, but 
 not agreeable nor wholesome, except when 
 dressed. They are, nevertheless, eaten raw 
 in some countries with boiled cream and 
 sugar. The leaves contain a good deal of 
 tannic acid, and have been substituted for 
 those of Uva ursi, as an astringent medicine, 
 but are very inferior to them. 
 
 2. Bog whortle-berry, or great bilberry 
 (V. idiginosuni), grows on boggy moun- 
 tainous heaths, and common in the High- 
 lands of Scotland. It flowers in May. 
 Taller than the preceding, with round 
 branches. Leaves obovate, entire, smooth, 
 deciduous. Flowers several together, flesh- 
 coloured. Berries large, bluish-black, less 
 acid, and less wholesome than the former. 
 
 3. Red whortle-berry, or cowberry ( V. 
 Vitis Idcea). This species grows on dry, 
 stony, turfy heaths, or in mountainous 
 woods, in many parts of Scotland, Wales, 
 and the north of England. It is plentiful 
 
WIKES. 
 
 WILLOW. 
 
 in Derbyshire. It is an evergreen, flower- 
 ing in June. The roots are creeping ; 
 stems erect, three or four inches high, with 
 a few irregular, wavy, leafy, downy branches 
 at the summit. Leaves various in size, 
 evergreen, obovate, revolute, veiny, of a 
 dark shining green above, minutely toothed, 
 pale, with glandular dots beneath. Clusters 
 terminal, drooping, of several very pretty 
 flesh-coloured flowers, without scent, with 
 ovate, concave bractes, longer than the 
 flower- stalks. Berries globose, deep red, 
 astringent, and acid, with much bitterness, 
 which they lose by immersion for some 
 hours in water before they are made into 
 pies, rob, or jelly. In the latter state this 
 fruit is excellent for sore throats, as well as 
 for eating with venison or other roast meat, 
 as is practised generally in Sweden. The 
 leaves of this species are often mistaken for 
 those of Uva ursi. They contain much 
 astringent matter, and are little inferior to 
 Uva ursi as a medicine. 
 
 4. Marsh whortle-berry, or cranberry ( I '. 
 oxy coccus). This species grows in clear 
 watery turfy bogs, among mosses. The 
 roots are creeping, with many long fibres. 
 Stems slender, wiry, trailing, and creeping, 
 with numerous leafy branches. Leaves 
 ovate, entire, smooth, revolute, acute, peren- 
 nial. Flowers very elegant, drooping, on 
 simple red stalks, several together at the 
 end of each branch. Berries spotted in an 
 early state, finally deep red, very acid, 
 highly grateful to most people in tarts or 
 other preparations with sugar ; though in 
 Sweden they serve only for the acid liquor 
 to boil silver plate in, to eat away the 
 minute external particles of the copper 
 alloy. (Paxtorts Bot. Diet ; Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. ii. p. 218.) 
 
 WIKES. A provincial term signifying 
 temporary boundaries or marks, set up to 
 divide swath, to be mown, such as boughs, 
 in the common fields, or meadows. Also 
 boughs set upon haycocks for tithes, &c. 
 
 WILD OATS. A name given to the 
 tall oat-like soft grass {Holcus avenaceus). 
 — A noxious weed in arable lands. See 
 Holcus. 
 
 WILLOW. (Salix ; from sal, near, and 
 lis, water (Celtic) ; in allusion to the place of 
 its growth : or from satire, to leap, because 
 of the rapidity of its growth.) An ex- 
 tensive genus of well-known useful and 
 ornamental trees and shrubs. They all 
 delight to grow in swampy places, and are 
 increased by cuttings, though some of the 
 more rare alpine kinds root with difficulty. 
 There is no tribe of trees of such various 
 magnitude as the willows, from the large 
 white willow to the minute Salix herbacea, 
 six of which may be placed between two 
 1293 
 
 leaves of a duodecimo, roots, stems, leaves, 
 and flowers. Many of the species of willow, 
 under the names of osier and sallow, are 
 extensively grown for the manufacture of 
 basket-rods ; the best sorts for which are 
 the great round-leaved sallow (S. caprea) 
 and the common osier (S. viminalis). The 
 branches of some of the species are used as 
 stakes, poles, handles to rakes, hoes, and a 
 great variety of economical purposes. Lou- 
 don (Arb. Brit.) says, " In the north of 
 Europe the bark of S. alba is used for 
 tanning leather, and for dying yarn of a 
 common cinnamon colour ; and the leaves 
 and young shoots are given to cattle in a 
 green state, or dried like the twigs of the 
 birch, and laid up for winter fodder." The 
 bark, however, is less valuable than that of 
 some of the other species. The leaves of 
 the ;least willow (S. herbacea), soaked in 
 water, are employed in Iceland for tanning 
 leather. (Paxion's Bot. Diet.) The ar- 
 rangement of the species of willows is a 
 matter of considerable difficulty, as well as 
 their technical discrimination. Among the 
 numerous species of willows there are only 
 a few which are cultivated for farm pur- 
 poses, of these we shall enumerate and 
 describe the following : — 
 
 1. The long-leaved triandrous willow 
 (S. triandra). This tree is very common 
 in wet woods, hedges, and osier grounds. 
 It is of an upright form, rising naturally, 
 when not injured, to the height of thirty 
 feet ; towards autumn casting the bark of 
 its trunk and larger branches in broad 
 solid portions, cracking angularly asunder, 
 like the plane tree. The young branches 
 are erect, long, tough, and pliant, smooth, 
 leafy, brownish, somewhat brittle at their 
 joint or insertion. Leaves linear- oblong, 
 serrated, smooth, rather unequally sloping 
 at the base. The narrower-leaved willows 
 generally come under the denomination of 
 osiers, of which this is one of the most 
 valuable. It is cultivated for white basket- 
 work, producing rods eight or nine feet 
 long, tough and pliant, even when stripped 
 of their bark, and very durable. They are 
 cut down every year. There are several 
 varieties of this species ; one, called the 
 French,willow, is cultivated in Sussex and 
 in the eastern parts of England ; it is more 
 slender in form, and only about twelve or 
 fifteen feet high. 
 
 2. Bedford willow (S.Busselliana). When 
 this tree was first recommended for cul- 
 tivation, by the name of the Leicestershire, 
 or Dishley willow, it was regarded with 
 scorn as " only the crack willow " (S. fra~ 
 gilis), a sort notoriously useless. This 
 ignorance and prejudice are now removed, 
 and this willow is found the most profitable 
 
WILLOW. 
 
 WILLOW-HERB. 
 
 for cultivation of any species of the genus, 
 for the value of its timber as well as bark, 
 the rapidity of its growth, and the hand- 
 some aspect of the tree. This species of 
 willow was first brought into notice by the 
 late Duke of Bedford, who engaged an able 
 chemist, Mr. Biggin, to make experiments 
 upon it. It was found to contain in its 
 bark more of the tanning principle than 
 any other tree of this country, except the 
 oak. The bark also contains the largest 
 quantity of salicina, a salt which has been 
 found useful as a substitute for the quinia 
 and cinchona in agues, and which is much 
 less liable to excite irritation in the stomach 
 than the salts of the cinchona. It is of 
 great importance that the distinctions be- 
 tween this willow and the crack willow (S. 
 fragilis, should be clearly pointed out, on 
 account of the wide difference in their 
 qualities and value. This tree is more 
 handsome than the crack willow in its mode 
 of growth, as well as altogether of a lighter 
 or brighter hue. The branches are long, 
 straight, and slender, not angular in their 
 insertion like S. fragilis; and the trees, 
 when stripped of their leaves, may always 
 be distinguished by these marks. They are 
 polished, very tough, flexible, round, and 
 smooth. Leaves lanceolate, tapering at 
 each end, serrated throughout, and very 
 smooth. Those of S. fragilis are ovate- 
 lanceolate ; the foot-stalk, also, is longer 
 than the scale, whilst in S. fragilis it is so 
 short that the leaf is nearly sessile. In both 
 it is glandular or leafy. 
 
 3. Bitter purple willow (S. purpurea). 
 This is a shrub growing in low meadows, 
 about the banks of rivers and ditches, but 
 not common. The trunk is three or four 
 feet high, with long, slender, very smooth 
 branches, spreading widely, and, if not sup- 
 ported, trailing on the ground, of a rich 
 and shining purple, with a somewhat glau- 
 cous hue. Leaves partly opposite, obovate- 
 lanceolate, serrated, very smooth, narrow 
 at the base. This is a very valuable osier 
 for fine basket-work, but more especially 
 for platting into low close fences to keep 
 out hares and rabbits ; the leaves and 
 bark being intensely bitter, those animals 
 will not touch either. The twigs, more- 
 over, are so long, tough, and flexible, that 
 they may be interwoven into any shape, 
 and kept very close to the ground, as they 
 always retain their horizontal mode of 
 growth. Such a fence is scarcely inferior 
 t o one made of wire, and is, perhaps, more 
 durable, as continually producing young 
 shoots, to supply the place of those that 
 decay. It is important to distinguish this 
 useful and elegant willow from that to be 
 1294 
 
 next described. The bark contains much 
 salicina. 
 
 4. The rose willow (S. Helix) grows in 
 marshes, osier holts, and about the banks of 
 rivulets. It is a tree of humble growth, 
 erect, about ten feet high, smooth in every 
 part, altogether of a lighter hue than 
 the last. The branches not trailing, but 
 upright, smooth, and polished, of a pale 
 yellowish, or purplish ash-colour, tough, 
 and pliable, less slender and elongated than 
 the foregoing species, though useful for the 
 coarser sorts of basket-work. Leaves partly 
 opposite, oblong-lanceolate, pointed, slightly 
 serrated, very smooth, linear towards the 
 base. Their colour a light rather glaucous 
 green, turning blackish in drying. The 
 leaves and twigs are less bitter than the 
 former, and the greater size of the trunk, 
 as well as branches, renders this species fit 
 for several purposes which that is not. It 
 also makes a better figure in plantations, 
 and the roots give more solidity to the 
 banks of rivers or ditches. 
 
 5. Common white willow (5. alba). 
 This is a tall tree, whose bark is thick, full of 
 cracks, useful for tanning ; and, as yielding 
 much salicina, good, also, for the cure of 
 agues, though inferior in quality to that of 
 the true Bedford, or Huntingdon willow. 
 The bark is called cortex salignum, and 
 anglicanum by some writers. The branches 
 are numerous, spreading widely, silky when 
 young. Leaves all alternate, elliptic-lan- 
 ceolate, pointed, serrated, silky on both 
 sides ; the lowest serratures glandular. 
 There is a variety which is very superior in 
 the value of the wood and bark, and the 
 rapid growth as well as handsome aspect of 
 the tree, to the original species. (Smitlis 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 163—233.) See 
 Osier and Sallow. 
 
 WILLOW-HERB. {Epilobium, from epi, 
 upon, and lobos, a lobe; the flowers have 
 the appearance of being seated on the top 
 of the pod.) Many of the species of this 
 genus are very ornamental, as E. angustifo- 
 lium; while a few others, such as E. monta- 
 num, are mere weeds. They all grow well 
 in any common soil,and are either increased 
 by seeds or by dividing the roots. The in- 
 digenous species are nine, namely, the rose- 
 bay willow-herb (E. angustifolium), the 
 great hairy willow-herb (E. hirsutum), the 
 small-flowered hoary willow-herb (E.par- 
 viflorum), the broad smooth-leaved willow- 
 herb (E. montanum), pale smooth-leaved 
 willow-herb (E. roseum), square-stalked 
 willow-herb (E. tetrago?ium), round-stalked 
 marsh willow-herb (E. palustre), chick- 
 weed-leaved willow-herb (E. alsinifoluun), 
 and the alpine willow-herb (E. alpinum). 
 
WILLOW-WEED. 
 
 WINE. 
 
 These are all perennial herbs, with simple, 
 generally toothed, leaves; flowers mostly 
 purple, in terminal leafy clusters or spikes, 
 without scent. The most common of these 
 are — 
 
 1. The rose-bay willow-herb (E. angus- 
 tifolium), which grows wild in meadows 
 and moist shady places, chiefly in the north 
 of England. The root is creeping, fleshy, 
 with numerous buds, stems from three to 
 six feet high, erect, roundish, leafy, smooth, 
 reddish, seldom branched. Leaves scattered, 
 numerous, nearly sessile, linear-lanceolate, 
 acute, various in breadth, veiny, smooth. 
 Flowers crimson, inodorous, very handsome, 
 numerous, in long terminal upright clusters. 
 This is a very ornamental flower, common in 
 gardens, where it increases but too rapidly ; 
 thriving, like many mountain plants, even 
 in the smoky air of London. There is a 
 white variety. 2. The great hairy willow- 
 herb (E. hirsutum). This species is very 
 common in all watery places, ditches, and 
 the margins of rivers ; among reeds, coarse 
 grasses, and willows. It has an extensively 
 creeping root. The whole herbage is downy, 
 soft, and clammy, exhaling a peculiar but 
 transitory acidulous scent, justly compared 
 to the flavour of boiled codlings and cream. 
 Stems four feet or more in height, round, 
 leafy, copiously branched, and bushy. Leaves 
 half clasping the stem, ovate-lanceolate, 
 hairy. Flowers in leafy corymbose clusters, 
 large, of a delicate pink. (Paxtons Bot. 
 Diet; SmitKs Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 212.) 
 
 WILLOW WARBLER. See War- 
 bler. 
 
 WILLOW- WEED. A name applied in 
 the fens to the snake-weed, or pale-flowered 
 persicaria (Polygonum lapathifolium), an an- 
 nual plant, which grows very freely on all 
 loose and deep soils, and on marshy lands, 
 though it be scarcely known to any of the 
 cultivators of clay, and it is as rarely to be 
 seen on any sort of turnip land. This plant 
 grows commonly from eighteen inches to 
 two feet ; its stalks are tender and succu- 
 lent, pale, spotted, or reddish; the joints 
 much swollen. The plant branches most 
 when it has free growth, and produces a 
 great number of crowded spikes of seeds. 
 The leaves resemble those of the willow, but 
 are charged with dark spots in the middle. 
 The seeds are very bright and heavy, highly 
 nutritious, and therefore very grateful to 
 birds, especially partridges. Those who 
 keep decoys for catching wild ducks will 
 buy the seeds to feed and entice the fowl. 
 Pigs will do well on them, if boiled. These 
 seeds very much infest samples of fen corn, 
 whether wheat, oats, or barley. As a weed 
 in fen soils, this plant is the most ramping 
 and cumbersome of any weed that grows. 
 1295 
 
 (HoldicKs Weeds, p. 21.; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. ii. p. 234.) 
 
 WIND. See Weather. 
 
 WIND-FLOWER. One of the names 
 of the marsh gentian. See Gentian. 
 
 WINDHOVER. One of the common 
 names of the kestrel. See Falcon. 
 
 WIND, in HORSES. See Broken 
 Wind and Roaring. 
 
 WINDMILL. A well-known contrivance 
 for grinding corn or raising water, which is 
 put in motion by the action of the wind 
 upon its sails or vanes. They are of two 
 kinds, vertical and horizontal, but the former 
 is generally preferred. Since the extensive 
 introduction of improved horse power, hand, 
 and steam machinery, windmills are be- 
 coming much less common throughout the 
 country ; and from depending entirely upon 
 the caprice of the weather, they are only 
 suited to elevated or exposed situations, 
 where they will catch every passing breeze ; 
 and are much less useful than water-mills, 
 which can generally be kept at work con- 
 tinuously, or for a much longer period. A 
 set of arms and sails might be advantage- 
 ously used in some situations for pumping 
 up water from a well into a trough or cis- 
 tern for cattle, or for the purposes of irri- 
 gation. In the West Indies, a simple appa- 
 ratus of this kind is usually attached to the 
 pump or well in the farm-yard. The ve- 
 locity of the sails of a windmill, in a mode- 
 rate wind, was calculated by Mr. Ferguson 
 to be thirty miles an hour. 
 
 WIND-ROW. A term signifying the 
 green parts, or borders of a field, dug up, 
 in order to carry the earth on other land to 
 mend it; so called because it is laid in 
 rows, and exposed to the wind. It is also 
 applied to a row of peats or a line of hay 
 exposed to dry, and also to turfs cut up in 
 paring and burning. 
 
 WINE. (Vinum, Lat. ; vin, Fr. ; 
 vino, Ital. and Span. ; vinho, Portu. ; wein, 
 Germ. ; wyn, Dutch ; win, Swed. ; viin, 
 Dan. ; vino, Russ.) A well-known agree- 
 able, and, when moderately used, whole- 
 some liquor, prepared from the juice 
 of the grape, and that of some other fruits. 
 The invention of wine is involved in the 
 obscurity of the earliest ages. The sacred 
 writings, however, lead us to believe that it 
 must have been known before the deluge ; 
 for we are informed that the patriarch 
 Noah, immediately after that overwhelming 
 event, " began to be a husbandman ; and he 
 planted a vineyard; and he drank of the 
 wine, and was drunken" (Genesis, ch. ix. 
 v. 20, 21.), a sufficient reason for supposing 
 that it was a fermented liquor, and not 
 merely the simple juice of the grape. It 
 is, indeed, natural to imagine, that in those 
 
WINE. 
 
 countries where the vine is a native, the 
 spontaneous fermentation of the juice of 
 the fruit, when it was expressed, either 
 purposely or accidentally, and not imme- 
 diately used as a beverage, would have 
 naturally led to the invention of making 
 wine at a very early period. It is, never- 
 theless, certain, that until modern times the 
 preparation of wine was purely empirical. 
 
 The history of wine is of great interest, 
 but it would be impossible to attempt even 
 a very brief sketch of it in an article of 
 this description, and therefore we shall con- 
 fine our remarks upon that part of the 
 subject to some account of the wines used 
 in England, our object being rather to 
 treat of the general rules to be followed in 
 making and preserving wine, and to ex- 
 plain its dietetic qualities, than to trace its 
 history. 
 
 Wine, at a former period, was made in 
 England for sale, and most of the large 
 Abbeys were supplied with it from grapes 
 raised in their own vineyards ; but at no 
 time was it considered equal in quality to 
 foreign wine ; and certainly no stronger 
 reason for the neglect into which wine- 
 making in England fell need be stated. 
 Soon after the Norman conquest, much 
 encouragement was given to the importation 
 of the wines of Anjou and of Poitou ; and 
 in the time of Henry III. we find those of 
 the Moselle and St. John, probably an 
 Italian sweet wine, were added to the im- 
 ports. But for a considerable period the 
 foreign wines were not drank in their 
 genuine form, but were mixed with honey, 
 sugar, orange juice, and even opium. 
 Chaucer, in the Knight's Tale, speaks of 
 
 " A clarrie (claret) made of certain wine, 
 With narcotise and opie of Thebes fine." 
 
 These mixed wines received different 
 names, according to the nature of the wine 
 employed. When made with Burgundy or 
 Bordeaux, the mixture was called Bishop ; 
 when with old Rhenish, its name was Car- 
 dinal ; and when with Tokay, it was digni- 
 fied with the title of Pope. In the reign of 
 Edward II. the taste for sweet wines pre- 
 vailed ; and consequently we find the wines 
 which Alsace then furnished, which were 
 chiefly sweet, were much used. In the 
 time of Elizabeth, the profusion and diver- 
 sity of wines displayed on the tables even 
 of the citizens of the metropolis, and the 
 inhabitants of the southern provinces, al- 
 most exceed belief. Harrison, in his account 
 Of the mode of living in England in that 
 reign, states, that there were upwards of 
 eighty-six different wines in use; "whereof," 
 he adds, " Vernage, Cate-piinent, Raspis, 
 MuBCadell, Romme, Bastard, Tire, Oeeie, 
 Caprike, Clareie, and Malmeseie are not 
 1 296 
 
 least of all accompted of, because of their 
 strength and valure." (Holinshed 1 s Chron. 
 p. 167.) Sack, with which all are familiar 
 who have read the works of our immortal 
 dramatist, was a dry Spanish wine ; but 
 sugar was often added to it, with the view, 
 as Venner informs us, to lessen the hot and 
 penetrative quality of the wine. In truth, 
 the best sack, for there were several kinds 
 in use, was of the growth of Xerez, or in 
 other words sherry. In PasquiVs Palinodia, 
 published in 1619, this is stated in the fol- 
 lowing lines : — 
 
 " give me sacke, old sacke, boys, 
 
 To make the. Muses merry; 
 The life of mirth, and the joy of earth, 
 Is a cup of good old sherry." 
 
 The Spanish wines still retained the first 
 place on the tables of our countrymen, at 
 the commencement of the seventeenth cen- 
 tury. After this time, the preference was 
 given to the Canary wines, more of which, 
 Howell {Familiar Letters, part ii. 60.) in- 
 forms us, " was brought into England than 
 to all the world besides." Champagne ap- 
 pears to have been unknown in this island 
 until a present from Louis XIV. of two 
 hundred hogsheads of wine, consisting of 
 Champagne, Burgundy, and Hermitage, 
 was sent to the king of England ; but it was 
 long after this time unknown to those not 
 connected with the court, and, therefore, it 
 was regarded, as Venner terms it, " a regal 
 wine." Even at this period, however, al- 
 though much wine was drunk, yet few per- 
 sons kept a stock of it in private cellars ; 
 the chief consumption was in taverns. 
 
 The war with France in 1689 introduced 
 the use of the wines of Portugal, particu- 
 larly the red wine, or port, as a substitute 
 for the growths of Bordeaux ; and the cele- 
 brated Methuen treaty, which obliged us 
 to receive the wines of Portugal in ex- 
 change for our woollen manufactures, and 
 at one third less rate of the duty levied on 
 French wines, confirmed the taste of En- 
 glishmen for this strong and intoxicating 
 beverage, a taste which is again happily, as 
 respects health and longevity, on the de- 
 cline. 
 
 From the foregoing sketch it is evident 
 that the taste of our countrymen in wine 
 has varied considerably at different periods. 
 For five or six centuries, the light wines of 
 France and the banks of the Rhine, and the 
 rich sweet wines of the Mediterranean and 
 the Archipelago, were in high estimation. 
 Then came the dry Spanish wines ; and at 
 the close of the seventeenth century the 
 red growths of the Bordelais were in most 
 frequent demand ; which however, owing 
 to the wars with France, were given up, 
 and the rough wines of Portugal substituted 
 for them. But, as we have already said, the 
 
WINE. 
 
 use of these is now on the decline, and our 
 growing intercourse with the continent has 
 revived the taste for light wines. (Hender- 
 son's History of Wine.) 
 
 As far as concerns what is denominated 
 home-made wines, there is scarcely any, if we 
 except the Gooseberry (intended to imitate 
 Champagne) and Raisin-wine, that merit any 
 notice. Indeed, it is an incontrovertible 
 fact, that grapes ripened on walls and trel- 
 lises are in general unfit for the manufac- 
 ture of wine ; and, in this country, those 
 cultivated under glass are too valuable for 
 the desert and other purposes, in their 
 recent state, to be employed for making 
 wine. Still, however, to make home-made 
 wine forms one of the occupations of the 
 wife of a farmer, and tolerable wine may 
 be made with a mixture of raisins and 
 grapes cultivated in the open air, in favour- 
 able seasons. The principles of wine- 
 making are the same, whatever kind of fruit 
 is employed : in knowing, therefore, the 
 manufacture of Grape- wine, it is easy to 
 modify the process, so as to render it ap- 
 plicable to every other description of wine. 
 
 The juice of the grape, when chemically 
 analysed, is found to consist of a consider- 
 able portion of sugar and water, mucilage, 
 tannic acid, bitartrate of potassa, tartrate 
 of lime, phosphate of magnesia, chloride of 
 sodium, sulphate of potassa, and a mucoso- 
 saccharine principle, on which the ferment- 
 ative process productive of the wine de- 
 pends. Thenard, a distinguished French 
 chemist, assures us that this substance 
 excites the vinous fermentation by ab- 
 stracting a portion of oxygen from the 
 sugar, by means of its carbon, forming 
 carbonic acid gas, whilst its hydrogen and 
 the remaining oxygen and carbon of the 
 sugar are converted into alcohol, the 
 basis and exciting principle of all wines. 
 When the must, or expressed juice of the 
 grape, is exposed to a temperature of 65° 
 Fahr., this chemical change or fermentation 
 commences; an intestine motion takes place 
 in the liquor ; bubbles are evolved, which 
 buoy up the grosser matter, increasing the 
 bulk of the mass, and forming a scum upon 
 the surface. An augmentation of tem- 
 perature now takes place ; the must loses its 
 saccharine taste ; it acquires a deeper colour 
 than before, and a vinous flavour, which 
 increases with the advancement of the pro- 
 cess. After a few days, the fermentation 
 gradually subsides, the mass returns to its 
 original bulk, the scum sinks to the bottom 
 of the vessel, the liquor becomes trans- 
 parent, and it is now wine. The con- 
 stitution of the must is liable to be greatly 
 influenced by the quality, the variety, the 
 climate, and the culture of the grapes, as 
 1207 
 
 well as the nature of the seasons. In a 
 cold year, owing to the deficiency of the 
 saccharine matter, the wine is weak, harsh, 
 and acescent ; in wet seasons it is devoid 
 of a competent quantity of spirit : high 
 winds and fogs are also injurious. In this 
 country, the mode of training the vine high 
 upon walls is a disadvantage for making the 
 fruit into wine. In the best wine countries, 
 it is never allowed to grow more than three 
 or four feet high ; and it is found that the 
 bunches nearest to the soil, if they do not 
 touch it, are always the richest. It is a 
 mistake to suppose that sweet wines are the 
 most susceptible of decomposition ; on the 
 contrary, they can be kept for almost an 
 indefinite length of time without under- 
 going any deleterious change. All wines 
 continue to suffer a certain degree of fer- 
 mentation after they are racked off and put 
 into casks ; and as long as the saccharine 
 matter is supplied to maintain this slow 
 fermentation, the wine remains good ; but, 
 when that is exhausted, the acetous fer- 
 mentation begins, and the wine is converted 
 into vinegar. 
 
 Admitting, however, the goodness of the 
 fruit, and the wine to be made conse- 
 quently expected to be excellent, many 
 circumstances may destroy that hope, for 
 the process does not proceed in the regular 
 manner above described, unless certain 
 rules be strictly observed : these are the 
 following : — 1. The grapes should be well 
 and equally bruised or trodden ; for the 
 juice that first flows contains little mucoso- 
 saccharine matter, and consequently does 
 not ferment freely. That substance is con- 
 tained chiefly in the insoluble organised 
 parts and the skin, which also contains 
 the greatest part of the acid, the resinous 
 extractive, and the colouring principle. 
 2. The fermentation should be conducted 
 at a temperature of 60° to 65° Fahr., below 
 which it languishes, and above which it pro- 
 ceeds too violently. When it progresses too 
 slowly, that evil may be remedied by the 
 addition of a little boiling must. 3. The 
 contact of air is essential in the commence- 
 ment ; and this affords another reason for 
 the good bruising of the fruit, as much air 
 is absorbed in that stage of the process. 
 But after the fermentation is established, 
 the air should be excluded, for the sake of 
 preserving the aroma ; and to secure this, 
 the French chemist, Chaptal, who paid 
 much attention to the manufacture of wines, 
 recommends the vats to be covered with 
 boards and linen cloths. 4. The greater 
 the bulk of material, the more perfect the 
 wine. 5. When the wine is perfected and 
 racked off, it should be sulphured by burn- 
 ing sulphur matches within the casks in-. 
 4 o 
 
WINE. 
 
 tended to contain it, in order to restrain, 
 within a certain degree, the further fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 When good wine is actually produced, 
 much of the advantage expected from the 
 possession of it depends on the future ma- 
 nagement and preservation of it ; for every 
 wine contains within itself the sources of 
 both improvement and decline. The chief 
 points to be attended to are guarding 
 against vicissitudes of temperature and the 
 contact of air. Wines in the cask or wood, 
 as the term is, are liable to become sour, 
 either by a sudden transition from cold to 
 heat, or the reverse; and the same sus- 
 ceptibility to ascescency is favoured by de- 
 fect of proper fining ; but this process should 
 not be frequently repeated, as it impairs the 
 flavour and the body of the liquor. Wines 
 are mellowed by the slow precipitation of 
 the tartar, which carries down with it the 
 colouring matter and; the salts of lime ; and 
 this occurs in the ratio of the evolution of 
 the alcohol, during the continued gradual 
 fermentation which goes on even after the 
 wine is bottled. This would strengthen 
 wine in the cask, were it not balanced by 
 the evaporation of the alcohol through the 
 sides of the cask. Old Rhenish wines kept 
 in the barrel lose nearly one half of their 
 original alcohol; yet it is an undoubted 
 fact, that wine in bottles, not corked, but 
 tied over with a bladder, becomes stronger : 
 — that membrane permitting water to pass 
 through it, but not spirit. Another curious 
 fact, however, must not be forgotten, 
 namely, that whilst the wine becomes 
 weaker when kept in cask, it becomes 
 much improved in its other qualities ; a 
 fact which is illustrated by the transporta- 
 tion of Madeira to India, or keeping it in 
 a warm place. 
 
 The adulteration of wine is too compre- 
 hensive a subject to be here fully treated of ; 
 but, independent of this evil, every foreign 
 wine sent to this country, except the best 
 of the Rhenish wines, contains much un- 
 combined brandy, which tends not only to 
 render them unwholesome, but impairs their 
 original flavour, and risks their partial de- 
 composition. Were our home-made wines 
 free from this evil, it would tend greatly to 
 encourage a new branch of trade which hat 
 lately sprung up in Scotland, chiefly as 
 Edinburgh, Leith, and Glasgow. From a 
 parliamentary return, we find that 24,848 
 gallons, equal to nearly 150,000 bottles, were 
 sent to England in 1839, and 23,089 gallons 
 in 1840. Of the 24,848 in 1839, about 
 13,000 gallons were shipped from Leith, and 
 11,000 from Glasgow ; and of the quantity 
 in 1840, about 14,700 gallons went from 
 Leith, and 7,000 from Glasgow. 
 1298 
 
 In the present day, when temperance 
 has made so favourable an impression on 
 the habits of all classes of society, some re- 
 marks on the dietetic properties of wine be- 
 come essential in an article devoted to its 
 other qualities. Were technical phraseology 
 allowable, we should say that wine is stimu- 
 lant and salutary in small, narcotic and 
 poisonous in large quantities. This" opinion, 
 however, neither implies that it is necessary 
 as an ordinary article of diet, nor that it is 
 deleterious even in the largest doses, as a 
 medicinal agent. Wine, moderately used, 
 in the artificial state of modern civilised 
 society, is not at all essential for the healthy, 
 however occupied, except under exposure 
 to unusual fatigue. But were this principle 
 of necessity to guide the regulation of diet 
 and beverage, the art of cookery would be 
 annihilated; and the growth of wine, as 
 well as the manufacture of every spirituous 
 liquor, under whatever name it is known, 
 ardent spirits, cyder, or malt liquor, would 
 cease to exist. In noticing, therefore, the 
 dietetic properties of wine, we must take 
 society as we find it, not as it ought to be 
 constituted. The stimulant operation of 
 wine is exerted on the nerves of the 
 stomach, and the secreting powers of that 
 organ are influenced by these ; and thus a 
 beneficial effect results when the digestive 
 powers are depressed. This, in a great 
 degree, depends on the alcohol contained 
 in the wine ; yet it is a fact, that the same 
 quantity of brandy diluted with water, to 
 the strength of wine, will cause intoxica- 
 tion more speedily than when it is taken 
 in the form of wine, especially if the 
 wine contains no uncombined alcohol. The 
 stimulant power of wine, however, depends 
 on the quantity of alcohol in its composi- 
 tion; but this power is much greater in 
 those wines that contain adventitious and 
 imperfectly combined spirit. On this ac- 
 count, Port- wine is more apt to derange the 
 stomach, and to cause intoxication, than 
 Sherry of the same strength ; and Claret or 
 Rhenish less than either. But besides the 
 evils arising from wines containing uncom- 
 bined brandy, those wines that contain 
 much acid are usually deleterious to per- 
 sons of sedentary habits, or who have weak 
 stomachs. Indeed, the daily use of the best 
 wine can only be supported with impunity 
 by those who take much exercise in the 
 open air. But, if we admit that wine is 
 a necessary article of life for the healthy, 
 there can be only one opinion respecting 
 the superiority of the better kinds of Bor- 
 deaux. Whatever wine is taken, it should 
 not be conjoined with other sorts, jis no- 
 thing impairs digestion more than mingling 
 several sorts of wine at one meal. 
 
WINE. 
 
 WINN OWING-MACHINE. 
 
 Such are the general effects of the mode- 
 rate use of wine ; its abuse is so well known, 
 both in reference to mind and body, that it 
 is unnecessary to make a single remark, in 
 this place, upon the subject, except to cau- 
 tion those who feel no immediate injurious 
 effects from a pint of Port, or indeed of any 
 wine, daily, not to rely too confidently upon 
 their apparent powers of resisting its evil 
 influence ; for a foundation may be slowly 
 formed for maladies, that, when they appear, 
 are always difficult of cure, and often alto- 
 gether irremediable. 
 
 With respect to the comparative value in 
 reference to the wholesomeness of different 
 wines, a few remarks may be necessary, 
 before concluding this article. Among the 
 brisk wines, Champagne is the least noxious, 
 even when it is drank to excess, the excitement 
 is of shorter duration, and the subsequent 
 exhaustion is less. It is said to be hurtful 
 to the gouty ; but gout is almost unknown 
 in the province where it is made ; and more 
 of the evil said to be caused by Champagne 
 is due to the variety and the nature of the 
 dishes, and the period of the day at which 
 they are eaten, than to the wine itself. The 
 red wines of Burgundy are strong, heating, 
 and consequently intoxicating, and they 
 should only be taken in very small quantity. 
 The Bordeaux wines, as we have already 
 stated, are the safest for daily use. They 
 certainly do not excite inebriety so rapidly 
 as most other wines. The wines of Oporto 
 abound in astringent matter, and in un- 
 combined brandy. They are unfit for weak 
 stomachs ; they tend to cause sleep rather 
 than to elevate the spirits, and they are the 
 most pernicious as daily beverage. The 
 Spanish wines, especially Sherries, are less 
 objectionable, but they should never be 
 drunk without dilution with water, unless 
 for medicinal purposes. The same opinion 
 may be hazarded with respect to Madeira ; 
 and perhaps no wine is more suited for the 
 dyspeptic, if hypochondriasis be absent. 
 The best light wines of the Rhine and the 
 Moselle are, of all others, the most whole- 
 some. They contain little alcohol, and that 
 little is wholly combined. They prove, in 
 many instances, refrigerant, and have a ten- 
 dency, from the nature of the acid which 
 they contain, the tartaric, to diminish 
 obesity. Lastly, all sweet wines are apt to 
 disorder the stomach ; and when used freely 
 they intoxicate as readily, and cause as de- 
 leterious subsequent effects as the stronger 
 wines. But after all, we must revert to the 
 opinion, that wine is an unnecessary article 
 of diet for all who are healthy and robust ; 
 and must truly be regarded, beyond cer- 
 tain limits, either as a medicine or a poison. 
 {Hendersons History of Ancient and Mo- 
 1299 
 
 dern Wines ; Maculloch on Wine Making.) 
 Dr. A. T. Thomson. 
 See Alcohol and Wine. 
 
 Account of the Quantity of Foreign Wine 
 retained for Home Consumption, in Wine 
 Gallons, from 1789 to 1836. 
 
 Years. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 1789 
 
 5,814,665 
 
 1790 
 
 6,492,313 
 
 1792 
 
 8,082,249 
 
 1794 
 
 - 6,799,220 
 
 1796 
 
 5,732,385 
 
 1798 
 
 - 4,760,657 
 
 1800 
 
 - 7,728,871 
 
 1802 
 
 6,355,749 
 
 1804 
 
 - 4,840,719 
 
 1805 
 
 5,936,235 
 
 1810 
 
 6,805,276 
 
 1815 
 
 5,968,435 
 
 1820 
 
 5,019,960 
 
 1822 
 
 - 4,975,159 
 
 1823 
 
 4,845,060 
 
 1824 
 
 5,030,091 
 
 1825 
 
 8,009,542 
 
 1826 
 
 6,058,443 
 
 1827 
 
 6,826,361 
 
 1828 
 
 - 7,162,376 
 
 1829 
 
 6,217,652 
 
 1830 
 
 6,434,445 
 
 1831 
 
 6,212,264 
 
 1832 
 
 5,965,542 
 
 1833 
 
 - 6,207,770 
 
 1834 
 
 6,480,544 
 
 1835 
 
 - 6,420,342 
 
 Account exhibiting the Quantities of the dif- 
 ferent So?-ts of Wine imported into and 
 exported from the United Kingdom in the 
 Year ending the 5th of January, 1840, and 
 the gross Revenue accruing thereon. 
 
 Species of Wine. 
 
 Quantities 
 imported into 
 the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Quantities 
 exported from 
 the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Gross Amount 
 of Revenue 
 ; received 
 thereon. 
 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 £ 
 
 Cape - 
 French 
 Madeira 
 Portuguese - 
 Spanish » 
 Rhenish 
 Canary 
 Fayal - 
 Sicilian and 
 other Wines„ 
 
 723,740 
 508,329 
 267,047 
 3,272.206 
 4,130,753 
 82,910 
 341,2-25 
 202 
 
 582,310 
 
 3,520 
 121,525 
 162,527 
 299,355 
 989,776 
 13,350 
 292,779 
 90 
 
 170,163 
 
 73,596 
 109,820 
 
 1,732,232 
 
 Total 
 
 9,908,722 
 
 2,053,085 
 
 1,915,648 
 
 WINNOWING-MACHINE. A con- 
 trivance employed for separating, by an ar- 
 tificial current of air, the chaff from the 
 grain, after it has been thrashed out of the 
 straw. Various are the accounts, re- 
 4 o 2 
 
WINNOWING-MACHINE. 
 
 marks Mr. J. A. Ransome in his Treatise 
 on the Implements of Agriculture, given 
 of the introduction of this machine, and 
 many the claimants for the credit of having 
 been the first maker of this piece of me- 
 chanism in England or Scotland. All, how- 
 ever, agree that the idea, design, or model 
 was originally furnished from Holland, 
 earlier, however, than the date of any 
 of these by at least a period of twenty 
 years. We learn from the papers of Robert 
 Somerville of Haddington, that in 1710, 
 pursuant to articles of agreement between 
 himself and Fletcher Laird of Saltoun, 
 James Meikle (father to Meikle of thrash- 
 ing-machine memory) visited Holland for 
 the purpose of learning " the perfect art of 
 sheeling barley," in order to the introduc- 
 tion of the barley mill. The same autho- 
 rity, 1805, states, " that on Meikle's return 
 he made the first fanners which were seen 
 in Britain ; " and that these were in use 
 only a few years before that date at the 
 Saltoun barley mills. That the machine was 
 not made public till many years afterwards 
 may be attributed to a clause in the above- 
 mentioned agreement, by which Meikle was 
 bound, on leaving Saltoun's service, " not 
 to profit any more by this mill, nor commu- 
 nicate the arts he had learned to any other." 
 In 1737, through the medium of Rogers of 
 Cavers and others, it was brought into 
 
 more general use ; and in 1768, A. and R. 
 Meikle obtained a patent for a machine of 
 this kind. Although a very considerable 
 advantage over the plan of dressing by 
 hand, these still appear to have been but 
 very imperfect, the corn having to be 
 passed through them twice or thrice in 
 order to be perfectly separated. And in 
 1798, R. Douglas, in his Agricultural Sur- 
 vey of Roxburghshire, remarking upon these 
 defects, mentions an improvement invented 
 by one Moodie of Lilliesheaf, " in which he 
 had happily combined some properties of 
 other fans, so that the grain at one opera- 
 tion could be both separated from the chaff 
 and lighter seeds, and completely riddled of 
 all sorts of refuse." 
 
 Other patents had been taken out which 
 do not appear to have involved much real 
 improvement, till, in 1800, I. Cooch of 
 Northampton patented the machine which 
 has since been known by his name, and has 
 obtained deserved commendation, being in 
 use and approved beyond most at the pre- 
 sent day. This machine dresses all kinds 
 of seeds, and its work is performed in a 
 perfect manner : its principle involved more 
 mechanical combinations than were at that 
 time generally understood by the class for 
 whose use it was intended ; and this, to- 
 gether with its then cost, retarded its more 
 general adoption. 
 
 1300 
 
 COOOH'fl WINNOWING -MAC MINE. 
 
WINNOWING- M ACHIN E . 
 
 In 1812, John Elmy obtained a patent 
 for improvements in winnowing-maehines, 
 and produced a very efficient implement; 
 the arrangement of its various parts were 
 simple, and greater effect was obtained 
 from the blast. Comparing this with the 
 drawings and description of one we find in 
 
 the Edinburgh Journal of Agriculture, and 
 with that described by Professor Low, wc 
 have little doubt of their general identity 
 with this, and as it is the model upon which 
 the machines in general use are now made, 
 we subjoin a sketch of it. 
 
 elmy's winnowing -machine. 
 
 In 1839, T. F. Salter obtained a patent 
 for a machine for winnowing and dressing 
 corn and seeds, which at the R. A. S. E. 
 meeting at Cambridge was exhibited, and 
 obtained the silver medal. 
 
 In this invention are combined the prin- 
 ciples of Grant's hummelling machine, de- 
 scribed in British Husbandry, vol. xi. p. 
 204., and of Hall's smut machine {Loudon s 
 Ency. of Agr. p. 439. fig. 403.), with the 
 operations of the common winnower. 
 
 The undressed grain from the hopper 
 passes through a cylindrical sieve, having 
 within it a rotatory spindle, upon which 
 short blunt arms are arranged in a spiral 
 direction ; these agitate the grain as it 
 passes along, and thus separate the small 
 dirt and dust as well as the awns of barley, 
 which fall through in a closed box or cup- 
 board. The cylinder is placed in a slanting 
 direction, and is provided at each end with 
 slides, which regulate the quantity and 
 speed with which the grain shall pass. 
 Through the slide aperture a£ the lower 
 end the grain is introduced upon other 
 sieves, which, having a backward and for- 
 1301 
 
 ward motion, distribute it equally over 
 their surface when it is subjected to the 
 blast of the fan, driving obliquely through 
 the sieves ; this carries the chaff out of the 
 machine ; the grain falls on a screen, which, 
 having a similar motion to the sieves, se- 
 parates from it all small seeds, and the dross 
 corn is carried away in a division formed 
 for the purpose. The grain, dross, corn, 
 and chaff' are thus all thoroughly separated 
 from each other, and the dust, dirt, and 
 small seeds, having fallen in an enclosed 
 box from the cylinder, may be entirely 
 removed. 
 
 We have heard this machine highly ap- 
 proved by many, and when pains are taken 
 to separate the corn from the short straw, 
 &c, previously to submitting it to the ma- 
 chine, we believe it to be very effective ; 
 but as there is some degree of complication 
 in its details, it is chiefly suited to those to 
 whom a high degree of excellence in the 
 manner of " making up their corn " is a 
 matter of more importance than the time 
 or labour it may require. 
 
 4 o 3 
 
WINNOWING-MACHINE. 
 
 SALTER'S WINNOWING -MACHINE ; SIDE ELEVATION WITH FRONT REMOVED. 
 
 SALTER'S WINNOWING -MACHINE ; END ELEVATION. 
 
 AVii now come to the description of the 
 winnower used in combination with the 
 thrashing apparatus at Whitfield, in which 
 the principal feature is the improvement of 
 the fan or blower. I laving noticed that the 
 ordinary form and position of the fans, which 
 are flat boards, radiating from the centre 
 1 302 
 
 as seen in the drawing, tended to keep the 
 air constantly whirling within the casing, 
 rather than to force it forwards; and that 
 if, instead of being flat, they were curved 
 forward in the direction of their motion, 
 they would draw the air in from the tube 
 and force it out at the sides, J. Clyburn of 
 
WINTER-CRESS. 
 
 WINTER PROUD. 
 
 Uley, the engineer by whom the machinery 
 at Whitfield was executed, constructed a 
 blower, in which, by a certain curvature of 
 the fans, and a different arrangement of the 
 chamber in which they revolve, the ten- 
 dency to form a vacuum is considerably in- 
 
 clyburn's 
 
 creased, and greater force is consequently 
 obtained from the blast. The arrangement 
 of the chamber in which the fans are made 
 rapidly to revolve will perhaps be better 
 understood by the following sketches, &c. 
 
 ED BLOWERS. 
 
 We are not disposed to leave this part of 
 our subject without some allusion to an 
 invention for still further carrying out the 
 process of cleaning corn, known as Tuxford's 
 reeing-machine. This consists of a series of 
 sieves, to which a rotatory motion is given : 
 the grain is by this means separated from 
 any small dust and dirt, which passes through 
 the wires of the sieve, while all the lighter 
 rubbish is by the motion brought to the 
 top, whence it is removed by hand. This 
 implement is more, perhaps, adapted for 
 millers ; and its cost presents, in its present 
 form, a bar to its general introduction. If 
 it could be reduced to the power of being 
 worked by hand, it would be a very valuable 
 assistant to the proper preparation of the 
 grain for market. 
 
 WINTER CHICKWEED. See Chick- 
 weed, European. 
 
 WINTER-CRESS. (Barbarea, on ac- 
 count of its being formerly called the herb 
 of St. Barbara.) There are two indigenous 
 species ; 1. The bitter winter- cress, or yellow 
 rocket (B. vulgaris), a perennial, which is 
 common in rather moist waste ground, 
 about hedges, or in marshy meadows. The 
 root is tapering, somewhat woody; stem 
 about two feet high, simple or branched, 
 leafy, stout, angular, and furrowed. Lower 
 leaves lyrate, the terminal lobe roundish ; 
 upper obovate, toothed, strongly ribbed, of 
 a fine texture, quite smooth. Flowers 
 bright yellow, in round-headed corymbose 
 clusters. Pod quadrangular, about an inch 
 long. The whole herb is nauseously bitter, 
 and in some degree mucilaginous. A double- 
 flowered variety, with innumerable petals 
 produced in long succession, and turning 
 white as they fade, is frequent in gardens. 
 1303 
 
 2. Early winter-cress (B. precox). This 
 biennial species is found in watery grassy 
 places, or on the banks of ditches. Stems, 
 one or more, erect, one and a half or two 
 feet high, smooth, a little branched, tinged 
 at the bottom with a violet hue. Lower 
 leaves lyrate ; upper deeply pinnatifid, with 
 linear, oblong, entire segments ; flowers 
 fewer, smaller, and paler than those of B. 
 vulgaris. Pods thrice as long as in that 
 species, exactly square, smooth. This species 
 propagates itself abundantly by seed, but 
 the root is not perennial. It may be eaten 
 like water- cresses, with which it agrees in 
 flavour, except being rather more pungent. 
 {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 198.) 
 
 WINTER-GREEN. ( Pyrola, from the 
 leaves being similar to those of the pear 
 tree.) A genus of very pretty plants, rather 
 difficult to cultivate. A shaded peat border 
 appears to suit them best, and they are 
 readily increased by divisions or seeds. 
 The whole genus is astringent and tonic. 
 There are five native species, all perennials, 
 as follows: — 1. Round-leaved winter-green 
 (P. rotundifolid). 2. Intermediate winter- 
 green (P. media). 3. Lesser winter-green 
 (P. minor). 4. Serrated winter-green (P. 
 secunda); and 5. Single-flowered winter- 
 green (P. unijlorci). They all inhabit alpine 
 wooded localities ; the flowers are white or 
 reddish, often highly fragrant. P. uniflora 
 is one of the most curious and elegant of 
 British flowers. (Paxton's Bot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 254.) 
 
 WINTER PROUD. A term provincially 
 applied to wheat which in winter puts on 
 a more green and luxuriant appearance than 
 it is able to support in the following sum- 
 mer ; or in which the ramifications become 
 4 o 4 
 
WINTER-WEED. 
 
 WIRE-WORM. 
 
 too numerous to be kept up, or brought 
 to maturity, from the previous over- exertion 
 of the soil. In these cases the crops decline 
 during the spring and summer, and at har- 
 vest yield imperfectly, falling much below 
 other crops which had a more backward 
 appearance in the winter. 
 
 WINTER- WEED. A name given, in 
 Norfolk and other parts, to the ivy -leaved 
 speedwell (Veronica hederifolia). See 
 
 WIRE-WORM. (Elater segetis.) These 
 are the larvae of that tribe of insects named 
 Elateridce, or click-beetles, which are readily 
 known by having the sternum produced 
 behind into a strong spine fitted to enter a 
 groove in the abdomen situated between the 
 intermediate pair of legs. By bringing these 
 parts suddenly into contact, the insects are 
 enabled to spring to some height into the 
 air, and thus recover their natural position, 
 when they happen to fall on their backs, 
 which they frequently do, when dropping 
 from plants to the ground. A special pro- 
 vision of this kind is rendered necessary, in 
 consequence of the shortness and weakness 
 of their legs. The wire- worms have a long, 
 slender, and cylindrical body, covered by a 
 hard crust, which has obtained for them the 
 above name. They are composed of twelve 
 segments fitting closely to each other, and are 
 provided with six conical scaly feet, placed in 
 pairs on the three segments next the head. 
 The latter is furnished with short antennae, 
 palpi, and two strong mandibles or jaws. 
 
 Upwards of sixty different species of 
 these insects occur in Britain, and it is pro- 
 bable that a considerable proportion of them 
 feed upon our most valuable cultivated 
 plants. The same species of larva does not 
 appear to confine itself to one kind of food, 
 but attacks indiscriminately the roots of 
 corn and other grasses, as well as esculent 
 roots, such as turnips, carrots, radishes, &c. 
 But it is at the same time deserving of 
 notice, that as a strong similarity prevails 
 among larva? specifically distinct, it is pro- 
 bable that different kinds may often have 
 been confounded, and a more correct know- 
 ledge may prove them to be more restricted 
 in their choice of food than is at present 
 supposed : this, at least, is rendered not 
 unlikely by what is observed in analogous 
 cases. We are as yet acquainted with the 
 metamorphoses and habits of a very small 
 number of these insects ; and it is, therefore, 
 highly desirable that whenever a destructive 
 species of wire-worm prevails, it should be 
 traced to the perfect condition. This, how- 
 ever, is attended with considerable difficulty, 
 owing to the length of time they continue 
 in the larva state, extending, in many in- 
 stances, to several years. 
 1304 
 
 This insect occurs in considerable plenty 
 throughout the country in grass fields and 
 pasture lands, and is usually found creeping 
 among the herbage, or lying at the sides of 
 stones ; it is scarcely ever observed on the 
 wing. The extent of the injury they some- 
 times occasion may be estimated from the 
 fact, that a single worm has been observed 
 to bite from eight to twenty plants in a very 
 short time ; and they are occasionally so 
 abundant, that from four to eight have been 
 turned up by the spade in a space of four 
 square feet. The depredations of the wire- 
 worm being principally confined to wheat 
 sown upon clover leys, old pastures recently 
 broken up, pea and bean stubbles, &c, we 
 may suppose the general average of the 
 injury to amount to about a twentieth part 
 of what is sown upon this description of 
 lands. This, I think, may be deemed a very 
 fair and moderate calculation. The number 
 of cultivated acres of land in England was 
 computed at 7,000,000, of which 2,400,000 
 were calculated to be sown with wheat ; and 
 as only one half of the wheat sown is sup- 
 posed to be on clover leys, old pastures, &c, 
 our calculations must be confined to 1 ,200,000 
 acres instead of 2,400,000. This will give 
 60,000 acres as annually destroyed by the 
 insect in question, which, re-planted at one 
 bushel per acre, will require 60,000 bushels 
 of seed, which, at 8*. per bushel, are worth 
 24,000/. Besides this, although no extra 
 expense is incurred by the farmer in pre- 
 paring the land, yet he has to pay for dib- 
 bling in the seed, which, at 5s. 3d. per acre, 
 will cost 15,750/., or at the full price, 6s. 
 per acre, 18,000/. If the land require har- 
 rowing, there will be a further charge of 
 9d. per acre, or 2,250/., not to name other 
 items, which render it difficult precisely to 
 ascertain the loss of the farmer. 
 
 If the above calculation be thought a 
 fair one, and I see no reason why it should 
 not, we find the quantity of wheat lessened 
 to the market by the depredations of these 
 insects is very frequently, if not annually, 
 60,000 bushels, which occasions to the 
 farmers an additional expense of at least 
 15,750/. (Linn. Trans, vol. ix. p. 158.) 
 
 When the fields lie fallow, these insects 
 continue to feed on the grass and other 
 weeds, which are frequently allowed to 
 overrun the surface ; whereas, if the soil 
 were kept clean, they would either die for 
 want of food, or be compelled to remove 
 to some other place. As these larvae in- 
 variably live beneath the surface of the 
 soil, every plan suggested for their destruc- 
 tion must be founded on this considera- 
 tion. 
 
 Without adverting to this fact, many 
 superficial applications, such as strewing the 
 
WIRE-WORM. 
 
 WOAD, DYER'S. 
 
 surface with quicklime, soot, &c, have been 
 tried without effect. The most obvious 
 remedy is to saturate the soil with some 
 fluid which has been previously ascertained 
 to destroy the insects without injuring the 
 plants ; that is, if the latter be of a kind 
 which it is necessary to preserve, as will 
 usually be the case. In a fallow field, this 
 precaution need not be observed, as a double 
 benefit would ensue from the destruction of 
 both insects and weeds. More carefully 
 conducted experiments, and on a more ex- 
 tensive scale than any that have yet been 
 undertaken, will be necessary to show what 
 kind of liquid is best adapted for this pur- 
 pose. Probably, different substances will 
 be found most useful in different situations, 
 according to the nature of the soil and 
 the chemical ingredients which enter into 
 its composition. The latter consideration 
 should be particularly attended to in all 
 experiments on the subject, as most likely 
 to suggest the most appropriate remedy ; 
 and it might even happen that the fluid 
 employed to destroy the insects might be 
 so managed as to produce a most beneficial 
 change in the chemical qualities of the soil. 
 If a strong saline solution, for example, 
 should be found to kill the insects, as it is 
 very likely to do, there are few soils which 
 would not derive benefit from such an 
 application. Of course, many substances 
 prove speedily fatal to these insects, and 
 among these the choice would have to be 
 determined by cheapness and ease of appli- 
 cation. Beirkander, a Swedish observer, 
 who has investigated their habits, found 
 that they lived among — 
 
 Garlic - 
 Spruce leaves 
 Fir leaves 
 Ledum palustre 
 Myrica gale - 
 In water 
 
 Days. Hours. 
 9 0 
 
 He suggests that such of these plants as 
 proved most speedily fatal should be mixed 
 with the manure. He also considers it of 
 great advantage to cause children to follow 
 the plough, and pick up all that happen to 
 be turned up. He states that, in this way, 
 he has seen 351 wire-worms collected in a 
 field not exceeding 600 feet by 56. 
 
 Sir Joseph Banks suggested a very 
 simple plan for alluring the wire-worms 
 from the plants, and collecting them that 
 they might be destroyed. This consisted 
 merely in burying slices of potato, stuck 
 upon skewers, near the seeds sown. As 
 the larvae are very fond of this root, they 
 leave the young plants, and fix upon it. 
 These slices require to be examined every 
 1305 
 
 day, and the wire-worms collected upon 
 them destroyed. Mr. Tallant affirms, that 
 he has frequently freed fields entirely from 
 wire-worms by sowing a crop of white 
 mustard-seed. The experiment he has 
 tried so frequently, and in circumstances 
 so well calculated to demonstrate its effects, 
 that he is perfectly satisfied that the remedy 
 is efficient. " Encouraged," he observes, 
 " by the results of my former trials, I sowed 
 a whole field of forty-two acres, which had 
 never repaid me for nineteen years, in con- 
 sequence of nearly every crop being de- 
 stroyed by the wire- worm ; and I am war- 
 ranted in stating, that not a single wire- 
 worm could be found the following year ; 
 and the crop of wheat throughout, which 
 was reaped last harvest, was superior to any 
 I had grown for twenty-one years. I am, 
 therefore, under a strong persuasion that 
 the wire-worm may be successfully repelled 
 and eradicated by carefully destroying all 
 weeds and roots, drilling white mustard 
 seed, and keeping the ground clear by 
 hoeing." {Brit. Farm. Mag. 1831.) 
 
 Nature herself has taken means to check 
 their superabundant increase by making 
 them the prey of a small ichneumon, which 
 searches out their retreats, and deposits its 
 eggs in their bodies, which are consumed 
 by the parasitical larvae as soon as hatched. 
 (Mr. Duncan, Quart. Journ. of Ag. vol. viii. 
 pp. 96. 348.) See Insects. 
 
 WISE, HENRY, was, like London, a 
 pupil of Mr. Rose. He survived Mr. Lon- 
 don. Wise was the designer of the grounds 
 at Blenheim. They published, in conjunc- 
 tion, the two following translations : — 
 
 1. The complete Gardener; or, Directions for culti- 
 vating and right ordering of Fruit Gardens and Kitchen 
 Gardens. With the Gardener's Kalender, directing 
 what is to be done every month in the year. By Mon- 
 sieur de la Quintiney. Now compendiously abridged 
 and made of more use, with very considerable improve- 
 ments. By George London and Henry Wise. London, 
 8vo. 1st edit. 1699, 1706, 1710; 1717, 6th edition; 7th 
 edition, 1719, plates. 2. The Retired Gardener. Be- 
 ing a translation from the Sieur Louis Liger. The 
 whole revised, with several alterations and additions 
 which render it proper for our English culture. By 
 George London and Henry Wise. 2 vols. 1706. 8vo. 
 (G. W. Johnson's Hist. Eng. Gard.) 
 
 WISP. A term applied to a small bunch 
 of hay or straw, when used in rubbing 
 down horses or cattle. 
 
 WITHY. A name sometimes given to 
 the flexible bouohs of willows and osiers. 
 
 WOAD, DYER'S (Isatis tinctoria). 
 This is a biennial plant, growing wild in 
 cultivated fields and about borders, but 
 rare. As the ancient Britons are reported 
 to have painted their bodies with the blue 
 colour obtained from this plant, which is still 
 used in dyeing, the woad is most probably 
 an original production of our island; though 
 what occurs now and then about cultivated 
 
WOLFSBANE. 
 
 WOODPECKER. 
 
 fields is supposed to have escaped from the 
 crops occasionally raised chiefly in the 
 middle part of England. The naturalized 
 plants are less perfectly smooth, and far less 
 luxuriant than the cultivated ones. This 
 plant has a tapering root. The stem is 
 about two feet high, wand-like, slightly 
 glaucous, leafy, panicled at the top. Radical 
 leaves copiously crenate ; those of the stem 
 sessile, arrow-shaped, entire. Panicle of 
 many compound racemose branches,' beset 
 with diminished lanceolate leaves, all of a 
 yellow hue as well as the stalks. Flowers 
 numerous, small, bright yellow. Pouches on 
 capillary stalks, pendulous, wedge-shaped, 
 obtuse, quite smooth, blackish, a little 
 shining, finally bursting in the middle, 
 where the seed is lodged. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. iii. p. 182.) 
 
 WOLFSBANE. (Aconitum.) A genus 
 of ornamental, tall, free-flowering, very 
 hardy plants, succeeding well under the 
 shade of trees ; increased by division or by 
 seeds. All the species are to be dreaded, 
 being of a poisonous quality, highly nar- 
 cotic, and acid. The aconite has, however, 
 become of great service as a narcotic, in 
 many very troublesome disorders. One 
 species, the common wolfsbane, or monk's- 
 hood (A. Napellus), is a native of Greece, 
 but now grows wild in this country in 
 watery places. It is perennial in habit. 
 Root fleshy, tapering ; stem erect, simple, 
 leafy, clothed with minute close hairs, and 
 terminating in a solitary, simple, upright, 
 spikelike panicle of large, dark-blue, hel- 
 meted flowers, without scent. The nec- 
 taries are full of honey, and form the spur 
 of the flower. Leaves deeply five-cleft, cut, 
 with linear segments, furrowed above, and 
 of a deep green, but pale beneath. (Pax- 
 tons Bot. Diet ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. 
 p. 31.) See Aconite. 
 
 WOOD. The fibrous or ligneous sub- 
 stance of which the branches, trunks, and 
 roots of trees are principally composed. 
 In vascular trunks, the hardest wood is 
 always in the centre. See Lignin, Liber, 
 Timber, Trees, Bark, &c. 
 
 WOODBINE. Sec Honeysuckle. 
 
 WOODCHAT SHRIKE. See Shrike. 
 
 WOODCOCK. (Scolopax rusticola). A 
 well-known bird of passage, which arrives 
 in England early in October, and departs 
 again northwards in March. The woodcock 
 is a nocturnal bird, seeking its repose by 
 day, remaining quietly hid in the dry grassy 
 bottoms of brakes and woods, seldom or 
 ever moving unless disturbed. These birds 
 feed principally upon earthworms and in- 
 sects, which their long bills enable them 
 to extract from soft grounds and moist 
 woods. The colour of the plumage is a 
 1306 
 
 mixture principally of three shades of 
 brown ; namely, pale wood-brown, chesnut- 
 brown, and dark umber brown. The whole 
 length of the bird is about fourteen inches 
 and a half, of which the beak is three. 
 Woodcocks have occasionally been shot as 
 heavy as twenty ounces, but twelve ounces 
 is about the average weight. As an article 
 of food, the woodcock affords to the epi- 
 cure one of the most delicious dishes ; its 
 flavour is considered superior to that of the 
 partridge. (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. 
 p. 583.) 
 
 WOOD LARK. See Lark. 
 
 WOODPECKER. (Picus.) The general 
 habits of the woodpeckers are well known. 
 Of this genus of birds, there are four, which 
 are occasionally met with in Great Britain. 
 
 1. The great black woodpecker (P. mar- 
 tins). Of this species several specimens 
 have been killed in some of the counties of 
 England. The plumage of the whole body 
 of the bird is uniform black. The feathers 
 on the head are tipped with rich blood-red. 
 It is the largest of the British species, mea- 
 suring sixteen inches in length. 
 
 2. The green woodpecker (P. viridis) is 
 the most common, and accordingly the best 
 known, among British woodpeckers, and is 
 found over a great portion of, if not all, the 
 wooded districts of England and Scotland. 
 It is generally seen either climbing the bark 
 of trees in search of its insect food, or 
 passing by a short, somewhat laboured and 
 undulating flight, from one tree to another. 
 Insects of various sorts, ants, and their eggs, 
 form the principal food of this woodpecker ; 
 it is said also to be a great enemy to bees. 
 The green woodpecker is known under 
 various names in different localities. It is 
 termed in many places the rain-bird. (See 
 Weather.) It also bears the names of 
 hew-hole, yaffil, whittle, woodwale, wit- 
 male, &c., in other localities. The plumage 
 of the back, wings, &c. is dark green, tinged 
 with yellow ; rump and upper tail-coverts, 
 sulphur yellow. The crown of the head is 
 bright scarlet. The whole length of the 
 bird is about thirteen inches. 
 
 3. The great spotted woodpecker (P. 
 major) is, next to the green woodpecker, the 
 best known in this country, and is by no 
 means uncommon, particularly in the wooded 
 districts of our midland counties, where it 
 inhabits forests, woods, parks, and gardens. 
 Like its generic companion, the woodpecker, 
 this species has several names. In some 
 counties it is called the whitwall, in others 
 the French-pie or wood-pie. Their food is 
 insects of all sorts, and probably in all their 
 various stages ; and M. Temminck says they 
 will also eat seeds and nuts. The forehead, 
 ear-coverts, and a circle round the eye, are 
 
WOODRUFF. 
 
 WOOD-SORREL. 
 
 dull dirty white; irides red; top of the head 
 dark bluish black ; occiput bright scarlet ; 
 nape of the neck, back, rump, and tail- 
 coverts, black. The throat, neck, breast, 
 and belly, dirty white ; vent and under tail- 
 coverts, red. The whole length of an adult 
 bird is nine inches and a half. 
 
 4. The lesser spotted or barred wood- 
 pecker (P. minor), has the character and 
 actions, as well as the colours, of the black 
 and white woodpecker last described ; while 
 its small size and retiring habits enable it 
 to escape observation, so that it is generally 
 considered to be much more rare. This 
 species is not uncommon around London 
 and many of the midland counties. The 
 middle of the back is white, barred trans- 
 versely with black ; the wing-coverts and 
 tail are black ; chin, throat, and all the 
 under surface of the body, dull white ; 
 crown of the head bright scarlet. The 
 whole length of the bird is five inches and 
 three quarters. (YarreWs Brit. Birds, 
 vol. ii. pp. 127—150.) 
 
 WOODRUFF. (Asperula, a diminutive 
 of asper, rough ; alluding to the leaves.) 
 Most of the species of this genus are pretty, 
 and remarkable for thriving under the shade 
 of trees in moist soil. 
 
 There are two indigenous species. 
 
 1. Sweet woodruff (A. odorata), which 
 grows in dry mountainous woods. The root 
 is creeping; stems simple, annual, a span 
 high. Leaves, eight, in a whorl, lanceolate, 
 bright green, spreading, about an inch long ; 
 panicles generally three together, on longish 
 stalks, forked, of pure white flowers with a 
 short tube. These blow in May, and are 
 fragrant chiefly at night. Fruit rough, with 
 ascending bristles. The herb, while drying, 
 has the scent of new hay, approaching to 
 bitter almonds, or heliotrope, of which it 
 retains a portion some time. This pleasant 
 scent has been used for flavouring wine, 
 perfuming clothes, &c. The edges of the 
 leaves stick to the hands and garments, in a 
 manner almost peculiar to the rough plants 
 of this natural order, caused by the minute 
 hooked bristles to which that roughness is 
 owing. This plant is eaten by cattle, sheep, 
 and goats, and has the property of increas- 
 ing the milk of animals. 
 
 2. Small woodruff, or squinancy-wort 
 (A. cynanchica). In this perennial species, 
 the stems are numerous, ascending, from 
 four to six inches high, copiously clothed 
 with linear smooth leaves, four in a whorl ; 
 the upper ones very unequal. Flowers 
 white or blush- coloured, in terminal pani- 
 cled tufts, sometimes very fragrant. Phy- 
 sicians do not, in our days, rely on the 
 practice of old Dalechamp, who recom- 
 mends this plant, outwardly as well as 
 
 1007 
 
 inwardly, to cure the squinancy, or quinsey. 
 Hence, however, we have retained an obso- 
 lete and unmeaning name, for a plant which 
 might easily have had one more expressive. 
 An infusion of this species is astringent, and 
 might be used as a gargle. (Smith's Eng. 
 Flor. vol. i. p. 197.) 
 
 WOOD-RUSH. (Luciola, from the Gra- 
 men Luzulce, or glow-worm grass of Bau- 
 hin.) These plants are nearly related to 
 Juncus, from which they are at once dis- 
 tinguished by their flat leaves. They pos- 
 sess little beauty, and are of the easiest 
 culture. There are seven indigenous spe- 
 cies, all of which are described in Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 177. 
 
 WOODSIA. (Named in honour of Joseph 
 Woods, F.L.S., an excellent practical Bri- 
 tish botanist, who first illustrated our native 
 species of Rosa.) A genus of small ferns, 
 of which two species only have hitherto 
 been discovered : — the oblong Woodsia 
 ( W. ilvensis), and the rounded-leaved 
 Woodsia ( W. hyperborea). These ferns grow 
 best in peat and loam mixed, and are in- 
 creased by division, or by "seed. Their 
 roots are fibrous ; fronds tufted, erect, 
 stalked, pinnate, pinnatifid, clothed with 
 simple hairs, or narrow pointed scales. 
 (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 322.) 
 
 WOOD-SORREL. (Oxalis, from oxys, 
 acid ; the leaves have an acid taste.) Most 
 of the plants of this genus deserve cultivat- 
 ing on account of their very pretty blossoms, 
 which are produced in great abundance. 
 The hardy species should be planted in a 
 shady border, where they will grow and 
 flower very freely. The seeds of the hardy 
 annual species may be sown in the open 
 border in spring. There are two wild na- 
 tive species, — 1. The common wood- sorrel 
 (O. acetosella), which grows abundantly in 
 groves and shady places. Stalks radical, 
 single-flowered. Leaves ternate, inversely 
 heart-shaped, hairy ; root of many scaly 
 joints. Leaflets of a delicate bright green, 
 often purplish at the back, drooping at 
 night, on long, hairy, radical, purplish foot- 
 stalks. Flowers solitary, drooping, bell- 
 shaped, either white or purplish, always 
 streaked with fine branching purple veins. 
 When ripe, the blackish shining seeds are 
 projected to a distance on the slightest 
 touch or motion, by their elastic tunics, 
 which remain contracted and wrinkled in 
 the capsule. This herb is powerfully and 
 most agreeably acid, making a refreshing 
 and wholesome conserve with fine sugar; 
 its flavour resembling green tea. Few of 
 our wild flowers are more elegant. 
 
 2. Yellow procumbent wood-sorrel (O. 
 corniculata). This species is annual, growing 
 in shady, rather moist waste ground. The 
 
WOOL. 
 
 root is fibrous, and it has become almost a 
 weed in gardens. Stems branched, procum- 
 bent. Flower stalks in small umbels of yel- 
 low flowers. (Paxtorfs Bot. Diet. ; Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 323.) See Sorrel. 
 
 WOOD-WAXEN. See Greenweed. 
 
 WOOL. (Germ, wolle; Dutch, wol; Rus. 
 wolna.) The soft, hairy, or downy substance 
 which forms the covering of sheep, and is 
 found in smaller proportion on many other 
 animals. It is an article which has con- 
 tinued from the earliest period down to the 
 present day to be of primary importance, 
 having always formed the principal part of 
 the clothing of mankind in most temperate 
 regions. Authors have seemed to imagine 
 that the production of wool was confined to 
 the sheep ; ^practical men, however, know 
 that there is a numerous list of animals, on 
 whom, at some season of the year at least, 
 wool is found. 
 
 M. Chevreul, who has long devoted him- 
 self to the examination of wool, has proved 
 that wool contains three or four different 
 substances. The following is the results of an 
 examination of 1 00 parts of a Merino fleece : — 
 
 Parts. 
 
 Earthy substances - - - - 26*06 
 Fat matters dissolved by washing - 3274 
 Fat matters - - - - - 9-97 
 Clean wool 31*23 
 
 100-00 
 
 A consideration of the most important 
 properties of wool cannot be better intro- 
 duced than in the words of one to whom 
 the agriculturist, whatever department of 
 husbandry may chiefly occupy his attention, 
 is much indebted. — " Fine and coarse," 
 says Arthur Young, "are but vague and 
 general descriptions of wool ; all fine fleeces 
 have some coarse wool, and all coarse 
 fleeces some fine. I shall endeavour, for the 
 information of my readers, to distinguish 
 the various qualities of wool in the order in 
 which they are esteemed and preferred by 
 the manufacturer. First, fineness with 
 close ground, that is, thick-matted ground. 
 Second, fineness. Third, straight-haired, 
 when broken by drawing. Fourth, elasti- 
 city, rising after compression in the hand. 
 Fifth, staple not too long. Sixth, colour. 
 Seventh, what coarse is in it to be very 
 coarse. Eighth, tenacity. Ninth, not much 
 pitch-mark ; but this is no other disadvan- 
 tage than the loss of weight in scouring. 
 The bad or disagreeable properties are, — 
 thin, grounded, toppy, curly-haired, and, if 
 in a sorted Btate, little that is very fine, a 
 tender staple, no elasticity, many dead white 
 hairs, very yolky. Those who buy wool for 
 combing and other light goods that do not 
 want milling, wish to find length of staple, 
 1308 
 
 fineness of hair, whiteness, tenacity, firm- 
 ness, elasticity, and not too many pitch- 
 marks." (Annals of Agriculture, vol. xviii. 
 p. 329.) The fineness of the wool differs 
 greatly on the different parts of the sheep. 
 That running down the side of the neck, 
 and covering the shoulders, the ribs, and 
 the back is the finest ; the next covers the 
 superior 'parts of the legs and the thighs, 
 and extends up to nearly the haunch and 
 the tail, and a still inferior portion runs 
 along the upper part of the neck, the throat, 
 the breast, the belly, and the lower part of 
 the legs. There is considerable variation 
 in this respect in different breeds, and in 
 individuals of the same breed ; and although 
 a fleece, taken generally, may be said to be 
 adapted to a particular use, yet a portion of 
 it may be employed in the manufacture of 
 a much more valuable article ; and at the 
 same time, a greater quantity will be thrown 
 aside as not sufficiently fine for the origin- 
 ally intended purpose. The influence of 
 temperature on the growth of wool is very 
 considerable. Sheep in a hot climate wiil 
 yield a comparatively coarse wool, and those 
 in a cold climate will carry a finer, but, at 
 the same time, a doser and a warmer fleece. 
 The natural instinct of the sheep would 
 seem to teach the wool-grower the advant- 
 age of attending to the influence of tempe- 
 rature on him. He is evidently impatient 
 of heat. In the open district, and where 
 no shelter is near, he climbs to the highest 
 parts of his walk, that if the rays of the sun 
 must still fall on him, he may nevertheless 
 be cooled by the breeze ; but if shelter is 
 near, of whatever kind, every shaded spot is 
 crowded with sheep. Pasture has a very 
 great influence on the fineness of the fleece. 
 The staple of the wool, like every other part 
 of the sheep, must increase in length or in 
 bulk, when the animal has a superabund- 
 ance of nutriment ; and, on the other hand, 
 the secretion which forms the wool must de- 
 crease, like every other, when sufficient nou- 
 rishment is not afforded. Connected with 
 fineness is trueness of staple — as equal a 
 growth as possible over the animal — a free- 
 dom from the shaggy portions, here and 
 there, which are occasionally observed on 
 poor and neglected sheep. These portions 
 are always coarse and comparatively worth- 
 less, and they indicate an irregular and 
 unhealthy action of the secretion of wool, 
 which will probably weaken or render the 
 fibre diseased in other parts. Soundness 
 and elasticity are also very important pro- 
 perties in wool. 
 
 If the pile is sound, there are few quali- 
 ties in wool of so much consequence as 
 softness. Fashion has done much in effect- 
 ing this. Softness of the pile is evidently 
 
WOOL. 
 
 connected with the presence and 'quantity 
 of yolk. There is no doubt that this sub- 
 stance is designed, not only to nourish the 
 hair, but to give it richness and pliability. 
 Bad management, neglect, exposure, starva- 
 tion, impair the pliability of the woolly 
 fibre, but chiefly so because they arrest the 
 secretion of the yolk, or change its proper- 
 ties. The colour of the fleece is of minor, 
 and yet of no trifling importance. The 
 alteration of the colour was the first re- 
 corded improvement of the sheep ; and its 
 purity, its perfect whiteness, should never 
 be lost sight of by the sheepmaster of the 
 present day. To a certain extent, the fleece 
 is frequently stained with the colour of the 
 soil on which the animal grows. In some 
 parts of Gloucestershire the wool acquires 
 an orange colour ; in Hertfordshire and 
 Warwickshire it is of a brownish red ; and 
 in the fens of Lincoln and Cambridge it 
 has a dark blue tint. 
 
 In some districts, and particularly in the 
 west of England, the farmer needlessly uses 
 a considerable quantity of ochre or ruddle, 
 either in the composition of his salving 
 mixture, or to gratify a foolish fancy. The 
 tar gives consistence to the oil or butter, 
 and although it is often with considerable 
 difficulty washed away, yet while it remains 
 on the fleece, it gives a permanency to the 
 smearing process ; not one plea, however, 
 can be offered in favour of the ruddle. 
 See Salving. 
 
 It is not necessary (nor, indeed, would 
 our space permit it) to go into the con- 
 struction of wool, as seen through the 
 microscope. We shall pass on, therefore, 
 to point out the difference between hair 
 and wool. The fibre of wool is crisped or 
 curled, the curls increasing according to 
 the fineness and felting property of the 
 wool : hair is often disposed to curl, but in 
 an inferior degree. The distinction, there- 
 fore, between these substances is more in 
 degree than intent. Wool is decidedly 
 crisped and serrated ; hair is sometimes 
 curled, but to an inferior degree, and the 
 irregularities of its edge, in some few cases, 
 assume the form of slight serrations. Wool 
 will felt ; hair will only entangle and harle 
 to a limited extent. See Felt and Hair. 
 
 The old and apparently simple division 
 of wool was into long and short, or, accord- 
 ing to the purposes to which it was devoted, 
 "combing" and " clothing wool ; " but there 
 was considerable difficulty in arranging 
 some fleeces which were of intermediate 
 lengths, and convertible to either purpose. 
 A third subdivision, that of " middle wool," 
 has recently been added. These are again 
 divided into subordinate classes according 
 to the fineness of the fibre. " In sorting 
 1309 
 
 wools," says Mr. M'Culloch, " there are 
 frequently eight or ten different species in 
 a single fleece ; and if the best wool of one 
 fleece be not equal to the finest sort, it is 
 thrown to a 2d, 3d, or 4th, or to a still 
 lower sort, of an equal degree of fineness 
 with it. The best English short native 
 fleeces, such as the fine Norfolk and South- 
 down, are generally divided by the wool- 
 sorter into the following sorts, all varying 
 in fineness from each other : — viz. 1. 
 Prime ; 2. Choice ; 3. Super ; 4. Head ; 5. 
 Downrights ; 6. Seconds ; 7. Fine Abb ; 
 8. Coarse Abb ; 9. Livery ; 10. Short coarse, 
 or breech wool. The relative value of each 
 varies, according to the greater demand for 
 coarse, fine, or middle cloths." (Youatt on 
 Sheep; BakewelVs Observations on Wool; 
 Luccock on Wool ; Anderson on Wool.) 
 See Fleece, Lamb-skins, and Sheep. 
 
 Price of Southdown Wool in different Years. 
 
 1784 
 1785 
 1790 
 1795 
 1800 
 1805 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 1 
 
 - 2 
 
 d. 
 
 1810 - 
 
 1815 - 
 
 1820 - 
 
 1825 - 
 
 1830 - 
 
 1833 - 
 
 2 4 
 1 11 
 
 0 10 
 
 1 5 
 
 An account of Sheep and Lambs' Wool im- 
 ported into Great Britain in the under- 
 mentioned Years. (M'Culloch's Com. 
 Diet) 
 
 In 1810 - - 10,914,137 lbs. 
 
 1820 - - 9,789,020 
 
 1825 - - 43,795,281 
 
 1830 - - 32,313,059 
 
 1833 - - 38,076,413 
 
 1839 - - 57,379,923 
 
 1841 - - 56,170,974 
 
 An Account of the Quantity of Sheep and 
 Lambs' Wool imported into the United 
 Kingdom in the Year 1841 ; specifying 
 the Countries from which it came, the 
 Quantity that paid a Duty of One Penny 
 per Pound, and the Quantity that paid a 
 Duty of One Halfpenny per Pound; of 
 the Quantity of Foreign Wool re-exported 
 during the same Period, and the Countries 
 to which it was sent; and the Quantity 
 remaining warehoused under Bond on the. 
 5th Day of January, 1842. (Pari. Paper, 
 No. 237. Sess. 1842.) 
 
 Quantity of sheep and lambs* wool im- 
 ported into the United Kingdom : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 From Russia .... 4,131,652 
 Sweden and Norway - 15,424 
 Denmark - 778,256 
 Prussia - 165,125 
 Germany - . . 20,958,775 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 26,049,232 
 
WOOL. 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Brought forward - 
 
 26,049,232 
 
 Holland - 
 
 121,061 
 
 Belgium - 
 
 300,862 
 
 France - 
 
 14,659 
 
 Portugal - 
 
 679,071 
 
 Spain - - - - 
 
 1,088,200 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 25,678 
 
 Italy - 
 
 1,502,254 
 
 Malta - 
 
 124,989 
 
 Turkey - 
 
 447,563 
 
 Egypt - 
 
 70 
 
 Morocco - 
 
 85,250 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 1,079,910 
 
 St. Helena 
 
 990 
 
 East India Company's Terri- 
 
 
 tories - - - - 
 
 3,008,664 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 7,993,060 
 
 Van Diemen's Land 
 
 3,597,531 
 
 Swan River Settlement 
 
 48,590 
 
 South Australia 
 
 759,909 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 272 
 
 British North American 
 
 
 Colonies - 
 
 4,881 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 5,014 
 
 Curacoa - 
 
 224 
 
 United States of America - 
 
 58,791 
 
 Brazil - - - - 
 
 318 
 
 States of the Rio de la Plata 
 
 5,105,637 
 
 Chili - 
 
 923,832 
 
 Peru - - - - 
 
 3,144,462 
 
 Foreign A^ool - - 
 
 CC 117/1 CiT A 
 
 3D, 1 / u,y / 4 
 
 Produce of the Isle of Man 
 
 8,667 
 
 Total quantity imported - 
 
 56,179,641 
 
 Quantity of foreign sheep and lambs' 
 wool retained for home consumption : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Charged with a duty, at Id. per lb. 22,05 1,796 
 Ditto - - at per lb. 14,495,002 
 Ditto - - at 6d. per lb., 
 
 being red wool - - 4,306 
 
 Duty-free, being the produce of 
 
 British possessions - - 16,310,916 
 
 Total quantity retained for home 
 
 consumption - 52,862,020 
 
 Quantity of foreign sheep and lambs' 
 wool re-exported : — 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 To Germany - 19,484 
 
 Holland - 67,517 
 
 Belgium - 1,094,636 
 
 France - 846,460 
 
 Portugal - - - - 3,927 
 
 United States of America - 520,460 
 Islands of Guernsey, Jersey, 
 
 and Man - 1,971 
 
 Total quantity re-exported - - 2,554,455 
 
 1310 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Quantity of foreign sheep and lambs' 
 wool remaining warehoused under 
 bond on 5th January, 1842 - 6,912,060 
 
 An Account of the Quantity of British Sheep 
 and Lambs' Wool, and Woollen Yarn, ex- 
 ported from the United Kingdom in the 
 Year 1841 ; specifying the Countries to 
 which they were sent. (Pari. Paper.) 
 
 
 Ybar 
 
 1841. 
 
 
 
 Woollen and 
 
 
 
 Worsted 
 
 Countries to which exported. 
 
 Sheep and 
 
 Yarn (in- 
 cludingYarn 
 
 
 .Lambs' 
 
 of Wool or 
 
 
 Wool. 
 
 Worsted 
 
 
 
 mixed with 
 
 
 
 other 
 
 
 
 Materials). 
 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Kussia - 
 
 - 
 
 123,896 
 
 Sweden - - - - 
 
 
 1,964 
 
 Norway — — — — 
 
 
 955 
 
 Denmark ... 
 
 _ 
 
 828 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 
 944 
 
 Germany - 
 
 2,514 
 
 2,638,311 
 
 Holland - 
 
 10 525 
 
 1 264 090 
 
 Belgium - 
 
 7,544^96 
 
 'l23',784 
 
 France - 
 
 894,704 
 
 300,560 
 
 Portugal, Azores, and Madeira 
 
 
 2,780 
 
 Spain and the Canaries 
 
 
 96 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 
 50,958 
 
 Italy - 
 
 
 54,594 
 
 East Indies and China - 
 
 
 3,752 
 
 Western Coast of Africa 
 
 
 150 
 
 British Colonies in North Ame- 
 
 
 rica - - - - 
 
 70 
 
 22,335 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 
 16 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 4,480 
 
 112 
 
 United States of America 
 
 8,950 
 
 292,754 
 
 Chili .... 
 
 
 224 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, Jersey, Al- 
 
 
 
 derney, and Man 
 
 5,796 
 
 20,188 
 
 Total - 
 
 8,471,235 
 
 4,903,291 
 
 Account of the Pieces of Woollen Cloths, 
 Coatings, and Kerseymeres, exported in 
 the Years 1820, 1830, and 1840. 
 
 Countries to which exported. 
 
 1820. 
 
 1830. 
 
 1840. 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Russia ... 
 
 31,824 
 
 7,415 
 
 1,680 
 
 Sweden - 
 
 
 33 
 
 205 
 
 Norway - 
 
 799 
 
 1,276 
 
 550 
 
 Denmark - - - 
 
 220 
 
 248 
 
 101 
 
 Prussia - 
 
 54 
 
 14 
 
 
 Germany - 
 
 91,802 
 
 54,502 
 
 21 ,572 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 24,584 
 
 21,313 
 
 10,832 
 
 France - 
 
 15 
 
 169 
 
 211 
 
 Portugal, Azores, &c. 
 
 51,979 
 
 29,597 
 
 10,577 
 
 Spain, &c. - 
 
 4,791 
 
 5,685 
 
 969 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 7,248 
 
 2,122 
 
 2,093 
 
 Italy 
 
 28,967 
 
 15,204 
 
 2,829 
 
 Malta ... 
 
 725 
 
 736 
 
 644 
 
 Ionian Isles 
 
 12 
 
 134 
 
 207 
 
 Turkey and Levant 
 
 313 
 
 1,782 
 
 663 
 
 Guernsey, Jersey, &c. 
 
 3,192 
 
 3,419 
 
 2,809 
 
 East Indies and China 
 
 43,133 
 
 72,390 
 
 44,396 
 
 Australia ... 
 
 584 
 
 1,363 
 
 7,336 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 •2,-2. r )H 
 
 3,890 
 
 3,354 
 
 Other parts of Africa 
 
 193 
 
 370 
 
 1,006 
 
 British America 
 
 20,513 
 
 33,088 
 
 25,661 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 14,569 
 
 8,262 
 
 3,623 
 
 Foreign West Indies 
 
 5,633 
 
 3,859 
 
 2,525 
 
 United States of America 
 
 76,114 
 
 101,294 
 
 46,945 
 
 Brazils - 
 
 35,913 
 
 22,509 
 
 18,044 
 
 Mexico - 
 
 14,063 
 
 51,760 
 
 46,370 
 
 Total 
 
 427,288 
 
 445,360 
 
 258,912 
 
 {Leeds Times, Aug. 1841.) 
 
WOOL. 
 
 An Account of the Quantity and declared Value of British Woollen Manufactures exported 
 from the United Kingdom in the Year 1841. (Pari. Paper, No. 23. Sess. 1842.) 
 
 Countries to which 
 exported. 
 
 Cloths 
 of all 
 Sorts. 
 
 Napped Coatings, Duffels, &c. 
 
 Kerseymeres. 
 
 Baizes 
 of all 
 Sorts. 
 
 Stuffs, 
 Woollen 
 or 
 
 Worsted. 
 
 Flannel. 
 
 Blankets 
 and 
 
 Blanket- 
 ing. 
 
 
 
 Carpets 
 and Car- 
 peting. 
 
 Woollens 
 mixed 
 with 
 Cotton. 
 
 Hosiery; viz., Stockings, 
 Woollen or Worsted. 
 
 Sundries ; consisting of Hosiery, 
 not otherwise described, Rugs, 
 Coverlids,Tapes,and SmallWares. 
 
 Declared 
 
 Value 
 of British 
 Woollen 
 Manufac- 
 tures 
 exported 
 
 United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dozen 
 
 
 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Pieces. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Yards. 
 
 Pairs. 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 Russia 
 
 839 
 
 1 
 
 367 
 
 
 52,212 
 
 2,798 
 
 1,451 
 
 5,360 
 
 90,430 
 
 253 
 
 332 
 
 102,733 
 
 Sweden 
 
 264 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 14,905 
 
 594 
 
 250 
 
 1,736 
 
 9,450 
 
 14 
 
 302 
 
 26,620 
 
 Norway 
 
 671 
 
 136 
 
 157 
 
 117 
 
 2,650 
 
 3,608 
 
 416 
 
 410 
 
 3,383 
 
 363 
 
 1,055 
 
 11,930 
 
 Denmark - 
 
 64 
 
 101 
 
 39 
 
 
 318 
 
 565 
 
 60- 
 
 222 
 
 1,196 
 
 7 
 
 105 
 
 1,774 
 
 Prussia 
 
 5 
 
 
 9 
 
 _ 
 
 164 
 
 
 198 
 
 366 
 
 2,000 
 
 - 
 
 _ 
 
 663 
 
 Germany - 
 
 15,800 
 
 5,124 
 
 2,663 
 
 824 
 
 512,493 
 
 385,083 
 
 86,800 
 
 93,776 
 
 519,623 
 
 1,053 
 
 19,733 
 
 883,878 
 
 Holland - 
 
 1,624 
 
 1,585 
 
 269 
 
 15,662 
 
 156,7471 
 
 127,500 
 
 572 
 
 62,771 
 
 246,049 
 
 4,138 
 
 8,025 
 
 316,769 
 
 Belgium 
 
 562 
 
 2,325 
 
 421 
 
 112 
 
 56,272" 
 
 114,973 
 
 3,441 
 
 19,167 
 
 198,570 
 
 3,968 
 
 900 
 
 110,792 
 
 France 
 
 274 
 
 135 
 
 50 
 
 15 
 
 18,299 
 
 10,424 
 
 1,000 
 
 26,259 
 
 129,853 
 
 22 
 
 863 
 
 38,043 
 
 Portugal, Azores, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2,125 
 
 
 
 and Madeira 
 
 10,031 
 
 41 
 
 349 
 
 3,474 
 
 44,623 
 
 8,943 
 
 3,771 
 
 3,952 
 
 31,955 
 
 1,242 
 
 164,251 
 
 Spain and the Ca- 
 naries 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 600 
 
 
 
 969 
 
 101 
 
 214 
 
 3,207 
 
 25,309 
 
 4,313 
 
 8,000 
 
 16,718 
 
 7,727 
 
 649 
 
 60,342 
 
 Gibraltar - 
 
 5,758 
 
 26 
 
 727 
 
 58 
 
 38,942 
 
 28,031 
 
 700 
 
 8,837 
 
 67,082 
 
 207 
 
 2,557 
 
 92,261 
 
 Italy 
 
 2,127 
 
 _ 
 
 1,429 
 
 3 
 
 112,739 
 
 3,194 
 
 7,118 
 
 22,997 
 
 224,031 
 
 2,270 
 
 3,917 
 
 203,797 
 
 Malta 
 
 1,436 
 
 30 
 
 25 
 
 6 
 
 3,173 
 
 4,625 
 
 5,738 
 
 2,487 
 
 200 
 
 94 
 
 274 
 
 15,010 
 
 Ionian Islands 
 
 98 
 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 522 
 
 3,458 
 
 200 
 
 485 
 
 470 
 
 24 
 
 327 
 
 2,234 
 
 Kingdom of Greece 
 
 
 
 24 
 
 _ 
 
 286 
 
 390 
 
 
 35 
 
 360 
 
 
 193 
 
 752 
 
 Turkey 
 
 238 
 
 40 
 
 78 
 
 _ 
 
 10,242 
 
 3,034 
 
 448 
 
 14,620 
 
 17,290 
 
 125 
 
 691 
 
 20,913 
 
 Syria and Palestine 
 
 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 
 
 
 2,000 
 
 
 
 571 
 
 East Indies and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 China - 
 
 45,068 
 
 94 
 
 265 
 
 122 
 
 126,016 
 
 164,170 
 
 33,130 
 
 9,947 
 
 62,159 
 
 2,090 
 
 6,699 
 
 532,710 
 
 Settlements in Aus- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tralia 
 
 4,282 
 
 27 
 
 892 
 
 151 
 
 10,521 
 
 88,976 
 
 227,881 
 
 25,672 
 
 52,709 
 
 4,876 
 
 6,028 
 
 91,851 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 27 
 
 
 22 
 
 8 
 
 419 
 
 3,922 
 
 26,834 
 
 3,198 
 
 1,200 
 
 19G 
 
 277 
 
 4,767 
 
 Cape of Good Hope 
 
 2,416 
 
 " 798 
 
 856 
 
 680 
 
 12,400 
 
 56,475 
 
 27,390 
 
 3,370 
 
 57,100 
 
 1,113 
 
 3,214 
 
 55,185 
 
 Other parts of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Africa 
 
 879 
 
 
 43 
 
 221 
 
 6,198 
 
 10,316 
 
 6,452 
 
 465 
 
 10,796 
 
 2,111 
 
 3,798 
 
 24,447 
 
 British Colonies in 
 
 
 766 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 North America - 
 
 22,374 
 
 2,981 
 
 575 
 
 106,510 
 
 509,864 
 
 466,358 
 
 186,567 
 
 373,200 
 
 29,900 
 
 28,471 
 
 515,344 
 
 British West Indies 
 
 2,708 
 
 13 
 
 184 
 
 258 
 
 14,381 
 
 59,527 
 
 56,868 
 
 2,031 
 
 57,969 
 
 2,376 
 
 8,907 
 
 62,919 
 
 Foreign West In- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 895 
 
 
 
 dies 
 
 1,823 
 
 
 25 
 
 154 
 
 12,184 
 
 1,667 
 
 90,830 
 
 6,145 
 
 26,457 
 
 3,201 
 
 56,962 
 
 uniteu otrttes oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America - 
 
 39,670 
 
 42 
 
 5,866 
 
 370 
 
 498,246 
 
 29,115 
 
 925,038 
 
 166,820 
 
 2325,488 
 
 68,554 
 
 46,263 
 
 1521,980 
 
 Brazil 
 
 17,325 
 
 100 
 
 2,374 
 
 7,326 
 
 79,789 
 
 17,3G0 
 
 150,382 
 
 10,125 
 
 142,885 
 
 2,342 
 
 7,098 
 
 329,984 
 
 Mexico and the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 States of South 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 America - 
 
 33,274 
 
 
 1,749 
 
 3,750 
 
 86,142 
 
 98,089 
 
 36,365 
 
 85,661 
 
 353,455 
 
 6,193 
 
 7,396 
 
 468,070 
 
 Isles of Guernsey, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jersey, Alderney, 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Man - 
 
 2,579 
 
 6 
 
 
 64 
 
 4,256 
 
 79,230 
 
 19,638 
 
 29,116 
 
 
 
 1,383 
 
 31,121 
 
 Total 
 
 213,125 
 
 11,491 
 
 22,131 
 
 37,160 
 
 2007,366 
 
 1820,244 
 
 2187,329 
 
 809,315 
 
 5015,087 
 
 135,909 
 
 163,900 
 
 5748,073 
 
 WOOLLEN RAGS. See Rag. 
 
 WORK. See Labour. 
 
 WORLIDGE, or WOOLRIDGE, 
 JOHN. An early English agricultural 
 writer. But little is known of his history. 
 I find, however, that he was a gentleman 
 and a great lover of rural affairs and gar- 
 dening. Of his woi-ks I am only acquainted 
 with the following: — 1. Systema Agricul- 
 ture; the Mystery of Husbandry discovered 
 and laid open, 1669-77-81, 1687, folio, 1716, 
 8vo. 2. Treatise on Husbandry, 1675, fol. 
 3. Systema Horticulture ; or, the Art of 
 Gardening, 1677. 4. Vinetum Britannicum, 
 1678-91, 8vo. 5. The most easy Way of 
 making Cyder, 1678. 6. Apiarium, 1691, 
 12mo. 
 
 1311 
 
 The Systema Agricultural was the most 
 bulky folio volume on agriculture that had 
 yet appeared, and its comprehensive themes 
 are all set forth in its first page. The au- 
 thors of those days seemed to consider it 
 essential that their readers should have, in 
 the title-page of a book, a complete sum- 
 mary of its inviting contents. Woolridge 
 was evidently of this opinion, for his title- 
 page announces that this was the " Systema 
 Agriculture, or the Mystery of Husbandly 
 discovered ; treating of the several new and 
 most advantageous ways of tilling, planting, 
 sowing, manureing, ordering, improveing, 
 of all sorts of gardens, orchards, meadows, 
 pastures, corn-lands, woods, and coppices; 
 as also of fruits, corn grain, pulse, new 
 
WORLIDGE, JOHN. 
 
 hays, cattle, fowl, beasts, bees, silk- worms, 
 and fish, with an account of the several 
 instruments and engines used in the pro- 
 fession ; to which is added, Kalendarium 
 Rusticum, or the husbandman's monthly 
 directions ; also the prognosticks of dearth, 
 scarcity, plenty, sickness, heat, cold, frost, 
 snow, winds, rain, hail, thunder, &c. ; and 
 Dictionarium Rusticum, or the interpreta- 
 tion of rustick terms ; the whole work being 
 of great use and advantage to all that 
 delight in that most noble practise." It is 
 dedicated to the gentry and yeomanry of 
 England, and opens with a preface laudatory 
 of agriculture. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, the ill aspect 
 of this heavy title-page, the book contains 
 more useful and more enlightened observa- 
 tions on many points of husbandry, than 
 any which had preceded it. He was a 
 warm friend to the enclosure of commoxs 
 and other waste land, and he suggested, 
 what in fact he appears (p. 21.) to have 
 carried into effect in 1665, at Wilton, the 
 erection of water-works for the purpose of 
 flooding meadows, an improvement of which 
 I think not nearly so much has been made 
 as is possible in this land of steam and 
 steam-engines. He was evidently well ac- 
 quainted with the management of water- 
 meads, and his directions with relation to 
 them are practical and sensible. He ad- 
 vises that sandy meadows should be chalked, 
 and ashes applied to sour rushy grasses. 
 When speaking " of several new species of 
 hay or grass," he enumerates clover-grass, 
 trefoyle, St. Foyn, La Lucern, Ray-grass, 
 &c. He also recommends the deep plough- 
 ing or digging of land, and on all occasions 
 seemed alive to any improvement in the 
 implements of agriculture. After giving 
 an account, at some length, of the rude and 
 clumsy contrivance of Gabriel Platte, for 
 a dibbling-machine, he elaborately and ear- 
 nestly advocates the use of a drill, an 
 engraving of one of which, primitive enough 
 it is true in his appearance, he gives in his 
 work. " To remove," he says, " all man- 
 ner of errors or inconveniences that can be 
 found in setting or howing of corn, I shall 
 here give you a plain and perfect descrip- 
 tion of an easy and feasible instrument that 
 shall disperse your corn, grain, or pulse, of 
 what kind soever, at what distance, and in 
 what proportion you please." The farmer 
 may be curious to know the construction 
 of this drill of a century and a half since. 
 It. had a coulter, a pipe, a hopper, wheels, 
 and axletrees. He was the first English 
 author, I believe, who suggested the use of 
 the manure-drill, Cor, when speaking of the 
 drill, he says (p. 52.), " By the use of Mi is 
 instrument also, you may cover your grain 
 1312 
 
 or pulse with any rich compost you shall 
 prepare for that purpose, either with 
 pigeon's dung, dry or granulated, or any 
 other saline or lixivial substance made 
 disperseable, which may drop after the 
 corn, and prove an excellent improvement ; 
 for we find experimentally, that pigeon's 
 dung, sown by the hand on wheat or barley, 
 mightily advantageth it by the common 
 way of husbandry ; much more might we, 
 therefore, expect this way, where the dung, 
 or such like substance, is all in the same 
 furrow with the corn, where, in the other 
 vulgar way, a great part thereof comes not 
 near it. It may either be done by having 
 another hopper, on the same frame, behind 
 that for the corn, wherein the compost may 
 be put, and made to drop successively after 
 the corn, or it may be sown with another 
 instrument to follow the former, which is 
 the better way, and may both disperse the 
 soil, and cover both soil and seed." 
 
 Woolridge was evidently an observer 
 who was able and willing to think for him- 
 self. He advocated change of seed " from 
 dry, hungry, barren land, to rich and fat 
 land ; also from land inclineing to the south, 
 to land inclineing towards the north, and the 
 contrary ; " all of which, he well adds (and 
 the reader must remember that Woolridge 
 was writing when chemistry existed only in 
 name), " are manifest signs that there is 
 some particular thing wherein each seed 
 delights, which if we did but understand 
 we might properly apply it, and gain riches 
 and honour to ourselves ; but because we 
 are ignorant thereof, and are content so to 
 remain, we must make use of such soils, 
 dungs, composts, and other preparations 
 and ways of advancement of the growth of 
 vegetables as are already discovered and 
 made use of." (p. 57.) 
 
 He extols the use of steeps for seed-corn, 
 mentions with approbation for this purpose, 
 nitre, common salt, as well as urine, and 
 gives a recipe for making a kind of liquid 
 manure with sheep-dung (\ bushel), salt- 
 petre (| pound), and common salt (1 pound) , 
 boiled together for ten minutes in water 
 (20 quarts), and this he commends very 
 highly as a steep ; and I am inclined to be- 
 lieve that something of this kind of rich 
 liquor, more especially if the seed was 
 afterwards dried by being sprinkled with 
 some of the very fine manure-powders at 
 present proposed, such as the urate of the 
 London Manure Company, the composition 
 of M. Poittevin, the guano, gypsum powder, 
 &c, might be used more profitably by the 
 cultivator than at first sight he may be in- 
 clined to believe. He was in favour of 
 paring and burning on some soils, and had 
 the good sense to discern the advantages 
 
WORLIDGE, JOHN. 
 
 capable of being derived from the perma- 
 nent improvement of the soil by the use of 
 earthy manures. He devotes, therefore, a 
 chapter to the soils and manures taken from 
 the earth (p. 65) ; notices the uses, for this 
 purpose, of chalk, lime, marl, clay, Fuller's 
 earth. 
 
 The value of sand as a fertiliser did 
 not escape our author's attention. He 
 notices the value to some soils of that of 
 the calcareous shores of Cornwall, and of 
 the Suffolk craig formation, and of that 
 which he advises the farmer to lay under 
 his farm-yards and sheep-pens. 
 
 The excrements of fowls were strongly 
 recommended by W oolridge as a fertilizer. 
 He describes those of pigeons and hens as 
 "incomparable, — one load is worth ten 
 loads of other dung ; " commends the use 
 of " all marrow-bones, fish-bones, horn, or 
 horn-shavings ; " but he fell into the error 
 with regard to those which it required a 
 century and a quarter to remove, viz. he 
 fancied that all the enriching qualities of 
 the bones were to be attributed to the 
 grease they contained, instead of to their 
 phosphate of lime. He advocated the mix- 
 ture of peat, saw- dust, and tanners' refuse 
 bark with dung-heaps, — a plan which is 
 even now not nearly so extensively adopted 
 as its merits deserve. Indeed, as honest 
 John Woolridge concludes his section (p. 
 85), " The well-preparing of dung-mixt is 
 a piece of husbandry not to be slighted, on 
 which point of good or ill husbandry de- 
 pends the rise and fall of the rents or values 
 of many farms in this kingdom." 
 
 Every account of live-stock given by 
 the earlier agricultural writers betrays the 
 total want of attention then paid by the 
 farmers to the breeding of stock, or if they 
 do mention the points to be commended in 
 an ox or a sheep, they are precisely those 
 which a modern breeder endeavours to 
 avoid. For instance, the chronicler Hol- 
 lingshed commends the English cows for 
 their largeness of bone, and even Wool- 
 ridge, writing centuries after him, although 
 very elaborate on most points of husbandry, 
 treats of the farmer's live-stock in a manner 
 that clearly indicates that in those days, to 
 use a Norfolk phrase, " a cow was a cow, 
 and a sheep a sheep." Thus all the in- 
 struction he gives the breeder with regard 
 to the selection of a cow is, that " the best 
 sort is the large Dutch cow that brings two 
 calves at one birth, and gives ordinarily 
 two gallons of milk at one meal." His ac- 
 count of sheep I will also give, without 
 abridgment, for its facts will sound still 
 more novel to a modern farmer : — " There 
 are divers sorts, some bearing much finer 
 wool than others: as the Herefordshire sheep 
 1313 
 
 about Lemster bear the fairest fleeces of 
 any in England. Also they are of several 
 kinds as to their proportion : some are very 
 small, others larger. But the Dutch sheep 
 are the largest of all, being much bigger 
 than any I have seen in England, and 
 yearly bear two or three lambs at a time. 
 It is also reported that they sometimes bear 
 lambs twice in the year." This seemed to 
 convince (Woolridge, and very naturally 
 too, of their value, for he adds, "It may 
 doubtless be of very good advantage to 
 obtain of those kinds and also of Spanish 
 sheep that bear such fine fleeces." 
 
 The scientific modern breeder, when he 
 smiles at this negligence and folly of a by- 
 gone race of farmers, must remember, how- 
 ever, the difficulties under which they la- 
 boured, not only from lack of knowledge, 
 but also of the means to improve at a rea- 
 sonable rate their ill-shaped, large-boned, 
 and slow-feeding race of oxen. He should 
 recollect that they had not had the advan- 
 tage of a Bakewell, a Culley, or a Collings, 
 to labour during a lengthened period for 
 their improvement, — the days of the Smith- 
 field Club, and of the Highland Society, 
 were yet far distant. They had not even a 
 suspicion of what improved breeding would 
 effect ; and if they wei*e ignorant, as they 
 evidently were, that their breeds were in- 
 ferior, we can hardly wonder that they were 
 content to labour on, since the very first 
 step to improvement, a belief in greater 
 excellence being possible, was wanting. 
 
 The opinions, however, of Woolridge 
 with regard to plantations of timber-trees 
 were evidently more enlightened; for al- 
 though he lived a century before the days 
 of our modern extensive planters — of such 
 men as the Lords Athol, Devonshire, and 
 Fife, and of Sir Henry Steuart — yet he ear- 
 nestly advised the planting of the poorer 
 soils of our island ; he asked the landowners 
 of his time, after describing to them the 
 profit they might derive from such fore- 
 sighted enterprise, " What can be more 
 pleasant than to have the bounds and limits 
 of your own property preserved, and con- 
 tinued from age to age by the testimony of 
 such growing and living witnesses, in the 
 spring yielding a reviving cordial to your 
 winter-chilled spirit, giving you an assur- 
 ance of the approaching summer by their 
 pregnant buds and musical inhabitants ? 
 In the summer, what more delectable than 
 the curious prospect of the variety of 
 greenness, dark shades, and retirement 
 from the scorching sunbeams ? " He well 
 knew, too, what some of my northern friends 
 are only now proving to be practically the 
 case, that " woods also finely refrigerate the 
 air in the summer's parching heats, and 
 4 p 
 
W0RL1DGE, JOHN. 
 
 qualify the dry and injurious winds, both 
 in winter, spring, and autumn." He de- 
 votes a long chapter to the profits and plea- 
 sures of fruit-trees, and ridicules very 
 quaintly the objection too commonly made 
 to such plantations, viz. " that their fruit 
 would be stolen." " When," he says, " they 
 become more common, they will be little 
 regarded by these filchers, or if they do 
 borrow a few sometimes in their pockets, 
 or to make a few apple-pies withal, yet 
 that is a poor discouragement to an inge- 
 nious spirit, and much like that rustick hu- 
 mour of one that would not improve a very 
 good piece of ground for that purpose with 
 fruit-trees, because the parson would have 
 the decimation of it, and so denied himself 
 the nine parts, because the parson should 
 not have the remainder." 
 
 Of the ploughs employed 150 years 
 since, he mentions the double-wheeled or 
 Hertfordshire plough, the turnwrest or 
 Kentish plough, " which surpasseth for 
 weight and clumsiness" the one-wheeled 
 plough, the plain plough, and the trench- 
 ing plough. 
 
 'Woolridge gives also sundry directions 
 for angling, fowling, bird- catching, horse- 
 breeding, and sundry other rural affairs, 
 and finally he winds up with a Kalen- 
 darium ltusticum. In these he gives 
 various monthly directions, of which one 
 specimen will suffice, of the mode of farm- 
 ing then commonly adopted. In May he 
 directs the farmer " to kill ivy, to feed 
 down or mow rank corn ; to sow barley, 
 buckwheat, pease, hemp, and flax, clover 
 grass, St. Foyn, and other French grasses ; 
 to pare and burn land, and wean lambs." 
 He every month, as if in rivalry of the 
 almanack -makers of former generations, 
 treated the farmer to some poetry, often of 
 a most absurd description ; thus in the 
 month of March, after having told them 
 that "this month ushers in the most wel- 
 come season of the year," and that " now 
 gentle Zephyrus fans the sweet buds, and 
 the caelestiai drops water fair Flora's gar- 
 den," he could not help adding same of his 
 own poetry, telling them what must have 
 been indeed novel information, that now 
 
 " The lofty mountains standing on a row, 
 Which but of late were pernwigg'd with snow, 
 Doff their old coats, and now are daily seen 
 To stand on tiptoes all in swaggering green; 
 Meadows and gardens are pranckt up witli buds, 
 And chirping birds now chant it in the woods." 
 
 Woolridge laboured hard, however, in 
 ipite of occasional absurdities of expressi™ 
 to elevate the science of agriculture ; and 
 thai it was deemed a science in the 
 seventeenth century, is evident in this 
 opening address to the fanner, when he 
 says, "Agriculture hath been (not un- 
 13] I 
 
 deservedly) esteemed a science that prin- 
 cipally teaches us the nature and divers 
 properties and qualities, as well of the 
 several soils, earths, and places, as of the 
 several productions or creatures, whether 
 vegetable, animal, or mineral, that naturally 
 proceed or are artificially produced from, 
 or maintained by, the earth." This he pro- 
 mises the husbandman he will do " after a 
 plain and familiar method." He soon, how- 
 ever, begins to illustrate his " plain and 
 familiar method," by talking of the "secret, 
 mystical, and mechanick indagations of na- 
 ture, the universal spirit, or spirit of mer- 
 cury and of salt ; " and gives us but a mean 
 opinion of his natural philosophy, by gravely 
 telling us that " soon will horse hairs re- 
 ceive life lying in rain-water but a few 
 days in the heat of the sun in spring time." 
 
 But in spite of these occasional mistakes, 
 the book of Woolridge was perhaps the 
 most practical, and therefore the most 
 useful, book which had yet appeared treat- 
 ing of agriculture and rural affairs. The 
 very publication of such an expensive folio, 
 of 326 pages, betrays the increasing thirst 
 for knowledge of the cultivators of these 
 days, and the same remarks apply generally 
 to those of Platte and of Hartlib ; in truth, 
 both agriculture and agricultural writers 
 could hardly fail to keep pace with the 
 rapid increase to the general stock of know- 
 ledge which the age in which they flourished 
 received to so remarkable an extent ; and 
 this improvement was not, as my brother 
 Mr. George Johnson remarks (Hist, of 
 Gard.), in only one branch of knowledge, 
 but in the whole circle of the arts and 
 sciences. The reformation was not con- 
 fined to religion. By delivering the human 
 mind from servile thraldom, and teaching 
 man, instead of bowing blindly to custom, 
 merely on account of its antiquity, to have 
 a self-dependence, it gave an impulse to 
 improvement which no tyrant opposition 
 of either bigotry, indolence, or self-sufli- 
 ciency could check. Such men as Bacon, 
 Peiresc, and Evelyn arose, and whilst the 
 first traced the path which men of science 
 should tread, the two latter lent their 
 talents and their wealth to sustain them in 
 the pursuit. Bacon, it has been truly ob- 
 served, was the first who taught men that 
 they were but the servants and interpreters 
 of nature, capable of discovering truth in 
 no other way than by observing and 
 Imitating her operations; that facts must 
 be collected instead of speculations formed, 
 and that the materials tor the foundations 
 of true systems of knowledge were to be 
 discovered, not in the books of the ancients, 
 not in metaphysical theories, not in the 
 fancies of men, but by careful, and laborious, 
 
WORMS. 
 
 and patient experiments and observations 
 in the external world. Peiresc was a mu- 
 nificent man of letters ; his advice, his purse 
 were open to the votaries of every art and 
 every science ; his library was stored with 
 the literature of every age and nation, his 
 garden with the rarest and most useful 
 exotics, and these last he delighted to 
 spread over the country. When, indeed, 
 we cast our eyes over a list of the men of 
 science and literature of all kinds that 
 adorned this age, especially in chemistry 
 and in botany, the two sciences perhaps of 
 all others the most important to agriculture, 
 we need not be surprised to find how 
 rapidly it was rising from being a mere art 
 of empiricism ; and when we note how 
 rapidly the thirst for foreign research was 
 prevalent, we can easily perceive how im- 
 proved modes of culture and new plants 
 were acquired to agriculture. Cavendish, 
 but especially Raleigh, by their visits for 
 lucre as well as fame to the Spanish settle- 
 ments of America in 1580-8, led the way 
 in a path which Lancaster and Raymond 
 followed in 1791, and laid the foundation 
 of that anomalous copartnership of com- 
 mercial monarchs, the East India Com- 
 pany. Annual fleets now returned from 
 the east and west laden with the curiosities 
 of both the animal and vegetable king- 
 doms ; of these the potato, tobacco, and tea 
 need alone be instanced ; and although the 
 views of men were not yet liberal enough 
 to prompt them to voyages of discovery, 
 with an unmixed desire of extending the 
 field of science, or an enlarged wish to 
 benefit mankind, yet new plants, in com- 
 mon with other hitherto strange natural 
 products, attracted their attention, and, 
 though at first imported as novelties, soon 
 became by degrees to be desired and sought 
 for as the luxuries and necessaries of life. 
 {Quart. Jour. Agr. vol. xii. p. 460.) 
 
 WORM. See Earth-worm, Wire- 
 worm, &c. 
 
 WORMS, INTESTINAL. A trouble- 
 some sort of vermin found in the intestines 
 of horses and other animals. There is, per- 
 haps, nothing so destructive to the health 
 and appearance of the horse as worms. 
 When they have obtained a settlement in 
 the intestines, neither the labour of the 
 groom nor the liberality of the master will 
 prove of any avail towards improving the 
 animal's condition : for as fast as the chyle 
 is formed from the aliment, which ought to 
 be converted into blood, these numerous 
 guests first satiate their craving appetites, 
 and leave but a scanty supply for the ex- 
 hausted system of the horse, so that a double 
 allowance of corn would not preserve a 
 healthy state; because the digestive organs 
 1315 
 
 WORMWOOD. 
 
 cannot exert an extraordinary power for 
 any length of time, without producing such 
 a state of debility as to render them inca- 
 pable of performing afterwards their proper 
 office. 
 
 In these animals, the most common kinds 
 are the following: — 1. bots, which many 
 young horses are subject to in the spring ; 
 
 2. those that resemble earth worms, and 
 which, by physicians, are called lumbrici ; 
 
 3. those that are about the size of the 
 largest sewing needles, with flat heads called 
 ascarides ; 4. that species of worm called 
 tcenia, or tapeworm. See Bots, Fluke- 
 worm, &c. 
 
 WORMWOOD. (Artemisia, so named 
 in honour of Artemisia, wife of King Mau- 
 solus, or of Diana Apre/uc.) There are four 
 perennial rooted bitter aromatic herbs in- 
 cluded under this name, and cultivated 
 solely for medicinal purposes : — Common 
 wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium) is a 
 native of almost every part of Europe, and 
 in this country is found by road-sides on 
 heaps of rubbish, &c. It is an erect under 
 shrub, with hoary tri-pinnatisert leaves. The 
 flowers in small, globose, nodding, racemose 
 panicles. The same remarks apply to the 
 drooping sea-wormwood (A. maritima), 
 which is found on salt marshes and the sea 
 coast. Roman wormwood (A. pontica) is a 
 native of Italy ; and Santonicum or Tartarian 
 wormwood (A. Santonica), which is a mere 
 variety of A. maritima of Persia and Si- 
 beria. The soil best suited to the growth of 
 these plants is one that is dry, light, and 
 poor, otherwise they become luxuriant, and 
 are defective in their medicinal qualities, as 
 well as in their power to withstand the 
 rigour of the winter. Any situation will 
 suit the common and the sea-wormwoods 
 that is open and unconfined ; but the exotic 
 species require to be sheltered from the 
 severe aspects. In a severe winter, the 
 Tartarian can only be preserved under a 
 frame. The sea-wormwood seldom flourishes 
 from the want of a genial soil ; the applica- 
 tion of salt would undoubtedly be beneficial. 
 
 They are all propagated by seed, as well 
 as slips and cuttings, the first of which may 
 be sown in March or April, and the latter 
 planted during June, July, and beginning 
 of August. The seed is sown thinly broad- 
 cast, and when the plants arrive at a height 
 of two or three inches, are weeded and 
 thinned to six inches asunder; and those 
 taken away pricked out at a similar distance, 
 water being given if the weather is at all 
 dry. The slips and cuttings are planted in 
 a shady border, about eight inches apart, 
 and water given regularly every evening 
 until they have taken root. They are all 
 to be transplanted finally early in the folio w- 
 4 p 2 
 
WOUND. 
 
 YARROW. 
 
 ing spring, by whichever mode they are 
 raised, setting the plants at last 18 inches 
 apart. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.} 
 See Mugwort and Southernwood. 
 
 WOUND. A recent and violent separa- 
 tion of continuity in a soft external part 
 of the body, being attended with an effusion 
 of blood. See Cut, Poultice, Fomenta- 
 tion, &c. 
 
 WOUNDWORT, (Stachys, from sta- 
 chys, a spike, alluding to the mode of flower- 
 ing.) A genus of rather weedy-looking 
 plants, hardly worth cultivating for orna- 
 ment. They all succeed in common garden 
 soil. The perennial kinds are easily in- 
 creased by dividing the roots in spring or 
 autumn. The seeds of the annual kinds 
 should be sown in spring, in the open bor- 
 der. As a vulnerary these plants have no 
 power. There are five indigenous species ; 
 the hedge woundwort (S. sylvatica) ; the 
 ambiguous woundwort (S. ambigna) ; the 
 marsh woundwort (S. palustris-; see All- 
 heal,) ; the downy woundwort (S- ger- 
 manicd) ; and the corn woundwort (£. ar- 
 vensis). The marsh woundwort has a fleshy 
 root, creeping extensively ; throwing out in 
 autumn a number of tuberous shoots, which 
 render it, in low wet ground, very difficult 
 of extirpation. This, therefore, should be 
 attempted in summer before these knobs 
 are produced, when the flowers are appear- 
 ing. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 98.) 
 
 WREN. (Troglodytes vulgaris.) Avery 
 diminutive well-known bird, inhabiting all 
 parts of Europe, where it maintains itself 
 during the severest winters. The whole 
 length of the bird is rather less than four 
 inches. The plumage is of a deep brown 
 colour. Wrens construct their nests in the 
 corners of out-houses, stacks of wood, or 
 holes in the wall, being nearly of an oval 
 shape, and composed chiefly of moss, lined 
 with feathers. The female usually lays 
 from seven to ten minute white eggs, 
 marked with a few red spots ; the eggs 
 measure seven lines and a half in length, by 
 six lines in breadth. The wren produces 
 two broods in the season. These little 
 birds feed on small worms and insects. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 162.) 
 
 WRYNECK. (Yunx torquilla.) This 
 common bird is a well-known visiter to this 
 country, arriving in the first or second week 
 of April, and departing by the end of Au- 
 gust, or early in September. It frequents 
 small copses, plantations, orchards, and 
 fields enclosed with tall hedges. This bird 
 is called a wryneck from the habit it ex- 
 hibits of moving its head and neck in vari- 
 ous directions, sometimes describing pfarts 
 of circles, at others from side to side with 
 an undulating motion, not unlike the actions 
 1316 
 
 of a snake ; and in some of the counties of 
 England this bird is called the snake-bird, 
 from this circumstance. These birds feed 
 on caterpillars and various other insects, 
 and are often seen on the ground near ant- 
 hills, consuming, as food, large quantities of 
 the ants and their eggs. The wryneck makes 
 little or no nest, but deposits its eggs on 
 the fragments of decayed wood within the 
 hole of a tree. The eggs are from six to 
 ten in number, white, smooth, and shining, 
 nine lines and a half long, by.seven lines in 
 breadth. The whole length of the bird is 
 seven inches. The plumage is beautifully 
 marked and shaded with brown and grey. 
 (YarrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 152.) 
 
 Y. 
 
 YARD DUNG. See Farm- Yard Ma- 
 nure. 
 
 YARD OF LAND. A quantity of land 
 which in some counties signifies fifteen 
 acres, in some twenty, and in others twenty- 
 four, thirty, and thirty-four acres. 
 
 YARROW. (Achillea.) A genus of 
 showy, free-flowering plants, succeeding 
 well in any common soil, and readily in- 
 creased by dividing the roots. The species 
 are possessed of aromatic, bitter, tonic, 
 and stimulating qualities. The following 
 are indigenous perennials : — 
 
 1. Sneezewort yarrow, or goose-tongue 
 (A. ptarmica), which grows in wet hedges, 
 or about the banks of rivers, flowering in 
 July and August. The root creeps widely, 
 and is difficult of extirpation where the soil 
 is moist. Stems upright, about two feet 
 high ; corymbose at the top. Leaves sessile, 
 linear, pointed, equally and sharply ser- 
 rated, and of a glaucous green. Flowers 
 numerous, small, milk-white in the disk as 
 well as in the radius, with an irregular 
 number of ligulate florets. The whole plant 
 has a pungent flavour, provoking a flow of 
 saliva, and this flavour renders it accept- 
 able, as Schreber asserts, to sheep, who 
 delight especially in saltish food. The 
 sneezing caused by the dried and powdered 
 leaves is rather owing to their little sharp 
 marginal prickles. Its name is derived from 
 this property of causing sneezing. 
 
 2. Serrated yarrow (A. serrata). This 
 is a much less common species, in which 
 the root is fibrous, leaves linear, lanceolate, 
 downy, deeply serrated. Flowers of a 
 yellowish white or buff colour, not half the 
 size of the foregoing. The whole herb has 
 a powerful aromatic scent and bitter flavour, 
 somewhat like tansy. 
 
 3. Common yarrow or milfoil (A. milli- 
 folium). This species grows abundantly in 
 our meadows and pastures. The root is 
 
YEARLINGS. 
 
 YEW TREE. 
 
 creeping, with smooth, reddish, subterra- 
 neous shoots, which are warm and agree- 
 ably pungent, partaking of the flavour and 
 salivating quality of the pellitory of Spain 
 (Anthemis pyrethum). Stems furrowed, 
 erect, about a foot high. Leaves doubly 
 pinnatifid, hairy; segments linear, toothed, 
 pointed. Flowers numerous, white, occa- 
 sionally reddish or purple. The whole herb 
 is astringent, and weakly aromatic. Although 
 considered a bad weed in pasture and arable 
 lands, in consequence of its creeping root, 
 Dr. Anderson and others have recom- 
 mended it for cultivation ; but its produc- 
 tive and nutrient properties are very in- 
 ferior to many other plants equally adapted 
 to light soils ; 64 drachms of the leaves 
 and stems, cut when in flower, afforded 
 98 grains of nutritive matter. Linnseus 
 says that its properties are vulnerary and 
 styptic. An essential oil is extracted from 
 the flowers ; and an ointment made of the 
 leaves is reckoned good against the scab in 
 sheep. A. moschata, an exotic species, a 
 native of Italy, is sudorific and acrid, and 
 makes a wholesome food for cattle. 
 
 4. Woolly yellow milfoil, or yarrow (A. 
 tomentosd). This species grows about dry 
 hilly pastures in Scotland and Ireland. The 
 root is woody, slightly creeping, with many 
 long fibres. Stems scarcely a foot high, 
 curved at the base, then erect. Leaves 
 doubly pinnatifid, woolly, segments linear, 
 crowded, acute. Flowers densely corym- 
 bose, on woolly stalks, of a bright golden 
 yellow. The whole herb, as well as the 
 flowers, has an aromatic scent when rubbed. 
 It serves to decorate rock-work in gardens, 
 but will not bear wet or shade. (Smith's 
 Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 460. ; Sinclair's Hort. 
 Gram. p. 412.) 
 
 YEARLINGS. A term applied to 
 calves, colts, and other young stock, when 
 they have completed their first year. 
 
 YEAST. The froth or scum which 
 rises on beer during the act of ferment- 
 ation. (See Brewing and Fermentation.) 
 It contains a variety of components ; among 
 others, carbon, acetic and malic acids, 
 alcohol, potassa, lime, a saccharine muci- 
 laginous extract, gluten, and water. 
 
 Yeast is an article of the greatest im- 
 portance in domestic economy, forming a 
 necessary ingredient in the manufacture of 
 bread, which would otherwise become heavy 
 and unwholesome. When put in contact 
 with saccharine matters, at a temperature 
 between 50° and 60°, it causes ferment ation, 
 and changes the sugar into alcohol and 
 carbonic acid. Yeast may be dried and 
 yet retain its properties, but a temperature 
 of 212° destroys it. 
 
 The yeast prepared by the Hungarians 
 1317 
 
 will keep for a whole twelvemonth. During 
 the summer season they boil a quantity of 
 wheaten bran and hops in water ; the de- 
 coction is not long in fermenting, and when 
 this has taken place they throw in a suffi- 
 cient portion of bran to form the whole 
 into a thick paste, which they work into 
 balls, that are afterwards dried by a 
 slow heat. When wanted for use they are 
 broken, and boiling water is poured upon 
 them; having stood a proper time, the 
 fluid is decanted, and in a fit state for 
 leavening bread. See Bread. 
 
 YELLOW-HAMMER. (Emberiza ci- 
 trinella.) A well known diminutive bird, 
 which inhabits Britain and other parts of 
 Europe. The crown of the head and belly 
 are of a pale yellow or straw-colour ; the 
 hinder part of the neck is tinged with green, 
 and the breast is of an orange red. These 
 birds frequent meadows, where they con- 
 struct their large flat nests of dried moss, 
 roots, and horse-hair. The female lays six 
 white eggs, streaked with purple veins. The 
 yellow-hammer is of considerable service to 
 the husbandman, by devouring innumer- 
 able insects during the summer. 
 
 YELLOW- WEED. See Weld. 
 
 YELLOW-WORT. (Chlora, from 
 chloros, green. The flowers of C.perfo- 
 liata are a perfect green when dried, but 
 yellow when fresh ; hence the common and 
 generic names.) This is a pretty genus, 
 and the species well worth cultivating as 
 hardy annuals ; they only require to be 
 sown in the open borders as soon as the 
 seeds are ripe. 
 
 The perfoliate yellow-wort is indigenous, 
 growing on chalky hills or clay soils. The 
 stems are a foot and a half high, terminating 
 in an upright, leafy, repeatedly forked pa- 
 nicle of many elegant bright yellow flowers, 
 open in sunshine only : they are without 
 scent. Leaves ovate, acute, combined and 
 perfoliate. The whole herb is very glau- 
 cous, subject to mildew. (Paxtons Bot. 
 Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 218.) 
 
 YEOMAN. A term applied to the first 
 or highest degree of cultivators in this 
 country. The yeomen are properly free- 
 holders, and such as cultivate their own 
 lands. This term has been derived from 
 various words by different authors. Dr. 
 Johnson seems to incline to the word ge?nan, 
 Frisick, a villager; Fortescue derives it 
 from gemen, or yemen, Saxon for a com- 
 moner. Sir Thomas Smith's definition of a 
 yeoman is, " a free-born Englishman who 
 may lay out of his own free lands in yearly 
 revenue to the sum of 40*. 
 
 YEW TREE. (Taxus.) A genus of 
 ornamental evergreen trees, well adapted 
 for underwood, as they thrive under the 
 
YOKE. 
 
 YOUNG, ARTHUR. 
 
 shade and drip of other trees ; they are also 
 very ornamental when planted to form 
 hedges. They will grow in any moist soil, 
 but succeed best in loams and clays. They 
 are chiefly propagated from seeds, which 
 should be sown as soon as ripe ; but can 
 also be increased by cuttings formed of 
 either one or two years' wood, and planted 
 in a shady border in the beginning of April 
 or end of August. The common yew tree 
 (T. baccatd) is the only indigenous species. 
 The trunk is straight, with a smooth deci- 
 duous bark. Leaves two-ranked, crowded, 
 linear, flat, about an inch long, dark green. 
 Fruit drooping, consisting of a sweet, in- 
 ternally glutinous, scarlet berry. The leaves 
 are fetid and very poisonous, and prove 
 speedily fatal to cattle accidentally tasting 
 them when young and tender. The berries 
 have a sweet mawkish taste, and may be 
 eaten without danger. The wood of the 
 yew tree, being of extremely slow growth, 
 is hard and tough, formerly highly valuable 
 for making bows, but now chiefly used for 
 fine cabinet-work or inlaying. It makes 
 handsomer chairs than many exotic woods. 
 (Paxtoris Bot. Diet. ; Smith's Eng. Flor. 
 vol. iv. p. 253.) 
 
 YOKE. A frame of wood fixed with 
 bows over the necks of oxen, whereby they 
 are coupled together, and harnessed to the 
 plough. It is sometimes written " yoak," 
 and is composed — 1 . of a thick piece of 
 wood that passes over the neck, and is 
 strictly called the "yoke;" 2. of a bow, 
 which encompasses the neck ; and 3. of the 
 " wreathings," or " stitchings," that serve 
 to connect the whole. Besides these parts, 
 there are employed a ring, denominated 
 the " yoke-ring," and a chain for securing 
 the traces. 
 
 YOKE of land. The quantity of land 
 which a' yoke of oxen can plough in a day. 
 Hence, in some parts of Kent, a little farm, 
 from its only requiring a yoke of oxen to 
 till it, is called a " yokelet." 
 
 YOLK. See Egg, and Wool. 
 
 YOUNG, ARTHUR. A celebrated agri- 
 cultural writer and farmer; perhaps the 
 most popular author on rural affairs that 
 this or any other country has produced. 
 His characteristics were great zeal, enter- 
 prise, and energy, with a copious flow of 
 plain and intelligible language, which the 
 meanest capacity could readily comprehend; 
 and although he possessed few claims to be 
 ranked as a scientific farmer, yet he suc- 
 ceeded by his labours in exciting a general 
 love, of agriculture in the upper classes of 
 his countrymen, which has, since his day, 
 never materially subsided. And this feel- 
 ing, although attended, through a Avant of 
 practical information, with considerable in- 
 1318 
 
 dividual loss, has yet produced great public 
 advantages. It has been remarked, indeed, 
 of the writings of Arthur Young, that they 
 produced more private losses and more 
 public benefit than those of any other 
 author. A memoir of this extraordinary 
 man was published soon after his death by 
 Dr. Paris, his friend and medical attendant, 
 from which most of the facts of this article 
 are, in the words of their author, taken. 
 (Brandes Journ. of Science, vol. ix. p. 279.) 
 
 His services to agriculture were im- 
 portant, and they would have been still 
 more valuable if he had confined himself to 
 the improvement of the science of agricul- 
 ture, and avoided all those many political 
 and party themes of which he was ever too 
 ready to be the champion. This morbid 
 feeling he carried with him to the Board of 
 Agriculture ; and, in consequence, both 
 Arthur Young and the board of which he 
 was long the chief spirit, experienced the 
 same fate, — they obtained the support of 
 only a section of the farmers of England, 
 and they much too often laid themselves 
 open to the charge of being more intent 
 upon the advancement of the interests of 
 their party than of those of practical agri- 
 culture. Thus the very first sentence of 
 the first volume of the Annals of Agricul- 
 ture, published in 1790, is as follows: — 
 " The parties of one country and the de- 
 bility of another having at last extinguished 
 the torch of discord ; " and the entire essay 
 comprehends hardly anything else than a 
 political survey of the state of the kingdom, 
 and its possessions, fisheries, &c. It speaks 
 with much zeal of the French Revolution, 
 union with Ireland, customs, exports, ton- 
 nage, produce of the taxes, population, na- 
 tional debt, West Indian plantations of 
 Great Britain ; indulges in all kinds of 
 visions ; gives a statement of what the 
 editor would do if he were made a king, 
 &c, &c. ; and hardly a page is reserved for 
 practical agriculture, of which his work was 
 to be " the annals." 
 
 Arthur Young was the descendant of a 
 respectable family, who had resided on their 
 estate at Bradfield Combust, near Bury St. 
 Edmund's, in the county of Suffolk, for 
 more than two centuries ; he was born in 
 London, on the 7th of September, 1741. 
 His father, the Reverend Arthur Young, 
 rector of Bradfield, had three children ; 
 John, a daughter Elizabeth; the third was 
 Arthur, subject of the present memoir, who 
 was educated at Lavennam, a school about 
 six miles from Bradfield Hall. 
 
 Arthur Young was brought up for mer- 
 cantile pursuits, in a merchant's counting- 
 house at Lynn, where, at the age of seven- 
 teen, he commenced his literary career by 
 
YOUNG, ARTHUR. 
 
 writing a political pamphlet, entitled The 
 Theatre of the present War in North Ame- 
 rica; and then four novels — The Fair Ame- 
 rican, Sir Charles Beaufort, Lucy Watson, 
 and Julia Benson, or the Innocent Sufferer. 
 In 1763 he returned from the residence of 
 his uncle in London to his mother at Brad- 
 field Hall, without any prospect of a pur- 
 suit, profession, or employment. His whole 
 income, during the life of his mother, aris- 
 ing from a copyhold farm of twenty acres, 
 and producing only as many pounds, she 
 was anxious that he should reside with her ; 
 and, as the lease of her farm of eighty acres 
 would shortly expire, she urged him to un- 
 dertake its cultivation, a scheme so much 
 in unison with his taste and wishes, that he 
 did not long hesitate in accepting her pro- 
 posal, and he embarked as a farmer. 
 Young, eager, and totally ignorant, as he 
 then was, of every necessary detail, it is not 
 surprising, as he used to say, that he should 
 have squandered large sums, under golden 
 dreams of improvements, especially as he 
 had a thirst for experiment, without a 
 knowledge of what is demanded for its 
 success. In this year (1765), he married 
 Miss Martha Allen of Lynn, and in the 
 year 1767 undertook the management of 
 the farm of Samford Hall, in Essex, which 
 consisted of about 300 acres of land. 
 Various unforeseen circumstances, and em- 
 barrassments from the want of capital, soon 
 induced him to give a hundred pounds to a 
 farmer for taking the estate off his hands ; 
 and this farmer, by the advantages of capi- 
 tal, realised a fortune upon it. It was here, 
 uniting the plough and the pen, that he wrote 
 his work entitled, Political Essays on the Pre- 
 sent State of the British Empire, but which 
 was not published until 1772, in one volume, 
 quarto. He now advertised for another 
 farm, and the knowledge which resulted 
 from viewing the different estates that were 
 on this occasion presented to his notice, 
 furnished him with the materials for his 
 tour, which he called The Six Weeks' Tour 
 through the Southern Counties. By the 
 advice of his Suffolk bailiff, he hired a farm 
 of 100 acres in Hertfordshire; and, from 
 viewing it in an uncommonly favourable 
 season, they were both deceived in the na- 
 ture of the soil. " I know not," said Young, 
 "what epithet to give this soil, sterility 
 falls short of the idea ; a hungry vitriolic 
 gravel — I occupied, for nine years, the 
 jaws of a wolf. A nabob's fortune would 
 sink in the attempt to raise good arable 
 crops, upon any extent, in such a country : 
 my experience and knowledge had increased 
 from travelling and from practice ; but all 
 was lost when exerted upon such a spot. I 
 hardly wonder at a losing account, after 
 1319 
 
 fate had fixed me upon land calculated to 
 swallow, without return, all that folly or 
 imprudence could bestow upon it." It will 
 be here naturally asked, why he did not go 
 to land decisively good ? He answers the 
 question very satisfactorily. " It was on 
 account of the houses ; for although I saw 
 numerous, farms that would have suited 
 well, they had wretched hovels on them." 
 
 Finding, about the year 1783, that his 
 income was barely sufficient to meet his ex- 
 penditure, he engaged to report the parlia- 
 mentary debates for the Morning Post : this 
 he continued to perform for several years ; 
 and after the labours of the week, he walked 
 every Saturday evening to his farm, a dis- 
 tance of seventeen miles from London, from 
 which he as regularly returned every Mon- 
 day morning. This was the most anxious 
 and laborious part of his life : " I worked," 
 says he, " more like a coalheaver, though 
 without his reward, than a man acting only 
 from a predominant impulse." In 1774, he 
 published Political Arithmetic, a work which 
 met with high consideration abroad, and was 
 immediately translated into several lan- 
 guages. Mr. Young has left a memoran- 
 dum, which states, that he received for his 
 different writings, in the interval between 
 the years 1766 and 1775, the sum of three 
 thousand pounds. 
 
 In 1784, he commenced the publication 
 of his Annals of Agriculture, in which he 
 appeared in the double capacity of editor 
 and author, a work which he continued to 
 the period of his blindness : it extends to 
 forty-five volumes, octavo, and presents a 
 vast store of information upon subjects of 
 agriculture and political economy. The 
 plan upon which it was conducted was one 
 which ought to have ensured for it more 
 extensive and profitable pratronage, for, 
 instead of recording anonymous correspond- 
 ence, it refused admittance to any paper 
 that had not the name and address of its 
 author; it can accordingly boast of com- 
 munications from the most exalted and en- 
 lightened characters in Europe, at the head 
 of whom stands our late most gracious 
 sovereign, who transmitted to Mr. Young 
 for publication an account of the farm of 
 Mr. Ducket, the able cultivator of Peter- 
 sham, which is recorded in the seventh 
 volume of the annals, under the signature 
 of "Ralph Robinson." During the pro- 
 gress of this work he travelled (and he 
 published a popular description of his 
 travels) over most parts of England, into 
 Ireland, and in France. 
 
 In 1793, animated as he always was by 
 the spirit of adventure, he could not resist an 
 opportunity that occurred for realising the 
 favourite speculation he had so long enter- 
 
YOUNG, 
 
 ARTHUR. 
 
 tained — that of cultivating a large tract of 
 waste land. He accordingly completed the 
 purchase of 4,400 acres of waste in York- 
 shire. But his fates had decreed other 
 things for him. The Board of Agriculture 
 was established in the August of 1793, and 
 he was immediately appointed its secre- 
 tary. An individual is rarely appointed to 
 an official situation on account of his pos- 
 sessing in an eminent degree those quali- 
 fications which its duties require; but in 
 the instance of Mr. Young this was un- 
 doubtedly the fact; his general and pro- 
 found knowledge in agriculture was the 
 only circumstance that marked him as the 
 most proper person to fill a situation in 
 every respect so important and honourable. 
 " The gratification," says he, " of being 
 elected into so respectable a situation, in 
 which opportunities of still giving an humble 
 aid to the good cause of the plough could 
 scarcely fail of offering, would not permit 
 me to decline the appointment; although, 
 to a person established in the country, the 
 salary, with the residence annexed, was not 
 that pecuniary object which has been re- 
 presented ; and I must have improved on 
 bad principles indeed, if it would not, in a 
 few years, have turned out^ a more profit- 
 able speculation. (The salary was 400/. 
 per annum, with a house free from all 
 charge.) What a change in the destination 
 of a man's life ! Instead of entering, as I 
 proposed, the solitary lord of 4,000 acres, in 
 the keen atmosphere of lofty rocks and 
 mountain torrents, with a little creation 
 rising gradually around me, making the 
 desert smile with cultivation, and grouse 
 give way to industrious population, active 
 and energetic, though remote and tranquil ; 
 and every instant of my existence making 
 two blades of grass to grow where not one was 
 found before — behold me at a desk, in the 
 smoke, the fog, the din of Whitehall. 
 * Society has charms ; ' true, and so has 
 solitude to a mind employed. The die, 
 however, is cast, and my steps may still be, 
 metaphorically, said to be in the furrow." 
 
 At the Board, Arthur Young continued, 
 to his death, zealously employed on all 
 occasions as its secretary, in the service 
 of Agriculture ; — old age at last crept on ; 
 he became blind, and afflicted with the 
 complaint which caused his death. He 
 was attended (concludes Dr. Paris) by Mr. 
 Wilson, Mr. Chilver, and myself ; and al- 
 though the incurable nature of his disease 
 defied every hope of permanent relief, yet 
 his Bufferings were greatly palliated by the 
 
 resources of art, and he died without en- 
 tertaining the least suspicion of the malady 
 under which he suffered. Pious resigna- 
 tion cheered him in his illness, and not a 
 murmur of complaint was heard to escape 
 his lips. On the 12th of April, in the year 
 1820, at his house in Sackville-Street, after 
 taking a glass of lemonade, and expressing 
 himself calm and easy, he expired. His 
 remains were conveyed to Bradfield, and 
 deposited in a vault in the church-yard. 
 
 I have thus offered a brief sketch of 
 the principal labours of Arthur Young, a 
 man who filled a large space in the public 
 eye, for a long series of years, but whose 
 name and talents appear to have com- 
 manded still greater notice and respect in 
 foreign countries than in his own. That he 
 reflected lustre on the age and the country 
 in which he lived can be hardly denied. 
 Of what other philosopher can it be said, 
 that at one time he entertained, under his 
 humble roof, pupils of seven different na- 
 tions, each of whom had been sent to him, 
 for instructions in agriculture, by his re- 
 spective government? I was lately in- 
 formed by his daughter that the late Duke of 
 Bedford breakfasted at Bradfield on one of 
 the mornings of a Newmarket race-meet- 
 ing, and was met by pupils from Russia, 
 France, America, Naples, Poland, Sicily, 
 and Portugal. His numerous works are 
 distinguished by vivacity of thought, quick- 
 ness of imagination, bias to calculation, and 
 fondness for political speculation ; and had 
 they been less successful, posterity might 
 perhaps have regarded these traits of ge- 
 nius as fatal defects, and as pregnant 
 sources of fallacy and disappointment. 
 
 Arthur Young's published works are — 
 
 1. The Farmer's Letters. 1767. 8vo. 1 vol. A second 
 vol. 1771. 8vo. 2. A Six Weeks' Tour through the 
 Southern Counties of England and Wales. 17G8-G9. 8vo. 
 3. A Treatise on Hogs. 1769 . 8vo. 4. A Six Months' 
 Tour through the North of England. 1770. 4 vols. 8vo. 
 5. The Farmer's Guide. 1770. 2 vols. 8vo. 6. Rural 
 Economy. 1770. 8vo. 7. A Course of Experimental 
 Agriculture. 1770. 2 vols. 4to. 8. The Farmer's Tour, 
 1770. 4 vols. 8vo. 9. Proposals for numbering the 
 People. 1771. 8vo. 10. Observations on Waste Lands. 
 1772. 8vo. 11. Political Arithmetic. 1774. 8vo. 12. 
 Tour in Ireland. 1780. 2 vols. 8vo. 13. An Essay on 
 Coleseed. 8vo. 14. Annals of Agriculture. 8vo. 1790 
 to 1804. 44 vols. 15. On the Wool Question. 17S7. *vo. 
 16. The Example of a Farmer. 1793. 8vo. 17. Travels 
 in France. 1792, 1794. 4to. 18. The Agriculture of Suf- 
 folk. 1797. 8vo. 19. The Agriculture of Lincolnshire. 
 1799. 8vo. 20. On the Application of Waste Land. 1799; 
 8vo. 21. The Farmer's Kalendar. 1800-4. 8vo. 4 vols. 22. 
 Essay on Manners. 1804. 8vo. 23. View of the Agricul- 
 ture of Essex. 1806-7. 2 vols. 8vo. 24. Report on In* 
 closures. 1807-9. 8vo. 25. View of Agriculture of Ox- 
 fordshire. 1808. 8vo. 26. View of the Agriculture of 
 Sussex. 1808. 8vo. 27. On the Board of Agriculture. 
 1809. 8vo. 28. On the Husbandry of Bakewell, Arbuth- 
 not, and Duckett. 1811. 8vo. 29. On Money. 1812. 8vo. 
 30. Essay on Manures. Kicholsoyi's Journal, vol. xxiii. 
 j). 120. {Watt's Bibliothcca.) 
 
 THE END. 
 
 London: PrinL ' by A. Spottiswoode, New- Street- Square. 
 
MARCH MDCCCXLII. 
 
 A SERIES 
 
 OF 
 
 ENCYCLOPEDIAS 
 
 AND 
 
 DICTIONARIES, 
 
 FORMING 
 
 SPECIAL AND INDEPENDENT WORKS, EDITED BY WRITERS 
 
 DISTINGUISHED IN THE VARIOUS DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 No. 
 
 1. 
 
 Blaine's Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports 
 
 5 
 
 2. 
 
 Brande's Dictionary of Science, Literature, and Art 
 
 3 
 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 
 3. 
 
 Copland's Dictionary of Practical Medicine 
 
 8 
 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 
 4. 
 
 Johnson's Farmer's Encyclopaedia .... 
 
 3 
 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 
 5. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture 
 
 8 
 
 6. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Architecture — Rural 
 
 7 
 
 
 (With Supplement to end of 1841.) 
 
 
 7. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Gardening 
 
 6 
 
 8. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Plants .... 
 
 6 
 
 
 (With Supplement.) 
 
 
 9. 
 
 Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Trees .... 
 
 7 
 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 
 10. 
 
 M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce 
 
 4 
 
 
 (New Edition.) 
 
 
 11. 
 
 M'Culloch's Dictionary of Geography 
 
 4 
 
 
 (In course of publication.) 
 
 
 12. 
 
 Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography 
 
 5 
 
 
 (New Edition. 
 
 
 13. 
 
 SavaVGe's Dictionary of Printing .... 
 
 8 
 
 
 (Just completed.) 
 
 
 14. 
 
 Ure's Dictionary of Arts and Manufactures 
 
 4 
 
 MESSRS. LONGMAN AND CO. INTEND CONTINUING THIS SERIES UNTIL IT EMBRACES 
 
 EYERY BRANCH OF KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 PRINTED FOR 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS. 
 
II. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias 
 
 OPINIONS OF THE PRESS ON THE SERIES. 
 
 The Athenaeum. 
 
 " A series of encyclopaedical volumes, wherein a great quantity of information is condensed 
 into a small compass, and arranged in a form the most convenient for frequent reference. Such 
 a series will, when completed, form a valuable library of practical knowledge. The specimens 
 we have already seen of these works are such as do great credit to the publishers who formed the 
 design, and to the authors who have executed the respective divisions. Loudon's Encyclopaedia 
 of Agriculture has now given proof of its value by a third edition ; his Encyclopaedia of Gardening is 
 to be seen open on the table of every scientific gardener, and of every man who values his garden, 
 from one end of this garden-covered island to the other— from the region of the heath to that of the 
 myrtle ! M'Culloch's Dictionary of Commerce and Commercial Navigation is to be found in the 
 library equally of the merchant and the man of general information. Of the Dictionary of 
 Practical Medicine, by Dr. Copland, we heretofore exposed our approbation. Taken as a whole, 
 and judging by the specimens already published, we consider this series of works to be one of the 
 most valuable produced for many years ; and we look forward to the publication of the Dictionary 
 of Science, Literature, and Art, with confidence and special pleasure, as a work much wanted. 
 None can conceive, who have not witnessed them, the difficulties encountered in the attempt to 
 get up sterling substantial works of this kind; few are aware of the extent of knowledge, of 
 reading, and of sustained effort, in collecting, writing out, and digesting such works." 
 
 Examiner. 
 
 " We think it a worthless, because an impracticable design, to aim at embodying in any one 
 work an epitome of every branch of human knowledge. All the general encyclopaedias that we know 
 of are general failures. Some portions of them have been admirably done, but at some point 
 or other in all of them the necessary alternative has forced itself on the projectors— to leave the 
 design unfinished, or the book unfinished.— This is a better plan of the Messrs. Longman and Co. 
 and deserves all encouragement and support. They purpose to publish a series of encyclo- 
 paedias and dictionaries, each edited by a competent person, each in itself complete, condensed 
 into as small a compass as possible, and arranged for the utmost convenience of simple and 
 easy reference." 
 
 The Statesman. 
 
 " The authors and publishers of most of the great Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias that have 
 hitherto appeared in this and other countries, have endeavoured to concentrate into a single work all 
 the scattered elements of universal knowledge. But success in such an undertaking could not 
 rationally be looked for ; in such works it is uniformly found that those departments with which 
 the editors and principal contributors are best acquainted, are treated at great length, and often 
 with much care and research ; while those equally important, and far more numerous, depart- 
 ments, with which they are less familiar, or in which they take less interest, are dispatched in a 
 comparatively brief and slovenly manner. It is clear, too, that if all the various branches of 
 human knowledge were treated in a single work, with that completeness which the interest at- 
 tached to the greater number demands, it would be of the most gigantic dimensions, and could 
 not be afforded, except at a price that would preclude the great bulk of readers from becoming 
 its purchasers. We have, therfore, always approved of the valuable encyclopaedias which have 
 issued, or are in the course of publication, by Messrs. Longman. They seem to form a series of 
 Special and 1ndhpbndp;nt Dictiona ries, each being the work of persons distinguished by 
 their attention to, and proficiency in, the departments of which it treats. The advantages of this 
 arrangement are obvious. Each subject must have the best chance of being 1 well and carefully 
 treated. The publication of a series of independent Dictionaries is farther advantageous, by its 
 giving individuals the option of purchasing such only as they may have occasion for, without 
 encumbering themselves with the others. The success of the works already published on this 
 plan, shows that it has been fully approved of by the public." 
 
 Times. 
 
 " These books are not only full of information of the best kind, arranged and presented in the 
 best manner, but are kept current in all cases with the latest discoveries in their various depart- 
 ments of knowledge, by the help of Appendices and Supplements. They promise to realises 
 more complete library of Practical Knowledge on the various subjects of linman inquiry than we 
 have yel seen attempt ed with success, and they have the manifest advantage of giving each reader 
 fail option of selecting the subjects that will be useful to him, and of rejecting those that would 
 merely encumber his book- shelves." 
 
III. 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown, and Co. 
 
 BRANDE'S DICTIONARY OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, fee 
 
 A Dictionary of Literature, Science, and Art; comprising the History, Description, and 
 Scientific Principles, of every branch of Human Knowledge: with the Derivation and 
 Definition of all the Terms in general use. General Editor, W. T. Brande, F.R.S.L. & K ; of 
 Her Majesty's Mint ; Professor of Chemistry in the Royal Institution ; Professor of Chemistry 
 and Materia Medica 10 the Apothecaries' Company &c. &c. Assisted by Joseph Cauvin Esq. 
 
 Architecture, Music, and the Fine Arts Joseph Gwilt, F.S.A. & F.R.A.S. 
 
 (J. Lindley, Ph. D. F.R.S. L.S. &c. 
 
 BOTANY { Professor of Botany in London University 
 
 I College, and in the Royal Institution. 
 
 Chemistry, Geology, Mineralogy, Medicine, and] 
 the Arts and Sciences depending on Chemical > W. T. Brande, Esq. 
 Principles ) 
 
 Gardening and Agriculture J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. U.S. &c. 
 
 T S Herman Merivale, A.M. 
 
 AjlAW \ Late Fellow of Baliol College. 
 
 „ T S J- R- M'Culloch, Esq. : and 
 
 General Literature ? Joseph Cauvin, Esq. 
 
 Mathematics, and the Arts and Sciences de- > T Galloway MA FRS 
 
 pending on Mathematical Principles \ galloway, m.a. *.«,.». 
 
 Political Economy, Statistics, & Commerce J. R. M'Culloch, Esq. 
 
 Theology The Rev. Charles Merivale, M.A. 
 
 Zoology, Anatomy, and Physiology Richard Owen, F.R.S. &c. 
 
 In 1 very thick volume 8vo. containing nearly 1400 closely printed pages, illustrated by 
 engravings on wood. 
 
 *** Will be ready in April. 
 
 " A general encyclopaedia in miniature. The reader will find the elements of nearly all branches 
 of science and art and human enquiry embraced in these compact and laborious pages ; and 
 given, too, in so popular a style, as to place him at once in possession of the information he seeks. 
 He will also be gratified at discovering a variety of minor topics explained in this Dictionary, 
 which would not, or more properly could not, be admitted into an Encyclpaedia." 
 
 Monthly Chronicle. 
 
 " A concise, well-written, and comprehensive article, is given upon all subjects, each con- 
 taining quite as much as any person could be desirous of reading for the purpose of acquiring u 
 thorough knowledge of the principles of a science without the labour of working out all the 
 minutiie. "— Observer. 
 
 " This Dictionary is one of the most satisfactory and generally useful books of the kind that 
 have come under our observation."— Monthly Review. 
 
 JOHNSON'S FARMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA. 
 
 The Farmer's Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Rural Affairs. By Cuthbert Johnson, Esq., 
 Barrister at Law, Editor of the Farmer's Almanack, &c. &c. illustrated with wood engrav- 
 ings of the best Agricultural Implements. 8vo. Parts 1 to 6. To be completed in 10 monthly 
 parts, 5s. each. 
 
 Many years have now elapsed since an alphabetically arranged work, of easy reference, has been 
 produced for the service of the English farmers and country gentlemen ; and yet, within the 
 present century, agricultural discoveries, and rural improvements of all kinds, have been making 
 progress with a rapidity and to an extent which has long rendered obsolete the greatest portions 
 of all the existing Agricultural Dictionaries. The present work is the result of many years' 
 careful and laborious experimental researches, observations, and collections, by an author whose 
 successful public efforts have long been favourably received by the English farmers. It is proposed 
 to be chiefly devoted to the details of practical agriculture, and to the results of those scientific 
 inquiries by which this important pursuit is assisted and illustrated. It will include, also, many 
 other details interesting to the farmer : such as the law with regard to certain parish and other 
 public and private duties, which he is often called upon to fulfil— the kitchen and flower garden — 
 a herbal of native plants, &c. &c. The endeavour will, in short, be made to produce a new and 
 useful book of reference, to which the farmer may readily resort under all ordinary circumstances. 
 
 " We have no hesitation in stating that it will become one of the first of our standard works on 
 
 British Agriculture It will be an agricultural library of itself, and will add to Mr. Johnson's 
 
 already well-acquired reputation as an agricultural writer." — Mark-Lane Express. 
 
 " Promises to be one of the most useful works for agriculturists which has been issued from 
 
 the Press for many years past Should be found in the library of every one connected with the 
 
 soil." — The Farmer's Journal. 
 
 " A work which promises to be of great practical value to the farmer. Every intelligent farmer 
 is certain to possess himself of this book, and no private gentleman, of inquiring turn of mind, 
 can be without it." — Mirror. 
 
 " The execution of it has been confided to Mr. Cuthbert Johnson, a well-known and very 
 respectable writer on agricultural subjects. The design is good ; the execution is admirable." 
 
 Salopian Journal. 
 
 " Great care appears to have been taken to bring down the information to the present time." 
 
 Birmingham Herald. 
 
 " Replete with practical information."— Sporting Magazine. 
 
 " Remarkable for perspicuity of style, and lucid treatment of the minutest points." 
 
 Sportiug Review. 
 
IV. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias. 
 
 M'CULLOCH'S GEOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY. 
 
 A Dictionary, Geographical, Statistical, and Historical, of the various Countries, Places and 
 principal Natural Objects in the World. Illustrated with Maps. In Two Volumes. 
 The first Volume is now ready, containing excellent Maps of the "World on Mercator's Projec- 
 tion ; the Navigable Rivers, the completed and proposed Canals, and Railroads, of Great Britain 
 and Ireland, with the Coal Fields, Light-Houses, &c. ; of the British Possessions in North Ame- 
 rica, with part of the United States, compiled from official sources, and with Plans of the Cities 
 and Harbours of Montreal and Quebec ; and of Asia, carefully constructed by Messrs. Walker 
 from the most recent information. (This present Map of Asia is the most recent Map of that 
 Continent, and is the only Map containing the recent Discoveries.) Price £2, handsomely bound 
 m cloth lettered. 
 
 " The fulness with which each article is written, the clearness of the arrangements throughout, 
 and the vast surface traversed under each. head, and in every department of inquiry essential to 
 the undertaking, contribute to the production of the most luminous body of information con- 
 cerning Geography, Statistics, and History, and all matters necessary to their elucidation, that 
 has ever been brought together in a shape so perspicuous and accessible. Such a publication— 
 which can be referred to, on the instant, for any subject embraced in its pages— is indispensable 
 to all libraries, and must completely supersede every previous attempt to popularise and reduce 
 within convenient limits these various classes of information."— Monthly Chronitle. 
 
 " Reflects great honour on all parties concerned in it, Mr. M'Culloch himself and the respect- 
 able firm who have seconded him in his conscientious endeavours to redeem the literature of his 
 country from the disgrace stamped on it by numerous compilations, made without knowledge or 
 industry, in which no notice is taken of changes and improvements, and old errors are carefully 
 repeated."— Morning Chronicle. 
 
 *** The concluding Volume will be ready in April. 
 
 M'CULLOCH'S DICTIONARY OF COMMERCE. 
 
 A Dictionary, Practical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Commerce and Commercial Naviga- 
 tion. Illustrated with Maps and Plans. New edition, 50s. boards. 
 
 In this Edition all the more important returns and accounts as to the Trade, Navigation, 
 and Consumption of this and other countries, have been brought down to the latest period. In 
 some instances, too, the form of the returns has been changed, and new ones, drawn up on a more 
 comprehensive plan, and embracing various additional particulars, have been substituted for those 
 previously embodied in the work. In illustx*ation of this the reader is referred to the tables now 
 given under the articles Imports and Exports: they will, it is believed, be found to contain, 
 within a brief space, the completest view hitherto laid before the public of the recent trade of the 
 British Empire. A few new articles have also been inserted ; among which may be specified those 
 on Bombay, Malta, &c. 
 
 The present Supplement has been greatly enlarged, and, it is hoped, materially imroved. It 
 contains as much matter as would fill, if printed with types of a medium size, a large octavo 
 volume, and embraces a good deal of important information not elsewhere to be met with. We 
 can assure the reader that neither labour nor expense has been spared to render it instructive 
 and trustworthy. It embodies the substance of the former Supplements, and. has, mong others, 
 articles on the following subjects, viz. :— 
 
 Austrian Tariff, and New Commercial 
 Treaty with Austria. 
 
 Joint-Stock Banks; with a complete list 
 of these establishments, and an examina- 
 tion of the principles on which they should be 
 founded. 
 
 American Banking System ; with Remarks 
 on the liabilities of the Foreign Holders of 
 the Stock of the United States' Bank. 
 
 New Customs Act for Bengal. 
 
 Cotton Trade of Great Britain, from 
 1816 to 1839, both inclusive. 
 
 Tables of Imports and Exports, com- 
 prising a full Account of the Foreign 
 Trade of the United Kingdom during the 
 Ten Years ending with 1838, with Remarks 
 on the probable consequences of Foreign 
 Competition, &c. 
 
 Coinage of America and India. 
 
 Navigation of the Danube. 
 
 Trade with Prussia, Prussian Commer- 
 cial League, Tariff, &c. 
 
 Opium Trade ; with Remarks on the State of 
 our Relations with China. 
 
 Railways and Railway Legislation. 
 
 New Post-Office Arrangements. 
 
 Alterations in the British Tariff. 
 
 Russian Tariff. 
 
 Classification of Ships. 
 
 Sugar Trade— Growth of Beet-Root Sugar, 
 &c. 
 
 Commercial Treaty with Turkey, with 
 Notices of Civita Vecchia, Galacz, Guaya- 
 quil, Port Lamar, Montevideo, Moulmein, 
 Rostock, &c. 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF TREES. 
 
V. 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown, and Co. 
 
 MURRAY'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Geography ; comprising' acomplete Descriptionjof the Earth, exhibiting its 
 Relation to the Heavenly Bodies, its Physical Structure, the Natural History of each 
 Country, and the Industry, Commerce, Political Institutions, and Civil and Social State of all 
 Nations. By Hugh Murray, F.R.S.E. : assisted in Astronomy, &c. by Prof. Wallace; 
 Geology. &c. by Prof. Jameson; Botany, &c. by Sir W. J. Hooker; Zoology, &c. by 
 "W. Swainson, Esq. New Edition, brought down to 1840, with 82 maps, drawriiby Sidney Hall, 
 and upwards of 1,000 other engravings on wood, from drawings by Swainson, T. Landseer, 
 Sowerby, Strutt, &c, representing the most remarkable objects of Nature and Art in every 
 Region of the Globe. Containing upwards of 1,500 pages. £3. cloth lettered. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM INTRODUCTION. 
 
 This important and extensive subject seems to divide itself naturally into three parts: — 
 
 The First Part treats of the " History of Geography;" the origin and progress of the Science ; 
 and the steps by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited position, has 
 made himself acquainted with the immense circuit of the globe. This part is divided into — 
 I. Ancient Geography ;— II. Geography of the Middle Ages ; — III. Modern Geography. 
 
 The Second Part comprises the Principles of the Science. These are — I. Mathematical : those 
 which relate to the form of the earth, its movements, its place in the Solar System, the great 
 circles by which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed, and the modes in which its 
 spherical outline can be represented on the plane surface of a map. II. Physical: those which 
 treat of the substances which cover the earth's surface, the elements which compose and surround 
 it ; rock, earth, water, air, as they appear under the various forms of mountain, plain, river, sea, 
 and present all the changing phenomena of the atmosphere. III. Geography may be considered 
 in its relation to other objects and sciences. 1. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over 
 the globe. 2. To Botany, or the diffusion of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and 
 the various branches into which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, 
 political union, social, intellectual, and moral condition. 
 
 The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and countries 
 into which the world is divided, the outline and extent of each, its natural features, the revolu- 
 tions through which it has passed, its political constitution, the industry and wealth, the civil 
 and social condition of its inhabitants. The description of each country will conclude with a 
 local and topographical survey of its districts, cities, and towns. 
 
 This part will divide itself into five general heads: I.Europe. II. Asia. III. Africa. IV. 
 America. V. Australia. 
 
 An Index is added, which, being extremely copious, and containing references to all the places 
 mentioned in the work, will answer in a great degree the purposes of a Geographical Gazetteer. 
 
 BLAINE'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RURAL SPORTS. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports ; or, a complete account, Historical, Practical, and De- 
 scriptive, of Hunting, Shooting, Fishing, Racing, and other Field Sports and Athletic Amuse- 
 ments of the present day. By Delabere P. Blaine, Esq. Author of "Outlines of the 
 Veterinary Art," " Canine Pathology," &c. &c. Illustrated by nearly 600 engravings on 
 wood, by R. Branston, from drawings by Aiken, T. Landseer, Dickes, &c. £2. 10s. hand- 
 somely bound in fancy cloth, lettered. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I.— The Origin, Progress, and Present State of Field Sports. 
 
 Book 1.— History of the Chase. Book 3.— The History of British Field Sports, 
 
 Book 2.— The Progress of Field Sports after accompanied with occasional Notices of such 
 Mankind had Peopled the Four Quarters of other RuralandActiveExercisesasarecommon 
 the Globe. amongtheSportingClassesofourCountrymen. 
 Part II.— The Philosophy of Field Sports. 
 Book ].— The Moral Character of Field Sports, I Book 2.— The Natural History of the Living 
 and the Benefits derived from them. | Objects of Field Sports. 
 
 Part VII.— Shooting. 
 
 — VIII.— Fishing. 
 
 — IX.— Cock Fighting. 
 
 — X. — Boxing. 
 
 " This book is a perfect library for all lovers of country sports, for all country gentlemen, and 
 for all persons who delight in the manly and healthy recreations which are afforded to the inha- 
 bitants of no country in such perfection as to the inhabitants of the British Isles. It is true the 
 book treats of the field sports, and the sports by flood, of all the countries in the world ; and is, 
 for that reason, so much the more valuable : but its principal value with Englishmen will be the 
 great accuracy with which it describes the sports of which they can partake in their fields, woods, 
 and waters, and the plain and agreeable manner in which intelligence on subjects with which 
 they want to be acquainted is conveyed. The book is a large one, and so filled— indeed, so 
 crammed— with information, that it becomes a matter of conjecture as to how the whole can have 
 been brought together. It is, what it professes to be, ' an Encyclopaedia of the Amusements of the 
 Country.' The book is illustrated by an immensity of engravings on wood, by Mr. R. Branston, 
 from drawings by Aiken, T. Landseer, Dickes, and other artists. It is at once a manual and 
 library for all sportsmen."— Times. 
 
 " The study of a sportsman would be incomplete without it."— Sporting Magazine. 
 
 "The three great heads of 4 guns, dogs, and horses,' could not be treated in a fuller, more 
 complete, or more effective manner, than they have been by Mr. Blaine in this publication." 
 
 Observer. 
 
 Part III.— Horse Racing, &c. &c. 
 
 — IV.— Hunting. 
 
 — V.— Coursing. 
 
 — VI.— Hawking. 
 
VI. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias, 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OF GARDENING. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Gardening; comprising the Theory and Practice of Horticulture, Flori- 
 culture, Arboriculture, and Landscape Gardening, including all the latest improvements, a 
 General History of Gardening in all Countries, and a Statistical View of its Present State, with 
 suggestions for its Future Progress in the British Isles. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. H.S.. &c. &c. 
 New Edition, greatly enlarged and improved, with nearly 1000 Engravings on Wood. 
 £2. 10s. boards. 
 
 The object of this Encyclopaedia is to present, in one systematic view, the History and present 
 State of Gardening in all countries, and its Theory and Practice in Great Britain. Under the term 
 Gardening, we include Horticulture, or all that relates to the kitchen-garden and the orchard ; 
 Floriculture, or all that relates to the flower-garden, the botanic garden, the shrubbery, and the 
 culture of flowers and ornamental shrubs and trees ; Arboriculture, or the formation of useful and 
 ornamental plantations, and the culture of the most valuable timber trees ; and Landscape Gar- 
 dening, or the art of laying out grounds. 
 
 " No gardening book so comprehensive, and containing such an immense mass of matter, has 
 ever been submitted to the public more free from errors of the pen or the press." — Monthly Review. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I.— Gardening considered in respect to its Origin, Progress, and Present State, among 
 different Nations, Governments, and Climates. 
 
 Book 1. History of Gardening among Ancient and Modern nations. 
 
 — 2. Gardening considered as to its Progress and present State under different Political 
 
 and Geographical Circumstances. 
 
 Part II.— Gardening considered as a Science, and as an Art. 
 
 Book 1. On the Study of the Vegetable Kingdom. 
 
 — 2. On the Study of Natural Agents of Vegetable Growth and Culture. 
 
 — 3. Mechanical Agents employed in Gardening. 
 
 — 4. Of the Operations of Gardening. 
 
 Part III.— Gardening as Practised in Britain. 
 
 Book 1. Horticulture. 
 
 — 2. Floriculture. 
 
 — 3. Arboriculture, or Planting. 
 
 — 4. Landscape-Gardening. 
 
 Part IV.— Statistics of British Gardening. 
 
 Book 1. Of the present State of Gardening in the British Isles. 
 
 — 2. Of the Future Progress of Gardening in Britain. 
 
 Calendarial Index. 
 General Index. 
 
 URE'S DICTIONARY OF ARTS, MANUFACTURES, &c. 
 
 A Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines; containing a clear Exposition of their Prin- 
 ciples and Practice. By Andrew Ure, M.D. F.R.S. M.G.S. &c. New Edition, illustrated 
 with 1,241 engravings on wood, £2. 10s. cloth lettered. 
 The following are the objects which the author has endeavoured to accomplish :— 
 First— To instruct the manufacturer, metallurgist, and tradesman, in the principles of their 
 respective processes, so as to render them in reality the masters of their business, and to emanci- 
 pate them from a state of bondage to operatives— too commonly the slaves of blind prejudice and 
 vicious routine. 
 
 Secondly— To afford to merchants, brokers, drysalters, druggists, and officers of the revenue, 
 characteristic descriptions of the commodities which pass through their hands. 
 
 Thirdly— By exhibiting some of the finest developments of chemistry and physics, to lay open 
 an excellent practical school to students of these kindred sciences. 
 
 Fourthly— To teach capitalists, who may be desirous of placing their funds in some productive 
 branch of industry, to select judiciously among plausible claimants. 
 
 Fifthly -To enable gentlemen of the law to become well acquainted with the nature of those 
 patent schemes which are so apt to give rise to litigation. 
 
 Sixthly— To present to our legislators such a clear exposition of our staple manufactures, as may 
 dissuade them from enacting laws which obstruct industry, or cherish one branch of it to the 
 injury of many others. 
 
 And lastly— To give the general reader, intent chiefly on intellectual cultivation, a view of many 
 of the noblest achievements of Science, in effecting those grand transformations of matter to which 
 Great Britain owes her paramount wealth, rank, and power, among the kingdoms. 
 V The latest Statistics of every important object, of Manufacture are given, from the best, and 
 usually from Official Authority, at the end of each article. 
 
VII. 
 
 Printed for Longman, Brown, and Co. 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF PLANTS. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Plants ; comprising the Description, Specific Character, Culture, History, 
 Application in the Arts, and every other desirable particular, respecting all the Plants 
 indigenous to, cultivated in, or introduced into, Britain; combining all the advantages of a 
 Linnaean and Jussieuean Species Plantarum, an Historia Plantarum, a Grammar of Botany, 
 and a Dictionary of Botany and Vegetable Culture. The whole in English, with the Synonymes 
 of the commoner Plants in the different European and other languages ; the scientific names 
 accentuated, their etymology explained ; the classes, orders, and botanic terms illustrated by 
 engravings ; and with figures of nearly 10,000 species, exemplifying several individuals be- 
 longing to every genus included in the work. Edited by J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. H.S. &c. The 
 Specific Characters by Professor Lindley ; the Drawings by J. D. C. Sowerby, F.L.S. ; and the 
 Engravings by R. Branston. 2d Edition, corrected, ^3. 13s. 6d. 
 In this Encyclopaedia are included all the indigenous, cultivated, and exotic Plants which are 
 now found in, or have been introduced into, Britain. The object of this work is to give a Natural 
 History of these Plants, accompanied by such descriptions, engraved figures, and elementary 
 details, as shall enable a beginner, who is a mere English reader, to discover the name of every 
 Plant which he may find in flower, refer it to its proper place, both in the natural and artificial 
 Systems of Classification, and acquire all the information respecting it which is useful or interesting. 
 
 The work is divided into Two Parts. The First Part contains the Linnean or Artificial Arrange- 
 ment of all the genera and species, with all the details comprehended in botanical description, and 
 natural and artificial botanical history, and with engraved portraits of one or more species of each 
 genus. The Second Part contains the Jussieuean or Natural Arrangement of all the genera, 
 without repetition of the species or any details connected with them : but as the names of the 
 natural orders are added after each genus in the Artificial System, and as each genus in both 
 arrangements is numbered, a direct reference may be had from the second arrangement to the 
 first, and from the first to the second ; reference may also be had indirectly, through the medium 
 of the Contents or Index. 
 
 An Introduction is given to each system of arrangement, and a General Introduction to. the 
 whole work, in which its uses are explained. "When the beginner has a plant in flower and would 
 ascertain its name, he will turn to the Linnean System, as explained in the Introduction to that 
 system ; and, when he has but a small part of any plant, he will turn to the Natural System, as 
 directed in the General Introduction. 
 
 All the Technical Terms, or words not usually found in an English Dictionary, are explained in 
 the Glossary, and engravings are given of such of the objects designated as might occasion any 
 difficulty to" a beginner. This Glossary and the two Introductions form together a complete j 
 Grammar of Botany. 
 
 The Table of Synonymes in various languages may, to a certain extent, be considered as pre- 
 senting the Popular Floras of the various countries where these names are used ; since it is only 
 to the remarkable plants of a country that vernacular names are given. 
 
 " The most useful and popular botanical work that has ever appeared in the English Language." 
 
 Jameson's Philosophical Journal. 
 
 LOUDON'S COTTAGE ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture ; with about 1,100 pages of letter- 
 press, and upwards of 2,000 wood engravings ; embracing designs of Cottages, Farm Houses, 
 Farmeries, Villas, Country Inns, Public Houses, Parochial Schools, &c. ; including the in- 
 terior Finishings and Furniture ; accompanied by Analytical and Critical Remarks illustrative 
 of the Principles of Architectural Science and Taste, on which the Designs for Dwellings are 
 composed, and of Landscape Gardening, with reference to their Accompaniments. By J. C. 
 Loudon, F.L.S. &c. New Edition, corrected, with above 100 of the Plates re-engraved, with 
 a Supplement, bringing down the Improvements in Domestic Architecture, Furniture, and 
 in Landscape Gardening, to the end of 1841, ^63. 
 The main object of this Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture, is to improve 
 the dwellings of the great mass of society, in the temperate regions of both hemispheres : a 
 secondary object is to create and diffuse among mankind, generally, a taste for architectural 
 comforts and beauties. 
 The means by which we propose to accomplish these objects are the following: — 
 By submitting a series of Designs for human dwellings, embracing every appropriate comfort I 
 and the greatest variety of beauty; and by accompanying these designs with analytical and 
 critical remarks, pointing out in what this comfort and beauty consist, and on what principles 
 both are founded. 
 
 By submitting a series of Designs for the finishing, fittings up, fixtures, and furniture, suitable 
 to the different descriptions of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Buildings ; and by accompanying these 
 with remarks on their fitness for the end in view, such as lighting, heating, ventilating, &c, as 
 well as with analytical and critical remarks on their style or beauty ; thus showing the necessity 
 of Architects including the study of furniture in that of their profession, so as to be able to give 
 designs for furnishing a house, as well as for building one. 
 
 By accompanying many of the Designs with gardens, as well small kitchen and flower gardens 
 for the cottager, as pleasure ground and park scenery for the occupant of the villa; and bv ex- 
 plaining the connection of Villa Architecture with Landscape .Gardening, and pointing out the 
 necessity which exists for Villa Architects possessing a considerable knowledge of the art of laying II 
 out grounds. jj 
 
 by avoiding, when it is not absolutely necessary, the use of terms peculiar to Architecture ; by 
 explaining all such as are used, when they first occur ; and by adopting such a style as will render I 
 the work easily understood by the uninitiated reader, as well as subservient to the purpose of I 
 educating young persons, especially those of the female sex, in Architecture as an art of taste. 
 
 " From the commencement of the present century, a number of works on ornamental cottages, 
 rural villas, and other country dwellinge, have been published, and have greatly increased'the j! 
 architectural taste of country gentlemen and retired citizens. One of the best of these is Loudon's n 
 ' Encyclopaedia of Cottage, Farm, and Villa Architecture and Furniture ; than which, we believe, II 
 no single work has ever effected so much good in improving the arrangement and external ap- 
 pearance of country dwellings generally."— Time*. 
 
VIII. 
 
 Notice of a Series of Encyclopaedias, printed for Longman & Co. 
 
 LOUDON'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OP AGRICULTURE. 
 
 An Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. By J. C. Loudon, F.L.S. H.S. &c. Comprising- the 
 Theory and Practice of the Valuation, Transfer, laying- out, Improvement, and Management 
 of Landed Property, and the Cultivation and Economy of the Animal and Vegetable Produc- 
 tions of Agriculture, including the latest Improvements, a General History of Agriculture in 
 all Countries, and a Statistical View of its Present State, with Suggestions for its Future 
 Progress. With nearly 1,300 engravings on wood. 3d edit, with a Supplement, containing 
 all the recent improvements, £2. 10s. boards. 
 " One of the most scientific and justly popular works of the present times." 
 
 Stewart's Planter's Guide. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 Part I.— Agriculture Considered as to its Origin, Progress, and Present State, among different 
 Nations, Governments, and Climates. 
 
 Book 2.— Agriculture as Influenced by Geogra- 
 phical, Physical, Civil, and Political Circum- 
 stances. 
 
 Book 1.— History of Agriculture among Ancient 
 and Modern Nations. 
 
 Book 1.— Of the Study of the Vegetable 
 Kingdom with a View to Agriculture. 
 
 Book 2. — Of the Study of the Animal King- 
 dom with reference to Agriculture. 
 
 Book 3.— Of the Study of the Mineral Kingdom 
 
 Part II.— Agriculture considered as a Science. 
 
 ajid the Atmosphere, with reference to Agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Book 4.— Of the Mechanical Agents employed 
 
 in Agriculture. 
 Book 5.— Of the Operations of Agriculture. 
 
 Book 1. — Of the Valuation, Purchase, and 
 Transfer of Landed Property. 
 
 Book 2.— Of the Laying Out, or General Ar- 
 rangement of Landed Estates. 
 
 Book 3.— On Improving the Culturable Lands 
 of an Estate. 
 
 Part III.— Agriculture as practised in Britain. 
 
 Book 4.— Management of Landed Property. 
 Book 5.— Selection, Hiring, and Stocking of 
 Farms. 
 
 Book 6.— Culture of Farm Lands. 
 Book 7.— The Economy of Live Stock and the 
 I Dairy. 
 
 Part IV.— Statistics of British Agriculture. 
 Book 1 .—Of the Present State of Agriculture in i Book 2.— Of the Future Progress of Agriculture 
 the British Isles. I in Britain. 
 
 Calendarial Index.— Glossarial Index.— General Index. 
 
 COPLAND'S DICTIONARY OF PRACTICAL MEDICINE. 
 
 A Dictionary of Practical Medicine ; comprising General Pathology, the Nature and Treatment 
 of Diseases, Morbid Structures, and the Disorders especially incidental to Climates, to the 
 Sex, and to the different Epochs of Life, with numerous approved Formulae of the Medicines 
 recommended. By James Copland, M.D., Consulting Physician to Queen Charlotte's 
 Lying-in Hospital ; Senior Physician to the Royal Infirmary for Children ; Member of the Royal 
 College of Physicians, London; of the Medical and Chirurgical Societies of London and 
 Berlin, &c. 
 
 This work is now in course of publication in Parts, of which seven have appeared. It contains, 
 in an abstract ?>nd condensed, yet comprehensive, form, the opinions and practice of the most 
 experienced writers,British and Foreign, so digested and wrought up with the results of the Author's 
 practice, that the Student and Young Practitioner will not be bewildered in the diversity of the 
 opinions and facts adduced for theiriinstruction, but be guided in the difficult path on which they 
 have entered, and enabled, with a due exercise of their powers of observation and discrimination, 
 to arrive at just conclusions and successful practical results. To the experienced Practitioner, 
 also, the work presents a diversified range of opinions, methods of cure, and authorities, which his 
 matured judgment will enable him to apply, in an appropriate manner, to particular cases. It also 
 comprises the complications and modified states of Disease, which are even more frequently met 
 with in practice, than those specific forms too often described by Nosologists as constant and 
 unvarying types, to which morbid actions, occurring under a great variety of circumstances, can 
 never closely adhere. When discussing the methods of Cure, the Author gives Formulae of the 
 Medicines recommended, in the most efficient and improved forms of combination. He likewise 
 furnishes numerous References to the best Works and Treatises on the topics discussed in each 
 article. 
 
 In conclusion, the Work will contain the results of many years of laborious study and research, 
 and of twenty years' extensive and diversified experience. 
 
 SAVAGE'S DICTIONARY oFPRINTING. 
 
 A Dictionary of Printing. By William Savage, Author of " Practical Hints on Decorative 
 Printing," and a Treatise "On the Preparation of Printing Ink, both Black and Coloured." 
 In 1 thick vol. 8vo. with numerous diagrams, £\. Gs. cloth lettered. 
 It has been the intention to give in this publication a faithful and clear account of the Art of 
 Printing, as now prac tised in the Metropolis, chiefly derived from the Author's long experience in 
 London, during which period he has executed some of the finest Works that ever issued from the 
 British Press; this has been accompanied with a great mass of information connected with the 
 art, rendering it a Guide to the Apprentice and the inexperienced Young Workman ; and a usclul 
 Book of Ueference to the experienced Workman, to the Master Printer, the Overseer, anil (lie 
 Reader, in the printing-office ; and to the Literary Man, and in the Library, for all matters 
 relating to. or connected with, printing. 
 
 " Few Printers, we are persuaded, however skilful in their Art, or enthusiastic in its pursuit, 
 are aware of the mass and variety of amusing matter, not to speak of useful hints and infor- 
 mation, to he found in this work. (If is) a very useful and curious Dictionary."— Monthly Review. 
 
 " We heartily recommend the work to all in any way connected witli literature, who will find it 
 of great service as a book of reference." — Literary Gazette. 
 
 Wilson and Ogilvy, 57, Skinner Street, Snowhill London. 
 
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