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MCCULLOCH’S DICTIONARY of COMMERCE I and COMMERCIAL NAVIGATION. New Edition. 8vo. Maps \ and Plans, 50s. ; strongly half-bound, 55s. (MR. M'CULLOCH’s DESCRIPTIVE and ST.VTIS-| TICAL ACCOUNT of the BRITISH EMPIRE. New Edition.; \ 2 vols. 8 VO. 42s. ; iMURRAY’s ENCYCLOP-EDIA of GEOGRAPHY.' With 82 Maps and 1,000 other Woodcuts. 8vo. GOs. XI. } lURE’s DICTIONARY of ARTS, MANUFACTURES, | and MINES. With 1,241 Woodcuts. 8vo. 50s. — Supplement of^ Recent Improvements, 14s. | XII. ^ WEBSTER and PARKlHTs ENCYCLOIUEDIA ofi DOMESTIC ECONOMY. With 1,000 Wood Engravings. 8vo. 50s. | London : Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. ELEMENTS OF PEACTICAL AGEICULTUEE. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2017 with funding from University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates https://archive.org/details/elementsofpracti00lowd_0 ELEMENTS 01 ' PRACTICAL AGRICULTURE; COMPREHENDING THE CULTIVATION OF PLANTS, THE HUSBANDRY OF THE DOMESTIC ANIMALS, AND THE ECONOMY OF THE FARM. BY DAVID LOVY, ESQ., F.R.S.E., PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH; MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF AGRICULTURE OF SWEDEN, AND OF THE ROYAL ECONOMICAL SOCIETY OF SAXONY ; HONORARY AND CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ECONOMICAL SOCIETY OF LEIPZIG, AND OF THE SOCIETY OF AGRICULTURE AND BOTANY OF UTRECHT ; CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE “ CONSEIL ROYAL D’AGRICULTURE DE FRANCE OF THE “ SOCIETE ROYALE ET CENTRALE,” &C. FIFTH EDITION. LONDON : LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, & LONGMANS; AND ADAM & CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH. MDCCCXLVII. PKINTKD BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH. PREFACE. The Agriculture of a country is affected, in its general character and details of practice, by climate, the fertility of the soil, and the food and habits of the people. It is climate which determines the plants to be cultivated, and the order of the labours of the season, and which modifies all the practices of the husbandman. Even within no great extremes of temperature, the practice of the farmer must be varied to suit the differences of climate. Thus, the agriculture of the south of Erance is not the same as that which is established in Normandy and other depart- ments of the North ; and in Italy, where, along with the productions of northern climates, are cultivated the rice, the maize, the Indian millet, and other plants of warmer regions, the agriculture differs in many parts of practice from that of the corn-exporting countries of the north of Europe. To treat of agriculture, therefore, as a practical art, without reference to some given conditions of climate and country, would embrace a wide range of observations and PKEFACE. vi tlie consideration of a great mass of details. It would involve the examination of many opposite practices, in themselves perhaps good and adapted to the circum- stances which give rise to them, hut, as a whole, unsuited to any one condition in which the farmer could he placed, and thence incapable of being reduced to practice. That instructions in agriculture, therefore, may avail for use- ful purposes, they must have reference to a system appli- cable to some given condition of climate and country. In this way the study will be rendered more easy to those who enter upon it for the first time ; and not only will the student make the most rapid progress, but he will ac- quire the most useful species of knowledge. For, how- ever different be the natural productions of countries, and however necessary it be that the farmer adapt his opera- tions to these differences, yet there are rules and maxims in the art common to the husbandry of all countries ; and he who is thoroughly acquainted with one good system of practice applicable to any one situation of the farmer, has the means, by an easy analogy, of applying his know- ledge to other and dissimilar cases. A person thoroughly trained to practice on the banks of the Tweed, will make a good farmer on the banks of the Po or the Ohio. He has received the kind of instruction which is useful under all circumstances, and quickly learns to adapt his details of practice to the new circumstances under which they are to be applied. In describing a system of agriculture, too, it is import- ant that, while it is one which admits of being carried into easy effect, it shall be as perfect as, under this ne- PREFACE. Vll cessary condition, it can be rendered. A rude system of practice will not serve the purpose of useful example. Although the agriculturist may not be able to reach in all things the model proposed to him, it is yet important that this model be good in itself, so that his own practice may become as perfect as the circumstances in which he is placed will allow. Agriculture, like every art, is founded upon principles, and a natural method of studying it would seem to be, to begin with principles, and from these to deduce the rules of practice. But the principles laid down must be those of Agriculture itself, and consistent with the results which observation and experience have established. It is rather with the conclusions arrived at, than with the trains of investigation which the sciences themselves in- volve, that the practical farmer is concerned. Agricul- ture, like all the arts, is fitted to derive aid from the sciences ; and it were an error to suppose, that it is to any one of the sciences exclusively that it can be indebted. Mechanical knowledge, applied to the con- struction of machines and rural works, has eminently contributed to the advancement of the practical art : Botany and Vegetable Physiology teach us the structure, properties, and uses of plants, and may be rendered in a high degree serviceable in practice : Natural History points out many interesting subjects of reflection and study to the agriculturist : Animal Physiology and Medical Science have relation to the forms of animals, their pro- perties and diseases : and Chemistry is in an especial de- gree fitted to investigate the nature and constitution of yiii PREFACE. soils, and the uses and inodes of action of manures. Yet a knowledge, however perfect, of any one, or of all, of these sciences together, will not enable us to cultivate a farm, or even a single field. The knowledge required for this purpose is Agricultural, and embraces a series of facts and deductions proper to agriculture itself. Hence it is well, in the study of agriculture, to direct attention espe- cially to the knowledge of what is Agricultural ; and it is not to invert the natural order of study, to begin with the acquisition of this species of knowledge. In this way the student will acquire the information which is really essential to him, and without which he cannot be a far- mer at all. Should he desire to extend the range of his observation to the relation of different sciences with the practical art, he will do so far more easily, and with less hazard of error, than if he were deficient in this funda- mental knowledge. The following Work was designed as a text-book for students of agriculture, and hence only touches on many subjects which a more extended course of academical in- struction affords the means of more fully explaining. I have, however, endeavoured to render the work complete, in so far as the plan of it extends, as a distinct Treatise on Agriculture, and have, in an especial manner, adapted it to those who are to engage in the study for the first time. I have observed the plan of instruction to which reference has been made. One condition of climate and country is assumed, and there is explained, in so far as the limits of the work will allow, a system of agriculture wliich is conceived to be good, which is founded on ex- PREFACE. IX perience, and which is capable of being reduced to prac- tice. It does not, therefore, consist with the design of the work to detail a number of practices, or examine a number of opinions, many of which may be good, and yet not in accordance with the system to be explained. F ur- ther, attention is especially directed to the essential points of practice, and while the connexion of agriculture with other branches of knowledge is carefully pointed out, this, in most cases, is done rather to shew that connexion, and to make use of the explanations which it supplies, than for the purpose of entering into investigations not en- tirely agricultural, and which would extend the Work beyond the limits which would consist with the utility of an Elementary Treatise. I have, however, treated, in such detail as the nature of my work will allow, of the Soil, of the external agents which influence it, and espe- cially of the nature of those substances which, added to it, increase its productive powers, and which we term Manures. Public attention -has been particularly direct- ed to this subject, which is highly to be approved of and encouraged. But we must be careful that we do not ge- neralize faster than our actual knowledge will warrant, and substitute theories for the application of known truths, in the vain hope of instructing the farmer and im- proving agriculture. We may be assured that agricul- ture will partake of the advantages which science and ad- vancing knowledge are calculated to afford. But we may’ retard and not hasten this result, if we urge our pace too precipitately, and do not consider truly the nature of the art which we seek to improve, and the necessary limita- X PREFACE. tions under which our principles must he applied in the practice of the farm. While no one ought to doubt, that agriculture will be improved by the application to it of the means which other branches of knowledge sup- ply, it might mislead the practical farmer were we to hold out the hope of our being able suddenly to open for him a short road to the cultivation and improvement of an art, which, more than any other, demands the ap- plication of steady labour, economy of means, and prac- tical skill in all its details. Of all the sciences. Chemistry is that which may seem to have the most immediate re- lation to Agriculture, as alfording means of adding to the fertility of the ground, through the medium of the foreign substances applied to it ; but, even in the case of Chemis- try, a certain degree of caution is necessary in the appli- cation of the conclusions of the laboratory to the prac- tice of the fields. It is not precisely with Agriculture as it is with those manufactories, to which this interest- ing science has been applied with such signal benefits. In the case of manufactories, the substances acted upon are entirely within our control, and we can subject them to the direct influence of the chemical agents we employ. But it is different with the living plants which it is our province to cultivate. We can only trace obscurely the causes which influence their growth and development, and can only imperfectly modify the effects of the external agents to which they are subjected. In applying, there- fore, to the culture of the garden and field, the conclusions at which we may have arrived by means of the experi- ments of the laboratory, we must be careful not to over- PREFACE. X step^ the limits prescribed by a sound and profitable prac- tice. Thus, it is not enough that the farmer shall be able to communicate a sudden fertility to his ground, — as by the application of such substances as the Alkaline Salts. He must keep his land productive, and if possible increasing in productiveness, so as to sustain a more or less length- ened rotation of crops with the least expenditure. This remark is not designed to discourage the employment of this class of substances, to the more extended use of which the farmers of the country have been gradually conducted by the diminished cost of production, and the increasing refuse which our numerous manufactories afford. It is beyond a question that several of these substances are calculated to afford valuable subsidiary manures to the farmer, and so to add to the general resources of agriculture. But we must be careful that we do not draw erroneous conclusions from our own ex- periments, or lead the farmer into errors of practice by presenting to him conclusions not sufficiently warranted. Various interesting experiments have been recorded with the Alkaline Salts, and thence their superiority has been sometimes too hastily inferred over manures more acces- sible to the farmer. Now, the knowledge of this class of substances is nothing new to the farmers of this and other countries. One of them. Nitrate of Potash, or Saltpetre, which is amongst the most powerful of the class, was known to the ancients, and has been partially used by the farmers of England for more than a century. When this substance is tried experimentally in competition with farm-yard dung, with reference to the effects upon any crop, Xll PREFACE. the balance would seem to be all in favour of the stronger application. But it is manifest, that, in such a case, an essential element of the experiment is omitted, namely, the permanence of the effect. Farm-yard manure, the pro- duce of the farm itself, and on this account alone the most valuable of any manure to the farmer, has an effect which is calculated to last for at least a course of crops, while the effects of the alkaline salt are little perceptible beyond the season in which it is used. When the same substance is tried in competition with Lime, the conclusion would seem to be, that it was amongst the most useful of manures, and that the lime was comparatively worthless. Yet, while the salt exerts an action so transient, the lime may act for the period of an entire lease, and add to the permanent fertility of the soil and farm. These remarks apply to the more powerful salts used in their separate state, or mixed together, and not to such substances as Bones and Guano, which are animal manures, or to Bape- Dust and other vegetable products, our knowledge of all of which has been derived, like that of farm-yard dung itself, not from the analyses of the laboratory, but from experiments in the fields. The subject of the Domesticated Animals is one of great interest in the rural economy of this country. It may be said that half the rental of the land of the British Islands is derived from the produce of live-stock ; and everywhere, the profit of the farmer greatly depends on the care and skill with which this branch of industry is conducted. To have pursued the subject in all its details would have far exceeded the limits of a work designed for PREFACE. xill those who begin the study of agriculture. Several years ago, I presented to the public an extensive Work, contain- ing coloured plates, with copious letterpress, illustrative of the various races of the Domesticated Animals natu- ralized in the British Islands; and since then I have pub- lished a Work, more accessible to the farmers and breeders of the country, containing an account of all the Races or Breeds of these Animals, which are the subjects of culti- vation in this country, with a description pf the properties of External Form, and observations on the Principles and Practice of Breeding.* Another and extensive department of Rural Economy relates to the Management of Landed Property, the con- struction of buildings, fences, drains, roads, watered meadows, and other works; the culture of forest-trees, and the management of woodland ; the products of mines, and the working of minerals ; the subject of rents and the lease ; and generally the relations between landlord and tenant. I have treated of some of these subjects in the present volume, but have devoted another work ex- pressly to this branch of rural industry.f It has been objected to some of the calculations con- tained in the present Work, that the rate of labour as- sumed will not apply to a great part of England. This ^ On the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands ; comprehending the Na- tural and Economical History of Species and Varieties; the Description of the Properties of External Form ; and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Breeding. 8vo. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London. t On Landed Property and the Economy of Estates; comprehending the Rela- tion of Landlord and Tenant, and the Principles and Forms of Leases — Farm Buildings, Enclosures, Drains, Embankments, Roads, and other Rural Works Minerals — and Woods. 8vo. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans, London. XIV PREFACE. objection is good in the case of various districts of very stiff aluminous, or alumino-calcareous, soils in the south- eastern counties of England, where more than the labour of two horses may be required for ordinary tillage ; but it does not apply to the greater part of the land of Great Britain. The System of Agriculture here explained, in so far as it regards the methods of farm-labour, has been long established in the north of England, and over all the better cultivated districts of Scotland. In the county of Northumberland, where a system of cultivation is pursued which may serve as a model to every part of this kingdom, the stiffest soils are managed by two-horse teams. While I must admit, then, the exceptions which exist in the case of certain tracts of country, as the Lon- don clay, the weald clay, and other very tenacious soils, I maintain that the system of farm-labour here described is capable of being reduced to practice over by far the greater part of England ; and that to the whole of Ire- land it is applicable in its minutest details. The greatest obstacle to the progress of agricultural improvement is the prejudice of habit. Throughout all England there are agriculturists surpassed by none in the world for intelli- gence and spirit, and many things in the agriculture of the country are deserving of the highest praise ; but it is certain, that, in the simplifying and economizing of labour, there is much to be learned and effected. It is in this respect, that the methods of English tillage, and espe- cially in the southern and midland counties, admit of the greatest improvement. By a more efficient application of the means of labour, a wide field of beneficial improve- PREFACE. XV iiieiit is open over a great part of this rich and beautiful country ; and one of the most useful services that can be rendered to the farmers of many of the finest districts of England, is to shew them how the operations of the field can be more cheaply performed. It is known, that, in the parts of this kingdom which are the least favoured by nature, the art of tillage has become more perfect by being rendered more efficient and simple ; and the result is shewn in the greater revenue derived from land under all the disadvantages of a colder, moister, and more changeable climate. The agriculturists in the south of England are surprised at the high rents paid from the poorer soils in the northern parts of the kingdom. This doubtless arises from a combination of causes ; but not the least important of these is a simpler, cheaper, and more effective system of farm-labour. I have only further to observe, with respect to the pre- sent as to the former Editions, that I have made use of portions of a few essays written by me many years ago in the Quarterly *J ournal of Agriculture ; the principal of which are, — descriptions of soils, of the plough, of the harrow, and other implements of the farm ; accounts of the turnip-culture, and of irrigation ; the subject of the lease, and a few of minor interest. ERRATA. Page 35, line 5, /or wealdens vmd wealden ... 50, ... 14, /or March Bent-grass read Marsh Bent-grass ... 79, ... 7,/or expressly read cori’ectly ... 301, ... 8,/or economy or manures read economy of manures ... 451, ... 9,/or Isatus tinctoria rcaci Isatis tinctoria ... 498, ... Zl,for Prunus Aucuparia read Pyrus Aucuparia CONTENTS. I. SOILS. 1. The Classes of Soils and their Properties as determined BY Physical Characters, .... Page 1 2. The Properties of Soils as determined by Chemical Analysis, . . . . . .12 3. The Properties of Soils as determined by their Geolo- gical Relations, ..... 23 4. The Properties of Soils as determined by their Vege- table Productions, ..... 44 5 . The Properties of Soils as determined by Climate and Altitude, . . . . • .51 6. Means of increasing the Productive Powers of Soils, , 65 II. MANURES, . . , 71 1. Mineral Manures, . . . . .73 2. Vegetable and Animal Manures, .... 93 III. TILLAGE, . . .126 IV. IMPLEMENTS OF THE FARM, . 138 1. Implements of Preparatory Tillage, . . .139 1. The Plough, ..... 139 2. The Harrow, ..... 154 3. The Grubher, . . . . . . 160 4. The Roller, . . . . .164 2. Machines for Sowing, . . . . .166 1. Machines for Sowing Com in Rows, . . 166 2. Machine for Sowing Corn and Grass-Seeds Broadcast, 170 3. Machines for Sowing the Seeds of the Bean and Pea, 174 4. Machines for Sowing the Smaller Seeds in Rows, . 175 3. Implements for Hoeing, . . . . .178 CONTENTS. xviii 4. Machines for Thrashing and Winnowing, Page 181 1. Thrashing-Machine, 181 2. Wiimowing-Machine, 188 5 . Implements for Preparing Food for Live-Stock, 191 1. Turnip-Slicer, 191 2. Chaff-Cutter, 193 3. Machine for Bruising Grain, 194 4. Apparatus for Boiling or Steaming Food, 195 6. Wheel-Carriages, 197 7. Utensils of the Dairy, . . . . 203 8. Implements of Manual Labour, &c.. 203 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE, 210 1. Ploughing, . . . 210 2. Harrowing, .... 224 3. Action of the Grubber, 226 4. Rolling, ..... 227 5. Digging, ..... 228 V. PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS, 229 1. Fallowing, .... 229 2. Levelling Ground and Removing Obstructions to Tillage, 238 3. Paring and Burning, . 244 4. Draining, .... 251 VI. SUCCESSION OF CROPS, 283 VII. CULTIVATION OF PLANTS, 302 1. Plants cultivated FOR their Seeds, 302 1. Cereal Grasses, 302 1. Wheat, 321 2. Rye, .... 336 3. Barley, 337 4. Oats, . . . • 346 5. Millet, .... 352 6. Maize, .... 354 7. Rice, .... 356 8. Canary -grass, &c.. 357 CONTENTS. XIX 2 . 3. 4. 5. 6 . 8 . 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13. 2. Leguminous Plants, .... Page 358 1. The Bean, • . . . . 358 2. The Pea, ..... 369 3. The Lentil, Kidney -hean, and others, . . 376 3. Buckwheat, . . ^ ^ . 379 Plants Cultivated for their Roots, Tubers, and Leaves, . 381 1. The Turnip, ..... 381 2. Rape, . . . • . . . 396 3. The Cabbage, ..... 399 4. The Potato, . . . . . 404 5. The Carrot, . • . .’ . . 419 6. The Parsnep, . ' . . . . 423 7. The Beet, . ' . • . . . . 425 8. The Jerusalem Artichoke, . . . .428 Plants Cultivated for their Fibres for Thread, . 429 1. Flax, ...... 429 2. Hemp, . . ... . . 437 Plants Cultivated for their Oils, . . . 445 Plants Cultivated for their Dyes, . . . 451 Plants Cultivated for their Sugar, . . . 455 Plants Cultivated for their Narcotic, Bitter, and Tannin Principles, ..... 458 1. Narcotic Principle, . . . • 458 2. Bitter Principle, ..... 462 3. Tannin Principle, ..... 466 Plants Cultivated for their Resins, • . . 468 Plants Cultivated for their Fruits, . . • 470 Plants Cultivated for Fermented and Distilled Liquors, 472 Plants Cultivated for their Uses in Domestic Economy AND THE Arts, ..... 476 Pla;nts Cultivated for their Wood, . . . 48O Plants Cultivated or Used for Forage or Herbage, . 501 1. The Tare, ...... .502 2. Lucerne, ...... 506 3. Sainfoin, ...... 509 4. Wild Succory, &c., .... 512 5. Clovers, Vetchlings, Melilots, «&c., . . .514 6. Heaths, Sedges, and Rushes, . . * 518 XX TENTS. 7. Grasses, ..... Page 520 8. Burnet, &c., . . . . . 527 VIII. WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE, . 531 1. Annual and Biennial Weeds, .... 532 2. Perennial W-eeds, ..... 536 IX. MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS, . 543 1. Forage, ....... 543 2. Pasturage, . . . . . . 555 3. Irrigation, . . . • . . 559 X. THE REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS, 569 1. The Horse, ...... 569 2. The Ox, .*..... 594 3. The Sheep, ...... 643 4. The Goat, ...... 686 5. The Hog, ...... 688 6. The Rabbit, ...... 699 7. Domestic Fowls, . . . . . .702 XL GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM, . 714 1. Buildings of the Farm, ..... 714 2. Artificial Divisions of the Farm, . . . 724 3. Capital necessary for the Farm, . . . 745 4. Expenses and Produce of the Farm, . . . 766 5. Operations of the Farm in the Order of time, . . 771 Tlie Weights and Measures referred to are the standard English acre, con- taining 4840 square yards ; the gallon, consisting of 277*274 cubic inches ; the pound avoirdupois ; and the stone of 14 lb. ELEMENTS . OF PEACTICAL AaEICULTUEE. I. SOILS. I. THE CLASSES OF SOILS, AND THEIR PROPERTIES, AS DETERMINED BY PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. The soil is the upper portion of the ground in which plants are produced. It forms a stratum of from a few inches to a foot or more in depth. It is usually somewhat dark in colour, arising chiefly from the carbonaceous matter of the stems, leaves, and other parts of plants which had grown upon it. It is this mixture of the substance of organic bodies with the mineral matter of the upper stratum which mainly distinguishes this stratum from the subjacent mass of earth or rock to which the term Subsoil is ap- plied. Soils are exceedingly various in their fertility and texture. With relation to their powers of producing useful plants, they may be termed rich, or poor ; with relation to their texture, they may be termed stiff*, or free. The stiff* soils are those which are tenacious and cohesive in their parts ; the free soils, likewise termed light soils, are those which are of a looser texture, and whose parts are easily separated. But the cohesive soils pass into the loose by im- A 2 SOILS. perceptible gradations, and hence, though all soils may he termed rich or poor, stiff* or free, they are so in every degree of fertility and texture. All soils which possess this tenacious or cohesive property in a considerable degree, are termed clays ; while all the looser soils are termed light or free : and all soils are more or less clayey, or more or less free, in proportion as they possess more or less of this tenacious and cohesive property, or of this looser texture. When soils are naturally of good texture and fertile, or are rendered permanently so by art, they are frequently termed loams : Thus, there are clayey loams and sandy loams ; and peat itself may, by the application of labour and art, be converted into loam. The parts of plants which grow upon the surface, and are mixed with the mineral matter of the soil, may decompose, and become mixed with it. Under certain circumstances, however, the plants which have grown upon the surface do not entirely decompose, but undergo a peculiar change, which fits them to resist decomposition. They are converted into peat, and the soils formed of this substance are termed peaty. The soils derived from peat are of the lighter class, and are distinguished from all others by peculiar characters. Soils, then, may be distinguished from one another — 1 . By their texture, in which case they may be divided into two classes ; — Is^, The stiff, denominated clays ; 2d, The light or free. 2. By their fertility, or powers of producing useful plants, in which case they are termed rich or poor. Soils, too, from particular causes, may either be habitually wet or dry, and may therefore be further distinguished by their gene- ral relation to moisture. When water, from any cause, is gene- rally abundant, the soils may be termed wet ; when there is habitual deficiency of water, they may be termed dry. But this is a con- dition of the soil, which may arise from causes extrinsic to the nature of the soil. Subsoils, it has been said, are distinguished from soils properly so termed, by the comparative absence of matter of organic origin. Plants, in growing, may extend their roots into the subsoil, and, decomposing there, be mixed with it, or the soluble matters of the PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 3 upper stratum may be washed into the subsoil. But, for the most part, the subsoil is readily distinguishable by the eye from the upper stratum or soil, by the darker colour communicated to the latter by the foreign matter with which it has been mixed. Subsoils are, for the most part, similar in their mineral com- position to the soils which rest upon them, the soil being merely the matter of the subsoil altered by the action of the air, and by the carbonaceous and other matters mixed with it : but frequently subsoils differ both in mineral composition and texture from the soil, as when a stratum of clay rests upon chalk, peat or clay upon sand, or sand upon clay. Subsoils may either consist of loose eartliy matter like the soil, or of rock. Subsoils, therefore, may be divided into two classes, — -the earthy and the rocky. When subsoils contain much clay, they are more or less close, and retentive of water ; when they consist of very hard rocks, as quartz, they are in like manner little pervious to fluids ; but cer- tain rocks, as chalk and partially decomposed limestones, do not greatly resist the passage of water, and may therefore be classed with the free or porous subsoils. Whether the subsoil be retentive or porous, the soil which rests upon it should be of good depth, the depth of a soil being itself an index of its fertility. Further, if the soil be shallow on a re- tentive subsoil, it is affected too greatly by the alternations of dry- ness and moisture : and if, again, a shallow soil rest on a porous subsoil, the moisture of the soil is too easily acted upon and ex- hausted by heat. A subsoil, in so far as mere texture is concerned, should be neither too retentive nor too porous. But although this inter- mediate condition is in most cases the best, yet in a very cold and moist country, a somewhat free or porous subsoil is for the most part to be preferred to one which is close and retentive. The soil, besides being affected by the texture of the subsoil, is affected by the nature of the mineral substances of which the subsoil is formed, K the subsoil be rocky, it is desirable that it be calcareous rather 4 SOILS. than siliceous, — chalk or limestone for example, rather than quartz. Sometimes the subsoil contains matter which is injurious to the growth of plants. This matter is generally found to he metallic, as iron or copper in certain combinations. Subsoils of this kind are frequently distinguished by deepness of colour. Soils, then, it is seen, are alFected in their properties not only by their own texture and composition, but by the texture and composition of the subsoil ; and they are divided into the StilF or Clayey, and the Light or Free. The distinguishing characteristic of the Clayey Soils consists in the adhesiveness of their parts ; and this property alone will enable even the inexperienced to discriminate them. A stilF clay, when dried either by natural or artificial heat, becomes so hard as to resist a considerable mechanical pressure. On account of the tenacity of such soils, they are tilled with more difficulty than the freer soils. They require, to fertilize them, a larger quantity of manures ; but they retain the effects of these manures for a longer time. They are better suited to the cultivation of plants with fibrous roots than of those with fieshy roots or tubers. Soils of this class, as of every other, possess many degrees of natural fertility. The poorer clays form, for the most part, an unprofitable soil, because, while their powers of production are in- considerable, the expense of tilling them is great. The clayey soils of this character are generally of little depth, and rest upon a retentive subsoil, similar in composition to the soil. The natu- ral herbage they produce is coarse and little nutritious, and they are not well suited to the production of the cultivated grasses and other herbage-plants. They are little fitted for the growth of turnips, or other plants with large roots or tubers. Such soils have everywhere local names which sufficiently denote their qua- lities. They are termed, by not an improper figure, cold soils ; and sometimes they are classed under the general name moor, which term is often used to denote soils, whatever be their nature, of a low degree of fertility. Very different in their value and nature are the richer clays. These bear weighty crops of all the cultivated kinds of corn. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. They do not excel the better soils of other classes so greatly in the production of oats, and still less in tliat of barley, in which respect the lighter loams may surpass them ; but they are un- equalled for the production of wheat, and, in many places, derive their distinctive appellation from that circumstance, being termed wheat soils. They are well suited for the growth of the bean, a plant with a weighty stem, and requiring a stilF soil to support it. They will yield large returns of the cultivated grasses and legumi- nous herbage-plants, though they are not so quickly covered with the natural herbage-plants of the soil, when laid down to peren- nial pasturage, as the lighter soils. Clays, like the other soils, approach to their most perfect con- dition, as they advance to that state which has been termed loam. The effect of judicious tillage, and of the application of manures, is to improve the texture of such soils as well as to enrich them. Thus, clays in the neighbourhood of cities become dark in their colour and less cohesive in their texture, from the mixture of ani- mal and vegetable matter, and thence acquire the properties of the most valued soils of their class. Natural changes, however, yet more than art, have furnished the rich soils of clay. The best, for the most part, of the soils of clay, are those which are formed from the depositions of mud of rivers or the sea. The finest natural soils of this and other coun- tries are those which are thus formed. The depositions of rivers, indeed, are not always of a clayey nature. In mountainous dis- tricts, they generally form soils of the lighter kinds. Where the sea, however, is the agent, or where both the rivers and the tides combine their action, the depositions generally are of the nature of clay. Such alluvial soils have everywhere local terms to mark their character and fertility. On the great rivers and estuaries in England, and in what are termed carses in Scotland, fine and ex- tensive districts of this kind exist. The next class of soils is the Light or Free. These are readily distinguished from the last by their smaller degree of cohesive- ness. They are less suited for the production of wheat and beans than the clays, but they are better adapted to the production of 6 SOILS. plants cultivated tor tneir roots and tubers, such as the turnip and potato. This class of soils may be divided into three varieties, differing from one another in certain characters, but agreeing in the com- mon property of being less tenacious in their parts than the clays. The first of these varieties has been termed Sandy. The sandy soils are of all the degrees from barrenness to ferti- lity. When wholly without cohesion in their parts, they are alto- gether barren, and are only rendered productive by the admixture of other substances. The cultivated sands part readily with their moisture on the application of heat. They do not become hard like the clays, and, making no considerable resistance to external pressure, they are tilled with little labour. The poorer sands are almost always marked by the scantiness of their natural herbage. This character they possess in com- mon with the poorer gravels. Other soils, even the poorest, may be thickly covered with the plants peculiar to them ; but the poorer sands and gravels usually put forth their natural herbs with a scantiness which denotes the absence of vegetable nourish- ment. Certain sands, whose powers of production do not accord with their external appearance, are termed dead or sleepy sands. But sand, without losing its distinctive characters as a soil, may possess a greater cohesiveness in its particles, and be fertile by nature, or rendered so by art; and then the soils denominated sandy become of deserved estimation. Rich sands are early in maturing the cultivated plants, and hence they are familiarly termed kindly soils. They are fit for the production of every kind of herbage and grain. They yield to the richer clays in the power of producing wheat ; but they surpass them in the produc- tion of rye and barley. They are well suited to the growth of the cultivated grasses, and, when left in perennial pasture, they are quickly covered with the natural plants of the soil ; but their dis- tinguishing character is their peculiar adaptation to the raising of the plants cultivated for their roots and tubers. Another variety of the lighter soils, and allied in its characters to the sandy, is the Gravelly. PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 7 Sands will frequently be found to be the production of flat countries, gravels of the mountainous and rocky. The character- istic of the gravelly soils is the quantity of loose stones which they contain. These stones will be found to consist of those varieties of rock which the mountains of the country aftbrd ; and the nature of these rocks will frequently indicate the characters of the soil : thus soils, of which the stony matter is siliceous, are generally found to be barren, while those of which it is calcareous, are found to be fertile. Sands, upon examination, will be found to consist of small par- ticles of stony matter, and thus sands may be said to differ from gravels only in the more minute division of their parts. Yet, in this minuteness of division, there is generally sufficient to distinguish the two kinds of soils. The stony matter of the sand forms its principal component part, wdiile the larger stones in the gravel, which give to it its name and character, seem only to be mixed with the other necessary parts of the soil. The stone of the one has undergone a considerable mechanical division, while much of that of the other has only been loosened, in sensible masses, from its native bed. Any light soil, mixed with a sufficient portion of stones, is gravel ; and gravel, therefore, is merely the differ- ent kinds of light soils mixed with a greater or less proportion of stones. Gravels, like sands, have all the gradations of quality, from fer- tility to barrenness. The loose soils of this nature, in which the undecomposed material is great, and the intervening soil siliceous, are held to be the worst of their kind. These are, in some places, termed hungry gravels, not only to denote their poverty, but their tendency to devour, as it were, manure without any corresponding nourishment to themselves. As the texture and quality of the intervening earth improve, so does the quality of the entire soil ; and gravels, like sands and clays, advancing through all the inter- mediate degrees, may become of great fertility. The rich gravels will produce all the cultivated kinds of grain. Their looser texture renders them less suited than the clays to the growth of wheat and beans, but they are admirably adapted to the 8 SOILS. growth of barley and oats. They are quick in their powers of producing vegetation ; and, from this quality, they are, in some places, termed sharp or quick soils. They readily admit of alter- nations of herbage and tillage, and improve in a state of perennial pasturage. They are generally trusty soils with regard to the quality of the grain which they yield ; and, in this respect, they dif- fer from many of the sands, in which the quality of the grain pro- duced does not always accord with its early promise. It is well, then, even in the best sands, to see a tendency to gravel, which de- notes a sharpness, as it is termed, in the soil. Gravels, like sands, are suited to the culture of the different kinds of plants raised for their roots and tubers; and they are in so peculiar a degree adapted to the growth of turnips, that, in some parts, they receive the dis- tinguishing appellation of turnip soils. The other division of the lighter soils consist of those which are termed Peaty. The matter of the soils of this class is dark in its colour, spongy in its texture, and full of the stems and other parts of plants, either entire or in a state of partial decay. It is generally tough and elastic ; and, when dried, it loses much of its weight, and becomes inflammable. These, the most observable characteristics of the soils termed peaty, will distinguish them, in their natural state, from every other ; and even when they shall have been greatly improved by culture, enough of their original characters will remain to make them known. Peat, it has been said, consists of vegetable matter which has un- dergone a peculiar change. Under a degree of temperature not sufficiently great to decompose the plants that have sprung up upon the surface, these plants accnmulate ; and, aided by a certain degree of humidity, are converted into peat, which is either found in strata upon the surface of plains, or accumulated in great beds on the tops and acclivities of mountains, or in valleys, hollows, and ravines. Successive layers of plants being added to the mass, it continues to increase, under circumstances favourable to its production. Water is a necessary agent in its formation, and we may believe, too, a peculiar temperature, since it is only in the cold and tern- PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 9 perate, and not in tlie wanner, regions of the earth that true peat is found to he produced. The plants which form it have not en- tirely decayed, but still retain their fibrous texture ; and, from the action of certain natural agents, have acquired properties altogether distinct from those which, in their former condition, they were pos- sessed of. They have now formed a spongy elastic inflammable body, and so dilferent from the common matter of vegetables, as to be highly antiseptic. The plants whose progress towards decomposition has been thus arrested, are very various. Over the greater part of the surface of the primary and transition districts of colder countries, the peat is chiefly formed of heaths, mixed with the mosses and other cryp- togamic plants which had grown along with them. Sometimes the peat has been formed in swamps and lakes, and at other times the humidity of the climatedias been sufficient to form it into a con- tinued bed, covering the whole surface of the country. But vegetable matter which accumulates on the surface, under- goes various degrees of change ; and hence peat differs in its pro- perties according to the temperature and moisture of the climate. Sometimes the vegetable matter on the surface forms a stratum of dry turf, elastic and inflammable, but less truly peaty than that which is formed where there is abundance of water. Such is the peat formed on the siliceous sand and poorer chalks of some parts of England, and on the heathy sands of the north of Germany. Under other conditions of climate, again, the vegetable matter which accumulates on the surface proceeds through further degrees of decomposition, and forms a mass eminently suited to the growth of plants, — such is the vegetable soil formed in the woods of America by the falling of leaves. This substance, Avhich impro- vident settlers exhaust of its nutrient principles by continued crop- ping, is wholly different from the true peat, which resists decom- position, and which covers so great a part of the surface of Scot- land and Ireland. Under the necessary conditions of temperature and moisture, any herbaceous and shrubby plants may be converted into peat ; 10 SOILS. but in the northern parts of Europe, it is chiefly the heaths, and especially that hardy species, Calluna vulgaris, or common ling, the decomposition of whose ligneous roots and stems produces peat. The grasses and softer herbaceous plants are usually entirely de- composed on the surface, or mingled with the matter of the soil, — forming what is termed mould by English gardeners and farmers, and by foreign writers, humus. The soil formed of peat would, from its vegetable composition, seem to contain within it the necessary elements of fertility, and yet the excess of vegetable matter which it contains is injurious rather than useful. In the state of nature it is often found to be as barren as the sand of the desert, and scarcely to deserve the name of soil, until the labour of art has been extended to its im- provement, and even then it is not entirely divested of its original characters. The effect of a thorough draining off of the water of peat, con- tinued for a long time, is to carry away the acid matter which it contains. When the water of peat has ceased to be turbid, and comes off clear, then we have the assurance that the peat is freed of the principles injurious to vegetation. This is the greatest im- provement of which peat is susceptible, and when we have brought it to this condition, the main difficulty of improving it has ceased. Peat may be brought by art to the state of what has been termed loam. In this ameliorated condition it becomes a soil of the lighter kind, well suited to the culture of the larger rooted plants. It is dark in its colour like the richest vegetable loam, and to the inexperienced eye may pass as such. But still, unless greatly cor- rected in its texture by the application of the earths, it is found to be porous and loose, too quickly saturated with moisture, and too easily freed from it. In this improved condition it will yield bulky crops of oats and barley, although the quantity of the grain will not always correspond with the weight of the stem, nor the quality of the grain with its quantity. Peat is often found, in the natural state, largely mixed with clay, as in the Fens of England ; but the soil, in this case, is not PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 11 one ot true peat, but a mixture of peat and earthy matters. Such soils may, by cultivation, become of the highest fertility. Soils, then, we have seen, may be distinguished according to their texture, when they may be divided into two classes, — the stiff or strong, denominated Clays, — and the light or free, subdi- vided into the Sandy, Gravelly, and Peaty ; and all these, again, may be distinguished, Is^, According to their powers of production, when they are termed Kich or Poor ; and, 2d, According to their habitual relation with respect to mois- ture, when they are termed Wet or Dry. A like classification was adopted by the rustic writers of the Romans, who divided the ground, terra, into spissa et rara, pin- guis et maera, sicca et liumida ; and this simple nomenclature is yet the best adapted of any that has been devised for the purposes of practice. The farmer regards soils chiefly with relation to their fertility, and the means of cultivating them, and he naturally classifies them according to these views : and any classification of soils, in which these considerations are disregarded, will prove to be of little value in the business of the farm. A main distinction between soils, in practice, is founded upon their comparative productiveness. We constantly refer to soils with reference to their good or bad qualities, without adverting to the particular circumstances which render them of good or bad quality. We speak familiarly, for example, of land worth 30s., 40s., and 50s. per acre of yearly rent, without considering Avhe- ther it be a fertile clay, a fertile sand, or a highly improved peat. But those other distinctions, which are derived from its constitu- tion and texture, are essential, when we regard the manner of cul- tivating such a soil ; for the same method of tillage, and the same succession of crops, as will be afterwards seen, do not apply to all rich or to all poor soils, but are determined by the character of the soil, as derived from its other properties. Though soils are thus distinguished by certain characters, they pass into one another by such gradations, that it is often difficult to say to what class they belong. These intermediate soils, too. 12 CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. constitute tlie most numerous class in all countries. The true peats, indeed, form a peculiar class, always marked by distinctive characters ; but even these, when mixed with other substances, pass into the earthy soils, by imperceptible gradations. We may say, therefore, that the greater number of soils consist of an in- termediate class, and that it is often difficult to bring them under any division derived from their external characters alone. Such soils, however, can always be distinguished by their powers of production. They are good, bad, or intermediate between good and bad ; and their relative value is determined by the produce which, under similar circumstances, they will yield. II. THE PROPERTIES OF SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. The determination of the nature and constitution of soils, by chemical analysis, falls within the province of chemistry, and not of agriculture, and is to be pursued rather as a branch of chemical and physiological inquiry than of husbandry. The chemist may draw useful conclusions from a careful analysis of the matter of the soil, and may, from time to time, be able to communicate re- sults which may be serviceable to the practical farmer ; but it is not necessary, for the ends of practice, that the farmer should be himself a chemist. The farmer cannot arrive at the science of mineral analysis without a knowledge of chemistry and the busi- ness of the laboratory, which he can rarely acquire, and which it is in no degree necessary to his success as a farmer that he should be possessed of. The remarks to be made on this subject will, therefore, be of a very general nature, and calculated merely to shew the connexion which exists between this branch of chemistry and the subject of soils. The soil has been said to be a compound of mineral substances, mixed with a portion of matters derived from organic bodies, which may have been partly animal and partly vegetable. The mineral matter of the soil forms by far the greater part CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 13 of it, and necessarily consists of the same substances which consti- tute the mountain-rocks and mineral masses which are found on the earth, and which form its crust or covering. The hardest rocks break down by degrees, and are decomposed by the influence of air and moisture. Sometimes the decomposed matter remains upon the rocky basis from which it had been derived, and there forms a soil ; but often the action of water has mingled together the matter of different mineral masses and strata which are found on the surface. The great body of the soil, then, is a mixture of the various mineral substances which are upon the earth, and is resolvable into the same constituent parts. Now, all the rocks and other mine- ral masses which exist on the surface of the earth, are resolvable into a few bodies, the principal of which are the four earths, si- lica, alumina, lime, and magnesia, — the oxides of iron, — and the alkalies, soda and potassa. In like manner, the great mass of the mineral part of the soil is resolvable into silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, the oxides of iron, soda, and potassa. The manner in which this compound body may be conceived to exist is the following : Let it be supposed that the different mi- nerals on the surface of the earth are more or less decomposed, broken, ground down, as it were, and mingled together. Some are in the form of stones, and are therefore merely varie- ties of the different rocks of a country. These form loose stones and gravel, which we see accordingly to be everywhere mingled with the soil, and to form often a great proportion of it. A more minute comminution reduces these mineral substances to sand. This is the form in which the largest part of all soils exists, and when it is in a very considerable proportion to the whole, the soil is termed Sandy. When the parts are more comminuted still, and so changed by chemical or mechanical means as to be readily reducible to pow- der, the soil appears to be in the state favourable to vegetation. All our finest soils contain a large comparative proportion of their parts in such a state as that, when thrown into water, they are diffused through it in the form of a powder. 14 SOILS. Of the substances which form the constituent parts of minerals, the most widely diffused is silica. Stones in which this earth exists in large quantity are usually very hard. The sand of the sea-shore is mostly siliceous, and siliceous sand forms vast de- serts in every part of the world. Silica exists largely in felspar, which is one of the most abundant minerals in nature, and in quartz, which is a rock of constant occurrence, and of which the disintegrated parts have been everywhere washed into the plains to form an element of the soil. Silica is accordingly the most universally diffused mineral substance on the surface of the earth, and forms a part of every soil that is known to us. It exists in the soil, either in the state of sand, or in a state of chemical union with other substances. It combines with alumina, forming fuller’s earth and the true clays, and with lime, magnesia, potassa, and soda. It is itself nearly insoluble in water, but unde/certain conditions is taken up by this fluid, and so becomes fitted to enter the roots of plants, and be appropriated to their nourishment. Alumina, next to silica, is the most generally diffused of the earths. In nature it always exists in a state of combination. United with silica, it forms a great proportion of all the rocks and mineral masses on the earth. It is, accordingly, everywhere found; and forms a part of every soil not wholly barren. It retains wa- ter more strongly than any of the other earths, and is the sub- stance which chiefly communicates their plastic and ductile cha- racters to the soils termed clayey. Silica and alumina, then, forming the largest part of the rocks and minerals which exist upon the surface of the earth, enter the most largely into the composition of soils ; and in these they are found to exist, either as grains of sand, or as gravel, or in a state capable of being easily reduced to powder. Lime, the next of the earths mentioned, is one which is of wide extension, and performs an important function in the vegetable economy. Combined with carbonic acid, it constitutes the nume- rous varieties of marble, limestone, and chalk. In this and other combinations, it exists in rocks, in soils, in the waters of the ocean, CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 15 in plants, and in animals. It forms great beds, and numerous minerals in combination with silica and alumina. Lime, existing in all tlie cultivated plants, must be supplied by tlie soil in the quantities required by the dilferent species. It im- proves the quality of all soils, whether they are formed chiefly of clay, sand, or vegetable matter ; and, when it is absent, the soil is deficient in an important constituent. Silica, alumina, and lime, forming the principal part of soils, and, where any one of them prevails, giving its character to the soil, it is frequently convenient to distinguish soils, as being Sili- ceous, Argillaceous, or Calcareous. Where silica prevails, as in the case of many sands, we may call the soil Siliceous ; where clay prevails, w’^e may call the soil Argillaceous ; and where lime exists in quantity, as in the case of chalk or marl, we may call the soil Calcareous. Magnesia, in various states of combination, exists in nature in considerable quantity. It is found in combination with acids, such as the carbonic and sulphuric. It exists along with alumina, lime, iron, and other substances. The minerals of which magnesia forms a part, generally feel soft and unctuous ; it is the principal constituent of various mountain-rocks ; and thus being an element in many minerals, it must form a part of soils ; and when it exists in such quantity as to give a character to the surface, we may term the soil Magnesian. The next substance that exists largely diffused in the mineral kingdom, is iron. Iron, as it is the most useful of the metals, so it is that which is the most generally diffused. It is derived, for the uses of the arts, from a series of minerals termed ores of iron. It is found extensively in mountain-rocks ; and it exists, accordingly, in more or less quantity, in almost every soil. It is found either in the state of protoxide, the black, or the red oxide. The pro- toxide is usually in combination with acids, and is readily con- verted into the red oxide, by the action of the air and other agents. Soils which contain much iron may be termed Ferruginous. IG SOILS. Mangcanese, a metal allied in its characters to iron, is likewise found in the soil : but it is greatly more rare in nature than iron, and probably serves a less important function in the economy of vegetation. The alkalies, potassa and soda, are extensive products of the mineral kingdom, and exist in various states of combination in the soil. They are found chiefly in the state of carbonates and sul- phates, and exercise an important influence on the fertility of soils and the growth of plants. Besides silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, the oxides of iron and manganese, potassa and soda, soils contain common salt and other chlorides, carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus. Soils further contain a portion of matter derived from organic bodies in certain states of mixture and combination. This portion rarely, except in the case of peaty soils, or of rich moulds sur- charged with vegetable matter, amounts to 8 or 10 per cent, of the whole weight of the dried soil, and sometimes does not exceed 1 or 2 per cent. It is termed humus by modern writers ; but the term humus conveys no definite idea, since, under this name are comprehended substances entirely distinct as chemical com- pounds. This humus, so called, tends to form compounds, which combine with the alumina, the lime, and other mineral bases in the soil. The compounds thus formed are sometimes soluble in water ; and sometimes they are insoluble, but susceptible of de- composition and change, by the air and other agents. Thus, then, by means of the earthy bases of the soil, the organic matters which it contains are preserved, or rendered fitted for the uses of plants. Plants themselves consist essentially of carbon, oxygen, hydro- gen, and, in smaller quantity, of nitrogen, or azote ; and the greater part of their substance consists of carbon in combination with the elements of water. Now, water is derived from the soil, to which it is conveyed by rains, dews, and springs, and is received by the porous extremities of the roots of plants, whence it is car- ried, as sap, to the leaves and other organs. The carbon is partly CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 17 derived from the soil, and partly from the air of the atmosphere, >yhere it exists in combination with oxygen, in the state of car- bonic acid gas. The leaves possess the property of absorbing this gas, which is then decomposed in the plant. The oxygen is mostly restored to the atmosphere, while the carbon remains. Thus the carbon, of which the bulk of plants consists, is derived partly from the soil, and partly from the air, as soon as the leaves, with their myriads of absorbing pores, have been developed and expanded. It has been calculated, although on uncertain data, that one-half or more of the carbon of the plants is derived from the atmosphere. But, how- ever this be, we are entitled, ‘under any reasonable hypothesis, to infer, that carbon is supplied to plants from both sources, although in various degrees in different plants, . and at different periods of their growth. * With respect to the nitrogen which enters into the composition of plants, this substance, though in smaller quantity, must be sup- posed to be no less necessary to the perfecting of the vegetable organism than carbon and the elements of water. It may be de- rived in part from the atmosphere, four-fifths of whose volume consist of nitrogen ; but it is chiefly derived from the decay of or- ganic matters in the soil. The other substances which enter into the composition of plants, namely, silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, the oxides of iron and manganese, soda and potassa, common salt and other chlorides, sulphur and phosphorus, can only be derived from the soil, or from the water which is conveyed to the soil. Now, the soil being a reservoir, as it were, for containing the mi- neral substances which plants consume in growing, it must contain these substances in such quantity, and in such states, as shall afford the matter which the living plants require for their due develop- ment. Sometimes one or other of the elements required may be wanting, or in deficient quantity, or in a form incapable of acting on plants, and then the soil will be, in a greater or less degree, defective. On examining soils by the methods of chemical an?- B 18 SOILS. lysis, we find them to consist of all, or nearly all, the following substances : 1. Silica, either in a state of sand, or in combination with earthy and alkaline bases. In these different states silica forms the greater part of all soils, amounting often to more than 90 per cent, of the entire mass. 2. Alumina, in combination with silica and other matters in the soil. Alumina is an important constituent in every soil, and, in proportion to its quantity, gives tenacity and cohesion to the mass. 3. Lime, in combination with carbonic, sulphuric, and other acids, existing sometimes in minute quantity, and sometimes form- ing a large proportion of the weight of the soil. 4. Magnesia, existing like lime in combination with carbonic and other acids. 5. Iron, either in the state of protoxide, when it is usually com- bined with sulphuric acid, forming copperas ; or of peroxide, in which state it mixes with the matter of the soil, and communicates to it a red colohr. When the protoxide, whether free or in com- bination, is exposed to the action of the air, it tends to become peroxide. 6. Manganese, usually in the state of peroxide, and for the most part existing in minute quantity. 7. Potassa, in combination with carbonic and other acids, and forming saline compounds, soluble in water. 8. Soda, existing in the like combinations, and sometimes sup- plying by its presence the absence of potassa. 9. Chlorine, in combination with sodium, forming common salt, or with potassium, forming chloride of potassium, or with the base of lime, forming chloride of calcium, and sometimes with hydro- gen, forming chlorohydric or muriatic acid. 10. Carbon, as charcoal, or as a carburet; or in the state of carbonic acid, in combination with earthy and alkaline bases. 11. Sulphur, sometimes in the state of sulphuret, but usually in the state of sulphuric acid, which enters into combination with CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 19 lime or magnesia, or with the alkalies, or with alumina, and some- times with protoxide of iron. 12. Phosphorus, in the state of phosphoric acid, generally com- bined with lime or magnesia, and sometimes with oxide of iron. 13. Matter derived from organic bodies, in part soluble and in part insoluble in alkaline solutions, and yielding nitrogen and its compounds, carbon and its compounds, &c. 14. Water, either chemically combined, or free, and holding in solution carbonic acid and other substances. Such is the very compound constitution of the soil, which may be regarded, — 1. As an instrument for fixing the roots of plants. 2. As a magazine for containing tlie various substances which plants in growing require. 3. As a menstruum, in which the various chemical changes are performed, by which different substances are fitted to afford nourish- ment to the organs of plants. The medium for dissolving and conveying the soluble matter of the earth to the growing plants is water, which the soil is able to absorb in large quantity. The air may be considered as a vehicle for conveying water to the soil. It is continually charged with aqueous vapour, which partly descends to the earth in rains, and is partly deposited in dews in the cool of the night. In many countries it never rains at certain seasons, and the whole moisture is supplied by the dew. In this case in an especial degree, and in all cases in a certain de- gree, the power of the earth to absorb moisture from the air may be regarded as connected with the means of the soil to nourish plants. All our fertile soils, accordingly, have a power of thus supply- ing themselves with moisture, and of retaining it for the proper time ; while infertile soils either have less of this absorbent power, or retain the fluid absorbed for a shorter time. This was known to the ancients, one of the marks which they gave of a fertile soil being, that it freely imbibed water. Of the different matters which enter into the composition of soils, 20 SOILS. animal and vegetable substances possess the greatest power of ab- sorbing moisture ; and the addition of animal and vegetable sub- stances always increases the absorbent powers of soils. Of the pure earths, the least absorbent is silica, and it is that also which parts the most readily with its moisture. A soil, con- sisting of too great a proportion of siliceous sand, imbibes the aqueous vapour of the atmosphere with slowness, and parts with it quickly. A soil of siliceous sand will scarcely be penetrated by the dews of night, and will part with its water on the first action of the morning rays of the sun. While pure silica will imbibe scarcely a fourth part of its weight of water, lime will absorb nearly its own weight, and alumina two and a half times its weight. But while the silica will absorb a smaller quantity than alumina or carbonate of lime, it will allow it to evaporate twice as quickly as carbonate of lime equally divided, and five times more quickly than alumina in the same state. The addition of carbonate of lime or alumina to a soil containing too much silica, never fails to increase its powers of absorption. But, although certain earths in their separate state have greater power of absorption than others, it does not follow that a soil con- sisting chiefly of that one earth would possess a greater power of absorption than a soil composed of a mixture of earths, even though these earths should in themselves be less absorbent. Thus a soil, consisting chiefly of clay, though alumina is itself the most absorbent of all the earths, taking water up in the greatest quantity when poured upon it, as well as retaining it the longest, is not really so absorbent of moisture from the air as when it is mixed with sand. Hence, the stiffer clays are not the soils which absorb water very readily from the atmosphere. Such soils, when the weather is dry, become indurated upon the surface, which presents an obstacle to absorption ; and thus we find, that the vegetation of very stiff" clays is almost as soon injured by drought as that of sandy soils, and much more quickly than that of good loams. A mixture of siliceous sand, then, with a very aluminous soil, although the sand is the less absorbent substance of the two, in- creases the general powers of absorption from the atmosphere ; CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. 21 so also does a mixture of lime, and, in an eminent degree, of ani- mal and vegetable matter. Sir Humphrey Davy compared together the absorbent power of various soils with respect to the moisture of the atmosphere, and found it to be the greatest in the most fertile. Thus 1000 parts of a very fertile soil from the banks of the river Parret in Somer- setshire, when dried at 212°, gained in an hour, when exposed to air saturated with moisture at the temperature of 62°, 16 grains. 1000 parts of a soil from Mersea in Essex, worth 45s. an acre, gained, under the same circumstances, 13 grains. 1000 parts of a fine sand from Essex, worth 28s. an acre, gained 11 grains. 1000 parts of a coarse sand, worth 15s. an acre, gained only 8 grains. 1000 parts of the soil of Bagshot Heath gained only 3 grains. We cannot infer, however, that the fertility of soils can be measured by their power either to absorb or to retain moisture, for this is not the only condition of fertility in soils. But it may be inferred, that all productive soils have a considerable power of absorbing moisture, and retaining it when absorbed, and that this property does not depend on the prevalence of any one substance, but on a mixture of several substances. Soils, in absorbing aqueous vapour from the atmosphere, absorb carbonic acid, and it may be believed the matter of those putrid ex- halations which the earth gives ofif, and charged with which the va- pour of the air descends at night in dews, to enrich the earth and refresh the growing plants. The air of the atmosphere likewise acts through the medium of its oxygen in decomposing inert vegetable matter ; and hence the benefits which are seen to result from ex- posing the soil to the action of the atmosphere, or from loosening its parts by tillage, so as to admit the air into its pores. The fertility of soils depends in part on their physical proper- ties, and in part on their chemical constitution. With respect to their physical properties, soils should never be*so loose or porous as that they shall be moved by the winds, nor so stiff and argilla- ceous as that they cannot be freed from an excess of water, or 22 SOILS. tilled without extreme labour. With respect to their chemical constitution, they should contain in due quantity the elements which are required by plants for their growth and full development, namely, the earthy and alkaline bases, with the silica, the carbon, the phosphorus, and other substances which enter into the vege- table organism. It does not appear that any precise proportion of the different component parts is requisite in order to constitute a fertile soil; for soils may be infinitely varied in the proportion of their ingredients, and yet he equally fertile. The essential condi- tion seems to he, that the substances which the plants consume in growing shall be present in the due quantity, and in the proper states of combination. Hence we see the beneficial effects of a mix- ture of many substances in the soil, and the little fertility of soils containing a small number of elements, such as chalk: and hence also the less fertility of the soils of mountains compared with those of the valleys, where the action of water has mingled together the debris of difterent mineral strata. From the enumeration before given of the matters which enter into the composition of soils, the soil will be seen to be one of the most compound substances in nature, being, in truth, a receptacle for the various matters found on the surface of the earth. Its exact composition can only, in any case, be determined by rigid chemi- cal analysis, which the farmer can rarely make himself, and which, when communicated to him, he can rarely use. But the farmer is able to determine the nature of its soil by its texture, its depth, its productiveness of plants, and other sensible properties ; and happily the knowledge so obtained is sufficient for all the ends of useful practice. A knowledge of the intimate chemical constitution of the soil is highly worthy of being obtained, and the subject would deserve to be pursued by men of science, Avere there no other aim or result than the resolving of chemical and physiological questions. But too much must not be looked for from such inquiries, as teaching the farmer new methods of practice. The farmer knows, for the most part, better than the chemist, when a soil is good or bad, when it is improvable by ordinary means, and when it is too bar- GEOLOaiCAL RELATIONS. 23 ren to repay the expenses of culture ; and he knows better than the chemist how to keep it clean, dry, and as productive as the means at his command will allow, with a due reference to the re- turn as compared with the expenditure. But this latter knowledge is not derived from the laboratory, but the fields, and is a branch of a practical business, in which chemistry can render little aid. Whatever results chemical analyses of the soil may hereafter con- duct us to, it must be admitted that, as yet, they have been inte- resting to the scientific inquirer, rather than useful to the farmer. Every garden and well-cultivated field shews that the soil may be brought to its maximum of fertility without dependence on any conclusions yet arrived at by the physiologist and the chemist. Perhaps not more than a few dozens of chemical analyses of soils have yet been made in Europe, sufficiently exact to aid the purposes of science, while the great mass of those which are made and com- municated to farmers as something necessary or useful to them, are equally worthless for science and practice. III. THE PROPERTIES OP SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY THEIR GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. When we examine the solid matter of this earth to the utmost depths to which we have yet penetrated, two classes of mineral masses present themselves. The one consists of beds or strata, lying one upon the other in a certain order, like matter deposited from a fluid in which it had been diffused ; the other consists of indurated masses, which do not present the like traces of deposi- tion. The first, or stratified masses, are either hard and compact, like slate, limestone, and sandstone, or soft and merely coherent, like the sands and clays on the surface. The second, or unstrati- fied masses, are always more or less hard, and generally crystalline. They are sometimes termed Volcanic rocks, as indicating their analogy with the melted matter of volcanoes ; or Igneous, as indi- cating the action of heat. Although they may be reasonably sup- posed to have been a deposition from a fluid medium, yet, having 24 SOILS. been forced up again, in a state of fusion or semifusion, from the depths beneath, they have generally lost the traces of stratifica- tion. They often, however, present themselves in layers, like suc- cessive floods of lava poured over one another, and often they as- sume regular figures, the result of a grand process of cooling. They are frequently interjected between the beds of the stratified deposites, and sometimes they fill crevices and fissures, forming veins and dykes. Sometimes they spread over the surface of the stratified beds, or, rising high above them, form lofty mountains and mountain -chains : sometimes they penetrate through the masses of pre-existing mountains, whether stratified or unstratified, and overtop and cap their summits as with a mantle : and often, with- out having reached the surface, they have heaved up the beds above them into knolls and mountains, and broken or displaced their strata. The stratified masses, it has been said, are either hard and com- pact, or soft and merely coherent. Below them all, and conse- quently, the first in the order of deposition, is Granite, beneath the mass of which no human power has penetrated. It may be termed the basis upon which all the other earthy and rocky mat- ters of the crust of the earth, and all the waters of the ocean, rest. But while it lies beneath all the other deposites, it often rises high above them all, forming lofty mountains and mountain- chains; and often, forced upwards by subterraneous action, it has burst through the stratified masses above it, rupturing or over- turning them. In the latter case, it may be classed with the rocks termed Igneous. Immediately above the fundamental granite, is a series of de- posites of prodigious thickness, partaking of the same mineral cha- racters as the granite, and laid in beds more or less perfectly de- fined. They rest upon the disturbed and broken surface of the granite, and, like it, have been subjected to great changes by sub- terraneous forces. They are all eminently hard and crystalline. They are sometimes termed Crystalline Schists, and sometimes Metamorphic Bocks, as indicating that they have been changed by the action of heat. Within the masses of these ancient rocks, no GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 25 trace of animal existence has yet been found. Not a shell exists to prove that, during their’ deposition, animal life had been called in- to existence upon this planet, and we do not know whether this earth had then become the habitation of animated creatures. Whether vegetable matter was produced on these masses after their deposi- tion is unknown, but the occurrence of a species of coal amongst the crystalline schists renders it probable, that in this primeval era plants had been produced, and that thus the simplest condi- tion of life had begun. The principal members of this vast group are gneiss, slates, quartz, limestone, and serpentine. The crystalline schists with the underlying granite were, by the earlier geologists, termed Primary, a term perfectly suitable, and which merely indicates that, lying below the other known rock-for- mations, they are the primary or older, just as the first-laid layers of stones in a building are the lowest, and may be termed the oldest. The Grampians, and other mountains of the North of Scotland, forming about two-thirds of the surface of that country, consist of granite and the crystalline schists. The same series is found in Ireland, constituting the greater part of the county of Donegal, and a part of Londonderry and Tyrone, in the north-west, and a great part of Galway and Mayo, in the west. Members of the same system are found in the east of Ireland, in the south-west of England in Devonshire and Cornwall, in the Isle of Anglesea, and in the beautiful little islands pertaining to the British Crown, on the coast of Normandy. The rocks of the primary series are formed of various minerals, Avhich differ in their composition ; and differences accordingly ex- ist in the soils produced by the several members of the series, when they waste and crumble down. But all these soils resolve themselves into silica, alumina, lime, the alkalies, and other mineral constituents of soils. Sometimes the soils produced by the dis- integration of these rocks are fertile, as in the islands before re- ferred to on the coast of Normandy. Even in the more mountain- ous tracts of Scotland and Ireland, there are found, in the dells and vales into which the finer particles have been carried from tlie higher grounds, perfectly productive soils. But, for the most 26 SOILS. part, the primary districts of this country, from the altitude and steepness of the mountains, and the slow decomposition of their rocky basis, are covered with a scanty natural vegetation, and, therefore, are unproductive. They are widely covered with heaths and great beds of peat ; they produce noble forests of pine ; but, for the most part, they are devoted to pasturage, and left in their natural state of wildness. Where they admit of cultivation, the great means of improvement of which they are susceptible are draining and the application of calcareous matter. Hard and indestructible as the substance of these crystalline rocks appears, they are yet formed to yield to the influence of ex- ternal agents and chemical changes. They crumble down, and their disintegrated parts are washed away. It is an opinion con- firmed by many analogies, that, in the lapse of unknown periods of time, the disintegrated parts of great mineral masses have been carried into the ocean, where they have formed new deposites, which have again been rendered dry by changes in the relative levels of the lands and seas. Thus, entire continents have been swept away and buried in the ocean, by changes similar in kind to those which we yet see in progress on every rocky coast, and raised again, in whole or in part, from the waters in which they had been submerged during epochs of unknown duration. The successive elevation of new land from the depths of the ocean, is proved by all the evi- dence which the state of the crust of the earth can supply. It is nothing that the imagination is startled by the vastness of the pe- riods of time required for such mighty changes. Millions of ages may be of little account in the absolute duration of suns and worlds. The series of deposites, the next in order above the primary, were, by earlier geologists, termed Transition, as resembling, in cer- tain characters, the primary, and forming, as it were, a passage from the older to the newer systems. Like the primary deposites, they have been raised into hills and mountain-chains ; but their strata have been usually less elevated, broken, and contorted, and they are likewise less hard and crystalline. They have been deposit- ed in succession during vast and unknown epochs of time, and ele- vated by successive actions. The upper series contain fossil remains GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 27 of marine animals, so that animal life had been called into existence during the period of their deposition ; but not one of the species found in them is identical with any now found existing in the land and seas of the globe. These vast deposites generally constitute tracts of mountains, which are, for the most part, less wild and rugged than those of the primary countries. In these islands, they constitute the range of hills stretching from St Abb’s Head westward to the Irish* Channel, forming the Lammermuir Hills, and the high lands of the counties of Roxburgh, Peebles, Selkirk, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries. Farther to the north, they form a part of the county of Banff, and stretch across the island in a nar- row belt. They constitute a great part of the counties of West- moreland and Cumberland, and stretch through the Isle of Man. They form the mountains of Wales, the greater part of Cornwall, and a portion of North and South Devon. They extend along the whole of the south of Ireland, appear in the central high lands of Tipperary, and cover a large proportion of the counties of Down and others in the province of Ulster. The rocks of these mountains being less indurated and crystal- line than those of the primary group, they generally crumble down more readily under the influence of air and water, and produce a thicker bed of loose earth on the surface. One of the principal mem- bers of the series is greywackc, alternating with which are other beds or layers, — argillaceous, siliceous, and calcareous. When the argillaceous beds come to the surface, the soils produced are fre- quently a cold clay or till, only to be thoroughly improved by drain- ing and liming : the siliceous beds often produce barren heaths ; but when the debris of the calcareous layers come to the surface, or are found in the lower valleys into which the abraded particles from the higher grounds have been carried, the soil may arrive at considerable fertility. The principal vegetable productions of the mountains arc heaths, rushes, sedges, and the coarser herbage- grasses, and they arc largely overspread with peaty turf and deep bogs. The lower grounds arc partially cultivated in Scotland and Wales, and largely in Ireland. Tlic primary rocks may be termed primeval, for we liavc no 28 SOILS. knowledge of any anterior condition of the surface of the globe. They may be supposed to have been deposited, by means of a grand series of chemical changes, from a fluid which surrounded the earth, hut concerning which we cannot reason securely, because nothing similar has come under the cognizance of our senses. Yet if the earth were originally a heated mass, we must believe that the water which surrounded it was intensely heated, and partly in the state of vapour, and that as the surface of the earth cooled, the waters would diminish in volume, “the waters under the heaven he gathered together,” and “ the dry land appear.” By whatever grand system of laws these natural changes have been ordained, we know, by all the evidence which the case allows, that the crystalline schists were deposited from a fluid medium ; and with respect to the granite associated with them, it consists of the same materials ; for granite passes by insensible degrees into the sedimentary deposites, and often cannot be distinguished from them. The transition rocks seem to have been in part deposited by the same actions as the primary, because many of them cannot be distinguished from the primary ; and in part by a mechanical deposition of the detritus of the preceding primary formations. Above the transition system rests an immense series of de- posites, usually comprehended under the general term Secondary. It appears that they have all been deposited in the bed of an ocean, and, in a few cases, of lakes afterwards submerged by the ocean. They are all in beds, which are more or less flat, except where they have been disturbed by subterranean forces ; and they are usually inclined to the surface, as if they had been deposited on the shelving shores of an ocean, or uplifted by a force acting from Fig. 1. beneath. Further, there exist the proofs of an alternate rise and GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 29 fall, so that the same tracts have been more than once submerged, and more than once raised up again. The periods of time in which these vast changes have taken place, are wholly unknown. But we know that, during their occurrence, whole species and tribes of animals had been called into being, and again ceased to exist ; so that we are to estimate the periods of these amazing mutations not by ages, or the lives of individuals, but by the endurance of species, genera, and tribes. Of all the species that have lived and perished during this immense period, not one can be identified with any now existing upon the globe. The Secondary formations may be arranged in the following order : — 1. The Old Bed Sandstone. 2. The Carboniferous System, or Coal Formation. 3. The New Bed Sandstone, or Saliferous System. 4. The Lias and Oolite. 5. The Chalk. These formations consist each of alternate beds of sand, clay, limestone, and other substances. The manner in which the in- clination of the strata causes the different members to reach the surface, and form tracts of greater or smaller extent, may be re- presented in a diagram, thus — 1. The Old Bed Sandstone is found in hills of some elevation, or resting upon, and surrounding, the flanks of the transition hills, and extending into the plains. One part of the series frequently consists of coarse siliceous conglomerates, forming hungry gravels; another of incoherent sands, producing barren soils ; another of 30 SOILS. very indurated sandstones, which, decomposing slowly, and re- sisting the percolation of water, tend to produce tracts of peat ; and another consists of limestone and marly beds, which form rich and mellow soils. In England, the latter members of the series constitute the beautiful tract of rich country which lies be- tween the vale of Severn and the mountains of Wales, compre- hending the whole of the county of Hereford, and parts of the shires of Monmouth and Brecknock ; but when the arenaceous beds come to the surface, even in the midst of these richer tracts, the soil changes. In Scotland, large tracts of the old red sand- stone are so barren as to bear only heaths, mosses, and lichens ; while admirable soils are found in the same country in the same formation, as on the Moray Frith, in the district of Strathmore, in the valleys of Tweed and Tay, and in the tract of land which stretches from the base of the Lammermuir hills by Dunbar along the noble estuary of the Forth. 2. Besting upon the old red sandstone, and therefore the more recent deposition, is the grand Carboniferous group, or Coal for- mation, deposited when a rich vegetation existed, and when the temperature of the globe must have greatly exceeded that wdiich it now possesses, — for amongst the vegetable remains of this pe- riod, even in the higher latitudes, are pines like those which grow in the warmest regions, arborescent ferns, gigantic equisetacese, and palms. In England, the lowest member of this series is the Mountain Limestone, in which the first traces appear of those vast ligneous deposites which form coal. It occupies a portion of the chain of heathy hills and bleak moors which stretches from Derbyshire north- ward into Northumberland, and which separates the waters which flow westward to the Irish sea from those which flow eastward to the German Ocean. In Scotland, the mountain-limestone alter- nates with beds of coal ; and in Ireland, it occupies a great part of the surface of the country. The dark-blue limestone which, in England, forms the principal member of the series, decomposes slowly, and only yields a soil of moderate fertility in the lower grounds and valleys. In Scotland, the mountain-limestone de- GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 31 composes readily, and forms good soils ; and in Ireland it pro- duces tracts of fertile country. Immediately above the mountain-limestone there exists in Eng- land a series of coarse sandstones, alternating in some cases with shales and siliceous limestones, termed the Millstone Grit. The millstone grit partially surrounds some of the coal-fields. The soils formed from it are, for the most part, cold and ungrateful, unless in the valleys, or when mixed wth transported debris. Next to the Millstone Grit, in the ascending series, are the true Coal Measures, consisting of alternating beds of siliceous sand- stones, slaty clays, limestone, ironstone, and coal. These deposites are contained in great irregular basins, termed coal-fields, where the plants which formed the cOal may be supposed to have been pro- duced, and into which vegetable matter may have been swept from the adjoining lands. The largest and most northerly of these basins, stretching across the island, encloses the entire estuaries and valleys of the Forth and Clyde : the next abuts on the Bristol Channel, oc- cupying nearly the whole of Glamorganshire, and a part of the shires of Monmouth and Pembroke : — the most westerly is on the river Shannon towards its mouth, spreading over a great part of the counties of Limerick, Clare, and Kerry. Of the other great coal- fields, one is that of the Tyne, stretching over the greater part of the counties of Northumberland and Durham ; and two are found in the central counties, one on the east, and one on the west, of the limestone hills of Derbyshire. From these and some other fields of coal. Great Britain draws those amazing supplies of this mineral, which, for so long a time, have rendered her one of the most rich and powerful of countries. The soils directly derived from the shales, the sandstones, and other rocks of the coal-formation, are often coarse, ungrateful, and ferruginous, except in the lower grounds, to which the finer par- ticles have been carried from the higher. But the lower parts of the coal-fields are frequently thickly covered with transported mate- rials, which overspread the debris of the ancient deposites. While the higher lands, therefore, of the coal-formation may exhibit the coarse ferruginous soil referred to, the lower grounds, as in the 32 SOILS. vales of the LotWans, tlie Tyne, and the Shannon, may be of the • highest fertility. 3. The New Red Sandstone is the next in order above the carboniferous system. The lowest member of it in England is a formation of limited extent, termed the Magnesian Limestone, the principal member of which contains much carbonate of magnesia, giving to the limestone a yellow colour. It extends in a narrow belt, from near South Shields by Sunderland, Darlington, Ripon, Knaresborough, and Ferrybridge, to Nottingham. It yields a light soil, only moderately fertile in the natural state, yet improv- able, and well fitted for the growth of barley and turnips. In the valleys of the rivers which intersect it, as of the Tees, the Ure, the Wharf, and the Air, fine tracts of loam present themselves. Above the magnesian limestone the New Red Sandstone con- sists of alternate beds of marls and marly clays, with intervening layers of sand. It forms continuous plains, swelling into gentle eminences, but scarcely rising into hills. It commences on the Nith, about twenty miles north of Dumfries, and, extending across the Solway, forms the rich vale of the Eden. It is interrupted by the mountains of Westmoreland, reappears in Lancashire, stretches across the Mersey, and occupies the county of Cheshire, and a part of Shropshire and Staffordshire. It stretches, by the vale of Severn, through Worcestershire, appears partially in So- mersetshire, and expands into the fine valleys of Taunton, Exe- ter, and Honiton, in the county of Devon. From the mouth of the Severn it extends northward, through part of the shires of Warwick, Leicester, and Derby, and follows the course of Trent to the Humber. It then forms the rich vale of York, and ter- minates in the lower valley of the Tees. The surface of this formation, when derived from the marls and marly clays, forms a deep red-coloured soil, varying from light loam to a stiff, and rarely stubborn, clay ; but when the arena- ceous beds prevail, tracts exist of infertile land bearing heaths and furze. In certain parts, too, are drifted materials of rolled pebbles, and tracts of peat, as at Chat Moss and on the Solway Frith. But the new red sandstone, following the course of many fine rivers. GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 33 as the Severn, the Exe, the Trent, the Ouse, the Tees, forms the most extended tract of fine champaign country in England. 4. The Lias and Oolite are the next in order of deposition above the new red sandstone. They are distinguished from the forma- tions that precede them, by their being essentially calcareous in their principal members. They form a transition, as it were, from the previous formations, to the chalk, which consists essentially of carbonate of lime. Dividing the new red sandstone from the districts of the chalk, they commence with the well-known clifi's on the Yorkshire coast, near Whitby, where they expand into the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire. They then become a narrow ridge, separating the vale of York on the west, from the chalky wolds of the same county on the east. They cross the Humber, following the course of the vale of Trent to the eastward, and pass through parts of the counties of Lincoln, Leicester, Rutland, Warwick, Northampton, Oxford, and Grloucester, separating in all cases the new red sandstone on the west, from the countries of the chalk on the east. They then pass through Somersetshire and Dorsetshire to the English Channel, terminating in a line of cliffs remarkable for the beauty and variety of their fossil remains. The lowest member of this extensive series is the Lias, which consists of a deposition of thick beds of blue clay, with strata of limestone, generally blue. It stretches diagonally across the island in a long irregular belt, from Whitby to Lyme Regis on the western confines of Dorsetshire. The soil presents every gradation of qua- lity, from a cold stubborn clay to a rich clayey loam. It is, for the most part, in old pastures. Within it are included some of the finer dairy districts of the counties of Leicester, Warwick, Glouces- ter, and Somerset. Immediately above the lias is the Oolite or Jura limestone, mostly forming a kind of table land, which stretches in the same direction as the lias, from the eastern moorlands of Yorkshire to the Isle of Portland in the Channel. It is the formation of epochs of im- mense duration, and is conveniently divided by geologists into three groups — the lower, the middle, and the upper. It consists of al- ternating beds of limestone, clay, marl, and sand. It is exceed- c 34 SOILS. ingiy varied with respect to the quality of its soil, or as one or other of its members prevails, or as the soil is in the higher or lower grounds. Much of it is a thin brown-coloured sand, tech- nically termed a dead or sleepy sand, and some of it is a deep marly loam. Part is uncultivated and in sheep-walks, but the greater portion is enclosed, and in a state of cultivation or old pasture. One of its members, the Oxford clay, stretches from the west of Dorsetshire, north-east by the city of Oxford, through the shires of Buckingham, Bedford, and Huntingdon, until it passes under- neath those large tracts of fens which are found in the counties of Lincoln, and others. The Oxford clay is in some cases a stiff cold soil ; in other cases, a deep clay, stubborn and difficult to till ; but, Avhen freed from water, eminently productive of wheat, beans, and clover. These extensive deposites contain amazing remains of animals now extinct, amongst which are flying lizards, huge tortoises, cro- codiles, and other stupendous reptiles. One of these, destined, as his conformation shews, to live in water, was from 20 to 30 feet in length, with the head of a lizard, large eyes, and formidable teeth. His feet were fashioned like vast paddles, enabling him to swim on the surface of water. Another was essentially distinct from any known animal form. He had long paddle-shaped feet, and a neck of enormous length. 5. The last of the grand series of secondary formations is the Chalk ; but there is a partial and very remarkable deposite in Eng- land, whose position shews it to have been anterior to the chalk, namely, the Wealden. The Wealden differs from all the other secondary formations enumerated, in being a deposite from fresh water, apparently the mouth of some vast river, derived from continents that have now disappeared, and forming a delta like those of the Ganges, the Amazon, and other greatest rivers. This delta is not confined to England, but appears in France, so that it must have covered in all a space of upwards of 40,000 square miles. The jiortion of it Avhich is in England is partly in Kent, and partly in Surrey and Sussex. The lower member is termed the Iron or Hastings sand. GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 35 wliich extends westward from Hastings to the river Arun, with a medium breadth of ten or twelve miles. The iron sand forms a light brownish soil, mostly ferruginous, and naturally infertile, yet ca- pable, under proper cultivation, of producing good crops of barley and turnips. The clay of the wealdens is surrounded by this arena- ceous tract. It produces a pale and exceedingly stiff unctuous soil, hardening like brick when dried, and obstinately retaining water. It was anciently covered with a dense forest, and still pro- duces noble oaks, from which it has sometimes been called the Oak- tree Clay. The wealden is not less remarkable than the formations which precede it for its fossil remains. In it have been found pines and arborescent ferns, whose types now only appear in the hottest re- gions, and huge reptiles which had been buried in the mud of the delta. Amongst these is one whose teeth shew it to have fed on plants, and whose bones lead to the computation, that individuals must have reached the dimensions of the largest whales. We are struck with wonder, not only at the existence of animal forms so different from those which are now found on the earth, but at the vastuess of time required for changes, during which, not only spe- cies, but tribes and families, had been called into being and extin- guished. Posterior, then, in the order of time, to the deposition of the wealden, is the great Cretaceous system, or Chalk. The chalk oc- cupies a large space in the east and south-east of England. It com- mences at Flamborough-head on the north, forming the wolds of Yorkshire, and stretches southward through the counties of Nor- folk, Suffolk, Hertford, Buckingham, Oxford, Berks, Wilts, and Dorset, to the British Channel. It occupies the greater part of the county of Hants, from which it stretches eastward, embracing the v/ealden, to the English Channel and the Downs. Traces only of some of its members extend to Scotland. In Ireland it is found covered by the basaltic tract of the north-east of that island. The chalk of England consists of several members, the lower- most of which are two beds of sand, with an intervening one of clay. The sand is distinguished by its green particles. The Green Sand 36 SOILS. forms a belt, usually narrow, but in some cases several miles in breadth, skirting the outer edges of the chalk. It generally forms a light, friable, kindly soil. In other cases it is of little fertility, and produces heaths and furze. The clayey bed, termed Gault, forms, for the most part, a stiff, adhesive, marly soil. In certain parts, as in Huntingdon and Cambridge, it is a cold, intractable clay; in other cases, however, where mixed with the green sand and chalk, it forms an excellent clayey loam. The true chalk consists essentially of carbonate of lime, in the lower beds aluminous and marly, and in the upper more free from aluminous matter, and largely mixed with flints. The flinty chalk of the upper beds is naturally very steril, and the tract which it occupies is for the most part unenclosed, forming wide downs for the pasturage of sheep. The lower beds, from being mixed with clay and sand, are greatly more productive, and are frequently em- ployed to be mixed with the flinty chalk, in order to fertilize it. It is, in truth, only when clay or sand is largely mixed with chalk, that it becomes in any way productive as a soil. In the plains and valleys, where siliceous and aluminous matter covers the sur- face, and is largely mixed with it, the chalk becomes a soil of great fertility ; but in most of these cases, the true chalk may be said to form the subsoil rather than the soil. No general description will apply to the countries of the chalk with respect to their pro- ductiveness, since they present every variety of quality and texture in the soil, from that of the bare wolds and arid downs, to that of the warm valleys and cultivated plains. One common character, however, applies to the countries of the chalk, namely, their ex- treme dryness. Water readily finds its way downwards, and is ac- cordingly often so scarce, that it must be derived from deep wells, or else collected in ponds. The chalk formation is of prodigious extent in Europe, stretch- ing from England all eastward to beyond the Caspian Sea, and being found almost from the base of the Scandinavian Alps to the Pyrenees. During the countless ages in which it was in the course of deposition, an ocean must have spread through central Europe into Asia. It abounds with innumerable remains of marine ani- GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 37 mals, not one of the species of which is now known in the seas of the globe. Above it, at an era of inconceivable antiquity, began to be formed another series of deposites termed Tertiary ; but be- fore referring to these, we shall turn for a moment to the agricul- tural character of the soils of igneous or volcanic rocks. There are no recent volcanic rocks in the British Islands. Those ancient ones which exist, are of very general distribution in the older secondary groups. Sometimes they form vast isolated rocks, sometimes low hills in long chains, and sometimes abrupt uncon- nected eminences. They have very generally received the name of trap-rocks, because they often present the appearance of traps or stairs. The most prevalent of them in this country may be classed thus : — 1. A series of clayey rocks, of various colours and hardness, of which the principal are, wacke, claystone, felspar, and clinkstone. 2. Basalt, a rock of a dark-gray colour, frequently forming co- lumns of surpassing regularity and beauty, as at the Isle of StalFa, the Griants’ Causeway, and elsewhere. It often extends in long ridges of terrace-shaped cliffs, or forms the caps of monntains, as- suming a conical or a tabular form. 3 Greenstone, sometimes columnar like basalt, but less fre- quently so. It is the common whinstone of this country. The trap-rocks consist of silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, the alkalies, the oxides of iron and manganese, and some other bodies. They sometimes decompose slowly, and yield a thin unproductive soil ; and sometimes they decompose very readily, and form a fer- tile soil, usually of the lighter class. No general character, there- fore, can be assigned to the soils formed by the decomposition of traps in this country. The soil of certain traps is often good, even on the tops of mountains, and eminently so in the hollows to wliich the abraded particles have been carried. The chalk, it has been said, forms the last of the formations termed Secondary. The vast system of formations which now suc- ceeds is of surpassing interest in the geological history of the world. Thousands of ages may have elapsed since its members began to be deposited on the submerged surface of the chalk ; and 38 SOILS. during this period the earth has been gradually approximating to the state which it now exhibits in the conditions which hare adapted it to its present inhabitants. When we regard the oldest of these vast series of depositions, we find the dawning, as it were, of the present order of Nature. Only a few fossil remains of animals can be identified with spe- cies now existing, and these consist of the lower tribes, chiefly the testaceous mollusca, or soft animals enclosed in shells, whose ex- ternal coverings have remained after the softer parts have decayed, or left their impressions in the matrix in which they had been im- bedded. Of the higher orders of animals, not one of the species can be identified with any now existing, and several even of the genera and tribes have disappeared. The oldest of these tertiary formations existing in England, are termed the Plastic and London Clays. It has been proposed by a distinguished geologist of our own country, to refer their depo- sition to an epoch which he terms the Eocene, indicating the first grand period in the geological history of the formations subse- quent to the secondary.* In the depositions of this period, both in this and in other parts of Europe, only about three and a half in the hundred of all the testaceous mollusca discovered, can be identified with any of the species now known to naturalists as in- habiting the present seas. Of other animals, we find amazing re- mains, imbedded in the clayey, sandy, and calcareous beds of these deposites ; but not one of them, so far as is yet known, is iden- tical with any which now exist. The lower formations, both in this country and in France, have been examined by naturalists with astonishing care, and a train of facts has been unfolded, with re- lation to the past inhabitants of the globe, more wonderful than the dreams of fancy had shadowed forth. The Plastic clay of England consists of beds of sand, gravel, and clay, alternating with one another. The formation runs along the margin of the chalk in an irregular ring, bounding the whole of the London clay, which forms the greater part of the counties * Ly ell’s Principles of Geology. GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 39 of Middlesex and Essex. It likewise partially surrounds another basin of the London clay at the New Forest of Hampshire. The cJay of this formation is exceedingly aluminous, yielding brick, potters’ clay, and fullers’ earth. The sand, when it comes to the surface, is usually very barren, forming unreclaimed heaths and wastes ; but in other cases, when mixed with the debris of the clayey beds, it forms good light loams. Very dilferent kinds of soil, then, exist in this formation, according as the subjacent beds shall be sandy, clayey, or calcareous, or according to the kind and degree of the mixtures which have taken place. The London clay forms the greater part of the counties of Middlesex and Essex, a considerable part of Suffolk, and a part of Berkshire, Surrey, and Kent. A basin of it likewise appears at the New Forest of Hampshire, forming what is called the Isle of Wight Basin. The soil of the London clay is, for the most part, exceedingly tenacious. It is highly enriched, in many cases, by the refuse matter of the vast capital and populous towns which are placed upon it. It is extensively covered with rolled flints and other debris of the surrounding formations, often to a great depth. Some of these superimposed deposites are fertile on the surface, and some of them are eminently barren. Although, therefore, the London clay may be generally described as producing a tract of stiff’ intractable clays, there, are found in it, as in every other of the tertiary formations, the greatest variety of soils, with respect to texture, constitution, and productive powers. Above the most ancient of the tertiary formations, the long ascending series of others more recent present themselves, indi- cating, by their position and fossil remains, a progressive approach to the present condition of the earth, with respect to its living in- habitants. The periods of time required for these vast mutations are wholly unknown, and scarcely to be measured by our ordinary conceptions of duration. We find, however, the proportion of fossil remains (taking the testaceous mollusca as our standard) gradually approaching in number to the existing species, until it reaches onc-half or more. But the stream of time has continued to 40 SOILS. roll on, until the period in which we live, with changes less, doubtless, in degree, yet similar in kind to those which occurred in the earlier epochs. The most recent changes are those which we can yet see to be in progress, namely, the carrying of sediment by rivers into the adjoining seas, and the formation of deltas, the filling up of lakes, the formation of peat on the land, and of coral reefs in the ocean, the additions of matter to the surface by subterranean springs and active volcanoes, and other accumulations, the result of causes seen to be in operation. We cannot define the limits of this epoch, but, with relation to those which precede it, we may call it Kecent, or Supratertiary. Assigning to this p.eriod a suf- ficient duration, we may say that in it, the animals, whether of the land or seas, have gradually occupied their present habitats ; and that in it, one genus, the most noble and important of all, Man, has been called into existence. Of the great natural agents which have changed the condition of the surface, the most important, it has been seen, is water, which has levelled the mountains, hewed out valleys, and carried the debris of the land to the ocean. AYhen the atmosphere was greatly more charged with aqueous vapour than now, and before the waters of the globe were confined to their present reservoirs and channels, whether of seas or rivers, it may be believed that these waters would overspread a wider space, and, by the bursting open of new channels, sweep over the land with violence. Accordingly, we everywhere see the effects of floods on the surface of the earth. In many cases, sand and gravel, and rounded rocks, have been spread all over the plains, and sometimes over the higher grounds, forming a covering of looser matter, overspreading the stratified deposites often to a great depth. Great tracts of land have, from time to time, been submerged by these torrents, and some of them have occurred within the historical era. But the greatest and most extensive must have taken place before the waters of inland coun- tries had hewed out the existing valleys, and formed for themselves settled courses. That the periods of some of these changes are vastly remote, appears from this, — that the debris everywhere en- GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 41 close the remains of animals whose species are now extinct, as of mammoths, or extinct species of the elephant, tapirs, and for- midable carnivora. It was long usual to refer all these changes to the universal deluge of Scripture, and to term the debris Diluvial, in contra- distinction to the more recent, though often, in truth, the more ancient, which have been termed Alluvial. But the great deluge of Scripture was a miracle, and must have occurred long posterior to most of those great actions of water which have modified the surface of countries. From the description of the deluge in the Sacred Writings, it seems to have been a gradual rise and subsi- dence of waters, which left the plants, even to the leaf of the olive, which the dove of Noah brought to the Ark, on the earth. But of those other great actions of water of which we speak, many must have swept over the countries which they submerged in re- sistless torrents, destroying or burying every plant upon the sur- face. It must not be imagined, then, that the narration of these grand natural changes, of which every part of the earth bears the indubitable traces, impugns in the least point the authority of those Sacred Records which have been vouchsafed by a gracious Providence to the human race. With respect to the agricultural character of the soils pro- duced from the tertiary and supratertiary deposites, it has been seen, that, in the case of the oldest, the London and Plastic Clays, no general rule can be given for determining their characters, whether with relation to their texture, their composition, or their productiveness. The formations superior to these, again, are equally incapable of being reduced to any law, with relation to the soils formed upon the surface. Sometimes the soils are exceedingly* fertile, as in the case of those muddy flats formed at the mouths of pch rivers as the Ouse, the Humber, or the Thames, or of those wide valleys in which the carses of Scotland have been formed ; but even in the midst of these rich deposites, infertile tracts occur often of considerable extent. In the counties of Norfolk and Suf- folk, which are wholly tertiary and supratertiary, we shall find every kind of soil, from the deep clay of the lower grounds to the 42 SOILS. heathy moors of the higher ; and everywhere peat, drifted sand, and rolled pebbles, are to be found in the richest districts, rendering the surface barren. It will now be seen that the relations which we can trace between the mineral deposites of a country and the character of the soil, are often uncertain and obscure. When, indeed, we regard a consider- able tract of land, we can, for the most part, trace a connexion between the subjacent deposites and the subsoil, and consequently the soil. Thus, in a country of sandstones and arenaceous beds, we shall find the soil sandy ; in one of limestone, more or less cal- careous ; in one of schistose rocks, more or less clayey. But even in tracts of the same geological formation, there exist great dif- ferences in the upper stratum, arising from the prevalence of one or other member of the series, or from the greater or less inclination of the strata, by which the debris of the different beds are more or less mixed together on the surface. The action of water, too, in denuding the surface at one part, and carrying the debris in greater or smaller quantity to another, exercises everywhere an im- portant influence on the characters of soils. Thus, the fertility of a soil on the higher grounds, from which the earthy particles are washed, is found to be very different from that of the valleys to which these particles are carried. It is seen, accordingly, that, within the limits of the same geological formation, soils are greatly varied, and that the mere knowledge of the formation will not enable us to predicate the character of the soil of any given tract, either with respect to its texture, its composition, or its produc- tiveness. The primary rocks, the most constant of any In their characters, yet yield soils of very different properties, under the different conditions to vdiich they may be subjected. Thus the rocks, which, in the mountains of Argyleshire, are so barren, yield in the islands of the Channel a soil of high fertility. The transi- tion rocks in this country are indeed generally infertile and un- cultivated ; but this is not because they do not contain the elements of fruitful soils, but because they form tracts of mountains. In the east of elersey, around the town of St Holier, the transition rocks yield one of the most fertile soils of the country ; and if we GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS. 43 pass oyer to Normandy, \ye there find the finest soils of the pro- yince deriyed from the primary and transition rocks. The old red sandstone, it has been seen, presents soils, from the most barren to the most fertile. The coal formation produces eyery diyersity of soil, from the clays of the ferruginous hills to the loams of the lower country. The new red sandstone is the most continuous tract of fertile land of the same extent in England ; but the new red sandstone is a district of plains and yalleys, following the course of riyers ; and yet, eyen within the limits of the new red sandstone, are tracts so barren as to be left uncultiyated. The lias, although a tract of clays, presents no uniform character with respect to fer- tility ; and the soils of the oolites are so yaried, as not to admit of being classified according to their economical yalue ; and simi- lar remarks apply to all the geological formations down to the most recent. We see, therefore, that the mere knowledge of the geological formations of a country does not afford the data for determining the nature and properties of the soils in the manner required for practice. Speculatiye writers, indeed, haye maintained, that a knowledge of geology is not only eminently useful to the practical farmer, but eyen necessary to enable him to distinguish soils, and adopt the suitable means of improying them. But the farmer, as all experience shews, can distinguish soils for his own purposes, by their agricultural characters, much more certainly and readily than the geologist can by their geological ; and it does not appear in what manner geology can giye that knowledge to a farmer which can enable him to cultiyate and improye his land. The farmer, it is manifest, must regard the soil which he has to till, not in its relations with a whole district, but with reference to its own cha- racters and fertility. He may find the soil not only of a single farm but of a single field, yarying in eyery degree ; and it will be necessary that he adapt his management to these yariations, what- eyer be the geological formation in which he may be placed. It were greatly to be desired, indeed, that the practical farmer could acquire a knowledge of geology, and learn to read a portion of 44 SOILS. that marvellous history which is written on every rock and mine- ral bed around him. Such a knowledge would give a charm to rural pursuits, and connect a liberal and interesting study with the observations of daily life ; yet such a knowledge, however excel- lent, will not enable the farmer to discriminate soils better for the ends of practice, much less enable him to cultivate them with greater skill, which is knowledge he must derive from agriculture, and not from geology. IV. THE PROPERTIES OF SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY THEIR VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. When we regard the distribution of plants in different regions, we perceive that this is determined by causes which have little re- lation to the nature of the soil on which the plants grow. The soils of all countries are, in their essential characters, alike. The same mineral masses, composed of the same substances, exist over all the world, and yield, by their disintegration or decomposition, the same materials for the formation of soils. But although the mineral matter of the soils of all countries is thus similar in its constituent parts, it is altogether different with the vegetation by which these soils are characterized. Every zone, from the equator to the polar circle, is distinguished by a differ- ent vegetation ; and different regions have their peculiar plants. A district of granite, of sandstone, or trap, in southern Asia, will yield the same materials for forming soils as similar districts in northern Europe, while the vegetation produced will scarcely pos- sess any common character. Amongst the natural causes which affect the vegetation of coun- tries, the influence of temperature is that which is the most ob- vious to the senses. When we pass from a warm country to a cold, we perceive a change in the whole character of the vegetation. We cannot ascend a mountain without finding such a change in the kinds of plants produced, and in the vigour with which they grow. vegetablp: productions. 45 dependent upon the change of temperature. The degree of mois- ture, too, the distance or proximity of the sea, and other circum- stances connected with the climate and physical condition of the country, affect the nature of its vegetable productions, and shew that the influence of soil, with respect to the kinds of plants pro- duced, is entirely subordinate to that of temperature and the effects of climate. When we extend, then, the range of our observation to differ- ent and distant countries, we see that the nature of the plants can- not indicate that of the soils on which they grow. It is only within narrow limits, and under given conditions of climate, that the kinds of plants afford any indication of the nature of the soils which produce them. Within certain geographical limits, however, as those of a coun- try having throughout nearly the same climate with respect to tem- perature and humidity, useful rules may be given for distinguish- ing soils by means of the plants which they produce. Numerous species of plants, indeed, will grow with equal readiness on differ- ent kinds of soils ; yet there are other species which affect parti- cular soils, and in their wild state do not grow on any other. Thus, there are plants whose natural habitat is peat, others which grow on soils charged with moisture, and others on soils which are dry ; some which, under the like conditions of humidity and temperature, are proper to the light and siliceous soils, some to the stiff and argillaceous, and some to the calcareous. But, as even within the limits of a single country, nearly similar in its climate throughout, variations must exist of altitude, and, consequently, of temperature, — of exposure to particular winds, and, consequently, of humidity, — of j)roximity or distance from the sea, — and other circumstances affecting the habitats of plants, — it is often difficult to indicate the precise nature of a soil merely by its prevailing vegetation. It is almost always possible, however, to determine from this circumstance, whether the soil be wet or dry, and whether it be fertile or infertile. It is for the last mentioned purpose, namely, determining the 46 SOILS. character of a soil with respect to its fertility, that the examina- tion of its vegetable produce is the most important in practice. The nature of a soil, with regard to its texture and other physical characters, will generally he best determined by an examination of the substance itself. But its fertility, or power of production, may he judged of from its natural produce ; in part from the kinds of plants which are peculiar to it, and in part from the luxuriance with which they grow. When we cast the eye over a tract of country, we have gene- rally little difficulty in determining whether it he barren or fertile. The general aspect of the vegetation, whether stunted or vigorous, the absence or presence of heaths, the richness of the sward, the cleanness and straightness of the stems of trees, the verdure of the foliage, and the like, present to the eye a general character not easily to be mistaken. When we observe a tract covered with luxuriant grasses and other plants, and with vigorous shrubs and trees, we naturally as- sociate these appearances with fertility in the soil itself. When, again, we see a tract of heaths or naked sands, with the plants small or sickly, the soil thinly covered with lichens, mosses, and other inferior plants, the eye alone is sufficient to indicate that the tract is absolutely or relatively infertile. The same method of judging of the productiveness of the soil may be extended to a field or to a farm. Let us direct the eye over it, and its general character with relation to its vegetable pro- ductions, will impress us at once with an idea of its fertility or bar- renness. This conclusion, indeed, will not be so securely arrived at if the surface be limited to a single field, and still less if that field be cultivated, in which case the effects of art, and the stimulus of cul- tivation, may disguise the natural characters of the soil. But if the range of our observation shall be so extended as to take in a sufficient number of fields and objects, such as trees, shrubs, hedges, and natural meadows, we shall scarcely fail, if the eye be at all ac- customed to country objects, to arrive at a tolerably correct con- VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 47 elusion as to the general character of the soil with respect to fer- tility ; and our conclusions will be yet more satisfactory and pre- cise, if we know the particular kinds of plants which thus give the character of infertility or productiveness to the soil. The plants, the most important in this species of examination, are the heaths, the grasses, and other herbage plants. In the vast forests of the New World, a common method resorted to by set- tlers for judging of the comparative productiveness of soils, is by observing the kind of trees produced, whether pine, cedar, hickory, or oak. This is because the principal vegetable productions of these countries are wood. But with us the principal vegetable productions are the heaths, the grasses, and other plants that form the sward. These may be said to cover the entire surface of the country when not extirpated by art ; and they afford, accord- ingly, the readiest means which vegetable productions present of judging of the properties of soils. The fertility of soils, generally speaking, is denoted by their power to yield the useful plants ; and it is a law, with few excep- tions, that the poorer the soil is, the less nutritious are the plants which, in its natural state, it produces. The soils of the poorest class produce mosses, lichens, and heaths, which are less nutritious than the grasses. As the soil improves in quality, the grasses become intermixed with the heaths, lichens, and mosses. But the grasses are still inferior and little nutritious. As the soil continues to improve, the grasses become more valuable in their kind, and more numerous in their species ; and, in like manner, the legumi- nous and other herbage plants indicate, by their kinds and greater numbers, the increasing fertility of the soil. A square foot of rich old turf has been found to contain 1000 separate plants of twenty distinct species ;* while a square foot of siliceous sand will fre- quently contain not more than half a dozen distinct plants, and those of a single species. In the northern latitudes of Europe, the plants most generally regarded as indicative of inferior soils are the heaths. Some of ^ Hort. Gram. Woburnensis. 48 SOILS. the species of this family characterize, in a peculiar manner, the soils termed peaty. They are found, too, abundantly, on the coarser clays or tills, on the poorer siliceous sands, as those lying upon or derived from quartz, on the poorer class of calcareous soils, as chalk, and generally on all soils low in the scale of fertility. The soils where this kind of plant prevails, are frequently termed heathy soils, or heaths. Heathy soils have, however, their rela- tive degrees of productiveness, and this is generally well denoted by the vigour with which the heaths peculiar to them grow. Thus, a soil of stunted heaths may be regarded as amongst the lowest in the scale of fertility, whilst a vigorous growth of the plant may indicate a soil susceptible of improvement and cultivation. The principal heaths of this country are : — 1 . Calluna vulgaris — Common Ling ; 2. Erica cinerea — Fine- leaved Heath, indicative of a dry soil ; 3. Erica Tetralix — Cross-leaved Heath, indicative of a wet soil ; and two other species more rare and local. Intermixed with heaths, and indicating, like them, soils low in the scale of fertility, are numerous plants. Such are — 1. Many species of Lichens, as Cladonia rangiferina — Rein-deer Moss, and Cetraria islandica — Iceland Moss. Which two species form an exception to the more common law, by being nutritive, though produced on inferior soils. 2. Empetrum nigrum — Black Cro wherry or Crakeberry. 3. Salix fusca — Dwarf Silky Willow. 4. Lycopodium clavatum — Common Club-moss. 5. Genista anglica — Needle Greenwood or Petty Whin, &c. And many of the inferior grasses, as — 1. Melica coerulea — Purple Melic-grass. 2. Nardus stricta — Mat-grass. 3. Agrostis vulgaris — Fine Bent-grass. And various Carices and Junci — plants of an inferior kind, with respect to their nutritive powers. All these species of plants indicate soils low in the scale of fer- tility. VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 49 But although peaty soils produce these and other inferior herb- age-plants, yet there are plants still more distinctive of this class of soils, and which, growing only upon it, may be said to be the true plants of peat. Such arc — 1. Certain species of Sphagnum, of which the most common are : — Sphagnum obtusifolium — Blunt-leaved Sphagnum. Sphagnum acutifolium— Sharp-leaved Sphagnum. By the decay of which species, the great mass of peat ap- pears to be formed in certain countries. 2. Eleocharis caespitosa — Scaly-stalked Spike-rush. 3. Polytrichum commune — Common Polytrichum. 4. Ditferent species of Eriophorum or Cotton-grass, namely — Eriophorum vaginatum — Hare’s tail Cotton-grass. Eriophorum polystachion — Broad-leaved Cotton-grass. Eriophorum angustifolium — Common Cotton-grass. 5. Xarthecium ossifragum — Lancashire Bog-asphodel, &c. These and other j^lants growing only on peat, indicate great infertility. Another class of plants indicating extreme dryness of the soil, also consists of plants denoting infertility. Such are — 1. Galium verum — Yellow Bedstraw, 2. Galium saxatile — Smooth-headed Bedstraw. 3. Campanula rotundifolia — Round-leaved Bell-flower or Harebell. 4. Aira praecox — Early Hairgrass. 5. Aira caryophyllea — Silvery Hairgrass. 6. Aira cristata — Crested Hairgrass. 7. Arenaria rubra — Purple Sandwort. 8. Hieracium Pilosella — Common Mouse-ear Hawkweed. 9. Linum catharticum— Purging Flax. 10. Rumex acetosella — Sheep’s-sorrel. There is also a class of plants which indicate wetness of the soil. These plants, however, do not necessarily indicate inferti- lity, because, in numerous cases, soils, though charged with mois- ture, are naturally fertile. Of the first kind, namely, those indi- cating infertility, as well as moisture, the follov/ing are ex- amples : 1. Juncus squarrosus — Heath-rush. 2. Juncus acutiflorus — Sharp-flowered jointed Rush. D 50 SOILS. 3. Lyclinis Flos-Cuculi — Meadow Lychnis or Ragged Robin. 4. Ranunculus Flammula — Lesser Spearwort. 5. Cnicus palustris — Marsh Plume-Thistle. 6. Cardamine pratensis — Common Meadow Lady’s- smock. 7 . Pinguicula vulgaris — Common Butterwort. 8. Pedicularis sylvatica — Pasture Louse-wort or Dwarf Red Rattle. 9. Triglochin palustre — Marsh Arrow-grass. 10. Galium palustre — White Water Bedstraw. 11. Rhinanthus Crista-Galli — Common Yellow Rattle. And various species of Carex, &c. The plants Avhich have been mentioned, indicate infertility and wetness of the soil ; others shew that the soil is wet, but do not necessarily indicate that it is infertile. Such are — 1. Agrostis alba — March Bent-grass or Fiorin. 2. Poa fluitans — Floating Meadow-grass. 3. Poa aquatica — Reed Meadow-grass. 4. Arundo Phragmites — Common Reed. 5. Alopecurus geniculatus — Floating Foxtail-grass. 6. Catabrosa aquatica — Water Whorl-grass. 7 . Equisetum arvense — Corn Horsetail ; and other species of Equi- setum. 8. Veronica Beccabunga — Brooklime. 9. Polygonum amphibium — Amphibious Persicaria. 10. Stachys palustris — Marsh Woundwort. 11. Juncus etfusus — Soft Rush. 12. Juncus conglomeratus — Common Rush ; and many other species of plants. Certain plants are held to indicate infertility where they pre- vail, without being peculiar either to a very wet or very dry situa- tion. Such are — 1. Euphrasia officinalis — Eyebright. 2. Prunella vulgaris — Self-heal. 3. Aira caespitosa — Turfy Hair-grass. 4. Triodia decumbens — Decumbent Heath-grass, &c. Certain plants indicate a maritime situation. Such are — 1. Ammophila arundinacea — Common Sea-Reed or Matweed. 2. Carex arenaria — Sea Carex. 3. Elymus arenarius — Upright Sea Lyme-grass. 4. Triticum junceum — Sea Rushy Wheat-grass. 5. Statice Armeria — Thrift or Sea Gilliflower, &c. .VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 51 Various plants are regarded as indicating fertility where they prevail. Of these are — 1. Cnicus lanceolatus — Spear Plume-Thistle. 2. Urtica dioica — Great Nettle. 3. Arctium Lappa — Common Burdock. 4. Stellaria media — Common Chickweed. 5. Achillea Millefolium — Common Yarrow. And generally speaking, all the richer and more nutritious pas- ture grasses. Such are — 1. Dactylis glomerata — Rough Cocksfoot. 2. Festuca pratensis — Meadow Fescue. 3. Alopecurus pratensis — Meadow Foxtail. 4. Poa trivialis — Rough-stalked Meadow-grass. 5. Lolium perenne — Ryegrass. Those who desire to pursue these investigations more in detail, may consult botanical works descriptive of the plants of particu- lar countries or districts, in which they will find the habitats of plants indicated with more or less correctness. It is not neces- sary, in the present place, to extend the observations on this sub- ject ; for in giving examples of plants, those have been selected which are of frequent occurrence, and the best suited to indicate the characters of soils in this country. V. THE PROPERTIES OP SOILS, AS DETERMINED BY CLIMATE AND ALTITUDE. The soils of countries, however distant, must, with respect to their mineral constituents, be nearly alike ; for everywhere the crust of the earth is composed of the same mineral masses, and everywhere the like waters and air act upon these masses, and re- duce them to soils. But although the same matter forms the basis of all soils, from the polar circle to the equator, yet wholly different are the soils produced, with relation to their fertility and vege- table productions. While, in the higher latitudes, a district of 52 SOILS. granite and the primary rocks may produce only pines, heaths, and feehle mosses, a similar district in the warmer regions may he covered with palms, fig-trees, arborescent ferns, and the richest produce of a tropical clime. If we shall look at the hot-houses of our gardens, we shall see the soil which, in the air without, pro- duces only the plants proper to the climate, yielding, under the in- fluence of increased temperature, the richest fruits and gayest flowers of the tropics. Not only has every zone, from the torrid regions to the frozen, its peculiar vegetable productions, but within the same zone, and in tiie same country, the vegetable productions are dependent on the influence of temperature. If we ascend from the plain to the mountain, we shall behold the vegetation vary with every increase of altitude. In the'vast mountains of intertropical regions, we find, at tlie base, the vegetable productions of a moist and burning cli- mate — the palm, the banana, and the banyan ; ascending, we reach the region of the walnut, the lime, the oak ; yet higher, we come to the birch, the pines, and other productions of northern climates ; and, towards the summit, to the mosses and lichens of the frozen zone. And, in like manner, in every country, we shall find, that, as we change our climate by ascending, a new vegetation, varying with the change of temperature, presents itself. Within the nar- row limits of our own country are found all the intermediate de- grees between fertility and barrenness of soil, dependent upon alti- tude. The great mass of the cultivated soil of the British Islands lies below the level of 600 feet; and 800 feet may be considered as the upper line of ordinary cultivation, beyond which tillage is partial, and quickly ceases. Ascending, all the grasses, rushes, sedges, and even the hardiest of the heaths, progressively disap- pear, until we reach at length an elevation at which vegetation ceases altogether, or at which only mosses and flowerless plants are produced. The rapid change of temperature produced as we ascend above the level of the lower grounds, and the controlling influence of altitude on the productiveness of the soil, will appear from the following diagram : — SMALLER BREEDS OF CATTLE CLIMATE 53 Fig. 3. feet, Ben-Na-Muicli-Duich, Aberdeensh. 358 Ben Nevis, Inverness-shire [4060, Cairn Gorum, Grampians k3994, Ben Lawers, Perthshire Snowdon, Caernarvon, Wales, 3571 ' 13513, Schihallion, Perthshire [3420, Ben Lomond, Stirlingshire 3009, Ben Ledi, Perthshire 2658, Cheviot, Roxburghshire 2432, Tinto, Lanarkshire 1750, Pentland Hills, Edinburghshire. 1564, Patches in tillage at Leadhills, Lanarksh. , Average range of the Lamniermoor Hills , Arthur Seat, Edinburgh , Lands in tillage in Upp. Ward of Lanark- ‘ shire 600 ,Biggar,L\NARK- ‘ SHIRE I, Salisbury Crags Edinburgh 54 SOILS. The conditions which influence the climate of countries are various. The principal of them may be comprehended under the following general heads : — 1. Latitude. 2. Altitude and aspect. 3. The relations of a country with the adjoining seas, and with the lands of other countries. 4. Humidity and the prevailing winds. 5. The nature of the surface. 1. With respect to the effects of latitude, it is a general law, though greatly modified, that countries shall be colder as they re- cede from the equator to the poles. This is caused mainly by the less direct action of the sun’s rays, which, impinging on the surface obliquely, are reflected and not absorbed. But, from the inclined position of the earth’s axis, the day in summer increases in length as countries recede from the equator ; and this is a grand provision in nature for making compensation in part for the effects of dimi- nished temperature, and rendering the higher latitudes habitable ; for, by this means, the heat communicated to the earth during the day is greatly increased, and the processes of vegetation proceed with less interruption from the absence of light ; and thus plants the most necessary to man are brought to maturity during a brief period of heat and sunshine. It is thus that the inhabitants of the extreme north of Europe are enabled to cultivate several of the cereal grains almost as well as in the lower latitudes. We derive supplies of corn from Archangel, which approaches the limits of useful vegetation in Europe ; and in the northern parts of Scandi- navia, nearly ten months of the year are ice and snow, and yet a brief and fiery summer of long days enables the inhabitants to cul- tivate barley, oats, rye, and other useful vegetables. But yet, with the decrease of the mean temperature, the power of the earth to produce different plants continually diminishes. 2. The otlicr conditions referred to as affecting climate are al- titude and aspect. Tlie cause of that progressive decrease of ieinperaturc which takes jilace as we ascend, is mainly due to the CLIMATE. 55 pliysical properties of the atmosphere. The air below is pressed upon by tliat which is ahore, and the higher we ascend the less is the pressure. In proportion, therefore, as we ascend, and as the pressure from above becomes less, the air tends to expand, and becomes more and more rarefied. This decreasing density of the air, combined with that property of heat by which it becomes con- tinually less sensible as a body increases in volume, is the cause that the air becomes colder in a rapidly increasing ratio as we ascend. This effect is so great, that even in those zones of the earth in which the rays of the sun are the most direct and power- ful, we quickly, in ascending, reach a point at which the cold is intense. At the equator, the height of the line of perpetual con- gelation is only about 15,000 feet ; and it only becomes lower to- ward the higher latitudes, until at the poles it may be considered as level with the sea. At the latitude of the south of England, it is about 6000 feet ; and in Scotland it is so much lower, that the summits of the highest mountains just fall beneath it. Thus nearly do we approach in the British Islands to the region of per- petual frost, far beneath the lower limits of which all useful vege- tation has ceased. Analogous to the effect of altitude on temperature is that of aspect. If a tract of land is inclined towards the sun, the rays will strike it more directly than if it is not inclined towards the sun. Nay, the plane of its surface may be so far turned away that the direct solar rays shall not strike it at all. In the colder countries, the sides of mountains exposed to the sun are often intensely heated ; while the other side, which the sun’s rays do not strike, or which they strike very obliquely, is wrapped in per- petual winter. In the Alps, towards the plains of Italy, it is common to see one side of a mountain covered with never-melting ice, and on the other, vineyards, cultivated fields, and all the beauty of the richest summer. The vast plains of Northern Asia incline to the North, and this, in conjunction with other causes, produces an intensity of cold in latitudes which would otherwise produce an almost perpetual verdure. 3. The relations of a country with the adjoining seas, and 56 SOILS. with the lands of other countries, have an important influence on climate. The temperature of the sea is greatly more uniform than that of the land. When the prevailing winds of a country, therefore, blow from the sea, its temperature will be more equal than when they blow from the land. It will be less cold in winter, and less warm in summer. This circumstance influences greatly the cli- mate of Europe, and in an especial degree that of the British Islands. Again, the position of a country with respect to the lands of other countries, may vastly modify its climate. Let it be imagined that a country is placed near another whose surface is wholly or partially wdthin the limits of perpetual congelation, — then, when the winds blow from the cold and frozen region, they immediately communicate the cold of the higher country to the lower, and produce an effect upon the temperature of the lower country in proportion to the constancy with which they blow from the higher. This circumstance has a mighty influence upon all the climates of northern countries. Near and within the arctic circle, a vast accumulation of ice has taken place, which never yields to the in- fluence of heat. The winds that blow from these frozen regions affect all the countries which they reach. Europe, with respect to this vast magazine of ice and snow, is happily situated, because it has an ocean between it and the arctic regions ; and Great Britain is yet more favourably situated than countries of tlie same latitude on the continent of Europe, be- cause the northern winds must pass over a long space of sea be- fore they reach it. But along the vast and elevated plains of Northern Asia, which communicate Avith the lands of the arctic regions, the rigour of the north Avind is intense, and that in latitudes far to the south of ours. This gives rise to extremes of temperature, which the in- habitants of Europe never experience. Pekin is in the latitude of Sardinia, and yet the Avinter of Pekin is more severe than that of the highest inhabited land of the Highlands of Scotland. Hum- CLIMATE. 57 boldt remarks, that, with a summer more hot than that of Cairo, the winter is more rigorous than that of Upsal in Sweden. The same intensity in the extremes of temperature prevails over Chi- nese Tartary, and a great part of the Russian Empire in Asia. And when "we turn to the New World, the effects of this contact with the frozen regions of the north is not less remarkable. In North America, within latitudes which Avould comprehend the mild- est climates of Euroj)e, a degree of cold prevails, which, for a part of the year, is excessive. The finest parts of England lie within the same latitudes as the frozen regions of Labrador and Hudson’s Bay. In latitudes in which, in Europe, snow is scarcely ever seen, the largest American rivers are frozen over in a night. In the midst of summer, should a north wind arise, the temperature is in an instant changed to the cold of Vinter. At New York, says Humboldt, we find the summer of Rome and the winter of Copen- hagen ; at Quebec, the summer of Paris, and the winter of St Petersburg. 4. The humidity and prevailing winds of a country exercise likewise an important influence on climate. There exists continually in the air of the atmosphere a quan- tity of aqueous vapour. This quantity is not constant, but varies with the temperature of the air, and the degree of evaporation from tire surface of the earth and seas. This vapour of the at- mosphere is invisible, and only becomes apparent to the senses when condensing in clouds, mists, dews, and other watery meteors. In the warmer zones the air is vastly more charged with this in- visible moisture than in the colder, and this is a bountiful pro- vision of Nature ; for plants are thus supplied in the greatest de- gree with moisture from the atmosphere, when it is most rapidly evaporated from the surface. Rain is merely the precipitation from the atmosphere of the water which the air holds in solution, and snow is frozen water. Of the causes which produce a rapid deposition from the atmosphere, one, the most commonly assigned, is the mixing together of currents and masses of air of different temperatures, by which means their common temperature is so lowered that the excess of aqueous vapour is necessarily thrown 58 SOILS. down. The direction and constancy of the winds of particular regions have therefore an important influence in causing the de- position of rain from the atmosphere. In the torrid zone, the winds, from causes unnecessary to be here explained, have a wonderful degree of constancy, and only change at fixed seasons. The water of the atmosphere is there- fore only thrown down in quantity at particular periods, pro- ducing the distinction of the dry and rainy seasons. But then the quantity is very great, far exceeding that which is produced in the drier air, and with the more varying winds, of higher latitudes. But even in the warmer regions, the currents of winds are some- times so modified and deflected, that rain scarcely ever falls in particular places. Thus, in the valley of the Nile, rain is so rare as to he looked upon as a remarkable event, and over many hund- red miles of plains in South America no rain ever falls, all the moisture required by growing plants being supplied by the dew. In the higher latitudes, the currents of wind are greatly more inconstant than in tlie lower, and masses of air of difierent tem- perature being continually intermingled, falls of rain are more fre- quent. Mountains intercept the clouds, and on the elevated grounds a greater quantity of rain falls than in the plains. Not only the elevation of a tract of country, therefore, but its position with re- spect to the neighbouring mountains, has an influence on the hu- midity of the climate. On one side of a range of mountains, the climate may be comparatively moist, and on the other, towards which the prevailing winds blow, it may be comparatively dry ; nay, particular valleys and narrow tracts may be more or less frequently visited with rains, according to the degree in which the currents of wind are deflected by the neighbouring heights. Even within the limits of a narrow country, therefore, there are tracts in which the climate is more or less humid. On all the western shores of the British Islands, toAvards which the Avesterly Avinds, charged Avith the vapours of the Atlantic, bloAv, a much greater quantity of rain falls than on the eastern. While, at Edinburgh, the mean annual flill of rain is estimated at 24 inches, at Kendal, in AVestmoreland, it is calculated at 56. This circum- CLIMATE. 59 stance has a sensible influence on the practices of agriculture and the economical value of the soil. The moist climate is more favour- able to the production of the grasses and other herbage-plants, while it is less favourable to the ripening and harvesting of the cereal grains. 5. The last of the circumstances to be referred to as affecting climate, is the nature of the surface. By a law of heat, when bodies change from the solid to the li- quid state, or from the liquid to the aeriform, they produce cold. To maintain a body in the liquid state, a quantity of heat is re- quired beyond what is necessary to maintain it in the solid ; but this increased quantity of heat is not manifest to the senses, but remains latent or concealed in the body. A body, therefore, in becoming liquid, withdraws heat from the neighbouring matters, and so produces cold. In like manner, when a liquid becomes va- pour, it requires a quantity of heat to maintain it in this state, which it did not require to maintain it in the liquid form ; and hence a liquid, in becoming vapour, withdraws heat from the neighbour- ing bodies, which becomes latent in the vapour. When water, there- fore, becomes liquid, that is when ice melts, heat is withdrawn from the bodies around, to supply the latent heat of the newly-formed liquid. Again, when a body passes from the state of liquid to that of vapour, it in like manner, but in a far greater degree, produces cold. The evaporation of water, therefore, whenever it takes place from the surface of the earth, causes cold. These phenomena are reversed when vapours become liquid, or liquids solid. The new substances give out again their latent heat, and the surrounding bodies become warm. All have felt the refreshing coolness produced in the air by a shower of rain in summer. This is caused by the subsequent eva- poration of the water, and the consequent withdrawal of heat from the neighbouring bodies. In the polar regions, this giving out of heat when water freezes, and the causing of cold when it melts, pro- duce a highly beneficial effect. When the sun, rising above the horizon, gives to the inhabitants theii* long day, the heat is intense. Its effects, however, are tempered by the melting of the ice and 60 SOILS. snow, which produces cold. And again, when the sun begins to decline towards the horizon before the long and dreary night be- gins, all the waters freeze. This produces heat, and so the change to the inhabitants, from the summer of their long day to the winter of their long night, is rendered gradual, and supportable by the human frame. Tlie evaporation of water is continually going on from all the surface of the earth and seas. Countries present surfaces more or less favourable to evaporation, and hence their temperature is more or less affected by the condition of their surface. A country covered Avith swamps and lakes sustains a greater evaporation than one which is dry ; and hence countries of this character are subject to excessive cold. The rendering of a coun- try dry by art, tends to increase its temperature ; and there is knoAvn to have been a vast improvement in the climate of coun- tries by the labour of man. In our country, over all Europe Avhere cultivation has extended, and over all America -where the forests have been felled, the climate has undergone improvement by the draining off of moisture. The climate ‘of Europe possesses those characters Avhich arise from difference of latitude, altitude, and other circumstances. To- wards the eastern boundary of the Ural Mountains, it partakes of the rigorous climate of Northern Asia ; but it becomes more equal, with respect to the extremes of temperature, towards the Atlantic. South of the line of the Pyrenees on the Avest, and of the Balkan on the east, the climate of Europe is equable and Avarm, the Avinds are moderate, and the sky is serene. This region comprehends Spain and Portugal, Italy southward from the Tiber, the finest parts of Turkey in Europe, Greece, and the lovely islands of the Archipe- lago, Sicily, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. Within this delight- ful zone groAV the orange, the citron, the olive, and the vine ; and, along Avith Avheat and barley, are cultivated rice, millet, the sugar- cane, and other productions of the Avarmer latitudes. The natives consume oil in quantity along Avith their food, and the liquor, ex- cept in the Mahomedan States, is Avine. North Avard from this, Avhich may be termed the region of the olive, to about the 50th CLIMATE. 61 degree of latitude, which just touches the southern shores of Eng- land, the vine, though with a less propitious temperature, is largely cultivated. Wheat and barley are the principal cereal grains pro- duced, oats being little used. The liquor of this region is chiefly wine, and the bread is of the flour of wheat ; the use of oil dimi- nishes, and the produce of the dairy is partially or wholly substi- tuted. This fine region comprehends northern Italy, France, Svdtzerland, about one-half of Grermany, the countries of the Da- nube, and the Kussian dominions on the Black Sea. From the 50th to the 60th degree of latitude, the mean temperature becomes less, and the climate more variable ; the culture of the vine ceases, and the hardier pomacese are substituted. In this zone are culti- vated wheat, rye, barley, buck-wheat, and oats : rye and buck- wheat supplying the place of wheat in the more northern parts, and oats the jflace of barley : the liquor of the inhabitants is beer, and butter supplies the j)lace of oil. Here, with a ruder climate, the industry of the inhabitants sometimes gives a greater fertility to a country than the most bountiful gifts of nature elsewhere ; wdtness Holland, the Low Countries, England, and a part of Scot- land. England, or the southern division of Great Britain, possesses a climate more irregular than the rest of Europe in the same lati- tudes ; but the temperature is less in extremes, so that the winters are more mild, and the summers more cool. The climate is like- wise more moist, because the prevailing winds are the westerly, which blow over the Atlantic, charged with its vapours. This coolness and moisture combined are unfavourable to the maturing of certain plants, as the vine, which ripens its fruits in a higher latitude on the continent than in England ; hut it is sufficient for the ripening of the cereal grains, and the most useful plants, on land not too greatly elevated, and it is in an eminent degree fa- vourable to the production of the common grasses. This commu- nicates a lovely verdure to the sward of England, which endures throughout the greater part of the year, and may well console the inhabitants for the gayer flowers and more varied vegetation of southern climes. The climate of England differs with respect to 62 SOILS. humidity on the western and eastern sides of the island, the quan- tity of rain which falls on the former being greatly more than that which falls on the latter. The same character of comparative humidity and dryness ap- plies to the western and eastern coasts of Scotland, and this with a diminution of the mean temperature, so that the climate of Scotland is more moist and cold than that of England. In spring, the progress of the vegetation is several weeks behind that of the southern and central parts of England ; and the harvest of the cereal grains is proportionally retarded. Ireland partakes of the character of the climate of the west of England, with a yet greater degree of humidity. The summer of Ireland is more cool, and the winter more temperate, than in any country of the same latitude ; and this moisture, combined with a medium temperature, renders Ireland peculiarly suited to the pro- duction of the grasses and other herbage-plants. From this cursory examination of the subject of climate, it will appear, that, whatever be the constitution of the soil, its produc- tive powers are essentially alfected by temperature and the other conditions of climate. The same soil may be fertile in Devonshire, and comparatively barren in the Western Hebrides; and we should reason altogether erroneously concerning the relative fertility of tracts of country, and the kind of culture adapted to them, were we to omit the consideration of climate and place. In these latitudes of ours, where the range of useful vegetation is limited to narrow bounds of altitude, the height of a tract of ground above the level of the sea must be seen to form a neces- sary element in determining its economical value. At the eleva- tion of upwards of 1000 feet, the farmer of these islands must look to pasturage and not to tillage as the means of making good a rent ; and when tillage is pursued at such an altitude, it must be chiefly regarded as subsidiary to the raising of food for the animals of the farm. In estimating the value of land, then, for the purposes of till- age, a large deduction must be made on account of its elevation. The farmer, too, must regard the exposure of his land when he CLIMATE. 63 estimates its adaptation to the raising of particular crops. Many of our most fertile soils incline to the north ; but this is less fa- vourable to the ripening of the cereal grains, than when the ex- posure is towards the sun. Other circumstances are likewise to be taken into account in judging of the value of any tract of land, as whether it is exposed to the action of particular winds, wdiether it is naturally or arti- ficially sheltered, whether its climate is dry or humid, whether it is in the vicinity of the vapour of swamps, and whether the sur- face is steep or level. Giving the due weight to these, and other circumstances which may afiect the economical value of a tract of land, as a field or farm, the following rules may be given for enabling the student to discriminate soils in the situations in which they shall be pre- sented to him. 1. Let him make such use of the indications afforded by the natural produce of the soil, as his means of information may af- ford. He may not knovf the names of the plants which are grow- ing upon the surface, but he can always observe whether the sward is thickly covered with species, and whether the general aspect of the part to be examined indicates fertility or poverty. A difiiculty, which it will be well that he endeavour, in the first place, to overcome, is to distinguish the peaty soils from the earthy. He will experience little difficulty in this when they are distinct from one another, and covered by their natural herbage. But when they are subjected to cultivation, or intermingled with the earthy soils of the same field, or when a soil contains a certain portion of peat in its composition, without being entirely peaty, then the eye may be deceived, from the resemblance of peat to the dark-coloured loams. The one class of soils, however, may be of great fertility, and the other very barren : for it is to be observed, that, though peat may be often rendered fertile, its presence in soils is always suspicious. The soils termed peaty, it was before observed, are dark in their colour, and loose and spongy in their texture, even when improved by art. The soils which they most resemble in exter- 64 SOILS. nal characters are the richer loams, hut they are more light and spongy, and their colour is of a duller dark, the loams approach- ing in colour to a hazel hue. Peaty soils, too, very generally lie on a retentive subsoil ; hut a good method of discriminating them in the absence of their peculiar vegetation, is by the stones which lie upon their surface. These appear to be acted upon by the acid matter of the peat, and present a white appearance, which, when once observed, will not be easily mistaken. Coupling this indication with the dull black, as distinguished from the brighter hazel of the loam, and above all, with the peculiar vegetation and steril aspect of the surface, an observer will soon leaim to distin- guish the peaty soils from the earthy. In examining soils, an essential circumstance to be regarded is the depth of the soil, and the texture of the subsoil. 'A medium depth of a soil may be held to be about twelve inches. But it will be better that it exceed a foot, and this greater depth of the soil is always a favourable indication. If the depth of the soil does not exceed six or eight inches, that is an unfavourable indication. Such shallow soils are rarely good, except sometimes when they occur resting on peculiar rocks, as compact limestone and certain easily decomposed basalts and porphyries. If a shallow soil shall occur on a retentive clay, or on siliceous sand, we may certainly pronounce it to be bad. When, in the common operations of till- age, the plough is constantly turning up a subsoil very different in colour from the upper stratum, that is an unfavourable indica- tion. When we find the rain in a furrow of ordinary descent carry- ing off the soil, and leaving the subsoil exposed, that is an un- favourable indication. It is desirable that the water in the fur- rows shall sink down, and be absorbed, instead of carrying off the surface soil. If the soil be of a dull black colour, and if it present upon the surface the white stones above referred to, that is an unfavourable indication, as it shews that the soil has more or less of peat in its composition. If the soil produce sub-aquaiic plants, it is wet. If we find INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVE POWERS. 65 that such a soil is peaty, or shallow on a retentive subsoil, it is naturally steril. If we find that the suh-aquatic plants are tall and vigorous, and the soil earthy and deep, the removal of the wetness may remove the cause of infertility, and such a soil may become of the richest kind. If we find a soil producing naturally the superior herbage-plants, and of a good depth, we may infer such soil to be good. When a soil of this kind tends to a dark hazel colour, we may safely reckon it amongst the superior soils. By attention to these rules, and by a little observation and practice, the difficulty of discriminating soils will gradually be lessened, and at length disappear. Those who have been used to country objects rarely experience difficulty in discriminating soils, in so far as these soils are to be distinguished by their texture as stiff and free, or by their powers of production as rich and poor. V. MEANS OF INCREASING THE PRODUCTIVE POWERS OF SOILS. The means at our command of increasing the productive powers of soils may be regarded as partly chemical and partly mechanical. They may be comprehended under the following ge- neral heads ; — 1. Supplying to the soil those earthy and organic substances which may be required. 2. Altering its texture, depth, and properties, by mechanical means. 3. Changing its relation with respect to moisture. 4. Changing its relation with respect to temperature. The texture of the soil, it has been seen, exercises an influence on its fertility, and on the modes of cultivating it. If clay too greatly predominate, the soil may be too adhesive and retentive E 66 SOILS. of water ; if sand prevail, the soil may be too loose, the water too readily exhaled from it, and the matters of organic origin may be too imperfectly retained, and too quickly wasted. A just ad- mixture of the two substances is to be sought for ; but it is safer in most cases that there be a tendency to an excess of clay than of sand. The texture of the soil, accordingly, may be improved by mix- ing clay with sand, or sand with clay. But the removing of large masses of earth is in ail cases an expensive process ; and it is rarely, therefore, that the farmer transports mere clay or sand from one part to mix with the clay or sand of another, with the sole design of improving the texture of the ground. He usually contemplates a chemical as well as a mechanical action ; and, therefore, for the most part, he mixes together such substances as improve the constitution as well as the texture of the soil. Thus marl, which is a mixture of clay and carbonate*of lime, is frequently brought from a distance, or digged from beds beneath the surface, and mixed with the upper stratum of sand. By this means, not only is the mechanical texture of the soil improved, but the matters are added in which the sand is deficient, namely, alumina and lime. In the countries of the chalk, the marly mat- ter of the lower beds is frequently digged up and mixed with the flinty chalk of the upper, and even brought from a distance for that purpose ; by which means the upper chalk is not only im- proved in its texture, but in its constitution, by the addition of that aluminous matter in which it is itself deficient. In like man- ner, clay is often mixed with chalk, and chalk with clay. Clay and chalk are likewise mixed with peat. In the countries of the fens, it is common to dig up the clay on which peat rests, and mix it with the matter of the surfiice ; by which means one of the greatest improvements of which peat is susceptible is at once ef- fected, and a productive soil formed of one originally barren. In these examples, the action is partly mechanical and partly chemical. In other cases, the mineral substances added to the soil are in too small a quantity to alter essentially or directly the texture of the soil, and chiefly act in promoting vegetation by INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVE POWERS. 67 the addition of sucii matters as plants consume in growing, or by otherwise rendering the soil more fitted to perform its functions. Vegetable and animal matters, in a decomposed or decompos- ing state, act in yarious ways in increasing the productive powers of the soil. They improve its texture, and they may be supposed to increase its power to absorb and retain moisture ; but, above all, they supply that matter which, in whatever form conveyed to the organs of plants, tends to nourish them. This matter being absorbed by the roots of the plants, it must be supplied when exhausted. Experience has in every age, accordingly, taught the husband- man to supply those substances to the soil; and the doing so forms one of the most important means at his command of maintaining or increasing its fertility. It is seen, then, that the composition of soils may be improved by the addition of those mineral substances which may be re- quired, or by supplying those animal and vegetable matters which afford nourishment to growing plants. Another mean, analogous in its effects to the application of manures, of changing the texture and composition of soils, is in- cineration, commonly called Paring and Burning. This process will be described in connexion with the operations of tillage. These, then, are the first of the means referred to of adding to the productive powers of soils, and will be considered in detail under the head. Manures, and other branches of the management of the farm. The secoid mode referred to of increasing the productive powers of soils, is by altering their texture, depth, and proper- ties, by mechanical means. By the operation of the plough and other instruments, in pre- paring the ground for the reception of the seeds of plants, in tilling these plants when growing, and in removing weeds, the parts of the soil are divided, and the air is admitted into its in- terstices. By continued pulverization of the soil, its parts are mechanic- ally reduced to that state of division, which improves its texture 68 SOILS. and increases tlie proportion of finely-divided matter. The air, too, which is thus permitted to act more freely on the parts of the soil, aids the mechanical processes in reducing the earthy par- ticles to that finer state of division which favours the chemical actions which promote vegetation. Peaty turf, if suffered to re- main in its original state, may continue to produce nothing but heath and useless plants ; hut, if frequently ploughed, and exposed to the influence of the atmosphere, it will tend to produce grasses of a better kind, and of greater variety. If, again, a subsoil of coarse clay be exposed to the atmosphere, it is at first unproduc- tive ; but by pulverization and exposure,* its characters change. This is most remarkable in the case of clay-marl, a substance in itself containing the materials of a fertile soil, but which is often barren, until after pulverization and the influence of the atmo- sphere. Another purpose sometimes promoted by tillage, and subser- vient to the amendment of the soil, is the deepening of the upper stratum. The subsoil, it has been seen, is distinguished from the soil, properly so called, by the former containing less vegetable and animal matter, and so being less suited to the nourishment of plants ; and in certain cases the subsoil is found to be injurious to vegetation. It is generally important, however, that there be a good depth of soil ; and thus it is often expedient, for the effect- ing of a permanent improvement of the surface, to plough up and mix with it a portion of the subsoil, even though this subsoil should be in itself infertile. By exposure to the air, and comminution of its parts by tillage, the new material turned up loses by de- grees its infertility, and the whole soil becomes amended, by a larger space being afforded for the extension of the roots of plants. This is matter of long experience in the garden, where deep trench- ing is practised for the purpose of forming or improving a garden S(ul. ' The soluble matters of the soil are washed by the rains into the subsoil, and even heavier substances, as lime, sink into it. It is a point of good practice to bring u]) these substances again within INCREASING THEIR PRODUCTIVE POWERS. 69 reach of the roots of plants, and hence deep ploughing is a mean of increasing the productiveness of a soil. Often the subsoil is so hard as to resist the passage of water, and prevent the extension downwards of the roots of growing plants. Sometimes, especially in peaty soils, a large quantity of protoxide of iron collects, and, uniting with acid bodies, forms an impenetrable cement, provincially termed moorhand. In this and other cases, the superincumbent soil is improved by breaking the hardened subsoil. Frequently, in consequence of long-continued tillage, the sub- soil becomes indurated immediately underneath the ordinary track of the plough, forming what is termed a pan. This pan resists the percolation of water, and interrupts the extension of the roots of plants, and it sometimes contains a sensible quantity of iron, derived from the metal of the tilling instruments. By deep ploughing, and breaking the hardened layer of the pan, the soil never fails to be improved. These, then, are the principal mechanical means by which we can improve the soil, and they will be considered in detail, along with other methods of improvement, under the various heads Avhich relate to the operations of tillage. The third mode referred to of increasing the productive powers of soils, is changing their relation with respect to moisture. In warmer countries, the soil is comparatively little injured by an excess of water, and more frequently suffers from the insuffi- ciency of it. But in climates like ours, the operation of convey- ing away the water which is in excess, is an essential one, and, if neglected, any scheme of improvement may fail. The superfluous water is either stagnant upon the surface, or is derived from springs and other sources, and saturates the soil. The freeing of culti- vated land from water upon the surface gives rise to the formation of land into ridges, by which the water escapes without stagnating upon the ground, or sinking into the subsoil. This is a matter necessarily connected with tillage, and will be described when the manner of cultivating land is treated of. The freeing of the -soil again from that superfluous water whicli 70 SOILS. is derived from other sources, or which, from any cause, saturates the soil, forms a peculiar branch of agricultural improvement, and will be described under the head Draining. As draining is more required in the colder countries, so Irriga- tion, or the watering of land, is less required there than in those countries where the heat and evaporation are greater. Irrigation, however, is a curious and interesting branch of rural economy, derived by us from very ancient times. In this country, it is chiefly employed for the watering of land in grass during the months of winter and spring, and will be described when treating of the Ma- nagement of Grass-Land. The last of the means referred to of increasing the productive powers of soils, is changing their relation with respect to tempe- rature. This mode of adding to the productive powers of soils, is less within our control than any of the others. It is only by slow de- grees that we can improve the climate of a country. It is chiefly by draining, and by the rearing of hedges and wood, that it can be effected. These form important objects of rural economy, and will be partially treated of in this work. The means, then, of adding to the productive powers of the soil, — namely, supplying to it the organic and earthy substances which may be required ; altering its texture, depth, and proper- ties, by mechanical means ; and changing its relation with respect to moisture and temperature, — will all be treated of under the different divisions of our subject ; and we shall begin Avith that which is most closely connected Avith the nature and properties of soils, — the nature and properties of those substances Av^hich Ave apply to the soil under the name of Manures. 71 II. MANURES. All substances which, when added to the matter of the soil, ren- der it more productive of plants, are in common language termed Manures. Manures may he composed either of vegetable and animal bo- dies, or they may consist of earthy, saline, and other substances, derived from mineral matters. They may, therefore, be classed, according to their origin, into, 1. Vegetable and Animal Manures. 2. Mineral Manures. To which may be added a mixed class, which, being derived partly from organic and partly from mineral substances, cannot be referred to either source. All plants, it has been seen, and all the products of plants, are resolvable into carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and, in smaller quanti- ty, nitrogen or azote ; and plants, and the products of plants, fur- ther contain certain earthy, alkaline, and other bodies in various states of combination, namely, silica, alumina, lime, magnesia, the oxides of iron and manganese, soda, potassa, common salt and other chlorides, sulphur, and phosphorus. The soil, too, it has been seen, contains carbon and other sub- stances derived from organic bodies, together with all the mineral matters of which the substance of plants consists. In the practice of the farm, the seeds and other parts of plants are carried away, in whole or in part, from the ground which pro- duces them, and thus the matters of organic origin, as well as the earthy, saline, and other mineral compounds, are taken from the soil, and, in certain cases, they must again be supplied, in order that the fertility of the soil may be maintained or increased. Ve- getable substances consist of the matters which they had derived from the soil as well as from the atmosphere, and likewise of the earthy, saline, and other constituents, with which the earth had supplied them ; and animal substances, being all directly or indi- 72 MANURES. rectly derived from plants, contain likewise, in certain forms of combination, the ingredients, in whole or in part, of which plants themselves consist. In supplying, therefore, animal and vegetable substances as ma - nures to the soil, we, in truth, supply the same substances which enter into the composition of the living plants, and which they derive from the soil and the atmosphere. These substances, in- deed, exist in the dead matter of the manures, in states of combi- nation different from those in which they may exist in the living vegetable ; yet still the same component parts are present, and must be believed to supply the matter of nutrition which the plants in growing require, although the new combinations which they form may be unknown, or the manner in which they are absorbed by the delicate organs of the plants may escape our observation. That all the remains of organized bodies, whether vegetable or animal, nourish plants, is a truth which has been known and forced upon the attention of mankind from the earliest times. The dis- coveries of chemistry were not necessary to instruct men in a truth which so many natural phenomena presented to them. But the investigations of chemistry are not the less curious and im- portant, that they accord with an observed truth, and shew that the same substances which exist in living bodies, exist in those which experience, from the earliest ages, had taught the husband- man to employ as the food of plants. The application, likewise, of earthy, saline, and other bodies to the soil, as a mean of rendering it productive, has been prac- tised from early times, and by the rudest husbandmen. All the substances of this kind hitherto employed, are found in plants, in different forms of combination ; and when we add them to the soil, we supply the very matters which the plants require for their growth and development. But the substances of this class, be- sides affording matters which the living plants require, may act by rendering the matter of the soil itself better fitted to perform its functions. This class of substances therefore, though, equally with the others, to be regarded as manures, yet, exercising differ- ent actions, require to be separately treated of. 73 I. MINERAL MANURES. The mineral substances which are employed as manures, may be supposed to exert two modes of action. 1. They may act upon the soil by producing new combinations, or by otherwise fitting the matter of the soil to promote the growth of plants. 2. They may act immediately on the plants themselyes, by being carried by the sap into the organs of the growing plants. And when received into the plants, they may either enter into their tissue, or combine with substances generated by the vegetable organs. We cannot always distinguish when a mineral substance acts upon the plants through the medium of a change in the matters of the soil, or when it acts directly upon the plants, by being re- ceived into the vegetable substance, and much less can we deter- mine what functions it performs in the vegetable organism. We can, however, draw conclusions, founded on experiment or ana- logy, as to the modes of action of the substances we employ. Such inquiries fall within the provinces of chemistry and vegetable physiology, rather than of agriculture ; yet, if cautiously pursued, they may sometimes lead to a better knowledge of the conditions under which particular manures may be applied. I shall not, how- ever, enter more into the theory of the action of these substances than the subject may seem to require. The mineral substances which enter into the composition of plants and the soil, have been said to be silica, alumina, lime, mag- nesia, the oxides of iron and manganese, soda, potassa, common salt and other chlorides, sulphur, and phosphorus ; to which may be added carbon, in so far as it is derived from the mineral king- dom. Silica enters into the substance of plants, and largely, in com- bination with alkalies, into that of the stems of the cereal and other grasses. It is itself nearly insoluble in water ; but, under 74 MANURES. certain conditions, it is taken up by that fluid. Combining with the alkalies, it forms soluble salts, so that silica, in a state fitted to enter the roots of plants, is generally contained, in the quan- tity required, in the water of the soil. Silica, too, forming the greater part of all soils, it can rarely be necessary that we shall add it directly to the soil itself. The cases where this is some- times done are when siliceous sand is mixed with stubborn clay, with peat, or with chalk ; but silica, in such cases, is always mixed or combined with alumina and other matters. But silica, although rarely applied directly to the soil, is indirectly applied with the manures of the farm-yard, with wood-ashes, and with other sub- stances, in which it exists in a state of mixture or combination. Alumina exists in very minute quantity in plants, but forms an important constituent in soils. It is one of those mineral bases which combine with the matter of decomposed organic bodies, and with sulphuric, phosphoric, and other acids. It is rarely that we add alumina to the soil, except when it is mixed with calcareous matter. Mere clays, however, may be advantageously mixed with -chalk, or with peat and sand ; but, in these cases, it is always better that the clay contain a mixture of lime. Alumina exists in the natural state in the well-known substance. Alum, which is a compound of the sulphates of alumina and pot- assa. Alum can be obtained at a moderate cost, and might pro- bably be used with benefit as a manure ; but sufficient experiments have not been made with it in its separate state. Lime, in its several combinations, is the most useful of all the mineral bodies vffiich have yet been employed as manures. It is found in the greater number of plants, in the bones and shelly covering of animals, in the waters of springs, rivers, and the ocean, and in almost all soils which are capable of cultivation. It exists in nature in various combinations, but most largely as a carbonate, in which state it forms vast mineral beds in every region of the globe. As employed in agriculture and the other arts, it is derived from all the following orders of rock-forma- tions : — MINERAL MANURES. 75 1. From the rocks of the primary series, of which the lime- stones are exceedingly hard and crystalline, aftbrding a pure lime, and the finest of our statuary marbles. 2. From the transition rocks, the limestones of which, like the last, are very compact and crystalline, and yield a lime of good quality. 3. From the mountain limestone and calcareous deposites of the coal formation, from which sources the largest supplies are derived in this country, because, along with the limestone, exists'the fuel for calcining it. 4. From the magnesian limestone ; which, from its being largely mixed with carbonate of magnesia, possesses peculiar properties, to be afterwards referred to. 5. From the lias and oolite formations ; which, however, gene- rally yield a lime much mixed with other earths. 6. From the chalk, from which lime in unlimited quantity can be obtained; but from the fuel being distant, the expense of cal- cination is frequently considerable. 7. From the tertiary deposites ; from which, however, little lime is obtained in England. In other countries, however, as Italy, the limestones of the tertiary series are largely used for building, and for yielding lime for mortar. Carbonate of lime, when subjected to a red heat, loses the car- bonic acid with which it was combined. It then becomes lime, which is a substance of an earthy nature, of alkaline or caustic properties, and capable of exercising a powerful action on animal and vegetable substances. In order to obtain lime from the carbonate, the limestone is calcined in heaps intermixed with fuel, or better in a large kind of furnaces, termed lime-kilns. The limestone and fuel are put into the lime-kiln and ignited ; and after a time, when the fuel is consumed, the raw material, deprived of its carbonic acid, is re- moved. But it is better that the lime-kiln be so constructed, that the lime shall be withdrawn from apertures below in propor- tion as it is calcined, fresh limestone and fuel being added from 76 MANURES. above, so that, the contents of the furnace being once ignited, the process of calcination may proceed without interruption. The lime thus obtained is very impure, being mixed with the other earthy matter of the limestone, and the residue of the fuel ; but it is perfectly adapted to the valuable purposes of the arts to which it is destined. It has lost above 40 per cent, of its weight, and hence the economy of carriage by calcining limestone in the places where it is obtained. Lime, as it is derived from the kiln, is never spread upon the ground in the practice of the farm. It is first allowed to com- bine with water, in which case it swells out to about twice its for- mer volume, and crumbles down, forming a fine powder. In this state it is a hydrate of lime, and termed Quicklime by farmers. It is this action of the combination of lime with water which forms the process of slacking, or loosening, so well known as the means of preparing lime for its uses. When the calcined mate- rial is exposed to the air of the atmosphere, it attracts moisture, and slowly crumbles down ; or if water be added in quantity, the lime combines at once with it, and quickly falls into powder. The water, in becoming solid, gives out its latent heat, which is often sufficient to kindle inffammable bodies. About 28 parts by weight of lime combine with 9 of water, so that newly calcined limestone increases about one-third in weight by being slacked. The com- pound produced retains the caustic properties of the original lime : it is soluble in water, and, when pure, is perfectly white. Lime, besides its attraction for water, has a strong affinity for carbonic acid. When lime, therefore, after being slacked, is ex- posed to the air, it begins to attract carbonic acid from the sur- rounding medium. The carbonic acid gradually takes the place of the water, and the hydrate becomes a carbonate. Thus the lime recovers the principle which it had lost by calcination ; and becomes again a carbonate, without, however, recovering its for- mer external characters. In proportion as it combines again with carbonic acid, it loses the properties which it had acquired by cal- cination. It ceases to be caustic, and becomes insoluble in pure water. MINERAL MANURES. 77 It is chiefly this property of combining again with carbonic acid, which renders lime useful beyond all other substances as a cement in building. The hydrate, that is, the lime after being- slacked, when formed into a paste with water, attracts carbonic acid, and becomes cohesive and hard. If it be mixed with silica and alumina, the mass becomes more coherent than when lime alone is employed. Hence, in preparing common mortar, the lime, after being fully slacked, is mixed with sand, and formed into a paste. During these processes, and after being applied to the wall, the mortar attracts carbonic acid, and is ultimately converted wholly or partially into a carbonate. In the practice of the farm, the calcined limestone, or quick- lime, is usually laid in the field in heaps, where it is suffered to slack by means of the rains and moisture of the air ; and some- times water is applied to hasten the process. When fully slacked, it is applied to the ground in the manner to be hereafter described. But sometimes it remains so long in the heaps, that it not only slacks, but attracts carbonic acid in such quantity as to be again partially converted into a carbonate. Lime, however, in its state of hydrate, is more perfectly di- vided, and may be spread more equally upon the surface, and better mingled with the soil, than Avhen it has again become a car- bonate. It is then likewise soluble in water, so that the rains quickly bring it in contact with every particle of the soil. Fur- ther, in its state of hydrate, it produces effects which it either does not produce in its state of carbonate, or which it produces more slowly, or in a less degree. It is therefore a point of good practice to apply lime as soon as possible after it is slacked, and while it still retains its solubility and caustic properties. When lime has been mixed with the earth, it soon attracts car- bonic acid from the matters of the soil, and becomes mild. In this state, it is fitted to enter the roots of growing plants. It is in- deed in itself little soluble in water, but water, when it is charged with carbonic acid, which it generally is in the soil in a greater or less degree, has the property of dissolving the carbonate in small 78 MANURES. quantity ; and besides, it is probable that the fibrils of roots, in coming in contact with the carbonate, render it soluble, and ca- pable of being absorbed. Lime exercises a powerful action in decomposing the ligneous parts of plants, attracting their carbon and oxygen, and produc- ing new combinations. Thus, if applied to peat, it is observed to decompose very quickly the vegetable fibre, reducing the whole to a mass resembling dark vegetable mould. Lime, too, performs the part of a base, and combines with mat- ters formed by the decomposition of animal and vegetable sub- stances in the soil, forming compounds which are themselves often insoluble, or little soluble, in water. But these compounds, ex- posed to the continual action of water and air, are altered after a time, and furnish new compounds, capable, it must be believed, of nourishing plants. Lime, therefore, by forming these compounds, prolongs the nutritive action of animal and vegetable substances beyond the period during which they would have acted, had they not entered into combination with lime. Of this mode of action of lime, an example may be given in one of the arts. When it is wished to carry off, from the vegetable juices in the manufacture of the sugar of beet, the animal sub- stances which have been used for purifying them, lime is employ- ed, which combines with these substances, and rises with them to the surface in the form of a thick scum, which is insoluble in water. This scum, under the older processes of the manufacture, when laid upon the fields, had no beneficial action on plants so long as it remained insoluble, but after being deposited for a suf- ficient period in a trench, and permitted to ferment, it formed a rich manure. Thus, too, when lime is applied to a rich garden soil, it is fre- quently observed to produce a temporary sterility ; which may be ascribed to the lime combining with the animal and vegetable matters in the soil, and producing insoluble compounds. In like manner, when lime is mixed with any pure animal sub- stances, it forms with them less soluble compounds, and renders MINERAL MANURES. 79 tlieir effects on tlie soil less sudden, but more permanent. Thus, being mixed with niglit-soil and other fsecal matters, a manure is produced which is capable of preservation. Lime, in performing the part of a base, combines with certain acids which are formed in the soil by an excess of water. Land which has been saturated with water is said by farmers to be soured ; and the expression expressly denotes the effect, for acids are really formed, which retard the decomposition of vegetable substances. The application of lime neutralizes acids of this kind, and, in the language of farmers, sweetens the soil. Lime sometimes forms new compounds with mineral matters existing in the soil. Thus, if sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which is a compound of sulphuric acid and protoxide of iron, exist in the soil, and lime be applied, the lime may combine with the sulphuric acid, and form a sulphate, and thus convert into fertilizing matter a substance which in excess is injurious. Hence we see the beneficial effects which generally result from applying lime to a subsoil, which is exposed for the first time to the air. Such subsoils frequently contain sulphate of iron, as well as other metallic salts, which exercise an injurious influence on plants. Whenever it is wished to deepen a soil by ploughing up a portion of the subsoil, the readiest means which we possess of counter- acting the hurtful effects of the newly exposed material is an abun- dant application of lime. Lime is found to increase the productiveness of plants culti- vated for the farina of their seeds, and in an especial degree of the cereal grains, and to cause them to ripen more early. It is likewise eminently favourable to the growth of leguminous her- bage and forage plants, such as lucerne, sainfoin, and the clovers, and likewise of the common grasses. When lime is spread upon a piece of peaty turf, it is frequently found to eradicate, in whole or in part, the mosses, lichens, and heaths, and to permit the native grasses and clovers to grow. Lime, when added to a piece of land, renders a smaller appli- cation afterwards necessary of jiutrescent manures. Hence, lime 80 MANURES. may be regarded as an important mean of economizing such ma nures in parts of the country distant from the sources of supply. To admit of the beneficial action of lime, the soil should be freed from superfluous water. Lime, it has been said, neutra- lizes certain acids which are produced by the action of stagnant water ; but if, after one portion of these acids has been saturated, other portions are suffered to be formed, the evil will remain as if the lime had not been applied. Not lime only, but all manures, are less efficient, when the land is saturated by water ; and hence the use of draining as a mean of increasing the efficiency of ma- nures. Lime may be applied to the land in different ways, and at dif- ferent periods. 1. It may be laid on the surface of land which is in grass, and remain there until the land is ploughed up for tillage, even though this should be several years afterwards. The lime, in this case, quickly sinks into the soil, and, acting upon it, prepares it for crops when it is again tilled. 2. It may be spread upon the ground, and covered by the plough, just after a crop of any kind has been reaped. In this case, it prepares the soil for the succeeding crops. 3. It may be spread upon the surface, even when plants are ■ growing. This practice, however, though sometimes convenient, is rarely to be imitated. 4. It may be, and most frequently is, applied during the season in which the land is in summer-fallow, or in preparation for what are termed fallow-crops. 5. It may be mixed with earthy matter, particularly with that containing vegetable and animal remains ; in which case it forms a compost. The quantity of lime applied to soils is very various, and is de- pendent upon the nature of the soils, the climate, and other cir- cumstances. The stiff clays for the most part require a larger proportion of lime than the lighter soils ; and in the case of such soils as con- MINERAL MANURES. 81 tain much undecomposed vegetable matter, as peat, a quantity should be applied sufficient to decompose effectually the inert fibre. In the north of England and south of Scotland, a moderate ap- plication of lime for the lighter soils is held to be 120 bushels, heaped measure, of unslacked lime, and a medium dose for soils of different kinds, about 130 bushels, though a much larger quantity than this is applied in certain clay-land districts. The periods at which doses of lime should be repeated differ ac- cording to the quantity applied and the manner of using it. In cases where the large applications just spoken of are made, an ef- fectual liming need not usually occur in less than fourteen or fif- teen years. But in other cases, lime is applied in smaller quantity, and more frequently, and there is nothing opposed to a sound theory in this practice. Nay, there is reason to infer that a more frequent application of lime, and in smaller quantity, is the most econo- mical method of using it, after land has been brought into regu- lar culture. The application of lime calls into powerful action the nutrient principles of the soil ; and hence, if land be severely cropped after lime has been used, it is reduced to a greater state of sterility than if the mineral had not been applied. Lime, therefore, calcu- lated as it is to produce the best effects in fertilizing a soil, is fre- quently made the means, in the hands of an injudicious farmer, of injuring it. This is especially observable in the case of light soils of an inferior kind. These are frequently so injured by injudi- cious cropping after the application of lime, that they are reduced to a state of the greatest barrenness. When soils are brought to this condition by scourging crops, they cannot be restored to fer- tility by a subsequent application of lime. So far from this, the future dose generally renders them more barren than before. The only good remedies are the application of vegetable and animal manures, and rest in grass. But although the active properties of lime may be abused, it is an instrument of production of the highest importance in the hands F 82 MANURES. of the skilful farmer. On land improved and cultivated for the first time, it exercises a powerful and lasting influence. For the reclaiming of peaty and moory soils, it is the most efficient agent which has yet been discovered. In North Britain, where this class of soils prevails, all the most essential improvement of land pre- viously waste has been effected by the free use of lime ; and in Ire- land, it has been employed with the best effects on the peaty soils which so largely exist in that country. But in proportion as land becomes rich by regular culture, and the continued accretion of extraneous matters to the soil, the com- parative value and necessity of liming diminish. In the neigh- bourhood of cities, lime is little used, because the refuse matter of the town contains more or less of lime', and because a sufficient quantity of soluble putrescent matter already exists in the soil, or can be obtained from the adjacent towns. The farmer has generally a sufficient indication of the want of lime in his soil by the less vigorous vegetation of the grasses and clovers, by the growth of sorrels, and by the prevalence of mosses and other cryptogamic plants. Lime, in the state of hydrate, exercises a more pow^erful ac- tion on the matters of the soil than when in the state of carbo- nate; yet carbonate of lime performs important functions, and exists in nature in several states in which it is beneficially em- ployed as a manure. Marl is a mixture of carbonate of lime with clay, or with clay and sand, and it may contain sulphates and other compounds. It occurs in beds, and is extensively diffused through all the second- ary formations, assuming a great diversity of appearance, accord- ing as it is more or less compact, or as the lime, clay, or sand, prevails. When very indurated, it is frequently termed rock-marl, and is generally held to be valuable in proportion to the quantity of calcareous matter which it contains. Marls should be laid upon the surface, and generally well ex- posed to the action of the air, before being mixed with the soil ; for certain marls are found to be deleterious unless they shall have undergone this previous exposure. The kinds of soil to which MINERAL MANURES. 83 marls are most advantageously applied are the lighter kinds, — the sandy, gravelly, and peaty, and the flinty chalks. The quantity of this substance employed is exceedingly va- rious, being dependent on the nature of the soil, and the propor- tion of calcareous matter in the marl. When the purpose has been to change entirely the constitution of a defective soil, marl has been applied at the rate of from 300 to 400, nay of from 500 to 600, cubic yards to the acre. But when it is merely in- tended as a 2 )eriodical manuring, it is applied in the quantity suf- ficient to afford an ordinary j^roportion of calcareous matter, as at the rate of from 80 to 100 cubic yards. Being spread upon the surface of the ground when in grass or stubble, it is allowed to remain there until the ordinary period arrives for ploughing the land. Marl is much more slow in its operation than quicklime, but more enduring in its effects. It was extensively employed in the early husbandry of the British Islands ; but it has given place, in many cases, to the more active agent, quicklime. It has been employed with peculiar success in the improvement of loose sandy soils, to which it communicates not only calcareous matter, but the clay of which the sand stands in need. The county of Nor- folk owes much of its acquired fertility to the large use of marl ; and in parts of Belgium, the greatest improvement which sandy soils have received in Europe has been effected by means of this substance. Shell-marl is another form in which carbonate of lime is applied to the soil. The substance so termed is a deposite of the shelly covering of land mollusca, and is frequently found under beds of peat. It is more or less mixed with earths, and contains an ap- preciable quantity of gelatinous animal matter. It may be used at the rate of from 25 to 30 cubic yards or more to the acre. It can be applied when the land is in various states, as when it is in stubble, in summer-fallow, or in grass. In the case of land in grass, the calcareous matter improves the growing herbage-plants, and, sinking into the soil, prepares the ground well for producing crops of corn, when it is broken up for tillage. 84 MANURES. The same consequence is produced by excessive cropping after tlie application of this substance as after that of calcined lime- stone. The soil which has been stimulated by the action of the mineral becomes more barren than before, and its productiveness is only to be restored by rest and the action of animal and vege- table manures. Carbonate of lime is sometimes applied in the form of sand, consisting of siliceous matter mixed with broken corallines and shells. Calcareous sand is frequently found in quantity on the western shores of these islands. It is found in Cornwall, where it is carried considerable distances inland, in the west of Ireland, in the Hebrides, and in the numerous creeks of the coast of Ar- gyleshire. It may be spread at any time on the surface of land in grass, the herbage of which never fails to be improved by the application. In Ireland, large quantities of indurated marl, which is there termed limestone gravel, is applied to the soil ; and in some parts of England, a kind of gravel formed by the disintegration of cer- tain limestones, is used with advantage. Carbonate of lime is likewise applied to the soil in the state of chalk. The chalk employed for this purpose is that of the lower beds, which is more or less mixed with clay. An ordinary chalk- ing is from 150 to 200 bushels to the acre, but sometimes much beyond this quantity is applied. It improves the earthy soils, as well as the flinty chalk. Lime is likewise applied to land in other combinations, of which the most important are the Sulphate and Phosphate. Sulphate of lime, or Gypsum, is a compound of sulphuric acid and lime, and usually contains a definite quantity of water. It is found in almost all the rock-formations above the primary, to the tertiary, and most largely in the new red sandstone and countries of the chalk. It exists in many springs, communicating to the water the property termed hardness : it is found in the greater part of cultivated soils, in the manures of the farm- yard, and in the ashes and other refuse matter of towns. It exists in most spe- cies of plants, and largely in lucerne, sainfoin, clovers, and other MINERAL MANURES. 85 leguminosee. Although little soluble in water, the roots of plants have the property of taking it up very quickly, so that certain soils are soon exhausted of their gypsum, and the plants to which it is necessary, either cease to grow, or grow feebly ; — and then the salt must be again supplied, either by adding gypsum, or indi- rectly by the means of manures in which it is contained. Gypsum, when exposed to a gentle heat, parts with its water, and is easily reduced to a fine powder, in which state it is applied to the soil, or it may be used in the raw state, and pounded, with- out having undergone calcination. It is scattered on the grow- ing plants, usually in the latter part of April or in May, when the leaves are well developed, and the time to be selected for sowing it is when the plants are moist with rain or dew. It is employed at the rate of from 2^ to 3 cwt. to the acre. When the plants are those which take it up in quantity, it may be repeated almost every season. It is especially suited to lucerne, sainfoin, and the clovers, and being little costly, on account of the small quantity employed, it is often a valuable manure, especially in the case of the artificial meadow. Gypsum is more highly esteemed, and more largely employed, in some other countries than in England, as in France, parts of Germany, and the United States of America. This may be sup-’ posed to be, either because the soils of England contain naturally more of this salt, or because it is supplied to the soil in larger quantity by the manures of the farms and the towns. The want of gypsum is shewn when the cultivated clovers cease to grow with vigour, and when the soil, to use the common expression, becomes tired of the crop. Gypsum is found in quantity in the ashes of various peats, and some of these accordingly are used with extraordinary benefit in the manuring of the cultivated clovers and artificial meadows. Phosphates of lime are found in the grasses and other plants which form the food of herbivorous animals, and largely in the seeds of the cereal grains. Phosphates are therefore applied to the soil, in most manures derived from plants and the fseces of animals. Latterly, the bones 86 MANURES. of animals themselves, which consist in great part of a peculiar phosphate of lime, have been largely employed as manure, and will be treated of in the sequel under the class of manures of animal origin. A peculiar phosphate of lime exists likewise in the mi- neral state ; but it is found only in quantity in a few places, and has not yet been employed as a manure, except for experiment on the small scale. It is found in Bohemia, and in the kingdom of Estremadura in Spain, and in some other places. It is a variety of the mineral termed Apatite, and it is probable that it might be substituted in part for the earth of bones, although wanting the animal matter which these contain. Lime combines with nitric acid, and forms nitrate of lime. This salt is produced in certain composts, to be hereafter referred to, and is formed in many cases in the soil itself by the action of lime and decomposing organic matters ; but it is not found in mineral deposites, and has not yet been prepared artificially in quantities to render it largely applicable as a manure. Its compo- sition leads us to infer that it would be a powerful fertilizing agent ; bnt it is a very soluble salt, and is therefore readily washed into the subsoil, or carried away by rains. Magnesia resembles lime in its general properties, and, like it, existing in plants and the soil, it may be believed to serve im- portant ends in the economy of vegetation. Magnesia is found in many limestones; and when these are cal- cined, it is applied to the soil along with the lime. It is found in mo^t of the limestones of the coal-formation ; and in those termed Magnesian it exists in large quantity. The magnesian limestone formation of England, it has been stated, forms a narrow tract from South Shields to Nottingham. It is used for the purposes of building and agriculture. It is found, however, that if applied, after being calcined, in the same quantity as other lime, it produces a temporary sterility, burning, as it were, the soil ; hence it is termed hot-lime, and is applied in much smaller quantity than other kinds of lime. The effect has been thus explained : Magnesia has a smaller affinity for carbonic acid than lime, and when both are calcined together, and applied MINERAL MANURES. 87 to the soil, the lime attracts carbonic acid, and the magnesia re> mains longer in the caustic state. From the result it is inferred, that in this condition it produces the burning action referred to. When arrired at the state of carbonate, magnesia seems to exer- cise a highly favourable action ; and magnesian limestone may perhaps be regarded as the most valuable of any, since a smaller quantity of it suffices for the ends proposed. No other limestone is so efficient in the case of peaty soils ; and it is probable that the superiority observed in the case of the limestone of the coal- formation over that of the pure chalk is due to the presence of this earth. Magnesia, like lime, combines with sulphuric, nitric, and phos- phoric acids. Sulphate of magnesia forms the compound, Epsom salt. It is found in certain mineral springs, and largely in many soils ; but it does not, like the sulphate of lime, form deposites from which it may be obtained in quantity. It may, however, be formed arti- ficially at a low price. It might be employed in the same manner as gypsum, and might be found of equal benefit in the case of the cereal grains, in the seeds of which it exists, as the sulphate of lime is in the case of leguminous plants. Being a product of plants, it is necessarily applied in the vegetable and animal ma- nures of the farm. Nitrate of magnesia, like nitrate of lime, is a very soluble salt. It may be supposed to be formed in soils and composts in which magnesia is present ; but it has not been applied to the soil as a manure, nor is it likely, from the expense of obtaining it, to be so employed. Phosphate of magnesia, like phosphate of lime, exists in plants, and is supplied from the same sources, namely, the animal and vegetable manures of the farm. It is found in urine, and in the earth of bones, in which it exists in a considerable proportion, along with phosphate of lime. Iron, although it exists in plants, and largely in the soil, has not, in any of its forms, been employed as a manure. This, we may believe, is because we are not sufficiently acquainted with the con- 88 MANURES. ditions under which it may be applied ; for iron existing in plants and in the soil, it cannot be doubted that it performs important functions in the economy of vegetation. Even green vitriol, when used ill small quantities, has been found to be fertilizing; and plants have been found to vegetate and grow luxuriantly in soils mixed with more than half their weight of peroxide of iron. Manganese, like iron, exists in plants and soils, although in mi- nute quantity ; but it has not been employed in any of its combi- nations as a manure. Potassa and Soda are largely found in plants and soils; and no productive soil is known to us in which they do not exist in some of their combinations. Potassa is obtained, for the purposes of the arts, by burning plants, and washing their ashes. The substance thus obtained is the carbonate, mixed with silica and other substances. It is the common potash of commerce, which, by further purification, be- comes pearl-ash, so largely used in the arts. From this substance potassa can be readily obtained in combination with water, form- ing a hydrate. This is a powerfully caustic body, quickly decom- posing all animal and vegetable substances with which it comes in contact. It has a great affinity for carbonic acid, with which it quickly combines, destroying the organic tissues with which it is in contact, in order that it may obtain it. Carbonate of potassa is not applied to the soil in its separate state, but it is applied in the manures of the farm, and especially in the ashes of trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants, turf, and peat. Ashes of all plants, when applied to the soil, produce a rapid ve- getation. They contain, indeed, besides carbonate of potassa, sul- phate of the same base, and various salts which must contribute to their fertilizing properties ; but the carbonate of potassa is doubtless an element in their action. Analogy leads us to the conclusion that, if carbonate of potassa were applied in the sepa- rate state, it would be a very potent manure. Potassa combines with sulphuric and nitric acids. The Sul- phate has not been employed in its separate state as a manure, except on the small scale, for the purposes of experiment ; but it MINERAL MANURES. 89 exists ill plants, and is, tlierefore, supplied in the manures of the farm-yard. Nitrate of potassa, or Saltpetre, is naturally formed in the richer soils, by the formation of nitric acid, which combines with the alkaline base, in the same manner as nitrate of lime is formed in compost heaps and soils. Saltpetre is sometimes applied to soils in the separate state. It is in this case finely pounded, and scattered on the growing plants at the rate of from 1 to 1 cwt. to the acre ; and the period for using it is in spring, when the plants are yet young, but the leaves sufficiently expanded. It produces a development and verdure of the leaves which endure throughout the season. When applied to potatoes, it produces a great growth of the stems, and often of the tubers ; but in the case of the ce- real grains, although it causes a vigorous growth of the straw and leaves, it does not appear to produce any increase in the quantity or quality of the grain. It produces a great growth in pease and beans, and adds to the luxuriance of the common herbage-plants. Its effects appear to be transient, being little perceptible beyond the season in which it is used. It has generally little efiicacy in the case of rich soils artificially charged with the remains of or- ganic matter ; but in deep peaty soils, it is the most active ma- nure that can be used, causing a rapid growth in the coarser grasses and rushes proper to such soils. It is sometimes used in the re- fuse of the gunpowder manufactory, and nearly the same rapid but transient action is observed as when it is employed alone. Soda is obtained in the state of carbonate by the incineration of certain plants which grow in saline soils and the margins of the ocean, and largely by the incineration of fuci and other algee which grow on submarine rocks. The ashes of this latter class of plants afford a very valuable manure, which will be referred to in treating of those of vegetable origin. Their effects are due to other substances, as well as the carbonate of soda, but this, doubtless, exercises its proper action. A carbonate of soda, termed Natron, is found abundantly in the mineral state in Egypt and elsewhere, and other forms of the carbonate exist in other countries ; but it is not known that these substances have been used as manures. 90 MANURES. Carbonate of soda is now obtained, by chemical means, from com- mon salt, and might be furnished at a moderate cost. Soda, combined with sulphuric acid, forms Glauber’s salt, which can be prepared artificially at a reasonable price. Sulphate of soda existing in most soils, and in the ashes of plants, analogy leads us to the conclusion that it may be used as a manure. In the case of potatoes — a plant which seems to admit of the power- ful action of this class of substances — this salt has been found to act with great effect in increasing the production of the stems and leaves. Nitrate of soda has been found in the mineral state in South America, in a district near the northern frontier of Chili, extend- ing in beds over a tract of country nearly forty leagues in length. From this prodigious deposite it has been brought to Europe, chiefly as a substitute for saltpetre in the manufacture of nitric acid, and in this manner has been introduced into agriculture. The effects of this substance are nearly the same as saltpetre. It exercises a powerful but transient action. Being finely powdered, it is strewed upon the surface of the growing plants in spring, when the leaves are slightly moist. It is used at the rate of from I to li- cwt. to the acre, and this slight application produces a rich growth in the stems and leaves. The action, however, being almost limited to a single season, this substance is now regarded with less favour than at its first introduction. The other substances mentioned as being found in plants, are sul]3hur, phosphorus, and chlorine. Sulphur has not been applied in this country as a manure, al- though it Avould supply an ingredient existing in plants and the soil. Phosphorus is only employed indirectly as a phosphate, in the case of certain animal manures. The Chlorides are combinations of chlorine with other bodies. Two only need be referred to — the Chlorides of Calcium and So- dium. The earth lime is composed of oxygen and a metallic body, cal- cium ; and chlorine combining with the latter, forms chloride of calcium. This substance appears to be produced in certain cases MINERAL MANURES. 91 in the soil and in compost heaps. A mixed substance, usually called chloride of lime, is now largely employed in the arts, as a bleaching-powder ; and it has been found by experience that the refuse matter of bleaching-works has a considerable effect when spread upon the ground. Chloride of sodium is a compound of chlorine, with the metal- lic base of soda, and forms the well-known substance. Common Salt. In every period of the history of agriculture, disputes have arisen regarding the value and uses of salt as a manure. By the ancients, a salt soil was regarded as synonymous with an unfruit- ful one ; and the margins of the ocean, and vast saline deserts, attest the noxious properties of this substance when in excess. Yet salt is found over all the lands and waters of the globe, and enters universally into the composition of plants and animals, and is probably as essential to their health, and even existence, as other substances which enter into their tissues and food. When salt is applied in quantity to living plants, it destroys them ; yet, when applied in small quantity, it has been found, in many cases, to promote their grow^th. In certain cases, when mixed with the matter of the soil, it has been found to be useless or noxious, while in others it has certainly increased its fertility in a high de- gree. These discordant results have led to the differences of opi- nion which have always existed, and which yet exist, with respect to the uses of salt as a manure. Salt, existing in all plants and the excrements of animals, is applied to the soil in all the common manures of the farm-yard and the towns. When putrescent manures are applied periodi- cally, and in quantity to the soil, salt is generally furnished in the quantity required for the uses of the growing plants, and any excess may be useless or even hurtful. It is even supplied by rain-water, which frequently contains an appreciable quantity of it. Hence so many experiments with salt have been found un- profitable ; and hence, also, the error of supplying this substance to a soil, unless we have learned from previous experience that it will produce a good effect. • When salt is applied to growing plants, it should be in small 92 MANURES. quantity, not exceeding a few bushels to the acre. The plants to which it may be most safely applied are the common herbage- grasses. These perhaps will not grow with greater luxuriance ; but the application of the salt will render them more grateful to animals, which will be observed to feed eagerly on the parts on which salt has been spread. But the most advantageous manner of applying salt is by mix- ing it with the manures to be used. If mixed in a compost heap with lime, earth, and other substances, it increases, in a percep- tible degree, the fertilizing properties of the material. In the parts of England where rock-salt is found, the farmers mix it largely with the dung of the farm-yards, and the materials of their compost heaps. Salt has the property of destroying growing plants ; and hence, if laid on land in considerable quantity, it will contribute essen- tially to the destruction of weeds. With this design it has been sometimes applied, in the early part of spring, to land in summer- fallow, at the rate of 20 bushels or more to the acre. Of the mineral manures enumerated, lime is that which, from its abundance in the natural state, is the most generally employed,^ and which, from the permanence of its effects, is the most import- ant as an agent for improving the soil. But the alkalies and their compounds, from their more powerful and immediate action, are likely to be more largely used than hitherto for promoting the growth of particular crops ; and the use of them may be expected to extend in proportion as further experience shall shew the con- ditions under which they may be safely or beneficially employed. The farmers of this country have been gradually conducted to the freer use of these more powerful applications, by the multiplied facilities of obtaining them, in consequence of the cheaper pro- duction, and the increasing refuse of innumerable manufactories. They may be expected to add materially to the resources of agri- culture. But as the alkalies form more soluble salts than lime, their effects are more transient, and greater caution is required in using them ; for as injury is known to result from severe crop- ping after lime, so greater injury may be expected, under similar VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 93 treatment, to folloAV the application of substances which produce a stronger action on the decomposable matters of the soil. As plants require not one substance, but many, to promote their growth, mixtures of different salts employed in small quan- tities may be expected to he more useful than a single one. . This has given rise to the idea of forming fertilizers, as they have been called — that is, mixtures of different salts to he applied to the soil ; and manufactories have been even formed for supplying this class of substances. But farmers who may he desirous to make use of mixtures of this kind, will generally do better to procure the salts and mix them on the spot, applying them either directly to the soil, or through the medium of the compost heaps of the farm, in such proportions and in such quantities as experience shall shew to he beneficial. II. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL MANURES. All plaiits, it has been said, derive their mineral ingredients from the soil, and their carbon and other constituents partly from the soil and partly from the air of the atmosphere. Were all the seeds, leaves, and other parts of plants, to be mixed again with the matter of the soil, the latter would continually increase in fertility. But a large part of these substances is carried away from the ground which produces them, either directly, or through the medium of the animals to which they furnish food. But ani- mals, in leaving their excrements upon the farm, return in great part the substances which they had derived from the earth, and the application to the soil again of these substances, and of the vegetable matters employed as litter or otherAvise, is the most im- portant of the means possessed by the farmer of maintaining or increasing the fertility of his land. That the vegetable and animal substances applied to the soil may perform their functions, they must undergo decomposition ; and of the means Avhich nature employs for this end, one is the 94 MANURES. putrefactive fermentation, by which the parts of organized bodies, when life is extinct, are dissolved, dispersed, or formed into neAV combinations. All animal and many vegetable substances, under the necessary conditions, tend to undergo the putrefactive fermentation. In the case of manures, the fermentative process may either take place before the matter of the manure is mixed with the soil, or after it is mixed with it. In practice, it is common to cause the manure to be partly fermented before it is applied to the soil, and then to allow the final decomposition to take place in the soil itself. All animal matters decompose when acted upon by moisture and the air, the greater part of their constituents making its escape in various forms of gaseous combination. The results of the putrefaction of animal bodies are, ammonia, sulphuretted and carburetted hydrogen, and other compounds. When this decomposition takes place beneath the surface of the ground, these gaseous compounds may be supposed to be partially or wholly retained in the soil. Purely animal substances, there- fore, which thus readily decompose, do not absolutely require fer- mentation before they are mixed with the soil. Yet, even in the case of purely animal substances, advantages may result from sub- jecting them to a certain degree of previous fermentation, of which one is, that, being mixed with vegetable matter, they promote the more speedy decomposition of vegetable fibre. Vegetable fibre is, under certain circumstances, a slowly de- composing substance. When vegetables are green and full of juices, they readily undergo decomposition ; but when they are dried, as in the case of straw and other litter, they decompose with slowness, and the mixing of them with animal matter hastens the putrefactive fermentation. This mixing together of animal and vegetable substances is the process employed for preparing the dung of the farm-yard, which affords the chief supplies of putrescent matters on the farms of this country. The dung of the farm-yard will be treated of in the sequel, attention being, in the first place, directed to those various vegetable and animal VEC4ETABLE AND ANIMAL. 95 substances which may be applied to the soil in their separate state, and which are either produced upon the farm, or derived from other sources. Herbaceous plants, when soft and full of juices, quickly undergo decomposition when mixed with the matter of the soil. A prac- tice derived from early times, and still pursued in many countries, is to raise such plants on the ground to which they are to be ap- plied, and when they are yet green and soft, to plough them down, and thus mix them with the earth. In this state they very soon pass through their changes of decomposition, and alFord an en- riching manure to the subsequent crop. The plants the best suited for this purpose are those which grow quickly, and evolve a large system of leaves. The Greeks and Homans, who were familiar with this practice, and who have bequeathed to us many careful precepts regarding the kinds of plants to be employed, and the periods of covering them, made use chiefly of the bean and the lupine, but in an especial degree of the white lupine ; and this plant, on account of its easy culture and rapid growth, is still that which is preferred by the inhabi- tants of Tuscany and other parts of Italy where this ancient prac- tice is pursued. But other plants, even the cereal grasses, are likewise employed in these countries of quick vegetation. In the more northerly parts of Europe, the broad-leaved clover is some- times ploughed down, chiefly the second or third crop of the sea- son. Borage and corn-spurry are sometimes used in Germany and Holland, the latter plant, because it can be raised on barren soils. But of the plants employed in these latitudes, the most common are Buckwheat and Bape. Buckwheat may be cultivated late in summer, and soon arrives at the required maturity : hence, in England, it is sometimes practicable to grow it on land prepared for summer fallow, and to cover it before the subsequent crop is sown. The most suitable period for ploughing it down is when it has come into flower, but before the seeds have begun to bo formed, and the stems to be- come ligneous and hard. But rape, and, indeed, various other 96 MANURES. plants, which may be sown after harvest, in time to put forth a considerable system of leaves before winter, may he found pre- ferable to buckwheat. This simple species of manuring is cheap, and therefore, in cer- tain cases, may be adopted. It is, however, better suited to the warmer countries, where vegetation is rapid, than to the colder. In England, the practice has made little progress ; because, wdien green food of any kind is raised, it is found to be more advan- tageous to apply it to the feeding of the animals of the farm, in which case it not only yields manure but affords food. A manure of the same class consists of the Eoots of plants disengaged from the ground in the process of tilling and cleaning it. But the plants of this kind have usually vivacious roots and underground stems, and it is therefore necessary to destroy their vegetative powers before they shall be again mixed with the soil. This may be done by forming them into compost heaps, along with quicklime, salt, or any substance which may destroy them ; but many farmers, on account of the convenience of clearing their land at once of these troublesome plants, burn them in little heaps upon the ground at the time of their being collected, and spread the ashes upon the surface. The more careful husbandry is to collect and form them into composts. The Leaves of trees form the natural manure of forests, and, under certain conditions of temperature and moisture, accumulate, and form a bed of vegetable soil. But leaves not being collected until they have fallen from the tree, their juices have been ex- haled, and what remains is chiefly dry ligneous fibre, with the earthy and alkaline substances contained in the leaf. They are collected by gardeners, chiefly for forming beds beneath the soil for certain vegetables cultivated under glass. They are rarely obtained in this country in such quantity as to be employed as manure for the farm. Where the means, however, exist of ob- taining them, they should be collected before wdnter, and mixed with the dung of the farm-yard, or other refuse of the home- stead. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 97 Under the class of soft vegetable manures, is one of great value in the places where it can be obtained, consisting of the va- rious kinds of sea-plants which grow on maritime rocks. Sea-weeds, as they are termed, consist of numerous species of fucus and other algae. They are either cut from the rocks on which they grow, or cast ashore by the waves, especially after high tides and storms. They abound in a glutinous substance, which is very soluble, and which, when they are laid on the sur- face, is washed into the soil by the rains. The most common and convenient method of employing them is to convey them directly to the land as they are cast ashore, and to apply them fresh as a top-dressing to the grass-land or growing crops of any kind. But it is manifestly better, when circumstances allow, that they be covered by the soil when they are in the fresh state. When this is not practicable or convenient, they may be formed into a com- post with dung. This species of manure, though transient in its effects, is of much importance in the districts where it can be obtained, adding greatly to the value of the neighbouring farms. It may be laid on the land at the rate of from twenty-five to forty cart-loads, or more, to the acre. It is more efficacious in the case of the light soils than the clayey ; and hence, when a farm has access to it, it is better to apply the sea-weeds to the lighter, and the dung to the stiffer, soils of the farm. Peat is a substance which may be used as a manure ; but un- less freed from its peculiar principles, it may remain for years exposed to water and air without undergoing decomposition, in which state it can afford no nourishment to plants. Pure peat, therefore, should be made to undergo decomposition before it is applied to the soil. This may be done by long exposure to the air, or by mixing it with quicklime, which decomposes its woody fibre, and forms a kind of compost, which, however, is not greatly valued. But the woody fibre of peat may be better decomposed by mixing it with dung, or any animal matter. For this purpose, the peat may be carried directly to the fiirm-yard, and spread upon the heap of G 98 MANURES. dung, so as to be mixed equally with it. This is the most easy method of decomposing peat ; but care is to be taken not to sup- ply it in so large a quantity as to injure the quality of the manure. Peat may be decomposed, too, by mixing it in alternate layers with fresh dung in a fermenting state, the peat being first partially freed of its moisture by being for some time exposed to the air. The quantity of dung should be nearly equal to that of peat ; and when the mass has arriyed at the degree of blood-heat, it should be turned over and formed into another heap ; and this should in like manner be turned before being used. This species of com- post, however, often disappoints expectation, perhaps from the peat still retaining some principles unfavourable to vegetation. Another class of manures consists of the Ashes of plants. By burning plants, the greater part of their organic substance is lost, and what remains is a part of their carbonaceous, and their earthy, alkaline, and saline constituents. But the latter supply- ing to the soil the substances which the living plants consume, and acting on the matters of the soil, ashes form a manure of con- siderable efficacy, although, for the most part, their effects are little permanent. In the clearing of the woods of newly settled countries, the trunks and branches of the felled trees are frequently burned, and the ashes spread upon the surface. They produce a powerful and immediate action, the potassa of the plants affording the substance especially required for rendering soluble the accumulated mass of vegetable matters in such soils. In this country, the ashes of wood can rarely be obtained in the quantity required for manure ; but the ashes of peat and turf, which contain much vegetable matter, are frequently employed, either in the process of paring and burning, to be hereafter de- scribed, or in the case of the residue of fuel, where such sub- stances are made use of, or by burning them expressly for manure. The ashes of peat are a very compound substance, containing much clay and sand, and various eai’thy and alkaline compounds. In the north of Scotland and in Ireland, where peat is the principal fuel, the ashes are necessarily applied to the ground as manure. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 99 But for the most part, they are very transient in their effects, and far inferior to the dung of the farm-yard. Sometimes, however, they contain sulphate and even phosphate of lime in such quan- tity that they acquire a peculiar value, and are applied to turnips, and to the clovers and other herbage-plants with excellent effect. Of this character, are certain peat-ashes in England, produced chiefly in the countries of the chalk, as in Wiltshire and Berk- shire. In Holland, certain ashes are produced by the burning of turf taken from low marshes, which are covered during the winter season with brackish water. They are strewed upon the surface of growing crops of different kinds, chiefly the clovers and other leguminous herbage-plants. They are carried to considerable distances inland for this purpose, and sown at the rate of about 20 bushels to the acre. They have been brought to this country, and employed with good effect, but the demand has not been suffi- cient to encourage the importation. Sea-weeds yield ashes which may be applied with great benefit to any kind of crop. In the islands of Jersey and Gruernsey, and all along the adjoining coast of Normandy and Brittany, these ashes are esteemed beyond any other substance for manure. The plants are shorn from the rocks at stated periods, and when not used in the fresh state, are either burned directly for manure, or employed, in the first place, by the inhabitants as fuel. On the western and northern coasts of Scotland and Ireland, the marine plants of the rocky shores are burned for yielding the impure carbonate of soda called Kelp. The ashes are liquefied by the heat, and, on cooling, form a hard compact mass, containing from 2 to 5 per cent, of the carbonate. This substance, being pounded and spread upon the ground, forms an active manure, in the using of which, however, the precaution is required of not ap- plying it in too large a quantity, or too directly to the roots of young plants. This substance is easily portable, and now that the barilla of commerce is so largely substituted for kelp, and that the means have been found of preparing the carbonate from common salt, it would be desirable to extend the use of this substance as a manure, so as to afford subsistence to the numerous and hardy 100 MANURES. population so long dependent on the kelp manufacture. The only reason for melting the ashes into kelp in this case is, that they may he rendered more portable and capable of preservation ; for it is quite sufficient to char the ashes without causing them to liquefy. The ashes of Coal are employed as manure, forming a large part of the refuse matter of towns. The ashes of coal, when employed in the separate state, are most conveniently spread on the surface of meadows as a top-dressing. They are efficacious when so ap- plied, and improve the stiffer clays by rendering them more loose and pervious to the air. Another product of the incineration of plants is Soot, which is a deposition from the smoke of wood and coal, and is neces- sarily obtained in large quantities from the innumerable chimneys of this country. It consists chiefly of charcoal in a fine state of division ; but it contains likewise various compounds, amongst which are acetate and other salts of ammonia, to which, it may reasonably be supposed, a part of its eflect as a manure is due. Soot may be applied to any kind of crop, but it exhibits most efficacy in the case of the cereal and other grasses, communicating to the leaves a dark green colour. It may be strewed upon the surface of the growing plants, either by the hand from a sheet or basket, or better by a machine. It may be sown at the rate of from 12 to 15 bushels to the acre, or more ; or it may be deposited along with the seeds of plants sown in rows, in which case a small quantity will suffice to produce a vigorous growth of the stems and leaves, — a point of peculiar importance in the first stages of the growth of such plants as the turnip, the carrot, and the beet. The addition of Carbon in different forms to the soil is doubt- less beneficial. It is the mixture of this substance with the upper stratum, which mainly distinguishes it in colour and texture from the subsoil ; and there can be little doubt but that the continued addition of carbonaceous matter to the soil by the regular appli- cation of manures, is one of the means of communicating to it a greater degree of permanent fertility. The Seeds and Seed vessels of plants form a manure of great VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 101 efficacy. They contain more or less of nitrogen, with a large pro- portion of earthy and alkaline salts. In the countries of the south of Europe, the seeds of the lupine and other plants are sometimes dried, so as to destroy their germinating power, and applied with admirable effect to revive the languishing olive and orange trees. But the cases in which this class of substances can be employed as manure are very rare. With us their use is confined to the re- fuse of certain seeds from which the oil has been extracted. Bape-cake is the husk and refuse of the seed of the rape, after the oil has been expressed. It is reduced to a coarse powder by grinding, and in this state it is scattered upon the surface, and slightly covered, when it attracts moisture and speedily decomposes. It may be spread upon the tilled surface of any land just before the seeds are sown, at the rate of 10 or 12 cwt. to the acre. In this manner it is applied to wheat and the other cereal grains. It may be deposited likewise with the seeds of the cereal grains when sown in rows, and likewise with the seeds of the turnip and similar plants, at the rate of 4 or 5 cwt. to the acre, in the manner to be afterwards explained. It is sometimes employed as a top-dressing to clover and other herbage-plants, though it is better that it be mixed with the soil. It is efficacious in the case of a single crop, but is little permanent in its effects. It is more efficient in moist seasons than in dry, and is better adapted to the clayey soils than to the dry and light. Bape-cake is a favourite manure of the Flemings, who employ it in larger quantities than is customary in England, and frequently dissolve it in urine, forming a manure of the richest kind. Oil-cake is a similar substance, being tlie refuse of the seed of flax. But oil-cake is too costly to be much used as a manure, its proper destination being the feeding of the animals of the farm. The refuse of the seeds of tlie poppy, as well as of all the oleagi- nous plants, may be employed beneficially as manures. The seeds of the cotton plant, which formerly, in the United States, used to be allowed to accumulate and run to waste, form a peculiarly rich manure of this class. They might formerly have been imported with profit into this country ; but the American 102 MANURES. farmers have now learned to employ them in their own improving agriculture. Malt-dust consists chiefly of the radicle of the seed, which ger- minates in the process of malting. This substance is given as food to animals, and is likewise employed as a manure. It is ap- plied at the rate of from 30 to 40 bushels, or more, to the acre. It is sometimes used as a top-dressing, but it is more advanta- geously mixed with the soil. It is sufficiently enriching to the crop to which it is applied, but exercises little permanent action on the soil itself. The next class of manures consists of those of Animal origin. All these substances exercise a powerful action on growing plants, and the use of them has been known from the earliest periods of agriculture. Ammonia is one of the products of the putrefactive fermenta- tion. It is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen alone, and only exists, at common temperatures, in the state of gas. It is rapidly absorbed by the water of the soil. It has the properties of an al- kali in a high degree, and, combining with acids, forms salts. It is found as a carbonate in the greater number of putrefying animal matters, as a muriate in human urine, and the excrements of ani- mals, as a sulphate in numerous substances. Its compounds have been found to promote, in a high degree, the growth of plants ; and animal manures contain its salts, or produce them during decom- position. The salts of ammonia are therefore indirectly employed, through the medium of animal manures. Two of these, the mu- riate and the sulphate, can be easily prepared. All analogy leads us to the conclusion that they would eminently promote the growth of plants ; but experiments are yet wanting to shew how far they can be safely, beneficially, and economically applied in the separate state. The refuse water of gas-works, which contains salts of ammonia, has been recently applied, in a diluted state, to meadows, with striking effect. The Blood, Flesh, and Intestines of the larger animals are sometimes employed as manures. These substances, consisting in a great part of water, undergo a rapid decomposition when in VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 103 contact with the air ; and they should therefore be covered by the soil before their particles have been lost by evaporation, or else largely mixed with earthy substances, and formed into a compost. The latter is generally the preferable practice with regard to them, because they then act in fertilizing a large quantity of matter. The refuse of the shambles furnishes the largest supply of this kind of manure, and is a very valuable substance when it can be obtained. Fishes form an exceedingly powerful manure. They are some- times to be procured in large quantity in the neighbourhood of fishing-stations, and in such cases they may be mixed with mud, turf, and other earthy matters, and formed into composts. In certain cases, herrings, pilchards, sprats, and even fresh- water fishes in the brooks of the countries of the Fens, are obtained in such quantities that they are procured by the farmers at a low price, and applied to the ground before they have undergone de- composition. Nothing can exceed the richness of this kind of manures, and almost the only precaution to be observed is, that they shall not be employed in such quantity as to produce an over- luxuriance of the crops of corn. On the coasts of Essex, Kent, and Suffolk, such quantities of sprats are taken by the fishermen, that they are sold to the neighbouring farmers at the rate of 6d. or 8d. the bushel, and applied by them to the land at the rate of from 20 to 40 bushels, or more, to the acre. Animal Oils may be employed as manures, but they are gene- rally too expensive to be so used. Sometimes, however, refuse oil can be obtained on moderate terms. It may be applied at once to the soil, or mixed with earthy or peaty matter, and the saturated mass laid on the ground as soon afterwards as possible. Animal oils contain no nitrogen, and yet they are in the highest degree enriching to the crops to which they are applied. Another class of manures consists of the Bones of animals. Bones consist in part of a gelatinous or albuminous matter, and in part, of phosphate of lime, carbonate of lime, soda, com- mon salt, phosphate of magnesia, and fluoride of calcium. The gelatinous portion may be supposed to produce the action which 104 MANURES. all other animal matters produce, but the principal eftect must he ascribed to the salts of lime, and chiefly to the phosphate. The use of bones as a manure was known in England so long ago as the year 1776 ; but it is only within these last twenty- five years that their use has been generally extended, and that they have been regarded as one of the most important subsidiary manures of the farm. They are now carefully collected at home, and largely imported from other countries. Bones may be roughly broken into fragments, and in this way applied to land ; but under the better management now adopted, they are reduced to a coarse powder by being passed between cylin- ders with strong iron teeth. The following figure represents a bone-mill of good construction, designed to be driven by steam or water power, and calculated to manufacture 5 tons or more in the day. Fig. 4. Fig. 6. Fig. 4 represents an end view of the machine ; fig. 5 a side view. AAA represents the ground-floor of the building in which VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 105 the machinery is contained ; B B, the second floor ; C C C C C C, the frame of the machine, formed of cast-iron ; D D, the lying shaft from the moving power, carrying on its extremity the pinion E, which gives motion to the train of wheels F Gr H, with their pinions, pulleys, &c. The bones to be ground are thrown into the buckets sss 5, on the endless chain S S S. Being elevated by the buckets, they are de- posited on the endless web ttt, by which they are carried forward, and fall down a slide f, between the first pair of rollers K. These rollers are bound round with a series of serrated discs, as at K, L, and M, the discs of one roller working into the intervals of the other, and moving in opposite directions. By the action of these two rollers the bones are coarsely bruised. Falling from the rol- lers, the bones pass along the slide u to the second pair of rollers L, formed in the same manner as the first, but with the teeth more closely set. The bones are now reduced to a' finer state of divi- sion, and pass by the spout m to the revolving riddle a. The particles that are small enough drop through the holes of the riddle into the spout y, and are by it conveyed to the outside of the machine, and fall to the ground. The larger particles pass along the riddle to its extremity, and fall between the third pair of rol- lers M, by which their size is further reduced. They are then conveyed by the short spout m to the second riddle e, through the holes of which the finer particles drop, while the coarser par- ticles pass on to the end of the machine ; whence they may be conveyed again to the buckets, to undergo a repetition of the pro- cess. There is a contrivance, by means of a set of levers, to cause the first pair of rollers to start asunder, when any hard substance that cannot be broken is mixed with the bones. To illustrate this, and the other details, there are various letters in the figures ; but it is not now necessary to refer to these, the purpose here being, not to describe the parts of the machine in the detail, but to ex- plain its general form and mode of action. Bones are sometimes employed after they have been digested in water for the extraction of oil, and this process does not seem materially to affect their action. Sometimes they are obtained 106 MANURES. in the calcined state, but these calcined bones are regarded as of inferior value to the others, and are sold at a lower price. Bones may be applied to any kind of crop, but they are most largely employed in the case of the turnip, the carrot, and other plants cultivated for their roots. In this case they may be de- posited along with the seeds, in the manner to be hereafter de- scribed. The quantity applied under this system is about 16 bushels to the acre ; and the effect being to produce an early deve- lopment of the leaves, this slight application suffices, under favour- able circumstances, to insure a productive growth of the plants. Bones may likewise be applied to the cereal grains, and either deposited along with the seeds, or previously mixed with the soil ; or they may be applied to land in herbage, in which case they are simply spread upon the surface. Bones may also be formed into composts with earthy matters, and thus allowed to decompose in the heap. When placed in a mass by themselves, they speedily begin to decompose ; and it is the opinion of many, that they are superior as a manure when they have been subjected to an incipient fermentation of this kind. This may be supposed to be, because they are then in a decom- posing state, and so fitted to act more immediately on the plants to which they are applied. But when they are reduced by grind- ing to a coarse powder, there is no necessity for subjecting them to any other fermentation than that which they will undergo in the soil itself. They decompose more quickly when the soil is dry and porous so as to admit the air, than when it is stiff and charged with water ; and hence it is a popular opinion, that they are more efficient when applied to the lighter soils than to the clayey, and in dry seasons than in wet. Bones, though used in comparatively small quantity, extend their influence beyond the crop to which they are applied. But a certain quantity of them seems to produce the maximum of effect on a given crop, and hence an increase beyond that quantity does not produce an increase of effect on the crop to which they are applied, although it does so on the succeeding ones. This may be supposed to be, because a certain quantity of the earthy VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 107 salts is required for the wants of the particular crop ; and any increase beyond that quantity is useless, in so far as that crop is affected. The employment of this manure has contributed in an im- portant manner to the extension of the turnip culture in the British Islands. Being easily portable, it can be readily carried to a distance, and thus, in remote situations, it becomes a suc- cedaneum, at a moderate cost, for the common manure of the farm- yard. Horns, Hoofs, Hair, and Feathers, are appendages of the cu- ticular system of animals, and may all be employed as manures. Horn being largely used in the arts, it is only the raspings or shavings that can be obtained in any quantity in the separate state. Horn, and the same remark applies to the matter of hoof, is a very compound substance, but consists of a gelatinous mass, and differs from bone in this, that it contains only a minute pro- portion of phosphate of lime. Its action, therefore, resembles rather that of the muscular part of animals than the bony ; but it is greatly more efficacious in proportion to the weight em- ployed, though much more slowly decomposable. It is of the class of manures which may be beneficially applied to trees, in the case of which, a slow and not a rapid action is required : hence it is of admirable efficacy for the reviving of languishing fruit or forest trees, and for this purpose, is employed in the countries of the vine. Hair and feathers are similar in their general composition and mode of action to horn. They are mixed with other matters in the general mass of refuse collected in towns and farms ; but they are rarely to be obtained in quantity sufficient to be employed in the separate state. Wool is a variety of hair; and woollen rags form a manure largely used. When it is considered that every inhabitant of the British Islands is more or less clothed in wool, it may be con- ceived how vast the quantity must be of this substance which is ultimately conveyed to the soil. This is done indirectly with the refuse matter of towns, but woollen rags form likeAvise an ex- 108 MANURES. tensiye article of sale in the separate state. They are neces- sarily exposed to adulteration by the mixture of linen and cotton rags, which, consisting chiefly of ligneous fibre, are much less ef- ficacious. Woollen rags are used at the rate of from 5 cwt. to half a ton to the acre. They are chopped into small pieces, and then strewed evenly upon the surface, and covered. They decompose slowly, and their action is therefore less immediate, but more permanent, than that of the softer part of animals. On this account they are of the class of manures that may be applied to trees ; and hence they are largely used in the districts of the hop for man- uring that plant. In the south of France, the Grenoese pick up with care all the remains of woollen stuffs, that they may cause them to rot at the foot of their olive-trees. Woollen rags may likewise be beneficially applied to winter wheat, their gradual de- composition according well with the slow growth of the plant during the months of winter. Shells, which are the hard covering of many marine and certain land animals, may be employed as manures. They differ from bones, in consisting chiefly, not of the phosphate but of the car- bonate of lime. Containing, however, a certain quantity of ani- mal albumen, they are more efficacious than the mineral carbonate. Shells may be mixed in any case with the dung of the farm-yard, or the matter of compost heaps. The shells of oysters are some- times to be obtained in such quantity that they may be employed in the separate state, in which case they should be well pounded before they are applied to the land. Many other animal manures may be obtained from the refuse of different manufactories, in which the skin, wool, and other parts of animals are employed. The refuse of the tallow-chandler, being the sediment deposited by the melted tallow, is freqnently disposed of for manure. It is in hard cakes, termed Graves, and sold at about L.5 the ton. It is spread on the land, and then covered, at the rate of half a ton or less to the acre, the graves being first cut with a hatchet, and then bruised in the manner of bones. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 109 The scum of the sugar-refiners consists chiefly of blood, char- coal, and lime. It is applied at the rate of two tons or less to the acre, either as a top-dressing to meadows, or mixed with the soil, to any kind of crop. It is a very efficacious and lasting manure. The next class of manures consists of the Excrements of ani- mals, namely the urine and dung, which afford the largest and most constant supply of this kind of snbstances. All the food of herbivorous animals, and, consequently, all the food of animals that subsist on them, is derived from plants. The food being received into the alimentary canal, is, by a marvellous system of organs, converted in part into blood, from which is se- creted the matter of the ffesh, the fat, the bones, the hair, and other parts of the body. A part, however, only of the food con- sumed is necessary for supplying the demands of the system ; and what is not reqnired for this end is expelled from the body. The excess of carbon in the blood combines in large quantity with the oxygen of the air which is drawn into the Inngs, and escapes as carbonic acid into the atmosphere ; not, however, to be lost, for nothing in natnre is lost, but to be brought back again by myriads of leaves hung in the air to absorb it. Another part of the se- creted nutriment escapes through the pores of the skin, to be brought back again, it may be believed, to the earth by the rains which purify the atmosphere. Another, and the larger part, is not converted into blood, bnt, after yielding its nntrient princi- ples, is expelled from the system as faeces, a substance which, in every age, the reason of man has taught him to collect and apply again for the nourishment of new generations of plants. These faeces consist of two parts, the liquid, which is extracted from the blood in the kidneys, and the solid, which has not been converted into blood, but passes through the intestinal canal. The nrine of animals is a highly componnd substance. It con- sists chieffy of water holding in solution various matters extracted from the blood, which pass through the urinary passage. It con- sists, 1. Of water, amounting to from 65 to 95 per cent., according to the kind of animal. 110 MANURES. 2. Of iiiimeroiis products containing nitrogen, as urea, uric acid, mucus, &c. 3. Of various earthy and alkaline salts, as phosphates of lime, magnesia, soda, and ammonia, muriate of ammonia, sulphates of potassa and soda, common salt, and other substances. But the urine of different animals differs greatly in its compo- sition. In human urine, there are phosphates ; in that of the larger herbivorous animals there are few phosphates, but abundance of muriates, sulphates, and carbonates. Urine, from whatever animals derived, is a very fertilizing sub- stance. It may be employed either by itself, or mixed with the litter of the stables and farm-yard, or the matters of the compost heap. When applied alone, it ought to be permitted to become stale and putrefy, in which case certain chemical changes take place, which fit it better for acting on the plants to which it is applied. When urine is used alone, it is carried to the field in casks or other vessels, and spread upon the surface in the manner in which we water streets and highways. It may be applied to any kind of crops when growing, and with us is most usually applied to forage and herbage plants. This is a species of watering applied to the plants themselves, which scarcely fails to produce an imme- diate and beneficial action. The solid excrements of animals are usually mixed with a por- tion of urine, and with the litter and other refuse matters of stables, farms, and towns. They are very different in their composition in different animals, and even differ, within certain limits, in the same animal, according to its age and the food with which it is supplied. They contain more of carbon, and less of nitrogenized compounds, than urine. They are slower in their effects than urine, but their action extends over a longer period. Of this class of substances is Night-Soil, which abounds more in soluble salts and nitrogenized compounds than other solid ex- crements. It is usually employed as a manure, mixed with the general mass of excrementitions and other matters produced in towns and farms. It is a very efficient manure, and may be ap- VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. Ill plied to any kind of crop, and in any form ; but having been ren- dered, for a useful end, olFensive to the human senses, the using of it is disliked, and less care is bestowed on the preservation of it than of any similar substance. In England, especially, a vast proportion of it is lost, by being carried away in the sewers of om’ innumerable towns. Yet by easy means it can be deprived of the effluvia which render it olFensive, and applied to the most use- ful purposes. The usual method of depriving this substance of its odour, and rendering it capable of preservation, is by mixing it with carbon- ate, but much better with sulphate, of lime, and charcoal. Being then cautiously dried, it may be preserved for use. The most economical mode, however, of employing it is in the recent state, as practised in Italy and Flanders, and other parts. In Flanders, where extreme attention is paid to the collection of animal man- ures, it is diffused in water, and applied in a semiliquid state to growing plants, in the same manner as urine ; and in Switzer- land a similar practice prevails. In China it is mixed with marl and dried, and in this manner made into cakes, and rendered a subject of commerce. When these cakes are to be used, they are diffused in water, and the liquor is applied to growing plants, a method of manuring which seems to be preferred by this frugal and laborious people. In France and other countries of Europe, attempts have been successfully made to preserve it, by mixing it with lime, gypsum, and carbonaceous or earthy matters. This has been deemed a matter not undeserving of the attention of go- vernments. In London, and other towns in England, attention has been more tardily given to the same subject, and establish- ments have been formed for preserving and collecting the material. From the habits of society, however, it is more difflcult to effect this purpose in England than in any other country. From the ex- tensive system of sewers established, the waste of this substance is immense. From the city of London, with its million and a half gf inhabitants, there is daily carried down the Thames a quantity of faecal matters which would fertilize a large tract of land. With singular inconsistency, the same people that cannot endure the 112 MANURES, odour of this substance, suifer it to pollute the noble rirer whose waters they use for so many purposes. In every town the same neglect, in a greater or less degree, occurs. Everywhere vast masses of fertilizing refuse find their way to the neighbouring rivers or brooks, and are carried to the ocean, which could, by the easiest means, be collected into tanks, and employed to enrich the country around. ft The usual method, it has been said, of preserving this sub- stance, and rendering it portable, is to mix it with lime, or better, with gypsum, and charcoal. In these ways it is prepared for use in Paris, Berlin, and other towns of the Continent ; but where the mixed matter of sewers is conveyed to tanks, mud and the ashes of turf may be substituted for charcoal, and carbonate of lime for gypsum. The Dung of Birds is a more efficacious manure, weight for weight, than any other of the same class. It consists of the li- quid, as well as the solid fseces of the animals. That which is used in this country is derived from pigeons and domestic fowls, though, from the small quantities in which it can be obtained, it is usually held to be of secondary importance. It should be spread evenly on the surface of land in tillage, and then slightly covered ; or it may be dried and deposited in the state of powder, along with the seeds. When exposed to moisture, it speedily de- composes, so that, when it is to be preserved for use, it should be kept dry. Guano is the dung of sea-birds, first brought to this country from the rocky shores of Peru, and certain uninhabited islands near the coasts, where, under the influence of a placid clime and dry atmo- sphere, it has accumulated in vast beds, which are sometimes co- vered with soil and drifted sand. It appears to have been used by the ancient inhabitants of the country, and is still largely em- ployed by the Spanish Americans, as the most precious manure for the maize and other plants cultivated in the arid plains of their country. It has likewise been obtained from the rocky island of Ichaboe, on the coast of Africa, and has been discovered in other islets near the same continent. But the African guano is VEGETABLE AND ANEMAL. 113 inferior to tliat of Peru, and sells, accordingly, at a lower price. Guano is likewise produced in considerable abundance on the coast of Malacca, and various islands of the Eastern Arcliipelago. It is there found in caverns ; and is partly the produce of the larger bats, which feed on fruits, and partly of insectivorous birds, pro- bably of the swallow tribe. The former is much inferior to the latter, and, being the only kind that has been brouglit to Europe, the guaiio of the East is held in little estimation. It lias been used by the Chinese and ^lalaccans time out of mind for the ma- nuring of their rice and other plants. Guano is in the form of a brown powder, blackening when heated, and giving off ammoniacal fumes. It has been analyzed by various chemists, and found to contain phosphates, urates, and other salts. It is, beyond a question, the most valuable of all the animal manures which have been imported into this country. It is calculated to add, in a material degree, to the produce of the British Islands, and, from its portable nature, to afford increased facilities to cultivation in the remoter districts. It is applied to the soil at the rate of from 2 to 4 cwt. to the acre, either alone, or along with the manures of the farm-yard. Other animal products might be mentioned as adapted for ma- nuring land ; Init the law is universal, that all animal substances fertilize the soil, and promote in an eminent degree the growth of plants. Attempts have been made to arrange manures in a scale of value, according to the quantity of nitrogen which they con- tain. But the relative value of manures cannot be determined by this single condition ; for manures operate through the medium of their earthy and saline constituents, as well as their nitrogen. Yet it is perfectly true that nitrogen is an important constituent in manures, producing putrefaction not only in the compounds into which it enters, but inducing similar action in other substances. But of all the sources of supply to the farm, the most import- ant is the manure of the farm-yard. In all cases, where an extra- neous supply cannot be commanded, the farmer must rely upon the produce of his own fields, and the animals of his farm, for af- fording him the means of maintaining the fertility of his land; and li 114 MANURES. all the other manures which he can obtain must be regarded as subsidiary to this the main source of his supply. Tlie dung of the farm-yard is the produce of the hay, straw, turnips, and other substances used as provender or litter upon the hirm. It is collected into one or more yards, and fresh litter and all other refuse being added to tlie mass, it gradually accumulates until it is carried out to the fields for use. The manner of feeding cattle in tlieir houses and yards will be afterwards explained. It is sufficient, with relation to the pre- sent subject, to observe, that tlie larger cattle may either be fed ill stalls in houses, or in yards in which they receive their food. When they are fed in houses, their dung and soiled litter are carried to the heap in the yard, where it gradually accumulates ; and when they are fed in yards, their dung, in like manner, accumulates there, being in the mean time compressed by their treading upon it. In the practice of the farm, to be afterwards especially de- scribed as suited to the circumstances of this country, the larger cattle of different kinds are brought home to their houses and re- spective yards before winter. Some are kept in their stalls in houses, and their dung and soiled litter are carried out daily to the yards, while others receive their food in the yards themselves, and thus tread upon the heap. In this manner the mass of dung accumulates during the period of feeding, and at the proper pe- riod, in the following spring or summer, is carried out to the fields and applied to the land. The dung of the farm-yard is thus seen to be a collection of animal and vegetable substances. It consists of the excrements of the animals kept and fed upon the farm, together with the straw or other materials used as litter, and generally of the refuse and offal produced about the homestead. This mixed mass is collected during the period of feeding, when it undergoes a certain degree of fermentation. When trodden by the feet of the animals kept in the yards, the effect is to exclude the external air, and to pre- vent the fermentative process from proceeding with that rapidity which would take place were the mass not compressed. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 115 Tlie principal animal substances Avbicli are mixed witli the lig- neous fibre of the litter, and which cause it to undergo decompo- sition, are the dung and urine of the animals. The properties of this dung, to a certain extent, depend u]>on the kind and age of the animals, and the nature of their food. When the animals are fed on straw and the dried stems of plants, the dung is less rich than when they are fed on turnips, oil-cake, and other nourishing food. The dung of the different animals is mixed in greater or less proportion with their litter ; and the greater the proportion of the animal to the vegetable matter, the more readily will the litter ferment and decompose. The urine of the animals, it has been seen, is a very rich ma- nure, and contains, in certain states of combination, all the ele- ments which enter into the composition of plants. It is necessa- rily mixed with, and partly absorbed by, the litter and other sub- stances in the yards, and it hastens, in a material degree, the de- composition of these substances. The urine, however, is apt either to make its escape by flowing out of the yards, or to be imperfectly mingled with the litter. It becomes, therefore, a part of the management of the farm-yard to provide against either of tliese contingencies. The farm-yard should be made level or slightly concave at bot- tom, and the bottom should be sunk somewhat below the surface of the ground. As a portion of the liquid will flow from the sta- bles and feeding-houses, gutters of stone should be made to con- vey the liquid from these into tanks or other reservoirs adjacent to or in the yards. The same means ai’e to be taken for convey- ing away any excess of liquid from the yards themselves. This is not done for the purpose of draining the yards of moisture, which would be an error, but for the purpose of preventing any excess of liquid from being lost. Tlie principal cause which pro- duces a great flow of liquid from the yards, is an excess of rain, which, falling upon the heap faster than it can be aborbed, waslies away the urine. Three methods may be adopted for the management of the liquid 116 MANURES. wliicli is obtained from the feeding-houses, or which oozes or is waslied olf from the mass in the yards. 1 . It may be pumped from the tank or reservoir into which it had flowed, conveyed back to tlie farm-yard, and spread over the surface of the heap. In this manner it will be imbibed by the litter, and tend to hasten the decomposition of the mass ; or, if there be a compost heap npon the farm, the liquid maybe spread upon it so as to be imbibed by it. 2. It may be pumped up when convenient, and conveyed in barrels to the field, and spread over the surface, — a species of manuring which, under certain circumstances, is exceedingly effi- cacious. 3. In the bottom of the tank or reservoir to which the liquid is conveyed, may be placed earth, turf, mould, and other absor- bent substances. These being saturated, will become very rich manure, and may either be carried from the tank to the field, and applied to the ground, or put into heaps or composts, until the {)eriod of using them shall arrive. Of these methods of applying the excess of liquid from the feeding-houses and yards, the most generally applicable to the common practice of farms in this country, is the conveying of the liquid back to the yards, or the spreading of it over the surface of compost heaps, or other collections of absorbent substances. In Flanders, where extreme care is bestowed in the collection and preparation of liquid manures, there is a smaller proportion of straw and hay produced on forms, than in the mixed system of agriculture of Britain. There is not, therefore, so great a pro- portion of ligneous fibre to be decomposed. The Flemings, ac- cordingly, pursue the mode of managing their manure which the circumstances peculiar to their agriculture render expedient. They can always ferment sufficiently the fibrous matter of the heap of their farm-yards, and therefore they have always a spare su})ply of liquid in a separate state. But, in this country, Avliere we aim at producing a large quantity of hay and the cereal grasses, we require nearly all the liquid of the animals to moisten and ferment the general mass of the farm-vard. VEGETABLE A>;D ANIMAL. 117 Wlien the animals of the farm are fed on tolerably rich and suc- culent food, and wliere the pi'oportion of straw is not too large? there is no difficulty in fermenting the mass of the farm-yard to the degree required ; but when the quantity of straw is very large in proportion to the more moist and succulent food consumed, as sometimes occurs in the case of clay-land farms, then there may be considerable difficulty in getting the straw sufficiently decom- posed for use. This may arise from the want of moisture, as well as from a deficiency of animal matter ; and as we may not at the time have a power of supplying the latter, we must endeavour to keep the heap moist, by soaking it, in the absence of rain, Avith water. But the permanent remedy for this evil is to increase the quantity of such nourishing food as the farm Avill produce, — name- ly, cabbages, tares, clovers, and other succulent and nutritive plants. Sometimes, even Avhen there is no extraordinary excess of litter, the fermentation of the heap in the yard, after proceeding to a cer- tain degree, suddenly stops, by which the manure is much injured. This arises from the want of moisture ; and when it happens, it is often very difficult to renew the fermentation. The best remedy is to turn over the heap, soak it with water, and mix it Avith horse- dung, or any animal otFal that can be obtained. With these exceptions, the management of the farm-yard is not attended Avith any difficulty. We have seen that the mass consists of a collection of the excrements of the animals kept upon the farm, of the straw, and other substances employed for litter, and generally of any refuse or offal produced at the home- stead ; and that this mixed substance is accumulated chiefly dur- ing the months of Avinter, undergoing during this period a certain degree of fermentation and decomposition in the yard Avhere it lies. The substance thus collected and partially fermented, is to be applied to the grounds during the months of spring, summer, or autumn, immediately following the Avinter in Avhich it has been pre- pared. It sliould be alAAciys applied as soon after it is prepared as possible, there being a Avaste either in retaining it too long, or MANURES. ns in causing it to undergo a greater degree of fermentation than is required. In tlie process of the putrefactive fermentation, the elements of the body fermented, in assuming their new forms of combina- tion, partly make their escape in the gaseous state. In the fer- mentation of manures, the decomposition may proceed so far that the great mass of the substance shall be exhaled, leaving behind only the earthy and alkaline, and a portion of the carbonaceous, matter of which it was composed. In the treatment of this class of substances, therefore, the putrefactive fermentation should neither be continued longer, nor carried to a greater degree, than is necessary for the purposes intended. In practice, our purpose is to produce certain kinds of crops ; and certain kinds of plants, it is found, require a greater action of manures at particular stages of their growth than others. Thus, the turnip, the carrot, and the beet, which are sown, as will after- wards be seen, in the early part of summer, require that the ma- nure applied shall be in such a state of decomposition as to act upon and nourish them in the first stages of their growth ; and if this be not so, the crop may entirely fail. In these, and similar cases, accordingly, a complete preparation of the farm-yard dung is an essential point of practice. Certain plants, again, do not require the same state of decom- position of the dung. Thus the potato requires less in the first stages of its growth than the turnip ; and hence it is not necessary to subject the manure to be applied to the same degree of fer- mentation. In some cases, too, as in the process of the summer-fallow, to be afterwards described, the manure is mixed with the soil some time before the seeds of the plants to be cultivated are sown. In such a case the manure undergoes the necessary fermentation in the soil itself, and does not require that previous preparation which, in the case of the turnip and some other plants, is re- quired. But while no necessity exists for fermenting the matter ol‘ the farm-yard beyond the degree requisite for the special juirpose in- VEGETABLE AND ANJMAL. 119 tended, it is always a j)oint of good practice to ferment it to that degree. In order to know when dung is sufficiently fermented for the particular use required, a very little practice and obser- vation will suffice. When it is fully fermented, the long stems of straw which formerly matted it togethei*, are in such a state of decomposition, that the parts can be readily separated by a fork. It is not necessary in any case that it be in that extreme state of decay in which we often see it used by gardeners, and when it can be cut by a spade like soft earth. Whenever farm-yard dung has been fermented to this degree, it has been kept beyond the proper time, and the management has been bad. The mass, we have seen, is collected chiefly during the months of winter, and will always be ready to be applied to the ground in the spring, summer, or autumn, immediately ensuing ; and there is no case in which it is advisable to keep it beyond the year in which it has been collected. A common and convenient practice is, to carry it out from the yard where it has been collected to the field where it is to be used, and there to pile it up in one or more large heaps, so that it may undergo the further decomposition required, before being applied to the land. Doubtless there is a certain waste of the volatile matter of the dung by this process, but it is frequently convenient in practice that the dung be thus carried to the field where it is to be used, so as to economize time at the season of more active labour. When, accordingly, after the dead of winter, as towards the end of December, and during hard frosts and snows, the men and working cattle upon the farm cannot be otherwise employed, we may begin to carry out the dung to the fields where it is to be used. It is carried out in the carriages of the farm, into which it is lifted by large forks. This partial carrying out of the dung from the yards proceeds when occasion offers, or when the state of the weather prevents the other labours of the farm from being carried on. And when the cattle are finally removed from the houses and yards, and turned out to pasture, which, in the north of England, is generally by the middle of May, the whole remain- 120 MANURES. iiig dung may either be carried to the fields, or remain in the yards till required for use. The dung, as it is carried out to the fields, is to be laid in the large heaps referred to, and which may he about four and a half or five feet high, and of such other dimensions as may be con- venient. When the dung is placed in these heaps, it is Tn a state very favourable to further fermentation ; for it is to be observed, that in all cases the turning over of the dung, so as to give ac- cess to the air, causes an increase of fermentation ; and this is the universal method adopted by farmers and gardeners when they wish to give a greater degree of fermentation to any heap. Should tlie dung in these large heaps not ferment to the degree required, they are to be turned over, and formed into new heaps, the upper part being placed below, and what was before below at the top. By these means the fermentative process will be renewed ; and should this turning not be found sufficient, the heaps must be again turned over, so that they may be brought to the degree of decomposition required. The large heaps of this kind should not be placed in a very exposed situation, so as to be too mucli acted upon by winds ; and it is a good precaution, and a neces- sary one in very warm countries, to face up the sides with a little earth or turf, and to strew some earth, or better, a little earth mixed with gypsum, upon the top, so as to prevent the escape of decomposing matter. When it is wished to hasten the putrefac- tive process in these heaps, it is better that they be not com- pressed by the carriages going upon them to unload ; but where there is no peculiar necessity for hastening the putrefactive pro- cess, the carriages and beasts of draught can go upon the heap without injury. When peculiar care is required, as when the dung has been imperfectly fermented in the yards, it should be spread over the heap in layers, so that one layer may undergo a slight fermentation, before it is compressed by that which is to be placed above it. Tlie mass may be also turned over in the yards where it lies, and allowed to ferment before it is carried out to the fields for use. Tn this rase, the worlvinen begin at one side of the heap, and with VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 121 large forks turn it over, laying that underneath whicn was before uppermost, so as that the whole may be reversed. If after this process of turning, no treading of cattle is alloAved, the fermenta- tion of the mass will proceed with rapidity, and then the whole may be carried out at once from the yards to the fields for use. This method Avill not only in certain cases be the most convenient, but will save some of that waste of the volatile matter of the heap, which takes place under the other system. Where the dung produced is very rich and well decomposed, as where cattle have been feeding in stalls on juicy and nutritive food, it may not appear to require this turning over to fit it for use ; yet even in such a case it is generally beneficial that it be turned over at least once before being used, the effect being to ferment the mass not only sufficiently but equally, and to mix its different parts together. It may be observed, also, that Avhen the mass of vege- table and animal substances is thrown into a common yard, some care should be bestowed in spreading it equally, so that one part of the yard may not be filled with rich dung, and another Avith poor. The dung of horses, for example, is more susceptible of quick fer- mentation than that of oxen. When the stable, therefore, opens upon a common yard, the horse-dung should not be suffered to ac- cumulate in a mass about the stable, but spread abroad upon the general heap. Farm- yard dung is chiefly applied to the soil by being spread upon the land Avhen in tillage, and covered by the plough. The periods at which this is done, and the manner of doing it, Avill be afterwards pointed out. By being covered by the earth, the dung soon passes through its course of fermentation, and becomes de- composed, and mixed or combined with the matter of the soil. This valuable substance must be economized in the manner of applying it. The soil must be kept as rich as the means at the farmer’s command Avill alloAv ; but it is an error in practice to sa- turate it at one time Avith manures, and to Avithhold them at an- other. They ought rather to be applied in limited quantity and frequently, so as to maintain a uniform or increasing fertility in the soil. 122 MANURES. Mention lias from time to time been made of Composts. A com- post, as tlie name implies, is a mixture of substances ; and com- posts may be either sj)ecial or general. The first class consists of those, in forming which the design is to prepare any given sub- stance for use as a manure. Thus, when peat is mixed with dung, the compost is formed especially to promote the decomposition of the peat ; when sea- ware is mixed with earthy matters, the purpose is to decompose and preserve the matter of the marine plants ; when night-soil is mixed with charcoal and gypsum, the object is to preserve in a suitable form the matter of the night-soil. General composts, again, are those in the case of which the de- sign of the farmer is to collect and preserve for use all substances which may fertilize the soil. The mass of the farm-yard may thus be said to be a general compost ; but its essential destination being to prepare the excrements and litter of the animals of the farm, it is in this sense a special compost. Those to be now referred to consist of one or more heaps, in which fertilizing substances of every kind are deposited, as the occasions for obtaining them pre- sent themselves. They are, accordingly, receptacles for manures, and their contents accumulate in proportion as the manures can be collected upon the farm or elsewhere. Animal substances produce, it has been seen, the decomposition of vegetable matter by mixture or contact. When vegetable mat- ters, therefore, are to be decomposed in the compost heap, they should be mixed or placed in contact with animal substances, or with the mixed matters of the farm-yard in a decomposing state. But the volatile parts of the decomjiosing mass tend to make their escape. To retain these, the heap should be mixed with earthy and carbonaceous matters, such as turf, mud, marl, the cleaning of ditches, the sludge of ponds, the scraping of roads. These earthy matters are designed to prevent the escape of the decomposing particles, by aftording bases with which the nitrogenized and other compounds generated may combine. To aid this effect, lime should be mixed with the earthy matters, in the proportion of about a bushel of (piicklime to a cubic yard of earth. This mixture should l)e prepared, in an adjoining lieaj), some time before, so that the VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 128 quicklime may become mild, and then be spread, as required, in layers over the putrescent matters deposited. The animal substances to be covered in the heap may be of every kind which can be obtained ; as the residue of the shambles, hsh, and the refuse of fishing stations, waste blubber, animals that die from accident or disease, night-soil, and, in short, all animal substances whatever, which it is not intended to apply in the separate state. The vegetable substances may be sea-weeds, the stems of potatoes, the leaves of trees, spoiled hay or litter, the stems and leaves of weeds, and any green substances, and, in short, any vegetable matter whatever which is not to be applied separately. To these may be added ashes, soot, or any similar substances. When any quantity of putrescent matters is laid upon the heap, it should be covered with a layer of the mixed earthy matters referred to. The heap should be oblong, for the convenience of adding to it, and 20 feet wide, or more. When there is a deficiency of separate animal substances, layers of farm- yard dung should be substituted, so as to keep the heap always well mixed with putrefying matters, and continually increasing. Urine, when it can be obtained from the tanks, should be spread largely on the surface, so as to sink down and be imbibed by the mass. When the heap is completed in height, it should be rounded at the top, and covered with a layer of earth mixed with lime, or with marl or gypsum. About a month or six weeks be- fore it is applied to the ground, it should be turned over from top to base, and formed into a new heap, by which means its parts will be all mingled together. On being turned over, the tempe- rature of the mass will rise to that of blood-heat or more, shew- ing that the fermentative processes have been resumed. One turning will suffice, if there is a sufficient quantity of animal mat- ter, but in other cases a second turning may be necessary. By attention to these simple rules, a vast quantity of the most useful manure may be collected and prepared, and occupation af- forded to the men and working cattle of the farm when not other- wise occupied. The chemical changes which take place in a mass so compound 124 MANURES. cannot be pointed out ; but if the mixture has been properly made, nitric acid will be formed in considerable quantity, which will combine with the lime and other mineral bases. This is, in truth, one of the modes in which nitric acid is in some countries obtained in the preparation of saltpetre. Carbonate of lime is mixed with dung and other putrefying substances, and the heap is defended from the rain, and frequently turned over. By these means, nitrate of lime is produced, which is afterwards decom- posed by means of the alkaline base. But whatever be the na- ture of the chemical changes produced, the province of the far- mer is sedulously to collect all animal and vegetable refuse which he can obtain, and when they do not admit of separate applica- tion, either to mix them with the mass of the farm-yard, or to deposit them in the compost heap. Opportunities are continu- ally presenting themselves to the farmer of collecting substances which may be rendered useful, as the cleaning of his ditches and ponds, peaty matters, masses of mould, and the mud of roads, which consists of various minerals comminuted or ground by the action of carriages, and generally mixed with animal and vege- table matter. By mixing substances of this kind with lime, and this mixture again with the putrefying matters of the compost heap, he will never fail to add largely to the manures of his farm. It is a point of good husbandry to let nothing be lost ; and this maxim steadily acted upon, Avill more avail the farmer in adding to his resources than the most laboured theories of vegetation. The great and common defect in the formation of composts, is the want of a sufficient quantity of animal matters in the heap. Many of the composts which farmers form are merely dry masses of earth and lime, which are useful in a certain degree when mixed with the soil, but in no degree comparable to the matter of a well-formed compost. Analogous to the compost matter of the farmer is Street ma- nure. This is the general refuse collected from the streets of towns, and is a very compound substance. It consists in large proportion of ashes mixed with olfal and refuse of every kind. It is of great importance to the fertility of the neighbouring coun- VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL. 125 try ; but it is mucli inferior in value to well rotted dung. From its bulk and weight, it is chiefly used in the vicinity of the towns where it is produced, except where the facilities of water-carriage allow it to be carried to a distance. In taking care that this sub- stance be regularly removed from the streets of towns, it is the duty of public authorities to see that it is carefully collected, so that it may be rendered available for the valuable purposes to which it is applicable. One method of supplying animal manure, is by keeping animals for a time on the same piece of ground, in order that their excre- mentitious matters may fall upon and be absorbed by the soil. This has given rise to the practice of folding, which consists in penning flocks of sheep, chiefly during the night, on a small space of ground. The pens are from time to time shifted, so that, in the course of the season, a considerable quantity of land is suc- cessively manured. IVe shall find, in the sequel, that the practice of penning is a beneficial one in the case of turnips, rape, and similar plants ; but in such cases the manuring of the land is not the object of penning, but a consequence of it. The case where the practice is bad, is vdien slieep are confined to certain spaces, merely for the purpose of manuring the ground. The practice is carried to a most injurious extent in certain parts of England, where the animals are made to travel a considerable distance to the fold, and where certain breeds are even valued for their power to withstand this rude treatment. Where the art of collecting and preparing manures is under- stood, and where a proper system of tillage is established, it can never be necessary to adopt such a practice, for the purpose of manuring land. It is the wasteful manner of applying putrefying manures in England, by spreading them upon tlie surface of grass- land, which produces, in any case, the want of necessary manu]*e. Under a system of good husbandry, it is, in all cases, practicable so to adapt the modes of cultivation to the nature of the soil and other circumstances, that the farm shall possess the moans of main- taining its own fertility by the production of manure ; and the fa- cility of doing so is increased to an almost unlimited degree, when 126 TILLAGE. extraneous manures can be obtained in the quantities afforded in a rich and closely inhabited country. III. TILLAGE. Tillage, in the proper sense of the word, is synonymous with husbandry, but, in common language, the term is applied to the mechanical operations performed upon the soil. These operations, however, entering into all the business of the farm, they may be regarded as the foundation of husbandry in its wider sense. The soil, independently of the labour of art, tends to produce the vegetation which is proper to it ; and the greater part of the W'orld yields only its natural plants. Even when cultivation has become an art, the farmer avails himself of the spontaneous pro- duce of the soil, for the food of his animals, as in the case of his natural meadoAvs, his uncultiA^ated wastes, his marshes and moun- tains. But when men congregate into societies, even in the hap- piest climes and most prolific lands, the labour of tillage must be undergone, in order that human food may be supplied. The most useful plants Avill not groAv, or Avill not arrive at the full develop- ment of their parts, Avithout careful tillage. If the cereal grains exist in the natural state at all, Avhich is doubted by many, it can only be within narroAv geographical limits ; and it is certain that, Avithout the care of the labourer, they could not be multiplied be- yond a single season over the greater part of the world. In the case of our most useful A^egetables, the effects of cultivation liaA^e been seen to produce changes of character little short of those which distinguish species. The cabbage of our gardens and cul- tivated fields is, in its Avild state, a feeble plant, yielding a few sea-green leaA^es : the carrot and the parsnep, in the same condi- tion, produce roots so ligneous and acrid as to be unfit for human food : the beet is of a class of inconspicuous Aveeds : and the Avild turnip is a plant Avith a small fusiform root, scarcely to be rocog- TILLAGE. 127 nised, by tlie common observer, as identical with the useful vege- table with which cultivation has rendered us familiar. Of the modes by which tillage produces its effects on plants, one must be believed to be the exposing of the particles of the soil to the atmosphere, and the admission of air into its pores and in- terstices. Moisture and air have been seen to be necessary to pro- duce, or hasten, those changes which matters of organic origin undergo in the soil, and to aid those chemical actions by which the matter of the soil is rendered fitted for performing its functions. The same agents appear to be no less required, in order to pro- duce and assist the vegetable processes. It is in the upper stra- tum only of the ground, that germination takes place. If the seeds of plants are placed so deep in the earth that the air cannot reach them, they will remain for ages inert ; and many cultivated plants will never grow with vigour, unless, by means of a careful loosen- ing of the soil by tillage, the air shall be allowed access to the parts underground. Experience has conducted the husbandmen of every age to the knowledge that the soil must be stirred, and its parts divided and comminuted, before it will yield its fruits to human labour. Nay, the same wants have almost everywhere led to similar means for arriving at the ends proposed. The instruments of tillage of the first ages are yet in use in many countries. The plough, the har- row, the hoe, and the sickle, of the ancient labourers of Egypt, were the same as those employed on the banks of the Ganges at the present hour ; and all over the East, from Aleppo to the Sea of Japan, the implements of tillage of the first ages are yet those of the people. The plough of the , Greeks and Romans was similar to that of the inhabitants of Syria at the present hour ; and from Scandinavia to the mountains of Atlas, the form of this, as of all the other simpler tools of the husbandmen, was so much alike, that they almost seem to have been fashioned from some common model. So similar everywhere have been the practices of the husbandmen, as to have justified the poetical fancy, that the Gods had descended to the earth to teach the art of tillage. But the Divinity, it may be reverently believed, was in the Reason given to man, which has 128 TILLAGE. enabled him, under every condition in which he has been placed, to resort to similar means for supplying the same wants. In order to expose a new surface of earth to the atmosphere, the principal instruments in use have been the mattock-hoe of the countries of the East, the spade, and the plough. Of these in- struments, those which perform the work most perfectly, but with the greatest expenditure of human labour, are the mattock-hoe and the spade. The ancient plough is merely the hoe drawn by domestic animals ; but of this instrument, modern mechanical skill has formed a very admirable machine. The plough, as will be immediately ex- plained, is essentially a wedge, which is calculated to raise up and reverse the soil, so as to expose a new surface to the atmosphere. This is the instrument which, in modern agriculture, is employed to turn up the soil : but, in performing this operation, it executes another, namely, that of dividing and comminuting the parts of the soil. There are other instruments, however, which are more especially designed to perform the latter operations, of which the type is the common harrow, all derived from the ancient rakes, or from the crates and irpex of the Eomans, — themselves, perhaps, derived from the lienga of the Eastern nations ; and there is another class of instruments, formed from the ancient hoes, employed for the tillage of plants during their growth. The soil may be turned over and divided before the seeds, roots, or tubers, are placed in the ground, and it may be tilled during the growth of the plants. The former class of operations may be termed preparatory, and the due performance of them is an essen- tial point of good husbandry. The soil, as all exj^erience shews, should be tilled to a considerably, depth beneath the surface. This allows the roots of plants to extend themselves in the earth, and to derive their nourishment from a larger mass of soil. It re- moves the water which collects between the soil and subsoil to a greater distance from the roots of plants, without, however, de- priving the soil of water ; for it is found, tliat a deeply tilled soil remains more moist, even in the heats of summer, than one that is shallow. Tlie useful effects of deep tillage are seen no less in the irarden than in the fields. A corner of the most worthless common, o TILLAGE. 129 deeply trenched and manured, becomes at once a soil fitted for producing the culinary plants, and, in the abundance of its pro- duce, is often seen to surpass the richest of the fields around. The due performance of the preliminary operations of tillage is of primary importance in the practice of agriculture. It is by the proper construction, and right application, of the mechanical agents employed, that these purposes are to be effected. Yet, in a few places only, has the due knowledge of practice in this essen- tial branch of husbandry, been arrived at. Over the greater part even of England, tillage is imperfectly performed ; the ploughs are bad, and the waste of labour is enormous ; and it cannot be doubted by any person of experience, that a vast increase might be made to the produce of the British Islands by a better system of tillage. Tillage, be^es being intended to turn up, loosen, and com- minute the soil previous to placing the seeds, roots, and tubers, in the ground, is employed to cover these parts of plants with soil. The modes of doing this depend upon the kind of plant, the season of the year, and other circumstances. Tillage, too, is employed to cover the manures of the farm, and to mix them in the due time and season with the matter of the soil. Tillage, besides being designed to prepare the land for the crops to be cultivated, is applied to plants when growing. The action here is likewise that of loosening and comminuting the soil, and the effects produced may be ascribed, in a great degree, to a due admission of the air into the pores and interstices of the earth. In the garden, the hoeing around the roots and stems of grow- ing plants is continually practised as the means of promoting their growth. In some of the warmer parts of Europe, it is custom- ary, in the dry season, to cut a trench round the olive trees. In an arid climate this would seem calculated to dry up the moisture of the roots. The effect, however, is very different. The opera- tion admits the air, charged with its aqueous particles, to the roots, and revives the growth of the plants, even in the hottest season. In India the Hindoos make deep ruts with their simple hoes between the rows of the growing plants, and this is done I 130 TILLAGE. when the heat of the sun is intense. In the countries of the vine and the hop, the stirring of the earth round the roots is con- tinually practised. The sugar-cane, in the burning regions where it is produced, is subjected to the same treatment ; and so like- wise is the maize. The latter is a beautiful plant, growing with tall thick stems. The seeds are sown at such a distance from one another, either singly or a few together, that the intervals be- tween the growing plants can be easily tilled. In the United States of America, it is a common practice to drive the ploughs between the rows, taking deep furrows. The effect of this simple process is remarkable. The increased growth of the plants tes- tifies to the very eye the sudden benefit derived from admitting the air to their roots. In our own country, it is common to sow the cereal grains in rows, so that the intervals may be tilled. The stirring of the earth is seen to produce an increased growth of the plants, however dry the atmosphere may be at the time ; and even the driving of the harrows rudely over the surface of growing plants is frequently practised, and found to be beneficial. At the beginning of the last century, Jethro Tull, an ingenious writer on English agriculture, from observing the surprising ef- fects of a due tillage of growing plants, conceived the idea that til- lage alone was required to produce crops of any kind, and that manures acted only mechanically, by allowing free access to the air. Tull defended his theory by numerous appeals to facts, tend- ing to shew that crops of corn could be cultivated in continued succession, by performing in a proper manner, and in a due de- gree, the tillage of the soil. While the error of the theory is now admitted by every one, the facts are to this day valuable, as shew- ing the powerful influence of a due tillage and comminution of the soil in promoting the growth of plants. To the writings of this eminent individual is to be ascribed the introduction of the row culture into England, although the system was known to the Ro- mans, and had been practised by the people of the East from the earliest ages. Another and important purpose served by the tillage of the soil, is the removal or destruction of weeds. Where weeds grow, TILLAGE. 131 the cultiyated plants are interfered with in their growth, and de- prived of their due sliare of nourishment. An essential branch of good husbandry is to free the land from all plants except those which it is the special purpose of the farmer to produce. Some of these plants propagate themselves by their seeds, and others by their roots and imdergroimd stems, as well as by their seeds. The latter class must, for the most part, be disengaged from the ground before they can be destroyed. In every country the in- cessant labour of the farmer is employed in effecting this pur- pose, and everywhere the success of cultivation will mainly de- pend on the efficiency with which the cleaning process is performed. But it must be regarded as a happy provision, that, while the far- mer is engaged in contending with these perpetual enemies, he is at the same time producing another important result of tillage, — the stirring and comminution of the soil, and the admission of the air under ground. These are the general uses and effects of tillage. The various means by which the mechanical operations are performed consti- tute the most important branch of practical agriculture. Agriculture is an economical art, involving not only the know^- ledge of certain w orks to be performed, but of the modes of per- forming these w^orks wdth the greatest economy of time, labour, and capital. The end of all tillage is to produce ; but the pro- duction must be effected with the due husbandry of means, other- wise the result wdll be unprofitable. It is not enough to keep the farm rich, dry, and clean, or even to raise abundant crops. These purposes a profuse expenditure may effect, with little skill. The works must be performed, and the crops produced, under the neces- sary condition of preserving the due balance between the expen- diture and the return, otherwise the farming wdll be bad. A farm may be likened to a machine, in which ail the parts must be so adjusted, that they shall move in harmony together, and contribute to a common end with the least expenditure of power. The art of dividing and economising the labour of the farm, of rendering- all the labours of the season subservient to the ends proposed, of giving the due degree of culture without exceeding it, and of ap- 132 USES OF A KNOWLEDGE OF plying the resources of the farm to the purposes to be accom- plished with the least waste, is a knowledge essential to the far- mer, and may be said to form the very foundation of agriculture as a practical art. It appears to be the opinion of many, that, in order to make a man a farmer, he must be instructed in chemistry, physiology, bo- tany, natural philosophy, and other branches of natural and phy- sical science. Universal experience is opposed to this opinion. The farmer must learn to perform the various labours of the farm, and that under the conditions necessary to secure a due return. But this species of knowledge is purely agricultural, — is not de- rived from other branches of knowledge, — and is as much within the province of agriculture, as the manual operations of the labo- ratory are within the province of chemistry, or as the study of the forms of plants is within the province of botany. If the far- mer is deficient in this kind of knowledge, all the others will a rail him nothing, as a farmer ; and possessing it, he may be a skilful and successful agriculturist, although his opportunities may not have extended to a study of the sciences. It is highly to be desired that the youthful farmer should im- prove himself in useful or liberal knowledge to the utmost degree which his opportunities will allow. This will make him a more enlightened and unprejudiced man, although it may not, perhaps, enable him to make more money, — will render him better able to follow the progress of future discovery, and to contribute his share to it, — and will connect the business of common life with a higher class of thoughts and feelings. It is impossible, in truth, to value too highly the advantages of educating the rising race of farmers well. But let it be remembered, that the study of the sciences is itself the occupation of long labour ; that our youth, and espe- cially our agricultural youth, are called to perform the active duties of life almost before the years of boyhood are expired, and must be early and laboriously engaged in the pursuits proper to their profession in order that they may succeed in it. It is well, indeed, when opportunity is afforded, in any case, to the young farmer to become a botanist, a geologist, a chemist, a natural phi- CHEMISTRY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 133 losopher ; but how small must be the number that can thus employ themselves ! and even if they could, their success as farmers would depend, not on their scientific, but on their agricultural knowledge. It were well if the usual branches of education in this country could be so extended as to give as much knowledge of the sciences as the condition of different classes of society would allow ; but this is very different from that which many well-meaning people seem to consider necessary for the instruction of the farmer. They would have him to be a botanist, a chemist, a geologist, and so forth, in a degree which few even of the most opulent classes of society ever arrive at. Botany is a captivating pursuit to those who are attached to it ; but it is not necessary that the farmer shall learn the names of some fifty thousand plants in order that he may cultivate a dozen. Chemistry is one of the most interesting branches of physical inquiry ; but it is not requisite, for any use to which the farmer can apply it, that he shall devote years to the pursuits of the laboratory. Geology is a branch of study in a high degree interesting ; but it is not indispensable that the farmer shall make himself acquainted with a class of subjects which, when known, will not make him a better farmer. All the tools and machines of the farmer are constructed on mechanical principles ; but experience does not shew that the farmer must be acquainted with mechanical philosophy in order that he may know the use of the plough, the harrow, and other implements of the farm. These remarks are not designed to undervalue the advantages of knowledge to the farmer, or to any one engaged in the common pursuits of life ; but to point out the mistakes into which persons unacquainted with practice are apt to fall with regard to such subjects, and to correct the error of repelling men from a useful and necessary occupation, by hold- ing out, as requisite for it, kinds and degrees of knowledge which are unattainable by the great mass of those who must cultivate the soil, and improve the country. Agriculture is in nothing exempt from the analogy presented by the other useful arts. There may be said to be two periods in its history, in one of which experience is the foundation of the art ; another, in which the application is made to it of principles de- 134 USES OF A KNOWLEDGE OF rived from other branches of knowledge. There is no period in- deed so rude, in Avhich men do not seek to trace effects back to causes, and reason on what they see and do ; but when the sciences are cultivated, a higher order of investigation is brought to the elucidation even of the humbler arts. We may believe that this period of agriculture is now arrived, and that knowledge derived from the sciences, may, from time to time, throw light on the paths of practice, and, by the explanation of principles, conduct to easier means of arriving at results. Admitting tlie full force of these conclusions, and the hopes that may be founded upon them, we must be careful that we do not neglect the really useful and prac- ticable for what may never be realized in the manner aimed at, — that we do not confound the actual means at our command of cul- tivating and improving agriculture with theories of the closet. Agriculture, it has been said, involves a species of knowledge proper to itself. The business of the laboratory is essentially dis- tinct from that of the fields ; and the most perfect knowledge of the one will not give the knowledge required for the other. It is the province of the chemist to pursue his own studies with a re- ference to the discovery of truth as the end and reward of his la- borious pursuits. When he arrives at conclusions which may be useful in agriculture, he renders the highest service to the art which he can render, by communicating the results to the practical man ; and these, when put to the test of practice, and found to be good, will come within the domain of agriculture. Before this, they are within the domain of chemistry and not of agriculture ; and it is a mixing of subjects to confound the disquisitions of the chemist with the practice of the farmer. It is absurd to require a farmer to farm on a system of chemical experiments. A farmer cannot farm aright on a system of experiments of any kind. He must farm on the basis of experience already acquired ; and experiments must be the exception, and not the rule, of a well-ordered farm. In like manner the vegetable physiologist may pursue his own in- teresting inquiries as a branch of science, communicating results when tliey are arrived at, but he should be careful how' he counsels the farmer to farm upon a system of theories of vegetation, how- CIIEMISTIIY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 135 over well established they may seem. Such theories may be of high interest in themselves, and yet be of little value in the practice of the farmer. They may be mere opinions formed in the labo- ratory and the closet, without any knowledge of the business of the fields, or of the modes by which agriculture can be cultivated as a branch of industry. Let ns turn to countries where theories of vegetation have been little heard of, and we shall yet find the art of husbandry in a high state of advancement. In the Nether- lands, the surface of the country is like a garden ; and every avail- able source has been resorted to for rendering it fertile by the industrious inhabitants. In the north of England and a part of Scotland, a system of agriculture has been established which has multiplied the resources of the country in a vast degree ; yet, in the forming and perfecting of this system, theories of vegetation have had no share. If we turn to the sister art of gardening, which is the child of experiment in every country, we shall find that it has been perfected Avithout the aid of those researches which many hold to be necessary for the guidance of the farmer. The Chemistry of Organic Bodies has, within our own times, been cultivated with vast labour and success ; but what is the in- formation which this branch of science has as yet communicated to the practical farmer ? The latest and the highest authority is an illustrious chemist of Germany, M. Liebig, who has given us, in a Avork designed for agriculturists, his opinions, discoveries, and conclusions. He informs us, that ammonia is of all the elements of A^egetable food the most important, and that this body, with the carbon Avdiich enters into the substance of plants, is chiefly derived from the air ; that it is the mineral constituents of the earth Avhich are chiefly to be regarded by the farmer as promoting the groAvth of his plants ; that substances Avhich most chemists until now have pronounced to be the very essence of fertility in soils and ma- nures, do not exist in them at all ; and, in short, that all previous theories of vegetation Avhich do not accord Avith these ideas are erroneous. Noav, the opinions of the learned chemist may be right, or they may be Avrong; but how is the farmer to decide between rival theories of this kind \ Of what utility are such discussions 136 USES OF A KNOWLEDGE OF to him, or what dependence ought ]ie to place upon conclusions, when the highest authorities are at variance with respect to first principles ? It is manifest that the subjects themselves are with- out the province of agriculture. They fall within another branch of inquiry altogether, and are nearly as useless to farmers as would have been the dreams of alchymists. The same eminent chemist makes light of experience, which the farmer knows he can never do with safety. He informs us that it is a great discovery that one of the best manures for land is burnt straw ; while the farmer who understands his business will use his straw for the purposes for which it is necessary to him, in place of burning it. He leads us to believe, that we may by and bye hope to get rid of farm-yard manure, which does not contain a sufficient quantity of ammonia, and wdiich promotes the growth of weeds : and he encourages us to hope, that, in place of the present cumbrous apparatus of farm- yards and muck-wains, the farmer will have a laboratory in liis fields to manufacture silicates and phosphates ! Now, such a mode of applying science to the improvement of an art is in itself unphilosophical. It is not by such speculations that chemistry has been rendered serviceable to any one art; or branch of art, to which it has been yet applied; and if ever it is to become the handmaid of agriculture, it is manifest that it must be by very different means from the promulgation of reveries of this kind. If chemists can believe that such theories fall within the province of their own science, let them confine them to it, but do not let them seek to extend them to a pursuit in which they are worse than useless. The practical farmer who would be silly enough to act upon theories of this kind, might be ruined in a single season, and, at the least, would be diverted from the course which might be useful to himself, into speculations which, in his hands, would be idle and profitless. But the more general effect to be apprehended from these misapplied speculations is to bring science itself into contempt with practical men, and to retard that application of it to agriculture which it is so much wished to pro- mote. It is greatly to bo desired that men of science shall be invited OHEMISTRV AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. 137 and induced to make the application of their acquired knowledge to the useful arts ; but if this is to be done with any useful effect in the case of agriculture, it must be with just views of the ends to be arrived at, and of the means 'of attaining them. Agricul- ture, it should be kept in mind, is based on a longer series of ob- servations than any art known to the human race, and it is idle to disregard experience in an art which is founded upon it. We sometimes hear the farmer termed obstinate and ignorant, because he will not act on new opinions, and abandon the only track in which he can travel with safety ; but the obstinacy is sometimes a necessary adherence to what cannot be prudently departed from, and the ignorance generally lies with the instructor, who is him- self destitute of that practical knowledge which can enable him to determine whether, and under what conditions, his principles can be applied. We sometimes hear of Scientific agriculture, as con- tradistinguished from that which is pursued by the farmer. Few terms are more abused in the present day than the term Science ; but if it is to be applied to the arts at all, it is difficult to see why it should be applied to the agricultural system of a chemist and vegetable physiologist, and withheld from that of a skilful farmer. Of all the cultivators of science, the chemist has the least right to make such a distinction. The science of the chemist is itself essentially experimental, and the experiments of the farmer, al- though performed in a different manner, and with a relation to different results, are not less the basis of a series of deductions ; and these deductions form as properly the science of the farmer, as the others form the science of the chemist. Agriculture involving a class of considerations proper to itself, the knowledge of them is necessary to the farmer ; and his success, all other things being alike, will mainly depend on the degree in which he possesses this knowledge, and the skill and diligence with which he applies it to use. The full knowledge of the de- tails of practice can only be obtained by experience and observa- tion, and is most quickly and easily acquired in the fields. In- struction, however, if rightly given, may greatly aid the acquisition of practical knowledge, and save the labour of him who enters upon 138 IMPLEMENTS OF THE FARM. the' study for tlie first time. The operations of the farm, though all tending to simple results, are yet very complicated with respect to the times and modes of performing them. Certain labours are proper to certain seasons, and at all times are modified by the na- ture of the weather and other contingencies. There generally, too, elapses a considerable period between the first operation and the final result, so that the chain of consequences is not always clearly observed. From these different causes, there is a peculiarity, and even a difficulty, in the study of agriculture, which is not expe- rienced in the common mechanical arts. The aim of preliminary instruction should be to lessen that difficulty, and direct the at- tention of the young observer aright. By being made acquainted with the nature of the operations to be performed, and the ends to be arrived at, he will be saved much of that embarrassment which he would otherwise experience, from seeing so many labours carried on, as it were, at the same time and in seeming confusion. IV. IMPLEMENTS OF THE FARM. In order to understand the manner of performing the labours of the farm, we should possess a certain knowledge of the mecha- nical agents to be employed. It is rarely, indeed, necessary that the farmer shall himself be able to construct machines, because in most countries where the arts are cultivated, there will be a class of artisans who can supply to him the common instruments of which he stands in need. But yet it is well that he be acquainted Avith the general principles upon Avhich his machines should be constructed, and so be able to supply, if necessary, the Avant of skill in the Av^orkinjEin. The machines, or implements of the farm, may be diAuded into classes, according to the purposes to Avhich they are to be ap- plied : — THE PLOUGH. 139 1. Implements of Preparatory Tillage, so called from being the instruments used in preparing the land for the plants to be cultivated — (1.) The Plough. (2.) The Harrow. (3.) The Grubber. (4.) The Boiler. 2. Machines for Sowing — (1.) Corn in rows. (2.) Corn and Grass-seeds broadcast. (3.) The seeds of the Bean and Pea. (4.) The Smaller Seeds in rows* 3. Implements for Hoeing. Horse-Hoes, &c. 4. Machines for Thrashing and Winnowing. (1.) Thrashing-machine. (2.) Winnowing-machine. 5. Implements for preparing food for live-stock. (1.) Turnip-slicer. (2.) Chaff-cutter, &c. 6. Wheel-Carriages. (1.) Single and Double-horse Cart and Waggon. (2.) Sparred or Corn -cart. 7. Utensils of the Dairy. (1.) Churn. (2.) Cheese-press, &c. 8. Implements of Manual Labour, &c. i Barrows, Forks, Spades, Shovels, &c. 1. Implements of Preparatory Tillage. (1.) THE PLOUGH . By mean of this instrument the earth is to be turned over to a given depth ; and this is to be effected by cutting from the ground successive sods or slices of earth, so that each sod or slice shall 140 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. be raised up and turned over, and all the sods or slices laid rest- ing npon one another, in such a manner as that an entire new surface shall be exposed to the atmosphere. In the following figures, let ABCD represent the end or trans- verse section, which is assumed to be a right-angled parallelogram, of the slice of earth which is to be turned over. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. Figs. The slice is first to be raised from the position in which it lies in Fig. 6 ; it is next to be placed in the position shewn in Fig. 7 ; and it is finally to be placed in that represented in Fig. 8. In the following diagram, let ABCD, corresponding with the same letters in the last figures, represent a transverse section of the slice of earth which is to be turned over. This slice is first to be raised from its horizontal position ABCD, by being turned upon its corner C as a pivot, and placed in the position CEFG, corresponding with that of Fig. 7. It is then to be turned upon its corner Gr as on a pivot, and laid in the position GHIK, cor- responding Avith that of Fig. 8. In this manner the side DC, which was formerly underneath, Avill be above, namely, in the po- Fig. 9. THE PLOUGH. 141 sition HI, and AD will be in the position IK ; and if successive slices shall be thus reversed, they will rest upon one another in the manner shewn by the sections of the slices OXYZ, TCUV, PQRS, OLMN, and GHIK, Fig. 9. The angle of inclination at which these different slices wall na- turally rest upon one another in the manner shewn in the figure, will depend upon the proportion which the width of the slices bears to their depth ; and, that the greatest extent of surface may be exposed to the air, the angle of their inclination must be 45°. In order, therefore, that the slices may be at this angle, the proportion which the width of the slices bears to their depth is to be determined ; and this can be done by simple calculation ; for it can be shewn that the width of the slice AB being the hy- pothenuse of an isosceles right-angled triangle, the depth of the slice BC will be one of the sides. Supposing, therefore, the width of the sod AB to be 10 inches, the depth BC will, by cal- culation, be 7*071 inches.* * That the maximum of surface will he exposed, when the angle of inclination of the sods is 45°, may be demonstrated thus : Let the right-angled parallelogram DBMN, in the following figure, represent a section of the sod or furrow-slice, BKM being an angle of 45°, and KB being equal to BM. On KM, which is here = BD, as a diameter describe the semicircle KBM, and in that semicircle draw any other triangle KPM, representing a section of a sod having the same width as before, but with the depth PM ; then will the two sides KB, BM of the isosceles right-angled triangle KBM be together greater than the two sides KP, PM, of any other right- angled triangle KPM on the same base KM. For, produce KB, and make BA == BM ; pro- duce also KP, and make PC = PM, and join AM and CM. Then because KBM is the exterior angle of the triangle BAM, it is equal to the sum of the interior and opposite angles BAM and AMB ; but BA = BM, therefore the angle BAM = AMB = ^ KBM. In like manner, the angle KCM = J KPM. But the angle KBM = KPM, and therefore the angle KAM =r KCM. Hence, the segment of a circle upon KM from the centre B will pass through the points C and A ; but the diameter KBA is greater than any other straight line KPC, which does not pass through the centre. Hence, since KA = KB + BM, and since KC = KP -f- PM, it follows that KB + BM is greater than KP + PM. To determine the ratio which the depth of a sod will bear to its width when 142 IMPLEMENTS OP PREPARATORY TILLAGE. If, then, beginning at one side of a field, we shall cut off a slice of earth, the entire length of this field, and place it in the position OXYZ, Fig. 9, and then cut off a second slice, and place it in the position TCUV, and then a third slice, and place it in the position PQRS, and so on, the various slices will rest upon one another at a given angle, in the manner represented. A similar operation is to be performed by the plough. Be- ginning at the right-hand side of the field or ridge to be ploughed, a sod, which we shall now call a furrow-slice, is to be cut from the firm ground, raised up, and turned over. A second furrow- slice is in like manner to be cut from the firm ground, raised up and turned over, and so on. In this manner an entire new sur- face will be exposed to the atmosphere, and the successive fur- row-slices laid resting upon one another, thus : — Fig. II. A well formed plough is that which will perform these opera- tions with the least resistance, with the least risk of injury from the strain or shock of opposing obstacles, and which shall join the inclination is 45°— Since KBM is an isosceles trian gle right -angled at B. KM2 = KB2 + B]\i2 = 2 BM*, and consequently BM =; V ^ KM^. Hence, sup- pose KM, the width of the sod, to be 10, then the depth Bil z= ^ 50 = 7’071 as in the text. THE PLOUHir. 143 to those properties such simplicity of form as is compatible with its uses. The plough may be formed partly of wood, and partly of iron. But as, when it is formed wholly of iron, it admits of a somewhat better combination of its parts, the following figures represent it as of this material, certain parts being of malleable iron, and cer- tain parts of cast-iron. Fig. 12 represents the plough, as seen from the right-hand side, or from that side which is at the' right-hand of the ploughman when at work. In this position are seen the two handles A and B, by which it is guided, the mould-board DEHGF, the share HGI, the beam C, and the coulter K. A Fig. 1 3 represents the instrument as seen from the same side, but with the mould-board and share remored. Here the connexion is shewn of the left handle A with the beam C, of which it forms a continuation, and of the right handle B, mth the lower part of the frame-work. The upper ends of these two handles rise to the height of about three feet above the plane of the lower part of the plough. They are to be regarded as le- vers in the hands of the ploughman, for enabling him to direct the instrument. 144 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. Fig. 14 represents the plough, as seen from the left side, being that side which, in working, is toward the unploughed land. The part AFDEB is a perpendicular plane, formed of plates of iron. The surface of these parts, the left side of the share FCD, and of the coulter K, should be in one plane, and move in a direction parallel to the line of draught. The beam is that part of the plough to which the moving power is attached. Upon the end of the beam is placed a bridle, as it is termed (N, Figs. 12, 13, and 14), to which the point of draught is fixed, and by means of which the line of draught can be elevated or depressed, and moved to the right hand or to the left as may be required. The bridle terminates in a horizontal plate, having holes or notches to which the line of draught is attached, and is moveable round a bolt passing through the beam, by which means the horizontal plate can be raised or lowered. The beam is curved in its form, in order that, being more elevated above the surface of the ground, it may be less impeded by stubble and other mat- ters upon the surface. In the beam is fixed the coulter K (Figs. 12, 13, and 14). The use of this part is to cut the sod vertically from the firm ground, previous to its being raised up and turned over. Its position is inclined forward as in the figure, so that when it encounters stones or other substances under ground, it may tend to force them up- wards. The inclination of its fore-part to the plane of the plough’s sole, may be from 45° to 55°, or more. Its right side should be THE PLOUGH. 145 Fig. 15. welded with steel, on account of the greater attrition to which that part is subjected. The share, Fig. 15, is made to be taken olF, that it may be sharpened when necessary. It is formed with a wing or projecting edge to the right-hand side, which is frequently laid with steel, to preserve the sharp- ness of the cutting edge. The use of the wing is to cut the under part of the furrow -slice, previous to its being raised upon the mould-board. It is usually made from 5 to 6 inches, measured from B to A. The share is formed of malleable, and the mould-board of cast iron. The two parts combined form a curved surface, which, be- ginning at the point of the share I, Fig. 12, gradually rises from the horizontal plane, until it is vertical at F, at which point, accord- ingly, a perpendicular line would touch it from top to bottom. The surface then continues to incline in a uniform manner to the right- hand side, until, at its extreme point D, it inclines over to that side at the angle at which the furrow-slice is to be laid. The whole right- hand side of the plough, therefore, consisting of the share and mould-board, forms the surface of a curved wedge, which, from the point of the share where it is horizontal, becomes gradually more and more upright, till it is perpendicular, and then continues in- clining by a gradual curve to the right-hand side, until it has formed with that side the angle at which we wish the furrow-slice to be laid. The wedge thus formed being insinuated beneath the furrow-slice and pushed forward, gradually raises it to a perpen- dicular position, and then, by acting upon the upper part of it, ])resses it over into the position in which it is to lie. That we may better comprehend the nature of the wedge which the plough forms, let ABCDEO, Fig. 16, represent a wedge, one of whose sides, ABCO, placed perpendicularly, moves in the line of the plough’s motion, and, consequently, corresponds with the left-hand side of the plough, and whose other side, EBCD, is a])- plied obliquely to the furrow-slice to be moved, and whose width behind, DO, is equal to the width of tlie sod to be moved. Such a wedge, moved forward in the ground, is calculated to move tlie K 140 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. furrow-slice to the right-hand side; but it is not calculated to raise it up. But let the lower part of this wedge, DC, be supposed di- vided into a certain number of equal parts, as ninety, then, begin- ning at the point C, corresponding with the point of the share, let all the upper part of the wedge from the edge CD backwards, be supposed to be cut or scooped away in such a manner as that, when we measure the angle which the surface of this new wedge forms with its base, we shall find that at the first equal part or division, the inclination of the surface to the base is 1°, at the se- cond 2°, at the fifth 5°, at the tenth 10°, and so on to the nine- tieth at D, where it is 90°, or perpendicular. In this manner we shall have formed a new wedge EAFCDO, whose face EFCD, be- comes gradually more and more upright from the point C to the point D, where it is wholly upright, and so forms a uniformly curved surface from the point to the extremity. A wedge thus formed, it is apparent, is calculated to raise the furrow-slice in a uniform manner from its horizontal to its perpendicular position, and is resolvable into two planes, one of which acts in elevating the sod, and the other in moving it to the side. Fig. 16. D There yet remains, however, the further operation of pressing over the furrow-slice into the position in which it is to be ultimately laid. Now this ive may suppose to be effected by lengthening out our wedge behind from DE backwards, and continuing it with a gradual curvature to the right-hand side, in such a manner as that after having passed the perpendicular at DE, it shall incline more and more to the right-hand side, until, at its termination, it shall have formed an angle with the surface on this side of 45°. In this manner the surface of the wedge will represent the right- THE PLOUGH. 147 hand side of the mould-board and share, beginning at a point, ris- ing by a gradual slope from the horizontal plane to the vertical position, and then gradually inclining towards the right-band side, until it forms with that side the angle required to press the sod into its position. It is to be observed, however, that when the furrow-slice has reached its perpendicular position at D, it begins to be turned upon a new pivot, as seen in Fig. 9, so that there is a slight change in the theoretical curvature of the wedge at that point ; and further, it is to be observed, that when it has reached this perpendicular position, it must be no further acted upon hy the mould-board be- low, for which reason all the lower part of the prolonged wedge must be cut away in the manner shewn in the different figures of the mould-boards. - This description will shew the general nature of the wedge formed by the share and mould-board, by the action of which, it has been seen, a slice or sod of given dimensions is cut from the firm ground, and is gradually raised up, and conveyed by the hinder part of the mould-board into the position in which it is required to lie. In considering the nature of this wedge, we may omit the considera- tion of the thin wing of the share, which is not an indispensable adjunct of the plough, and the surface of which is a mere continua- tion of that of the wedge which forms the rest of the share. The surface of the share and mould-board has been described as uniform ; but in practice it is not to be made entirely uniform, on account of the resistance of the earth being greater at certain parts of the ascent of the furrow-slice than at others. Thus, to- wards the point of the share, the resistance to be overcome is greater than at the extremity of the mould-board, and, therefore, the wedge is made more acute at that part than behind. A curved surface, such as has been described, may be easily formed by various means. These, however, need not be describ- ed ; neither is it necessary to explain in detail the several correc- tions to be made on the form of the parts, much less the changes which the judgment or fancy of difierent artisans leads them to make. It must suffice here, that the general form of the instru- 148 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. ment is understood, which will he easy when the actual plough is seen. The perpendicular height of the mould-hoard may he 16 inches, being that height which is sufficient to prevent the loose earth from being thrown over it when the plough is at work. The width of the plough below, measured from the left-hand side to the point of the mould-hoard F, Fig. 12, where it is begun to he cut away, and where its surface is perpendicular, should he just equal to the width of the sod, and which has been here assumed to he 10 inches; hut which most makers of ploughs assume to be 9 inches. The lower part of the plough, from the point of the share C to the heel E, Fig. 14, should ho of that length which is sufficient to give steadiness to the motion of the instrument, and need in no case exceed 36 inches even in the largest ploughs. It is the error in' the case of rude ploughs that these parts are formed unnecessarily large, and especially the width below, by which means the resist- ance is uselessly increased. An essential property of the plough is, that it shall move in the earth with a steady motion ; and the giving to it the form and com- bination of parts necessary for that purpose is one of the main difficulties attending its construction. Were it ascertained by experiment on the plough when at work, at a given depth of furrow, and in a soil of a given texture, that a cord attached to any point on the surface of the wedge, as A, Fig. 17 , and drawn in the oblique direction AB, would so pull forward the plough, that it should press uniformly upon the earth at all points from C to D, so that the share should neither tend to point upwards nor downwards, but should move horizontally forward, then it is to some part of this line that the moving power may be applied ; and further, it is known from the princi- ples of mechanics, that it matters not, in so far as regards the force exerted, to what precise part of this line the power is ap- plied. Now, without entering into any mathematical investiga- tion of the principles upon which this line is to be determined, it is to be observed, that, in a well-made plough, formed on the principles pointed out, this line, drawn from the usual point of TUB PBOUGH, 149 attachment of the draught on the collars of the working cattle, will intersect the surface formed by the share and mould-board at about half the assumed width of the sod from the plane of the land-side, and at about half the depth of the sod from the plane of the lower side or sole. If this line be extended, it will in- tersect the sole itself at some point, as E, behind the setting on of the share, and to the right of the plane of the left side of the instrument. It is designed to pass through the centre of resis- tance of the plough when at work, and will intersect the sole at a greater or less distance from the share, as the line of traction is more or less oblique. Now, knowing the height at which the point of draught is to be attached to the shoulders of the working cattle, let us suppose 4 feet, and the distance from the point of the share at which the animals of draught can be conveniently yoked, let us suppose 12 feet, then laying off DF 12 feet, and FB 4 feet, and drawing BE, it follows that the point at the end of the beam to which the draught is attached, may be placed in any part of the line BE. So that whatever be the length which we shall give to the beam, the line in question will denote the end of it, or the point to which the draught is to be attached. B The more horizontally we can place the line of traction EB, the greater is the proportion of the motive power which is ex- erted in drawing the plough forward ; but we are limited in our power of giving a less oblique position to the line of draught by the necessity of keeping the traces of a convenient length. And further, when we have determined the line EB from considerations of convenience, still the angle which it forms with the surface is not, as can be shewn, constant, but varies with the depth ploughed. 150 IMPLEMENTS OF PKEPARATOllY TILLAGE. and the tenacity of the soil. That the instrument may suit itself to these variations, as well as that any defects in the form of its parts may be counteracted, and that the line of draught may be placed in that position which is required to pull forward the plough, without there being any tendency in the share to sink into the ground or rise out of it, the bridle is fixed at the end of the beam, so as to elevate or depress the line of draught, as may be required. Should the plough, for example, tend to go deeper into the earth, the line of draught is to be lowered by means of the bridle, so that it shall form a greater angle BGF ; the effect of which will be to counteract the tendency which the plough has to go deeper. The same effect will be produced by shortening the traces by which the horses are attached to the draught, and thus increasing the angle. In like manner, by means of the bridle, the point of draught can be shifted to the right or to the left. If the point of the share tends to turn to the left hand into the firm ground, the line of draught is shifted more to the left, and if to the right hand, it is shifted more to the right. This ad- justing of the plough’s motion is easy, and is performed by the ploughman, until he feels that the plough continues to swim fair, to use his own technical language ; that is, until he feels, which he does at once, that it continues to move horizontally forward, without any tendency to turn to the right or left, or to rise from the earth, or to sink into it. A well-constructed plough of this kind, therefore, does not require wheels or other devices to steady its motion ; the effect being produced by the right adaptation of its parts to one another, and by altering the direction of the line of draught. It is difficult, however, to form a plough, in which all the parts shall be so adjusted as that it shall move steadily forward in the true line of motion. In ploughs, as they are commonly constructed, there is a tendency in the share to turn to the right-hand side, or away from the unploughed land, and to turn upwards, especially when encountered by obstacles, and so to throw the plough out of the ground. To counteract these tendencies, it is common to cause THE PLOUGH. 151 tlie share to point a little to the land-side, as well as a little down- wards, so as to give tlie instrument a firmer hold of the ground. These corrections, within certain limits, may be unavoidable even in the most carefully constructed ploughs ; but it is evident, that this counteracting of one tendency by another is in itself a defect, increasing the general resistance; and that the more nearly the disposition of the parts accords with the true form, the more per- fect, cceteris paribus, is the construction of the instrument. An- other practice is to point the coulter to the left hand, even con- siderably beyond the plane of the land-side of the share and mould- board. This, to every one who will consider the nature of the wedge employed in cutting and elevating the sod, will be seen to be a defect. If the plough is to be held vertically, the position of the coulter must be vertical, and if the sod is to be cut square, like a brick, that is, having the section rectangular, it is plain that the coulter must be placed at riglit angles to the plane of the lower side or sole of the share ; and if the left side of the coulter is not on the plane of the land-side of the share and mould-board, the draught is increased by presenting a greater number of points of resistance to the sod. The undoubted honour of having perfected this species of plough belongs to J ames Small, an ingenious mechanic of Scotland, who, by observing the defects of the former ploughs, succeeded in form- ing an instrument which may be used in every part of the world, and Avhich has added millions to the wealth of his native country. A treatise by him remains to shew the steps by which he arrived at the discovery of the principles on which a good plough may be constructed. Numerous variations, many of them proper, have been subsequently made in the form and disposition of the dif- ferent parts, but the essential principle of construction as taught by Small, is observed. The ploughs of this kind are more or less perfect, according to the skill and experience of the artisans who construct them. They are for the most part efficient in a high degree. In the countries where they are used they are drawn by two horses yoked abreast, and are capable of performing, by easy 152 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPAKATOUY TILLAGE. labour to the animals of draught, almost every species of tillage which the plough is required to perform.'^ Although the animal of draught employed in this species of plough is the horse, as being better suited than the ox to the variety of labours in which the husbandman of this country em- ploys his working-cattle, and to the despatch which he deems es- sejitial in all his operations, yet it does not follow that the horse is to be preferred to the ox in all countries and in all cases. In many countries the ox may still, on account of his more easy means of support and other qualities, be advantageously used. But Avhether the ox or the horse be employed it matters not, in so far as it regards the construction of the simple and efficient machine which has been described. It is equally suited to either species of draught, and only requires that the height of the beam shall be varied a little to suit the animals employed, and the manner in which they are attached to the yoke. When horses are used, they are attached by an apparatus of swing-trees, as in Fig. 18, to the bridle at the beam by a hook at A. These swing- trees being con- nected together, each horse pulls against the collar of his fellow, so that each must exert an equal force in pulling. They are at- tached by chains or traces, CC, to their respective swing-trees. Fig. 18. The chains or traces by which the horses are yoked, are fixed to hooks on the collar as at A, Fig. 19. The traces are prevented from falling down by a broad belt of leather B, fastened to the traces, and passing over the back of the horse. Each horse has ^ A description of the plough of Small, with an explanation of the principle of its construction, was many years ago communicated by me to the Conseil Koyal d’Agriculture de France, and, with accounts of the harrow, grubber, and other im- plements, was afterwards published in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. THE PLOUGH. 153 a snaffle-bridle C, and a cord is attached to the inner ring of each bridle, and to the trace of the opposite horse, for the purpose of keeping the horses together. Long reins DD, are attached one to the outer ring of each bridle, pass through rings on the belts of the leather B, and are looped to each handle of the plough. With these, assisted by the voice, the ploughman directs the horses, and uses the reins instead of a whip, when necessary, to urge the animals forward. Resting between the handles of the plough is a little spade. Fig. 20, with which the ploughman removes the mud that may be collected on the mould-board, or any substance that may be col- lected between the beam and the coulter, or between the beam and the forepart of the mould-board. It is convenient, too, to have a little hammer appended to the plough, with a key at one end, to be used when occasion requires. Fig. 20. o= — — Wheels, in many ploughs, are attached to the end of the beam. It is believed that it can be shewn from a consideration of the mechanism of the parts, that the labour of draught is not lessened 154 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. by this device ; yet tlie plough with wheels is more steady in its motion, and more easily managed, and thus may be guided by a less skilful workman. But the simpler instrument, when the ploughmen are instructed in the use of it, will be found to be greatly more efficient in practice. The manner of ploughing a given piece of ground, as a field or a ridge, will be described under the head. Simple Operations of Tillage. (2.) THE HARROW. This instrument consists of a frame of wood or iron, in which a certain number of teeth are fixed, which are pressed into the ground by their own weight and that of the frame. The instru- ment is intended to pulverize the ground which has been acted upon by the plough, to disengage from it the roots and other substances which it may contain, and to cover the seeds of corn and other cultivated plants. The harrow is greatly more simple in its form than the plough. It is even an imperfect machine, in any form of which we can construct it ; yet it is of great utility in tillage, and should re- ceive all those mechanical improvements of wliich its nature will admit. The harrow performing its operation by means of a certain number of teeth moved forward in the ground, and pressed down- wards by their own weight and that of the frame in which they are fixed, the first questions that occur in investigating the prin- ciples of its construction are, the form that should be given to those teeth, and the manner in which they should be disposed in the surmounting frame. Were it the end, in harrowing, solely to drag up the roots of plants and other substances from the ground, the best form, perhaps, that could be given to the teeth would be that of a thin wedge, tapering to the point, like the coulter of a plough, and, like it, inclining forward. But although this construction might be the best calculated for tearing up roots and other substances beneatli the surface, it would not be so well THE HARROW. 155 fitted for covering seeds, and for breaking and pulverizing the ground, as when a broader surface Avas presented to the earth, and a greater movement given to its particles. The wedge for this purpose should be broad rather than thin. In order, there- fore, to adapt the form of the teeth to this purpose, to the strength necessary to be given to them, and to the lateral or shaking motion to which they are subjected in passing over rough ground, as well as to their forward motion, — it is conceived that the best form of them Avill be when their horizontal section is a square, Avhose diagonal is moved forward in the line of the harrow’s motion ; Avhile they should gradually taper to a point, the fore- part being kept straight, as in T, Fig. 21. • With regard to the distribution of the teeth in the frame of the harrow, they should not be placed too closely together, for then they would be too much impeded by the obstacles opposed to them. Further, they should be so disposed with relation to one another, as that one part of the instrument shall not be more interrupted than another : Again, their number should not be too great, because then their power to penetrate into the ground will be diminished, unless the weight of the Avhole instrument shall be increased in a corresponding degree : And, lastly, their length should not be greater than is necessary, because they will not on that account penetrate more deeply into the ground, unless the whole Aveight is also increased, and because this increase of length will give a greater power to the teeth, when encountered by ob- stacles, to split the frame in Avhich they are fixed. The harrows represented in Fig. 21, of Avhich the frame is of wood and the teeth of iron, are formed Avith a regard to these ge- neral principles. They are connected together in pairs by hinges. They consist each of four bars of wood, AB, CD, &c., which are joined together by an equal number of cross bars of smaller di- mensions, mortised through them. The larger bars are placed oblique to the smaller bars, and to the line of the liarrow’s motion, and the teeth are inserted into them at equal distances from one another. This inclination is made to be such, that , perpendiculars from each of the teeth falling upon a line LM, 156 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPAKATORY TILLAGE. drawn at right angles to the harrow’s motion, shall divide the space between each bar into equal parts, so that the various teeth, when the instrument is moved forward, shall indent, at equal distances, the surface of the ground over which they pass. Fig. 21. The number of teeth in each harrow is 20, 5 being inserted in each of the larger bars. When two harrows, therefore, are em- ployed together, the surface of the ground from L to M is indented by 40 teeth, impressing the ground at equal distances, and cover- ing the space of about 9 feet. The teeth may project below the under surface of the frame 8 inches or more. The teeth are often inserted into the frame with a little inclination forward ; but this deviation from the perpendicular is not necessary, and renders the harrow more apt to be impeded by the weeds or other substances collected in the angle between the teeth and the frame. The teeth are fixed in the bars by boring holes with an auger of about | of an inch in diameter, and then driving them firmly through. The teeth, when thus driven into the bars, will be retained with suffi- cient firmness. The best of the common kinds of wood for the bars, as being the least liable to split, is ash. The iron rods which terminate in the hinges O, O, may pass THE HARROW. 157 through the framework, to give it greater strength. These rods keep the harrows at the distance required, and the hinges admit of either harrow' rising or falling, according to the inequalities of the surface. When thus joined, the harrows are drawn by two horses guided by reins, the driver walking behind, so as to he pre- pared to lift up either harrow when choked by weeds, or otherwise interrupted. The method of attaching the animals of draught will he ex- plained by the apparatus of swing-trees shewn in the figure, by means of which each animal must exert an equal force in pulling. There are plates of iron N, N, passing through the left-hand bars of each harrow. These plates have a few holes in them, so that the line of draught may be shifted to the right or left, as may he required. The staple P upon the swing-tree RR being the point to which the moving power of the harrow is attached, it is im- portant to ascertain its proper position. Were a perpendicular to he let fall from P upon the line LM, the point of intersection would he in the middle of the entire breadth covered by the harrow s, in order that an equal number of teeth should be on each side of the line of traction. But the larger bars being placed oblique to the line of the harrow’s motion, when any obstacle raised above the surface of the ground strikes one of these bars, it tends to press it to the right-hand side. And as there are 8 bars of this kind, and these of considerable length, it will appear that, in ground where there is any great unevenness of sur- face, there wdll be a constant succession of strokes, forming a strong lateral pressure on the left side of the several bars. But the staple P being nearly fixed in its position, while the harrows may be moved round, the effect of this lateral pressure is to turn the whole harrow s on P as a pivot from left to right. In practice, accordingly, there is found to be a constant tendency in the har- rows of this construction to swing round from left to right, and this often to so great a degree in very rough ground, as to place the larger bars parallel to the line of motion, thus causing all the teeth in the same bar to follow the same track. Hence the point P ought not to be precisely in the middle of the space covered by 158 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. the harrows, hut placed somewhat to the left hand, in order that so great a number of teeth may be placed on the right side of the line of traction as to counteract the tendency of the harrows to turn from left to right. But further, the position of P is not fixed, but must vary with the roughness of the surface over which the harrows are dragged. Hence, not only must the staple P be placed somewhat to the left hand, but there must be the power of mov- ing it more or less towards the left hand, according to the rough- ness of the surface passed over. This is effected by the iron plates, with holes, of Avhich mention has been made, and by means of which the driver can readily shift the line of draught more or less to the left hand, as may be required. A species of harrow was formerly much in use, and is still some- times employed, of much greater Aveight and dimensions than the ordinary kinds, each single harroAV being drawn by two horses. These large harrows were termed Breaks. They AAwe intended to THE HARROW. 159 till the stronger clays, at a time when they were too hard to be impressed by the teeth of the common harrow. There were differ- ences in the form of these instruments. One method of their con- struction is represented in Fig. 22, in which there are five large bars, and twenty-five teeth, and where the line of draught is so attached as that the teeth shall impress the ground at equal dis- tances. The heavy harrows of this kind, however cannot be said to be indispensable, even on the most stubborn clays, since, at those times when the lighter harrows are unable to operate, other in- struments may be employed. Sometimes a light kind of harrow, with a greater number of teeth, is used for covering the smaller seeds, as those of the clo- vers and grasses. These light harrows do this species of work better than the common kinds, and hence many farmers have one or more pairs of them for the specific purpose of covering the smaller seeds. To prevent injury to the surface, when it is necessary to sow land in a very wet state, several harrows may be attached together, and the horses made to walk in the open furrows of the ridges, to be afterwards described. These harrows may be attached to an axle, mounted on wheels, stretching the breadth of the ridge. But the same purpose may be more simply effected by merely at- taching the harrows to a beam of wood of a length sufficient to stretch across the ridge, in which case the two middle harroAvs f Fig. 23. 160 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. may be connected together by hinges, in the usual manner, while, to keep the outer ones at the distance required, each of them may be attached to the cross beam, in the manner shewn in Fig. 23. The harrow has been here described as formed of wood, with teeth of iron. The whole, however, may be formed of malleable iron. The advantages of the iron harrow are, that it is more durable, and that a smaller surface being exposed to the resist- ance of obstacles on the ground, it is not so much resisted as when the frame is of wood. On this account it does somewhat more work in proportion to its weight. The following figure re- presents the harrow as formed of iron. Fig. 24. In these figures, the harrows are shewn as closely connected by their hinges ; but they may be also more loosely connected, so that each harrow shall have a little separate play, and this is conceived to be an improvement in the construction. (3.) THE GliUliBER. The uses of the harrow, it has been seen, are to pulverize the THE GRUBBER. 101 ground which has been subjected to the action of tlie plough, to disengage from it the roots of plants and other substances which it may contain, and to cover the seeds which are sown upon the surface. The harrow, however, performs imperfectly a part of these operations. It is not well suited to penetrate the ground, and drag up the roots of plants beneath the surface. The teeth being forced down solely by their own weight and that of the frame in which they are fixed, which is not considerable, they are ill fitted to make an impression upon the ground, and they are easily thrown out of it by the obstacles which they encounter. In soil which is in any degree tenacious, therefore, the impression made by the teeth of the harrow is often very slight. Were the teeth, as was before observed, formed like the coulter of a plough, and set in the same position, they would better insinuate them- selves into the ground, and be somewhat less liable to be forced out of it. But the harrow, from its nature, could only admit of this construction in a very limited degree ; for were the teeth to form a sharp angle with the framework in which they were set, the roots and other substances disengaged from the ground would be collected at the angles, and would thus be carried along with the harrow and impede its progress ; while the difficulty would be increased of freeing the teeth from the substances collected. To obviate these defects of the harrow, instruments have been employed, which, from their weight and construction, are better able to penetrate the soil, and maintain their position at the depth required. They are termed Grrubbers, Cultivators, Extirpators, Scarifiers, &c. They are of greatly more recent introduction into agriculture than the plough and the harrow. Of this class of instruments, one termed Finlaison’s harrow, from the name of its inventor, Mr John Finlaison, has been ex- tensively employed. It is made wholly of malleable iron, and consists of a frame supported by wheels, and having inserted in it a certain number of curved teeth or prongs. It is so formed that the wheels can be raised or depressed, so that the frame can be brouglit nearer to the surface of the ground, or raised more L 162 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. above it, by which means the prongs penetrate the soil to a greater or less depth. This instrument was originally formed with nine prongs in two rows, and required a power of four horses to work it. It has now been lessened in weight, and the number of prongs reduced to five, so that it can be readily worked by a pair of horses. It has further undergone certain modifica- tions, so that the frame with its prongs can be more readily raised or depressed, and the prongs more easily set at a greater or less depth, or raised wholly out of the ground, by the work- man. The following figure will shew the form of the machine as it is now constructed. Fig. 25. It consists of two parallel sides AA, with two sets or pairs of cross-bars, as shewn in the figure. Into the hindmost of these sets are inserted three curved teeth or prongs, and into the fore- most set two prongs. From the foremost set of bars, the sides begin to converge, so as to meet at B, where there is a bent lever moveable on a bolt, and connected with the wheel D, which runs upon the surface. This lever is attached by a bolt to the rod K, and this rod again by a bolt at I with the handle C. The handle is bent at the same bolt I, and connected at o with the horizontal rod c c, by which means, when the handle is elevated or depressed, the rod c c is turned. This rod has an arm at each extremity, H, at right angles to it, which carry at their ends the hind-wheels LL. Standing upon the frame, in the manner shewn in the figure, is a curved bar E, with a set of notches at one side, so that tlie handle, being raised or depressed, can be fixed at any given posi- THE GRUBBER. 163 tion. When the handle is depressed, the radial part o is drawn back, and, consequently, the rod K ; and thus the wheel D is pressed downward, the point of the frame B rising in the same degree. Again, by the same depression of the handle, the rod c is turned, and the arms HH are placed more vertical, and the wheels LL are lowered ; or, in other words, the frame is raised. Thus the de- pression of the handle raises the whole of the frame with its prongs. Again, when the handle is elevated, the operation is reversed ; the wheels are raised, and, consequently, the frame approaches nearer to the ground, and the prongs penetrate deeper. Thus the prongs can be elevated or depressed at pleasure ; and thus by fixing the handle in the notches at a greater or less height, the prongs work at a greater or less depth in the soil. By pressing the handle suf- ficiently down, the prongs can be raised entirely out of the ground, which is required when turning at the end of ridges, or taking the machine from one place to another. The curvature given to the prongs is for the purpose of pre- venting any roots or other substances raised from the soil from collecting and impeding the machine. They are supported by stays a a, and they cover a space of about 4 feet 4 inches. Other varieties of this class of instruments are adopted. One constructed by Mr Kirkwood of Tranent, was described in the former editions of this work, and recently, an elegant form of the machine has been proposed by Earl Ducie. It is not, however, necessary to describe the various modifications of this class of in- struments : that which has been represented is well adapted to its ends, is simple in form, and calculated to endure the ordinary kinds of work in which it has to be employed. The introduction of this class of instruments into tillage must be regarded as beneficiM and important. When land is full of root-weeds, the repeated operation of the plough, the harrow, and the roller, is resorted to for tilling and cleaning it. In these cases the grubber is a useful assistant, and may frequently supersede the necessity of one or more ploughings. The grubber can be made to go to any depth which may be re- quired, and thus the soil can either be stirred to the depth at which 164 IMPLEMENTS OF PREPARATORY TILLAGE. it had been originally ploughed, or to such lesser depth as may he deemed expedient. It is, in this respect, greatly superior to- the harrow, which we cannot regulate in this manner. The em- 'ployment of the grubber, however, does not supersede that of the harrow in the pulverization of the ground and disengaging of the roots of weeds. The harrow is still to be used in conjunction with the grubber, and especially for collecting into heaps the roots of the plants brought to the surface. In the same class of instruments is one employed in some parts of England, termed a drag. The drag is merely a strong triangu- lar harrow, kept in the ground by handles, assisted a little by the form of the teeth. It is usually drawn by four horses yoked abreast, and can go over from eight to ten acres in the day. The land being ploughed, the drag passes across the field, and then the harrows follow to complete the operation and collect the weeds. (4.) THE ROLLER. The Roller is an instrument intended either to smooth and con- solidate the surface of the ground, or to pulverize the clods of earth turned up by the action of the plough and the harrow. - The roller chiefly employed is a solid cylinder of Avood, or a hollow cylinder of cast-iron, surmounted by a strong framcAVork of Avood, in the shafts of Avhich is yoked one of the animals of draught. The other animal, Avhen two are employed, is attached by chains to the shafts, and moves in a line before. The manner in which the frame surmounts the cylinder, on the pivots of Avhich it rests, Avill appear in the folloAving figure. Fig. 26. THE ROLLER. 1(35 The length of the cylinder of the roller may be 5 feet, and its diameter 24 inches. The substitution of cast-iron for wood is a great improvement in the construction of this machine, because the iron surface is less apt than the wood to collect mud as it moves along. Frequently, instead of one long roller, the cylinder is divided into two, as shewn in the figure, so that each part may revolve separately. The design of this is to diminish the labour of the cattle in turning. Sometimes upon the frame is fixed a large box, in which are put stones to increase the weight. The weight of the roller, however, will be best increased by adding to that of the cylinder ; for the adding to the weight of the frame increases the friction in the way in which it is most considerable in the machine, namely, by the pressure of the surmounting frame upon the pivots. For the same reason, it is an error to render the frame too heavy, the weight being always better increased by an addition to the weight of the cylinder, than to that of the frame. In the construction of rollers, the cylinder is now made of larger diameter than by the older practice : and it is conceived that it can be fairly deduced from a consideration of the form and mode of action of the machine, that, comparing together two rollers with cylinders of unequal diameter, the one with the larger cylinder will be more efficacious than that with the smaller cylinder, because a greater weight can be brought, by the exertion of the same force, to act upon the ground. The manner of using the roller, and the cases in which it is to be employed, will be afterAvards explained. The Aveight of the roller may vary Avith the nature of the soil upon Avhich it is to act. On farms of stiff clays it may be from 1 6 to 20 caaT., and on the lighter class of soil a Aveight of 12 CAvt. is sufficient. The cast-iron roller is subject to be broken Avhen dragged along a hard road, to obviate Avhich may be employed a Ioav frame on Avheels, on Avhich the roller is then to be put. 166 MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. Fig. 27. 2. Machines for Sowing. (1.) MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. The seeds of the dilFerent kinds of corn may be sown, either by being scattered irregularly upon the surface, or by being depo- sited in rows at given distances from one another. The first me- thod may be practised by the hand, the seeds being scattered from a basket, or from a sheet slung over the shoulder of the workman. When seeds are scattered upon the surface, which is termed sowing broadcast, they fall upon it irregularly. They cannot he placed at equal distances from one another, but nevertheless, if the operation be performed well, the inequality of distance between in- dividual seeds is too inconsiderable to affect the general result, and the average distance is sufficiently preserved, thus : Fig. 28. For the purpose, however, of allowing the ground to he tilled, and MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. 167 weeds to be destroyed during the growth of the plants, the seeds are frequently sown in rows, at given distances from one another, as 9, 10, or 12 inches. Fig. 29. '** In this case there is an interval between the rows of seeds, which, until the plants shall have spread their leaves and steins over it, may be tilled by hoes or other means. The sowing of seeds in this manner is termed the row or drill system ; and different kinds of instruments are employed for sowing, according as the seeds may be those of the cereal grasses, as wheat ; of certain legumi- nous plants, as the bean ; or of smaller seeds, as the turnip. Various modes of construction have been adopted for this class of machines. Generally a framework is placed upon two wheels, and upon this is an oblong box for containing the seeds. From the axle of the wheels motion is communicated to a spindle or axle, which passes horizontally through the lower part of the box, and upon this axle may be fixed, at the distances required, a series of grooved or fluted cylinders. Fig. 30. There are apertures formed near the bottom of the box, and as each cylinder revolves amongst the seeds, a certain portion of them is collected in the grooves at each revolution, and is carried round in the grooves, and falls through these apertures. By making the grooves larger or smaller, so as to contain a larger or smaller quan- tity of seeds, or by making the apertures of the seed-box larger or smaller, so as to allow a larger or smaller quantity of seeds to 168 MACHINES EOR SOWING OOIiN IN ROWS. pass through, the machine can be made to sow the seeds more or less thick, as may he required. The seeds, after passing through the apertures, fall into tubes or funnels, through which they are conveyed to the ground. Im- mediately before the lower part of each funnel is a sharp hollow coulter of iron, which encloses the lower part of the tube, and makes a rut in the ground into which the seeds fall. By these means they are sown in the quantity required, and at the depth to which we choose to set the coulters. To allow the rows to he at larger or smaller intervals, the cylin- ders are generally moveable upon the spindle, so as that they may be set at any equal distances, as 9, 10, 12, or more inches. The coulters are made to move at the depth required, and to be lifted up along with the tubes or funnels when necessary, as at the turn- ing at the. ends of ridges, and the encountering of obstacles of any kind. Sometimes the axle, instead of having cylinders upon it with grooves, has a series of small pinions or teeth. Fig. 31. Or, in place of the teeth, there is employed a series of stiff brushes. The teeth or brushes revolve in the same manner as the fluted cy- linders, and, by keeping the seeds in motion, cause them to fall through the little apertures or holes near the bottom of the box. The holes are made to he enlarged or diminished by means of a sliding iron-plate, placed upon them, with an equal number of simi- lar holes. When the holes of the seed-box and the iron-plate correspond, that is, when they are placed exactly one upon the other, the holes through which the seeds drop are of their largest size. But by moving the iron-plate a little to a side, the holes do not entirely correspond, and hence the holes through which the seeds fall are lessened ; and by moving the iron-plate still further to one side, so as that no part of the two sets of holes shall cor- respond, those of tlie seed-box are entirely covered. The iron- MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. 169 plate wliicli thus lessens or closes the apertures of the see^l-box, is moved by a lever, and fixed in its position by screws. In Fig. 32, the principle of construction is that of teeth or brushes fixed upon an axle, which is more simple than when the method of grooved cylinders is adopted, and is found in practice to be equally or more efficient. C represents the seed-box, formed with a lid at top, by which the seeds are introduced. At its lower part are the holes through which the seeds fall, and covering them all is a thin iron-plate with corresponding apertures. By moving the iron-plate, which is done by means of a lever, the holes of the seed-box are enlarged or di- minished to the degree required, and Hi i, &c., are a series of tin tubes, enlarged at the upper part, where they are in contact with the seed-box, which lead to the hollow iron coulters ////, &c. These hollow coulters are sharp before and open behind. They inclose the tin tubes at their lower end, and make a rut in the ground into which the seeds fall. In the figure, 11 of these coul- ters, with their corresponding tubes are shewn ; and they are so made as that, by means of a simple contrivance, some of them may be closed up, and the others placed at equal distances from one another. In this way 7, 9, or 11 rows may be sown as may be required. At the bottom of the seed-box within, is placed the horizontal spindle, on which are fixed the teeth or brushes, which, agitating the seeds in the box, cause them to fall through the holes into the tubes. Motion is given to this spindle by means of a toothed wheel upon the axle of the wheel E. This moves a small intermediate wheel, and this again the wheel K, placed upon the end of the spindle. In this manner the spindle, with its brushes or wheels, revolves amongst the seeds, and, by the motion which it gives to them, causes them to fall through the holes into the tubes, whence tliey are conveyed to the ground. When the spindle is stopped, scarcely any seeds fall through the apertures, and by means of a lever L, the workman has the power of throwing the moving wheel out of geer, and tlius stopping at once the revolution of the spindle. BB are the shafts, attached by means of hinges to the machine, between which tlie 170 MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. animal of draught walks ; and AA are the handles upon which the workman presses, and by eleyating which, he is enabled to lift up the seed-box and coulters, so that the latter may, if required, be raised entirely out of the ground. Gr represents a part of a long wooden bar, with a rod and sharp piece of iron H, fixed to it by hinges at I. The use of this is, that when the machine moves across ridges, which is the way in which it is often employed, a mark or rut may be made in the ground ; and when it returns, the animal of draught walks in the rut or track which has thus been formed, and which is, accordingly, the guide or mark by which the workman is enabled to direct the course of the machine. This marker is made to be lifted to either side, as may be required. It is not an indispensable appendage. Fig. 32. (2.) MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN AND GRASS SEEDS BROADCAST. The sowing of corn from the hand is attended with some un- certainty, being dependent, for the accuracy of the execution, upon the skill and attention of the sower. The regularity of the work is also affected by winds. In either case, the means rarely exist of detecting the degree of imperfection, until the plants are above ground, when it is too late to correct it. As a remedy for these inconveniences, a machine has been introduced into agriculture, for sowing the seeds of corn and grasses broadcast. The great recommendation of this machine is, the regularity and certainty with which it performs the work, the saving of seeds, and the ren- MACHINES FOR SOWING CORN IN ROWS. 171 dering the execution independent of unskilfulness and the want of care in the operator. The machine consists of an oblong box, 16 feet or more in length, supported upon a framework with three wheels. Work- ing at the bottom of the inside of this box, is a horizontal spindle AB, Fig. 33, upon which is fixed a series of pinions (or a spindle OP, on which is fixed a series of hard brushes), at the distance from one another of about 7 inches. Motion is given to this spindle from one of the hinder wheels, by means of the axle C, upon the end of which is fixed the mitred wheel D. This works into a small mitred wheel upon the little shaft E ; which again, by means of another mitred wheel working into a similar wheel F, gives motion to the horizontal spindle. In this manner the spindle with its pinions or brushes, is made to revolve as the ma- chine moves forward. At the lower part of the seed-box within, are hollowed out cavities, in which the several pinions work ; and at the bottom of each of these cavities is a small aperture or hole, through which the seeds fall. There is thus along the whole bot- tom of the seed-box, a line of holes ; and a long thin iron-plate upon the outside of the seed-box is made with similar holes. This iron-plate is moveable by means of levers, and is made to be fixed in a given position by screws. When the holes of the iron-plate are placed so as to correspond exactly with those of the seed-box, the holes through which the seeds fall are of their largest size. By pressing the iron-plate a little to one side, it partially covers the holes of the seed-box, and thus the holes through which the seeds fall are diminished ; by pressing the iron-plate still more to a side, the holes of the seed-box are covered, and no more seeds fall through. In this manner, precisely as in the case of the drill- sowing machine, the apertures of the seed-box can be enlarged or diminished, so as to allow a larger or a smaller quantity of seeds to fall through. The seeds, however, in place of falling into tubes, and being thus conveyed to the ground, ?ind deposited in rows, fall at once upon the ground, and so are sown broadcast. They are then covered by the harrow, in the manner to be afterwards de- scribed. 172 Foil SOWING COKN AND GRASS SEEDS BROADCAST. Fig. 33. FOK SOWING CORN AND GRASS SEEDS BROADCAST. 173 Fig. 34 is a perspective view of the machine. AB represents the long wooden seed-box. CD are the shafts for the attach- ment of the animal of draught. LL are two small levers for the purpose of moving the iron-plate, and N is one of the screws for fixing it in its position. M is a lever acting vertically for the pur- pose of changing the position of the seed-box, which is sometimes required in the case of a steep ascent. Fig. 34. The animal of draught between the shafts walks in the hollow of the ridge, in which also moves the fore-wheel, which, however, is scarcely seen in the figure, being hidden by the seed-box and frame. The long wooden box extends over half the space of each adjoin- ing ridge, and thus the breadth of an entire ridge is sown at once. In order that the machine may be adapted to variations in the breadth of ridges, some of the holes at each end are made to be closed by means of sliders. The workman walks behind. A man and a horse with this machine, with the assistant required to bring forward the seeds and ^iinpty them into the seed-box, will sow from 20 to 25 acres in a day. The regular manner in which the seeds are sown by means of this kind of machine, renders less seeds necessary than when the common method of sowing by the hand is practised. And, fur- ther, this greater regularity in the distance of the seeds from one another, produces a more equal growth or braird of the plants. Besides the sowing of the cereal grains, the machine is well adapted to the sowing of the seeds of the grasses and clovers. The seeds of. these plants are very minute, and more difficulty exists in sowing them witli regularity than the larger grains, and 174 MACHINES FOR SOWING THE BEAN AND PEA. in an especial manner during winds, when, from the lightness of the seeds, they are easily blown away. When the seeds of clovers and grasses are to he sown, the spindle with brushes, in place of that with pinions, is to be employed. (3.) MACHINES FOR SOWING THE SEEDS OF THE BEAN AND PEA. The seeds of the bean being of larger size than those of the cereal grasses, a peculiar kind of machine is employed for sowing them. The simplest of these machines consists of a seed-box, in the bottom of which works a grooved cylinder. At each revolution of the cylinder a quantity of seeds, dependent upon the size of the grooves, is carried round, and these falling into a tube at the bot- tom are conveyed to the ground. This machine is generally made to sow only one row at a time. It is thus so light as to he pushed forward by the hand, and is moved upon a single wheel like a wheelbarrow. From this wheel, motion is conveyed to the cylin- der by means of cranks. In the following figure, A is the seed-box, at the bottom of which the grooved cylinder works ; BB are the handles held ele- vated by the workmen ; E is the wheel on which the machine moves ; C is one of the cranks connected with this wheel, which give motion to the grooved cylinder within the box ; D is the tube through which the seeds fall into the rut prepared for them in the ground, in the manner to he described when treating of the culture of the bean. Fig. 35. But a hotter machine is now employed for sowing tlie seeds of MACHINES FOR SOWING SMALLER SEEDS IN ROWS. 175 the bean as well as of the pea. In this implement, as in the other, a grooved cylinder works in the bottom of a seed-box ; but the seeds are conveyed to the ground by three tubes in place of one, so that three rows are sown at once. The machine is drawn by a single horse, and the seeds are deposited in the hollows between drills previously formed, in the manner to be explained when de- scribing the culture of the bean and pea. Fig. 36 represents this machine : AB is the seed-box, and C one of the wheels by which motion is conveyed to the grooved cylinder ; DDD are the tubes Fig. 36. through which the seeds fall, and FF the shafts to which the ani- mal of draught is attached. (4.) MACHINES FOR SOWING THE SMALLER SEEDS IN ROWS. The seeds of the turnip, and a few other plants cultivated in rows, require a peculiar class of machines. These differ very much in the details of their construction, and are more or less perfect in different parts of the country. Some- times the method before explained of grooved cylinders is adopted, the size and mode of action of these being suited to the minute seeds to be sown. The seeds are then carried to the ground in tubes, defended at their lower part by coulters, which make ruts in the ground into which the seeds fall. In place, however, of using grooved cylinders, the more com- mon method is to place the seeds in cylindrical boxes of iron or 176 machines for sowing smaller seeds in rows. till, which are made to revolve, and which being perforated in a line all round, the seeds fall through as the boxes revolve. Em- bracing the cylindrical box is a thin iron or tin plate, in which also are perforated sets of holes, by slight change in the position of which a greater or smaller number of holes in the boxes can be covered, and so a greater or smaller quantity of seeds allowed to fall through. Fig. 37 represents this method of construction. A A are two boxes or hollow cylinders of tin, with a row of holes round each cylinder. Into these cylinders the seeds are introduced by means of apertures with sliding lids. Motion is given to them by a pinion upon the axle of the wheel at B. This acting upon the intermediate pinion C gives motion to the pinion upon the end of the axle D. The cylinders AA being fixed upon this axle, they revolve in proportion as the machine is moved forward. The seeds falling into the tubes GG are conveyed to the ground. The hol- low coulters HH defend the lower extremity of the tubes, and make ruts, into which the seeds fall. lisa lever, which, by means of a toothed wheel working into the teeth of the iron-plates KK, can move the lower ends of the coulters and tubes to a greater or smaller distance from each other, according as the rows may be somewhat more or less distant. Fig. 37. Fig. 38 represents the machine complete. AA are the shafts, to which is yoked the animal of draught. BB is a wooden box, in which are contained the cylinders, to which motion is conveyed by the pinion fixed upon the axle of the large wheel C. DD are the hollow iron coulters, in whicli the tubes for conducting the seeds to the ground terminate. FF are two light wooden rollers, MACHINES FOR SOWING SMALLER SEEDS IN ROWS. 177 which follow each track of the coulters, and cover the seed ; but which are sometimes omitted. E is a wooden roller in front, the use of which will be understood on describing the turnip- culture in the sequel. It is sufficient here to state, that the seeds of the turnip are sown on the tops of little raised drills, and that ^ the effect of this roller is to flatten and compress these drills just Fig. 38. before the seeds are sown. GG are two handles which are held by the workman. These are attached to the coulters in such a manner, that when either handle is lifted up, the corresponding coulter also is raised ; and thus the workman has the power of lifting up either coulter, when impeded by roots or other obstacles. The following figure represents a machine of this class as formed wholly of iron, and with a variation in the mode of its construc- tion. BB represent the boxes in which the seeds are contained. Fig. 39. M 178 IMPLEMENTS FOR HOEINO. EE are two rollers hollowed out so as to suit the curvature of the drills, and from the axle of which motion is conveyed to the grooved cylinders contained in the boxes. HH are the tubes which convey the seeds from the boxes to the hollow coulters DD. AA are the shafts to which the animal of draught is yoked, and GGr the handles held by the workman. Sometimes the machines of this class are made to sow only one row at a time ; hut it is an improvement that they be made to sow two rows at once, both on account of the saving of labour, and of the greater steadiness with which the larger machine moves forward. 3. Implements for Hoeing. The machines of this class are those which are employed for the purpose of tilling the intervals of plants which are sown in rows. The plants which are cultivated in this manner are, in certain cases, the cereal grasses ; in other cases, the bean, the pea, and such leguminous plants as are cultivated for their seeds ; but, above all, the turnip and other plants of the cabbage family, and the potato, the carrot, the beet, and various plants cultivated chiefly for their roots or tubers. The instrument most generally employed for tilling the inter- vals of the cereal grasses is a hoe used by the hand ; although, where the system is practised to a great extent, it is found con- venient to employ a series of hoes, moved by horse-labour. These are commonly flat triangular shares, of such a size as to occupy the interval of the rows, and so formed as to be set at a greater or less distance from one another as may be required ; and they are attached to a frame fixed on wheels. But, in the practice of the farm, the hoeing instruments that may be considered as really essential, are those used for tilling the intervals of leguminous plants, as the pea and bean, of the plants of the cabbage family, and of the various species of plants culti- vated for their roots and tubers. IMPLEMENTS FOR HOEING. 179 A lioeing instrument for the latter classes of plants is a com- mon plough, formed upon the principle of the plough already de- scribed, hut of smaller size, and drawn by one horse. In using this plough, the animal of draught walks in the inter- val between the rows of plants. The plane of the left-hand side of the plough is made to go as near the line of plants as can be done without injury ; and in this manner the plough cuts off a shal- Fig. 40. low slice of earth, and lays it in the interval between the rows. The same operation is then performed with the adjoining row of plants, by the plough returning in the same interval ; by which means another thin slice is cut off, and thus two furrow-slices arc taken from each pair of adjoining rows of plants, and thrown into the middle of the space between them. In place of a single small plough, there has been sometimes employed an instrument with two mould-boards with shares, facing one another, resembling two ploughs, the one a little in advance of the other, but having one beam, and being made sufficiently light to be drawn by one horse. This is a very efficacious species of tillage, and is frequently used in the case of the first hoeing to be given to potatoes and turnips, in the manner to be afterwards described, and in the case of beans where the land is stiff and the intervals wide. Besides these instruments, are employed hoes of various con- struction, 'which, by means of shares and coulters, or of coulters alone, till at one turn the entire interval between the rows of plants. These are sometimes made with beams in the manner of the plough, and sometimes without beams in the manner of the harrow. Fig. 180 IMPLEMENTS FOR HOEINO. 41 represents an instrument of this class, suited to the different purposes to which it is applied. Fig. 41. It is formed with a beam and handles, like a plough. It has a triangular two-winged share, which passes between the rows of plants. Fixed to the horizontal bars are two upright coulters, bent inwards at the lower extremity. The bars to which these coulters are attached slide upon the cross-bar AB, and are fixed by hinges to the beam, and thus the upright coulters can be placed at such a distance from one another, as to work as near the rows as they can go without cutting or injuring the plants. In this manner, by means of the broad share in the centre, and the coulters at the sides, the entire space between the rows of plants is tilled. Further, by removing the two lateral coulters, and substituting two mould-boards, a hoeing machine of this kind may be converted into another implement employed in tilling the ground — a double mould-board plough. The effect of using the lateral coulters in tilling, is to move, in part, the earth away from the plants. By substituting the double mould-board plough the operation is re- Fig. 42. MACHINES FOR THRASHING AND WINNOWING. 181 versed; for, by passing along the intervals of the rows, it lays back the earth towards the plants from which it had been moved by the action of the lateral coulters. Fig. 41 represents the instrument, with its broad share and lateral coulters. Fig. 42 represents it when the coulters and bars to which they are attached are removed, and the two mould-boards are substituted. Although the machine described will, in most cases, answer the purposes required, yet, in the case of particular classes of soils, or rather in particular conditions of the soil, the broad share is found to raise up the ground in clods or masses, and to be some- times inconvenient when the land is very full of weeds. In such cases, an instrument with coulters alone may be employed. The following figure represents one of the simplest that is used, and as efficient as any other. It is best constructed of iron. The coulters are fixed in lateral beams and these beams are formed to be moved at a greater or less distance from one another, as shewn in the figure, so that a wider or narrower interval can be tilled. In front is a little wheel to steady the motion of the instrument. Fig. 43. 4. Machines for Thrashing and Winnowing. (1.) THRASHING-MACHINE. The separation of the grain of corn from the straw, has been effected by various means. That which is the most familiar, and which has been derived from the earliest times, is by the flail, a simple instrument, which consists of two staves bound together by tough thongs. One of these staves is held in the hands of the 182 MACHINES FOR THRASHING AND WINNOWING. workman, and with tlie other the unthrashed corn is beaten with force ; by which means, the grain and husks are separated from the straw, and these again, by the further action of winnowing, from one another. The flail, although efficient in the hands of an expert workman, is but a rude instrument. The operation performed by it is labo- rious, and the separation of the grains from the stems is often imperfectly executed. As agriculture has advanced, attempts have been naturally made to substitute machinery which might perform the operation required with more facility and greater despatch. These attempts were but partially successful, until the invention of Andrew Meikle, an ingenious mechanic of Scotland, to whom, beyond a question, belongs the honour of having perfected the thrashing-machine. Changes and improvements have indeed been made on certain parts of the original machine ; but in all its es- sential parts, and in the principle of its construction, it remains as it ^ame from the hands of its inventor. In this machine, the unthrashed corn is made to pass between two revolving rollers. It is held firmly by these, which are of small diameter, and revolve with comparative slowness, while it is acted upon by a set of beaters, as they may be called, placed upon a cylinder, and revolving with great rapidity. The cylinder revolves upon a horizontal axle, while the beaters, consisting of bars covered with iron, are fixed lengthwise upon it, that is, pa- rallel to its axis. The action of these beaters detaches the corn and chaff from the straw, and then, by means of revolving rakes, the straw is shaken, and the corn and chaff are allowed to sepa- rate from it. These fall through spars or wire-meshes into ano- ther machine, where they undergo the process of winnowing, while the straw itself is carried fonvard and thrown out of the machine by the action of the revolving rakes. Fig. 45 represents a transverse section of these parts. In this, AA are two fluted cylinders of iron, working into one another, and between which the unthrashed corn is made to pass. B is the cylinder, upon which are placed the four projections or beaters cccc. The cylinder revolving with great rapidity, the beaters act THllASHING-MACHINE. 183 upon the untliraslied corn, as it is firmly held by the fluted cylin- ders, and heat and detach the seeds and husks from the stems. The whole passing over the cylinder, is thrown forward in the direction shewn by the arrows xwos. It is first acted upon and shaken by the four rakes EEEE, placed upon the hollow cylinder D, moving in the dii*ection of the arrow y. It is then thrown for- ward, and acted upon by an equal number of rakes, placed upon the circumference of the sparred cylinder I, and by them it is thrown out at the end of the machine at L. The bottom of the machine FGH, is so formed with spars, or a species of wire-work, that, while the straw is carried forward by the action of the rakes. Fig. 44. the detached grains of corn and chaff fall down in the direction of the arrows zzzzz, into a machine below, in which, by the ac- tion of winnowing, the chaff is separated from the grain. The first of the revolving cylinders D, is formed of thin iron, or of wood covered with tin. The second of the cylinders I, is of wood, spar- red, so that any corn or chaff not separated by the action of the first rakes, may fall through in passing over the last cylinder ; and, by which means, the whole of the detached grain and chaff falls through the sparred or meshed bottom FGrH. The machinery of the thrashing-machine is driven by animal power, or by wind, water, or steam. The parts described are within the apartment or barn in which the thrashing process takes place. 184 MACHINES FOR THRASHINO AND WINNOWING. The moving power applied is without the walls of the barn, pro- perly so called. The form of the thrashing parts of the machine is represented in Fig. 45, with the wheels and pinions employed in moving them. Here A A is a large spur-wheel, with its axle resting on the beam B. To this wheel motion is communicated Fig. 45. by means of the moving power without the barn, whether that shall be animal power, wind, water, or steam ; and this wheel, by means of wheels, pinions, spindles, or belts, gives motion to all the parts of the machine. First, by acting on the pinion C, it gives motion to the revolving cylinder D, on which the beaters are fixed ; second, by means of pinions, it gives motion to the inclined THRASHING-MACHINE. 185 shaft E, and this again, by means of wheels, gives motion to tlie fluted cylinders FF. Further, by a pinion and intermediate wheel, it gives motion to the spur-wheel Gr, fixed to the axis of the hol- low cylinder H, with its four attached rakes. The spur-wheel Gr gives motion, through the intermediate wheel x, to the wheel ?/, fixed on the axle of the cylinder I. Further, by means of the belt K, running on the pulley of the spindle L, motion is communicated to the winnowing-machine M. In so small a figure it is difficult to represent the details of the construction. It must suffice, therefore, that the reader make himself acquainted with the essential parts of the machine, and the general means by which they are put in motion. The large spur- wheel A A, he will observe, communicates motion to the different parts of the machine, namely, to the fluted rollers FF, between which the unthrashed corn passes, to the revolving cylinder D, with its beaters, to the revolving rakes H and I, and to the belt K, which gives motion to the parts of the winnowing-machine M, which stands below the sparred bottom of the thrashing-machine, and has the corn or chaff conveyed to it through a large hopper. Be- sides the parts referred to, various devices may be employed for abridging labour, as for carrying away the corn when thrashed, &c. ; but these not being essential parts of the machinery, need not be here described. To understand further the general arrangement of the thrash- ing-machine, it is to be observed, that the barns in which the opera- tions of thrashing, winnowing, &c., are carried on, are in three apartments. NN is the upper storey of the barn, in which the unthrashed corn is placed. 00, immediately underneath this, is an apartment for receiving the corn as it conies from the apertures of the winnowing machine. PP is the part of the barn into which the straw falls, and is called the straw-barn. Into the upper apart- ment ]SfN, the unthraslied sheaves are carried from the barn-yard, being either thrown into it directly from the carts, or carried np to it by means of an easy gangway on the outside. In the lower apartment 00, which is called the dressing-barn, the corn is re- ceived from the winnowing-machine, and made ready for use. In 186 MACHINES FOR THRASHING AND WINNOWING. the large straw-barn PP, the straw is generally piled up until it is required for the purposes of fodder or litter. Between the straw-barn and dressing-barn, a small apartment is partitioned olf for receiving and containing the chaff ; but deviations are made in the dispositions of these several parts, for the purpose of suiting the buildings of the smaller farms. A modification of the thrashing-machine has been recently in- troduced with success. It is, in point of fact, not a thrashing- machine, as it operates by stripping the grain from the straw, and not by beating it. There are no feeding rollers, and the drum or cylinder of the thrashing-machine is furnished with pegs or pins set radially upon its surface, in place of heaters, the arc in which the drum revolves being provided with similar pins. The grain, in passing between them, is effectually stripped from the straw. It matters not, in this machine, whether the grain he broken or laid head to ; for, as the straw is pulled out straight by it, the ear is stripped off in any 'position. The thrashing-machine, it has been said, is driven by animal power, or by wind, water, or steam. The animal of draught is generally the horse, and from four to six are the numbers usually employed. The animals walk in a circular covered pathway, with- out the barn. Fig. 46 shews the manner in which they are gene- Fig. 46. THRASHING-MACHINE. 187 rally attaclied, and tlie means by which motion is conveyed to tlic large spur-wheel within the barn, already referred to. A is a vertical shaft. BC is a large wheel with teeth working into the pinion D. This gives motion to the shaft E, and this again to the spur-wheel within the barn, already referred to. GGGG are vertical posts, descending from long beams HH, placed above the animals of draught. To these posts the animals are yoked by short chains attached to the collar, and, moving in a circular course, they give motion to the apparatus. The number of horses employed, it has been said, is generally from four to six. The smallest class of machines are those in which only two horses are employed. There is always a waste of labour, however, wdien less than four horses are used. Whatever be the number employed, the operation of moving the machine is a severe one upon the working cattle, from the dead weight of the draught, and their confined position. For this reason, amongst others, the substitution of mechanical for animal power is always to be preferred where circumstances will admit of its application. The mechanical power employed may be water or steam. Wind also may be employed, but this is too uncertain and unequal in its operation to be well suited for driving the thrashing-machine. When water is the power employed, the common machinery of the water-wheel is used. Of the different powers, water, where it can be commanded in sufficient quantity, is the most economical. But where water cannot be obtained, then the best resource is steam, which, from the great and steady power capable of being applied, admits of an admirable construction of the thrashing- machine. The steam-engine may either be a non-condensing or a condensing engine. The former is the most simple, and at its first cost the most economical : the latter, though more expensive, is the more perfect, though never used in the practice of the farm. The engine, according to the size of the farm, should be equal to a six or eight horse-power. The steam-engine for the thrash- ing-machine has now come into general use in the north of Eng- land and south of Scotland, where the farms are generally of the larger class. 188 MACHINES FOR THRASHING AND WINNOWING. Thrashing-machines driven by hand-labour have been often re- commended, and in some cases constructed. But the machines of this class appear to possess no advantage over the flail, or rather to be much inferior to it with respect to economy of labour. (2.) WINNO WIN G-MA CHINE. The winnowing-machine is designed to remove the husks or chaff" of corn from the grain, and to separate the impurities and loose refuse intermixed. With certain variations in the form of its parts, the principle of construction of this machine is, in most places where it is used, the same. Four or more oblong boards of wood are fixed, at equal distances from one another, upon an axle placed horizontally, and extending through the machine. This axle is driven round by a wheel act- ing upon a pinion, so that a rapid rotatory motion is given to the boards, and a current of air by this means produced. The corn to be winnowed is made to fall from a box or hopper, in the course of this current, through one or more sieves of wire, which, being kept in a quick lateral motion, intercept and scatter the grain, while the current of air acts in blowing away the chaff. The chaff being separated in this manner, the heavy grain falls down and is collected. Fig. 47 represents one side of the machine. E is a hopper into which the corn is lifted. A is a wheel driven by the handle B, and this wheel acting upon a jiinion, gives motion to an axle, WINNOWING-MACHINE. 189 on which are placed four oblong boards. To these boards, which are enclosed nearly all round, air is admitted from open spaces on both sides of the machine, as shewn in the figure. These spaces may he enlarged or diminished by means of sliding boards, so that a larger or smaller quantity of air can he admitted. Fig. 48 is the opposite side of the machine, and the occult lines represent a section of the interior. Here DHDD are the four oblong boards, termed fanners, by the rapid motion of which in the direction of the arrow xxxx^ a strong current of air is pro- duced through the interior of the machine in the direction of the arrows yy. E, shewn also in Fig. 47, is the hopper, into which the corn to be winnowed is put. The corn falls down from the hopper upon the sieves HI. These sieves are connected with the bottom of the hopper FGr, which is moveable, and fixed to a hinge at K, and hung on two chains, one of which L, is seen in the Fig. 48. figure. When the motion, therefore, is given to the sieves HI, motion is at the same time given to the board FG, which forms the lower part of the hopper. The shaking motion given to this board causes the corn in the hopper to fall through upon the sieves by the aperture at G. By means of the screw M, a sliding board is made to be raised or pushed down, so that a greater or less aper- ture shall be left at G. The lateral or shaking motion is given to the sieves and bottom of the hopper by means of the rod Q, which is connected by one crank with the sieves, and by another crank 0, with the axle C, to which the fanners are attached. The bottom 190 IMPLEMENTS FOR PREPARING FOOD FOR STOCK. of the iiiachiiie TR, formed of boards, is placed obliquely, so that the corn, after having passed through the sieves, shall fall along the inclined plane from T to R. A part of this bottom is per- forated like a sieve, so that dust, sand, and other impurities, shall be separated from the corn as it falls from T to R. A portion of this bottom also PT is made to slide. A board S, extending across the machine behind, is made to slide up or down, and all the space zz h open. The manner in v/hich the machine acts will now be understood. A person drives the handle, and so gives motion to the fanners within. The corn to be winnowed is lifted up, placed in the hop- per, and continually supplied as it falls through. It falls through the aperture G, which it has been seen can be enlarged or dimi- nished, upon the two parallel wire-sieves HI. In the mean time, the current of air acting upon it, the chaff is blown out at the end of the machine in the direction of the arrows The heavy corn falling down the inclined bottom comes out at R. Should any of the corn be so light as to be blown past the point T, but yet not be sufficiently light to be blown away with the chaff, it falls down in the intermediate space in the direction of the arrows iiiii} separately from the heavy corn. By pushing upwards the sliding board PT, a smaller quantity of this lighter corn is sepa- rated, or, in other vfords, a larger portion of it falls down mixed with the heavy corn. By elevating the board S, a smaller quan- tity of lighter corn is blown away with the chaff. There are differences in the form of this machine. Thus in place of two sieves, one above' the other, one may be rendered suf- ficient. The heavy corn, in place of falling out at the end at R, may be made to fall out at a spout at the side ; and, in like man- ner, the light corn, in place of falling down below the machine, may be discharged by a spout. This is the construction adopted when the machine is attached to the thrashing-machine. Some- times the bottom PR is made moveable, so that a shaking motion may be given to it for the better causing of dust and sand to fall through. The macliine when not attached to the thrashing appa- TURNIP-SLICER. 191 ratiis, is made so light as to be readily moved from one part of the barn to the other. 5. Implements for Preparing Food for Live Stock. In many cases, it is beneficial to prepare the food to be used by the animals of the farm in various ways. The first to be mentioned of the class of implements employed for this purpose, is that for cutting the roots of turnips and other plants into pieces, that they may be the more readily eaten by sheep and oxen. (1.) TURNIP-SLICER. Various machines have been constructed for this purpose. The most common and simple is that formed by means of knives placed upon a wheel, and made by each revolution to cut slices from the turnip or other roots. The wheel, covered with boards, is set. upon a framework, and a box or hopper, open on the side next the wheel, is so placed, that, when the roots are put into it, they press upon the side of the wheel. At every revolution of the wheel, each of the knives makes a stroke upon the roots, which are pressing upon the wheel at the open side of the hopper, and cuts off a slice ; and the machine is so formed that the cut pieces shall fall from the hopper to the ground, or into a basket or other vessel. This machine is exceedingly well adapted for cutting the roots of turnips and mangel-wurzel for oxen. But when sheep, and especially young sheep, are to be fed in spring, and when their teeth are loose, it is often better to cut the roots not only into slices, but to divide them into smaller pieces still, that they may be the more readily taken up by the animals. The machine de- scribed may be easily made to cut the roots in this manner, by having two sets of knives or cutters, placed at right angles to one another, so that the roots which are pressed against them 192 IMPLEMENTS FOR PREPARINO FOOD FOR STOCK. shall be cut in two directions, and thus divided into pieces, of greater or smaller size, according to the distance at which the knives are placed from one another. The following figure represents a machine of this kind. A is Fig. 49. the boarded wheel, B the hopper open at the top and the side next the wheel, in which the roots to be cut are put, C a portion of the cutting apparatus, D the handle by which the wheel is driven, and to aid the action of the hands may be added a treadle E. The following figure represents a machine for the same pur- pose, in which in place of the boarded wheel, the knives are at the bottom of a hopper A, and have a reciprocating motion Fig. 50. CHAFF-CUTTER. 193 given to them by the handle B. The machine, for the facility of carriage, is placed on wheels, and may be formed altogether of iron. Fig. 51. A common mode of cutting turnips into pieces for cattle is by an instrument (Fig. 51) with four blades at right angles to one another. The turnip or other root is struck as it lies upon the ground, or in the feeding- trough, and thus at one stroke is divided into four parts. (2.) CHAFF-CUTTER. The chaff-cutter is a machine employed for cutting hay and straw into pieces of a given length. By this process, it is found that the dried stems of plants can be more easily consumed by cattle, and, therefore, afford more nourishment in a given time. In this class of machines, the hay, straw, or other substances to be cut, are placed in a narrow oblong trough. They are then pressed forward to two revolving cylinders, which hold them with firmness, and gradually carry them onward. As portions are protruded by the cylinders they are acted upon by one or more knives, sometimes placed upon a fly-wheel or its axle, and sometimes on another wheel, to which motion is conveyed from Fig. 52. N 194 MACHINE FOR BRUISING GRAIN. the fly-wheel. The desiderata in the construction of these machines, are, Isf, causing the knives to make the cut in the most efiicient manner, which is by a draw-cut, and not by chopping, and is done by placing either the knives or the substances to be cut in an ob- lique position ; and, 2dly, causing the substance to be brought forward to be acted upon by the knives with regularity, and so adapting this action to the several strokes of the knives as to vary the length of the cut according to the degree of fineness to which it is wished to reduce the stems. The foregoing figure represents a machine formed with a re- gard to these principles.' Upon the axle of the fly-wheel A are fixed arms, carrying the knives CC ; and B is the trough in which are placed the straw and other substances to be acted upon. These are brought forward by two fluted cylinders, to which motion is given by the spur-wheel D and pinions a a, the wheel T> being itself driven by a pinion fixed on the axle of the fly- wheel. As oblique knives are expensive to be kept in repair, the box B through which the material to be cut is protruded, has its underside formed so as to act with the knife in the manner of scissors, and it is curved in such a manner that the knife-edge, which is straight, makes a draw-cut, or comes successively in con- tact with the difierent portions of the materials to be acted upon. E is a lever pressing the fluted cylinders together, so as to regu- late the force with which they hold the material to be cut. (3.) MACHINE FOR BRUISING GRAIN A machine is used occasionally for bruising seeds, as of pease, beans, or oats, intended for the food of animals, and thus render- ing the mastication more perfect. There are difierent forms of these machines. They are sometimes driven by the hand, though this is better done by a power attached to the thrashing-machine, or where this is not convenient, by a single-horse power. Perhaps the best construction of this class of machines is that of two plane rollers of large diameter, kept in rapid motion, the com to APPARATUS FOR BOILING OR STEAMING FOOD. 195 be bruised being supplied from a hopper, so as to pass between them. The machines driven by the hand are convenient, as being portable ; but the labour of driving them is considerable, and all the purposes of such machines may be served by having the seeds coarsely ground in any common corn-mill. (4.) APPARATUS FOR BOILING OR STEAMING FOOD. In numerous cases it is found to be beneficial to boil roots and grain before they are given to animals. The most economical method of preparation is by heating the water by means of steam, conveyed from the boiler to the vessel containing the roots or grain. Any kind of wooden box or barrel will answer for this purpose. Fig. 53. 196 WHEEL-CARRIAGES. SO formed as to admit of being readily filled and emptied. The steam is to be conveyed in a pipe to the lower part of the vessel, which ought to have a sliding board at the bottom to allow the contents to be discharged when ready. The vessel may be filled with water, though this is not necessary in the case of succulent roots as the potato, because the steam is quickly condensed. But w^hen corn is to be boiled, it should be covered with water, that the steam may be condensed. The foregoing figure represents a steaming apparatus of a suf- ficiently good construction. A is a cistern for containing water, and supplying it to the boiler C. The boiler is furnished with water and steam-cocks, for ascertaining the quantity of water within, and with a float, the wire from which communicates with the cistern, and regulates the supply of water. A pipe may proceed from the boiler to the out- side of the building in which it is contained, and have a stop-cock E to draw off* hot water. F is the boiler-furnace, and Gr is the steam-pipe proceeding from the boiler, and communicating, by means of branch-pipes, with the barrels H, I, K. These barrels are suspended in gudgeons between the uprights of the frame or gauntree LM, the point of suspension being a little above the centre of gravity of each barrel. Each barrel is furnished with a perforated false-bottom, between which and the true bottom the branch steam-pipe is inserted. This branch-pipe is connected with the steam-pipe G by a spigot and faucit joint, and the branch to each barrel has a stop-cock, by which the steam may be cut off* from any barrel. The food to be steamed is introduced into the barrel by the top, which has a hinged lid, fastened by a screw, and when the food is ready, the steam is cut off* from the barrel, and the barrel is turned round its centre, until it lies in a hori- zontal position on the edge of the gauntree. The food is then emptied into a wheelbarrow or cooling trough, and the barrel is allowed to regain its vertical position. WHEEL-CARRIAGES. 197 6. Wheel-Carriages. The carriages employed by the farmer are moved either by hand-labour, as in the case of barrows of different kinds, or by the working cattle of the farm. The carriages of the latter class are either carts on two wheels, or waggons on four. Those of either kind have their advantages, and in certain kinds of work each may excel the other. When the object is the conveying of heavy and bulky substances, as hay and corn, the waggon has this advantage, that a greater number of animals can be employed to move one load. No waggon, however, for the purposes of the farm, ought to require a greater force of draught than two horses ; and in order that the horses may exert their force in the most advantageous manner, they should be yoked abreast, and not one before the other, according to the common practice. They should be so attached, too, as that each, pulling upon the collar of the other, should exert an equal force in drawing. In order that the waggon may turn with facility, the fore-wheels are generally made considerably smaller than the hind-wheels, as we see in coaches and chariots, so that they may turn below the bottom of the carriage. By this diminution of the size, however, the force required to draw the waggon is increased, both by the comparatively greater friction on the axle of the smaller wheel, and by the greater difficulty of pulling it over obstacles. For these reasons, the fore-wheels should either be kept as large as is consistent Avith the facility of turn- ing, or placed a little in front of the body of the carriage, so that a smaller proportion of the Aveight shall press upon them. It is an improvement to have a drag, formed by making a bar of wood bear against the periphery of the wheels, by means of screAvs Avork- ing through the back-bar of the carriage. In this Avay, the driver has the waggon under his control in descents, more effectually than by means of the chain commonly used. The waggon may also be used Avith a single horse ; and some 198 WHEEL-CARRIAGES. who haye employed the single-horse waggon, prefer it to other carriages for the purposes of ordinary draught. Although the waggon, under certain given circumstances, pos- sesses advantages of its own, it is yet inferior to the single-horse cart for the more common purposes of the farm. In the single- horse cart, the horse partly hears the load and partly drags it. In this manner, it is believed that it can be shewn that the horse can move a greater weight, at least for moderate distances, than when he exerts his force solely in pulling. The single horse-cart, therefore, in this excels the waggon, that for moderate distances, a greater comparative weight can be drawn by an equal exertion of animal force. And it possesses this fur- ther advantage over the waggon, that it is more readily turned, backed, and otherwise managed, so that a considerable saving of time is effected by employing it in most of the common opera- tions of the farm. The objections to the use of the cart for the carriage of loads exist when the roads are bad, and the carriages very distant. In either case the horse is distressed by the pressure of the load and his own confined position in the shafts : but, where the roads are good, this objection does not apply ; and experience shews that a greater weight can be drawn for an equal distance by the same number of horses in carts than in waggons of the common construction. But two horses may be employed to draw the cart, one being yoked before the other. In this case, however, a considerable loss of power results from the manner in which the fore-horse is necessarily attached to the carriage : for, by ceasing to exert his force even for the shortest time, he throws the whole burden upon the shaft-horse; and when, after a temporary relaxation of draught, he makes an exertion, it is effected by means of a start or jerk, which distresses himself as well as the shaft-horse ; and as he fre- quently pulls in a line of direction somewhat different from that of the shaft-horse, a part of the force exerted is lost, and becomes a pressure upon the back of the latter. Hence, although the fore- WHEEL-CARRIAGES. 199 horse frequently throws the whole labour of draught upon the horse behind, yet, by exerting his force solely in pulling, without bear- ing any portion of the weight, and by the starts and jerks to which he is subjected, he is almost always found to be more distressed on a journey, or by any continued work, than the horse on which the burden falls more constantly and equally. The following figure represents the single-horse cart ; but the same form of construction is adopted when two horses are em- ployed. This is termed the close-cart, in contradistinction to the other, to be afterwards described, employed in the carriage of hay, corn in the straw, and other bulky articles, and usually termed the corn-cart. Fig. 54. The body of the close-cart may be fixed to the shafts, or so formed as to be raised independently of them, when it is termed a turn-up cart. It is made in this manner, in order that the body may be raised so as to discharge the load from behind. The body turns upon the axle, and is kept attached to the shafts by a hook at A. The hook being disengaged, the body of the car- riage may be lifted up, the horse remaining in the shafts. When this method of construction is not adopted, but when the body is fixed permanently to the shafts, it is necessary, when loads are to be discharged behind, that the horse be disengaged from the shafts and the whole lifted up. This appears to be very awkward, and yet in practice it is found to be attended with no inconvenience. 200 WHEEL-CARRIAGES. The carter, by taking hold of the end of a shaft, has a more power- ful lever to elevate the cart than in the case of the turn-up cart, while the cart itself is made more light and compact : and with respect to unloosening tlie horse in the shafts, this is done in a time almost as short as in elevating the turn-up cart. In every cart the hinder board is made to be detached for the purpose of discharging the load, or placing it more easily in the carriage. Two boards, removable at pleasure, may be placed one upon the edge of each side of the cart, for the purpose of better supporting the load when bulky. They are fixed by long handles passing through iron staples on the outside of the cart. In using the single- horse cart in journeys, one man drives two carts. The horse of the last cart is fastened by a rope from his bridle to the cart before ; and he soon learns to follow steadily and quietly in the same track. The other form of the cart is that represented in Fig. 55. This species of cart is sparred at the sides, and is formed in this man- ner for the purpose of carrying loads of corn in the straw, hay, and similar bulky commodities. It is generally made of such di- mensions as to be drawn by two horses, one yoked before the other. The reason of this is, that, from the nature of the load, one man can drive only one cart, so that, if one man, by the prac- Fig. 55. tice of the farm, has two horses, an additional person will be re- quired for driving the second cart. For this reason, it is generally thought better that two horses should be used, though to a disad- vantage as to the power of draught. Where this practice prevails, it is not necessary that there be a separate axle and wheels for the cart. It is only used occasion- WHEEL-CARRIAGES. 201 ally, and is placed upon the axle and wheels of the close-cart. Thus, the simple arrangement is, when hay and the like are to be carried, the close body is removed, and the sparred one placed upon the same wheels. It is very convenient to have a sparred frame to be attached to the close-cart. By this means, when occasion requires, it may be employed for the same purposes as the larger sparred or corn- cart. Fig. 56. It is often convenient and necessary upon a farm to have a car- riage for the conveyance of water. This may consist of a large barrel, placed upon the frame of a common cart ; and in order that the barrel may not be too high, the axle may be bent. Fig. 57. 202 WHEEL-CARRIAGES. The manner in which the animals of draught are attached to these carriages is very simple. On the hack of the shaft-horse, Fig. 58, is placed the cart- saddle ; which is formed with a raised groove A, over which a chain, to he attached to the shafts, passes. This chain is fixed on each side to a hook moveable along an iron staple B, fixed upon the shafts. To the same staple are fixed two other hooks. To one of these is attached a chain C, which is fixed to the collar of the animal, and by means of which he exerts his force in pulling : to the other hook is fixed the breech-chain D, attached to the leather Fig. 58. belt G, by means of which the horse is enabled to resist the de- scent of the load when going downhill, and to back the cart. Thus, to tlie iron staple there are attached the collar or draught-chain, the back-chain and the breech-chain. A band E then passes be- neath the horse from shaft to shaft, which prevents the shafts from being raised up by the weight of the cart. The bridle of the horse is a single snaffle, to the rings of which, on each side, are fixed the reins by which the driver guides him. These reins pass through rings upon the collar. When the horse is to be un- yoked, the bellyband is unloosed, and the collar and breech-chains are unhooked. When another horse is used, he is yoked by chains fixed near the ends of the shafts ; and, to keep the chains asunder, a bar or IMPLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. 203 stretcher is fixed between them. The trace-horse has no cart- saddle, haying no weight to hear npon his hack, and he has no breeching, since he has no power of hacking or resisting the de- scent of the draught. A hand, and sometimes two, pass over his hack to support the chains. A hand also passes beneath his belly to keep the harness in its place. The chains are attached to the collar. The bridle, as in the case of the shaft-horse, is a snaffle, to the rings of which are attached the reins. 7. Utensils of the Dairy. The utensils required for the dairy consist of vessels for con- taining milk, of churns, of cheese-presses, &c. These form a class which will he most conveniently treated of when describing the works of the dairy. 8. Implements of Manual Labour, &c. These form a numerous class ; hut it will he here necessary to refer to only a part of them. The remainder will he more con- veniently described when reference is made to the labours in which they are employed ; and an enumeration of the whole which are necessary upon a farm will be given under the head Capital. (1.) WHEELBARROW. Fig. 59. 204 IMPLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. The wheelbarrow is employed for the carriage of light loads, as of earth, for short distances, lime for building, and the like. (2.) HANDBARROW. Fig. 60. This species of barrow is, under certain circumstances, substi- tuted for the wheelbarrow, for short distances. (3.) SPADE, BROAD-POINTED SHOVEL, AND NARROW-POINTED SHOVEL. Fig. 61. Fig. 62. Fig. 63. The spade here shewn. Fig. 6 1, is the common spade: the broad- pointed shovel, Fig. 62, is chiefly used for the spreading of lime : the narrow-pointed shovel. Fig. 63, for the throwing out of loose earth from ditches, furrows, and drains, and for various other purposes in conjunction with the spade. (4.) MATTOCK, PICKAXE, AND FOOT-PICK. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 64. IMPLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. 205 The mattock. Fig. 64, is used for forcing up stones, breaking hard ground, and the like: the foot-pick, Fig. 65, is employed for similar purposes : and the pickaxe, Fig. 66, is made for cut- ting substances, as the fibres of the roots of trees, as well as for forcing them up. (5.) SAW, AXE, SLEDGE, AND HAMMER. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. Fig. 69. Fig. 70. I These implements differ in nothing from similar tools in com- mon use. (6.) MALL. Fig. 71. The mall is employed for driving posts, piles, and the like, in- to the ground. (7.) DUNG-FORKS. Fig. 72. Fig. 73. 206 IMPLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. The larger fork, Fig. 72, of this class is used for the lifting of dung into carts, &c. : the small fork. Fig. 7 3, chiefly for the spreading of dung upon the ground. (8.) FORKS, LONG AND SHORT. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. Fig. 76. The forks of this class differ from the last in the uses to which they are applied: Fig. 74 is used for forking straw and other substances to a height ; Fig. 7 5 for forking the sheaves of corn into carts or waggons ; and the smaller fork, Fig. 76, is used in the stable, and for numerous purposes. (9.) HAY-RAKE. Fig. 77. The hay-rake is employed in raking the surface of ground, for the purpose of collecting loose hay, straw, stalks of corn, &c. IMPLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. 207 (10.) HAND-HOE. Fig. 78. Tlie hand-hoe is employed in the cultivation of turnips, pota- toes, and other plants. (11.) SCYTHE. Fig. 79. The scythe is used for mowing hay, green forage, corn, and the like. (12.) DUNG-DRAG, AND MUD-SGRAPEB. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. The dung-drag. Fig. 80, is used chiefly for the dragging of dung from carts : the mud-scraper, Fig. 81, is used for collecting sub- stances on the ground, as mud, dung, &c. (13.) HAY-KNIFE. Fig. 82. vy 208 IMLEMENTS OF MANUAL LABOUR. The hay-knife is employed for cutting off portions of hay from the compressed mass of the hay-stack. (14.) LADDERS, LONG AND SHORT. Fig. 83. The ladders of the farm are of different sizes, according to the uses to which they are applied i-they may be of the respective lengths of 24, 16, and 8 feet. (15.) GRINDSTONE. Fig. 84. The grindstone is best made to be moved by the foot, and may have a trough beneath, in which water is to be put to keep the stone moist when working. (16.) UTENSILS OF THE STABLE, — CURRYCOMB, BRUSH, MANE-COMB, FOOT-PICKER, AND SCISSORS. Fig. 86. Fig. 87. Fig. 88. Fig. 89. Fig. 85. WEIGHING MACHINES. 209 (17.) WEIGHING MACHINES. A common balance for weighing wool and similar substances is necessary upon a farm ; and sometimes other weighing ma- chines, and particularly one for weighing large loads, as hay. 18. The utensils of the Barn will be afterwards described. 19. The Hedger’s Tools will be described when the operations in which they are employed are treated of. 20. There is a mixed class of implements, consisting of pails, &c., which need not be r^resented. They will be enumerated under the head Farming Capital. It is often convenient to have upon a farm a truck, with four low wheels, for the purpose of carrying ploughs, harrows, and other implements, along roads. Fig. 90. O IV. SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. 1. Ploughing. In ploughing, it has been seen, a slice of earth is to be cut from the left-hand side, and to be turned oyer to the right-hand side. In this operation, the left-hand or near-side horse walks on the ground not yet ploughed, the right-hand or off-side horse walks in the furrow last made, and the workman follows in the furrow in the course of being turned oyer, holding the handles of the plough. By means of these handles he guides the plough, and he directs the animals of draught by the yoice and the reins. When he is to turn the plough at the end of a ridge, or when it encounters an obstacle, as a large stone, he presses down the han- dles, so that the heel of the plough becomes a fulcrum, and the share is raised out of the ground. In ploughing, the instrument ought to be held nearly yertical. If it is inclined to the left-hand side, the same work is performed in appearance, though not in reality ; a portion of the ground be- low not being tilled at all, but left thus — Fig. 91. The plough is of the most perfect form when its yarious parts are so adjusted that they shall not oppose one another’s motion ; but it is yery difficult to form a plough that is perfect in the form and combinations of its parts. Eyen in those of the best construction, there is frequently found to be a tendency to rise out of the ground, or to turn to one side, generally the right-hand or open side. The tendency to rise out of the ground can be cor- rected by giying an inclination downwards to the point of the share ; and the tendency to turn to the open or right-hand side can be obyiated by turning the point of the share slightly to the PLOUGHING. 211 left-hand side. By these means, howeyer, the labour of draught is increased, and care must therefore he taken, that this temper- ing of the irons, as it is frequently called, be not in any case car- ried further than is necessary to correct the defects of the instru- ment. All that is necessary beyond this is effected by changing the position of the line of draught by means of the bridle on the beam. With regard to the depth to be ploughed, this, we shall see in the sequel, depends upon the kind of crop to be cultivated, and other circumstances. It has been shewn that a furrow-slice of ten inches in width requires a depth of seven inches, that is, a depth of about two-thirds of the width, in order that it may lie at an angle of 45°. But although it is proper to proceed on this principle in forming a plough, we cannot regulate the depth to the width in this manner in practice. It is not necessary that the depth should be to the width in the proportion of two to three, or that the sods should lie precisely at an angle of 45°. In the field, all that can be arrived at is a kind of approximation to the true proportions. When the sods are considerably too wide in proportion to their depth, the ploughman will be admonished of this by their lying too flat, and too slightly overlapping one an- other. When their depth is considerably too great in proportion to their width, they will stand too upright, and be apt to fall back again into the furrow. The medium depth of good ploughing may be held to be seven inches. When circumstances, as the kind of crop and the nature of the soil, do not require deep ploughing, the depth may be less : but it will be considerably more in those cases, to be afterwards adverted to, where deep ploughing is from any cause expedient. Often it is beneficial to give a deeper ploughing to land than the ordinary depth of furrow. This may be effected by what is termed trench-ploughing, m Avhich one plough follows in the track or furrow of angther ; by which means the land may be tilled to the depth of 14 inches, or more. Sometimes the ploughs which follow the others are deprived of their mould-boards, and some- times a kind of plough is used, designed expressly for this kind of 212 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. work. One of these, improved by Mr Smith of Deanston, is formed wholly of iron, weighs about 4 cwt., and requires the active force of Fig. 92. four horses. It has a stout share, but no mould-hoard. Rising from the share, and parallel to the body of the plough, is a flat piece of iron D, the use of which is, that, when the plough is struck by stones, they may he forced upwards by means of the inclined plane which the piece of iron presents. This is an etficient instrument, designed especially to break the subsoil, and hence it has been termed a subsoil plough. It performs, however, in part, the office of mixing a portion of the subsoil with the upper stratum, which is one of the ends of trench-ploughing. Much has been recently written on the value and uses of subsoil- ploughing, as it has been termed, or merely stirring the subsoil, without bringing it to the surface. Advantage will result in most cases from deep tillage, and in all cases from breaking a hard subsoil impervious to water ; hut it is always better that the latter be brought wholly or partially to the surface, so as to be acted upon by the air. Trench- ploughing, therefore, is superior, as a permanent improvement of land, to subsoil-ploughing, when the latter is solely confined to the break- ing of the subsoil. A modification of the instrument represented above, is to reduce the weight, so that it may he worked by two horses, and support the beam by a Avheel. In the moist climate of this country, and indeed of most others in Europe, it is common to form the ground into what are termed ridges, so as to admit of the water which falls upon the surface finding a ready egress. And even in lands so dry that little in- jury wdll result from stagnant water, such ridges are generally PLOUGHING. 213 formed on account of their convenience in the different works of tillage. The first operation in the forming of ridges, is striking the furrows. Let it be supposed that the field has been laid level by pre- vious ploughings, and that the marks of former ridges being obli- terated, the lines of the new ones are to be laid out. The usual breadth of ridges is from 15 to 18 feet, and sometimes more. We may assume, in the following descriptions, 15 feet to be the width of the ridges. Let a steady ploughman be furnished with three or more poles of wood, shod with iron, 8 or 9 feet in length, and divided into feet and half feet. The first operation is to mark ofi*, at two sides of the field, what is termed a head-land. This is merely a ridge formed parallel to the sides of the field on which the horses are to turn, to afford sufficient space for which, these ridges may be 16 or 18 feet wide. The lines of them are marked off before the other ridges, in order that the ploughman may know, on arriving at the end of the ridge, when to turn his horses. After the rest of the field is ploughed, the head-lands themselves are ploughed, and formed into ridges. In the following diagram, representing a field, let EF, GH, re- present the lines of the head-lands, drawn parallel to AB and CD, the sides or boundaries of the field, and at the distance, from each of these sides, of 16 or 18 feet. These lines the ploughman marks out, by running a straight furrow with his plough parallel to the two sides. Let him now, beginning at the side of the field AD, parallel to which it is intended to run the ridges, measure off with his pole E a, feet, or half the breadth of the ridges to be formed. At the point a let him place one of his poles. This is the point at which he is to enter his plough. But, leaving his horses in the mean time, let him walk on to a convenient distance, as to I, and there, in like manner measuring off I 5, 7J feet, let him set up his second pole at b, and then, at the further end of the field, on the 214 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. line of the head-land at o, let him place his third pole. He has now three poles placed in a line ; but if, from the length of the field, or inequalities of the surface, more than three poles are ne- cessary, more must be used, as there must be so many poles in sight as that the ploughman may be enabled to direct his plough by means of them in a straight line. He now returns to his plough, and enters it at the first pole at a, keeping the other two poles in a line, so that he may be enabled to plough directly to- wards them. Having entered his plough at a, he stops his horses, and measures off 1 5 feet, or the breadth of a ridge, to d, where he plants the pole. He then returns to his plough, which is stand- ing at a, and drives his horses, keeping the two poles before him as a guide, to the second pole h. Having done this, and leaving his plough standing at 5, he measures off from 5 to 6, 15 feet, and there he plants his pole. He then returns to his plough, and proceeds forward, making his furrow in a straight line to the last pole c, where, in like manner, he stops his horses, and measuring off 15 feet, he plants his pole at /. In this manner he has placed his poles in a straight line, at the distance of 15 feet from their last position, and parallel, as before, to the line of fence. He now turns his horse sharp about, and returns by the furrow which he had just drawn cl) a. By this second ploughing, he throws the earth out in an opposite direction, so that he has formed a completely open furrow. In returning, he takes care to correct any inequality or crookedness that may have taken place, through the unsteady motion of the horses, in his first track. The poles being now placed in a line, def, he brings his plough to d, enters it and stops it there. He measures ofi* 15 feet with his pole from d to g, and fixes his pole at g ; and then he pro- ceeds with his plough to e and /, repeating the same operation with his pole as before, and returning by the track of his last made furrow from / to d. In this manner he proceeds throughout the whole field forming parallel open furrows, at the distance from one another of 15 feet. These furrows are to form the centres of the future ridges. PLOUGHING. 4215 The field is now prepared for being ploughed into ridges, and the manner of doing so is this : — The ploughman, beginning at the left hand side of the open fiuTow, ploughs his first furrow-slice towards it. He then, re- turning by the opposite side, performs the same operation, caus- ing the two first furrow- slices to rest upon one another. Thus, in forming his first ridge, he begins at the side of and, ploughing in the direction from a to c, he turns his first furrow- slice into the open furrow a c. When he arrives at c he turns his ]3lough right about, and returning from c to a, he lays his second furrow-slice upon the first one, as at C, Fig. 95. In this manner, by continuing always turning to the right-hand side, and laying his furrow-slices towards the centre of the ridge, until he has reached the boundary of the ridge EH, on the one side, and the line o s half-way between c a, and d /, on the other, he will have formed a ridge, of which c a is the crown or centre, and HE and o s the termination. By proceeding in this manner throughout the field, the whole will be formed into ridges, of which the first marked furrows are the centres. Fig. 93 It has been said that the ploughman continues turning his horses to the right, and that thus, after having proceeded from a to c, he returns from c to a, and so on, always ploughing round a c, 216 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. as a central line. When, however, he has proceeded from a to c, he may turn his horses left about, and return from / to cZ, and so on, always laying his furrow-slices towards a c and / d respec- tively. In this manner he will have ploughed the half of two ad- joining ridges, and terminated at the space o s half-way between them. This method of ploughing, it will appear, has the same effect as turning the horses right about, and is the most frequent and convenient in practice. In order to perform it in an accurate manner, the first opera- tion after striking the furrows should be to plough together the two first furrow-slices of each centre. This being done, tbe work- man proceeds to plough, each his own pair of half-ridges, until the field is completed. The first half-ridge HE ca, may be ploughed by all the ploughs following in the same direction, so as to turn the furrow-slices towards c a. In the following figure, in which CC, CC, CC, are the centres of the ridges, the manner in which the successive furrow-slices have been laid upon one another is shewn. By this laying of the earth towards the centres, the ridges ac- quire a certain elevation. By ploughing the earth away from the intervals AB, DE, FGr, HI, the ground is hollowed at these parts, which noAv form the open or water furroAvs. To complete these Fig. 94. open furroAvs, the plough is driven along them, as from I to H, and then from H to I, so as to deepen them, and throAv some earth up on each side. It is by these open tracks that the Avater PLOUGHING. 217 which falls upon the urface finds a passage ; and they are termed water-furrows. A certain, though not a great degree of eleyation, is given to the ridge by this ploughing. It is frequently, however, neces- sary to give it a yet greater degree of curvature and elevation. This is done by ploughing the whole ridge a second time, and in a similar manner. The plough is first driven along the centre of the ridge from C to C and then back again, forming an open furrow, as in the first striking of the furrows. Successive furrow-slices are then laid to- wards this furrow, in the same manner as in the previous plough- ing. This is done with the successive furrow-slices, until the plough reaches the open furrows AB, DE, EG, HI. In this man- ner the whole ridge is ploughed, and an increased elevation and curvature given to it. This operation is termed gathering. In performing the operation of gathering, it is important that the ridge be formed with a uniform curvature, so that it shall not have what is technically termed a shoulder and hollow part on each side of the crown.. It is to prevent this defect that the open track is made along the crown before the first two slices are laid together ; by which means the ploughman is- better enabled to lay them upon each other, in such a manner that they shall not over- lap and form a protuberance at the crown of the ridge. A trans- verse section of the ridges, when gathered, will appear thus : Fig. 95. A ridge, however, being already formed, it may be wished to plough it again, and yet to preserve it at the same curvature and elevation. In this case, the plough is to enter at the open fur- row, and to lay the successive furrow-slices towards it, until two adjoining ridges are ploughed. By this means all the slices of 218 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. the same ridge lie in the same direction, and the curvature and elevation of the whole remain as before. This operation is termed casting, and the manner in which the furrow-slices rest upon one another will appear in the following figure. Fig. 96. In the operation of casting, two methods may be pursued. The two first furrow-slices, as those at E and I, may be laid resting upon each other, as in the figure above, in which case the two ridges will be formed as it were into one large ridge ; or else the open furrows at E and I may be preserved by keeping the two first furrow- slices at a little distance from each other, and pre- serving and clearing out the space between them, thus : Fig. 97. When land is ploughed in this manner, the ground is taken from one side of each two adjoining ridges at G, and laid towards the other, E and I, that is, it is gathered towards one side, and gathered from the other. In this manner the ground at the open furrow G, from wdiich we gather, becomes more bare of earth than the open furrows E and I, towards which we gather. This is an imperfection unavoidable in casting a gathered ridge. When, therefore, we wish to cast a ridge twice in succession, we reverse the former mode of ploughing ; we gather towards the open fur- row G, and from the open furrows E and I, and thus the ridge is restored to its former state. PLOUGHING. 219 Another method of ploughing is cleaving. In this case, the plough commences at the open furrow, lays the first slice towards it, and then returning by the other side of the open furrow, lays the second slice upon the first, as in the following figure. When it has reached the centre, it stops, and begins with another pair of ridges, and ploughs the half of each pair together in the same manner. In this way the open furrows of the ridges become the centres, and the former centres become the open furrows. The operation of cleaving is of constant occurrence in the summer- fallow and other cleaning processes of tillage. When we wish to level a ridge we cleave it. Fig. 98. There are two variations to be noted in the practice of cleav- ing. Either the two first slices are laid close together, in which case the open furrows of the former ridges become the centres, and the former centres the open furrows, in the manner shewn in the last figure ; or a certain distance is kept between the two first slices, and so the open furrow is preserved. In this case, each ridge is split into two ridges, and the number of open or water furrows is doubled, thus : Fig. 99. In the preceding figures, the furrow-slices are represented as being all of equal size ; but in practice, the furrow-slices are 220 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. made somewhat shallower next the open furrows, and thus the ridges are more neatly rounded, and the interval of the water- furrows is smaller than the diagrams represent. The next method of ploughing is cross-ploughing. This, as the name denotes, is ploughing in a direction crossing that of the former ridges and furrows. In cross-ploughing, the workmen place themselves at equal distances from one another, as thirty yards, at the side of the field at which they are to begin to plough. Each then runs a straight furrow across the field, as from A to D, from B to E, from C to F. Each then returns as from D to A, from E to B, from F to C, laying always the successive furrow-slices towards the right hand, until each man arrives at the termination of his allotted space OC y OC OG ^ OC OC y OC 00 • There has been thus formed by each workman one great ridge, but so extended that it may be said to be without curvature. The ploughmen, we perceive, turn from left to right around the first furrows AD, BE, CF. But they may also turn from right to left. Thus, in going from B Fig. 100. to E, the ploughman lays his first furrow-slice to the right hand. Wlien he arrives at E, he may turn his horses left about, and PLOUGHING. 221 proceed to D, and returning from D to A, lay liis first furrow- slice to the right hand towards DA. Turning left about then at A, he proceeds in the direction BE, and so on, always turning left about until he has arrived at the middle space o, when the whole space between AD and BE will have been ploughed. Sometimes, for convenience and the saving of distance, he may plough in the first place round the central line BE, by turning from left to right, and then plough the remainder of the interval by turning from right to left. These are matters of detail somewhat difficult perhaps to he described clearly, hut so simple in themselves that they need only he seen in the field to be thoroughly understood. The first operations, then, we have seen, is striking the furrows previous to forming the ridges. This is done by laying off, by means of furrows, first the lines of the head-lands, and then the parallel lines corresponding to the future centres of the ridges to be formed. The next operation is forming the ridges. This is done by beginning at the centre, and ploughing towards it till each ridge is formed. When ridges are formed, they may be subsequently ploughed in difierent ways. First, They may be gathered ; in which case, beginning at the crown, the ridge is ploughed, and an increased elevation given to it. Secondly, They may be cast ; in which case two ridges are ploughed together, and either formed into one large ridge, or, by keeping the water-furrows clear, retained in two ridges. Thirdly, They may be cloven ; in which case, beginning at the water-furrows, the half of each adjoining ridge is laid together. The first two furroAV-slices may either be laid close together, or the Avater-furrow may be kept clear between them. In the first case, each ridge will have been so cloven as that the water-furrow shall have become the croAvn, and the crown the water-furrow. In the second case, each ridge Avill have been cloven into two, and the number of ridges and Avater-furroAvs doubled. 222 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. In the original laying out of ridges, the lines have been de- scribed as running straight through the field ; but it is frequently expedient, on account of the inequalities of the surface or other cause, to change the direction of the ridges at some part of the field so as to facilitate the discharge of water. The application to this case of the principle of striking the furrow is easy. The ploughman makes a furrow where the change of direction is to take place, straight or curved, as circumstances may require. The one set of ridges terminate at this part, and the other are laid ofl* from it in the new direction to be given. The ploughman, by means of his poles, as before, strikes this first set of furrows, terminating them at the furrow where the change of direction is to take place. From this furrow he strikes his second set of furrows in the direction in which they are to run. The part where the opposite set of furrows meet may be made an open furrow, or better, a raised-up ridge or head-land, with its water-furrows. The direction of ridges must generally be' regulated by the sloping of the fields, and the lying of ditches and fences, so that they may promote the main purpose for which they are formed, the carrying off* of surface water. But, other circumstances being alike, they should be made to lie as much as possible north and south, and as rarely as possible east and west ; for, in the latter case, when the ridges are much elevated, the north side has a somewhat less favourable exposure than the south side. Bidges may be dispensed with, either when the land is naturally dry, or when it has been so thoroughly drained that the water finds a ready egress by the underground channels formed for it. In this case, all the operations of ploughing become more simple. The land is treated as in cross-ploughing, namely, by ploughing in divisions so large, that no sensible curvature is given to the surface; or sometimes by the ploughs following one another round the entire field, and terminating at the centre. When the plough- ing is performed in this manner, there are no water-furrows to regulate the several operations of sowing, reaping, spreading of dung, kc . ; and hence simple parallel ruts should be formed by HARROWING. 223 the plough along the held at equal distances, as 16, 18, or 20 feet. This system is capable of being reduced to practice in many cases ; but requires to be adopted with great caution in a country so moist as this, and especially on all soils approaching to the stiffer clays. In ploughing very steep land, it is frequently laid in ridges dia- gonally across the slope, for the purpose of rendering the labour more easy, and of lessening the danger of torrents carrying away the surface. The precaution to be observed in this case, is to make the ridges slope upwards from the right hand, as from A to B in the follow- ing hgure, and not to the left, as from C to D. For, in the hrst case, when the labouring cattle are ascending the steep, the plough is throwing the furrow-slice downhill ; whereas, in the other case, when the cattle are ascending, they are raising the furrow-slice up-hill, by which their labour is greatly increased. Fig. 101. Besides the water-furrows of the ridges, which act as channels for carrying olf the water, it is necessary, where there are hollow places in which water may stagnate, to form open furrows or chan- nels. This is done by drawing an open furrow with the plough: in the direction most convenient for the purpose. A workman then follows with a spade or shovel, and carefully opens all inter- sections with other furrows, so that there may be a free commu- nication between them. Sometimes it is necessary that the furrow made by the plough be further deepened by the spade, so as to form a channel suffi- ciently large ; and wherever head-lands intercept the run of water, channels must be cut through them to the ditch or outlet, so that none may stagnate upon the ground. Attention to these details in practice is essential in all cases of tillage ; and it manifests a 224 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OP TILLAGE. want of all skill and industrious habits in a farmer to suffer his lands to he injured by the stagnating upon it of surface-water. The quantity of land which a plough can go over in an ordinary day’s work will, when the instruments are equally good, chiefly de- pend upon the nature of the soil, and the manner of ploughing. The common calculation, where good ploughing is practised, is, that a pair of horses will plough an acre when in grass in nine hours. In very stiff soils, less will he done ; and in very light soils, more. When land is in a loose and pulverized state, from a third to a half more may he done in the time mentioned. In winter, when six hours are generally regarded as a day’s work, and at which time the soil is wet, about half an acre in the day may be considered as ordinary work. But taking the year through- out, and soils in all their different states, it may he held that an acre in the day can he done by a man and a pair of horses.* 2. Harrowing. The next of the simple operations of tillage to be considered is that of harrowing. One man or boy drives a pair of horses and a pair of harrows, though sometimes one person drives three horses and three harrows. The driver walks behind with long reins, which enable him to guide and urge forward the horses ; and he must he ready to lift up, with his hand or a crooked stick which he holds for the purpose, the harrows when they are impeded by roots, weeds, or other substances. By lifting up the harrow when in motion, the weeds collected by the teeth fall down. The harrows pass over the ridge either longitudinally or across. At the end of the ridge they are turned, and generally pass again over the same ground. This is called a double turn of the har- rows. When they do not return over the same ground, hut pass to another space, they are said to give a single turn. Sometimes * In some of the very stiff clays of England, as, for example, the London Clay- formation, this calculation will not hold, because the farmers may be often obliged to employ four horses in a team. HARROWING. 225 a single turn suffices for particular purposes, but more frequently a double turn is required. Sometimes tlie harrows give two or more double turns in the same direction, but more generally, after one double turn they give the next double turn across the direction of the previous one, and so on lengthwise and across alternately. When land is to he pulverized and cleaned of root-weeds, in the manner to he afterwards explained, the operation consists of repeated double turns of the harrows in different directions. The root-weeds being dragged to the surface, they are collected by the hand, and carried off the ground or burned. The plough prepares the ground for the action of the harrow, and the plough and the harrow acting by turns, the land is ultimately pulverized and cleaned. Besides the cleaning of the ground, a purpose in harrowing is to cover the seeds of the cultivated plants. The number of harrowings to be given for this end depends upon the state of the ground and other circumstances. When the surface is matted together by the roots of plants, as in the case of land ploughed when in grass, repeated double turns are re- quired to cover the seeds in a proper manner. But when land is already well pulverized, as in the case of summer-fallow, a smaller degree of labour is required. Sometimes two double turns are given, sometimes one, and in some cases, as those when the smaller seeds of grasses are sown, a single turn will suffice. The operation of harrowing is best performed when the land is dry. Harrowing when the land is wet, is as much as possible to be avoided, both on account of the less efficiency of the operation, and of the injury done to the ground by the treading of the work- ing cattle. In the case of covering seeds, however, in unfavourable seasons, it is often necessary to harrow the ground when in a wet state. This is one of the accidents which embarrass the farmer, and call for the exercise of his practical knowledge. In extreme cases of this kind, the practice has been sometimes resorted to of attach- ing several harrows to a beam stretching across the ridge, in the p 226 SIMPLE OPERATIONS OF TILLAGE. manner before represented (Fig. 23), and of causing the animals of draught to walk in tlie open furrows. Harrowing is not a very severe labour for the working-cattle, though more so than from the small weight of the instrument might be inferred. It is the starting and irregular motion of the harrow, and the sinking of the animal’s feet in the soft ground, that form the principal labour in drawing. From this latter cause, a light poney or a colt will do more work in proportion to his strength than a heavier horse. The space of ground that can be passed over by a pair of horses in a summer day’s work is generally held to be about twelve acres, so that a pair of harrows will give a double turn to six acres in a day ; hence, as a plough will work one acre in a day, the expense of giving a double turn of the harrows is equal to one-sixth part of the expense of giving one ploughing. 3. Action of the Grubber. The grubber is subsidiary to the plough, and similar in its mode of action to the harrow. When our purpose is to stir the ground without turning it over, the grubber may supersede the operation of the plough. It is more frequently used, however, as a substitute for the harrow in the cleaning of land ; and it excels the harrow in this, that, having a heavier frame, and being fixed on wheels, it has not the starting and irregular motion of the harrow, and is not subject to be thrown out of the ground, when encountered by obstacles. In using the grubber, the workman walks behind, and when handles are employed, he makes use of them to lift the teeth or coulters out of the ground, in turning at the end of the ridges, or when otherwise necessary. Generally the grubber passes once over the ground to be tilled, but it is frequently found expedient to go twice over the ground. In this case, it is proper to set the teeth at half the depth re- quired in the first operation, and in the second to set them at the ROLLING. 227 full depth, and in working the second time to cross at right angles to the direction of the first operation. The gruhher, with two horses, will go over about six acres a-day, so that the expense of one operation is equal to one-sixth of that of the plough, or equal to a double turn of the harrows. 4. Eolling. The roller is employed upon the farm in two distinct opera- tions. It is used to assist the harrow in the cleaning of ground, or to smooth and consolidate the surface of land in grass or crop. When employed to clean land in conjunction with the harrow, the latter is first used, by which the clods, or indurated masses of the soil, are brought to the surface. The roller is then brought to act upon these indurated masses, which it bruises by its weight ; and thus it performs, though in a different manner, the same ope- ration of pulverizing the earth which the harrow does. By this mean the harrow is enabled to act upon those clods upon which its teeth could not otherwise make an impression. The further use of the roller is the smoothing and compressing of the surface of the ground ; and sometimes, in performing this operation, it serves to cover certain seeds, as will be afterwards explained. In using the roller, when the land is in ridges, it is to he driven across the ridges, and not longitudinally. Sometimes one horse is employed in the operation of rolling, hut more frequently two. In this case, they are generally yoked one in the shafts, and one before, though they could exert a greater force in pulling, were they to be yoked abreast. But this is not of any essential importance, two horses yoked in this man- ner being able to move the heaviest rollers which are employed. The quantity of land which a roller with a cylinder of five feet can go over in a day is about five acres. By extending the length of the cylinder, a greater quantity of work will be done in appear- ance, though not in reality. 228 SIMPLE IMPLEMENTS OF TILLAGE. 5. Digging. The plough, the harrow, and the roller, are the essential imple- ments of preparatory tillage. To these, however, and the grub- ber, may be added the spade ; which, though properly the instru- ment of culture in the garden, may be employed occasionally in the fields. The cases in which the spade may be used in field culture are those where, from particular causes, the plough cannot be used. Such is sometimes the case in the first improvement of very steep or rocky ground, where the plough cannot act, or in the case of deep peat, when it is so soft as not to bear the weight of the working cattle. The tillage by the spade may either be simple digging, to the depth of one spit, or trenching to the depth of more than one spit. In the case of trenching, the usual purpose is to deepen the soil, by laying the surface stratum underneath, and bringing a portion of the subsoil to the day. This is best done by digging a trench and wheeling away the earth ; and then digging another trench along the side of the first one, thromng the soil first, and then the subsoil, into the first trench. In this manner, the space to be digged is gone over with successive trenches ; and when the whole space is passed over, the earth which had been wheeled away is used to fill the last formed trench. Cultivation by the spade, however, though more efficient, is greatly more expensive than by the plough, at least when two- horse ploughs are in use. It may be sometimes employed with advantage, though rarely on the great scale, where the profit de- pends upon economy of labour. The further simple operations of tillage are those performed by the sowing and hoeing machines, and by other instruments of the farm. The manner of using these will be from time to time referred to ; but it is by practice and observation that the full knowledge is to be obtained. The first object of study of the PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. 229 learner should be the general form of the machines, and the par- ticular purposes for which they are intended. ^ This knowledge being obtained, there is only wanted the opportunity of seeing them employed in the field to understand the manner of using them. y. PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. 1. Fallowing. The fallowing of land consists of a course of tillage continued for a certain time. When it is continued for an entire season, the process is termed the Summer-fallow. A course of tillage during only a part of the season is adopted in the case of preparing land for such crops as the turnip, the cabbage, the potato, which are thence frequently termed fallow- crops. This preparation consists of a series of ploughings, har- rowings, and other oj^erations, continued until the land is cleaned, and otherwise fitted for the crop to be cultivated. The extension of the culture of fallow-crops has greatly less- ened the necessity of the summer-fallow ; for the ground receiv- ing a good preparation for this class of crops, and they, from the wide intervals at which they are cultivated, admitting of an effi- cient tillage during their growth, the farmer is more enabled to dispense with the necessity of devoting an entire year to the till- age of his land. It is chiefly on the stiffer clays that the summer- fallow may be held to be an essential branch of farm management in this country. These are tilled with greater difficulty than the lighter soils, and do not always admit of the cultivation of those parti- cular classes of plants, as the turnip, which are suited to the lighter soils, and which render upon them an entire summer-fal- low unnecessary. A further reason exists for the adoption of 230 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. the summer-fallow on the stiflfer clays, namely, that the most valuable of their productions is wheat, for which the summer-fal- low alfords the best preparation. The manner of performing this process, therefore, merits the serious attention of farmers in this country. Whatever be the nature of the soil to be fallowed, the first ploughing is in all cases to be given in autumn, or before winter, so that the soil may receive the influence of the winter-frosts, and the growth of weeds be checked ; for certain weeds will grow during the months of autumn, and partially in winter and in early spring ; but by inverting the surface, and exposing the roots of those plants, and the under part of the sod, to the frost, the vegetation is checked until the process of ploughing can be re- sumed in the following spring. In all cases the first ploughing should be as deep as the plough can conveniently be made to go. A good plough with a pair of horses can easily plough from eight to nine inches deep, and this is in most cases an efficient tillage. But, should the nature of the soil render it necessary, an additional force of draught must be employed, so that the requisite depth of furrow may be given. Thus, in some of the marly and tenacious soils of England, four horses may be required to give sufficient depth to the first plough- ing of fallow. Three horses may be also used ; these, with a good plough, forming an efficient team, which may be managed by one ploughman. With respect to the manner of laying the ridges, that kind of ploughing must be adopted which is calculated to keep the land dry during the months of winter, this being an essential point of practice in the class of soils for which the summer -fallow is re- quired. A good method of preserving the land in a dry state is cleav- ing with open furrows (see Fig. 99). In this manner each ridge is divided into two, so that good provision is made for allowing the free egress of water. Sometimes the ridges may be gathered (Fig. 95), and at other times, when the land is moderately dry, they may be cast (Fig. 96). FALLOWING. 231 111 whateyer manner the ridges are ploughed they remain in the same state till the following spring, and care therefore must he taken that all the necessary cross-furrows and channels shall he made and carefully cleaned out, so that no water may stagnate upon the field. In the ordinary management of the farm, the first operation in spring, as soon as the weather allows, is the sowing of the spring-crops of corn. When this essential labour of the season is completed, which in this country is generally from the middle to the end of April, the tillage of the land intended for such crops as the turnip, the potato, and other fallow-crops is to he resumed. But though these are the first in the order of prepa- ration, and must necessarily he first attended to, yet the summer- fallow should not be neglected at this early season, hut should receive one ploughing not later than the month of May, and the earlier in the month the better. Now this, the second ploughing of the summer-fallow, may be made in two ways. The land may be either cross-ploughed, or ploughed in the direction of the former ridges. On the lighter and drier soils, in the cases where such soils are subjected to the summer-fallow, the cross-ploughing is the better method. But, in the case of the stifier clays, the ploughing in the direction of the former ridges is to be preferred ; for this is a provision against the effects of heavy falls of rain, which, were they to occur at this early season, when the land was ploughed, without open furrows to carry off the water, might so saturate it as to render the subsequent tillage precarious and difiicult. The next ploughing, which is to be as early in June as the other labours of the farm will allow, is to be made across. Im- mediately after this ploughing, the land is to be harrowed by repeated double turns, the direction of each double turn crossing that of the previous one. These double turns are to be repeated four, five, or more times, as occasion may require ; and the roots of all jjlants which are dragged to the surface by the harrows are to be carefully collected by the hand and laid in heaps. A cart then passing along the rows of heaps, the collected plants 232 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. are to be forked or tlirown into it, and carried off the ground. They may be formed into a compost by being mixed with quick- lime, so as to destroy their vegetative powers, and employed in the manner described under the head. Manures. Sometimes these weeds are burned on the ground, and their ashes spread upon the surface ; but this practice is not to be imitated, the ashes yielding an inconsiderable quantity of manure as compared with that which is produced by forming the weeds into a compost. It is of great importance at this period of the summer-fallow, to drag to the surface and collect as large a portion as possible of the roots of vivacious weeds in the ground ; for, this being the period of active vegetation, every part of these roots which is left in the ground will grow again and extend itself. It is by the repeated action of the harrows that these roots are detached from the soil and dragged to the surface. When neces- sary, the roller is also to be employed. This, bruising the clods or indurated masses of earth upon the surface, enables the teeth of the harrow to act upon them. When the roller passes over the ground, the harrows immediately follow. At this time, too, the grubber may be employed, as subsidiary to the action of the harrow. This is a period of the summer-fallow at which all obstruc- tions arising from land-fast stones and other impediments to till- age are to be removed ; and if drains are required, it is now con- venient to form them, the stones collected upon the surface being carried forward at once to the drains, and filled into them in the manner to be afterwards explained. This, indeed, is merely a matter of convenience when the stones are in readiness, for the time of summer-fallow is not really the best for the forming of drains, owing to the hazard of heavy rains occurring, and carrying the soil, which is then loose, into the drains. This, however, is but a contingency, and there is con- venience in forming such drains as may be needed at this time : and not only at this time, but during all the subsequent opera- tions of the summer-fallow, draining, the removing of obstruc- FALLOWING. 233 tions to tillage, and other works, are carried on. The obstruc- tions of this kind to he removed are, generally speaking, any- thing that may impede the path of the plough, and interrupt the common operations of tillage, — such are the roots of trees, stones, inequalities of the surfiice, and the like. It has been seen, then, that, in the management of the sum- mer-fallow, tlie first ploughing is to he given before winter, when the land is ploughed lengthwise, in such a manner as that the land shall be kept dry until the tillage can he resumed in the follow- ing spring ; that the second ploughing is to he given as early as possible in May, and, in the case of stiff soils, lengthwise ; and that the tliird ploughing, which, in the common course of farm labour, we may hope to accomplish in June, is to be given across, when the principal labour of harrowing, rolling, and disengaging weeds, is performed, and when opportunity is taken to begin to drain, clear the ground of stones, and perform similar operations required. As soon after the last ploughing and cleaning, as the state of the weather and the labours of the farm will allow, the fourth ploughing is to be given. This ploughing may be performed in two ways. It may either be given lengthwise, and the land foi^m- ed into ridges, or the whole may be ploughed in large divisions, without regarding ridges, as in cross-ploughing. The former method may be adopted when the season is criti- cal, and the land stiff and naturally wet. This is in order to avoid further hazards from great falls of rain ; for, by forming the land into ridges, it is placed in a state of comparative security. But it allows of a better subsequent tillage of the land to lay it flat, by ploughing it in large divisions without yet forming it into ridges. In this case, the land may be ploughed in a direction at right angles to the previous ploughing, that is, in the direction in which the future ridges are to run ; but it will be better to plough some- what diagonally, that is, nearly in the direction from corner to corner of the field. This is done in order that two successive ploughings may not be in one direction, for the next ploughing 234 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. to be given, as we shall immediately see, must necessarily be length- wise in the direction of the ridges. But, by deviating from this direction with the ploughing now to be given, the two successive ploughings will cross one another, and thus the tilling will be better performed. No sooner is this diagonal ploughing completed, than the pro- cess of harrowing, rolling, and cleaning the ground of the roots of vivacious weeds, is to be renewed, precisely as after the pre- ceding ploughing. It is not necessary or expedient that the pro- cess of harrowing shall be carried further than is absolutely re- quired to disengage the weeds ; but to this extent it is import- ant that it be carried, so that the land may now be cleaned. These two ploughings, with their corresponding harrowings, are of the utmost importance in the management of the summer- fallow. If the weather has been favourable, the land may now be expected to be effectually cleaned, and thus far to be in good order. Sometimes a further ploughing may be required for the purpose of completing the cleaning process, but whether this be so or not, the land ought now to be formed into ridges. This is necessary, in order to provide against the contingency of heavy rains, which, were they to occur at this period, when the land is lying in a flat state, might so soak it as greatly to retard the future labours. We now, therefore, proceed to strike the furrows in the man- ner formerly explained. The land is then ploughed and formed into ridges, and this completes the fifth ploughing which it has received. The land will generally be now ready to have the dung laid upon it. But in some cases it may require a sixth plough- ing before it is sufficiently cleaned and prepared for the dung. In this case, the land being harrowed, and the remaining weeds col- lected as formerly, it is ploughed again in the line of the ridges. We may proceed, however, upon the supposition, that this fur- ther ploughing and cleaning are not required, and that the land, after the fifth plougliing, is ready for the application of the dung. This may bring us, in the ordinary course of farm-labour, to the month of August. FALLOWING. 235 Xow, the dung, according to the practice before described, has been previously carried out and laid in large heaps in the field, where it has undergone a certain degree of fermentation. Should this not have taken place sufiiciently, the heaps must he turned, so that the dung may he brought to a fit state for use. The dung is now conveyed to the land in carts from the heaps, the carts being driven along the ridges. It is dragged out from behind by the workman with the dung-drag (Fig. 80) into heaps, as nearly as possible of equal size, and at equal distances, in rows along each ridge. Sometimes, to insure accuracy, the ridges are divided, by furrows run across them, into rectangular spaces, each space receiving its allotted quantity of dung. But in general the eye and practical knowledge of the workman will enable him to drag out and deposit the heaps in the quantity, and with the accuracy that may be required. Several persons, who may be females or young lads, then spread out the dung all across the ridge, by means of light three-pronged forks (Fig. 73). This operation should be performed with much attention, so that the dung may be spread regularly over the ridge. Close upon the work of the spreaders, the ploughs are to fol- low and cover the dung. This is done by gathering the ridge, so that, while the ploughing covers the dung, the elevation of the ridge is increased. The dung being covered in this manner, and the ridge raised, the land is to remain untouched for a few weeks, so that the dung may be decomposed and incorporated with the soil. When the dung has been previously fermented in a proper manner, this in- corporation will be completed in a very short time. The land is now ready to receive what is called the seed-fur- row, which is the ploughing given to it previous to the seeds being sown. In this ploughing the ridge is again gathered, but the ploughing being very shallow, it has little effect in raising the ridge higher. After this final ploughing, and upon the surface now exposed, the seeds, usually of wheat, are to be sown in the manner to be 236 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. afterwards described. This generally takes place about the middle of September or later, and completes the important operations of the summer-fallow and sowing of the wheat-seeds. In this detail, the manner of applying the dung has been de- scribed ; but there is likewise to be considered the manner of ap- plying lime, when this substance is to be laid upon the land in summer-fallow. There are two periods at which the lime may be applied, — either before the dung is laid on, or afterwards. In the former case, the lime may be laid on just after the land has been formed into ridges, and when it is ready to receive the dung. The quick-lime, as it is brought from the kilns, may be laid down in heaps of about five carts or more each, at regular dis- tances, upon the head-lands, or where convenient. In this case, it is brought to the farm as opportunity offers, and slacked slowly and regularly. When we are prepared to spread it upon the ground, a person with a broad-pointed shovel (Fig. 62) is appointed to each heap. He fills his cart, drives it along the ridge, and spreads the lime abroad upon the surface, taking it out with his broad-pointed shovel from the cart behind : two carts and two men may be ap- pointed for each heap, the one man filling the cart at the heap, and the other spreading the lime upon the ridge. Both men and horses sometimes experience injury from the caustic effects of the lime, especially when the weather is moist. The face of the man may be defended by a thin handkerchief, and tlie back of the horse should be covered. When the lime is spread, the land must be immediately har- rowed, to incorporate the lime with the soil. This being done, the dung is to be spread upon the ground, and covered by the plough, in the manner before described. But frequently the dung is first spread, and the lime is not laid on until just before giving the seed-furrow. This answers very well, provided the land has lain a sufficient time after the dung has been spread, so that the dung may be decomposed and mixed with the soil. FALLOWING. 237 Tliese details have an especial reference to the stiffer soils, which are those on which the summer-fallow is generally practised. When the lighter soils are to be fallowed, the process of cleaning is more easy, and there is less hazard of serious interruption from the state of the weather. The only variation with regard to the lighter soils that need be referred to, is in the first spring-plough- ing. In the case of such soils, this ploughing may be given at once across, and the process of harrowing and cleaning then commenced. This is precisely the management pursued in the case of turnips and similar fallow-crops ; so that, when the learner comprehends the operations of the summer-fallow thus far, he is acquainted with the manner of preparing the land for an extensive and important class of plants. In the preceding detail, the ordinary operations of the sum- mer-fallow have been described ; but the nature of tlie seasons, the state of the land, the prevailing weeds to be eradicated, and other circumstances, produce variations in the course of management, which, however, it is not necessary here to point out. They are little subject to rule, but are best determined by the judgment of the farmer, as the cases themselves arise. A more important pur- pose is served to the student of agriculture, by pointing out to him the manner of managing the summer-fallow upon approved principles. Knowing this, a little experience will soon shew him how to adopt those variations of practice which the state of the season and other circumstances may render expedient. The process of the summer-fallow, conducted as it should be, enables us to effect the tillage of clay-lands in a manner calculated to eradicate weeds, and fit the land for bearing a lengthened ro- tation of crops. After a complete summer-fallow, the land is seen to be in the best order which circumstances will allow. It acquires that mel- lowness indicative of fertility, so familiar to the eye of the farmer, yet so difficult to be described. It is frequently observed by far- mers, that clay-lands, in this climate, get into an adhesive, and, as it is termed, a sour state, by the long repetition of crops. The giving them from time to time the mellowing influence of a sum- 238 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. mer-fallow, during wliicli weeds may be extirpated, and the manures applied in the most beneficial manner, is found to have the best effects in restoring the fertility of the soil, and fitting it to yield an increased produce in succeeding years. One advantage, too, of the summer-fallow, not to be disregarded, is, that it divides the labour of tilling a farm more equally throughout the year. 2. Levelling G-round, and Eemoving Obstructions to Tillage. Various impediments may exist to the free action of the plough, and the other operations of tillage, which it is the province of the cultivator to lessen or remove. The most common of these impe- diments are stones, the roots of trees and shrubby plants, inequa- lities of the surface, and swamps or morasses. Stones are either loose, and capable of being removed by the hand, or they are large, and firmly fixed in the ground. The loose stones which are mixed with the soil, are either found upon the surface, or they are turned up by the action of the till- ing instruments. They may be removed at various periods. The most convenient is the time of summer-fallow, or when preparing the ground for fallow-crops. A cart passing slowly along the ridge, the stones are picked up and thrown into it ; and if there is a sufficient number of labourers, usually young persons, this method is sufficiently expeditious, and does not require that the stones shall be previously collected into heaps. The stones of this kind may be employed for draining, building the walls of fences, or other purposes. Another period frequently taken for gathering loose stones from the surface, is when land, which had been sown in the pre- vious year with the seeds of clover and grasses, is to be mown for hay. It may become, in this case, necessary to remove from the surface such loose stones as may impede the action of the scythe. This is done in spring, before the young plants have so grown as to cover the surface. A cart moving along the ridge, LEVELLING GROUND, &C. 239 the stones, collected by a sufficient nimiher of young labourers, are at once thrown into it, and so removed ; but sometimes, when the ground is too wet to allow a cart to go upon it, the stones are piled into little heaps in the water-furrows, and removed when the hay is mown. But the cases of difficulty are, when large land-fast stones are found at or near the surface. These interrupt the labour of till- age, and frequently break the instruments which strike against them. The plough is often shattered by striking upon a concealed stone, whence results not only injury to the instrument, hut the loss of time before it can he repaired, or its place supplied. It becomes then a matter of good practice, to remove from cultivated land such stones as may interrupt the operations of tillage. If they cannot be lifted by manual labour into a cart, they may he previously broken. This may be frequently done by the strokes of a sledge ; and when the stones are not of great size, this is the most common method employed. In other cases, gunpowder may be used to blast them, in the manner employed in quarries. There are certain kinds of stones which will break by the application of heat. Gneiss and some slaty rocks may frequently be broken by kindling upon them some straw or brushwood. In these various cases, the fragments are to be removed, and employed in draining, building, or other purposes to which they may be suited. Sometimes farmers think it sufficient to place the stone beneath the reach of the plough, by digging a hole underneath it, into which it may fall. This, however, is itself attended with consi- derable labour, and the better practice, for the most part, is to break and remove the stone. Methods have also been employed to lift up the stones entire, so that, being hoisted into a cart, or other carriage, they may be removed. One of these methods is by means of a very singular apparatus, formed in the following manner : — A, B, and C, are three strong wooden posts, about 14 feet in length, through the ends of which arc holes, for the reception of the strong iron-pin T)E, upon which is made to slide the curved 240 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. iron-bar G. The holes through which the pin passes being of such a size as to allow a little play to the posts, these may be stretched out like the legs of the common theodolite, in the man- ner represented in the figure. To the curved iron-bar are then attached the fixed block M, and the moveable block N, contain- ing the like number of pulleys. Each of these blocks must be hooped with a strong bar of iron, and the pulleys must be of a size sufficient to admit of a thick rope passing over them. To the lower block N is to be hooked the iron plug P, consisting of a ring for attaching it to the apparatus, of a flat part through which the ring passes, and of a cylindrical part. This cylindri- cal part may be 2 inches in length, f of an inch in diameter at the point, and gradually increasing to about part of an inch more at the neck, where it joins the flat part. The rope 0, pass- ing over the fixed pulleys, is attached to the windlass, H, which is fixed to the posts A and C. At each end of this windlass is a winch, T and U, for the purpose of saving time in tightening Fig. 102. the ropes previous to the windlass being worked. To work the windlass, there are stout bars or levers, for the reception of which LEVELLING GROUND, &C. 241 are mortises at L, L, as shewn in the figure. At one end of the windlass is fixed a rachet-wheel with a catch R, fixed to the post A, for the purpose of preventing the weight from fall- ing when the moving power is withdrawn. The posts A and C should he connected by a bar, to keep them steady in their place. The machine thus formed is to be placed over the stone to be raised by extending the posts on each side of it, and then the windlass is to be attached. Of the stone to be thus raised, how- ever large' it be, it is enough that the smallest part can be seen. At this part let a workman, with a mallet and the common boring chisel of masons, make a circular hole, about 2 inches deep, and as perpendicular as possible, so that a stroke or two of the ham- mer may be necessary to drive the pin home. When thus driven an inch more or less into the stone, it is attached to the block, and the ropes are tightened by turning the winch. Nothing more is now necessary but to set the men to work the windlass wdth the levers ; and, with no other fastening than this simple pin, stones of some tons weight may be easily raised from the ground. Being raised up by the pulleys, the stone may be hoisted into a cart or other convenient carriage, and removed from the ground.* The next class of obstructions to be referred to, are the roots of trees and shrubby plants. In the newly-settled countries of America, the trees to be felled are usually cut several feet above the surface of the ground. This is most cheaply and quickly done by means of a strong hatchet, and practice renders those who are used to this kind of work extremely expert. The stumps and roots are then left to the slow progress of natural decay, the ground, in the mean time, being tilled. In this country, such a course would be unprofit- * An account of this curious machine, the invention of Mr Richardson, Kes- wick, and an explanation of the principle on which the iron-pin is retained by the stone, though simply driven into it, were given by me in the Edinburgh Philoso- phical .Journal. An account of it was subsequently published in the Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland. The iron-pin, it was shewn, is retained in its place by the elasticity of the stone. It is only the ])arder kinds of stones that can be raised in this manner. Q 242 PREPARATION OP LAND FOR CROPS. able, and it is always deemed expedient to grub up at once siicli roots of trees as interrupt the ordinary labours of tillage. This is done by clearing away the earth around the tree to the distance of a few feet, and cutting through the branches of the root at the outside of the cleared space. Sometimes the body of the root is wrenched up entire by means of leyers, and sometimes it is split by wedges. When grubbing is carried on on the large scale, the instruments of the grubber are, — a spade and mattock, a dog- iron, as it is called, or bent iron-bar with a ring, through ^ 03 ^ which a lever may be passed (Fig. 103), a strong lever and rope, a set of iron-wedges, a large wooden wedge, and a mallet. W orkmen who have experience in grub- bing become expert in the practice, and in districts where fuel is scarce, the roots will more than repay the wages of the workmen. The other kinds of roots which may interrupt the labours of tillage, are those of such plants as the whin, the broom, and the bramble. The plants being hoed down close to the surface, the most economical means of getting rid of the roots, is by means of a powerful plough, having a spear-shaped share, and not a winged one, like that of the plough at common work. Trenching by manual labour is more efficient, but more expensive. Another interruption to tillage arises from inequalities of the surface. In many cases of ordinary tillage, the plough will be sufficient to level inequalities. In this case, it acts by repeated cleaving of the ground to be levelled. Thus, where a hollow ex- ists, by the repeated action of the plough on the sides, a suffi- cient quantity of earth may be thrown into the hollow to fill it up ; and the surface-soil may have been previously removed by the spade, and, after the ground has been levelled, spread over the surface. Sometimes the spade alone is used to level ground, the earth being thrown or wheeled into the hollow to be filled. In certain cases peculiar implements are employed to reduce inequalities. One of the best is represented in the following figure : — LEVELLING GKOUND, &C. 243 Fig. 104. It consists of a box in the form of a large sliorel, drawn by a pair of horses. There is a short iron- pin on each side fixed to the box, which passes through a hole or eye in the handle at A. When the handles and pin are in this position, the box is fixed in its place. But by disengaging the handles from the pins, which is done by merely stretching them out a little on each side, the box can turn round upon B as an axle. The manner of using the machine is this : The workman, holding by the handles, attaches them to the box, and directs the horses forward to the ground to be levelled, or rather an assist- ant may be employed to lead the horses forward. The workman at the handles in the mean time, by pressing them down, causes the box to move upon the heel C. But when he reaches the ground to be removed, by raising the handles he allows the sharp Fig. 105. edge of the box DD to penetrate into the ground : the horses in- 244 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. the mean time moving forward, the box is loaded with earth. By pressing again upon the heel C, this earth can he carried for- ward, as on a sledge, to the place where it is deposited. When the box arrives at this place, the man at the handles stretches them outwards, and disengaging the handles, allows the box to turn round as in the preceding figure, and in this manner the load is discharged. The horses in the mean time moving forward, the box is caught on the ground by the projecting points EE, by which means it is again turned round and replaced in its first position. Thus the box carries its load from the elevation to be removed to the hollow to he filled, deposits it, and regains its former position, and this without the necessity of stopping the horses. The ma- chine is efficient and expeditious in its operation. It may he ad- vantageously employed for the levelling of those crooked and ele- vated ridges which are seen in so many places. But it is to he observed, with respect to the levelling of such ridges, that in all cases the soil should in the first place he removed, so that it may he replaced on the surface, and not huried. The last impediment to tillage to he referred to is that pro- duced hy swamps, and other effects of water under ground. The modes of removing this source of injury will he described under the head. Draining. 3. Paring and Burning. The process of Paring and Burning consists in paring from the ground a thin turf or sward, burning the sods, and spreading the ashes upon the surface. The operation is performed either hy a species of spade, or hy a plough with a broad share, so formed as to cut off a thin turf. The spade employed is triangular at the point, has usually a raised edge, as sheAvn in the figure, and is fixed to a strong shaft, having a cross handle at the end. This spade is pushed along partly hy the hand and partly by the breast, and hence it is termed PARING AND BURNING. 245 a breast-plough. But it is now made to be pushed along by the thighs, for which end a board, or padding of wool, is used, upon which the handle presses. Fig. 106. The workman, when he has pushed the spade forward by the pressure of his hands and body for about two feet, suddenly re- verses the sod. He thus continues, pushing the spade, and turn- ing over the sod, as he advances ; and workmen with similar spades following one another, the whole surface is turned over. The depth of the sod cut is usually from 1 J to 2 inches or more. AVhen there is no peculiar obstacle, a man will pare an acre in four days. The breast-plough performs the work in a satisfactory manner, although with considerable force of manual labour ; and when the ground is uneven, or in any degree rocky, it is the best kind of instrument that can be employed. But when the surface is level, as in the case of peat, or marshy grounds, ploughs suited to the work may be substituted. The ploughs used for this purpose are variously constructed. They have handles and a beam like the common plough. Some of them cut in the manner of a Dutch garden-hoe ; but the best of them are furnished with a very broad thin share, and a mould- board so formed as to turn the sod over flat with the grassy side underneath. The coulter is frequently made in the form of a wheel, which cuts the ground with less friction than the com- mon coulter. In the fenny parts of Cambridgeshire, where the system is extensively practised, the ploughs are so well constructed that they will turn a furrow of from 12 to 16 or even 18 inches in breadth, and of a thickness of not more than an inch. The turf being cut, it is set on edge ; and after it has remained in this state for a time sufficient to render it dry enough to burn, 246 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. which is generally in two or three weeks, it is either set on fire as it stands on edge, or collected into heaps, which are set on fire and left to burn. These heaps are usually made like small hay- cocks, about three feet in diameter. They should be formed loose in the centre, hut he closely packed on the outside, so as to render the combustion slow and gradual, in order that they may he entirely consumed. But there is often difiiculty in get- ting the turf to burn, in which case it is necessary to employ furze, straw, faggots, or other substances. The process of pre- paring and burning the turf may he begun in April, if the season is dry, and continued throughout the summer and autumn as con- venience, or the state of the weather, allows. When the heaps are burned, the ashes are spread abroad upon .the surface, and covered by a shallow ploughing. This operation, as a mean of calling into action the productive powers of the soil, has been long practised in England, in the marshes and heaths of Holland, and in some other countries, and has probably been derived from remote times. It does not ap- pear that the Homans practised it. Virgil, indeed, says, — “ It is often useful to set fire to barren fields, and burn the light stubble with crackling flames.” But from the comments of the other rustic writers, it does not seem that any thing more was here understood than the burning of the stubble itself. Yet the practice may have been known in some parts even in Italy. Cre- scenzio of Bologna, the earliest writer on agriculture after the revival of letters, mentions it as a practice known to the inhabit- ants of the Alps. They pared oft’ the surface of the ground, he tells us, dried, and burned it, and then, having sown siligo, they allowed the land to rest for eight years, when the operation was repeated. The process, indeed, from the facility with which it can he per- formed, and its powerful and immediate action, may be supposed to have been adopted in the very infancy of agricultm^e, when it would be resorted to for a purpose of present proftt, vdthout re- ference to its ulterior consequences. By this process, the vegetable matters of the soil aro reduced PARING AND BURNING. 247 to ashes, in which state they are calculated, as in the case of other vegetable ashes, to produce a speedy, though not a very permanent, action upon the soil. The large quantity, too, of torrefied earth, mixed with the other matter of the soil, may in many cases be supposed to improve the texture of the mass, and render it more porous and accessible to the air of the atmo- sphere. While it is by some contended that the process must exhaust the soil of its permanent sources of fertility, by dispelling the organic matter which it contains, it is maintained by others, that any loss of organic matter from this cause is more than balanced by the increased productiveness of the soil, and the con- sequent means afforded, of adding to its fertility by the greater production of manures ; and that, in truth, experience does not prove that the soil is impaired in its permanent powers of ferti- lity by the process. That a great portion of the vegetable matter of the soil is dispersed by the process must be admitted, and thus it may seem calculated to impair the permanent fertility of the mass. Yet there are certainly cases in which this loss of organic matter may be more than compensated by the improvement of the texture of the soil, and by calling more quickly into action its powers of production. One of these cases is, when there is a large proportion of inert vegetable fibre, as in peat. Here there is not only an excess of vegetable matter, but this matter is in a state unfavourable to the nutrition of plants. The consuming of a portion of it, therefore, is not only to remove that which is useless or noxious, but to convert it at once into a fertilizing agent ; while the mineral matter with which it is mixed increases that which is most wanted in a peaty soil, namely, the proportion of earthy matter. The burning, therefore, of a portion of the surface of peat is found to add to its present powers of production, and frequently to its permanent fertility. Another case in which the practice of paring and burning has been frequently found to be beneficial, is that of cold coarse clays, 248 PKEPARATTON OF LAND FOR CROPS. especially when they are of a marly nature. Here the organic matter of the soil may be in such small proportion, that the dis- persion of it may be more than compensated by the present in- crease of productiveness, by the destruction of the seeds of weeds, and by the improvement of the texture of the mass, from the large quantity of clayey ashes mixed with it. Another case in which the practice of paring and burning has been found to be attended with present benefit, is that of chalky or very calcareous soils. Certain chalky downs in England have been subjected for a very long period to this seemingly destruc- tive treatment, without any apparent diminution of their fertility. It may be assumed, therefore, from the’ effect, that when such soils have been laid down to grass, the increased production of new sward has been sufficient to balance the loss of organic matter which the burning of the surface had produced. When the inhabitauts of the Alps, referred to by Cresceuzio, allowed their land to rest for eight years, they manifestly intended to allow time for the production of a new surface before they re- peated the operation. There is one case, however, in which the most eager advocates for paring and burning admit that injury is always produced by the operation. This is when thin siliceous soils are thus treated. Such a result, indeed, might be inferred. The torrefaction of the siliceous sand produces no amendment in the texture of the mass. It might do so in a stiff clay, which it would render more friable ; but, in the case of a loose sand, this is not required, and would not be useful. Further, the scanty vegetable matter which such a soil contains being destroyed by heat, or exhausted by a few crops of corn, little remains beyond the barren sand of which the soil is composed. And in all cases where paring and burning is practised, great injury may result from severe cropping after the operation. The temporary fertility produced may afford the injudicious faimier the means of reducing the finest soil to the greatest degree of sterility. PARING AND BURNING. 249 The beneficial effects of paring and burning may be admitted in many cases, when it is employed to render certain kinds of land arable for the first time. Then it is a ready instrument of pro- duction ; and it is applied in a case where the farmer must calcu- late narrowly the profit and the loss. It is of such great im- portance, that the first crops on newly reclaimed land shall be such as speedily to replace the expenditure, that the application of a powerful stimulus like paring and burning may seem to be justifiable and proper. But when the practice of paring and burning is employed periodically, as part of a system of farm-management, to stimu- late the powers of land already brought into cultivation, the prac - tice does not admit of a like defence ; nor does all the authority of many eminent agriculturists in different parts of England in- validate the opinion that the practice is useless in many cases, and unsafe and injmdous in others. We are referred to the example of the districts of the Fens, w^herethe system is largely practised, as a proof of its advantages. But even were it shewn to be advantageous in the case of these deep fens, this would prove nothing with respect to its applica- bility to the great mass of the cultivated soils of the country. These fens consist of peat, which having been formerly submerged in the ocean, is largely mixed with earthy matter. No soils pre- cisely similar are to be found in other parts of the kingdom ; and they are the soils in which, of all others, the process of paring and burning is calculated to produce a high degree of present fer- tility, without sensibly diminishing their future productiveness, especially if they shall be laid to grass after incineration, and thus permitted to recover a new sward. Under the system pur- sued, it is said, the farmers of the fens raise great crops ; but are w^eto forget the surprising depth and fertility of these marshy soils, and that under any tolerable system of cultivation large crops would be produced upon them ? But if we shall turn to Flanders, where such a system as paring and burning is never thought of, we shall find that a far larger amount of food is pro- duced by a regular succession ,of crops, and by a due collection 250 PREPARATION OP LAND FOR CROPS. and preparation of manures : or, let us refer to the better soils of the north of England, and of Scotland, where, by means of a proper system of tillage, a larger produce is raised than in the rich district of the fens, under all the disadvantages of a colder and more variable climate. Besides, to what kind of management does this system, in the greater number of cases, give rise 1 The land being broken up and stimulated by this rude process, must be laid again to grass, in order that it may produce a fresh sward, and thus recover its wasted powers of production. Would it not be better that it should be kept in a regular course of cropping, and in this manner maintained constantly productive, instead of being stimulated at one time, and left to nature to restore itself at another ? The case of calcareous soils, as those of the Cots- wold Hills and the southern Downs of England, is likewise cited as evidence of the benefits of paring and burning. But the sys- tem pursued in these cases would not deserve imitation, even were it applicable — which it is not — to soils deficient in calcareous matter. The lands in question are doubtless rendered at once pro- ductive by the process ; but then, in order to restore them, they must be laid down to grass, to bear inferior herbage for several years, until they shall be again ready to be cropped and scourged. In many of the finest parts of England, we may see the great in- jury resulting from the indiscriminate practice of this system pe- riodically pursued; and in the south of Ireland the matter is yet worse ; for there we find tracts of land that might be maintained in the highest degree of productiveness by good management, al- ternately stimulated and robbed in a degree which takes from them half their value. The system. of paring and burning, then, seems to be only ad- missible, in any case, as a first improvement ; or, if ever land is pared and burned a second time, it should only be on account of some peculiarity of circumstances, which the judgment of the far- mer must determine. Almost the only cases in which it may be safely employed seem to be,' — 1st, In the case of poor cold clays, marls, and calcareous soils, when broken up for the first time. DRAINING. 251 2 d, 111 the case of moors, where there is a considerable stratum of peat, and which are broken up for the first time. 3 c?, In the case of deep peaty soils, where the vegetable matter cannot be exhausted. 4. Draining. Principles to be ever observed by the farmer are to keep his land dry, rich, and clean. The first in order of these principles, and an essential one to be regarded in cold and humid countries, is to keep the land dry. The water contained in the soil, may either be retained by the particles of earth by cohesion, or may fill its pores and interstices, unable to make its escape. In the latter case, the soil is satu- rated beyond the wants of plants, and in the colder countries this excess of water is one of the causes of infertility. In land thus surcharged with water, the seeds of plants frequently perish, or else their growth is retarded ; putrescent manures decompose more slowly, and those of mineral origin exercise a less useful action ; and when the saturation takes place in the months of winter, the soil, in the language of farmers, becomes soured, and a period of the warmer season elapses before it acquires the tem- perature favourable to vegetation. When^vater falls from the atmosphere, it tends to sink into the ground. When it falls in such abundance, or with such ra- pidity, that the earth cannot imbibe it, the excess tends to flow along the surface, forming channels, streams, and rivers, which carry it to the great receptacle of all the waters of the globe, the ocean. Sometimes it is first carried into lakes, swamps, and mo- rasses, whence it either finds its way by rivers, or by channels under ground, to a lower level, or else is carried up again to the atmosphere by evaporation. From all the surface of the land and seas, water is continually ascending into the atmosphere to be again deposited on the sur- face, and thus, by a grand process of circulation, the wants of 252 [’REPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. living plants are supplied. But often, after it lias been deposited on the surface, or sunk into the earth, it tends to accumulate in the cultivated ground ; and then the art of the drainer is required to remove the excess. Channels are accordingly formed to con- vey it to some suitable outlet, whence it may find its way to the stream or other recipient to which it would naturally flow. The water to be carried away may be either that which stag- nates, or tends to stagnate, upon the surface, or that which having already sunk into the earth is retained, or is finding its way by natural channels under ground to a lower level. The re- moving of water yet upon the surface, is termed Surface-drain- ing ; the removing of that which has sunk into the earth, is termed Underground-draining. The ordinary drains for conveying away the water of the sur- face are, 1st, The ditches of fields, which should be so laid out as to collect and carry away the water of the cultivated grounds ; 2My, The water-furrows of ridges, which are rendered subservient to the same end ; and, Zdly, Artificial channels or trenches dug in the places necessary for allowing a passage to the water col- lected on the surface. It is to the latter class of channels that the term surface-drains is more peculiarly applied. They are laid out in the direction best suited to carry ofi* the surplus water above ground. They are for the most part formed in hollows, because it is to them that the water upon the surface naturally tends. Sometimes they are made along the higher grounds, to intercept the passage of water to the lower, and sometimes they pass from the higher grounds to the lower, so as to form channels of communication between them. The drains of this class are generally kept open, and then they are always formed with an inclination of the sides from top to bottom ; and, in order to prevent the crumbling down of the sides, this inclination should never, except in the cases of rock or very hard earth, be less than 45° ; and when the earth is very soft and boggy, the sides should possess a yet greater slope. In order that the sides may incline at an angle of 45°, the width at DiiAlNING. 253 the top must be equal to the width at the bottom, and twice the depth, as shewn in the diagram. Fig. 107. The earth taken out of the trench should be thrown or 1 wheeled carefully away from the sides, so that it may not press upon them, or pre- vent the water from finding its way into the drain from the adjoining grounds. This earth may be spread equally upon the nearest ground, or employed to fill up hollows where these exist ; and sometimes, when it is much mixed with vegetable matter, it may be employed to form com- posts with lime and other substances. As the direction of such drains depends upon the form of the surface, so their size depends upon the quantity of water which they are to carry away. A medium size of the ordinary open drains of the farm may be 6 feet wide at top, 1 foot wide at bot- tom, and 2i feet deep. There are cases, however, in which the channels must be of a larger size, dependent upon the quantity of water which they are to contain. Thus, in many of the flat districts in the eastern counties of England, the surface of which is scarcely raised above the level of the sea, the ditches are frequently of such dimensions as to contain the excess of water which is carried to them, in the manner of ponds or little canals. Cases, too, frequently present themselves, in which it is necessary to deepen existing rivulets, or form new channels ; but these are to be regarded as cases of engineering rather than of the ordinary open drains of the farm. In the formation of common open drains, little difficulty will present itself. Their direction will be indicated by the form of the surface, and the particular end which they are designed to serve, and their size by the quantity of water which they are to transmit. The instruments employed in this species of draining are — 254 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. 1. A rule and line, such as gardeners use, for laying off the lines of the sides. 2. A simple instrument for measuring off the width and depth of the drains, and which consists of a piece of wood divided into feet and inches, having another piece of wood A sliding upon it, and at right angles to it, and two other pieces, C and D, fixed upon it. Fig. 108. 1 ^ c A 3. A common spade. Fig. 61, and a narrow-pointed shovel. Fig. 63, for digging and throwing the earth from the trench. 4. A mattock and foot-pick. Figs. 64 and 65, for loosening the harder earth, and raising up stones and other impediments. 5. A wheel-harrow, in the cases where wheeling is required. Further, the farmer should possess a common spirit-level, for determining the fall of water from one point to another. It is the province of the farmer to fix the general line and me- dium dimensions of the drain, hut the workman, as he proceeds, attends to the minor variations of depth, so that the water may not stagnate at any part ; and he always begins at the lower part of the ground to he drained, working up to the higher, in order that the water may flow away from him as he works. The drains of this class are often, as has been said, to be kept open ; hut sometimes they are partly filled with stones, or other hard substances, in order that the plough and other instruments of tillage may pass over them without interruption. In this case, it is intended that the water shall sink through the ground into the drains, and then the method of their construction is the same DRAINING. 255 as that of the next class of drains to be considered, namely, un- der-ground drains. In certain cases, the drains of this class are arched, or otherwise built with masonry. Water, it has been said, falling upon the surface, tends, in so far as it has not been absorbed, to seek a lower level, either spread- ing along the surface, or being confined to natural or artificial channels. But a great part of the water which falls upon the ground, sinking into it, is either retained by the particles of the earth by cohesion, or fills its interstices, or finds a passage for itself under ground. Water not only tends downward by the force of gravity, but it tends to follow the course of the earthy or rocky strata on which it impinges. If any stratum which it reaches in its descent be hard or impervious, it will percolate along its upper surface, in the same manner as it would upon the surface of the ground. The course which it naturally seeks for itself, is that in which it is the least resisted, namely, in those strata, or interstices of strata, which are most loose and permeable. The surface of the earth, and the superficial as well as deeper deposites, follow various directions ; but their general tendency is from the higher to the lower parts of a country ; hence the gene- ral effect of the stratified structure of the mineral masses of coun- tries is, to cause the water which has sunk into the earth, to find its way from the higher grounds to the level of the sea ; and the same principle which regulates its conveyance to the general re- ceptacle of all water, the ocean, above ground, regulates its trans- mission to the same vast magazine below ground. But beneath the surface of the earth, as above it, there are the sources of de- viation and obstruction ; and it is chiefly when these present themselves, that the art of the drainer is required to form new channels for the water, so that it shall not overflow the surface, or saturate the soil. Should the subsoil be hard or clayey, the water that sinks through the soil will be resisted by the surface of the subsoil, and tend to flow along it. In this case, the stratum through which the water percolates, will be the soil itself, which will be kept sa- ♦ 250 PllEPARATlON OF LAND FOR CROPS. turated by water unable to find its way downwards. A common cause, accordingly, of the wetness of the soil, is the tenacious na- ture of the subsoil. If, again, tlie subsoil is loose and pervious, the water will sink down by its own gravity until it is resisted by the surface of some harder stratum, or until it arrives at some pervious seam or chan- nel in which it can percolate freely. Soils, accordingly, which have a loose or pervious subsoil, are those which are the least apt to be saturated by an excess of water. The greater or less inclination, too, of the subsoil, or other substance which resists the descent of water, has an important influence on the wetness or dryness of the soil. If the surface is very flat, the water will find its way more slowly than when it has a descent ; and if the surface is hollow or basin-shaped, the water will lodge in it as in a pond. The seams or beds beneath the surface through which water percolates freely, are sand, gravel, decomposing rocks, or looser substances of any kind. Those which resist the percolation of water, are clays and the harder rocks. The seams found in the softer covering of the earth, vary from less than an inch to a foot or more in thickness. If they con- sist of sand, gravel, decomposing rock, or any loose substance, they are termed by drainers pervious : if they consist of clay, or any harder matter Avhich resists the ready passage of Avater, they are termed impervious. It is in these pervious seams that the Avater under ground is to be found in the greatest quantity, and they form the principal natural channels through Avhich it ]3erco- lates in passing from a higher to a loAA^er level. These seams are familiar to all who are in the practice of drain- ing, or sinking Avells. It is from them that the water under ground is seen to ooze or floAV out in cutting through them. It is common, in draining and the sinking of Avells, to penetrate to a considerable depth without finding Avater in any quantity, when on reaching one of those pervious seams, it is found in excess, and often rushes forth like a fountain. IVell-diggers, on reach- ing these conducting channels, have sometimes difticulty in saA'- DRAINING. 257 ing tliemselyes from tlie rapid flow of water into the well. It is because the water is proceeding from some higher source that it rushes up when these channels are opened. It is often neces- sary to dig to a great depth before water in sufiicient quantity for domestic and other uses can be obtained. Great quantities of the purest water are obtained in London from wells sunk through the vast body of clay on which the city stands. Some of these wells are from 200 to 300 feet in depth. In all the in- habited warmer countries, wells have been sunk, and the water raised from the deep channels through which it pursues its course. In France and Italy, the attention of engineers has been in a peculiar manner directed to the obtaining of water from wells of an extraordinary depth, termed Artesian. In these, the water rises often above the surface in a continued stream, shewing that it has been derived from an elevated source, as in the plains of northern Italy and France, from the distant Alps and Pyrenees. The water which thus percolates in natural channels beneath the surface, may be so far below the soil as to pursue its course without affecting the cultivated plants. But often the water in its subterraneous channels is brought so near to the surface that it is imbibed by the subsoil and soil above it ; and often the chan- nels themselves, being interrupted under ground, or coming to the surface, form swamps and springs, which sometimes overflow or saturate a great extent of ground. The soil, then, may receive an excess of water, either from the rain which falls upon the surface being unable to make its escape, or from that which has already sunk into the ground reaching again the cultivated soil. Two methods may be adopted for remedying the injury pro- duced in either case. The first is the forming of outlets near the surface for the water which is in excess ; the second is the reaching it in its deeper channels so as to intercept it, and confine it to some determined course. The former method is the most easy of execution, and is often the only one that can be practised on account of the nature of the subsoil : the latter demands more experience and care, and calls for the application of princijfles R 258 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. which are only partially observed in the other. We will first con- sider the simpler system, in which the drainer merely seeks to form outlets for the water which may saturate from any cause the ground near the surface. In this, as in other kinds of draining, the channel for receiv- ing and conveying away the water consists of a narrow trench, in the bottom of which are placed stones, tiles, or other substances, so disposed as that the water which finds its way into the trench shall flow along it, and he conveyed to some convenient outlet. Above these materials is thrown the earth which has been taken out of the trench, so that while a passage is left for the water in the drain, the plough and other instruments of tillage may pass over it without impediment. The trench varies in depth with the nature of the subsoil and soil, and the materials employed in filling. In all cases there should be a depth of earth above the materials in the channel of not less than 16 or 18 inches, so as to place the materials beyond the reach of injury from the deepest ploughing, or from the feet of the animals of labour. The entire depth of the trench, therefore, will depend on the space oc- cupied by the materials which form the channel. When tiles are used, the depth of the trench may generally be from 24 to 30 inches ; when stones are employed, the depth may be from 2 J to Si feet, and in certain cases more. The breadth of the trench at top and bottom may be as narrow as a man can conveniently work, or as consists with the nature of the materials employed, the efficiency of the drains depending upon their depth, and not upon their width. The workman, in forming the trench, begins at the lower part of the ground, and works up to the higher, so that the water may flow continually from him as he works. The instruments employed are those which are used in the case of the open drain, with the exception of the wheelbarrow, — namely, the reel and line, and the measuring-rod, but chiefly the spade and shovel, the mat- tock and foot-pick. Fig. 109. DRAINING. 259 The most durable material for filling drains, is stones. These may be sandstone, whin stone, or any of the harder rocks. They should he of moderate size, as from 1 lb. to 2 lb. weight, and when very large, they should be broken into fragments. They may either he quarried or collected from the surface of the fields. River gravel, or gravel of any kind sufficiently cleaned from in- termixed sand, is well suited for the purposes of draining. The stones may either have been brought forward while the trench was in the course of being formed, and emptied directly from the carts into the drain ; or, what is better in most cases, they may be laid along the side of the drain, and thrown into it by the hand or shovel. They are thrown promiscuously into the trench, but when the drains are of considerable depth, it is regarded as beneficial to form a conduit at the bottom. This may be done by building a wall with a few stones roughly, but solidly, on each side at the bottom, so as to form an aperture of 5 or 6 inches square. The remaining stones are then thrown in promiscuously to the height required ; but in place of the walls of stone, for which the suit- able materials cannot always be found, there may be used a series of arched tiles placed upon their soles in the manner to be after- wards mentioned. When the stones are thrown into the drain, they should be carefully levelled and packed at top, and covered with some sub- stance to prevent the falling down of the loose earth shovelled in. Nothing answers this purpose better than the sod which had been taken from the top of the trench, laid upon the stones with the grassy side underneath. But when no sod has been reserved, straw, heath, ferns, tanners’ bark, smithy ashes, or any similar substances, may be employed. A thin layer of these being spread upon the surface of bhe stones, the earth which had been taken from the trench is thrown into the drain. This may be done by the spade or shovel, though frequently, for economy of labour, the plough is employed. In a drain formed in this manner, the stones resist the pressure of the earth, and their interstices afford numerous channels by 260 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. which the water finds a passage. These channels, indeed, are apt to he filled by the deposition of mud ; but the water continues for a long time to preserve for itself the channels which had been once formed for it, in the same manner as in the natural channels which it had made for itself under ground. The advantage of a conduit at the bottom, however, is, that it affords a larger and more regular channel, less apt to be silted up by the deposition of mud. The best condition of the land for the forming of drains is when it is in grass, because then the looser soil is less apt to be carried into the drain when first formed ; but we cannot always choose our time of draining, and must frequently adopt that which is most convenient in other respects. Stones or gravel, although the most durable materials for drains, cannot always be obtained, and then substitutes must be em- ployed. Branches of trees, brushwood, furze, and similar sub- stances, may be used ; but these are far inferior to stones in usefulness and durability. They resist, indeed, the pressure of the earth from above, and thus alford a freer passage to the water ; but they decay after a time, and the drain may be choked, although very often the channels that have been worn by the water remain permanently after the woody materials have de- cayed. In certain cases, foreign materials have been dispensed with, and a passage formed for the water by various means. One of these consists of a simple perforation made below the surface by means of a cylinder sharpened to a point, attached to a coulter or vertical bar of iron, moved along in the manner of a plough. The instrument, termed a Mole-plough, is chiefly employed in old pasture-grounds, and, by forming a narrow tube for the water, produces a certain degree of benefit. This species of draining, however, has not extended in practice, and, though economical, is not to be compared for efficiency with the other methods em- ployed. Sometimes a species of draining termed wedge-draining has been adopted. The method of forming it is to make a narrow DRAINING. 261 trench with a long narrow shovel. The spit being taken out as deep as the shovel can go, a scoop is employed to clear out the mud and loose earth at the bottom. Then another spade, nar- rower than the first, is used, and a second spit taken out ; and, lastly, a corresponding scoop, to clear the whole out, — forming a trench with a ledge, as in the figure. A piece of sod, with the grassy side below, is then forced down, and, resting upon the ledge, a space is left for the water below. Sometimes the ledge is dispensed with, and the sod is merely formed into a wedge, narrowed toward the grassy side ; and this, when the little trench is cleared out, is pressed into it, and covered with earth ; and as it does not reach the bottom, a channel through which the water percolates. This simple species of drain, of which there rieties, has been extensively adopted in some districts ; and as it is easily formed, and as the number of drains may be multi- plied at little expense, considerable benefit has resulted from the use of it. But although drains of this kind will sometimes re- main open for a considerable time, they are exceedingly apt to be closed up, and are only suited for land kept permanently in grass. Greatly the best substitute for stones is tiles, moulded into the form required. Tiles had been long partially used for draining in certain clay-land districts of England ; but the use of them has now extended to most districts of the country, even where stones can be procured in the necessary quantity. The tiles employed in draining are formed of clay moulded into the form of an arch, and then baked in the kiln in the usual manner. For each tile (a, Fig. Ill), there is formed a flat sole (b) of the same material, on which the arched tiles rest in the manner shewn in Fig. 112, and of a breadth to extend about half an inch on each side of the tile. Each tile, with its corresponding sole, is from 12 to 14 inches long ; and the size of the arch varies with cir- cumstances. The usual dimensions are from 3 to 4 indies wide Fig. 110. remains below, are several va- 262 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. within, and from 4 to 5 inches high. But the tiles for the main drains, which are placed to receive the water from a number of smaller ones, are made of a larger size, as 6 inches wide within, with a corresponding height. Fig. 111. Fig. 112. The water finds its way into the conduit by the interstices at the junction of the arched tiles with one another and with the soles ; and it is found that, when proper precautions are used, the water oozes readily through these narrow passages into the channel prepared for it. The clay of the tiles is first made flat, and then bent into form on a mould by manual labour ; hut recently, machinery has been employed for performing these processes. Of the machines introduced for this purpose, one is that of Mr John Ainslie, who has obtained a patent for his invention. The machine possesses a hopper, into which the clay is con- veyed from a pugmill, as it is termed. The’ pugmill is a cylin- drical vessel, through which passes a spindle with arms at right angles to it carrying knives, the use of which is to cut and pre- pare the clay. But when the clay is free from intermixture, the pugmill may he dispensed with, the clay being at once carried to the hopper. From the hopper the clay is conveyed to two rol- lers set very closely together, between which it passes, and which comminute and reduce to powder any hard substances which may he mixed with it. Immediately underneath the opening, beneath the rollers, is placed a cylindrical vessel with a narrow opening through which the clay enters. Within this cylinder revolves a screw, with two threads about 7 inches apart. When the roll- ers force the clay between the threads of the screw, the screw revolving forces the clay into a chamber in front of it. To the fore part of this chamber is screwed a plate, having apertures of the form of a cross section of the tile to be made, so that the DRAINING. 263 soft clay is forced through the aperture in a continued stream. In this manner the arched tile of the form required is moulded, or when soles are to he made, an aperture of the required form is substituted. In front of the plate is placed an endless cloth, which receives the moulded clay from the aperture, previous to its being cut of the required length. In front of this cloth is placed a frame carrying rollers, over which work two endless chains, one on each side of the frame, which divide the clay. The chains have an in- clined and not a vertical motion, so that the wdres are enabled to cut the clay vertically during its continuous movement. The tiles thus formed and cut, are continued to be pushed forward by the uncut clay over small rollers, until they reach another endless web, by which they are carried forward, and from which they are removed by the workmen and placed at once in the drying frames, which are furnished with wheels, so that they may be brought to the sides of the machine. The following figure represents the machine with the pug-mill attached. P is the pug-mill laid with a slight inclination. A is the hopper into which the clay is received from the pug-mill. BB are the pressing rollers between which the clay passes. C 264 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. is the mould-plate, forming the front of the chamber, into which the clay is forced by the screw. D D is the travelling canvass on which the tiles are received on leaving the mould-plate. E E E E are the endless chains working over pulleys, and carrying the cut- ting-wires, which are so disposed as to cut the clay of the pro- per length, and make the section vertical. F F is the travelling canvass, to which the tiles are conveyed by the small roller, and from which they are lifted by the workmen, and placed in the drying-frame. By this simple machinery the tiles can be formed of any shape and size, and the injury is avoided which is caused to them by the common process of bending them from the flat state into an arch. The same machine may be employed not only for forming tiles for draining, but for roofing and any other purpose to which tiles are applied. It in like manner can form building-bricks of any shape, with a precision, despatch, and uniformity of texture, which can- not be attained by the ordinary methods. The machine here de- scribed has lately been much simplified. In place of tiles formed by baking, it has been recently pro- posed to make use of a concrete, consisting of lime, fine sand, and gravel. The proportions recommended to be employed are, — 1 bushel of unslacked lime, of sand, and 4 of fine gravel. The materials being duly mixed and worked up with a little water, are placed in square moulds of wood, open at one side. Being pressed firmly down, there is passed along the surface a heavy iron cylin- der, of the size of the arched aperture to be formed, aud then, by means of cutting- wires, the concrete is divided into lengths in the manner of tiles. The separate pieces being then removed, are either left for several months to dry and harden, or they are put into the drain on being made, and being covered with earth, are left to harden. Another substitute, too, for tile, has been proposed and par- tially adopted, consisting simply of square boxes, formed of larch, or any of the more common and cheaper kinds of fir. The sides of the boxes are loosely put together by wooden pegs, and per- forated so as to admit the water. It is probable that this kind DRAINING. 265 of conduit will have a sufficient degree of durability, and may be usefully adopted in cases Avbere the thinnings of plantations can be obtained at a low price. In the drain formed by tiles, it has been seen that the water of the soil oozes into the channel formed for it at the junction of the arched tubes with one another and with the soles, and that there is only one channel tbrougb which the water floAvs, in place of the numerous though less regular passages, Avhere stones are the materials used. The soles on which the tiles rest are frequently dispensed with ; hut this, in the greater number of cases, is an error in prac- tice. The use of the sole is to prevent the sinking down of the superimposed tile, to retain it steadily in its place, to keep the channel clear of mud, and prevent injury from animals under ground. Even the stiffest clays tend to crumble down under the influence of moisture and the air which fills the conduit, and vast numbers of drains have become useless after a short time, from the want of these supports. Slates may be used for soles in place of tiles, and even deals or battens of any common kind of wood, of which the best is larch. Soles of wood are exceedingly Avell suited for soft and boggy ground, because, being made of considerable length, they are less apt to he pressed into the soft earth. To promote the efficiency of the tile-drain, as free a passage as possible must he alloAved to it for the water in the ground. To this end, the sod which had been taken from the top of the trench should be laid aside, and placed upon the tile, so as to overlap it. When no sod exists, the looser earth of the surface should he laid upon the tile, and upon this the more tenacious subsoil. But when the tiles are placed at some depth, it is ahvays highly important, and in some cases essential to the efficiency of the drain, that there shall be placed over the tile a foot or more of broken stones, gravel, or any looser materials Avhich can he ob- tained. The trench for receiving the tiles is first formed by the com- mon spade, using the foot-pick or mattock when necessary ; then 266 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. there is employed the narrower spade, shewn in Fig. 113, so as to form the trench with a slope to the bottom, where the width should be just sufficient to receive the soles of the tiles ; and in order to clear out any mud or loose earth in the trench, there may be employed the species of scoop shewn in Fig. 114. Sometimes, when the drains are very deep and narrow, two sets of spades and scoops are employed, as in the figures. The trenches being formed, the tiles are laid in the bottom, and it is proper that each trench should he completed before the tiles are begun to he laid. The workmen, in laying the tiles, be- gin at the higher part of the trench, the tiles having been pre- viously laid along the line of the drain. They work backwards, and there is an assistant to hand the tiles to the person in the trench. This part of the operation must he performed with care, so that the soles shall be placed firmly and evenly on their bed, and so that the declivity shall always he sufficient to cause the wa- ter to run freely. In shovelling hack the earth upon the tiles, it is of primary importance to observe that the sod or looser soil of the surface is laid next the tiles ; for which reason it is always better that the first portions of the earth be thrown in by the spade or shovel rather than by the plough, as is sometimes, for the sake of DRAINING. 267 economy, practised. To this end, the soil and loose earth should be thrown to one side of the trench, and the subsoil to the other. We are next to consider the manner of laying out the drains, whether the materials employed shall he stones, tiles, or any sub- stitute ; and it is to he remembered, that we are here considering that kind of draining, in which we are not endeavouring to reach the water in its pervious channels, but simply opening channels for it near the surface, by which the excess may be discharged. In the laying out of drains for this end, there must be always formed in the lower ground one or more Outlets to which the dif- ferent drains may be conducted, either directly or through the medium of leading drains. When the ground to be drained is nearly flat, the trenches must follow the direction in which the water will run, and which 'will usually be that of the ridges. When the surface is inclined, the trenches may either run directly up and down, that is, in the line of the descent, or diagonally, that is, in some direction oblique to it. Certain conditions of the ground may render either method the most expedient. The soft alluvial covering of the earth has been very generally deposited in horizontal layers. In this case, the running of the trench longitudinally in the line of the descent is calculated to cut through the edges of the different seams, and thus to give a ready egress to the water which they contain ; and in this condition of the surface, the horizontal direction of the trenches will be found to be most efficient. In other cases, the seams are not horizontal, but follow the direction of the surface itself ; and in all cases, the upper surface of the subsoil, which resists the descent of the water into the ground, follows the direc- tion of the surface. In such a case, it would appear, that, in or- der that the smallest number of trenches shall intercept the great- est quantity of water percolating from the higher to the lower ground, the trenches should not run directly in the line of the de- scent, but in some direction oblique to it. This conclusion is con- formable to observation, for, in many cases, it is found, that a single drain crossing a descent, will render a large part of the field below it dry ; and there are few cases in which a series of trans- 268 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. verse drains, at a given distance from one another, as 20 or 30 yards, will not effect a thorough drainage of the ground. Strong opinions, indeed, have recently been expressed, that drains should, in all cases, run directly up and down the line of the descent. Drains run in this manner will, in almost every case, ren- der the ground dry, provided they are sufficiently multiplied; but the question is not, whether a sufficient number of drains in the line of the descent will dry the land, but whether a smaller num- ber of drains, carried in a direction oblique to the descent, will effect the object. That, in many cases, this will be so, is conform- able to observation. It is common to run drains in the line of the descent, at distances of 1 5 or 1 8 feet. This may be expected, in every case, to effect a thorough drainage of the ground ; but ex- perience shews that a much smaller number, carried obliquely to the line of descent, will often accomplish the same end. One purpose equally served by either course of the drains, is founded upon a principle which merits the greatest attention. A drain, in the language of farmers, is said to draw, which means that it renders the land dry on either side to a certain distance. The water under ground, it has been said, is either retained by the particles of the earth by cohesion, or fills its interstices and pores. Now, when a trench is formed of any kind, an outlet is opened for the water pent up in the pores and interstices nearest to the trench. These being emptied, the interstices of the earth, further remote, are likewise emptied into them, and so on to the greater or less distance to which the drain is technically said to draw. The opening of a trench in almost any direction causes an underground flow of this kind towards the channel, and to a greater or less distance from it, according to the more or less pervious nature of the subsoil. A drain carried directly up and down a descent will draw to a certain distance on each side of it ; a drain carried across a descent will have an equal power at each indivi- dual point of that drain. There seems, in this respect, therefore, to be no superiority possessed by either disposition of the drains. The up and down drain may have the advantage in cutting a greater number of seams when these are horizontal ; the transverse ones DRAINING. 269 of intereopting a greater quantity of water between the soil and subsoil, or when the seams are not horizontal. The adyocates of either opinion have doubtless carried their own principles too far, and made a too indiscriminate application of them in practice. In many cases, it is believed, a combination of the two principles may be beneficially adopted on inclined sur- faces. A certain number of drains may be run in the line of the descent, and parallel to one another, and into these the cross or transverse drains, with the necessary inclination, conducted as in Fig. 117. In moderately inclined ground, the average distance of the longitudinal drains may be 100 yards, and that of the cross drains from one to another 30 yards or less, according to the nature of the subsoil. The trenches of the longitudinal drains should be 4 feet deep, those of the transverse drains not less than 3 feet, so that when tiles are the materials employed, a quantity of stones, gravel, or other porous materials, must always be laid above the tile. Fig. 117. It is conceived that, in many cases, this disposition of the trenches will be more efficient, and consequently more economical, than when the drains are all run in one direction along the line of descent ; and that there are few cases of a considerably inclined surface, in which an equal extent of trenches laid out in this man- 270 PREPARATION OF LAND FOR CROPS. ner will not be as eflfectual as a similar extent of trenches laid out in the other. But when the surface of the ground is flat, or moderately in- clined, then the whole lines of drains may be laid out in the line of the ridges, which, in such a condition of the surface, are, or ought to be, in such a direction as will allow of a flow of water along the water-furrows. And, further, as the water-furrows themselves are the lowest parts of the ground, and as it is to them that the water naturally flows from the surface of the ridges, the drains them- selves may be placed in these furrows. It is on this principle that the variety of draining, now the most generally practised, is founded. It consists simply in the forming of a series of small drains along the water-furrows of the ridges. It was formerly termed the Essex system of draining, from its having been first adopted in that flat and clayey district. It is now more commonly termed furrow-draining, which sufficiently indicates its general na- ture. Some have more recently chosen to term it thorough-drain- ing, which, however, is scarcely so appropriate, since efiectual or thorough-draining may be accomplished by a different arrange- Fig. 118. DRAINING. 271 ment of the trenches, and even by the application of entirely dif- ferent principles to the removal of the causes of wetness. The principle adopted in the laying out of this class of drains, is to form receiving-drains, as a xc. WHEAT. 325 wheats are derived from that country. The dark-spiked wheat has merely been made tlie subject of experiment, but not of ex- tended cultivation. It is not superior in productiveness to the turgid wheats in common use. Triticmn hordeiforme, Barley-like wheat, so named from its pe- culiar form resembling that of barley, seems also to be derived from Africa. It resembles the last species by its florets being awned, and by its glumes and palese becoming dark as the seeds ripen. But it resembles the class to be next referred to, termed Spelt-wheat. , Triticum Zea, Far, is one of the class of spelt-wheats. It is distinguished by the distance of its spikelets from one another. The straw is rigid ; the glumes and palese adhere closely to the seed, and the spikelets again so closely to the rachis, that they cannot be separated from it without breaking it. This wheat is cultivated in some parts of Europe on inferior soils. The next species, Triticum Spelta, Spelt-wheat, is distin- guished, like the last, by its spikelets being firmly attached to the rachis, and by the rigid valves of its glumes and palese closely enveloping the seed. Spelt is much cultivated in the south of Europe. It is grown extensively in the southern provinces of France, in Switzerland, Italy, in several parts of Germany, and in Arragon, Catalonia, and other parts of Spain. Spelt could be raised in this country with facility, and, it is probable, on soils low in the scale of fertility. It has been cul- tivated in Scotland, 600 feet above the level of the sea. The next species is Triticum monococcurn, One-grained wheat. Its spikelet consists of three or four florets, one of which only is for the most part fertile, and hence its name, one-grained wheat. The fertile floret has a long awn. It is readily distin- guished from all the other wheats by its general appearance, in which it resembles barley. Its stem is slender and rigid. It is allied to the spelts, with which it was classed by some of the older botanical writers. This species is cultivated in the moun- tainous parts of Europe, and on barren soils. It has never 326 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. formed an object of cultivation in this country, and does not ap- pear to possess properties to entitle it to be introduced. This species has its varieties. The last species to be mentioned is Triticum polonicum, Polish wheat. It has long awns, and is distinguished from all the others by its long and leafy glumes and palese. It is cultivated in Spain, and the countries of the Mediterranean. It has been cul- tivated partially, too, in feome counties of England, where it is said to have been valued on account of its productiveness of flour. But, although it may be possessed of this quality, its florets are often infertile, and it does not merit a more extended culture in this country. Of the species, or very permanent varieties, which have been enumerated, greatly the most important in the rural economy of this country is the winter- wheat. The kinds of it are very numerous, and in truth, there is scarcely a limit to the differences which climate, situation, and soil may produce. The characters which it thus acquires in the dif- ferent conditions in which it is placed, are more or less permanent and important. The kinds are distinguished by a great variety of local terms, derived from their qualities, their places of growth, and other circumstances, as Kentish-yellow, Burwell-red, Golden-ear, Essex- dun, Velvet-ear, and the like. With respect to their uses in agri- culture, they may be divided into two classes, distinguished by the colour of their seeds, red and white ; and these again may be (distinguished by their spikelets being smooth or hairy, the one being termed thin or smooth-chaffed, and the other thick or woolly-chaffed. Of these classes, the white are superior in the quality of their produce ; the red are the more hardy ; and, in general, the thin and sniooth-chafi*ed are preferred to the woolly and thick- chaffed. Winter- wheat is sometimes termed spring-wheat. This merely arises from the period of sowing. If it is sown in spring, it is termed spring-wheat ; if previously to winter, Lammas or winter wheat. This circumstance has perplexed some writers, who have WHEAT. 327 eyidently drawn distinctions between the winter and spring wheat of the farmer which do not exist. But it is a curious fact that wlieat, by being sown in spring, changes its habit with relation to the period of ripening. The produce of wheat sown in spring ac- quires the habit of ripening earlier than the produce of wheat sown in autumn ; hence the farmer, when he sows wheat in spring, should sow the produce of that which had been already sown in spring, and not the produce of that which had been sown in autumn. This change in the habit of ripening takes place in the case of all the cerealia, and many other cultivated plants. The minor varieties of any species of wheat are not permanent in their characters, though, under given conditions, they will re- main unchanged for an indefinite period. Under other circum- stances, however, they degenerate ; and hence particular kinds that were once valued have now ceased to be so. Wheat is of very general cultivation on all classes of soils ; but the soils which are best suited to it are those which are more or less clayey. So peculiarly is wheat suited to the stifier soils, that these are familiarly termed wheat-soils. The soils of the lightest class are the least suited to wheat ; and it is an error in practice to force the production of wheat on soils, and under circumstances, which are better suited to the production of the other cerealia. Wheat in this country does not admit of being cultivated at a great elevation. A general rule, applicable to all cases in which wheat is sown, is, that the land shall be in the best condition that circumstances allow, with respect to tillage, cleanness, and fertility. As wheat is the most valuable of the cereal grasses, so it requires greater care than the others to produce it. It is an error to sow with a corn-crop any land which is out of order ; but this error is greater and more hurtful in the case of wheat than of most of the other cerealia. "Wheat is always to be sown before winter when the land can be then prepared to receive it. The sowing of it is deferred till spring, when the crops which it is to succeed in tlie rotation can- not be removed till that season. It is sown before winter after summer-fallow, potatoes, or beans, because, in all these cases, the 328 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. ground can be fitted to receive the seeds at that time. It is sown in spring after turnips, cabbages, and such other crops as are not usually removed from the ground till spring. The fitting place of wheat in the rotation is upon land that has been in summer-fallow. In this case, the land is to receive, pre- viously to the wheat being sown, what is termed the seed-furrow ; as soon after which as convenient the seeds may be sown. The best period for sowing is from about the middle to the end of September. The seeds, previously to being sown, undergo an operation peculiar to wheat, termed pickling or steeping. This is intended to prevent a disease to which the cultivated Tritica are subject, termed synut. The best substance which can be em- ployed for the purpose of steeping is stale human urine, which should be in readiness when the period of sowing arrives. The process of steeping may be thus performed : — Let a tub be provided, and partly filled with urine, and let a quantity of wheat, as a bushel, be put in at a time. Let the wheat be well stirred, and let all the lighter grains which come to the top be skimmed carefully ofi* and thrown aside as useless. The wheat should remain from five to ten minutes, but never more than ten minutes, in the pickle. The successive portions of wheat thus pickled are to be allowed to drain a little, and then to be laid upon the barn-floor in layers, hot lime being at the same time sifted upon each layer. The purpose of spreading the lime is to dry the grain, which should then be carried immediately to the fields and sown. The lime used should be quite hot, and for this purpose it should be slacked at the time. Although the imme- diate purpose served by the application of lime is drying the grain, it may be believed that it also assists the action of the brine in re- moving the tendency to the disease. A very strong pickle of salt dissolved in water may be used instead of urine ; but salt-brine is not quite so secure a mean of preventing the disease as urine ; and the latter, therefore, ought to be preferred. The wheat, after being pickled, must not remain long unsown, otherwise its vegetative powers may be injured or destroyed. No WHEAT. 329 more should be pickled at a time than can be then sown. When, from any cause, as from rain intervening, it is not practicable to sow the wheat for a day or two, it should be spread thinly upon the floor, but never kept in sacks, in which it would soon ferment. The Avheat, Avhen pickled, then, is to be carried directly to the fleld. It may be sown, either by the hand or by the broadcast sowing-machine, in the manner already described, or in rows by the drill-machine. When it is sown in drills, the usual distance between the rows is from 9 to 12 inches ; but it is conceived that the larger inter- vals are the better, and that they may, in most cases, be with ad- vantage more than 12 inches. The quantity of seeds usually soAvn is from two to three bushels to the acre. ' In the case of summer-fallow, the quantity need not exceed two bushels to the acre. When the sowing takes place in spring, the quantity may be extended to three bushels, but rather less than more. * When the seeds are sown by the drill-machine, a single or a double turn of the harrows will suffice. When they are sown broadcast, the land must receive several harroAvings, but no more than are sufficient to cover the seeds, it being better in the case of Avheat that there be a certain roughness of clod. A double turn along the ridge, a double turn across, and again a single turn along, Avill in almost every case suffice ; and often less, namely, a double turn along, a single turn across, and a single turn along ; but many farmers prefer finishing with a turn across. Iso sooner is the process of harroAving executed than the land is to be Avater-furroAved in the folloAving manner : — The common plough, Avith one horse, is to pass once along each Avater-furrow, and then along the Avater-furroAvs of the headlands, and to draAv further open furroAvs in such hollows of the field as Avater might stagnate in. A person is then to folloAV with a spade, to clear out the Avater-furroAV of the headlands to the necessary depth ; to make channels through the headlands to the ditch, where neces- sary ; to clear out the cross -furrows in the holloAVS, so as to allow 330 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THETR SEEDS. the water to run ; and to open up the intersections of the water- furrows of the ridges with these cross-furrows, and the 'water- furrows of the headlands. The best period of sowing, it has been said, is from about the middle to the end of September. The early part of October, how- ever, is well suited to the sowing of wheat, and it may be con- tinued till the middle of November, or later. Wheat may be advantageously sown after potatoes. This crop is generally removed from the ground early in October, which ad- mits of the wheat being sown before winter. In the case of this crop, the land being first harrowed, it is then formed into ridges, and the wheat is sown upon these, precisely as in the case of summer-fallow. Wheat may be sown after a crop of beano, before winter. When the beans are removed from the ground, the land should be well harrowed across, the effect of which is to level it. The ridges are then to be ploughed by gathering the old ridges, the traces of w'hicli are not generally obliterated. The wheat is then to be sown precisely as in the case of summer-fallow ; and the same careful attention is necessary, as in all other cases, to the clear- ing out of the water-furrows and cross-channels, so that no water may stagnate upon the surface. Wheat may be sown after pease, and then the management is the same as in the case of beans. Wheat may be sown after turnips, and other plants of the cab- bage family. If they can be removed before winter, the wheat may be sown at that time ; but as these plants generally are not removed from the ground till spring, the wheat is in this case sown in spring. The land is ridged up once, and sometimes re- ceives in addition a seed-furrow, and the wheat is sown as in the case of summer-fallow or potatoes. Wheat may also be sown after beet, carrots, and parsneps, and is treated precisely in the same manner as when sown after tur- nips. If the crops can be removed before winter, the wheat is then to be sown ; if not, it is to be sown in spring, and the more early in spring the better. WHEAT. 331 Wheat may be sown after clover and the cultivated grasses. But this is not the true place of wheat in the rotation, oats being the crop that can generally be most advantageously sown after grass. When wheat, however, is sown after these plants, the land may be ploughed once, and the wheat sown in autumn. Some- times a partial fallowing is given ; but this is unnecessary. A practice prevails in certain parts of England, of planting the wheat upon the clover-ley by dibbling. In this case, the furrow- slice is laid flat, and a light roller made to pass over it. A man walking backwards with an iron dibble in each hand, strikes two rows of holes in each sod, and he is followed by children, who drop a few grains into each hole ; the seed is covered by a bush- harrow, and sometimes by a roller. The quantity of seeds is from a bushel, or even less, to a bushel and a half per acre, illthough a seemingly inartificial and rude process, and un suited to that despatch which is deemed essential on well-managed farms, it is yet found to answer well on the loose and sandy soils on which it is practised. Wheat, and all the cerealia, have the property of sending out numerous shoots from the roots during their growth. This na- tural process is termed tillering, and is familiar to all farmers. It is to be observed, too, that often the roots of the grasses are partially raised above ground, in which case the plant becomes feeble or perishes. This accident sometimes occurs from too thick sowing, and too rapid a growth in that state. But it is more often produced by the sudden contraction and expansion of the soil by alternate frosts and thaws in winter, and in this case the wheat is said to be thrown out. To promote the process of tillering, and sometimes to prevent the throwing out of the plants, it is found to be beneficial to give a certain tillage to the growing wheat in spring, by means of the hoe, the harrow, or the roller. When wheat is sown in rows, this is done by means of the hoe ; when broadcast, by means of the harrow ; and in either case the roller may be also used. But this tillage is generally given to it incidentally, and in the course 332 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. of another operation to be described, — the sowing of the seeds of the clovers and cultivated grasses. The seeds of these plants are sown as early as convenient in April upon the surface of land on which the cereal grasses are sown. They grow up under the shade of the latter, and in the following season they are fit for use. When the crops of corn with which they are to be sown, are sown in spring, they are gene- rally soAvn at the same time : But when the crop, as of wheat, has been sown in the previous autumn, the grass-seeds are sown amongst the growing plants, and covered by being harrowed or rolled. The minute seeds of these plants, consisting of the clovers, and of the ryegrass, or other grasses, are, previously to being sown, carefully mixed together. They are tiien brought to the ground in sacks, and sown by the hand, or what is better, by the broad- cast sowing-machine. In either case, the harrow follows, giving a double turn along the ridge, and the roller may also follow, crossing the ridges, and going over the ground once. In some cases the roller alone is used to cover the seeds. When the crop is in rows, and hoeing is practised, the seeds may be sown just before the hoeing is given, which then serves the purpose of the harrow. But it is better that the hoeing first takes place, and that the seeds be afterwards sown. The clovers and grasses thus sown, rarely flower in the first year. They grow under shelter of the stems of the larger crop, and they are seen in autumn amongst the stuble covering the sur- face. They grow during the autumn and winter months, shoot vigorously forth in spring, and are in their greatest luxuriance in the following summer, when they are frequently termed new or one-year-old grass. The grass-seeds being sown, no further culture can be given to the wheat, during its growth, nor any weeding, except pulling up or cutting over above ground the larger weeds, as docks, thistles, cockle, and the like. Wheat sometimes becomes too luxuriant in spring, especially wlien sown early, and then it is apt to be lodged, and run to straw WHEAT. 333 more than to produce grain. In this case, it may be depastured for a short time in the early part of spring witli sheep. The next process in the progress of the wheat-culture is that • of reaping, the method of performing which is the same as that before described. The produce of this crop varies greatly with the seasons, the nature of the soil, and the mode of cultivation. A fair good crop may be held to be thirty bushels per acre. The average produce of the kingdom does not, perhaps, exceed twenty-five bushels to the acre. The weight of the straw is reckoned to be about double that of the grain. An acre, therefore, yielding twenty-five bushels of grain, at the rate of 60 lb. per bushel, would yield 3000 lb. of straw, or about 26icwt. The uses to which this grain is applied are numerous and well known. It is beyond every other grain adapted to the making of bread. It owes this preference chiefly to the greater quantity of gluten which it contains, and to its greater nutritive properties. It is used in various other ways for food. Starch for domestic uses is also derived from it. Tlie grain, being steeped, is beaten in hempen bags in water, and thus the starch is separated. The straw is applied to various purposes of rural economy and the arts. It is used for litter, for which it is well suited. It is used also for provender, but is not so much esteemed for this pur- pose as the straw of the oat, although more than that of barley. In other countries of Europe, however, it is that which is most esteemed for provender, being generally reduced to chafi*. It is used for thatching, to which, from its long and rigid stems, it is well suited. It is used for making baskets, bee-hives, mats, and similar articles ; and for the manufacture of hats. The straw, in this latter case, is grown very fine, by being closely sown ; it is pulled green, and bleached upon the surface of the ground. The cjrano marzolano of Italy, employed in the manufacture of the Leghorn hats, is a variety of summer- wheat. Wheat is subject to various accidents and diseases, some of them peculiar to itself. The most dreaded and destructive of these 334 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. is blight, so termed from its effects upon the ear, or mildew, from its supposed cause, namely, mel-dew, from an old opinion, that it was produced by honey- dew falling from the air. This disease is indicated by the presence of certain minute plants of the order of Fungi, or the mushroom tribe, Avhich grow upon the stem and leaves, and doubtless feed upon and exhaust the juices of the plant. When this occurs at a period so late that the seed is already formed, it does not materially affect it, the straAv alone suffering in this case. But when it occurs when the seed is still in an embryo state, the further progress of the seed to maturity is arrested ; and it is found, when cut down, to he shrivelled and abortive. One of this tribe of plants, and apparently the most destruc- tive, is Puccinia graminis, Avhich appears in the form of small spots upon the stem, and gradually extends in lines on the sur- face. Vast losses have been sustained by the blight produced by this cause. A disease termed rust is also very frequent and hurtful. It ap- pears in the form of a brownish dust upon the stem and leaves ; and it is produced likewise by a parasitical plant of the same family. Another disease of Avheat, produced also by minute fungous plants, is smut, which differs from rust and mildew in this, that the means of prevention are generally Avithin our power. There are two varieties of smut. The first resembles a black dust, growing Avithin the glumes of the Avheat. It destroys the seed and its envelopes, converting them into a black poAvder, knoAvn by the name of brand, dust-brand, burnt corn, ko,. This species is Uredo segetum. Tlie other variety is like a brownish-black dust, consisting of larger grains than the last. It does not appear externally, but fills the seed Avith a fetid poAvder ; and is greatly the most destruc- tive of the two. It is known to farmers under the name of smut, or ball. The fungus has been termed Uredo caries by M. De Candolle. When affected Avith this disease, the seed is said to be smutty, blacked, or balled. If the number of grains affected is WHEAT. 335 considerable, the loss is important, both by lessening the produce, and tainting what remains with the black dust of the balls. Farmers, when their wheat is greatly injured by this disease, sometimes wash it, by immersing it in vats or cisterns partly filled with water. The smut-balls and lighter grains floating to the sur- face are skimmed off, and the heavy and sound grain, after being washed, is exposed to the air to dry, or dried in a kiln with a mo- derate heat. This practice, however, is rare ; and industrious winnowing is the usual method resorted to for freeing the grain from the intermixed balls. That this disease is conveyed from the grain to the future plants, may be inferred from the effects of brine and caustic sub- stances upon the grain, as employed in the process of pickling. It has been supposed by some, that the almost impalpable seeds of the fungi are carried upwards by the ascending sap. These and other diseases of the wheat arise from the groAvth of parasitic plants, favoured and developed, it may be believed, by circumstances unknown to us. Another class of diseases is pro- duced by the attacks of animals. Of these the most common, in the early stages of the growth of the plant, are the larvse of certain beetles. They pass among agriculturists under the general name of grub. Certain flies also attack the wheat at a later stage of its growth. The Cecidoraya Tritici is a fly with an orange-coloured body and white wings. About the month of June, the female ascends the ears of wheat, and deposits her eggs by means of a fine trunk, and in a few days she perishes. The progeny being hatched in the ear, feed upon the grain. They are very small, from ten to fourteen being sometimes found in one grain, and are distinguished by being of a bright orange colour. They do not extend beyond the grain in which they had been produced ; but several grains being thus consumed on each ear, the damage done is often con- siderable. The larvae, after a period, fall down to the earth, in which they burrow, and remain there till the following summer, when they ascend from the earth in the form of the l)eautiful fly which has been mentioned. 336 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. These arc the principal accidents to which tlie wheat-plant is subject in this country, from animals and diseases. When stored ill the granary, it is subject to the attacks of the weevil and other creatures. 2. Rye. Of the genus ^ecale there is one species cultivated for its ripened seeds — Secale Cereale — Rye. Rye is extensively cultivated in Europe, forming the main part of the bread-corn of the inhabitants of a great part of Germany, Poland, Russia, Switzerland, and other countries. Rye, with respect to its mode of cultivation, resembles wheat ; but it can be grown upon inferior soils, and with less of culture and manure. It differs from wheat in this, that while wheat affects a clayey soil, rye succeeds on a light and sandy soil. Rye may be sown in autumn, or it may be sown in spring ; and this circumstance affects, as in the case of other cerealia, the ha- bits of ripening of the plant. When sown in autumn, it is termed winter-rye, and when sown in spring, spring-rye. The winter-rye is sown in autumn at the same time as wheat ; the spring-rye with the oats, or as early in spring as the weather will allow. Rye shoots into the ear sooner than wheat, and ripens earlier. It stands drought better than wheat, but is more apt to suffer in- jury from wetness. It is a hardier plant than wheat, and less subject to the attacks of insects and diseases. Rye is in various countries sown mixed with wheat. The mix- ture is termed meslin in England ; and the two kinds tend to ripen at the same time when sown together. Rye is sometimes sown for yielding herbage in spring, and green forage at a later season. Where turnips, however, and the cultivated grasses are raised, this practice is little adopted. The bread of rye is dark, sweet, and nutritious, though in this latter property it is inferior to wheat. Mixed in certain pro- portions with wheat, it makes a palatable and wholesome bread. BAULEY. 337 Coarsely ground, and mixed with the meal of other grains, it is in some countries made into a kind of bread for the feeding of horses and other animals. It is used extensively, in the north of Europe, for the purpose of distillation, Rye rises to a greater height than wheat, and produces a thin- ner stem, but a great w'eight of straw. The straw is hard, wiry, and little valued for fodder ; hut it is used for thatch and other purposes. It is well suited for the manufacture of straw-hats ; and, when intended for this latter purpose, it is sown very thick, pulled green, and blanched by exposure to the air. Rye, though free from the diseases of wheat, is yet subject to a peculiar one. This is the ergot, a fungous growth, which, though it is found on other gramineous plants, is more especially the dis- ease of rye. It is a long cartilaginous-like substance, projecting from the grain, and often taking the place of it. It chiefly pre- vails in humid seasons, in close situations, or where the soil is wet. Animals, when in a state of liberty, refuse it ; and when used in quantity amongst bread, it is said to he pernicious, pro- ducing gangrene. The manner of cultivating and managing the rye-crop, is in all essential points the same as that of wheat. 3. Barley. Of the genus Hordeum, the following species may he enumer- ated as cultivated for their seeds : — % 1. Hordeum distichum — Two-rowed Barley, 2. Hordeum gymno-distichum — Two-rowed Naked Barley. ,3. Hordeum disticho-zeocriton — Two-rowed Sprat or Battledore Barley. 4. Hordeum hexastichum — Six-rowed Barley. .5. Hordeum gymno-hexastichum — Six-rowed Naked Barley. 6. Hordeum hexasticho-zeocriton — Six-rowed Sprat or Battledore Barley.* * Barley differs from wheat in this, that each floret has its own calyx. The Y 338 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOP THEIR SEEDS. Hordeum distiehiim, Two-rowed barley, is the species in com- mon cultivation. The spike is composed .of two rows of perfect seeds, the palese remaining closely attached to, and covering, the seeds. The minor varieties of two-rowed barley are numerous, and are distinguished chiefly by the quality of their grain, and by their habit of early or later ripening ; and some varieties are more productive than others ; — efiects apparently dependent upon dif- ferences of climate and situation. Barley is an annual plant ; but, like wheat, it may be sown in autumn, and then it acquires the habit of later ripening, and is termed winter-barley. Two-rowed barley is sometimes, from the colour of its palese florets are placed in threes on each of the two sides of the rachis. Sometimes all the three florets on each side are fertile, producing seeds, when the barley is termed six-rowed : sometimes only one floret of the three is fertile, when the bar- ley is termed two-rowed. In the following figure the three florets are represented as fertile : a is a joint of the rachis ; b and c are the two glumes of the calyx ; e is the inner valve of the corolla, d is the outer, valve, of which the awn /is a con- tinuation ; h is another floret, shewing the same parts ; and g is another floret, also shewing the same parts, excepting the inner valve of the corolla. Fig. 159. BARLEY. 8 o 9 or inner liusks, black. This creates a great difference in the ex- ternal appearance of the grain, but is not to be regarded as a per- manent character. The paleae of this species, as has been said, are closely attached to the grain, and form its covering. But sometimes they are not attached to the grain, and in this case the seed is commonly said to be naked, in which respect it resembles wheat. It is not de- termined whether this be a permanent character, but in the ab- sence of proof to the contrary, it may be assumed to be so, and the naked barley held to be a species. It may be termed Hordenm gymno-distichum. Two-rowed naked barley is said to have been introduced into England in the year 1768. It is now little cultivated, and is by some asserted, though without any evidence, to merge into the common species. It has been in cultivation in some parts of Europe, and has preserved its characters, for a period beyond all record. The next species, commonly termed Hordeimi Zeocriton, has been here termed Hordeum disticlio-zeocriton, Two-rowed sprat nr battledore barley. The spike is short and conical, the awns long and spreading, and the seeds more compressed than in the other species. As in the other species, the three contiguous florets on the spike may perfect one seed, forming two-rowed barley ; or they may perfect all the seeds, forming six-rowed barley. This species is scarcely cultivated in this island, the shortness of its straw being regarded as an objection to its cul- tivation. The next species is Hordeum hexasticTium, Six-rowed barley. When sown before winter, this species acquires the habit of late ripening, and is then termed winter-barley. Winter-barley is very frequently cultivated in the countries of the north of Europe. One of the kinds of six-rowed barley, and the best known in this country, is here or bigg. Bigg ripens its seeds in a shorter period than the two-rowed barleys. It is cultivated in the north 340 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOll THEIR SEEDS. of Scotland, in Denmark, Sweden, and other parts of Europe. The number of its grains is greater than in the two-rowed kinds, hut they do not weigh so heavy in proportion to their hulk. It is hence regarded as an inferior crop, and is only cultivated in the more elevated parts of the country. It ripens very early when sown in spring, and hence the advantages which it possesses in a late climate. Sometimes the external cover of the grain, as in the case of the two-rowed barley, is black. This arises in either case from the change of the colour of the paleae in ripening. The paleje of this species adhere closely to the grain, and form its covering. Sometimes, however, as in the case of the two- rowed naked barley, the palese are detached from the grain. Whether this be a permanent character is not determined ; but in the absence of proof to the contrary, it may be assumed to be so, in which case it must be regarded as a species. It has been termed Hordeum gymno-heocasticlium. The six-rowed naked barley is cultivated in various parts of Europe, and is greatly esteemed for its fertility. In some parts of Germany, it is regarded as the most valuable kind of barley, and by the French, on account of its supposed productiveness, it has been termed orge celeste. This, and the other superior kinds of six-rowed barley, deserve more attention than they have yet received. Almost the only kind cultivated in Britain is here or bigg, which occupies an inferior place. A variety of this species lately brought from Nepaul, has, in place of awns, soft hooked appendages at the termination of the valves of the corolla. These tend to disappear by the effects of acclimating in this country, and to pass into awns. This re- markable variety is cultivated in Tartary, 10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The last of the species to be mentioned is Hordeum heocasticho- zeocriton, Six-rowed sprat or battledore barley. This has been sometimes termed six-rowed barley : whereas the characters of six-rowed does not belong to it alone. An examination of the BAKLEY. 341 pliiiit will shew that it is the common battledore barley, with all the florets fertile."^ Thus, the kinds of barley which may be cultivated, are, — 1. The two-rowed kind, in which the valves of the corolla ad- here to the seed. 2. The two-rowed kind, in which the valves do not adhere to the seed. 3. The two -rowed battledore barley. 4. The six-rowed kind, in which the valves adhere to the seed. 5. The six-rowed kind, in which the valves do not adhere to the seed. 6. The six-rowed battledore barley. Barley, it has been said, may be sown cither in spring or in autumn. It is more frequently sown in spring. Barley is an early-ripening grain, and therefore it may be sown at a late period, as the month of May ; but the usual period is April, and the sooner the better. The more early that barley can be sown the produce in grain is the surer, though the bulk of straw will be less. It may be sown at any time at which spring-wheat can be sown. In the rotation of crops, barley may succeed to summer-fallow. * Much confusion has arisen in the arrangement, by agriculturists, of the culti- vated barleys, and in an especial degree by their speaking of four-rowed and six- rowed kinds. There is, however, no barley to which the term four-rowed can be applied. Barley is termed two-rowed or six-rowed, according to the number of its fertile florets. In two-rowed barley, one row of florets on each of the two sides of the spike is fertile, and consequently one row of seeds on each side is perfected. In six-rowed barley, three rows on each side of the spike are fertile, and conse- quently three rows on each side are perfected. In this sense only it is termed six-rowed barley. But there is no species known to us in which only two rows on each side of the spike are fertile. Slightly examined, indeed, six-rowed barleys frequently present the appearance of four rows ; but this is in appearance only, for such barleys have always the three rows on each side perfect. In poor soils, and unfavourable situations, two of the rows run much into each other, and this has perhaps given rise to the mistake ; but the two rows which thus run into each other in appearance, are on the opposite sides of the rachis. I have ventured to propose a new arrangement of the cultivated barleys ; under which, it will be seen that the Ilordeum vuhjare of some botanists is Hordeum hex- astichum, and that the Ilordeum hexastichum of some botanists is Ilordeum hexasticho- zeocriton. Yet 1 do not assert that some of these ought not to be deemed varieties, rather than species. 342 PLANTS CULTIVATED EOli THEIR SEEDS. to potatoes, turnips, or any other green-crop, and to any of the pulse-crops. Wiien barley follows a summer-fallow, it is common, after ridg- ing up the land in the manner described for wheat, to leave it in that state till spring, when it receives the seed-furrow, and when the barley is soAvn. It is a rule observed in the case of barley, ahvays to sow on a freshly stirred soil. It is for this reason that the seed-furrow is deferred till spring, and given Avhen the land is dry, just before the barley is sown. The grubber may sometimes, with advantage and economy, be employed to give this spring tillage. When barley is sown after potatoes, the land is ridged up when the potatoes are removed, generally in October. It remains in this state till spring, when it receives a final ploughing or seed-fur- roAV immediately before the seeds are sown. Barley, however, is rarely sown after summer-fallow or pota- toes, because the land is then prepared for the more valuable crop, Avheat. When barley, therefore, is sown in either of these cases, it may be regarded as an exception to the general rule. Barley may be sown after beans. In this case the land, after the beans are removed, receives one or more ploughings in autumn, and is ridged up so as to remain dry. In spring it receives an- other ploughing, and sometimes two, immediately after Avhich the seeds are soAvn. Wheat, however, is the grain Avhich, in the more general course, follows beans ; first, because it is the more valu- able crop, and, second, because the soils suited to beans are those also suited to Avheat. When barley is soAvn after pease, the mode of management is the same as in the case of beans. In the cases that have been mentioned, barley might be sown previously to winter. But the practice of soAving Avinter-barley is rare in this country. When from any cause, hoAvever, it is found expedient to soav barley in place of wheat after summer- falloAv, potatoes, or pulse-crops, the Avinter-barley might be soAvn Avith advantage. In this case it Avill be necessary to obtain the seed of some of the Avinter-sown barleys in cultivation, and not to BAKLEV. 343 employ those which have acquired the habit of ripening in the same year. Barley, it has been said, may be sown after turnips or other green-crops, and these are precisely the kinds of crops which form the best preparative for barley. They are grown for the most part upon light soils, and the lighter soils are those to which barley is suited. These crops also are not generally removed till spring, and spring is a proper season for sowing barley. Barley, therefore, is better suited to follow such crops than wheat is. It is also generally better suited to follow them than oats, because oats are the less valuable crop. These circumstances concur in indicating that the proper place in the rotation for barley is in succession to turnips and similar crops, which remain on the ground till spring. When barley is sown after turnips and other green-crops in spring, the land should be ploughed once, and immediately after the plougliing, the barley should be sown. But when the period of sowing is late, and the ground is hard from the effects of drought or any other cause, two ploughings are to be given to re- duce the ground to a finer tilth. In this case the harrow and the roller are also employed ; and the grubber is well suited for the same purpose. When barley succeeds turnips and similar crops, which are re- moved before winter, or at a very early period in spring, then the land should be ploughed into ridges immediately. When the sea- son for sowing the barley arrives, a second ploughing or seed- fur- row should be given. Barley may be sown broadcast, or in rows, giving it a single turn of the harrows after the drill-machine, and just a sufficient number of harro wings to cover the seed in the case of broadcast sowing. It is always found beneficial to roll this species of crop. The operation of rolling may either take place immediately after the conclusion of the process of harrowing, or after the plants are above ground. But the roller, on being employed for the cover- ing of the grass-seeds which are sown with this crop, also cficcts 344 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. the purpose of smoothing and consolidating the surface of the land. The time of using the roller, therefore, is immediately after the grass-seeds are sown. The quantity of seeds of barley generally varies from 2i to 3 bushels to the acre, when sown broadcast ; but when sown in rows, the quantity of seed need not exceed 2 bushels to the acre. The seeds of clovers and grasses are also sown with barley as with wheat. They may be sown either at the time at which the barley is sown, or when the plants are above ground. If this is done at the same time with the barley, the seeds are sown just before the last turn of the harrows, and are then covered, first by the last turn of the harrows, and then by the roller ; or they may be sown after the land is harrowed, and covered by the roller alone. When the grass-seeds cannot be sown at the same time with the barley, then they are to be covered, when the time of sowing them arrives, by the roller alone without the harrows. When the barley is sown in rows, it may be hoed once previously to the grass-seeds being sown. After the grass-seeds are sown, the barley-land admits of no further tillage. Should any large weeds appear, they may be pulled up by the hand; but it is the evidence of bad husbandry, if a spring- sown barley-crop requires weeding during the comparatively short period in which it is on the ground. When the period of harvest arrives, barley must be allowed to be sufficiently ripe, but not to become what is termed dead-ripe. It may be cut either by the scythe or the sickle. Barley, on account of the softness of its stem, and tendency of its ears to vegetate, is more apt to be injured, and even destroyed, by wet weather, than any of the other cereal grasses. For this reason, the safer course, in a humid climate like ours, is to place it, when cut down, in sheaves and shocks, and not to allow it, as is frequently practised, to lie loose upon the ground. Barley being more subject to injury from heating, requires more precautions in the securing of it than any other grain. By heat- ing in the stack, it quickly becomes discoloured and injured. It is thrashed and prepared in the same manner as wheat ; but BARLEY. 345 it has this peculiarity, that the awns of the corolla adhere to the seeds, and are with some difficulty broken off, especially when the season has been unfavourable, and the seeds have ripened im- perfectly. The thrashing-machine, if sufficiently powerful, will generally break off* the awns, or may he made to do so, by making the cover of the cylinder rough internally, and bringing it near to the beaters, so as to leave a small space between them and the cover. But in less powerful machines, in which the breaking off of the awns is imperfectly performed, it is a frequent practice to put the thrashed barley again through the thrashing-machine, in order that, by the further agitation which it undergoes, the awns may he broken. Sometimes a species of machinery driven by the power which moves the thrashing-machine is applied to this purpose. It is formed upon the principle of skutching. The skutchers are arms fixed to a vertical spindle enclosed within a cylinder. There are several tiers of these arms one above the other ; the barley, being put in at the top of the cylinder, is acted upon by the tiers of skutchers kept in rapid motion, and so the awns are broken off. But when the thrashing-machine is not in use, or performs its work imperfectly, an instrument Fig. 160. worked by the hand, termed a hummeller, is em- ployed. This consists of a set of parallel iron plates fixed to a frame, and worked by the hand like a pavier’s instrument. Sometimes there are two sets of plates, the one crossing the other. The barley to be hummelled is laid upon the barn- floor, and, by repeated strokes of the hummeller, is freed from its awns. The produce of barley, like that of all grains, varies greatly with seasons, culture, and soil. A medium crop is generally held to be about 40 bushels to the acre, and 60 bushels are a large re- turn. Tlie medium weight of two-rowed barley is about 55 lb. per bushel. Barley is employed for various purposes. The flour is used in ;346 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIK SEEDS. some parts for bread ; but the bread, though sufficiently nutri- tious, is dark and strong-tasted. Barley is subjected to a species of grinding, by which the ex- ternal coat of the seed is rubbed off. In this state it is termed pot or pearl barley, and is employed largely in soups, gruel, and cooling drinks. It is used in the south of Europe for the feeding of horses ; but in this country, the oat is regarded as the proper food of the horse. It is also employed for the feeding of hogs or other live- stock. In the practice of the farm, the light or inferior barley is generally used for this purpose. This, after being boiled or steamed, furnishes a cooling and laxative food for horses and other animals. But the great consumption of barley is for malting, to which purpose it is excellently suited. The straw of barley is employed partially for fodder, but chiefly for litter. It is lighter than the straw of oats and wheat, and less esteemed than either. The awns of barley are given to stock, either in their natural state or boiled. The diseases of barley are not so numerous or fatal as those of wheat. It is attacked by the larvse of certain flies. It is also subject to smut, though in a partial degree, and the fungus is usually Uredo segetum. 4. Oats. The oat is of the genus Avena. The following species are those cliiefly cultivated for their seeds : — 1. Avena strigosa — Bristle-pointed Oat. 2. Avena brevis — Short Oat. 3. Avena sativa — Common Oat. f. Avena orientalis — Tartarian Oat. .5. Avena nuda — Naked Oat. The lirst of those species is distinguished by the two lower flo- rets of tlie s])ikcjets having each three awns, the dorsal one very OATS. 347 long and twisted, the otliers short and straight. This is a native species of inferior properties, but sometimes cultivated, as in the remoter Highlands of Scotland. Avena 'brevis. Short oat, is, like the last, of inferior quality. The seeds are numerous, but small. It is cultivated in the more mountainous and central parts of France and elsewhere. Avena saliva, Common oat, is that which is more generally cul- tivated. Each spikelet contains two, and sometimes three, perfect seeds. The florets are sometimes awned, and sometimes destitute of awns. Avena orientalis, Tartarian oat, is cultivated in England, and largely in some other parts of Europe. Its panicle is contracted, and nods to a side, which distinguishes it from the last-mentioned species. The colour of its corolla is generally dark, but the plant improves by culture in a good soil, losing its awns, and that dark- ness of colour which appears to distinguish the oat in its less im- proved state. Avena nuda. Naked oat. In the species that have been men- tioned, the corolla adheres closely to the seed and forms its cover- ing. In this species, the palese are detached from the seed, as in the case of wheat and naked barley. It is from this property that this oat has obtained the name of pilcorn or peelcorn. It has been cultivated for an unknown period in Europe, is men- tioned by our early writers, and was once in general cultivation in Scotland, and other parts of the island. It is said to be pro- ductive, and the meal to be fine. The oat is the natural inhabitant of colder latitudes. It de- generates iu the warmer parts of the temperate zone, and in lower latitudes disappears from cultivation. It is, of all the cereal grasses, that which is the most easily cultivated, growing best indeed, as all such plants will do, on the better soils, but suited to every kind from peat to the lighter soils and clay. Of the species that have been mentioned, greatly the most im- portant is the common oat, Avena saliva. Of this species there are innumerable sorts, produced by the effects of climate, soil, and 348 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. cultivation. These may be conveniently divided into three classes — the black, the dun or grey, and the white. Those in which the corolla is very dark, are in the first class. The oats of this habit are awned, and the seeds are small. They are hardy, and ripen early, and it is this property which suits them for cultivation in cold and elevated districts. They are an inferior class of oats in their ordinary state, and should rarely be used where varieties more improved by climate and cultivation can bo raised. The next class of oats, the dun or grey, may be said to be intermediate betAveen the black and the white. Some of them are awned and very worthless ; but those that have been im- proved by culture and selection, are valued in the situations suited to them. Those that are chosen for seed should be plump, with- out awns, and with but a slight darkness of colour. The oats of this class are called red oats, sometimes dun, and sometimes blue oats. The third class consists of those that are white, and the most improved of them are Avithout awns. These are the least hardy kinds ; but they are of the greatest weight to the busliel, and tlie most productive of meal. In this class the Potato-oat is one which has possessed a con- siderable reputation in the districts Avhere it has been cultivated. It is not so well suited to inferior soils as some of the other white and darker coloured kinds. It is less productive of straw than they, though the grain is more plump, weighs heavier, and yields a greater AA^eight of meal. The hardier kinds of oats, how- ever, are better suited to certain situations than the finer, just as the hardier red wheats are better suited to certain situations than the thin-chaffed and white varieties. The potato- oat Avas the discoA^ery of accident, and the produce of a single plant. It has, in many cases, sheAvn a tendency to degenerate, by the husks be- coming thicker and the body less plump, and by the partial ap- pearance of aAvns. Other minor varieties of the oat, Avhich have had more or less OATS. 349 reputation, are the Late and Early Angus, the Blainslie white oat, tlie Poland oat, and others. The varieties of the Angus oat have been much cultivated. They are hardy, of fair quality, and sufficiently productive. The Early Angus is the finer variety, and ripens about 10 days be- fore the other. Tlie Blainslie oat, so named from a farm noted for producing it, used to be largely cultivated in the south-eastern counties of Scotland. It is somewhat small in the grain, but produces, on good soils, abundant crops of grain and straw. It is an early- ripening oat, but has now generally given place to other early- ripening varieties. Tlie Poland oat was long greatly valued. It ripens early, and produces an abundant crop of grain ; but it is somewhat deficient in straw, and is supposed to be peculiarly liable to injury from shaking. This kind has been cultivated in England above 100 years, and, during that long period, has retained its characters. Many other kinds could be named, as having been long culti- vated in this country ; but those enumerated will suffice for the purpose of example. Minor varieties of this nature may be mul- tiplied to an unlimited degree, and we may constantly expect to see new ones obtained by accident, or by care bestowed in selec- tion. A variety which has been lately extensively cultivated is the Hopetoun oat, derived from East-Lothian, and various others have been introduced into favour. It may be said in general, with respect to the principal kinds now in use, that the potato and other finer kinds of oat are the best suited for low lands, and the better class of soils ; that the dun oats are suited to inferior soils, or to the more elevated grounds ; and that on the soils lowest in the scale of fertility the improved black varieties may be used. The oat has a wider range of soils than any of the other ce- realia. It requires, too, less preparation of the soil by tillage and manures, and it bears more frequent repetition than wheat or barley. The oat is generally sown after grass, and this is precisely the period in the rotation in which the oat should be sown. It grows 350 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. better upon old grass-land than any other crop, and should always be sown, accordingly, when land is broken up from grass of some years’ standing. When land, indeed, is broken up from grass of one year, wheat, it has been seen, may be sown ; but, in the ma- jority of cases, the more suitable crop is oats. When grass-land is to be ploughed for oats, this should be done in winter, or as soon in spring as the state of the weather, and the labours of the farm, will allow, so that it may, if possible, receive a little of the winter’s frost to mellow it before the oats are sown. In the ordinary practice of the farm, the first opera- tion after harvest is ploughing the stubble-land intended for fal- low and fallow-crops, and then the grass-land which is intended for oats. Oats may be sown after a summer-fallow. This is done when the soil and situation are less suited to wheat and barley than to oats. In this case, the fallow is ridged up before winter, and again receives a seed-furrow in spring, though frequently the oats are sown without the seed-furrow. Oats are sown after pulse-crops, when the land is not in a fit state of preparation for wheat and barley, or when the soil and situation are un suited to these crops. In this case, one plough- ing is generally given in autumn, and sometimes a seed-furrow in spring. Oats may be sown after turnips or other green crop, when they are more suited to the soil and situation than wheat and barley. In this case, the green crop being removed, the oats are sown after one ploughing. Sometimes oats are sown after oats, or other corn-crop. This is a deviation from the general rules of good culture ; but it is in some cases rendered necessary by the failure of grass-seeds, and other circumstances. In this case, the land may be ploughed once ; but when grass-seeds are to be sown with the crop of oats, it is better that it receive a second tillage in spring. When land is broken up from very old grass, good farmers sometimes take two crops of corn in succession. This is a de- viation from the rules of the alternate husbandry. Circumstances OATS. 351 may render it expedient; but it is the exception, and not the rule, of general management. Grass-seeds may he sown in spring with oats, in the same manner as with wheat and barley. But the land should in this case be prepared by previous fallow or green crop. Oats are, for the most part, sown broadcast. When land is broken up from grass, it is not in so good a state for allowing the drill-machine to operate, and accordingly the more suitable method of sowing is broadcast. Exceptions to this may be re- quired, when there is a great prevalence of annual weeds, — as of the wild radish and wild mustard ; but the general rule for sow- ing oats is broadcast, and the sowing in rows the exception. The period of sowing oats is generally from the beginning of March to the end of April. From the beginning to the middle of March is held to be the best period, Avhen the weather and state of the ground will allow. The quantity of seeds sown may be from 4 to 6 bushels to the acre. There are rarely sown more than 6 bushels, and there ought never to be sown less than 4. Oats, from being sown after grass -land, are more apt to be overrun with thistles than the other kinds of grain ; hence it is usual to weed this crop by going over it with the weeding instru^ ment before referred to. The reaping of oats is by the scythe or sickle, in the manner before explained. They should be allowed to ripen, but not to stand till they are dead-ripe. When ripe, they are to be taken sharp, as it is termed, by which means the chance of loss by winds at this critical period is lessened. The produce of oats varies greatly with the nature of the soil and the mode of management. It is frequently calculated that 30 bushels to the acre may be the average in this country. In Scot- land, where the culture of the oat is more attended to than in any other part of Europe, 60 bushels are held to be a good crop, below 30 an indifferent or bad one. Oats vary in weight from 35 lb. to 48 lb. the bushel. The produce in flour is generally regarded as in the proportion of 352 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS, about 8 to 14 ; that is, 14 lb. of grain give 8 lb. of meal, tliough the proportional quantity of meal increases as tlie oats are heavier, until it is one-half more. The meal of the oat is used for bread ; but though it is the food of a great part of the inhabitants of the north of Europe, it is inferior for this purpose to the flour of rye, and greatly in- ferior to that of wheat. It is used, however, in various simple preparations for food. But the principal consumption of the oat is for the feeding of horses, to which purpose it is eminently adapted. In the prac- tice of the farm, it is common to reserve the light corn for the feeding of the horses, and the heavier grain for seed and for sale. The oat is employed also in malting and distillation ; but for these purposes it is inferior to barley. The straw of the oat is, in this country, more esteemed for provender than that of wheat, barley, and rye. It furnishes a great part of the food of wintering-cattle, as will afterwards be explained. It is given also to working-horses in place of hay in the early part of winter, when the work is not severe. Oats are subject to considerable hazard of injury by the shaking of winds, as the grain approaches to its ripened state. In the early stages of its growth, too, it is subject to be attacked by several enemies, of which the principal is the wire-worm, which is the larva of a very small beetle, Elater segetis ; and by the larvse of several other insects, comprehended by farmers under the ge- neral term. Grub. The diseases of the oat are not numerous. It is subject, though in a partial degree, to smut, occasioned by Uredo segetum. 5. Millet. Under the term Millet are comprehended certain plants of dif- ferent genera, which are cultivated for their seeds : — 1. Panicum miliaceum — Common Millet. 2. Setaria italica — Italian Setaria. 3. Setaria germanica — German Setaria. 4. Sorghum vulgare — Indian Millet. MILLET. 353 Common millet grows several feet high, and is terminated by a large branched panicle hanging to one side. It is very prolific in seeds. These are small and smooth ; in some sorts brown, and in others yellow. The plant is cultivated extensively in Russia, in Italy, and in Germany. Its seeds, being divested of their outer covering, are often used in the manner of rice, and furnish a nourishing and grateful food. They are also made into bread, which, however, is not esteemed. They are used for the feeding of domestic fowls, for which they are well suited. The straw pro- duced is bulky, and valued for provender. The cultivation of common millet is not practised in this country. It is not with us a part of the food of the people ; while, with re- spect to the feeding of domestic fowls, we have so many resources in the waste of our cereal grains, that there is scarcely need of cul- tivating any plant expressly for the purpose. But more than this, millet is not well suited to the colder parts of Europe, and supplies of it can be obtained in unlimited abundance from the shores of the Mediterranean. The Italian setaria, cultivated in the south of Europe, is only known to us in this country as a plant of the garden. It is too delicate for the northern parts of Europe : for even about Bour- deaux it is a precarious crop, suffering frequently from the effects of frost. German setaria is cultivated in Hungary in fertile sub-humid soils. It is used in its green state, or as dried fodder for horses and oxen. The Indian millet furnishes bread to the Arabians and other people of the East. The flour is known to the Arabs under the name of dourra ; and it is truly the bread-corn of Africa, being grown over all the parts of that vast continent. It is cultivated likewise in Italy, and the south of Germany ; and it was long ago introduced into Spain, it may be supposed by the Moors, if not at an earlier period still by the Carthaginians. It has been in- troduced also into the Islands of the West Indies, under the name of Guinea corn, and into the Southern United States of America. This fine plant grows with a strong I’eedy stem, with broad 7 . 354 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. leaves like those of the maize, but smaller, and producing a large panicle. Its seeds are smooth and roundish, resembling those of the common millet, but larger. They are ground into flour, but the bread made of it is dark in colour and coarse. In Europe, the grain is chiefly used for feeding domestic fowls and pigeons, for which it is well suited. This plant is the native of a warmer country, and demands a more genial climate, than we possess. With us it will scarcely even ripen its seeds, and frequently not even expand its flowers. -Other species of Sorghum are likewise cultivated, but the same remark applies with more or less force to them all. 6. Maize. Of the cultivated Maize, Zea Metis, naturalists hold that there is but one species, yet the differences presented under different conditions of soil and climate are often as great as those which are held to distinguish species in the other, cultivated gramina. The maize has a wide range of temperature. In the western continent, it flourishes from about the 40° of southern to beyond the 45° of northern latitude. It is extensively produced in Africa, Asia, and the south of Europe. On all the shores of the Medi- terranean, — Spain, Italy, and the countries of the Levant, — it supplies the food in most common use. The region of the maize in Europe seems to have been extending northwards. It is grown in France, Germany, and even in the Netherlands. The last, how- ever, is somewhat beyond the true region of the maize, which re- quires the 'warmer summer of the south of Europe to bring it to its full perfection. The kinds best suited to the colder parts are the dwarf, some of which, even in the latitude of Paris, complete the circle of their vegetation in a period comparatively short. The manner of cultivating the maize in the countries where it is produced, is generally rude and inartificial. The proper method of cultivating it is in rows at the distance from one another of from 3 to 4 feet. In this manner the plants can be tilled by the MAIZE. 355 horse and hand hoe in the most perfect manner, and the eartli heaped up to the stems of the plant by the operation of the com- mon plough. This heaping up of the earth tends to support the long stem and weighty ears. The plant, although it has a very fibrous root, does not penetrate deeply into the ground ; but from the lower joints of the stem, it sends forth large roots, which partly serve the purpose of supporting it. During the growth of the plant, and even till the seeds are formed, the tilling may be continued, and the earth heaped up to the stem. The maize is a plant which with difficulty bears the rigour of early spring. It is easily injured by frosts ; and hence the ne- cessity of adapting the period of sowing it to the peculiarity of the climate. The plant, like the other graminese, may be trans- planted, and that, too, after it has attained a considerable size. In planting, therefore, it is well to have a provision of plants for the filling up of blanks. A peculiarity in the manner of treating the plant is founded upon the circumstance of its being monoecious. The flowers bear- ing stamens are produced in a branched spike at the summit of the stem. The female flowers grow lower down on the stem. Upon these the pollen falls from the flowers above. As soon as the male flowers have performed their functions, by depositing their pollen on the organs below, they become no longer neces- sary, and they, accordingly, with all the elevated. part of the stem which supports them, may be removed. This is familiarly termed topping ; and the period of performing it is denoted by the state of forwardness of the plant. When the silk-like filaments of the female flowers are withered, and when, upon stripping ofi* the husks, the grain is found to be somewhat hardened, then the tops and even the leaves may be removed without injury. These form a valuable deposite for the winter, and may be reserved for food for horses and oxen in spring. The harvest-labours of the maize are altogether diff’erent from those of the other cerealia. The ears are stript from the stem by the hand, and carried directly to the barn-floor, to undergo the process of husking. The husks, consisting of a thick leafy cover- 356 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. ing which closely envelopes the ear, are then also stripped off, and the ears are deposited in some convenient place. The next operation is that of separating the grain from the ear. This may be done by a machine, but it is generally done by scraping or rasping the ears upon a piece of iron fixed across a wooden vessel into which the grains are received. The flour of the maize, on account of the deficiency of gluten, is greatly inferior to the flour of wheat for the making of bread. It is, however, a perfectly nutritious substance, and becomes pa- latable to those who are used to it. Its flour is converted into various preparations, and used extensively in the countries where it is produced. In America, the people of every condition eat the maize in its different states. The most delicate, perhaps, is when the ears are green, and the seeds simply roasted or boiled. In this state they are enjoyed by people of all ages throughout the United States. The maize is a nourishing food for all domestic animals. It is suited to the feeding of the horse: hogs get speedily fat upon it, and poultry eagerly eat the hard grains. The maize is thus a very valuable plant in all the countries in which it is produced. It is only, however, in the warmer parts of Europe, or in the countries which, like North America, have a hot summer, that the maize is calculated to take the place of the common cerealia. 7. Rice. Rice has been known and cultivated from the earliest records of the human race, and is believed to furnish food to a greater num- ^ber of human beings than any other of the cultivated graminem. Of this plant there has usually been held to be but one spe- cies : — Oryza sativa — Common Rice. Rut there are subspecies or varieties, so greatly different in their habits and characters, that they may be rather perhaps re- garded as specifically distinct. They may be all referred to two RICE — CANARY CRASS, «&C. 357 general types, — the Common rice, so termed, and the Mountain rice, oryza miitica of many botanists, which differs from the other in its general aspect and habits. The Common rice grows from one to six feet in height, terminating in a panicle, the seeds of which are armed with long awns. It is cultivated in marshes, and, for a great part of its growth, is partially under water. The Mountain rice grows on mountains and dry soils. A plant of this class has been recently found growing high on the range of the Himalayan mountains. The rice is spread over all the warmer regions of the Old World, and has been carried to the New, where it flourishes in great luxu- riance. The Common rice is cultivated in the south of Europe, and the Mountain rice has lately been extended to the more north- ern parts of it, — to Westphalia, and even to the Low Countries, nice seems to be a plant fitted, in a remarkable degree, to accom- modate itself to different situations. It is a considerable period since it was introduced into the countries north of the Mediter- ranean, — Greece, Italy, and Spain. It is more recently that it has extended to Hungary and central Europe ; but whatever be the power of acclimating of the rice, there is little reason to suppose that it will ever form any thing beyond an inconsiderable part of the cultivated graminese of Europe. 8. Canar'y-Grass, &c. The cereal grasses that have been enumerated, afford the main part of the farinaceous food of mankind. Besides these, how- ever, other grasses are cultivated, or used for their seeds, as — 1. Phalaris canariensis — Cultivated Canary- grass. ^ 2. Poa fluitans — Floating Meadow-grass. 3. Digitaria sanguinalis — Hairy Cocksfoot, or Finger-grass., Canary-grass is cultivated in a few parts of the south of F]ng- land, and chiefly in the Isle of Thanet, for its seeds, which are given to the smaller birds. The plant is easily raised, but is of little economical importance. 358 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. Floating meadow-grass is a native plant tolerably productive of seeds, which are sweet and nourishing. They are collected in some parts of Grermany, Poland, and other parts of Europe, and used as food ; and they are brought to this country under the name of Manna. The plant is too aquatic in its habits to admit of extended cultivation. Hairy Cocksfoot, or Finger-grass, is an annual plant, grow- ing in sandy cultivated fields. In Poland and Lithuania it abounds by the roadsides, and its seeds, being collected and boiled with milk in the manner of rice, are said to be esteemed. Many other grasses could be enumerated as yielding seeds of sufficient size to be used as food ; but none of them can be re- garded as fitting subjects of cultivation for their seeds. Cana- dian Rice, Zizania aquatica, which grows in vast abundance in the marshes of North America, and may be said to form the wild bread-corn of the wandering tribes of Indians, is too aquatic for cultivation, and requires a hotter summer than the higher lati- tudes of the old continent afford. (2.) LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 1. The Bean. The bean is of the genus Faha, of which there is reckoned one species — Faba vulgaris — Common Bean. But great diversities, in the habit and aspect of the plant, have been produced by the effects of climate, soil, and culture. Of the beans which form the subjects of cultivation in this coun- try, there may be said to be, with respect to their uses, two ge- neral classes, — those which are cultivated in the fields, and are thence termed field-beans, and those which are cultivated in gar- dens, and so termed garden-beans. The former, too, are frequently termed grey beans, and the latter white beans. Of the white or garden beans, the sorts are very numerous. THE BEAN. 359 Tliose that may be here referred to as cultivated also in the fields, are the Mazagan-bean and the Long-podded. The Mazagan-beans are regarded as the best of the early kinds at present in cultivation. They are said to be derived from Africa ; and their habits change by their being cultivated in this country. They become larger, and do not ripen so soon as when first im- ported. The Long-podded are of the middle size of garden-beans, and are very productive, the pods being long, and closely filled with seeds. Of the long-pods there are many varieties enumerated by gardeners. These two sorts, though raised in the garden, are also culti- vated partially in the fields, and they are reckoned to be the best of the garden kinds used for this purpose. The kinds, however, the most important to the agriculturist, and forming the subjects of common cultivation in the fields, are the smaller and hardier kinds, termed field-beans. Of these, the principal are the horse-bean and the tick-bean. The former is the more hardy ; the latter is generally regarded as of better quality, and more productive. The horse-bean grows more tall than the tick-bean, but it is not so productive of pods. The tick-bean contains many subordinate varieties, to which names are assigned, as the Flat-ticks or May-beans, the small or Essex- ticks, &c. To the field-beans in use may be added the Heligo- land bean. The bean, generally speaking, is suited to the clayey soils. The seeds may be buried deeply in the ground. In colder countries, they are generally sown in spring ; but they may be sown previously to winter, and then the beans acquire the habit of later ripening, and are termed winter-beans. The manner of cultivating the bean is greatly influenced by climate ; and the ag- riculturists of different countries learn to suit their practice to this circumstance. The bean, from the habit of its growth, and the mode of cul- vation which it admits of, is a cleaning crop, and, in the rotation, is generally made preparatory to a corn-crop. It is rcigarded as 360 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. well suited to prepare the land for wheat or barley ; and ought, therefore, to precede one of these crops. Beans may be sown on land broken up from grass, and will succeed perfectly well in such a case ; hut oats are more generally suited to land broken up from grass ; and beans should rather follow a corn-crop. When the bean is to he sown in spring after a corn-crop, the land should receive a deep ploughing before winter, generally in the direction of the former ridges, so as to keep the land dry. Sometimes, in the case of dry land, the ploughing may he across the ridges ; and then the plough, passing along the former water- furrows, is to form new water-furrows in the same place. In either case, care is to be taken to prevent the stagnating of water on any part of the surface. As early in spring as the land is sufficiently dry to he worked, it is to he ploughed across the direction of the former ploughing. The land is now to he left to dry for a few days, and then it is to be harrowed, so that the surface may he levelled ; and then, with the common plough, the whole surface is to he formed into raised ridglets, or drills. These drills are formed by a single furrow or turn of the plough in the following manner : — The plough, entering at the headland of the field, at ^ in the diagram below, draws the straight furrow xy from side to side. Turning to the right at y, and entering at z, it draws the straight furrow r, and thus forms the drill Fig. 161. THE BEAJf. 361 cv y z r, of which the centre is AB ; thisHrst drill being necessarily formed by a double turn of the plough, while the others are formed by single turns ; for the plough, then turning to the right and passing on to E, draws the straight furrow EF, and so forms a drill by a single turn. At F it turns to the right, and, passing on to G, draws the straight furrow GH, and so forms another drill ; and then, passing to I, and drawing the furrow IB, forms another drill ; and so on until it has formed a certain space into drills. Equal spaces being drilled in this manner, the whole field is passed over. The plough, it has been said, is to turn to the right, but it may be also turned to the left if more convenient ; or, having formed a certain space into drills by being turned to the right, it may form an intermediate space into drills, by being turned to the left, on the same principle as was explained in the case of cross-ploughing. In place of forming the first drill by a double turn, in the manner described, the operation may be performed thus : — The plough passing from < 2 ? to ?/, forms the drill a^yzrhj a, single turn. On arriving at y, the plough turns left about, and, returning by the same track, forms another drill y oc EF, also by a single turn ; on arriving again at x, it turns to the left, and proceeding from r to forms the drill r z GH ; on arriving at it passes on to F, and, proceeding from F to E, forms the drill FEIR. The drills thus formed should not be less than 27 inches from centre to centre. A transverse section of the land, when drilled, will appear thus : — Fig. 162. The land being thus I'idged up, the seeds are to be sown bv 3G2 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. the sowing-machine (Fig. 35), or better by the machine (Fig. 36), which sows three rows at once. The former is pushed forward by the workman, the latter is drawn by a horse. The seeds are thus sown in the hollows of the drills, and the plough passing along the centre of each drill, splits it into two, and so covers the seeds. The common plough performs this operation, or it may be performed by a double mould-hoard plough. A trans- verse section of the drills when split or divided will appear thus : — Fig. 163. In this manner, the seeds are well covered, soavii in rows at the distance required, and prepared for the subsequent opera- tions. But the previous operations taking place at a very early pe- riod of the season, wet weather may intervene to prevent this species of tillage. In this case, in place of first ploughing the land, and then forming it into drills, it may be found neces- sary to give only one ploughing. The simple sowing-machine, pushed along by the hand, is to follow every third plough, or, in other words, to be pushed along every third furrow, depositing the seeds in the hollow. The succeeding furrow-slice covers the seeds, and thus they are deposited and covered in every third furrow throughout the held. By these means the seeds are sown in rows ; and, supposing the width of each furrow-slice to be 9 inches, the distance in the rows of beans from one another will he 27 inches; or 30 inches supposing each furrow-slice to he 10 inches. Tlie latter method of sowing is less etlectiial than that by raised THE BEAN. 363 drills, and therefore should not he resorted to, except when the state of the weather renders it necessary. The running of a sowing-machine in every third furrow may seem to he a somewhat clumsy operation ; and yet the loss of labour is extremely trifling. Some farmers, however, attach the sowing-machine to every third plough, fixing it between the handles in such a manner that it sows the seeds in the furrow which is just formed : the three ploughs following one another in succes- sion, and the third sowing the seeds, these are deposited and covered in every third furrow. Dung is often applied to the bean crop, especially when wheat is to succeed; and it may be applied at two periods. It may either be spread upon the stubble in autumn, or it may be ap- plied at the same time at which the drills are formed. In the first case, the dung being spread upon the stubble, is covered by the ploughing which is then given ; and this is greatly the better practice. In the second case, the land being formed into drills, and the seeds sown in the manner described, the dung is to be carried to the rows in single-horse carts, the horse walk- ing in the interval of every third or fifth drill. The dung is to be dragged out by the dung-drag (Fig. 80), from the cart be- hind into little heaps. Three or more young persons are to follow each cart, and to spread out the heaps regularly. The dung is in this manner spread over the seeds. The ridglets are then to be split in the manner before described, and in this way, the dung and seeds covered. Many prefer spreading the dung first, and then sowing the seeds upon it. When no drills, however, are formed, and when the seeds are sown in every third furrow, then the dung, if it has not been ap- plied in the preceding autumn, is merely spread upon the ground before the land is ploughed, and covered by the plough at the time of sowing. Such is a simple method of performing the culture of the bean, which has been found to be efficient in parts of the country where, from the uncertainty of the climate, and the nature of the soil, the 364 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. culture of the bean is the most difficult. This system, then, of sowing the bean in rows and in drills, is susceptible of being every- where practised, and from its efficiency and simplicity, deserves to be generally imitated. In various parts of England, a more operose method is adopted of sowing the bean. The land is not ploughed until about Christ- mas, or as soon afterwards as possible ; and upon the furrow-slice turned up, the seeds of the bean are planted by means of the dibble, in regular lines, at the distance from one another in the rows of two or three inches, and at the rate per acre of about two bushels. The practices, however, which prevail in different parts' of England, both with respect to the method of sowing, the quan- tity of seeds used, and the general treatment of the plant, are very various. The bean being a slowly-ripening plant, the period of sowing should be as early after the land can be prepared in spring as possible. The month of February should be selected, if circum- stances will allow, and the sowing should not be later in any case than the month of March. Beans may be sown previously to Avinter, though the practice is not suited to a very cold and humid climate. Where this system is adopted, the produce of beans soavu before winter, or winter- beans, as they are called, must be selected, and those always of the hardy kinds. When the bean can be sown previously to the months of winter, it removes certain difficulties attending the pre- sent method of cultivating it, and hastens the harvest process, so often injuriously retarded in the case of cold countries. The quantity of seeds soAvn must depend upon the nature of the soil and climate. In the north of England and Scotland, four bushels to the acre are not found to be too much ; while in the parts of England Avhere the climate is more favourable to the ripen- ing of the bean, a much smaller quantity is used, and especially where the dibbling process is resorted to. It is a frequent practice to mix a quantity of pease Avith beans, j/enerally in the proportion of about half a bushel to the acre. THE HEAN. 365 This increases the value of the fodder, and generally adds to the _weiglit of the crop. But many farmers do not approve of any in- termixture with the bean. In about ten or twelve days after the beans have been sown, the land is to he well harrowed across. This process of harroAv- ing should he resorted to in all cases of the bean culture, whether the beans are soAvn in drills or on a flat surface. It should he performed just before the beans appear above ground ; or, if it cannot be then done, it may be delayed till after the plants have got a little above ground. This operation of harrowing destroys the Aveeds that may be springing up amongst the plants, or in the intervals of the roAv. It seems to be a very rude process, and yet it is neA’er hurtful, but, as in all cases of stirring the soil, tends to promote the growth of the plants. Immediately after this harrowing process, care must be taken to clear out all cross channels, so as to give free egress to surface- water ; nothing being more destructive to a crop of beans at this stage of their growth, than to permit water to stagnate upon the field. After the beans have made some groAvth, sooner or later, ac- cording to the state of the weather, the process of horse-hoeing is to commence. The hoes employed for this purpose are either the small single- horse plough (Fig. 40), or the horse-hoe, with coulters (Fig. 41, or 43). In the first hoeing to be given to the plants, it is fre- quently better to employ the single-horse plough. The subse- quent hoeings may be done by the horse-hoe. When the plough is used, the ploughman, driving his horse between the rows, makes a shallow furrow as near the rows of the plants as the plough can go without injuring them, laying the furroAV-slice towards the centre of the interval. He then returns by the adjoining row, in the same manner, throwing the furrow-slice also towards the centre of the interval ; and in this Avay the ground is tilled as near the roAvs of plants as the plough can go. A transverse section of the drills after this operation Avill appear thus : — 366 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. Fig. 164. Immediately following the operation of the horse-hoe, the hand- hoers, each with a little hoe (Fig. 7 8), are set to work. Each hoer takes a row, and with the hoe cuts up any weeds that may have escaped the action of the hoeing instruments, or that may he found amongst the plants in the rows, using the hand, when necessary, to pull up weeds amongst the plants. In about a fortnight after this, the horse-hoe again passes along the intervals, and again the hand-hoers follow, cutting or pulling up all the weeds that may have escaped the action of the horse-hoe. This will generally complete the hoeing process ; but, if neces- sary, the hand-hoers are to be set to work a third time, so as ef- fectually to clear the ground of all remaining weeds. A section of the ground after these operations will appear thus : — Fig. 165. Some time after the last hoeing, the double mould- board plough (Fig. 42) may be driven along the centre of the intervals, so as to lay up the earth as close to the rows of plants as possible. Many THE BEAN. 367 farmers, however, omit this final ridging up of the land, either conceiving that it is unnecessary, or that it tends to interrupt the harvest process, by rendering the ground uneven. Yet this final ridging up makes a good conclusion to the process of culture. A section of the field after this operation will appear thus : — Fig. 160. The cleaning processes being performed, the plants grow with- out further care, and will generally cover all the surface, and pre- vent the growth of weeds during the remainder of the season. A well managed bean-field cultivated in this manner will be like a garden. The land, in respect of cleanness, will be nothing short of the condition in which it would be after a summer-fal- low, and the soil will be prepared for a crop of any of the cereal grasses. The superiority of the practice of drilling over that of sowing broadcast is apparent. In the case of broadcast, a favourable season, and other circumstances, may cause as great a crop to be produced, but this will not be so upon an average of seasons, while all the advantages of the more perfect tillage of the ground will be lost. In all cases of the row-culture, the system should be carried into full effect. The intervals between the rows of plants should never be made narrow, with the design of saving ground. All 368 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. experience sliews that not only by the wider rows can the crop be more perfectly tilled, but that, in the great majority of cases, the crop will be more abundant. In cold and humid countries, the harvest-management of the bean is peculiarly difficult, on account of its late period of ripen- ing, and the large and succulent stems of the plant. The bean should be suffered to ripen thoroughly, but not to become over-ripe. The period of ripening will be denoted by the skin of the seeds having acquired a yellowish leather-like ap- pearance. Beans may be cut by the scythe or by the sickle. When the sickle is used, the utmost care is to be taken that the plants be cut low, both on account of the value of the straw, and of the saving of such pods as maybe growing near the bottom of the stem. The beans are to be formed into sheaves, by tying them with straw- ropes previously prepared, or, when pease are mixed with beans, by ropes formed of the stems of the pease twisted upon the spot at the time of reaping. The beans should be merely laid upon these ropes in the first place, and left for a few days to dry and wither, before they are bound into sheaves. Some lay down the beans, in the first place, in large handfuls, upon the ground, and allow them to remain there for a few days, before being collected and bound into sheaves. When the sheaves are bound, they are to be set up into double-rowed shocks, without any covering of head- sheaves. The beans, when fully ready, are carried to the barn-yard, and formed into stacks like other crops. They are thrashed and dressed in the manner described in the case of the cereal grains. From the largeness of the seeds, the process is a simple one, the lighter and broken grains being more easily separated from the heavier than in the lighter kinds of corn. The produce of the bean is exceedingly various in this island. Forty bushels to the acre are regarded as a great crop ; 30 bushels are a satisfactory one, and probably the average produce of the kingdom does not amount to 25. THE PEA. 369 The grain of the bean is chiefly applied to the feeding of horses, though largely also to that of other animals, and chiefly of hogs, in which latter case it is usually manufactured into a coarse kind of meal. In the feeding of horses, it is common to mix a portion of beans with oats. The straw of the bean is nutritious and wholesome. It is generally giyen to horses, and is reckoned little inferior to hay. The bean is a plant very subject to diseases, and, in an especial manner, to injury from the attacks of several animals. The most common disease of the bean is a species of rust, pro- duced by parasitic plants of the mushroom family, growing upon it in the same manner as rust or mildew on wheat. The animals that attack and feed upon the juices of the bean are certain aphides, the most common of which is of a bluish- black colour, and is popularly called the collier. In some seasons this creature is very destructive. It begins at the top of the’plant and continues multiplying downwards. A remedy, which has been suggested and practised, is to cut olF the top of the plants as soon as the aphides appear ; and this may be a palliative if carefully performed. 2. The Pea. Of the cultivated Pea there seems to be one species, compre- hending our various cultivated kinds, whether grown in the garden or in the field, namely — Pisum sativum — Cultivated Pea. But botanists of high authority make two species, Pisum at^ense, the Grey Pea, and Pisum sativum, the Cultivated Pea of the gardens. The changes })roduced in this plant by the effects of climate, soil, and culture, are very great. Whether regarded as one or two species, pease, with respect to their uses, may be divided in- to two classes ; the first, the field-pease of different colours, and 2 A 370 PLANTS CUf.TIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. the second, the white or garden pease. The coloured kinds are those which generally form the subjects of cultivation in the fields ; the white kinds are those which are grown in the garden, though several of the white kinds are also cultivated in the fields, and though some of the garjden kinds are coloured. The garden-pease are distinguished by their periods of ripen- ing and other properties. New kinds of them are raised every year, and generally receive names from the persons who have first cultivated them, or the places where they have been grown. Their characters, however, are not permanent, and they degene- rate, unless cultivated and selected with care. The field kinds are distinguished by their habits of ripening. The early-ripening kinds admit of being sown late ; the late-ripen- ing kinds must be sown early. The common early-sown pease of the country are small and dark in their colour. The most hardy of these is generally termed the early grey pea. It is chiefly cultivated for the food of horses. The later sown kinds of field-pease are larger in their size, and approach more in their characters to the garden-pease. The seeds are of various colours, blue, speckled, grey, and dun ; and they have purple flowers, whereas the true garden kinds have ge- nerally white flowers. The white kinds usually cultivated in the fields in this country are the Pearl, the Early Charlton or Golden Hotspur, and the com- mon White or Suffolk. Of these the early charlton has been long esteemed as an early-ripening kind. The pease of this class are largely cultivated in the north of Germany, in Poland, and all over the central and southern parts of Europe. In England they are raised to a considerable extent in Middlesex, Kent, Suffolk, and some other counties. But the principal cultivation of pease in this country is of the grey or field kinds. Sometimes pease are cultivated to be used in their green state. There is no species of cultivation more profitable than this, where it can be adopted ; for the pease being ready for use in the month of .June, time is allowed for taking another crop, generally of tur- THE PEA. 371 nips, ill the same season. The practice, however, of gathering pease in their green state, must necessarily he limited to the vi- cinity of great markets ; and in most parts of the country it is the province of the gardener rather than of the agriculturist. The general purpose in cultivating the pea is for its ripened seeds. When these are intended for boiling, the white kinds are used ; when for the food of horses and other animals, the grey kinds are preferred. The method of cultivating either kind is the same. The circumstance to be chiefly attended to is the habit of ripening, which should determine the period of sowing. The later- ripening kinds are sown in February or March ; the earlier-ripening kinds in April, and sometimes so late as the be- ginning of May. But the more early all kinds of pease are sown the better. The pea will grow on stiff soils as well as the bean ; but it is more peculiarly adapted to the lighter class of soils, and in an especial degree to the calcareous. The pea, like the bean, may succeed to any of the corn- crops ; and, if properly tilled, it may, like the bean, be regarded as a cleaning-crop, and be succeeded by another corn-crop. In many parts of England the pea is made to succeed to a crop of grass and clover, and it will grow well under such circum- stances ; but it has been before observed that a corn-crop may then be taken with benefit. It is generally better, then, that a crop of oats be taken, to which may succeed a crop of pease. This at least is the rule of practice, while the deviation from it which particular circumstances require may be regarded as the ex- ception. In the case of sowing pease on land broken up from grass, it is common in some parts of England to plant them by means of the dibble ; and the most approved method of doing so is to put a row of holes upon each sod, so that the rows shall be at the distance from one another of about 9 inches. To allow of this the furrow-slices are laid very flat. When the pea, however, is to follow a corn-crop, which is its proper place in the rotation, the land is ploughed before winter 372 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. as for beans, thongb there is not the same necessity for giving a very deep ploughing, as in the case of the bean, the root of the pea being more fibrous, and not striking down in the same de- gree into the soil. When the land is ready to be worked in spring, it is to be cross - ploughed and well harrowed ; and the pease are to be soAvn in rows, at the distance from one another of about 27 inches. Se- veral methods of sowing may be adopted : — 1. The land after being pulverized by the cross-ploughing and harrowing, may be sown with the same kind of drill sowing- machine as is employed for the common grains. 2. The land may be formed into drills, as in the case of the bean ; and the sowing-machines. Fig. 35 or 36, employed to sow the seeds. The land is next to be harrowed across, and thus the seeds are covered. It is not necessary to split the drills by the plough, as in the case of the bean. The harrow does the work equally well, covering the seeds of the pea to the depth of 2 inches, which is sufficient. 3. The seeds are sometimes covered by the plough, in which case they are sown in every third furrow. But the more frequent practice is to sow in every furrow, in which case the rows are only 9 or 10 inches asunder. This is a species of drilling certainly, but the great advantages of the drilling-system are lost when the intervals are thus narrow. Of these methods of sowing the pease, the best, it is conceived, is that of sowing them on a flat surface by the common corn drill-machine, the orifices being adapted to the larger size of the seeds. When either system of culture is practised, the quantity of seeds may be 3 bushels to the acre, or less. When the plants are a few inches above ground, the horse-hoe (Fig. 41 or 43) is to pass along the intervals, the coulters being set to go as near the rows of plants as possible without injuring them. Soon after, the hand-hoers, with the hoe (Fig. 78), follow and hoe up any weeds that ai’o amongst the rows of plants, or THE PEA. 373 tliat may have escaped the action of the horse-hoe in the inter- vals. Then, before the plants come into flower, the hand-hoers are again to pass along the rows, and hoe np all weeds as before. This completes the culture of the pea, which will now grow with great rapidity, and soon cover the intervals. Sometimes this growth is so considerable, that only one hoeing can be given ; but in every case one horse-hoeing in the early stage of the plant, and one hand-hoeing, must be given. When the intervals, however, are very narrow, as 8 or 9 inches, the common horse-hoe cannot be applied, and the hand-hoe alone is used. In some cases, indeed, particular kinds of horse-hoes with flat triangular shares are employed. Early hoeing, in the case of this plant, should never be ne- glected. The etfect is not only to repress the growth of weeds until the plant shall have acquired suffleient strength, but, as in all cases of tilling the ground about the stems, to give increased vigour to the growth of the plants. From tlie manner of growth of the pea, and from its stems quickly stretching over the inteiwals of the rows, the process of hoeing should be begun early, and assidu- ously prosecuted. After the first crop of weeds are destroyed, the plants themselves will grow and stifle all that may spring up during the subsequent period of their growth. This is the system under which the pea may be beneficially cul- tivated. The land will thus be cleaned in an eflicient manner, and prepared for any crops of grain that are to follow. IWth the early-sown varieties of pease, it is common to sow a proportion of beans. This is a good practice, the tall and erect stems of the bean affording a support to the other, in the same manner as branches do in a garden. The proportion of beans may be equal to one-fourth part. When manure is applied to the pea-crop, it should be laid on the ground, and covered by the plough before winter rather than in spring, fresh manure tending to cause this plant to run too much to straw. Lime is extremely beneficial in the case of this crop. 374 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. The ordinary method of harvest-management for the pea differs from that of the other kinds of grain mentioned. In some parts there is employed a tool called a pease-make, which is merely the half of an old scythe fixed in a handle. With this the pease are cut and rolled up into what are called wads or wisps, in which state they are left to dry. In other cases, old blunt hooks are employed, by pulling which towards the reaper, the plant is torn and broken at the surface rather than cut. The binders move in advance of the reapers, twisting the ropes for binding, and laying them down. The reapers, as they advance, throw the ropes be- hind them, and lay upon them the reaped pease in moderate bunches, their heads all in one direction. In this state they lie for a few days to wither, and are then tied in sheaves, but they are not set up in shocks. They are left upon the ground to dry, until they are ready to be carried home and stacked, and in the mean time they are to be turned once a- day, which is easily done by boys or girls passing along the rows with hooks in their hands, and hooking over the bunches. The produce of the pea is very uncertain. Perhaps none of our cultivated crops presents such frequent failures. This arises partly from the diseases to which the plant is subject, and partly from the effects of late ripening and unfavourable weather. Thirty bushels per acre are held to be a good crop in most districts of this country. Perhaps the average of the kingdom should not be stated as much exceeding 20 bushels per acre. Pease are greatly employed in this country for the feeding of horses, and for this purpose they are generally mixed with oats. They form a very nutritious food, and should be given when dry, and in all cases bruised. They are also employed for the feeding of hogs, in the same manner as beans are, and they form a nutritive and fattening food. In this respect they are held to be superior to beans, which feeders imagine give a hardness to the pork. The meal, too, as well as that of beans, is made into a thick gruel, which, given with milk, forms an exceedingly good food for calves, after they have been fed for some time on milk. Put the pea is also used extensively for human food. In some THE PEA. 375 cases, it is ground into meal, and made into bread ; which, how- ever, though nutritious, is coarse and unpalatable. But the meal of the pea may be mixed, to a considerable extent, with the flour of wheat, without sensibly impairing the qualities of the latter. It is made also into bread with the flour and meal of barley. But a common application of the produce of the pea is for soups, puddings, and other articles of domestic economy. In this way there is a great consumption of the pea in England, partly the produce of the country, and partly derived from the Conti- nent. And a distinction is made between the difierent kinds of pease, derived from the difiiculty or facility of boiling them. Those that moulder down are technically termed boilers, and this pro- perty seems to arise less from the particular variety, than from the nature of the soil on which they are produced. Calcareous matter, so favourable to the growth of the plant, tends, it is said, to give the quality of hardness to the seed. To fit the pea for its culinary preparations, the seeds are subjected to a species of grinding, by which the external covering is rubbed off. The straAv of this plant is greatly esteemed for fodder. It is not regarded as much inferior to hay, and it is given in place of hay to the working-cattle of the farm. Sheep, too, are fond of it, and it may be given to them in the cases where hay would otherwise be given. The pea, like the bean, is subject to various diseases. It sufters like the bean from rust, and is rather more subject to in- jury from insects at the root. It is liable, too, like the bean, to the ravages of aphides. At a late period of its growth, great in- jury is sometimes sustained by a small beetle, Druclms granarms, which deposits its eggs in the pods, and the larvse of which de- stroy the seeds. Other species of beetles, in different countries, prove fatal to the pea ; and in some countries to so great an ex- tent has this taken place, as to put a stop to the cultivation of the plant. Assiduous tillage, and the avoiding of too frequent repetition of the crop, are the best preservatives against these evils. 376 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. 3. The Lentil, Kidney-Bean, and Others. Besides tlie bean and the pea, there are various plants of the rich natural family to which they belong, which produce seeds' applicable to the purposes of human food. In Spain, Italy, the south of Germany, and France, a greater consumption takes place of certain leguminous plants than is com- mon in this country. These are used for haricots, soups, and other culinary preparations. The principal plants of this class in cultivation are — 1. Ervum Lens — Common Lentil. 2. Ervum Ervilia — Bastard Lentil. 3. Ervum monanthos — One-flowered Lentil. 4. Lathyrus sativus — Cultivated Lathyrus. 5. Cicer arietinum — Chick-pea, 6. Phaseolus vulgaris — Common Kidney-bean. 7. Lupinus albus — White Lupine. The Common Lentil, Ervum Lens, is familiar to us as a plant of the garden. There are several varieties of it, distinguished by the colour of their seeds, the greater or smaller growth of their stems, and the earliness of their period of ripening. The prin- cipal distinction is founded upon the colour of their seeds, in which respect they are divided into the brown and the yellow. The species Ervum Ervilia is a native of the south of Europe. It is distinguished from the last in its botanical characters, but not in its uses. Ervum monanthos. One-flowered Lentil, grows with more luxu- riance than the last, and in its habits resembles the tare. Lentils have been cultivated from the earliest times. They are greatly used over all the countries of the East, and, as has been said, in various parts of Europe. They were at one time more cultivated in England than now, but have generally given place to the bean and the pea, the comparatively small quantity of them which we consume being either raised in gardens, or imported from other countries. THE LENTIL, &C. 377 Lentils require a soinewliat light soil and warmth. They are greatly less productive of straw than the pea and the bean, and the produce of their grain is also comparatively small. Unless, then, there existed a sufficient demand and enhanced price for their seeds, there could be no benefit in introducing them into the field-culture of this country. They can always be obtained in the quantity required from countries better suited to produce them, and where the cost of labour is less. Latluirus safivus, Cultivated Lathyriis, is also sometimes termed Lentil. The seeds of this plant, when consumed in great quantities, possess the remarkable property of producing a pa- ralysis or rigidity of the limbs, in the case of horses, hogs, and other animals fed largely upon them. They are, however, used extensively as food in Spain, the south of France, and other parts of Europe ; and are much esteemed for fattening various animals. The plant is of easy growth, and could be readily cul- tivated ; but it does not appear to possess properties to entitle it to supersede the common leguminous plants of our fields. The Chick-pea, Cicer arieiinwn, grows naturally in the south of Europe. It is a beautiful plant with a very branched stem, and distinguished by its turgid legumes, and the peculiar form of its seeds. It is too delicate a plant for field-culture, and dege- nerates when raised in the colder parts of Europe. It is one of the various leguminosae cultivated in India under the name of chunna, more commonly called by Europeans gram. The Kidney-bean is another plant cultivated for its seeds. Though said to be a native of the East, it has been long familiar in the gardens of this country. In the southern countries of Europe, in Switzerland, Germany, and France, it is cultivated in the fields, and is very productive of seeds. It furnishes a nutri- tive and delicate food used in soups and haricots. Various spe- cies of it grow abundantly in America, and there form an article of cultivation for food. Some species and varieties have tendrils and climb ; others are without tendrils. The most commonly cultivated species in Europe 378 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. is the common kidney-bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, of which there are several minor varieties. The legumes of this class are more used in Catholic than in Protestant countries. This doubtless, in part, results from the abstinence from animal food on certain days, when the more nourishing kinds of vegetables are resorted to. And there is no class of seeds which form so good a substitute for animal food as the legumes. As a substitute for farinaceous food, indeed, there is the potato, which surpasses them all ; but still it were to be wished that the cottagers of this country were taught to vary their repasts with those simple and delicate preparations which are familiar to the labourers of some other countries. The different species of the kidney-bean, indeed, are not with us suited to extensive field-culture. But they may be raised in the garden, or chiefly obtained from other countries, while our fields are devoted to the production of plants congenial to the climate, and fitted to the general purposes of the farm. The Lupine is another plant whose seeds are used for food, but they are coarse and bitter. The white lupine, Lupinus alhiis, is the species most frequently cultivated for this purpose. The lupines are known to us in this country as garden-flowers. In Italy, and other parts of tlie south of Europe, they are cultivated in the fields ; and a practice derived from the Roman husband- man is still pursued, that of ploughing them down, when in flower, for manuring the ground. Others of the Leguminosse might be enumerated, as forming, or calculated to form, the subjects of cultivation for their seeds ; but the bean and the pea, from their productiveness, and tlie large growth of their stems, are calculated, beyond all the others, to retain their place in the field-culture of northern Europe. ( 371 ) ) (3.) BUCKWHEAT. This plant is cultivated for the farina of its seeds. It belongs to a family, the Polygonea, or Dock tribe, which is known to farmers as affording a class of common weeds. Of the genus Polygonum, there are two species cultivated in Europe for their seeds, — 1. Polygonum Fagopyrum — Common Buckwheat. 2. Polygonum tataricum — Tartarian Buckwheat. The first is the species commonly cultivated. The latter is of larger growth, and it is said to be more hardy, but it is less productive of seeds than the common buckwheat. A third spe- cies is cultivated in China and Chinese Tartary, Polygonum emar- ginatum, Notch-seeded buckwheat, which resembles the common buckwheat in its habits of growth. All these species are annual. Common buckwheat bears white flowers tinged with red. Its stem is full of knots, and rises to the height of 2 feet or more. The plant is of rapid growth, continues to flower long, and bears at the same time flowers and ripened seeds. Buckwheat is cultivated extensively in some countries. In China and other countries of the East it is used as bread-corn. It is produced for the same purpose in most countries of Europe, as well as for the feeding of horses, hogs, and fowls. In Ger- many and Poland, the seeds are used for broths, gruels, and other purposes. In Russia, they form a great part of the food of the inhabitants. In Spain, Italy, and the south of France, they arc also an object of extensive cultivation. The Italian farmers cul- tivate this plant, as well as the species tataricum, esteeming the latter, in some cases, as ripening more early. Buckwheat was cultivated at a very remote period in England, but it has now gone much into disuse. The buckAvheat is a plant very generally dif- fused, owing, in part, it may be believed, to the little labour re- (piired in cultivating it ; to the short period in which it com[)letes 380 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SEEDS. its growth ; and the facility with which it may he produced, even on the poorest soils. The soils suited to it are the lighter kinds. It should not be sown earlier than the beginning of May, or rather the middle of May, as the young plants are apt to suffer from frost. But as it grows with great quickness, it may be sown at any time till Mid- summer. The land should be prepared for it precisely as for pease, and thp seeds may be sown broadcast, at the rate of from 1 to bushel to the acre. It requires no further attention after being sown, than guarding it against the depredations of birds, to which it is very subject. It may be cut by the scythe ; and its subsequent management is similar to that of the other grains. Its produce may be reckoned from 25 to 30 bushels per acre, though this varies greatly under different states of soil and cul- ture. It is a peculiarity of the plant that it does not ripen all its seeds at the same time, so that while a part of the plant is bear- ing flowers, another is ripening seeds. It must be reaped, there- fore, before a great part of its seeds can be matured. The seeds of the buckwheat may be given advantageously to horses, to poultry, and to hogs. The external part of them being rubbed off by a coarse grinding, they may be used for human food, like rice : they may be also converted into flour : and, in short, there is no purpose for which the grain of the cereal grasses can be used, to which the seeds of buckwheat may not be applied. But though the flour is white and wholesome, it is comparatively deficient in gluten, and so does not undergo the panary fermen- tation like wheat ; for which reason it is generally made into a kind of cakes. Another of the purposes to which the seeds of the plant may be applied is distillation. The stem of buckwheat when green is nourishing, but when dried it is hard, and not very readily eaten by animals. This, and the little comparative quantity of fodder produced, are the prin- cipal objections to the extension of the culture of buckwheat in England ; and yet, from the fiicility with which the plant may be grown, and this on soils low in the scale of fertility, its cultiva- THE TURNIP. 381 tion miglit, in some cases, be attended with advantage. In the Netherlands it forms a regular part of the rotation, and is sown on all soils where other grains cannot be prepared in time. To the settlers in colonies, it affords a useful resource. One of the purposes to which buckwheat has been applied from time immemorial, and for which, from the quickness with which it grows, it seems well adapted, is the plonghing of it down green as a manure for the land. Farmers who have made trial of this practice speak favourably of its effects : and cases may doubtless be conceived where it may be beneficially adopted. But, gene- rally, where a good system of agriculture is established, and where a proper combination of the practice of tillage and feeding live- stock exists, a green crop, when raised, will be more advantage- ously applied to the feeding of animals in the first place, the manure which the consumption of it produces being then applied to the ground. 2. Plants Cultivated for their Boots, Tubers, and Leaves. 1. The Turnip. Of the genus Brassica, or Cabbage, the species chiefly interest- ing to the fai’iner, as the subjects of cultivation, are — 1. Brassica Rapa— Common Turnip. 2. Brassica campestris — Wild Navew. 3. Brassica Napus — Rape or Cole. 4. Brassica praecox — Early Cole. ' 5. Brassica oleracea — Cabbage. These species may be cultivated nearly in the same manner. But they may produce small fusiform roots, when they are culti- vated for their leaves, — or for their seeds, which yield oils ; or they may produce large esculent roots, when they are cultivated chiefly for their roots. 382 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &;C. The varieties producing esculent roots are the following : — 1. Brassica Rapa — Common Turnip. 2. Brassica Campestris Napo Brassica— Swedish Turnip. 3. Brassica Napus esculenta — Turnip-rooted Cole. 4. Brassica oleracea caulo-rapa — Turnip-stemmed Cabbage, or Kohl- rabi. Those which are cultivated in the fields of this country under the common term turnips, are — 1. The Common Turnip. 2. An intermediate class, which are probably hybridal varieties be- tween Brassica Rapa and other species. 3. The Swedish -Turnip. The common turnip has numerous sorts, distinguished by the size and form of the roots, the time of ripening, and other pro- perties. This plant has, like the others of the genus, two periods in its growth. In the first, the leaves rise directly from the root, and are large, rough, and jagged. In the second period, or that of its flowering, which is generally in the second season of its growth, it sends forth a stem, 4, 5, or 6 feet in height, with smooth-pointed leaves, entirely difierent from its first or root leaves. The minor varieties produced by the effects of climate, soil, and cultivation, are very numerous, and have everywhere local terms attached to them. For the purposes of the agriculturist they may be divided into three classes, distinguished by their form : — I. The round or globular ; 2. The depressed ; and 3. The Fig. 167. Fig. 168. Fig. 169. fusiform. These may be considered as types, to which the differ- THE TURNIP. 3813 ent cultivated kinds more or less approach. Fig. 167 repre- sents the round or globular kind, commonly termed the glohe-tur- nip ; Fig. 168, the depressed, frequently termed the Norfolk- turnip ; and Fig. 169, the fusiform, frequently called the tankard- turnip. They are further distinguished by the colour of the portion of the root which grows above ground. This may he white, green, or red ; and the distinction is of some practical importance, be- cause those of the white colour are regarded as the most palatable to animals, while the others are more hardy but less esteemed as food. These colours pass by imperceptible gradations the one into the other, but, generally, they are readily enough distinguish- ed for the purposes of the farmer. The turnips of the next class are distinguished from these by the root being yellow internally, and externally also under the sur- face of the ground. They have the leaves of the common turnip, and the habit and character of the Brassica campestris and Bras- sica Napus, and may be supposed to be hybridal varieties, form- ed between the common turnip and these species. The turnips of this class are hardy and nutritious, and resist well the winter frosts. They are distinguished from one another by the colour of the root above ground, which is sometimes dark purple, and sometimes green. The last species is the Swedish turnip, as it is usually called. The substance of these turnips is hard and nutritious. They re- sist well the severities of the weather ; and, retaining their juices aud nutritive properties till a late period in spring, they are highly valued as a resource for live-stock at that season. The leaves of the Swedish turnip are less acrid than those of the common turnip, and may be used for human food in place of cabbage. The Swedish turnip is cultivated in the same manner as the common and yellow turnips, but it is generally sown several weeks earlier, on account of the comparative slowness of its growth. It is more difficult to be raised than the common turnip, requires a larger quantity of manure, and should be sown on a good soil. It 384 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOB THEIR ROOTS, &C. lias a property wliicli the common turnip has not, that of hearing to be transplanted when young, so that when blanks appear in a field, the spaces may be filled up by transplanting. In the common management of the farm, the Swedish turnips are first sown, the next in order are the yellow, and then the com- mon. The soils suited to the turnip are those of the lighter kind. The proper place in the rotation is immediately succeeding a corn- crop, and preceding another corn-crop. The land intended for the turnip, as for all other green or fal- low crops, is to be ploughed by a deep furrow in autumn, after the preceding crop of corn has been removed. The land is to be ploughed lengthwise, in the direction of the former ridges, by being- cast or cloven, with open or close furrows, as the nature of the land may require ; and care must be taken that no water shall stagnate upon the surface. In the following spring, when the crops of corn are sown, and the potatoes planted, and when the ground is sufficiently dry, the tillage of the turnip-land is resumed. The chief period of the preparation of it is in the month of May and beginning of June. The first ploughing is to be given across, and the ground is to be repeatedly harrowed by double turns of the harrow in various directions. This is for the purpose of pulverizing the ground, and of dragging to the surface and disengaging the roots of weeds below ground. To assist in this operation, the roller is also to be employed when necessary ; and the grubber is a useful sub- sidiary to the harrow and the plough. The roots of the plants disengaged are then to be gathered with care, and carried to a heap, to be mixed with quicklime and other substances, to form a compost. At the same time, loose stones and other obstacles to tillage may be removed. The land is immediately afterwards to be ploughed in a direc- tion traversing the last ploughing ; and the same process of har- rowing, rolling, and collecting the disengaged weeds, is to be re- peated. The land is once more ploughed, and again the same operations are resorted to ; after which the land is generally in a THE TURNIP. 385 lit condition to be formed into drills. Slionld this not be so, the operations of plongdiing, harrowing, and gathering of weeds, are to be repeated, and tliis until the ground is cleared of injurious roots, and reduced to a friable state. After this preparation, the land is to be formed into drills. This may be done by single-bout ridgelets, j^recisely in the man- ner described for the bean. The width of these drills, and con- sequently the distance from centre to centre, may be from 27 to 30 inches, which is necessary to allow the intervals to be tilled by the horse-hoc, and to admit of a sufficient circulation of air between the rows. A transverse section of the drills will appear thus — Fig. 170. The manure chiefly applied to this crop, in the ordinary course of management, is farm-yard dung. This requires to be well prepared. It is conveniently carried out, as was formerly ex- plained, to the field, and laid in one or more large heaps. It is necessary to turn it over once, or oftener, in order that it may undergo the necessary degree of fermentation. When the drills are thus formed, the dung is to be carried for- ward to them in single-horse carts. The driver directs the horse along the interval of a drill, and consequently each wheel of the cart will be in the interval adjoining. As the cart moves along, the workman pulls out the dung into little heaps, by means of the dung-drag (Fig. 80), and thus the dung is laid in heaps in the hollow of each third drill, at the distance from one another of 7 or 8 feet. For the economy of labour in this process, one or more persons are at the dnng-heaps to fill, one person drives 2 n 886 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. the loaded carts to the drills and brings hack the empty ones, and one person at the drills drags out the dung in the manner de- scribed. Following the carts are persons, generally females or lads, with light three-pronged forks (Fig. 73), to spread out the dung from the little heaps regularly along the hollow of each drill. Four persons should he employed for every three drills, the duty of one of them being to go before and distribute the dung lying in the centre drill between it and each of the adjoining ones ; while the three others, taking each a drill, spread the dung regularly along the hollows. A cross section of the drills with the dung deposited in the intervals will appear thus : — Fig. 171. The dung being spread in this manner is immediately covered by the common plough, Avhich, passing down the middle of each drill, splits it into two, so that a new drill is formed, whose top is immediately above the former hollow of the old drill, thus — THE TURNIP. 387 The operation of splitting the drills is performed by the com- mon plough as follows : — A double mould-board plough, by passing along the centre of each drill, would simply perform this operation, It is, however, more frequently done by means of the common plough in the fol- lowing manner. In Fig. 173, let ABCDEF represent the apices of the old drills ; let the plough be supposed driven in the di- rection from H to I, that is just along the centre of the drill, until it arrives at the headland at I ; let it then turn to the right, and entering at K, the centre of the next drill, pass along the centre of the drill in the direction KG. This will form the first drill, of which the apex is L. Let the plough then turn to the right, and proceed by the centre of the next drill MN. Let it then turn to the right, and proceed from I to H. In this man- ner the drill of which the apex is O, will have been formed, and Fig. 173. this, it will be observed, by two bouts of the plough, first from M to N, and then from I to H. It is thus a double-bout drill. Let the plough, in like manner, turn from H to P, and proceed along the centre of the next drill in the direction PQ. Let it then return by NM, and so form the drill of which the apex is R. By proceeding in this manner throughout the field, each of the new drills covering the dung will be formed, appearing in a trans- verse section as before represented. The dung is now completely covered, and a new drill for the 388 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. reception of the seeds at once formed. The double mould-board plough would perform this operation by one turn, but the com- mon plough does it more completely by two turns. Instead of depositing the dung in the manner described, it is sometimes laid upon the stubble after harvest, and is then covered by the first ploughing given. This, however, infers that a supply of manure remains upon the farm from the previous winter, or that it has been obtained elsewhere. The most economical em- ployment, however, of manure made upon the farm, is in the spring immediately succeeding the winter in which it has been produced. As liberal an expenditure of manure as can be aftbrded is al- ways to be made in the case of the turnip-crop, the goodness of which will much depend upon the fertility which is communicated to the soil. But, in the common management of farms remote from the means of procuring external supplies, and where turnips are cultivated on the great scale, it is necessary to economise this valuable substance; and 10 or 12 tons per acre are considered to be the ordinary manuring on a regular turnip-farm. Sometimes lime is applied to the turnip-crop, together with dung. This may be done by laying the lime upon the stubble after harvest, or by spreading it upon the ground, and harrowing it well previously to the forming of the drills. Street-dung is a good manure for turnips. Sea-weed, too, is used ; and ashes generally produce a good effect, by causing the seeds to vegetate quickly, though their fertilizing effects are not usually of a permanent nature, and they are not so much esteem- ed as farm-yard dung. Bruised bones have been employed with the best effects for the manuring of turnips, and are regarded as an important subsidiary to the other manures upon a turnip-farm. They may be applied in two w^ays, either by being spread in the hollow of the drills, and covered in the same manner as dung, or by being sown at the same time with the seeds, by means of an apparatus attached to the sowing-machine. Bape-dust may also be applied to the turnip- crop. It is usually deposited in the ground at the same time as THE TUKNIP. 389 tlie seeds, by means of an apparatus similar to that employed in sowing bruised bones. When the manures are sown, the drills are not reversed, as in the case of the application of dung, but made at once in their most perfect form by a double bout of the plough. The apparatus employed for depositing the manure is variously constructed. It may consist of a large box placed upon the frame- work of the sowing-machine. Moving in the lower part of this box is a spindle, with teeth or pinions upon it. These teeth, working amongst the bruised manure, cause it to fall through apertures at the bottom of the box, as in the case of the broad- cast sowing-machine. The bruised manure falling into funnels, is conveyed to the ground just before the tubes which convey the seeds of the turnips to the ground, and in this manner both are sown at the same time. In the following figure, C is the box for containing the bone-dust, h one of the funnels, D one of the hol- low coulters to which the funnel and tube for conveying the seeds are carried, BB are the shafts, FF light rollers for covering the seeds and bone-dust, and E the roller for flattening the drills. Fig. 174. But reverting to the case of manuring with dung, which is the most frequent in practice : the dung, it has been said, having been spread, is covered, and new drills are formed, which are now ready for the reception of the seeds. The seeds are sown by the turnip-drill (Fig. 38 or 39), which is drawn by one horse, the horse walking in the hollow of the drills. 390 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. and the workman who guides it holding the handles of the ma- chine. By this operation, the drills are compressed by the roller in front of the coulters formerly represented. A transverse sec- tion of the drills will now appear thus : 175 . The several operations of forming the drills, of spreading the dung, of covering it by the plough, and of sowing the seeds, are to be carried on in close succession. The dung is to be imme- diately covered, so that none of it may be lost by evaporation ; and to promote the early vegetation of the seeds, they are to be sown while the earth is newly turned up and moist. The seeds of turnips may be sown upon a flat surface in rows, as well as upon the raised drills here described. But in the parts of this country where the turnip-culture is the most extensively and perfectly executed, the system of drills is preferred for the following reasons : — Is^, The manure can be more readily covered, and by being ap- plied close to the roots of the plants, a smaller quantity will suf- fice to produce a given effect. 2cZ, The land can be kept more dry, and crops, accordingly, raised upon land so wet as otherwise to be incapable of yielding returns of any value. But whether the method of sowing in rows upon a flat or drilled surface be adopted, either is far superior to the practice of sow- ing broadcast. By sowing in rows, the plants can be more cheaply and quickly hand-hoed, the process being so simple as to be taught to young i)ersons in a few hours ; whereas, when the plants are not regu- larly disposed in rows, considerable experience and time are re- (juived : and what is of greater importance still, the land under THE TUKNIP. 391 the one system can be more thoroughly hoed and cleaned during the growth of the plants than under the other. The quantity of seeds sown may be 2 lb. to the acre. It is not proper to make the quantity excessive, but a sufficient num- ber of seeds must be sown to provide against the loss of plants from the attacks of insects, and from other contingencies. In the climate of the north of England and Scotland, the period of sowing is generally from the first to the end of June, though it is sometimes continued till the middle of July. The turnips sown after the latter of these periods seldom attain to a proper size, and when sown earlier than the first of June they are apt to shoot forth their flowering stem before winter, by which the nu- tritive juices of the root are exhausted. The best period of sow- ing, under the condition of climate supposed, is from the begin- ning to the middle of June ; but in different countries the period of sowing must be suited to the warmth of the climate and quick- ness of vegetation. When the plants have assumed what is termed the rough leaf, and are about two inches in height, the process of hoeing is to commence. The first hoeing may be performed by the small plough (Fig. 40) drawn by one horse, going and returning along the interval of each drill, and cutting oft' shallow slices of earth as near to the turnips as possible. Or the same operation may be more conveniently performed by the hoes with coulters (Fig. 41 or 43), passing along each interval once. A section of the ground appears thus : Fig. 176. After this operation the plants are hoed to the proper distance from one another by the hand-hoers, with the hoe (Fig. 78). Each takes a drill, and, standing facing the rows, by an alternate pushing and drawing of the hoe from and towards him, thins the 392 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR TIIEIR ROOTS, &C. turnips, leaving them standing singly at the distance from one another of 9 to 10 inches. By this operation the rows of the tnimips are cleaned of all weeds, the superfluous plants of tur- nips cut up and pushed into the intervals where they die, and the plants to be preserved left standing at the distance required from one another. A transverse section of the drills will then appear thus : Fig. 177. Soon after the operation in question, weeds will again spring up in the intervals of the rows and amongst the plants. In the course, therefore, of 12 days or more, the horse-hoe again passes along the intervals of the drills, cutting up all the weeds that may have sprung up ; and afterwards the hand-hoers, with the same instrument as before, hoe round the plants, and carefully single any that may have been passed over in the first hoeing. Sometimes the horse-hoe passes again along the intervals, but more frequently the hand-hoeing concludes the process, the weeds being now kept down by the rapid growth of the plants, and the overshadowing of the intervals by the leaves. Very frequently, however, after an interval of 8 or 10 days from the last hand or horse hoeing, the earth is laid up to the stems of the plants by the double mould-board plough passing along the intervals of the rows, and ridging up the earth thus — Fig. 178. THK TURNIP. S93 The design in this operation is, that any weeds remaining in the intervals after the former hoeings may be destroyed, and that the turnips may be kept more dry during wet weather in the months of v inter. This concludes the culture of the turnip, which now grows rapidly without further care ; and by the beginning of Septem- ber, the leaves of a good crop will have covered the entire surface of the field. Towards the end of October or beginning of November, when the pastures are decayed, the turnips may be used for food. The manner of consuming them is various, and dependent upon the kind of stock to be fed, and other circumstances : — 1 . They may be pulled up and carried to a separate field, and spread upon the ground, or given to the animals from troughs. 2. Where sheep are to be fed, the animals may be penned upon the ground, and thus allowed to consume the turnips where they have grown. 3. The turnips may be pulled up and carried to the oxen or other animals in their feeding stalls or yards, in the manner to be afterwards explained. 4. The turnips may be taken up and stored in a convenient place for use. In this case they are to be pulled from the ground about the beginning of November or previous to the frosts of winter. In the act of pulling, a slight twisting motion is given to disengage the earth, and then the tap-root, and the tops or leaves, are cut off, each by a stroke of a hook or knife, care being taken not to wound or injure the root. The roots thus divested of their leaves and tap-roots, are to be carried to some convenient situation, placed on a dry base of 8 feet or more in breadth, and piled up as high as they will conveniently stand. The heap is then to be thatched with straw, and secured with straw-ropes, thus forming an oblong heap of the size required. Turnips may be preserved by storing for some months, but they lose a portion of their nutritive juices, and become less palat- able to cattle. They are, therefore, best consumed soon after they are taken from the ground. The reasons that may exist 394 LANTS CULTIVATED FOK THEIK HOOTS, &C. for storing are : Isi, The necessity in countries where the winters are long and severe, and the snows deep, of having a surplus store in readiness ; 2d, The expediency of clearing land for the pur- pose of sowing any particular crop, previous to the time at which it may be convenient to consume the turnips ; and. Sc?, The ad- vantage of removing them from certain wet and clayey lands, be- fore the season arrives when they could not he removed without injury to the surface. Turnips suiFer greatly from sudden alternations of frost and thaw in spring, particularly, when the heat is considerable, and when they have no covering of snow to defend them. There is no remedy for this evil but to consume the turnips, if possible, before putrefaction has begun. The storing process is a consi- derable preventive of the decay of turnips in spring. A practice, too, is sometimes resorted to, of covering the turnips in the rows where they grow before winter. This is done by the plough passing along the intervals, and raising the earth over the tur- nips, which is found to be a tolerably good defence against the effects of extreme frosts. In frosts, the turnips are often so hard and frozen to the ground as not to be raised without great labour. In this case they must be taken up by hoes, it being impracticable to pull them by the hand. Often the turnips are cut into pieces before being given to the larger cattle and sheep. This is effected by the machine (Fig. 49 or 50) formerly described. But these and other details with respect to the consumption of the turnip, will be ex- plained when treating- of the rearing and feeding of live-stock. Sometimes the turnip is cultivated for its seeds for sowing ; and by careful selection, varieties of the plant may be multiplied and improved. A manner of procuring a good variety of tur- nip, is to pick out from the field in autumn or the following spring the largest and best formed turnips, with the smallest tops and tap-roots, and to plant them in some separate place in rows. The plants will flower in spring, and wlien their pods are formed, they are to be guarded from the depredations of birds, and the stems are to he cut dovii and well dried, and then either stored in stacks, THE TURNIP. 395 to be thrashed out when wanted, or thrashed at once, and the seeds preserved in the granary. The diseases and accidents to which this valuable plant is sub- ject are considerable. The chief danger to it is in the early stage of its growth, when either the seed may not vegetate from a deficiency of moisture, or when the plant may be destroyed by the attacks of animals. Should the turnips fail from either of these causes, the sowing is to be repeated by simply driving the sowing-machine along the drills, or by again ridging up the compressed drills, and then sowing them. The insect the most destructive to the turnip during the first stage of its growth, is familiarly known to farmers by the name of the turnip-fly. It is a species of beetle, i\\Q llaltica nmiorum of entomologists. This creature attacks the plant as soon as the cotyledon leaves are upon it : when the plants have put on the second or rough leaves, they are regarded as safe from injury from the beetle, and hence a security against its ravages is a ra- pid and vigorous vegetation of the plant. There are other creatures that attack the plant at this stage, and when it has escaped these early enemies, it is sometimes at- tacked by the larvse of a species of saw-fly. These, however, are more partial enemies to the turnip plant than the beetle, though occasionally they are very destructive. The turnip is liable to a kind of blight. Another of the dis- eases to which it is subject is a species of canker. The disease attacks the root, but its presence is first discovered by the leaves becoming flaccid and drooping. The roots, in place of enlarging into their usual form, shoot away into excrescences. They become acrid, and, even at an early stage of the disease, animals reject them. Towards autumn they become ulcerated, and at length decay. A species of maggot is found in them, but whether this be a consequence of the disease or a cause of it, has not been sa- tisfactorily determined. This destructive disease has been long known in England, and frequently receives the name of ‘‘ Angers and toes.” It sometimes aflccts particular districts, and gene- 300 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. rally continues its ravages for many years in succession. The only sure remedy for the disease is to cease cultivating the turnip when it appears, and to substitute for a time some other species of crop. When turnips follow in a regular rotation, as at intervals of four or five years, by omitting them once, and substituting a crop of potatoes, the disease will afterwards be greatly mitigated, and sometimes removed. The extended culture of the turnip has enabled us to carry the practice of breeding and feeding our domestic animals to a state of perfection, in which no other country has yet been able to rival Great Britain. The cultivation of the plant in rows, instead of the former method of broadcast, may well be regarded as an im- provement of the highest importance. It has enabled the farmer to secure abundant returns, which the former methods of cultiva- tion did not admit of, and so to increase the number of useful animals that may be maintained upon the farm, and to subject the lighter soils to a species of culture more beneficial than any other that had been before devised for them.* 2. Eape. The plants usually cultivated under the name of Rape, are the fusiform varieties of the following species of Brassica : — 1. Brassica Napus — Cole or Rape. 2. Brassica campestris — Colza. 3. Brassica Rapa — Fusiform Common Turnip. 4. Brassica prsecox — Early Cole. Brassica Napus, Cole or Rape, is a native plant. All its leaves are smooth. When cultivated, it produces abundance of leaves and seeds. The leaves are used for food, and from the seeds oil is expressed. Brassica campestris differs from the last in having its lower * Paper by the Author on the Culture of the Turnip. — Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. RAPE. 397 leaves slightly rough. It has been thought to yield a larger quan- tity of oil than the last. The other kinds of rape, namely, the fusiform varieties of Brassica Rapa and Brassica prcecox, are of more partial culti- vation, and are not reckoned so productive of leaves and seeds as the other species. The rape is a hardy plant, and has a Avider range of soils than the turnip. It groAvs, like the turnip, on the lighter soils, hut may be raised also on the stiffer, and eA^en someAvhat humid, clays. It requires less of culture and manure than the turnip, and, con- sequently, can he produced under circumstances in AV^hich the tur- nip cannot he properly cultivated. The manner of cultivating the rape for its leaves is very simi- lar to the manner of cultivating the turnip ; hut it admits of va- riations suited to the soil, the period of so'wing, and other cir- cumstances. The land intended for rape should, as in the case of the tur- nip, he ploughed before winter. In the following season it should be cross-ploughed, harroAved, rolled, and cleaned of the roots of weeds. It then should he ploughed a second time, harroAved, rolled, and cleaned ; and a third ploughing and series of harroAV- ings being given, it will be fit for being soAvn. The land may he formed into drills, manured and soAvn pre- cisely as in the case of turnips, hut with narrower intervals be- tween the roAvs. A distance of 24 inches will suffice to admit of the operation of the horse-hoe. The rape-seeds may also and conveniently be soAvn in roAVS upon a flat surface, and in like manner at intervals of 24 inches. Under this method, when the ground has been ploughed and har- rowed, and the root-weeds have been removed, the dung may he spread upon the surface, as in the case of summer-falloAv, and covered by the plough. After this the rape-seeds are to he soAvn in rows, and the land being rolled, the seeds will be covered. Instead of dung, bruised bones may he employed. These should he well ground, and soAvn by a machine. Rape-dust maybe also used, and this forms a good manure to the plant. 398 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. Whether the method of sowing on raised drills, or in rows on a flat surface, be adopted, the land is to be hoed after the plants have come above ground and fully assumed their second leaves. This may be done by the horse-hoes ; immediately following which go the hand-hoers, who, with hoes 6 inches broad, single out the plants to the distance from one another of about 8 inches. Another horse and hand hoeing are given ; and these complete the culture of the rape. Very often, however, the rape-seeds are sown broadcast ; and if the land is well prepared, good crops can be raised in this manner. The rape admits of being sown later than the turnip, and there- fore, when the land cannot be prepared in sufficient time for the turnip, it is yet ready for a crop of rape. The great advantage which the culture of the rape presents, is the facility with which the plant may be produced, and on in- ferior soils, where the turnip could not be beneficially cultivated. The rape may often obviate the necessity of an entire summer- fallow upon such soils ; for it may be eaten upon the ground with sheep in the month of September, and thus a crop of wheat be sown in the same year. Under this system, very inferior clays have been made to produce excellent crops of wheat. The rape is frequently sown as a kind of intermediate crop. Thus, after a crop of corn has been repeated, rape may be sown upon the ploughed stubble, and will in the following spring yield a tolerable supply of green food. After land has been prepared for summer-fallow, and when it is not intended to sow wheat in that season, but to take oats or barley in the following spring, then rape may be sown with ad- vantage. In this case, the land being already well prepared, the rape will groAV with vigour, and be ready in spring to be consumed before the spring crop is sown. Rape, too, may be frequently sown after early pease and pota- toes, and produce an exceedingly good crop. It is for this kind of intermediate cropping that the rape is in a peculiar degree adapted. It may be sown, it has been said, much later than the turnip, and in cases where the turnip could not be produced. THE CABBAGE. 399 Rape may be mown for forage, and will spring again. It is best, however, consumed on the ground by sheep penned upon it. Rape bears well to be transplanted. It may thus be sown in seed-beds, and then transplanted to the place where it is to grow. By being prepared in a seed-bed, it can be got ready to be planted on stubble-land in autumn, as soon as the crop is removed. This practice, however, is chiefly applicable when the rape is cultivated for its seeds, and will be adverted to when considering the rape as a plant producing oil. 3. The Cabbage. The Cabbage, commonly so called, is Brassica oleracea. This species assumes a vast variety of form and character. The wild cabbage, from which the greater number of the cultivated kinds are derived, is a little plant growing upon our sea-coasts. Yet to this plant we certainly owe the greater part of the numerous varieties cultivated in our gardens and fields. We cannot, indeed, be assured of the origin of all the cultivated kinds, for, besides the variations produced by climate and art, all the species of Brassica form hybrids with one another. Tlie different kinds in cultivation may be arranged in different classes, according to their general aspect and more popular cha- racters : 1. Those which bear their leaves on stalks without their beins: formed into a head. Some of these have crisped leaves, and are a class of hardy pot-herbs everywhere familiar in the culture of the garden. Others have smoothish leaves with long branched stems. These comprehend the largest and most productive of all the cabbages, — the Jersey cole, the thousand-headed cabbage, and others. 2. Those whose leaves are formed into a large head. Tliese comprehend the larger cabbages cultivated in the fields. The savoys of our gardens are allied to this class. 3. Those whose roots become napiform, as the Kohl-rabi. 400 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. 4. Those in which the stem divides and forms a corymbose • head, as the cauliflower and broccoli. The cabbages of the first class, with crisped leaves, frequently termed Greens, are very hardy. They are cultivated pretty ex- tensively in some parts of the North of Europe ; but in others they are chiefly regarded as pot-herbs, and confined to the garden. The branched kinds with smoothish leaves are the most pro- ductive, but at the same time they require a good soil and favour- able climate. Their leaves are stripped off* as they are required for use ; and as these are constantly supplied by fresh leaves, the plants yield a succession of forage throughout a great part of the season, and they remain growing for several years. There are different varieties of these larger cabbages, which are more or less valued in the places where they are cultivated. The thousand-headed cabbage, Chou d mille tStes, is remarked as possessing a greater number of shoots ; the cow-cabbage, as grow- ing more to one stem, and producing cream-coloured flowers ; the Jersey cole, as being similar in its growth, and producing yellow flowers. In Jersey and Guernsey, where the cultivation of these plants is well understood, they are sown in beds in autumn, and planted out in succession from November till February. About the month of April, the farmers begin with the first sown to strip off their under leaves for use. They give them to their cow's, hogs, and other stock. They cut them into small pieces, and mix them with bran and other farinaceous substances. During the summer they continue this process of stripping off the leaA’es, the plant in the mean time rising to the height of several feet. This plant requires a good soil and plentiful manure, and is regarded as a great exhauster of the soil. It perhaps yields a larger proportion of nutriment within the same period than any other forage-plant. It may be presumed that it is not well fitted for general cultivation, and in this country will only succeed in favourable situations, as the south of England and Ireland, and the beautiful little islands where it is now cultivated. THE CABBAGE. 401 The kinds of the cabbage which ai*e best suited to general cul- tivation in the fields are the large-headed field-cabbages, as the Large Scottish or Yorkshire, the Drumhead, and the American. These and other names, however, are frequently applied where there is no real distinction. The varieties are all known by their large leaves, which, as the plant advances, collapse and form a dense head. The next class consists of those in which the root becomes napiform. There are varieties of them, the principal of which is the Kohl-rabi. This plant is cultivated in Germany and the north of Europe. It is valued as a resource for cattle in winter. While it produces a root like a turnip, it at the same time sends forth stems bearing leaves like a cabbage. It is not only hardy, but keeps better in store than any plant of the cabbage kind. It may be cultivated in the same manner as the Swedish and yellow turnips ; but the experiments that have been made with it in this country lead to the inference, that it is not equal to those turnips for the purposes of feeding. The cabbages of the last-mentioned class, as the Cauliflower and the Broccoli, are entirely limited to the garden. Of the different kinds, therefore, it appears that the large field- cabbage, whatever name it may receive, is that which is best suited for common field-culture. The cabbage may be cultivated like the turnip, being sown in drills, and tilled and sown in the same manner. The proper method, however, of cultivating the cabbage is to sow the seeds of it in the first place in beds, and then to plant it by the dibble or spade in the situations which it is to occupy. The land is to be ploughed with a deep furrow in autumn, pre- cisely as for the turnip : it is to be cross-ploughed in spring, har- rowed and rolled if necessary, cleaned of root-weeds, and again ploughed; and the same operation of harrowing and collecting weeds is to be repeated. If the land is now in a fit state to be formed into drills, this is to be done ; if not, it is to be again ploughed, harrowed, and cleaned, and finally formed into drills 30 inches from centre to centre, the dung being spread as in the 2 c 402 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. case of the turnip-culture, at the rate of not less than 20 tons to the acre. In the mean time the young plants are being prepared. For this purpose, the seeds must have been sown as early in spring as the weather allowed, on some land in good heart, well shelter- ed, and carefully digged. This should have been done in the month of March ; and about the middle of May, or as soon after- wards as possible, the plants are to be set along the tops of the drills by the dibble, at the distance between each plant of 2i feet. It is well that the land be somewhat moist when this operation is performed. The cabbage is usually intended for spring-food. If designed in any case for early feeding, the seeds should be sown in the pre- vious autumn, and well protected from the frost. They will be ready to be planted out on the drills early in May, and they will be fit for use in October. The intervals of the cabbage are tilled by the horse and hand hoe, as in the case of the turnip ; and the distance of the plants affords the opportunity of doing this with effect. The last till- age should be that of earthing up the soil thoroughly to the stems of the plants. Cabbages do not endure storing like turnips, and, therefore, they should be consumed nearly in proportion as they are pulled from the ground. They should be carried to the yards and sheds, and given to the cattle in troughs or mangers, the stems being cut off by a hook or knife. When they are to be given to sheep, they should be carried to a dry field, and laid upon the ground. They may be boiled or steamed, but they are usually given in a raw state. They are relished by all herbivorous animals, and furnish a wholesome nutritive food. They are chiefly valued, however, for the feeding of milch-cows, to which purpose they are lai’gely applied in some of the dairy districts in England. The cabbage is a more nutritive plant than the turnip, that is, will feed a greater number of animals from the same extent of THE CABBAGE. 403 ■ ground. It is suited to a different class of soils from those to which the turnip is suited, the soils best adapted to the cabbage being the clayey. The cabbage is generally regarded as an exhausting crop. In this respect it probably follows the law of all plants that yield a great degree of nourishment, abstracting a corresponding quantity of matters from the soil. But then if it returns back a cor- responding quantity of manure by its consumption, it cannot be said to be an exhauster of the farm. On the Continent, and in the districts of England, where it is cultivated, it is known to be a plant that requires a good supply of manure. But then it is known to be a rich forage-plant, and calculated to replace that ma- nure by its consumption on the farm. The expediency, however, of extending the culture of the cab- bage in any part of the country, depends mainly upon the nature of the soil and climate. The turnip and the potato, for ,the feeding of live-stock, are more readily and safely raised over a great part of the soils of this country ; and hence the culture of the cabbage is more con- fined to particular situations, and these where the climate and other circumstances are favourable. Thus, north of the Tweed, the cabbage, though often tried, has never been greatly cultivated, and it is not until we reach the more southern parts of the king- dom, that the culture of the cabbage can be said to be fairly esta- blished as an object of field-culture. There the crops of it are heavy in proportion to the crops of turnips ; while in the more northern parts of the country, the crops of turnips arc heavy in proportion to the crops of cabbage. Nevertheless, even in the parts of this country less favourably situated, there are many cases, in clay-land districts, in which the cabbage may be substituted for the bean in the rotation. But whether or not it be expedient to introduce the culture of the cab- bage as a regular part of the rotation, it can always be cultivated successfully on the small scale. It is on the smaller possessions, accordingly, that we sec the most frequent patches of the cab- 404 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. bage ; and this is as it should be, because the state of possession admits of more attention being paid to the tillage and manuring of the plant, than might be consistent with the regular labours of a more extended farm. 4. The Potato. This plant, of the genus Solanwn, is of the natural order So- lanece, or the Nightshade tribe. The juices of the plants of this family possess certain narcotic and stimulating properties which in excess are poisonous. But these properties exist in different species in different degrees ; so that, while some of them, as the deadly nightshade, are highly poisonous, others are merely nar- cotic, and others yield common articles of food. Even the tubers of the common potato, which are regarded as so nutritive, pos- sess certain poisonous properties, which are expelled by heat, in the process of preparing them for human food. Of the species of Solanum, several are cultivated in different countries for their uses in domestic economy and the arts ; but of all the species, the most important to the human race is — Solanum tuberosum — the Tuberous-rooted Nightshade, or Potato. This species is a native of America, and it has been observed that it is the most precious gift of the New World to the Old. It appears to have reached Europe from the Spanish Settlements; but it came to England from Virginia, being brought to it, as is supposed, by the brave and unfortunate Sir Walter Baleigh. The history of its introduction into the various countries of Europe and Asia is remarkable. It was for the most part received with tardiness, distrust, or contempt ; while another plant of the same natural family, the Tobacco, possessing merely the properties of a narcotic, was no sooner made known, than it was received with eagerness in every part of the habitable world. The use, however, of the potato has constantly extended ; it forms now a great part of the food of the inhabitants of Eu- rope, and its more general consumption has, beyond all question. THE POTATO. 405 lessened the liazards of famine, and added to the comforts of the labouring people. It grows exempt from the hazards to which many of the other crops are subject. Its tubers ripen in the earth, and so are defended from the effects of winds and storms. It yields a large quantity of fecula, which can be ob- tained separately from the tuber. It may be used in its natural state, either directly as the food of man, or for the feeding of do- mestic animals. It has a wider range of soils and temperature than most other cultivated plants, grows on soils the lowest in the scale of fertility, and is capable of supporting a greater number of human beings upon the same extent of ground than almost any other plant cultivated in the temperate regions. Under every system of agricul- ture, it is a beneficial object of culture ; and to the settlers of new countries, it is, of all the cultivated plants, the securest, the most easily produced, and the least liable to the contingencies of the seasons. The potato rises with a branched and succulent stem bearing white or purplish flowers. The fruit is a round berry, of the size of a little plum, green at the first, but growing black when ripe, and containing numerous small seeds. The root has many tubers attached to it of a round oblong form. The potato may be propagated from its seeds, and it is in this way that new sorts are obtained ; or it may be propagated by planting the tubers, in which case plants similar to the old are produced. When the plants are propagated from the seeds, they require to be planted for several successive years before the tubers attain their full size. When they are raised at once from the tubers, they yield their full produce in one season ; hence, when the pur- pose is to obtain tubers for food, they are always produced by planting the tubers. But one tuber generally contains many buds or germens, from each of which a stem will arise : hence it is not necessary to plant the whole tuber, but only such part of it as may contain one of these buds or germens. The tuber, therefore, though it may be planted entire, is for 40G PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. tlie most part cut into several pieces, care being taken that each piece sliall contain at least one bud, or eye as it is termed. These buds are sufficiently visible on the surface of the tuber, and hence the operator has no difficulty, by cutting the tuber through lon- gitudinally or transversely, as may be required, in preserving one bud at least upon each piece. Small tubers are generally cut into two, the larger into three, four, or sometimes five pieces, if the potato be very large. When they are cut a considerable time before being planted, they should be spread on the ground, and turned from time to time, that they may not ferment. When proper care is bestowed, large and well-shaped tubers are selected for planting. Many approve of planting the entire tuber, a practice to which no objection exists, further than that experience shews, that nearly an equal effect may in most cases be produced by dividing the tuber, while there is a certain economy in the practice. Never- theless it is certainly better to plant the whole tubers. Others have recommended the merely scooping out of a small part of the tuber containing the bud, and planting the pieces, and doubtless good crops have been raised in this way. The approved prac- tice, however, and beyond a doubt the proper one, is either to plant the tuber entire, or to cut it into pieces, so that one eye at least shall be upon each. It has been observed that eyes taken from tubers that have not been fully ripened, are more vigorous than those that have been taken from such as have been very fully ripened. This leads to a rule in practice, that the tubers to be planted shall be those which were taken up before the stems had begun to decay in autumn. It has been observed, too, that eyes taken from the upper part ot the tuber, which is always less matured than the lower part, — and which hence is called the watery end in contradistinction to the other, which is called the mealy end, — ripen earlier than those taken from the lower or mealy end. This has given rise to a prac- tice adopted in some places, where very minute care is bestowed on the culture of the potato, of dividing the tuber transversely THE POTATO. 407 into three parts, and planting the sets separately : those taken from the upper or watery end for the early crop, the centre ones for the intermediate crop, and the lower ones for the later crop. But such niceties, it is to he observed, are in no way essential in the common practice of the farm. The varieties of the potato, as produced first from seeds and afterwards continued by sets, are exceedingly numerous, and con- stantly varying as the old ones degenerate, or as better ones are brought into notice. The most obvious distinction of the varieties of the potato is into the early and the late. The power of early-ripening exists in a greater degree in certain individuals than in others: the early-ripening kinds are thus obtained in part by selection, and the property becomes permanent in the progeny. The early potatoes are more raised in the garden, the late ones in the fields. But very often the early potatoes are also raised in the fields, and where a demand exists for their produce, as near large towns, they can be cultivated in the field as well as in the garden. Po- tatoes, with relation to their periods of ripening, may be classed as follows : — 1. The earliest kind used by gardeners, which are generally termed forcing potatoes. These are not at all intended for field- culture. 2. Early kinds, which may be subdivided according to their order of ripening : First, the earliest sorts in common cultiva- tion, as the Early-shaw, the American- Early, the Early-champion, and others ; second, an intermediate class, which would be con- sidered as late in the gardens but early in the fields ; such arc tliose termed the Early-red, the Cape of Good Hope kidney, and the Bread-fruit. 3. The later kinds, forming the common subjects of cultiva- tion in the fields, which may, in like manner, be subdivided ac- cording to their order in ripening ; such arc those termed the Bed-apple, the Bedfordshire kidney, the Lancashire pink, and nu- merous others. 4. Those of a large kind, but of so coarse a nature as to be 408 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. cultivated only for feeding domestic animals ; the best known of which are the Late-champion, the Ox- noble, and the Surinam. New varieties of the potato are obtained, it has been said, by cultivating from the seed. Many of the early potatoes, however, do not blossom at all. To obviate the effects of this, Mr Knight adopted an expedient which deserves to be noticed, both as being calculated to effect the purpose intended, and as illustrating the habits of the plant. He removed the tubers as they were being formed, by which means he directed the vegetable juices to the stem and parts of fructification, and so was enabled to produce blossoms and seeds. The mode of procuring new varieties from seeds is simple, but tedious. Some of the largest and best-formed berries, when fully ripe, which is denoted by the change of their colour, and by the stalk having become withered, are plucked, and the pulp is sepa- rated from the seeds, which are then dried in the sun. These seeds are to be sown in the following spring, and the produce is to be taken up early in October. The tubers will then have nearly attained the size of small plums. The best of these are to be se- lected and , carefully preserved. In the month of April following they are to be planted at a distance from one another of from 1 5 to 18 inches ; and when they rise about 2 inches above ground, they are to be covered with earth by the hoe, which operation may be repeated during the season, and they are to be kept free from weeds. When they have arrived at maturity, which will be de- noted by the decay of the several stems, they are to be taken up in succession as they ripen, keeping the early separate from the late : and the produce of each stalk is again to be planted in the following spring. A judgment of the properties of the potatoes will then have been formed, and those are to be reserved for tivation which are approved of. It will be found that, whatever had been the parent stock, the seeds will produce numerous varieties, some white, some dark in the colour, with tubers of dif- ferent forms, round, oblong, and kidney-shaped. This is a tedious process, but necessary when it is desired to cultivate new varieties from seeds. THE POTATO. 409 The soils best adapted to the potato are of the drier and lighter class. In stiff clays the return is often inferior in quality and productiveness. Deep dark peat frequently produces large crops ; and it is one source of great value in this plant, that it can be cultivated successfully on the soils termed peaty. Potatoes, in the common course of farm-culture, are cultivated by the plough; but they are frequently also, and this in many cases with great convenience, cultivated by the spade; thus, in woods in new countries, in plantations and steep banks inaccessible to the plough, or, in certain cases, in peat too soft to bear the treading of cattle, the spade may be beneficially substituted for the plough. An example of this method of culture is what is termed the lazy-bed system. This consists simply in forming beds of a few feet in width, with intervening spaces or trenches : these beds being digged, the dung is spread upon them, and the potatoes are planted in rows upon the manure at distances from one another of ten inches or more. They are then covered with earth thrown upon them from the trenches, and generally, after they have ap- peared above ground, they receive a second covering of earth, so as to be covered in all to the depth of from 4 to 5 inches. Inartificial and rude as this method may seem, there are cases in which it can be practised with advantage; such as in deep bogs, where the plough cannot act, and peaty soils which are brought under culture for the first time. And it is surprising how large the crops are which are sometimes raised in this manner, and in how good a state the land is left, from the deep tillage which it has received. The cultivation of the potato, however, upon the larger scale of farm-culture, must necessarily be performed by the plough and the working- cattle upon the farm. The potato forms a good preparative crop for any of the cereal grasses ; and it may follow any crop of corn. Sometimes pota- toes are planted upon land newly broken up from grass. In this way they may be cultivated beneficially in regard to produce ; but this is a deviation from the general rule, that the potato shall follow a crop of corn, and be succeeded by one. 410 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. As in the case of preparing land for the summer-fallow, the land intended for potatoes is to be ploughed before winter, receiv- ing a furrow of 8 or 9 inches in depth. The ploughing should be lengthwise, so as to keep the ridges dry, and prepare the ground for early tillage in the following spring. In spring, as soon as the other labours of the farm allow, the land, when sufficiently dry, is to be cross-ploughed, and harrowed by repeated double turns of the harrow in every direction. The roller also, if necessary, is to be employed to reduce the soil, and all the root-weeds are to be carefully collected by the hand, and carried away to be formed into a compost, as was described in the case of the management of summer-fallow. The land is next to be ploughed in a direction crossing the last ploughing, or rather the ploughs may cross the fields diagonally, because, as it is always desirable to make each alternate plough- ing cross the previous one, and as the next ploughing, which forms the drills, will be in the direction of the former ridges, all the ploughings will thus be made to traverse one another. When this second ploughing is given, the land is to be again harrowed and rolled, if necessary, and all the root-weeds are to be industriously collected and removed as before. These operations will generally fit the land for being formed into drills. This may be done by single-bout drills, as in the case of the bean; but it is better performed by double-bout drills, as shewn in Fig. 173. The distance from centre to centre, or, in other words, the breadth of the drills at the base, may be 30 inches. A transverse section of the drills will appear thus : — Fig. 179. When the drills are formed in this maiuier, the dung is to be THE POTATO. 411 carried forward to them, and spread in the hollows, precisely in the manner described in the case of the turnip. Dung will, in all cases, act the most quickly upon young plants when it is well prepared, hut extreme preparation of the dung is not required in the case of the potato. It is enough that it be in such a state of decomposition as that it may be readily covered by the plough. The potato requires a large supply of manure. The quantity should be from 16 to 20 tons to the acre, and when a larger quan- tity can be supplied it is well, the goodness of the potato-crop being greatly dependent upon the quantity of manure applied. The pro]3er manure for the potato under ordinary circumstances is common farm-yard dung. But any other putrescent manure that can be obtained may be applied. Bone-dust has been em- ployed, and with good effects. liime does not appear to act in a beneficial manner, and is rarely applied directly to this crop. But any of the alkaline salts, or even common salt, may be applied with advantage to this crop, along with putrescent manures. As soon as the dung is spread along the hollows of the drills, the potatoes are to be planted. When sets are used in place of the entire tubers, they should be cut 10 or 12 days before plant- ing them, by which the cut part acquires a skin or indurated sur- face, which is supposed to protect the sets from injury when first planted. The sets are placed directly upon the dung in rows, about 1 0 inches from one another ; the entire tubers at a foot or more. The planters carrying them in baskets, gently plant them upon the dung, directed by the eye, as nearly as possible at the distance required. A transverse section of the drills, with the dung and potato sets placed upon it, will appear thus : Fig. 180. 412 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. The sets are now to be covered by splitting each drill so that the top of the new drill formed is immediately above the hollow of the old one. The manner of performing the operation is the same as that described in the culture of the turnip. A transverse sec- tion of the drills, when split, will appear thus : Fig. 181. This simple series of operations completes the planting of the potato. The usual period of planting is during the month of April, but it may be continued till the middle of May. The early potatoes should be planted by the latter part of March. The quantity planted may be from 8 to 10 cwt. to the acre, according to the size and distance of the sets. In a fortnight or more after planting, the whole field is to be harrowed. This may be done by the common harrows ; or there may be used two very small light curved harrows with handles, each em- bracing a drill, attached to one another by hinges, and drawn by a single horse, which moves along the hollow of a drill, the work- man walking behind and pressing gently upon the handles. Fig. 182. THE POTATO. 413 « The effect of this tillage will he partially to level the ground, making a transverse section of the drills appear thus : Fig. 183. When the plants have got above ground, and appear distinctly in rows, the horse-hoe is to pass along each interval, care being taken not to go too near the plants. Following the horse-hoe, the hand-hoers, each with the common hoe, are to hoe the rows of plants, carefully cutting up all weeds that may have escaped the action of the horse-hoe. A transverse section of the drills after this operation, will appear thus : Fig. 184. After an interval, as a fortnight or more, the horse-hoe is again to pass along the intervals. Immediately succeeding the horse- hoe, the hand-hoers are to follow as before, hoeing round the plants, and cutting up all weeds. This is generally sufficient to clean the land in an effectual manner, though sometimes, when it is exceedingly full of weeds, a third hoeing may take place. The last operation is raising the earth to the stems of the plants. This is done by a double mould-board plough passing once along the intervals, and throwing up the earth towards each 414 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOK TIIEIll ROOTS, fec. row. A transverse section of the ground will then appear thus : Fig. 185. This in all cases completes the culture of the potato. The plants will now grow with quickness, their steins spreading over the intervals, and covering the entire ground. The method of culture described is suited to clean the ground of weeds in a manner simple, cheap, and efficient ; but it is cer- tain that the action of the horse-hoe with its coulters tends to displace and injure the tubers in the course of being formed, and that larger crops are produced, by planting the tubers in the manner of gardeners, with a flat surface, and employing only the hand-hoe. But in place of the horse-hoe, there may be employed simply a double mould-board plough, to stir the earth, and throw^ it towards the stems of the growing plants. This operation re- peated thrice, or at the most four times, during the season, will supersede the necessity of employing the horse-hoe. In the first earthing up, the ploughing should be very shallow, in the second a little deeper, and in the third it should be to the ordinary depth. The crop after the last hoeing, requires no further attention until the tubers are ready to be taken up when ripe, 'which is ge- nerally in the month of October. The operation of taking up the tubers may, upon the small scale, be performed by digging them up with a three-pronged fork ; but, on the large scale, it is to be performed by the plough. THE POTATO. 415 The plough, from which the coulter has been previously taken, is to pass with a deep furrow along the centre of the drill, and thus reverse one-half of it. It is to be followed by a sufficient number of persons to collect the potatoes into baskets. It is then to return by the same drill, reversing the other half of it, so that the whole tubers of the drill are turned up. Time is saved in this operation by the plough, after laying open the half of one drill, passing to another drill, where there is a like number of persons to follow it, and so on to another and another. It then returns to the first drill, and reverses the other half of it, and so on in succession with the other drills. Often, however, the plough . reverses an entire drill at one turn. After the plough has re- versed the different drills, the harrows should follow, so as to bring to the surface any tubers that may have escaped. In this manner the gathering of the potato-crop, which in many cases is regarded as a work of time and labour, is performed with economy and despatch. It is important that the potatoes be taken up in dry weather and before frost. They may be preserved in various ways, the purpose being to secure them effectually from frost, and prevent them from putrefying. Sometimes they are conveyed at once to a house, and stored in it, to be ready for use or sale. But the more frequent practice is to form them into oblong heaps, and to cover them carefully with a thick layer of straw, and this again with a coating of earth. There is no better non-conductor for this purpose than straw. When any heap is to be opened for use, bunches of loose straw should be employed to defend it from the air. Even when the potatoes are kept in houses, they should be carefully covered with dry straw, to prevent the action of frost upon the tubers. After the potato, the usual crop sown is wheat, for which the ground is well prepared by the operations of the potato-culture. The later and common varieties, it has been said, should be planted, if possible, in the month of April. The early varieties should be planted before the end of March. Under good cultiva- 4] 6 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. tioii and favourable circumstances, the latter will be ready to al- low a crop of turnips or rape to be sown in the same year. Potatoes, it has been seen, are planted in spring, after the land has been prepared for them ; but potatoes may likewise be plant- ed before winter, provided they are sufficiently covered with earth to be defended from the winter frosts. In some parts of the south of England, potatoes are planted before winter, and are thus ready very early in the following season. They are planted in October or November, 9 or 10 inches under the surface, and well covered with litter or dung. They appear above ground in March, and are ready by the middle of May. In some cases even, by planting in October, a crop can be raised before the winter frosts set in, which is used during winter. It has been often recommended to pinch off the blossoms of the late potatoes, so as to prevent the formation of seeds. This has been deprecated by some, but recommended in an especial de- gree by Mr Knight, who asserts that more than a ton of addi- tional tubers per acre will be procured by this means. Certainly an increased produce will be obtained if the operation is perform- ed sufficiently early. A female or a boy will pluck off the blos- soms of from 1 to 2 acres in a day. The produce of the potato varies so greatly, that it is difficult to say what may be regarded as a medium return. Generally speaking, the crops produced in England and Ireland are greater than those produced in Scotland. In Lancashire, the produce is reckoned to be from 8 to 12 tons per acre. In most parts of Scotland, a fair produce is held to be 8 tons per Scotch acre, which is equal to 6f tons per English acre. The starch or fecula of the potato may be obtained separately by simple means, and applied to various purposes of domestic eco- nomy. The quantity is generally from about a fourth to a fifth part of the whole weight. This substance is perfectly nutritive, but, wanting gluten, it does not undergo the panary or bread fermentation. It is not, therefore, so well suited to the making of bread as the flour of wheat. It may, however, be mixed with the latter in a given THE POTATO. 417 quantity, so as to produce good bread ; and it is suited to those other purposes of domestic economy in which the panary fermen- tation is not required. The use of the starch of the potato has been gradually extending in yarious forms, by which the utility of the potato, as a branch of husbandry, is likely to be greatly extended. The potato yields a large quantity of ardent spirits by distilla- tion, for which purpose it is now extensively employed in the dis- tilleries of Germany and the Netherlands. The potato may be given in its raw state to nearly all our do- mestic animals. It requires merely to be washed, which is done by various simple means. One of these is by a cylinder or barrel, with a wooden axle, to which are attached sparred arms. These being turned round by a handle fixed to the axle, the potatoes in it are put in motion, and, the cylinder being partially filled with water, they are washed by a few turnings of the handle. The water is let off at the bottom by a stop-cock ; and Avhen the cylin- der is large, a hinge-board is made to open and shut at the side or bottom, by which the potatoes are removed. Other contrivances for washing are resorted to, which need not be described. The principle of construction of them all is to give a sufficient motion to the roots when immersed in water. But although potatoes may be given to live-stock in their raw state, and it is frequently convenient to give them in that state, yet various benefits may arise from giving them steamed or boiled. In this state they are relislied by every class of our domestic ani- mals, and afford food in a high degree nourishing and salubrious. Even the dog, which will not touch raw potatoes, will fatten upon them when boiled. Boiled potatoes, mixed with cut straw or hay, may be given to horses of every kind, even when on the hardest work, and this forms a species of food both wholesome and economical. They may be given in this state to dairy-cows, or to any kind of cattle, for the purpose of fattening. But it is observed, that boiled food is not generally attended witli the same benefit to ru- 2 I) 418 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. minatiiig as to other animals. To hogs it is given with the best effect. When fowls are reared in quantity, their food may be considerably economised by mixing the boiled potato with meal. An apparatus for preparing the potato for these various uses by steam has been already described (Fig. 53). Of the accidents and diseases to which this plant is subject, one, the longest known, is termed curl. It is indicated by the curling of the leaf, and hence the name. It has been supposed to arise from a certain decay of vigour in the plant, which unfits it for the production of tubers. In cultivating the potato as we do, solely from tubers, we deviate from the natural habit of the plant, which tends to produce its species by seeds as well as tubers. When we cultivate solely from tubers, therefore, we do a certain violence to nature ; and it may reasonably he concluded, that the vigour of the plant is impaired. To prevent this, we have the means of obtaining new plants from the seed, and thus a method of restor- ing their natural habits, and renewing their vigour. But a disease far more destructive than the curl has recently attacked the potato crops of this and other countries. It has prevailed extensively in certain parts of North America, and has appeared in Europe, extending over large tracts of country, some- times disappearing as suddenly as it came, and sometimes visit- ing the same place for more than one year in succession. In this respect, it has been supposed to resemble those endemics which sometimes affect the animal kingdom, and which are more or less destructive and long-continued. But however this be, no satis- factory explanation has yet been given of the predisposing causes of the malady, nor have any means of remedy been as yet discovered. The taint appears in the descending tap-root, and may be seen extending by the connecting rootlets to the tubers, into the sub ^ stance of which it enters, producing putrefaction. It appears, at the same time, to extend upwards through the stem and leaves, which become covered with fungi, and assume the same blackened appearance which they do Avhen injured by early frosts. Some- times the stem and foliage continue vigorous, while putrefaction THE CARROT. 419 has begun in the tubers ; and sometimes the stem and foliage are covered with their characteristic fungi, while the tubers are scarcely afiected. Some particular varieties of potatoes have been less affected than others, but none can be said to escape ; nor does any particular condition of the soil as to previous culture, or the kinds of manure employed, appear materially to modify the dis- ease. The occurrence of a disease so new and destructive over large tracts of country, under every condition of soil and tempera- ture, gives cause for apprehension that we cannot depend, in the same degree as hitherto, on the produce of the potato plant as a main part of the food of the people. The potato, notwithstanding the casualties to which it may be subject, is of high importance in this and other countries. It can be cultivated on the large as well as on the small scale, — by the manual labour of the peasant as well as by the plough, — and with more or less success, in every soil where cultivation is prac- ticable. And it has done more than any of the cultivated plants to bring nearer to a level the value of different soils of the coun- try ; because crops of potatoes can be produced on inferior light soils, and on deep peat, often equal to those on the superior loams. 5. The Carrot. The Carrot, iJaucus Carota, is of the natural order Umhelli- ferce, an extensive family, which, like the Solanece, contains spe- cies that are highly nutritive, and others that are poisonous. Of the latter class are the hemlock ; of the former are various well- known esculent herbs, as the carrot and the parsnep. The tribe of Umbelliferce generally is suspicious and dangerous, except that the seeds are innocent ; and many of them are cultivated for the aromatic qualities of their seeds, as the coriander and others. The wild carrot, Daucus Carota, is a native species, familiar as a weed, under the name of bird’s nest, from the resemblance of its 420 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. umbellated top to a bird’s nest. By what accident this plant, with its slender fusiform root, has been changed into the plant of our gardens, is unknown. It is probable that the latter has been de- rived from warmer countries, and not from the wild plant of north- ern Europe, which no cultivation has been able to change. Of the cultivated carrot there are many sorts, distinguished by their colour, size, and form. The most esteemed for field-cul- ture in England are the Orange, the Long-red, and the Altring- ham. The carrot, from its long fusiform root, requires a deep soil. It prefers the sandy, and rejects the stiff clays. Large crops of it are sometimes produced on a deep rich peat ; but the proper soil for it is a sandy loam. The land intended for carrots should be ploughed with a very deep furrow previous to winter, and at this period the dung should be applied at the rate, if possible, of from 15 to 20 tons to the acre. So essential is it to plough deep for this crop, that it is common to make the first ploughing a trench-ploughing, one plough following in the track of the other. In some parts of the Continent the spade is made to follow the plough, in order to deepen the furrow. In spring the land is cross-ploughed and well-harrowed, and all root- weeds are removed. It is again ploughed, and the same operations are repeated ; and, if it be necessary, the ploughings and harro wings are to be given again and again, until the soil is reduced to a proper tilth, and all the vivacious roots of plants collected and removed. The plant may now be cultivated in three ways ; — Is^, The land may be formed into drills, and the seeds sown on the tops of them in the same manner as those of turnips. 2d, The seeds may be sown in rows, but without being on raised drills. Sc?, The seeds may be sown broadcast. When the plant is cultivated in the first of these modes, the operations of hoeing and cleaning are nearly the same as those of the turnip, the liorse and hand hoe being employed in succes- THE CARROT. 421 sion to till the intervals and the plants in the rows. But the seeds having many hooked hairs on their surface, they adhere to one another, on which account the machine for sowing them must be peculiarly constructed, so that they may be separated in sowing. The next method of cultivating the carrot is in rows, but not on raised drills. In this case, where the land is fully prepared, the double mould-board plough is to form it into shallow drills, at the distance, from centre to centre, of 12 or 15 inches ; and in the ruts or hollows of these drills the seeds are to be sown. This may be done by a soAving-machine suited to the nature of the seeds ; or it may be done by the hand, in the same manner as gardeners do, mixing the seeds with a little dry sand, and rub- bing them in the hand to make them separate. The seeds are then covered by a slight harrowing. This is a sufficiently good method of culth^ating the carrot. The other method of cultivating the carrot is broadcast. This is practised in the Sandlings in Suffolk, where the culture of the carrot is successfully carried on, and whore large returns are ob- tained. The same method is practised in the Netherlands, where the carrot is highly valued as a crop, and carefully cultivated. Of these three methods, the best under ordinary circumstances is that of rows, either on a raised or flat surface, but in the lat- ter case, making the rows at such a distance that the horse-hoe can act, as in the case of the turnip and other fallow- crops. The seeds of the carrot should be of the previous season’s growth, otherwise they may not vegetate ; and care should be taken in all cases to try them before they are sown, the most fre- quent cause of the failure of the carrot being the badness of the seeds. The quantity of seeds may be 3 or 4 lb. to the acre, when sown in rows, and 6 or 8 lb. Avhen sown broadcast. The most approA^ed period of soAA ing is the beginning of April. When the plants are fairly above ground, they are hoed to the distance of 3 or 4 inches. This operation is to be performed Avith great care, as it is difficult at this period to distinguish the carrot from the Aveeds in the roAVS. In three Aveeks or less the 422 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. carrots are again hoed, and set out at the distance from one an- other of about 10 inches. In a few weeks or more, or whenever weeds appear, the operation of the hand-hoe must he carefully repeated. These three hoeings will be sufficient to complete the summer culture of the carrot. The carrots may be taken up and stored about the end of October, or, which is better, they may be left in the ground and pulled up as required. When carrots are to be stored, they are taken up in dry weather, and their leaves cut off close to the root. They may then be put in narrow oblong heaps, the tails and heads being packed together, and the whole covered with a coat of straw. If taken up when dry, carrots will keep well in these heaps, without any other precaution than defending them from frost. The produce of the carrot, in circumstances that are favourable to it, will be from 300 to 400 bushels to the acre, though much beyond this quantity is sometimes produced. Carrots may be given to every kind of stock, and they form in all cases a palatable and nutritious food. They are given in their raw state, though they can be steamed or boiled in the same manner as other roots. The live-stock to which they are most frequently given is horses and dairy-cows. They are found in an eminent degree to give colour and flavour to butter, and when this is the end to be aimed at, no species of green-feeding is better suited to the dairy. To horses they may be given mixed with cut straw and hay, and thus given, they form a food which will sustain horses on hard work. They afford excellent food for hogs, and quickly fatten them. A¥hen boiled they will be eaten by poultry, and, mixed with any farinaceous substance, form an excellent food for them. They may be used for distillation, affording a good spirit. Although the return of this crop is, on soils and situations suited to it, very valuable, it is only in certain situations that it can be beneficially cultivated, and for this reason it does not form an object of general interest in the agriculture of this country. When circumstances admit of its being introduced into the rota- THE PARSNEP. 423 tion, tlie essential points to be attended to are, that the soil on which it is grown shall be deep and of the lighter class, that the tillage shall be deeply given, and that the seeds shall be fresh and of the proper kind. 6. The Parsnep. The Parsnep, Pasthiaca saliva, in its uses, and the manner of cultivating it, resembles the carrot. It is a native of many parts of Europe and of Asia. The wild plant has a slender root, with downy leaves : m the cultivated variety the leaves are smooth, and the root large and mucilaginous. Tlie most extensive cultivation of the parsnep in this kingdom is in the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, The large Jersey pars- nep is the kind most approved of for cultivation, whether in the garden or the field. It grows freely on the deep disintegrated gneiss of these islands, sometimes extending three or four feet into the soil. There are two kinds of it, one of which is fusi- form, and strikes deeply into the earth, the other becomes thick and tends to the napiform. The seeds of the parsnep may be sown either in autumn or in spring. The latter period is generally adopted, but the autumnal sowing is well suited to the habits of the plant. When it is to be cultivated in spring, the land intended for it is to be ploughed in autumn with a deep furrow. It is to be cross-ploughed in spring, and tilled and cleaned, in so far as the earliness of the season will allow ; for the parsnep must be sown at an early season, the common period usually being the month of March. The parsnep may be sown on a flat surface, in rows, like the carrot, the plants being kept at a somewhat greater distance from one another. But sometimes the seeds are sown in beds in autumn, and transplanted when the soil is prepared. The parsnep might also be cultivated in drills precisely like the turnip and potato. Nay, this seems to be the best mode of raising it; because an increased deepness, eminently favourable 424 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. to the habits of the plant, will be given to the soil. If cultivated in this manner, the drills may be no wider than is necessary to admit the horse-hoe, as 24 inches ; and the plants may either be planted in the drills from previously sown beds, or the seeds sown in the manner of the turnip, and hoed out to a distance of 8 or 10 inches from one another. The method of transplanting would probably be the better, as in this case the plant would not need to be planted in the drills till the month of April, when the land could be better prepared. All the after-processes of tillage may be the same as for the carrot. The seeds must be new, because when they are more than one year old they frequently do not vegetate. The seeds are very light, but they do not adhere in the same manner as the seeds of the carrot, and hence are more easily sown. The parsnep has a wider range of soils than the carrot, and, unlike the carrot, seems to prefer those which are more or less clayey. The plant is ready for use when the leaves begin to decay. It may be taken up and stored like the carrot, or left in the ground to be pulled when required for use. It is not apt to be injured by frost ; but it should not be left in the ground after the begin- ning of February, because, as soon as the flower-stalks begin to form, the roots become hard. The produce is generally greater than that of the carrot. Its uses for domestic purposes are well known. It is a useful esculent for the garden of the cottager. When persons abstain from animal food, as in Catholic countries, the parsnep is regarded as a grateful substitute. For this reason it was formerly more cultivated in this country than now, to be eaten with salted fish during the season of Lent ; and it is yet largely cultivated for the same purpose in the north of France and the Low Countries. All animals are fond of the parsnep. To milch cows it is eminently favourable, giving a flavour and richness to their milk which no other winter vegetable but the carrot can give. The cows of Jersey and Guernsey fed with parsneps and hay, yield THE BEET. 425 butter during winter of as fine a tinge, and nearly as good flavour, as if they were fed in pastures. To horses it is equally suited as the carrot. Hogs are extremely fond of it ; and, when boiled, poultry may be fed upon it. Like the carrot, it yields a large quantity of spirits by distil- lation. As a plant of agriculture, the parsnep would seem to be better suited to general cultivation in the field than the carrot, as being more productive, and having a wider range of soils ; but, at the same time, from the early period at which it must be sown, from the difficulty of getting the land fully prepared for it in spring, and from the frequent failures, it cannot be said to be a plant adapted to field-culture in this country. It is, however, suited for being cultivated on the small scale, and in this view it is better deserving the attention of the cottage-gardener than other plants which have succeeded to it in common estimation. 7. The Beet. This plant is of the natural family Chenopodece, several of the species of which are known to the farmer as weeds, while others are cultivated for their roots and leaves. The field-beet. Beta vulgaris, is of larger size, and grows more above ground, than the garden kinds. It is sometimes red ex- ternally, and yellowish-white internally ; but it has different shades of colour. It is frequently called Mangel-Wurzel, from the Ger- man, and has sometimes received the name of the Boot of Scarcity. The introduction of the mangel-wurzel into the agriculture of this country is of comparatively recent date. It was cultivated in Germany long before it was introduced into this island. In Belgium and Alsace, in the Palatinate of the Bhine and other parts of Germany, the most common method of culture is to sow it in beds, and to transplant it into lines. But it may be culti- vated also in a manner similar to the turnip. The land intended for this crop is ploughed before winter, and 426 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR ROOTS, &C. as early in spring as the labours of the farm will allow it is ploughed across. It is then well harrowed, and rolled if neces- sary, and the root-weeds are collected and carried away. It is again ploughed, harrowed, and rolled, and formed into drills, if it should be in a fit state ; or, if not, the ploughing and harrowing are repeated till it is so. When it is formed into drills, the dung is carried to the land and coYered by the splitting of the drills, as in the case of the potato and turnip. The quantity applied should be liberal. The seeds are large, and stick a little together. It is therefore frequently found convenient to sow them by the hand, in the same manner as the seeds of the carrot are usually sown. Sometimes the seeds are dibbled in, shallow holes being made for their reception by the dibble, into which a few seeds are dropped. This is a tedious process, and does not appear to pos- sess any advantage over a continuous sowing in ruts made upon the top of the drill. The seeds should be fresh, not exceeding one year old, and the utmost care should be taken that they are of the true kind, for great loss would be sustained should any of the smaller garden sorts be sown. The period of sowing may be about the middle of May, or earlier. When the plants are fully above ground, the horse-hoe with coulters, or the single-horse plough, is to pass along the inter- vals. Immediately afterwards the hand-hoers, with the common turnip-hoe, are to thin out the plants to tlie distance of 9 or 10 inches. After an interval, when the weeds are again springing up, the horse-hoe is to pass between the rows ; and after this the hand- hoers are to follow, cutting up all the weeds in the same manner as in the turnip-culture. The next process is the setting up of the earth to the roots, which may be done by the double mould-board plough. This completes the summer-culture of the beet. Before the setting in of winter frosts, the beet may be pulled up and stored. The stems are cut off by a stroke of tlie knife, THE BEET. 427 care being taken not to wound the root, wliicli is peculiarly sus- ceptible of injury. The leaves furnish excellent food for every kind of live-stock. On the Continent it is common to cut off the leaves of this and such plants as the carrot, the parsnep, and Swedish turnip, while growing. This is a point of economy little attended to in English agriculture. With respect to the prac- tice, it is to be observed, that in no case should it be attempted until the root has attained its full size. The roots, when taken up, may be piled in an oblong heap and covered with straw. They should be taken out when required at one end of the heap, and this end carefully covered again with straw to exclude frost. The roots of this plant, it is to be ob- served, are greatly more susceptible of injury from frost than the Swedish turnip or the carrot. Very large returns are occasionally obtained from beet, and the leaves are nutritious and wholesome, but it requires a some- what favourable climate. It is accordingly more cultivated in the southern than in the northern parts of this island. Although in Scotland very good crops of the beet are occasionally produced, the plant is not so well suited to cultivation there as the Swedish and yellow turnips ; while in the southern counties the beet is probably a more productive crop than the turnip. Thus also, in France and the warmer countries of Europe, the turnips are not generally to be compared with the crops which are produced of beet. The beet is well suited for feeding milch-cows, being exceed- ingly nutritious, and causing them to give abundant milk, while it does not taint it with the bad flavour which turnips give. Beet is cultivated in different parts of the Continent for dis- tillation : and in France it has been cultivated largely for its sugar. In Mexico and South America, there are cultivated certain species of Beet, Quinoa, which are greatly valued for their roots, leaves, and even seeds. These kinds of beet have been partially tried in this country, and are deserving of experiment. ( 428 ) 8. The Jerusalem Artichoke. This plant, Helianthus tuberosus, is, like all the plants of tlie Sunflower genus, a native of the New World. It was highly esteemed by our ancestors for its tubers, but it has fallen into neglect since the more extended cultivation of the potato and other plants. Although believed to be a native of the warmer parts of Ame- rica, it is one of the hardiest of our cultivated plants, very pro- ductive, easily propagated, and growing on the poorest soils This plant produces stems from 5 to 10 feet in height. It does not ripen its seeds in this country, but may be propagated with the greatest ease from tubers, like the potato. It grows rapidly, and may be cultivated like the potato, but the intervals between the. plants and rows should be larger. It may be planted also in autumn ; but if planted in spring it will be ready in Sep- tember. It is common with some to cut the stems over in July, to prevent their falling down. On the Continent the leaves and stems are used as green and dried fodder ; but in England, it is believed that they have not been so employed. The tubers are in clusters attached to the roots of the plant. As compared with the tubers of the potato, they are watery, and may be believed to be inferior in nutritive properties. But the quantity is frequently very large; about 500 bushels per acre, it is said, having been produced without manure. The tubers do not seem to have great Bittening properties, but they are eagerly eaten by animals. The plant is in a peculiar manner fitted to grow under the shade. It can therefore be cultivated in woods ; and it is some- times so grown in England to afford shelter for game, the plants being left to reproduce themselves annually from tubers. Taking into account the hardy qualities of this plant, its pro- ductiveness and easy culture, it may be doubted whether it merits the universal neglect into which it has fallen. Granting its in- feriority as an article of food to the plants now cultivated for our domestic stock, it must be of some importance to have a plant FLAX. 429 that can be so easily raised, and on soils so low in the scale of fertility. This plant, too, bears frequent repetition on the same ground. 3. Plants Cultivated for their Fibres for Thread. 1. Flax. The plants chiefly cultivated in the north of Europe for their fibres for thread, are Flax and Hemp. More than 70 species of the genus TAnum are enumerated by botanists. They are of a natural order of plants, the Linecp,, distin- guished by the tenacity of their fibres, the mucilage of their seeds, and generally by the beauty of their flowers. The most import- ant of the genus is Linum usitatissimum — Common Flax. It is an annual plant, growing with a slender upright stem, branched near the top. The fibres of the bark of this plant have been applied to the making of cloth from the remotest ages. Being a native plant, it is sufficiently hardy to endure the cli- mate of this and other northern countries. It has, indeed, a wide range of temperature, being cultivated, and for the like purposes, from Egypt almost to the polar circle. Flax is an exhauster of the soil and farm, and more so when its seeds are permitted to arrive at maturity. When pulled green its effects are less injurious ; in which respect it follows the gene- ral law of other cultivated plants. But still, at whatever period reaped, it is thus far an impoverislier of the farm, that its stems yield no return in manure, and that its seeds only do so when con- sumed upon the farm. The soils best suited to flax are those which contain a large proportion of vegetable matter. The stiff poor clays, and the inferior soils of a very dry and gravelly nature, are not well suited 430 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOIi THEIR FIBRES. to it. The best flax-soils in England are a few rich alluvial dis- tricts, in which it is still cultivated, and where it forms a regular part of the course. In a rotation of crops, the best period for the introduction of flax is soon after the land is broken up from grass. For this reason it may be the first crop taken after grass or clover-lea, in which case the flax is a substitute for a crop of oats in the course. But it is not necessary that flax should be grown immediately on the breaking up of grass-land. It may be sown at any period in the rotation, provided' the land is in a fertile state. But in all cases it is to be regarded as an exhausting crop, and not as equi- valent to a restorative one ; and these principles being attended to, the period of the rotation in which flax should be introduced will be understood. Should the soil, for example, be suited to the four years’ course, the rotation may be : — 1. Turnips, rape, or other green-crop ; 2. Barley or wheat ; 3. Sown grass ; 4. Flax. Or the order in which the flax is introduced may be changed, and the course may be : — 1. Turnips, rape, or other green-crop ; 2. Flax; 3. Sown grasses; 4. Oats or other corn-crop. Under the latter course, the seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown with the flax, in the same manner as with the cereal grasses ; and for this purpose the flax is equally well suited. Flax may be sown also after a pulse-crop ; but this is not usually a good preparation for flax, the land being apt to become foul when the flax is preceded by a crop of beans or pease. It is bet- ter to make it succeed either the grasses, or such crops as pota- toes, turnips, carrots, beet, or rape. It is common, indeed, to make it siicceeed to a crop of corn. But this is an erroneous practice, for after a corn-crop, which has already rendered the land foul, a crop of flax tends to aggravate the evil. Sometimes, however, not only does the flax succeed a crop of corn, but is succeeded by another. This practice is op- posed to all the principles of a proper rotation, and should be pro- scribed wherever the flax-culture is practised in this country. In warmer countries, the flax admits of being sown before FLAX. 431 winter, but in the north of Europe, the proper period of sowing is spring. When land which is in grass is to be prepared for flax, it is always to be ploughed in the winter-quarter, as if it were intended for oats, and as early as convenient, so as to receive the influence of frost to pulverize it before sowing. One ploughing only is required in this case ; but the land should be very thoroughly pul- verized by harrowing just previous to the seeds being sown. When flax is sown after potatoes, turnips, carrots, rape, or beet, the land is to be ploughed immediately upon the removal of the crop. One ploughing is, in these cases, generally held to be suffi- cient ; but the- land, previous to the seeds being sown, is to be well harrowed, and rendered quite smooth. The period of sowing in this country is in the month of April, and in the more northern parts from the middle to the end of April is considered to be sufficiently early. The universal method of sowing flax is broadcast. It might be sown, indeed, in rows like any kind of corn. But in the case of corn, the design is to produce a large quantity of seeds, whereas in the case of flax, the chief purpose is to produce long stems. And the broadcast system is better calculated to cause the plant to rise with a straight stem than the system of rows, which affords it space to branch out ; for it is to be observed, that it is not desirable that the plant should branch : because, when there is a branch, the continuity of the fibre is interrupted, and more refuse is produced. When we are desirous to obtain fine fibre, we must sow thick. When we look for quantity, both of fibre and seeds, we must sow more thin. In the former case, 3 bushels to the acre may be sown; in the latter, 2 will be sufficient. The seeds are sown by the hand in the same manner as corn. Were the flax cultivated in quantity, the broadcast sowing-ma- chine might be substituted. Previously to sowing, the land should, in all cases, be well harrowed and rendered fine, and any stones that may have come to the surface should be removed. After the seeds are sown, they are to be covered by a double turn of ligfit 432 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FIBRES. harrows, and the land is then to be rolled and carefully water- furrowed. In the culture of flax the changing of the seeds is considered to be beneficial and even necessary, the plant being found to de- generate when produced from seeds frequently sown on the same ground. The principal reason of this appears to be, that the plant is rarely suffered fully to mature its seeds, and its natural habits are counteracted by the closeness with which it is sown. It is from the countries, therefore, in which attention is directed to the proper ripening and preparing of the seeds, that we are in- debted for our supplies. The best seeds used in this country are supposed to be derived from Holland ; but the Hutch themselves obtain their supplies from Livonia, Courland, and other parts of the north of Europe, where due attention is paid to the ripening of the seeds. When the plants of flax are 3 or 4 inches high, they are to be carefully weeded by the hand. This is generally done by per- sons in a sitting or kneeling posture. They advance gradually along the ridges, picking up by the ’hand every weed that can be observed. The young plants that have been pressed down by the weeders in this operation soon regain their upright position ; but yet it is well that the weeding process be not too long delayed, lest the stems of the young plants be broken and injured. The land, if it has been prepared in a proper manner, will not require more than one thorough weeding of this kind. After weed- ing, the plants will grow with vigour sufficient to overcome any common weeds that may grow amongst them. The next process in the culture of the flax is that of reaping. This is done, not by the sickle or scythe, but by pulling the plants up by the roots. The period of pulling the plant is determined by the principal end in cultivating it. When it is wished to procure fine fibre, the plant should be pulled when somewhat green. When it is wished to procure the seeds either for sowing again or for crushing for oil, the plants must remain until the seeds are ripe. This will be denoted by the hardened state of the seed-vessels, the yellow FLAX. 433 colour of the stems, and the falling off of the leaves. When flax of good quality, but not extreme fineness, is wanted, the best period for pulling is just when the plant has attained its maturity with respect to the formation, but not to the full ripening, of the seeds. When it is required for the finest fabrics of all, as for cambrics and muslins, it should be pulled when it begins to flower. When the crop is ready, the plants are pulled up by the roots, and laid in handfuls alternately crossing one another, and left upon the ground for a few days to wither. They are then freed from the capsules or seed-vessels, and made into small sheaves, which are conveniently tied by a few stems of the plants them- selves, or by some rushes or thin straw-ropes. The separation of the seed-vessels from the stems is perform- ed by a process termed rippling. The rippling machine is an implement like a comb, with iron teeth fixed upon a plank. Through these teeth the stems are re- peatedly drawn by the hand, and thus the Fig. 186. capsules or seed-vessels are separated. The ripple is placed in the middle of a large sheet of canvass spread upon the ground. There may be two sets of teeth, as shewn in the figure, fixed on one plank, so that two persons may work at the same time ; and the plank may be conveniently fixed in the ground by a pin passed through it. The capsules are preserved, the seeds being either used for sowing, or bruised for oil. The next process is to separate the fibres from the stem. The common method of doing this is by steeping the whole plant in water. By this means the softer part of the stem partially under- goes the putrefactive fermentation,'while the tougher fibres of the bark are not affected. At a certain period, then, as ten or twelve days, before the fibrous part of the bark has become affected, the plants are removed from the water and dried. After being dried the stems become brittle, and are easily separated by rubbing or beating from the fibrous part of the bark, which is the only part employed in the manufacture of linen. It will appear that, if the 2 E 434 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR TITEIR FIBRES. putrefactive process shall proceed too far, the fibrous as well as the more mucilaginous part of the bark may be affected. It is, therefore, a point of practice, to allow the putrefactive process to proceed just the length of affecting the softer part of the stem, without acting upon the fibrous part of the bark. And the usual manner of performing the process of steeping is the following : — The little sheaves made up after the process of rippling, are carried away to a pool or tank, either containing water, or into which water may be conveyed : and in all cases the water ought to be soft. The sheaves should be built in the pool in a nearly upright position, the heads of them being uppermost. They are then kept under water by stones or heavy snbstances of any kind, in such a manner as that they shall not rise to the snrface. They must not, however, be compressed to the bottom, but merely so loaded as that they shall be kept below water. The period of steeping to the proper point must be carefully watched. In warm weather eight days will sometimes suffice, in other cases ten or twelve. After the sixth or seventh day, the state of the ffax must be observed from time to time. It is safer to steep it too short a period than ever so little too long. In the first case, merely a little more time is required in the future pro- cesses ; in the second, the strength and texture of the fibres may be injured. When the flax is fonnd to be sufficiently steeped, it is taken from the pool sheaf by sheaf, and laid in heaps near the water- ing-place until the water has drained off*. It is then carried away to a dry and airy grass-plot. Here the sheaves are opened ont and spread thinly and evenly in rows upon the gronnd, the spreaders working backwards, and causing the but-ends of one row just to touch the tops of the next, so that the whole plot of gronnd shall be covered with a thin coating of flax. In this state the flax is allowed to lie for a time, determined by the state of the weather, generally ten or twelve days, and sometimes more. Huring the further process of rotting, or dew-rotthig as it is FLAX. 435 termed, the dissolution of the soft part of the stem is still fur- ther promoted, and the whole becomes hard. When it has lain for a sufficient time, which is known by its being brittle when rubbed, and when it is at the time sufficiently dry, it is bound up again into sheaves, but larger than those made before the water- ing process. It is allowed to remain in these sheaves a little time to dry, after which it is carried home. These are the common operations of the culture and prepara- tion of the flax, but variations in practice take place ; and in an especial manner, the steeping of the stems is superseded by che- mical processes. The carrying home of the flax terminates the preparation, in so far as the mere grower is concerned. The remaining parts of the operation are properly the province of the manufacturer. But sometimes the manufacture proceeds on the farm itself to the ex- tent of partially separating the fibrous part. The first process in this case is breaking the stems, which is usually done by an instrument called a break. This machine consists of three triangular planks, fixed together at both ends. Two triangular planks are fixed to another frame. The two frames are fixed together at one end by a hinge, and work the one into the other, as in the figure. The upper moveable frame being lifted up, handfuls of flax held in one hand are placed upon the lower frame, while with the other hand the upper frame is made to work upon the flax by repeated strokes. In this manner the flax is bruised, and put into a state to have the ligneous refuse separated from the fibrous part by beating or scutching. Scutching may be performed either by machinery or by manual labour. When performed by manual labour, handfuls of the flax being suspended by one hand over a plank are beaten by a flat piece of wood held in the other hand. By repeated strokes, the woody refuse of the stem is separated from the fibrous part Fig. 187. -13() PLANTS CULTIVATED FOE THEIR FIBRES. of the hark. But the operation of scutching is now very gene- rally performed by machinery, the raw material, after being bruised by the break, being sent to the lint-mill for that purpose. To complete the process, and to get the fibres sorted into lengths, so as to be fitted for spinning, the lint goes to a class of persons whose business it is to give it this final preparation. These are termed hecklers. The heckler operates by means of a set of numerous teeth, placed vertically upon a board. The flax is pulled repeatedly by the hand through these teeth. In this way, and by using heckles of different sets of teeth, the workman sorts the lint into lengths. The refuse after this operation is tow. The produce of flax varies greatly with the seasons, soil, and management. It may be said to be from 30 to 60 stones per acre, that is, after being scutched, and before being combed or heckled. Besides the produce of the plant in lint, that of its seeds is of considerable importance. The quantity of seeds produced on the acre varies as greatly as that of the produce of the stem. It may be said to be from 6 to 10 or 12 bushels to the acre. - The seed is frequently divided into three sorts ; the first sort is reserved for seed, the second for bruising for oil, and the third, or refuse, is employed at once for the feeding of cattle. The capsules containing the seeds, we have seen, are separated by the ripple. The ripple is carried to the field, and the opera- tion takes place before the handfuls of the flax are bound into sheaves, to be carried to the watering-pool. The capsules are then dried in the sun, during which a number of them will open, and allow the seeds to escape. These are the best and ripest, and may be reserved, if so wished, for sowing. The remaining seeds are separated from the capsules by a slight beating. The seeds are then carefully sifted and winnowed, and laid in some properly ventilated place, care being taken to turn them from time to time. The expression of the oil by bruising is a sufficiently simple process, and is done by machines more or less perfect. The refuse of the seeds may be given to live-stock. They are HEMP. 437 highly nutritive ill every form. They are frequently given boiled to young animals, as calves, and to sick horses and cows. By the process of boiling, a jelly is formed, which all herbivorous ani- mals will eat. It is for this purpose that the refuse of the seeds of the flax, which are not sufficiently good for crushing, is often reserved. The culture of the flax does not extend in this country, and has generally decreased as improvements in agriculture have ad- vanced. This arises, in part, from the nature of the plant, the minute care necessary in its culture, and the large supply of ex- traneous manures which it requires. It arises, however, also, in a great degree, from the extended commercial relations of Eng- land, which enable her to obtain the quantity of the raw material required from countries better fitted to produce it, or where the comparative expense of labour is less. Flax, it has been said, requires a large proportion of vegetable matter in the soil. Some- times, for this reason, peaty soils will produce it in great abun- dance ; but the best flax-soils are those rich vegetable grounds which exist in new countries, as over all the temperate parts of America, and even in the north of Europe, and chiefly upon the flat margins of rivers enriched by deposits of mud. These are the great flax-soils of the world, and may supply this country with the material, for the uses of the arts, in any quantity that may be required. The best cultivators of flax in Europe are the Fle- mings, amongst whom the linen manufacture took early root, and who have ever since pursued the culture of flax with diligence and success. 2. Hemp. Hemp, Cannabis saliva^ is of the natural order Urticece, the Nettle tribe, many of the species of which, like the hemp, are re- markable for the tenacity of their fibres. Even the common nettle, familiar to the farmer as a weed, possesses this property. The hemp is supposed to be of Eastern origin. It is very gene- 438 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FIBRES. rally diftiised over tlie world, and has been used for supplying cordage and cloth for a period unknown. The hemp is a fine and graceful plant. It is dioecious, that is, the male and female flowers are produced on different plants. It grows with us, in the fields, to the height of 5 or 6 feet,’ but in the richer soils of warmer countries it attains to a much greater elevation. In the fertile plains of Lombardy, it rises to the height of 1 2 feet or more ; and, mingled with the maize and other culti- vated plants, gives an air of surpassing richness to the landscape. The leaves of the hemp are powerfully narcotic ; its seeds are nourishing, and are eagerly consumed by birds ; and they produce an oil which is used for many purposes of the arts. But the great use of hemp is for the making of cordage and canvass. For this, its tough, durable, and elastic fibres are suited beyond any other substance. The supply of hemp for the cord- age and canvass of the shipping of this country is immense, and forms a vast trade with the ports of the Baltic. But, besides be- ing used for the canvass of sails, sacks, and other coarser fabrics, hemp is employed in forming numerous cloths used in domestic economy, as towels, coarser table-cloths, and the like. Hemp, like flax, prefers a rich vegetable soil, but it is not at all nice in the choice of soils, growing in clay, sand, or peat, provided merely the land is kept rich with manures. Hemp, too, possesses the property of growing upon the same spot for successive years without degeneracy. For hemp the land may be prepared in the same manner as for flax. But hemp, unlike to flax, may precede or follow a crop of corn in the rotation ; and the reason is, that while flax invariably renders the land more foul, the tendency of hemp is to smother and choke all other plants. Grass-seeds, too, cannot be sown with hemp, because they would be destroyed under the shade of its thick foliage. Hemp may be introduced into the rotation in such a manner as the following : — 1. Fallow or green crop; 2. Wheat; 3. Sown grasses; 4. Hemp; 5. Oats. Or, 1. Fallow manured; 2. Wheat HEMP. 439 or other corn-crop ; 3. Sown grasses; 4. Oats ; 5. Hemp manured ; 6. Corn-crop. Or, in very rich soils, hemp may follow hemp, pro- vided the land is largely manured every second year. The^ land intended for hemp should always be ploughed in time to receive the influence of frost ; and when it follows a corn-crop, besides a deep ploughing before winter, it should receive two or more ploughings in spring, so as to reduce the soil to a fine tilth, and free it of root-weeds. The period of sowing hemp is later than that of sowing flax, for it is more easily injured by the frosts of spring. It may be sown towards the end of April, or beginning of May. The best seeds are held to be those obtained from Riga ; but wherever the seeds are procured, care must be taken that they be fresh, which will be known by their being heavy and bright in the colour. The quantity of seeds soavii to the acre is generally from 2 to 3 bushels, and the common method of sowing is broadcast. But hemp is well suited to be sown in rows, this method of cultivat- ing it presenting the advantage of allowing the intervals to be well tilled, and of admitting air to the plants. The distance between the rows may be 30 inches. The horse and hand hoe may be both employed. In the first hoeing, the plants should be hoed out to the distance from one another of a foot in the rows, and after the interval of a month or six weeks, another horse and hand hoeing should be given, which will com- plete effectually the summer culture of the hemp. But the common practice in the hemp districts is to sow broad- cast, hoeing the plants to the distance from one another of a foot or 16 inches, and giving another hoeing after an interval of a month or six weeks. There are other districts, again, in which it is common to give no other culture than to pull up the larger weeds, trusting to the rapid growth of the hemp to overtop all kinds of plants. As the season advances, the hemp groAvs with great rapidity, and in autumn it is pulled up. But the cii-cum stance of the male 440 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FIBRES. and female flowers being on different plants gives rise to a pecu- liarity in the method of treating the hemp which exists in the case of no other of our cultivated plants. The male plants are distinguished from the female hy their producing numerous flowers. These, after they have stood suf- ficiently long to discharge their pollen, are pulled up, the female plants being allowed to stand for several weeks longer, to ripen their seeds. The period of pulling the male plants is generally five or six weeks before pulling the female or seed-bearing plants. Thus there are two harvests of the hemp, the one five or six weeks before the other. When the period of pulling the male plants arrives, which is denoted by the forming of the seed upon the female plants, the pullers walk between the drills, when the row- system is adopted, and, when the broadcast is used, in the furrows between the ridges, and stretching across, pull up the stalks, taking care not to tread upon or break down those that are to remain. The male plants are easily known at this time by their yellowish colour and faded flowers. When pulled, they are tied in small bunches, pre- vious to being carried to the pool to undergo the process of steep- ing, as in the case of flax. ' The second pulling takes place when the female plants have matured their seeds. This is known by the brownish colour of the capsules, and by the fading of the leaves. The plants are then bound in bunches and set up on end to dry, in the same manner as sheaves of corn. When the whole are so dried that the capsules can be easily rubbed from the stalk, the sheaves are slightly thrashed, and thus the capsules are se- parated from the stems. When this is done, the plants are taken in small bunches to the pool to be steeped. The male plants, we perceive, undergo the process of steeping before the female plants. The manner of performing it is in both cases the same. But often the female plants do not under- go the process of preparation in the same year, but are stacked, so as to be prepared in the following s})ring and summer. HEMP. 441 As it is in some cases necessary to economize the water used for steeping, the water of one pit or pool is made to serve the purpose of successive waterings. Sometimes five waterings take place in the same pool ; but there should not, if possible, be more than three without the admixture of fresh water, since the fresher the water is the better. The bunches are generally placed in the pool in rows, cross- ing one another, and pressed down by some heavy substance laid upon them, so as to be kept from rising to the surface, care being at the same time taken that they are not so loaded as to be forced down to the bottom. If the weather be warm, four or five days will frequently be sufficient; if not, two or three more; but the period is denoted by the stem being so softened that the outside coat shall come easily off*. Care must be taken, as in the case of flax, that the putrefactive process does not proceed so far as to injure the cortical fibres. The quantity put into one pool may be the pro- duce of an acre; but it is better that the quantity be small and the pits shallow. When the hemp is thus steeped, it is, like flax, taken out of the pool and carried away to a plot of sward, on which the plants are spread singly and regularly. The hemp thus spread out, lies three, four, or more weeks upon the surface, and is turned over not less than twice a-week. It is thus subjected to the further influence of the rains and dews, and the decomposition of the ligneous part of the stem is promoted. By this process the stem becomes hard and brittle. When the hemp is seen to be in a fit state for removal, it is taken from the ground, bound into bunches, and carried home to the barn, where it undergoes the process of bruising by the ma- chine called a break, as in the case of flax. When thus prepared it is bound up in bunches, generally weighing a stone each, and carried to market. The hemp which breaks off in the operation is technically termed shorts ; and is half the value of the long hemp. The refuse is used as fuel. Often the steeping process or water-rotting is omitted, and the hemp is simply dew-rotted. Thus, when the female plants are 442 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FIBRES. not immediately prepared, but are dried and stored up during winter, they are not put into the steeping pool, but spread on the sward early in the next season, as in January or February, regu- larly turned, and exposed for a sufficient time to the influence of the weather. In this manner the necessary decomposition of the stem takes place ; but it is always better to hasten the fermen- tatiye process by steeping, the texture of the hemp being injured by too long exposure. After the hemp has undergone the operation of breaking, it passes into the hands of various artizans. - The first operation is that of heckling, which is done either by the hand or by machinery. The hemp is first beaten, and then dressed by means of fixed heckles, resembling those used for flax. It is arranged into sorts, finer or coarser, to suit the de- mands of purchasers. It then passes into the hands of the spinner, of the whitster, as he is called, of the weaver, and of the bleacher. The produce of hemp in rough fibre, that is, before heckling, varies from 30 to 50 stones and upwards per acre. It leaves a large return when the crop is good, but the expense of labour in all cases is considerable. The quantity of seeds produced is not less various than that of the fibre; 10 or 12 bushels to the acre are considered as a medium produce, but this quantity is often considerably exceeded. It is a question in the case of hemp, as of flax, how far it is expedient to extend its cultivation in this country. In many cases, certainly, hemp might form a profitable subject of culture. It is held to be a good paying crop in the districts where it is yet raised, and in many cases the value of the first crop of hemp raised from peaty soils might be found to be more than the fee- simple of the ground. But yet, as an object of general culture, it does not appear that much public or private benefit would re- sult from an increase in the production of hemp. It is a plant that requires a large supply of manures, not always easily ob- tained, and a degree of minute labour not always consistent with tlie regular business of a well-ordered farm. It can be obtained. HEMP. 443 too, in unlimited quantity from other countries ; and it appears that the home cultivation of it has diminished as the commercial relations of the country have been multiplied and extended. Of the textile plants of Northern Europe, greatly the most important are the flax and hemp. Numerous plants, however, yield fibre of sufficient tenacity for forming threads. Some of these have been partially cultivated, or made the subject of experiment. Many of the Nettle tribe, as well as the hemp, yield tough and durable fibres. The Common Nettle, Urtica dioica, might be used for this purpose. Urtica nivea, the Chinese or White- leaved Nettle, is a native of China, Japan, and other countries of the East, where it is used for making cordage, and sometimes thread. No satisfac- tory experiments are recorded of the culture of this plant in Europe. The Siberian or Hemp-leaved Nettle, Urtica cannahina, is a native of Siberia, whence its seeds were brought to St Peters- burg, and dispersed over Europe. No conclusive experiments upon it, as the subject of culture, seem to have been made. Urtica canadensis, and others of the genus, have been proposed for use ; but experiments upon them as the subjects of useful culture, are entirely wanting. The Hop, Humulus lupulus, which is of the Nettle family of plants, likewise yields tough and durable fibres, but the fibres are with difficulty separated from the stem, and the plant is never cultivated for this purpose. Asclepias syriaca, Syrian Swallow-wort, is one of the textile plants. It is a native of Canada, though termed Syrian. In Canada it fills the woods Avith its fragrance when in fiower. Its seeds are surmounted by tufts of silky down, which can be used like cotton. This plant, though long knoAvn in England, has never been cultivated for economical uses. It is perennial, and may be planted in rows. Its habit is to send forth numerous shoots, and in the third year these Avill have covered all the ground. Independently of the down of its seeds, the bark of the 444 PLAINTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FIBRES. plant yields fibres like the hemp, and, it is said, more abundantly. It has been partially cultivated in France, in some parts of which it may be said to be naturalized. Its cultivation has made some progress in Silesia. How far it could be advantageously introduced into the agriculture of the north of Europe is not yet known. Various common plants yield fibres of sufficient toughness to be made into thread ; as the Esparto Rush, Stipa tenacissima, which is used in Spain for obtaining coarse thread ; the Common Broom, Cytisus scoparia : the Spanish Broom, Spartium jun- ceum : the Hemp Marsh-Mallow, and other Malvaceae ; different species of Aloe, and several plants of the Lily tribe. Phorrnium tenax. Iris-leaved Flax-lily, sometimes termed New Zealand flax, has recently attracted attention for the uses of its fibres. This plant grows with broad, stiff leaves, like plants of the Lily tribe. It is found in New Zealand and Norfolk Island, where its fibres are converted into threads, fishing-lines, cloth, and mats. It has since been used for cordage for ships, and it is found to be well suited for the purpose ; and it has recently been manufactured into various coarse fabrics in this country. It has been long grown in gardens in England ; and, in the south of Ireland, some attempts were made to cultivate it for use. The iris-leaved flax-lily, however, requires a warmer temperature than we possess in these islands. The warmer regions of the world abound in plants possessing a fibrous structure of the bark, which renders them capable of being employed in the making of ropes, thread, and cloth. Other plants, of various families, produce a down which en- velopes their seeds. Of these, greatly the most important, and now an object of vast consumption, is the Cotton plant Gossy- pimn. This is the plant of warmer countries, and can only be known in the colder parts of Europe as the subject of commerce. The warmer parts of the temperate zone, and also the intertropi- cal regions of America, Asia, and the accessible parts of Africa, can furnish us with the down of the cotton seeds in unlimited (piantity. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR OILS. 445 Several native plants furnish a pappus or down which may be converted into cloths. The down of some kinds of Eriophora, or Cotton-grasses, the produce of our bogs and heath soils, has been manufactured into cloth, and exhibited in the country as curious native productions ; but no economical benefit can result from the use of these substances. 4. Plants Cultivated for their Oils. The plants usually cultivated in the north of Europe for their oils, are — 1. The Rape, and other plants of the Cabbage genus. 2. The Mustard, the Radish, the cultivated Camelina, and other CruciferaB. 3. The Hemp and Flax. 4. The Poppy. The oils which these plants yield are obtained by bruising their seeds, and are termed Fixed Oils. There is another class of oils obtained by distillation, termed Volatile Oils. These last are yielded in an especial manner by plants of the Mint family ; but the plants producing them are rarely the subjects of cultivation on the large scale. Of the oil-bearing plants of the north of Europe, the most ex- tensively cultivated are the fusiform varieties of the genus Bras- sica, namely, — 1. Brassica Napus — Rape or Cole. 2. Brassica campestris — Navew, Rape or Colza. 3. Brassica Rapa — Turnip.- 4. Brassica praecox — Early Cole. The two last-mentioned species are only partially cultivated for their oils ; the two former are regarded as the most important of our oleaginous plants. The manner of cultivating these plants for their leaves has been described, and there is no other dilference in the manner of cultivating them for their seeds, than suffering them to stand un- 440 PLANT8 CULTIVATED FOR THEIR OILS. til they are ripe. The turnip and early cole will usually ripen their seeds in the same year, and so will the other species, if sown sufficiently early, and if the produce of spring-sown seeds is sown ; for these, like other cultivated plants, acquire the habit of late or early ripening, according to the period at which they are habi- tually sown. The proper period, however, of sowing the seeds of the rape in this country is in summer or autumn, that they may ripen their seeds in the following summer. They are to be kept clean by horse and hand hoeing in the first year ; they will be in flower in the May of the following year, and in July the seeds will be ripe. The plants are best reaped by the sickle, and the operation is to be performed with care, so as to prevent the loss of seeds by shaking. The plants may be bound into bunches, and placed in stacks until it is convenient to thrash them. But it is better to thrash them as soon as they are dried. This may be done in the field, if the weather is good, by thrashing on boards, with sheets of canvass spread underneath ; or the crop may be carried home to the barn and thrashed there. The seeds are easily disengaged from the pods, and the most suitable instrument for the purpose is the flail. The dried stems are of little value. They are sometimes given to cattle in place of straw; but it is better that they be employed only as litter, and so made into manure. They are sometimes burned for the potash they contain. The seeds are spread for a time upon the granary floor, not less than several weeks. They are then bruised in mills of differ- ent construction. The mill used for the bruising of the seeds of this and other plants for oil, is in most parts of Europe a very simple machine, consisting merely of a millstone placed vertically, and moved round by a horse or mule in a circular trough. The seeds being placed before it, it crushes them, and so the oil is expressed. More perfect mills, however, are employed, and perform the work by stamping. In Holland, the Netherlands, and part of Grermany, PLANTS CULTIVATED FOll THEIR OILS. 447 where the culture of the oil-plants is extensively practised, it is common to have an oil-mill attached to the farm. In England, the seeds of the oil-plants are always sent to the oil-manufacturer, the preparation of the oil forming a distinct profession. The refuse, consisting of the husks after the oil is expressed, is rape-cake. This being ground, forms the manure called rape- dust. Besides the rape and other species of cabbage, the plants of the Sinapis or Mustard genus, and of the Raphanus or Radish genus, yield oils from their seeds, and may be cultivated for that purpose. Of the genus Sinapis, either the white or the black species may be sown. The black mustard, Sinapis nigra, is the species usually cultivated for the well-known condiment mustard. But the white species, Sinapis alba, is rather better suited for the production of oil, it being more productive of pods, and less sub- ject to injury from insects in the early stages of its growth. Ei- ther of these species may be sown in March or April, and in July or August the crop will be ripe. They are easily cultivated, but they are apt to spring up again from seeds that have not vege- tated in the first year. The Raphanus, or radish, is equally suited to yield oils as the mustard. The common radish, Raphanus sativus, is well known as a salad. It should be cultivated, as all such plants should, in rows ; and, as it spreads over a considerable space, sufficient room should be given to it. It flowers and bears seeds for a long time during the season, but no difficulty exists in knowing the proper period for reaping it. A variety, derived from China, has been supposed to be more productive of seeds than that in common cultivation, and has been accordingly termed Raphanus sativus oleifer. The mustard and the radish have this superiority as oil-plants over the rapes commonly cultivated, that they are sown and reaped in the same season. The quality of the oil is nearly equal. But these plants are never cultivated on the large scale in Eng- 448 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR OILS. land. They are, however, supplied in considerable quantities to the oil-manufacturers by nurserymen, who dispose of their spare produce in this manner. Even the wild mustard and wild radish, plants which sometimes spring up in vast quantities in our cul- tivated fields, yield seeds which produce oil ; and sometimes the produce of these destructive weeds may in this manner be turned to account. Almost all cruciferous plants yield more or less of oil. One of these, Camelina sativa, cultivated Camelina, is a plant produced in various parts of Germany and Italy for this purpose. This plant is, like the last-mentioned species, an annual, and is raised with facility. It grows spontaneously over a great part of Europe, and is a frequent weed amongst flax. It grows best on light sandy soils, and in the south of Europe two crops of it can be produced within the year. The oil it produces is said to be fine in quality, retaining a good flavour, and in burning it does not produce any disagreeable odour. In the south of Europe it is sown in April or May, and is sometimes ready in less than three months, so that it is one of the quickest growing of the oleaginous plants. The seeds are sown thin, and the plants hoed if too thick. It is pulled or cut, and laid in a covered place to complete the ripening and drying of the seeds. These being then freed from the stalks by beating, are winnowed, dried, and bruised. Linum usitatissimmn, flax, yields an oil by expression, which is greatly used in the arts. But it is cultivated at the same time for its fibres ; and for obtaining its oil it is merely suffered to stand until its seeds are matured. The manner of separating the capsules which contain the seeds from the stems, has been de- scribed. The seeds are bruised in the same manner as those of the other oleaginous plants. The refuse after expression is termed oil-cake, and forms a nutritive food for cattle. The seeds of the hemp, in like manner, yield oil, which is em- ployed for nearly the same purposes as the oil of flax. The hemp, however, being dioecious, only part of the crop yields oil, namely, the female or seed-bearing plants. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR OILS. 449 The Poppy is cultivated in various parts of Europe for its oil. The oil of the poppy is sweet, and well suited for domes- tic uses. It is esteemed to be the next in quality to that of the olive. Any of the species of Papaver will yield oil. But that which is generally cultivated in Europe for this purpose, is one or other of the varieties of Papaver somniferum, the sleep-bringing or opium poppy. The soil for the poppy requires to be well pulverized and manured. In the parts of Flanders where it is cultivated, this point is especially attended to. It frequently succeeds rape in the ro- tation, manure being applied to both crops. It should be sown early, as in March or April, cultivated in rows, and the plants thinned out to 6 or 8 inches distant. The mode of reaping it in Flanders is peculiar. Sheets are laid along the line of the stand- ing crop, upon which the reapers, gently bending the heads for- ward, shake out the seeds from the capsules. When no more seeds will fall from the capsules, the row is pulled up and placed in upright sheaves, in order to allow those capsules to ripen which had not at first yielded their seeds. The sheets are then drawn forward to the next row, and so the process is continued throughout the field. Some plants of the natural family Compositce yield seeds which will produce oils by expression. One of these, Helianthus an- nuns, the Sunflower, has been cultivated in some parts of Europe for this purpose. This plant, a native of America, and familiar to us as a garden flower, is easily cultivated. But it does not rank high as an oil-bearing plant, and its seeds are more usefully employed for the feeding of domestic fowls. Another plant of the same family. Madia saliva, likewise a native of America, has been recently cultivated in Europe for its oil, and the result of the experiment is said to have been favourable. Several of the natural family Umhelliferoi may be also culti- vated for their oils. One of these is Coriander, Coriandrum sati- vum, a plant which is, however, more frequently cultivated for the aromatic flavour of its seeds. 450 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR OILS. Of the trees whose fruits or seeds yield oils, the most import- ant is the Olive, derived originally, it is believed, from the East, hut now cultivated on all the shores of the Mediterranean, and the southern countries of Europe. The oil of the olive is obtained in small quantity from its seeds, but chiefly from the pulpy sub- stance of its fruit. The Almond is a tree yielding oil of high estimation, but its cultivation is confined to the warmer countries. Proceeding north- wards, the olive is succeeded by the walnut, the beech, and the hazel. The oil of these plants is obtained from the seeds, and is sometimes mixed with and sold as the oil of the olive. The warmer regions of the world abound in plants producing oils ; such is Bicinus communis, the Castor-oil plant, which is also cultivated in the south of Europe. There, however, it is only an herbaceous plant ; but in Africa and the warmer parts of Ame- rica, where it is largely produced, it is a tree. In the Brazils it affords the principal part of the oil consumed in lamps. Another of the oleaginous plants of warmer countries is Ara- chis hypogcea, American Earthnut. This plant is remarkable for ripening its seeds under ground. It has been cultivated in the south of Europe; and with some care it has been made to ripen its seeds in the latitude of Paris, and is grown abundantly in the Southern United States of America. . Another of the oleaginous plants is Sesamum, Oily Grain, of which there are several species. Oily grain is one of the princi- pal herbaceous oil-plants of Africa and eastern countries. It was an oil-plant of the ancient Jews, as it still is of their descendants, of the Arabs, and of other Eastern nations. In Asia, it is the most generally diffused of all the oleaginous plants. It is gi’own in the south of Europe, but is unfit for cultivation in higher lati- tudes. The growing of the oil-plants forms an important part of the agriculture of many countries. In England the cultivation of these plants is regarded as of minor interest, and is little practised ; not because oil is little consumed in England, but because that which PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR DVES. 451 is required for domestic purposes and tlie arts can be derived from other countries by commerce. 5. Plants Cultivated for their Dyes. The plants cliiefly cultivated in the north of Europe for their dyes are : — 1. Isatis tinctoria — Woad. 2. Rubia tinctorum — Madder. 3. Reseda Luteola — Weld. Isatus tinctoria, Woad, is indigenous in various parts of Europe. It is one of those plants which yield the deep blue colouring matter so greatly valued in the arts, Indigo. It was in extensive use in Europe previous to the introduction of the indigo of commerce, which is derived from the green parts of cer- tain sj^ecies of Indigofera, the production of warmer countries. Woad is a perfectly hardy plant, and in this climate is a bien- nial. Its seeds may be sown early in spring, in which case a cer- tain produce of leaves may be obtained in the same season ; or it may be sown in summer or autumn, Vvhen the return is obtained in the second year. The plant requires a deep rich soil, perfect preparation of the ground, and a careful tillage during the period of growth. It is best cultivated in rows, at such distances from one another as to admit of the operation of the horse and hand hoe. It is usually grown on a flat surface, although it may be cultivated in raised drills in the same manner as turnips. When the leaves are of their full size, and before they have begun to change to their paler colour, they are picked off* by the hand ; and in this manner suc- cessive crops are obtained during the season ; and when the plants have shot forth their flowering stems in July or August, the land is ploughed and prepared for anotlier kind of crop. The leaves, when collected, are washed, and, being dried, are carried to a mill similar to that used for bruising the seeds of oil-plants. The paste obtained is placed in heaps and fermented, 452 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR DYES. tand the heaps are then broken down and formed into halls, which are the subject of commerce : or else the paste is first formed into halls, which are dried in proper apartments ; and to fit these balls for the dyeing process, they are reduced to powder in the same mill which had been employed to form the paste. The ground material is then spread 3 feet deep on a floor, moistened with water and slowly fermented. Being then gradually cooled, it is ready for being stored in casks, or otherwise preserved until re- quired for use. The colouring substance may also be obtained, like that of the indigo plant, separately from the leaves. This is done by fer- menting the leaves in water, and extracting the colouring sub- stance from the green part of the plant. The process is described in a work drawn up by the Trench Government in 1811, at which time the cultivation of woad was a favourite object with Napoleon, in his endeavours to find substitutes for the colonial produce of other countries. This method of preparation, however, does not seem to have been extended ; and less artificial processes prevail where the woad-culture is practised. The culture of woad, and the preparing of the leaves, require a minute care scarcely compatible with the regular business of the farm, as practised in this country. But the yet greater objection to its more extended culture is the uncertainty of the returns, arising from the competition of the indigo of commerce, which can be obtained in great abundance from the intertropical coun- tries of Asia and America. The next of the common dye plants of Europe is Madder, Rubia tinctorum. This plant has an annual stem, but it is from the root that the dye is produced. Like others of the family to which it belongs, it tinges with red the milk, the urine, and the bones of the animals that feed upon it. The root is composed of long succulent fibres, which strike deep into tlie ground. The plant is best raised from sets, and should be cultivated in rows with a good distance between. The method of the drill turnip-culture seems entirely suited to the habits of this plant ; and doubtless in this manner it could be PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR DYES. 453 successfully raised. The roots are taken up before winter in the third year, at which time, if the soil has been suitable, they will be frequently found extending from 3 to 4 feet deep in the earth, The proper kind of soil for this plant is a deep sand. The roots, when taken from the ground, are dried by a mode- rate heat, and then pounded by stampers. The first beating sepa- rates an inferior kind of madder mixed with impurities ; the second beating a medium sort ; the third is the interior and brighter part of the roots, called in this country crop-madder. The dye thus produced is a peculiar red, and is a substitute for cochineal. Holland was long the country from which we derived our sup- plies of madder, and the plant is still much cultivated by the Dutch and Flemings. It can be readily raised in England, for it is not a plant of difficult culture ; but experience has shewn, that it can be produced more cheaply in countries where the climate is more favourable, and the cost of production less. Weld, or Dyer’s Weed, Reseda Luteola^ is another of this class of plants. It is of the Hesedacese, or mignonette family. It is a native, and generally a biennial. It is found in earth brought from a great depth, as the rubbish of coal-mines. Weld affords a fine yellow dye for cotton, wool, silk, and other substances. Weld and the bark of the Quercus tinetoria yield the principal yellow dyes employed in the arts ; but the latter is now in the most general estimation in this country. Weld is the most easily cultivated of all the dye plants, grow- ing on a variety of soils, without requiring one of great fertility. It may be cultivated in the same manner as the clovers and com- mon grasses, that is, it may be sown with any crop of corn, and reaped the folloAving year. In this manner it is sometimes cul- tivated, being mixed with the clovers and grasses, and plucked up from amongst them when it is in flower. But the surer method of cultivating the weld is by itself, in which case it may be sown, in the month of May or later, broad- cast or in rows. The surface of the ground should be well smoothed, and the seeds, which are very small, lightly covered. The plants are to be carefully cleaned during the period of their 454 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR DYES. growth, and in the month of J uly in the second year they will he in full flower, and then they are to be pulled up, without waiting for the ripening of the seeds. The plants are pulled up by the roots, and set upright, gene- rally four together, to dry. When they are sufficiently dry, which will he in the course of a week or more, they are bound into larger bundles, in which state they are ready for sale ; or they may be stacked, and preserved for years without suffering injury. The culture of the weld, therefore," differs from the other dye plants in this, that no part of the preparation of the dyer falls upon the grower. The dye, when extracted from the stalk, must be soon used, otherwise it will ferment and become useless. The produce varies greatly with the seasons, being from 12 to 40 cwt. of stems or more to the acre. It sometimes yields a good profit, but the demand for it is very uncertain. It is ex- ceedingly subject to a species of blight. Coupling this with the unequal demand, little advantage seems likely to be derived from the more extended culture of it in this island. The woad, the madder, and the weld, are the plants usually cultivated on the large scale for their dyes in the north of Europe. But innumerable other plants yield those beautiful substances, and are partially cultivated : — 1. Crocus sativus, Saffron Crocus, an autumnal species of a genus knoAvn to us as yielding amongst the earliest of our vernal flowers. The plant is cultivated from bulbs. The dye pro- duced is saffron, and it is derived from the stigma and style of the plant. The colour of the crocus, however, is very fugitive, being obliterated by the action of the solar rays. 2. Cartliamus tinctorius, Bastard saffron or safflower. It is the flowers of the plant Avhich are used for dyeing. The dye produced is of two kinds, a yelloAv and red. The yellow is se- parated by maceration in running Avatcr. The remaining dye is a delicate red, more beautiful even than cochineal, but it is little permanent. When ground Avith pure talc, it forms the kind of PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SUGAR. 455 rouge termed by the French rouge vegUale, The seeds yield also an oil, which is used in medicine and painting. The plant is cultivated in various parts of Europe, and extensively in Egypt and the Levant, whence great quantities are imported into Eng- land for painting and dyeing. 3. Nerium tinctormm. Dyer’s Oleander, one of a genus of beautiful evergreens, yields indigo, and it is believed might be cultivated for that purpose. 4. Galium verum^ Lady’s bedstraw, a familiar plant of the natural family Buhiacece, and yielding, like the madder, a red dye. 5. BJiamnus infectorius. Yellow-berried buckthorn, the fruit of which produces a yellow dye, is cultivated in France under the name of Graine d' Avignon. The dye is extremely fugitive. 6. Croton tinctorium, Officinal Croton, yielding a beautiful blue, which is employed to dye silks and wools. This substance is known to us under the name of Turnsole. A vast number of other plants could be enumerated as yield- ing dyes, and capable of being cultivated for that purpose. The colours they yield are more or less valued for their permanence and beauty. 6. Plants Cultivated for their Sugar. Of the plants which are either cultivated, or which admit of cultivation, for their sugar, the following may be enumerated : — 1. Beta cicla et vulgaris — White and Common Beet. 2. Brassica Rapa, Solanum tuberosum, Pastinaca sativa, and other plants producing tubers and mucilaginous roots. 3. Vitis vinifera, and other species of Grape. 4. Betula alba — The Birch. 5. Acer saccharinum — The Sugar-Maple. 6. Saccharum officinarum — The Sugar-Cane. The Beet has been cultivated largely in France for its sugar. 456 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SUGAR. The sugar produced can be crystallized, and is then little inferior to that deriyed from the sugar-cane ; but it cannot yet enter into competition with the latter with respect to cheapness of produc- tion. The manufacture in France owed its origin to the rude plans of Napoleon, to render his empire independent of the sugar of commerce, and is now only maintained by a system of fiscal re- gulations, which exclude, or admit only, on unfavourable condi- tions, the produce of the sugar-plants of the tropics. Although, under the artificial system by which it is supported in France, the manufacture of the sugar of beet cannot be regard- ed with favour, yet it is of great interest and curiosity, as evin- cing the large quantity of sugar which exists in certain vegetables, or the facility with which their constituent parts may be converted into this nutritive and grateful substance. Besides the beet, the roots of many common plants produce sugar ; such are the turnip, and others of the cabbage genus ; the potato, the parsnep, and other plants which have tubers or large mucilaginous roots. None of these, however, has been cul- tivated on the large scale for sugar, though many of them have been subjected to experiments, which evince the possibility of de- riving sugar from them in considerable quantity. The Vine, Vitis vinifera, and other species of Grrape, yield sugar ; but they are never cultivated for this purpose ; for, while they are inferior to other plants for the production of sugar, they are superior to any for the special purpose for which they are cultivated — the production of wine. The Birch, Betula alba, when its stem is perforated, yields a large quantity of juice, from which sugar may be obtained by boiling ; and the inhabitants of countries where the birch abounds, supply themselves, in this manner, with a species of domestic sugar. The Sugar-Maple, Acer saccharinum, is one of the innumerable marvels of the American forest, extending over a vast tract of country, from Lake St John, in Canada, to the upper parts of Pennsylvania. The juice is extracted in the early part of the year, while the ground is yet covered with snow, by boring holes PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR SUGAR. 457 with an auger in the trunk. The juice, which continues to flow for fire or six weeks, is conreyed to a trough at the foot of each tree, and collected every day, and poured into casks, from which it is drawn to fill the boilers, which are upon the spot. It is then evaporated by means of a brisk fire, until the liquid is reduced to a syrup, when it is left to cool, and it is then strained through woollen cloth, to separate the impurities. It is boiled a second time, until it is of a proper consistency to be poured into moulds. The sugai’ obtained in this manner is equally grateful to the taste as the brown sugar derived from the sugar-cane ; and it is equally suited for culinary uses ; and when it is refined, it equals the finest sugars consumed in Europe. The sugar of the maple sup- plies a large internal consumption in Canada and the Northern United States of America ; but the plant has not been introduced for this purpose into the culture of Europe. Other species of Acerinece yield sugar, but none of them in quantity equal to the sugar-maple. But the plant which yields the largest supplies of this substance is the Sugar-cane. This plant is of the natural family Graminese, and it is of all the family that whose juices are the richest in sac- charine matter. The sugar-cane, however, cannot stand the cold of high lati- tudes. The zone of its cultivation extends to about 35°, or thence to 40°, on either side of the Equator ; and it is only pro- duced in the temperature of the colder countries of Europe by artificial means. It is partially cultivated in the islands of the Greek Archipelago, and its cultivation yet lingers in some of the provinces of Spain ; but it is scarcely now regarded as one of the cultivated plants of Europe. Its produce, however, can be ob- tained, in unlimited quantity, from the intertropical regions of either hemisphere. 458 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR 7. Plants Cultivated for their Narcotic, Bitter, AND Tannin Principle. 1. Narcotic Principle. Of the plants which afford the narcotic principle, the most im- portant are the Tobacco and the Poppy. 1. The Tobacco, Nicotiana^ is of the Nightshade tribe. It was before seen, that the wholesome and esteemed potato is of this formidable family of plants, possessing in its leaves and root, until expelled by heat, the same dangerous properties. Of the tobacco there are many species. Those most generally cultivated are — 1. Nicotiana tabacum — Virginian Tobacco. 2. Nicotiana rustica — Common Green Tobacco. Some of the many species of tobacco are natives of Asia, but the most important of them have been derived from the New World ; and none of them appears to have been used for luxury or commerce till obtained from that continent. The discovery of this plant is supposed to have been made by Fernando Cortes, in Yucatan, in the Gulf of Mexico, where he found it used universally, and held in a species of veneration, by the simple natives. He made himself acquainted with the uses and supposed virtues of the plant, and the manner of cultivating it, and sent plants to Spain, as part of the spoils and treasures of his new-found World. But it was the Portuguese who were mainly instrumental in diffusing the tobacco plant over Europe and the East. The his- tory of its introduction into different countries is very remarkable, but need not here be detailed. It is known, that the use of this plant, seemingly nauseous, has, in spite of all opposition, taken root as it were in every country, and become apparently essential to the comforts of the inhabitants. Tlie tobacco-plant grows in all the temperate zones to a high NARCOTIC PRINCIPLE. 459 latitude. It is cultivated extensively in Germany, France, and the Low Countries, in Sweden, Kussia, and other parts of Europe. It required a long series of intemperate laws to arrest its pro- gress in England, and its culture there is now directly prohibited, on account of the great revenue derived from the foreign com- modity. It is not necessary here to canvass the policy of these laws. They can be jnstified only on the plea of necessity, which compels us to trust to the importation of foreign tobacco for a large part of the revenue of the country. The tobacco-plant requires a rich light soil, and its cultivation is attended with a considerable labour of detail. The seeds, which are very minute, are generally sown in a shel- tered place, covered during the night to defend them from frosts, and, in the end of May or beginning of June, transplanted to the fields, and set in rows at a sufficient distance from one another. The culture they there undergo is hoeing, to keep them free from weeds, removing insects and injured leaves, and picking off the summits and buds, to prevent the flowering of the plant, and to direct the nourishment to the leaves. When the leaves are ready, the stems are cut over, the plants hung up and dried, and then put up into heaps, and made to un- dergo a degree of fermentation. They are again hung up, the leaves being separated from the stems, and made to undergo a second fermentation, under a certain degree of pressure. The leaves are again dried, and tied together in bundles. They are then packed and compressed in casks, for sale or exportation, which completes the task of the grower. The average produce differs very greatly under different con- ditions of climate and culture. Mr Brodigan, who cultivated the plant extensively in Ireland, states the produce in the county of Wexford at 1200 lb. per acre. The whole details of the operation of culture will be found in various works. The most recent, with respect to its cultivation in this country, is by Mr Brodigan, whose treatise is very complete, and founded on experience. A full summary of the practice, a» 460 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR pursued in different countries, is given in the Nouveau Cours complet Agriculture, by M. Bose. The tohacco-plant is found to grow in all the temperate re- gions, hut that produced within the tropics possesses the finest flavour. The quantity produced and consumed of this plant is immense. It may he asked, what it is which renders this seemingly un- palatable herb so grateful to the palate and the system in every climate, and in every form in which it can be used. Even in the most nauseous way in which it can be consumed, that of chew- ing, the use of it becomes a passion, and few that have used it in any form ever willingly abandon it. It is evidently a soothing narcotic, of which the universal taste of mankind approves ; and it is hard to believe that a taste so universal should be given fora substance that is in itself noxious. It may be abused, indeed, like many gifts of Nature; hut all the presumption is, that, in moderate use, it is harmless as well as grateful. 2. The Poppy is of the genus Papaver, of which there are various species. That which is chiefly cultivated for its narcotic principle is Papaver somniferum— The Opium Poppy. The flowers of this species are sometimes white, when the seeds are also white ; and sometimes the flowers are white and purple, when the seeds are of a darkish-hlue colour. The first is' the variety album, the latter the variety nigrum, of De Can- dolle. The darkish-coloured seeds are obtained from Germany, under the name of maw-seeds. This plant grows, in favourable situations, to the height of five or six feet. The petals of the flowers are of short duration, being succeeded by large round heads, somewhat flattened. It is from these heads or capsules that the opium is derived. Being an annual plant, the poppy, 'when sown in spring, ma- tures its seeds early in autumn. It is of easy culture, and can NARCOTIC PRINCIPLE. 461 be produced in the north of Europe, and the opium extracted from it. In England, the seeds may be sown from the middle of March to the middle of April. The best method of cultivating the plants is in rows ; and on the poppies attaining a few inches in height, they are hoed out to a distance from one another of six or eight inches. When the heads are fully formed, but are yet green, the opium may be extracted. This process is simple, and may be taught to children in an hour. Two or more vertical incisions are made in the capsule with a sharp knife or other instrument, about an inch in tength, and not so deep as to penetrate through the capsule. As soon as the incisions are made, a milky juice will flow out, which, being gluti- nous, will adhere to the capsule. This may be collected by a small hair-brush, such as is used by painters, and squeezed into a little vessel, carried by the person who collects the juice. The incisions are repeated at intervals of a few days all round the capsule, and the same process of collecting the exuded juice is repeated. The juice thus collected is opium. In a day or two it is of the consistence to be worked up into a mass. The narcotic matter of the plant may be also collected by boiling : but it is only the exuded juice that forms pure opium. In the opium-countries of the East, the incisions are made at sunset, by several-pointed knives or lancets. In the following day, the juice is collected, scraped off* with a small iron scoop, and deposited in earthen pots, when it is worked by the hand until it becomes consistent. It is then formed into globular cakes, and laid in little earthen basins, to be further dried. After the opium is extracted from the capsule, the plant is allowed to stand and ripen its seeds. The seeds of the poppy, having nothing of the narcotic prin- ciple, are eaten by the people of the East as a nourishing and grateful food ; and they yield, by expression, an oil which is re- garded as inferior only to that of the olive. 462 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR It is the expense of labour, and the contingency to which tlie plant is subject from rains, that form the principal objection to the cultivation of the poppy in this country for its opium. The latter objection, indeed, is greater than the first. The processes of labour, though minute, are simple, and can be performed by children. The trials that have been made on the culture of the opium plant in this country, notwithstanding the partial success of some of them, lead to the conclusion, that opium may be better obtained from countries with a warmer and less humid climate than that of England. 2. Bitter Principle. 1. The most important of the plants cultivated with us for their bitter principle, is the Hop. The Hop, Humulus Lupuliis, has been cultivated in Europe during an unknown period, for its flowers, which are used for giv- ing a bitter flavour to beer, as well as for preserving it. Its roots are perennial, and its stem ascends trees and other supports. It is a dioecious plant, that is, the male and female flowers are on different individuals. The male plants are technically called wild hops, and are rejected as of no value. The hop is a native of this country, and most parts of Europe. It flowers in England in June or July. The hop is raised from slips taken from the stem, or from sets taken from the root. These are planted either in autumn or in spring ; but the latter is the usual time. The plant is in its full bearing in its third year ; and a plantation generally lasts from 12 to 15 years, when it must be renewed, the old plants being grubbed up, and fresh sets planted. The slips or sets are obtained from the pruning of the planta- tions, or from the roots. Each slip should contain two joints or buds. The slips are sometimes planted in a garden fora season, before being set in a plantation. The manner of forming the hop plantation is this : — The ground BITTER PRINCIPLE. 463 is deeply ploughed, and well prepared. The places where the sets are to be planted are marked out, which may he done by a plough draAYing parallel furrows, at the distance of eight feet from one another, and then by crossing these by similar furrows, at equal distances. The points where these furrows intersect, are the places where the sets are to be planted. At each of these points of intersection, a hole is dug, and some manure put in it. A little hillock is made, and five, six, or seven sets dibbled in, forming a circle round the top of each hillock, at the distance of five or six inches from one another. They are set to incline inwards, and one generally is placed in the centre. In the first year, the plants are tilled and hoed in the intervals, and the earth is drawn by the hoe around the roots of the plants, which is termed earthing. The principal earthing is in the first spring of the growth of the plant, but it is repeated annually after- wards in spring. The process of tilling, hoeing, and earthing up, is an annual operation, and manure is applied generally once in three years. It is either laid on the hills of hops as they are termed, or in the rows. An esteemed manure for this plant is woollen rags. The plants yield nothing during the first year. In the second year they yield their first crop of flowers. In preparation for this the poles are set. This operation is performed generally in the end of April, when the plants are 2 or 3 inches high. The poles consist of straight shoots of ash, oak, willow, or other tree, from 6 to 9 inches in circumference at the base, and tapering to the size of a small cane. Two, but more generally three, or even more poles, are placed on each hill. They are fixed in the ground by making deep holes with an iron-crow, their tops inclining somewhat outwards. The next operation consists in tying to the poles the shoots which it is wished to preserve. This is a work of skill, and one upon the right performance of which, part of the success of the crop depends. The shoots not to be preserved are cut away. The tying up of the shoots is by means of withered rushes, so loosely tied as to allow the free growth of the shoots. When the warm 464 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR weather arrives, the shoots grow with extraordinary rapidity, twining round the pole. The season of picking the hop is usually the beginning of September. The proper period is known by the hop acquiring a strong scent. The manner of performing the work of picking is this : — ■ Frames of wood are raised in the most convenient part of the plantation. These frames consist of four boards nailed to four upright posts, the whole frame being about 8 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet high. Six, seven, or eight pickers, generally women or boys, are placed on the same frame, three or four being on each side. The plants being cut through at the roots, the poles are lifted up and laid on the frames with the hops upon them. The pickers then carefully pick off the flowers of the hops, which they drop upon a large cloth which is hung upon the frame with tenter-hooks. When this cloth is full, the hops are emptied into a large sack and carried home. The hops are then kiln-dried, which is done by placing them on a hair-cloth, 10 or 12 inches deep. The heat is gradually in- creased to the proper height, and continued steady for eight or ten hours. The hops are then taken from the kiln, and laid in a large room or loft until they become cool. The next process is packing the hops into bags or pockets. In the floor of the room is a round hole, equal to the size of the mouth of the bag. The mouth of the bag is then fixed firmly to a strong hoop, which is made to rest on the edge of the hole. The bag is then let through the hole suspended by the hoop, and the packer goes into it. Another person puts the hops into the bag in small quantities at a time, and the packer tramples them firmly down. When the bag is full, it is drawn up, and the end sewed. The hops are now ready for sale. In the mean time, the poles in the plantations have been stript of the stems attached to them, and piled in stacks, to await the following year. The produce of the hop is more variable than that of any other crop. It is frequently nearly a failure. It is sometimes as low BITTER PRINCIPLE. 4G5 as 1 to 2 CAvt. to the acre, and sometimes as high as 20 ; the aA^erage produce may be stated at about 10 CA\^t. or less. The stalks, like those of other plants of the natural family Ur- ticece, yield fibres, Avhich may be made into cloth. They are treated like the hemp ; but the Avoody part is Avith more difficulty sepa- rated, and requires a longer maceration. The hop is liable to diseases and the attacks of insects beyond any other of our cultivated plants. At the first stage of its groAvth, it is attacked by an insect of the flea kind, someAvhat similar to that Avhich attacks the young turnip. At a more ad- A'anced stage, it is attacked by numerous lice as they are called, the young of a little green fly, Avhich frequently greatly injure or totally destroy the plant. Other insects also prey upon it, and plants of the mushroom family groAV upon it, forming mildew or blight. From this general account of the manner of cultivating the hop, it Avill be seen that the cultivation of it is attended with consider- able difficulty, all the processes of tilling and dressing the plant, until its final preparation, requiring minute attention and much la- bour. It is also a very expensive species of cultivation, arising from the large outlay required for the poles. From this circumstance, from the great uncertainty of the returns, and from the whole pre- paration of the produce being subject to the superintendence of the excise, the culture of the hop in this country does not extend, and is not likely to do so. The hop is used for preserving and giving a bitter taste to malt liquor, to which purpose it is exceedingly well suited. Many bitters, however, may be used in place of the hop, and these, on account of the enhanced price of the hop, are employed clandes- tinely in this country to a great extent. Some are injurious, as the Cocculus indicus, which has not only a bitter but a narcotic principle, and is in truth a poison ; and others are innocent. 2. Common Broom, Cyiisas scoparius. The young shoots of this plant yield a bitter ; and the method adopted is to mix a por- tion of them Avith a quantity of hops. 3. MugAvort, Artemisia vulgaris. This plant, like some others 2 G 46G PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR of the natural family to which it belongs, is tonic ; and as it also yields a bitter, it may be used as a substitute for hops. 4. Ground-Ivy, Glechoma Jiederacea. This plant v/as for- merly used for giving a flavour 'to ale. It belongs to the Mint tribe of plants, which are generally tonic and cordial. 5. Marsh- Trefoil, or Buckbean, Menyantlies trifoliata, is a common plant, perfectly wholesome, and as a bitter, is believed to be superior to the hop. It is the roots which are used for this purpose. 6. Quassia is also a bitter, used clandestinely in the brewing of beer. It is derived from the bark of a tree found in the woods of Surinam. It is a very intense bitter, and is used in medicine as well as in brewing. 7. But the most important of the plants yielding bitters are those of the natural family Gentiance. The plants of the Gentian family seem intended by nature to supply this principle. They are herbaceous, and extend over almost every part of the World, from the highest mountains of Europe, to the arid sands of India and America. The principle of bitterness resides in their roots. They are all of them tonic and stomachic. They are the most generally extended febrifuges known, and are, consequently, valu- able medicines for the most fatal class of disorders incident to the human race. Gentiana lutea, Yellow gentian, is a native of the Alps of Europe, and is chiefly employed in France and Eng- land : Gentiana ruhra is the species principally used in Germany : and Gentiana purpnrea in Norway and Sweden. Their proper- ties are the same. The yellow gentian, when formerly employed in the Old English ales, was termed Bitterwort. 3. Tannin Principle. The plants the most commonly employed for the purpose of yielding tannin are the Oak, the Willow, the Chestnut, and the Larch; and it is chiefly from the bark that the tannin principle is derived. TANNIN PRINCIPLE. 467 Of these forest-trees the oak is the most esteemed for its tan- nin, although it appears that certain species of willow are not in- ferior to it in the quantity and quality of the tannin which they produce. The oak produces tannin from its galls, but it is chiefly pro- duced from its bark, and this in the largest quantity when the buds begin to open in spring. It yields the smallest quantity in winter, after the autumnal descent of the sap. It is for this reason that the oak is too frequently cut down at a time which, though favourable for the production of tannin, is not so for the ultimate durability of the timber. Sir Humphrey Davy made various experiments on the quantity of tannin yielded by the bark of difierent species of trees. He found that the greatest quantity was produced by the Leicester willow of large size. From 480 lb. of bark. The Large-sized Willow yielded ... 33 lb. The Common Willow, . . . . 11 Coppice Oak, . . . . .32 Middle-sized Oak cut in spring, ... 29 The Spanish Chestnut cut in autumn, . . 21 The Ash, . . . . . . 16 The Black Thorn, . . . . .16 The Larch, when cut in autumn, ... 8 Of these trees, the larch, it will appear, yields the smallest quantity, weight for weight ; but then the larch produces a considerable quantity of bark, for which reason it is common to strip the trees of their bark when felled. Other coniferous trees are rich in the tannin principle, as the Hemlock-spruce of America. The Myrtle family of plants are some of them very productive of tannin. The loftiest timber trees of New Holland and Van Diemen’s Land are of this family, and tannin in considerable quantity has been recently obtained from the Australian woods. From the same vast country Acacia has been imported on account of its tannin ; for it is to be observed that several of this genus yield tannin in great quantity. In some species of Acacia of the 408 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR RESINS. western parts of America, the extract yielded consists chiefly of tannin. The Sumach is also of a tribe of plants which yield a consider- able portion of tannin : one of the species, Rhus Coriaria, is used in Turkey for tanning the leather of that country ; another of the species, Rhus Cotmus, is said to be cultivated in the Apennines for the same purpose. Tannin is found in the roots and leaves of many other trees and shrubs. Some common plants of the Rose family yield it largely, and indeed it is a very commonly diffused vegetable prin- ciple. 8. Plants Cultivated for their Resins. The most important of the plants yielding resinous substances are the Coniferoi or Fir-tribe. The trees which form the family of Coniferse are of high im- portance, both on account of the timber which they produce, and their numerous secretions. It is with relation to the last of these productions that they are to be here adverted to. These secre- tions are termed resins, and they are of very great importance in the arts. From the Wild Pine, Pinus sylvestris, frequently called the Scotch fir, is obtained common tar. The manufacture is carried on in those vast countries of pine which form so great a part of northern Europe. The manufacture is simple. A conical hole, usually in the side of a bank, being made, roots and fillets of pine are let into the cavity, and the whole is covered with turf, which is beaten firmly down above the wood. The wood being kindled, a slow combus- tion takes place. A cast-iron pan at the bottom of the cavity receives the fluid, and has a spout which projects through the bank and carries the tar into barrels. As quickly as the barrels are filled, they are closed with bungs, when the material is ready for ex])ortation. The manner of preparing tar has been derived PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR RESINS. 469 from the earliest ages. By the further application of heat, the tar is converted into pitch. These two substances, tar and pitch, are of extensive use in the arts. The employment of them in the preservation of the ropes and cordage of shipping is everywhere known. The im- portation of tar into this country from the north of Europe and from America is very great. The tar of America, however, is not derived from the consumption of the wild pine, which does not exist in the New World, but from other species, and chiefly from the swamp pine, Pinus australis. The T^orway spruce, Abies communis, is applied to the same purposes as the wild pine. Common turpentine is likewise an extensive production of cer- tain coniferous trees. It is not obtained by heat, but by the na- tural exudation of the juices of the plants, through incisions of the trunk. Turpentine is resolvable into two parts. The one is rosin, a substance extensively used in the arts. By distillation, oil is obtained, what remains being rosin. The oil of turpentine has frequently the name given to it of spirits of turpentine ; but, though a very powerful substance, it has no resemblance to al- cohol. Turpentine is obtained from others of the pine family besides the wild pine ; and, according to the species from which it is de- rived, the turpentine possesses peculiarities which fit it for dif- ferent purposes in the arts. Turpentine is extensively produced in the United States of America. A sort of cavity is formed at the root of the tree, ca- pable of holding about a pint and a half of juice ; and an incision being made in the bark, the turpentine flows into the cavity, which is emptied five or six times in the season. Venetian turpentine is obtained from Larisc europcea, the Com- mon Larch. The turpentine of the larch is generally obtained from the Alps of the Tyrol ; and the shipping-port being Venice, it thence derives the name of Venetian turpentine. 470 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FRUITS. The Bourdeaux turpentine is derived from the Cluster pine, Pirn IS pinaster . The Strashiirg turpentine is derived from the Silver fir, Abies picea. This majestic tree is extremely prolific of resinous matter. The Cyprus turpentine is obtained from Pistacia Terebinthus, the turpentine tree of the south of Europe. The islands of Cy- prus and Chio are productive of this species of turpentine ; which, liowever, is scarce, costly, and adulterated in commerce with the less valuable kinds. The obtaining of the exuded juice in this manner does not, as in the case of tar, infer the destruction of the tree ; but when tur- pentine is procured by incision, the tree is weakened, and hence, from the small extent of coniferous forests in this country, and from the time required for the collection of the exuded juice, it is found better to derive the turpentine employed in the arts from other countries. Other resinous substances are, in like manner, obtained from various Coniferee ; as the Canadian balsam, from Abies Balsamea ; the Carpathian balsam, from Pinus Pinea ; the Hungarian bal- sam, from Piniis Pwnilio, &c. 1). Plants Cultivated for their Fruits. Of the plants cultivated for tlieir fruits, the following classes may be enumerated : — 1. Vitis vinifera — The Vine. 2. Pyrus Mains — The Apple, and others of the Apple tribe; as the Pear, the Medlar, and the Quince. .‘h Ainygdalus persica — The Peach, and others of the Almond tribe ; as the Plum, the Apricot, and the Cherry. 4. Fragaria vesca — The Strawberry, and other fruit-bearing plants of the Rose family ; as the Raspberry, and others. 5. Ribes grossuhwia — The Gooseberry, and others of the Currant tribe. 6. (hicurbita Pcpo — 'I'he Pumpkin, and others of the Coin'd tribe. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR FRUITS. 471 7. Corylus Avellana — The Hazel, and others of the Oak tribe ; as the Oak, the Chestnut, and the Beech : — Juglans regia, the Wal- nut ; and other trees and shrubs bearing nuts and berries. The first in the order of these fruits is the Vine, the true region of which, in Europe, is to the southward of the 50th degree of latitude. Within this zone, the vine' is the most important of all the plants cultivated for their fruits, employing a large part of the industry of the inhabitants, and yielding the liquor which is in most general use. Beyond the natural limits of the vine, to the north, it is the plant of the garden, and is usually raised by artificial heat. The next class of plants, the Pomacece, or Apple tribe, com- prehends the most important of the fruit-bearing trees of north- ern Europe. They are hardy and of easy culture. They yield fruits employed in many ways as food, and their juice supplies a fermented liquor. They have been cultivated and improved with great care in England, which now numbers a vast variety of this class of fruits. The next class comprehends many of our most esteemed fruits — the Apricot, the Peach, the Nectarine, the Plum, and the Cherry. Though highly valued for their juicy fruits, a danger- ous principle, hydrocyanic or prussic acid, resides in their leaves and kernels, which renders them less safe as food than the fruits of the apple tribe. The Strawberry, of different species, is a native of the Old World and the New, yielding an -esteemed and wholesome fruit. Of this tribe are the Kaspberry, and others, largely produced in the south of Europe. The Gooseberry, and other plants of the Currant tribe, yield fruits which are esteemed in the colder, though not in the warmer parts of Europe. The plants of the Currant tribe are hardy, and of easy propagation. The larger kinds of the Gourd tribe are cultivated in the fields. They yield a great produce where circumstances are favourable to their growth ; but they are suited to the warmer, and not to the 472 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR colder parts of Europe. Of this tribe are the Melon and the Cu- cumber, which are plants entirely of the garden. The last class of plants enumerated, consists of those of which the seeds are eaten. Of this class is the Hazel, which is some- times cultivated on the larger scale ; so likewise are the Chestnut and the Walnut ; hut the chestnut and the walnut belong to the warmer parts of Europe. 10. Plants Cultivated for Fermented and Distilled Liquors. The juices and soluble matter of many plants are susceptible of the vinous fermentation. During this process, a principle is formed, alcohol, which may he obtained separately by distillation. The liquors, in their first state, are fermented liquors ; such are wine, cider, beer. The substances obtained from these, by the process of distillation, are distilled liquors. Many plants are cul- tivated for yielding these substances. The most important of them are the following : — 1. The Vine. 2. The Apple, and other Pomaceae. 3. The Peach, and other Amygdalaceae. 4. The Strawberry, and other Rosace ae. 5 . The Gooseberry, and other Grossulaceae. 6. The Cereal Grasses. 7. The Parsnep, the Carrot, the Beet, and other plants producing mucilaginous roots and tubers. At the head of this class of plants stands the Vine, the fruit of which has, in every age, been employed for the production of fermented liquor. The vine may be cultivated within the tropics, but that is not the natural region of the cultivated vine, which, in the northern hemisphere, may he said to extend from about the 25th to near the 50th degree of latitude. Although of vast importance to the agriculturists of the wine- growing countries of Europe, the fermented produce of the grape FERMENTED AND DISTILLED LIQUORS. 473 can, in this and other countries similarly situated, be regarded only as the subject of commerce, since no supposable contingency can arise in the colder countries to render it expedient to attempt the cultivation of this plant for its wine. It is otherwise with the next class of enumerated fruits, the Pomacece. Tliese are hardy plants of easy culture, suited to the climate, and capable of producing, in unlimited quantity, a nutri- tive and grateful liquor. The wine of the apple is termed cider ; that of the pear, perry. The preparation of cider is a simple pro- cess. The apples being gathered, which must be done when they are thoroughly ripe, are piled into a heap about a foot high. This heap may be defended from the rain, but the air should be allowed access to it. After the fruit has lain for a time to mellow, all de- cayed apples being in the mean time removed, it is carried to the bruising mill. This, in most of the cider countries of Europe, is a very simple machine, consisting merely of a common millstone, placed verti- cally, and made to be moved round in a circular stone-trough by a shaft extending beyond the trough, to which a horse is attached. The vertical millstone should be made of any hard stone, but not of limestone, because the malic acid of the fruit acts upon the cal- careous matter : neither should any lead be employed. The vertical millstone may be 4 feet in diameter, and 10 or 12 inches thick ; the groove in which it is to run in the trough may be 9 or 10 inches deep, of sufficient breadth at the bottom to allow the stone to move freely, and 6 or 8 inches wider at the top than at the bottom. The apples are strewed in the trough, and crushed by the stone as it revolves. The pulpy mass being removed, is allowed to remain about twenty-four hours in a heap, after which it is carried to the cider press. This is usually formed on the principle of a common screw-press. Boards placed horizontally compress the pulpy matter, and the screw which presses them together is moved by levers. The pulp is placed usually in hair-bags, one above the other, between the horizontal boards. These are slightly com- pressed at first, and then more strongly, until the juice is fully 474 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR expressed. The juice is received in proper vessels, and after being pressed through a hair-sieve to retain the grosser parts, it is conveyed to a cask, where it is suffered to ferment. The fermentative process proceeds, and when it is completed the liquor is withdrawn, or racked, as it is termed, the impuri- ties being left behind. Should the vinous juice shew a disposi- tion to ferment a second time, it must be again racked, and so on till the tendency to fermentation be removed. The cider now formed is put into the casks in which it is to remain. It is kept in these until it is fit for being put into bottles, when, if well made, it will be found to be a clear rich liquor, and will remain in these bottles, without loss of its properties, for twenty or thirty years. Cider, then, it appears, is a true wine without any addition to the fermented juice of the fruit. The manufacture of perry is entirely the same as that of cider, the pear being substituted for the apple. The preparation of these liquors is attended with no peculiar difiiculty, and might be extended to every part of the country. It is not the finer garden apples that are required for the cider manufacture. They are rather of the less improved and harsher kinds, approaching somewhat to the wild apple. Nay, the wild apple itself, one of the most easily cultivated of trees, will yield good cider alone, but unexceptionable cider if mixed with a pro- portion of the cultivated apple. In truth, although most writers would have us to believe that there is something of much moment in the choice of a particular kind of apple, it is well established that the principal success of the cider production, in the differ- ent countries of the north of Europe, depends on the manner of performing the operation rather than upon the kind of fruit. The Peach, the Plum, and others of the Almond tribe, also produce liquors, but these are generally distilled liquors. The brandy of the peach is extensively consumed iii some parts of the United States of America. The Strawberry, and other fruit-bearing Rosacece, and the Gooseberry, and other fruits of the Currant tribe, may also bo converted by the vinous fermentation into wine. FERMENTED AND DISTILLED LIQUORS. 475 The general character of these fruits is, that they are deficient in those saccharine properties which suit the grape and the apple tribe to the production of wine. They undergo the acetous in place of the vinous fermentation, and all of them, accordingly, re- quire an addition of sugar to cause them to become wine. The addition of sugar produces readily the fermentation required ; but it is common also to add a distilled liquor to give strength and flavour to them. Those domestic wines are an article of household economy, and although they want the flavour of the wine of the grape, they are not unpalatable. Some of them undergo the vinous fermentation by the sole addition of saccharine matter, and do not require the addition of alcohol ; aud these are true wines. Others again are not palatable, and will not keep without this addition ; and these are not true wines, but a mixture of distilled and fermented liquors. The next kinds of plants producing fermented liquors are the cereal grasses. In these, the soluble matter being obtained by infusion, is fermented, and forms beer. This class of liquors in- cludes ale, porter, and the like, which are merely varieties of beer, their different qualities being produced by variations in the man- ner of performing the fermentative process, and by ditferences in the substances added to give strength and flavour to the liquor. The grains from which these liquors may be derived are chiefly wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, millet, rice. In this country, the grain most commonly employed, and found best suited to the pur- pose, is barley. In. all cases of fermentation, the saccharine appears to precede the vinous fermentation. In the case of brewing from the seeds of the cereal grasses, it is usual, in order to promote the conver- sion of the fecula of the seeds into sugar, to cause them to ger- minate, and then suddenly to stop the germination. The seeds are then termed Malt, and can be preserved foi’ use. This partial conversion of the matter of the seed into sugar is not, indeed, essential, for it appears that, without it, the saccharine fermen- tation will proceed under favourable circumstances. 47G PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN The process of malting, then, is simply the production of a certain degree of germination, by which the starch or fecula of the seeds is partially converted into sugar. The grain is steeped for a time in cold water ; the water is then allowed to drain off ; and the grain is spread out in a thick heap, in which it gradually heats and germinates. When germination has taken place to a certain extent within the grain, the further germination is checked by exposing the grain on a kiln, heated to such a degree as to destroy the vitality of the seeds. The malt, after being bruised, is put into a mash-tun, as it is called, and hot water con- veyed upon it. After this, the infusion is boiled, and, during the process of boiling, hops are added, and it is then cooled and fer- mented. Beer is therefore a wine, the soluble matter of the seed, instead of the pulpy matter of the fruit, being employed. The last of the kinds of plants enumerated for yielding fer- mented and distilled liquors are the parsnep, the carrot, the beet, and other plants producing mucilaginous roots and tubers. The details of the operations differ from those in which the cereal grasses are employed, but the principle of the fermentative pro- cesses is the same. By the vinous fermentation, it has been said, alcohol is pro- duced, which may be obtained separately by the action of heat. This constitutes the art of distillation ; and the substances which are capable of undergoing the vinous fermentation are capable of yielding alcohol by distillation. Many plants not enumerated here are capable of producing fermented and distilled liquors. Thus various common grasses yield them in considerable quantity ; and some berries, as .those of the mountain-ash, ferment as easily as the juice of the grape. 11. Plants Cultivated for their Uses in Domestic Economy and the Arts. The plants cultivated for their uses in domestic economy and the arts constitute a numerous class. They often yield good re- DOMRSTIO ECONOMY AND THE ARTS. 477 turns of profit ; but tliey are rarely cultivated in tlie field, and for the most part they fall more within the province of the gardener than the farmer. Those which may be here pointed out are, — - 1. Dipsacus Fullonum — Clothiers’ Teasel. 2. Sinapis nigra et alba — Black and White Mustard. 3. Coriandrum sativum — Coriander. 4. Carum Carui — Caraway. 5. Glycyrrhiza glabra — Smooth Liquorice. 6. Lavandula Spica — Common Lavender, and other Labiatae. 7. Rosa rubiginosa, and other substitutes for Tea. 8. Cichorium Intybus, and other substitutes for Coffee. Clothiers’ teasel is cultivated in various districts of England for the raising of the nap on woollen cloths, which is done by the crooked awns of the head. For this purpose, the heads are fixed to the circumference of a broad wheel, which is turned round, while the cloth is pressed against them. The clothiers’ teasel is a plant growing several feet high, and terminated by the large head which is employed in the manufac- turing process. The seeds are sown about the beginning of April, on soil well prepared. The general mode of culture is broadcast, though the row system would seem more suited to the plant, which requires cleaning and hoeing during its growth. In the common practice, the plants are hoed out to the distance of 12 inches from one another ; and they are kept free of weeds by hoeing until the plants begin to shoot, which is in the summer of the second year. In proportion as the heads become ripe, they are cut off with a portion of the stem, and are then placed in a shed until they are dry. This crop may yield a good return, but it is necessarily of limited culture. The Black and White mustard are plants cultivated for their oils. They are likewise applicable to other purposes, and in an especial degree to the making of the well-known condiment, mus- tard, which is in use in many countries. Both these species are annual ; they admit of easy culture, and ripen their seeds early in autumn. They may be sown in rows on a flat surface like corn, the distance between the rows being 478 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR USES IN 12 inches, so as to allow a sufficient space for the hand-hoe. They require no other culture than weeding during their growth. When reaped, they are tied in bunches and left a few days to wither, and they are stacked, to remain till they are required for use. It is the black species which is chiefly ground into flour, for mustard ; although the white, which is less pungent, is frequently mixed with it. Both are mixed with the wild mustard, and wild radish ; but the adulteration is not otherwise hurtful than as it is a fraud upon the consumer. Several species of umbelliferous plants are cultivated chiefly for the aromatic flavour of their seeds. Of these are Coriander and Caraway. Coriander is an annual plant, supposed to be a native of the south of Europe, but now naturalized in England. Its leaves and seed-vessels are strongly scented. Its seeds have an aroma- tic taste, and are used for confectionary and seasonings of differ- ent kinds. They are employed by distillers and rectifiers for flavouring spirits, and by druggists for various purposes. The plant is cultivated in Essex and other parts of England, and ripens its seeds in the same year in which it is sown. But it is common to sow it in September, when it is ready early in the fol- lowing autumn. It is sown broadcast, although like many simi- lar plants it may be cultivated in rows. Caraway is of the same class of plants with respect to its uses ; but it is a biennial plant, and is frequently sown with corn, the corn being reaped in the first year, and the caraway in the second. The seed's of the caraway are imported in large quan- tity from Holland. It is a native plant, and admits of easy culture. The Smooth Liquorice is a leguminous plant, the roots of which yield a sweet and mucilaginous substance, which is em- ployed in medicine and for other purposes. It is cultivated in some parts of England. It requires a light soil, deeply dug, and Avcll prepared. The plants are cultivated from sets, in rows, three feet distant. They are tilled by the horse and hand hoe, and DOMESTIC ECONOMY AND THE ARTS. 479 after three summers’ growth the roots are taken up for use. There is a great demand for the produce of the liquorice plant, which, amongst other purposes, is used largely in the brewing of porter. The extract from the root is usually imported from Spain in rolls or cakes. Lavender is cultivated chiefly for the odour of its flowers, which is obtained by distillation. It yields an oil, which is employed in some of the arts. It is a perennial plant, and, is easily culti- vated. Various other species of the mint family, as sage, mar- joram, thyme, and peppermint, are valued on account of their tonic or aromatic properties, and are cultivated on the small scale on that account. Thea viridis, Common Tea, is now the subject of immense com- merce. It is the leaves of this plant that are imported in such vast quantities, and the infusion of which forms something like a necessary of life in certain countries. China and Tartary sup- ply tea in the largest quantity. The leaves of the tea-plant seem to owe their grateful action upon the system partly to their stimulant properties. Many substitutes have been used, and are mixed largely with the tea consumed in this country, but none of them possesses the pro- perties of the tea-plant of Asia. The substitutes are the leaves of some of the”plants of the rose family, as the Rosa ruhiginosa, sweet-brier, and Ruhus arcticiis, common dwarf bramble ; of some of the currant tribe, Ribes ru- hrum, black currant ; of some of the almond tribe, as Prunus spi- nosa, the sloe ; of some of the mint family, as sage and balm ; and of some even of the heaths and ferns. In the United States, the leaves of the sweet-smelling golden rod, Solidago odora, have been found to be a grateful substitute for tea. The Coffee-plant, Caffea arahica, yields a berry, whose decoc- tion forms n well known beverage, the use of which has been de- rived by us from Asia. Europe is now supplied in immense quan- tity with the berry of the coffee-plant from the islands of the West Indies. This decoction is, like that of the tea-plant, grate- ful to the palate, and produces an exciting action upon the sys- 480 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. tern. Many substitutes have been used, but though generally nutritive and wholesome, none of them possesses the flavour and properties of the Caffea arahica. The best of the substitutes for coffee are the seeds of certain leguminous plants, which may be prepared by roasting in the same manner as coffee. Two of these may be mentioned : 1. Astragalus hoeticus, Boetian Milk- vetch, a plant which is cultivated in several parts of Europe, and used in the same man- ner as coffee. 2. Lotus tetragonolohus, Purple Winged-Pea. This plant is cultivated in Spain for the like purpose. It produces beautiful scarlet flowers, and is remarkable for its winged legumes. But the plant which at present attracts the most attention as a substitute for Coffee is the Succory, Cichorium Intghus, which is also cultivated for forage. It is the root of the plant which is used. It is mixed largely with the coffee consumed in France. It is believed not greatly to injure the flavour of the coffee, and some even, from habit, prefer the mixture. 12. Plants Cultivated for their Wood. The plants usually cultivated for their wood are divided into two great classes. Is^, The Coniferce or Fir tribe, called also Besinous trees, and sometimes Soft-wood ; and, 2d, the Amen- taceoe and other tribes, frequently termed Hard-wood. Trees of either class may be raised directly from seeds in the places which they are to occupy ; but experience shews that it is generally more convenient to raise them in some place where they can be tended with care during the first stages of their growth, and, when they have acquired sufficient strength and size, to trans- plant them to the places where they are finally to grow. In this country the care of the nursery has long become a dis- tinct profession, and it is the natural effect of a division of labour that it should be so. Convenience will cause the greater number of planters to resort for their supplies of tree-plants to those PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 481 who devote their attention to the raising of them. But where planting is to be carried on upon an extended scale, the planter may form his own nursery, in which case he has the means of raising his trees with more economy, and on soils more similar to those on which they are to be ultimately cultivated. A nursery of this kind should consist of soil of a medium de- gree of fertility, the extreme of too great richness, or too great infertility, being avoided. The soil, too, should be of the lighter kind rather than of the stiffer, because the lighter soils are better suited than the stiffer to favour the growth of the roots of young plants, and because they are adapted to a greater diversity of the kinds of the cultivated trees. The situation of the nursery should be somewhat airy, without being too much exposed. ^To prepare the soil, it should be deeply trenched and thoroughly cleaned of the roots of weeds. If the land be not of itself fertile, it should receive a moderate manur- ing of lime and dung ; for, although everything like forcing for- ward of the plants is to be avoided, as a great error in practice, care is to be taken that the land shall possess a sufficient degree of fertility to nourish and bring them forward. The seeds of the trees to be cultivated are first sown in what are termed the seed-beds. These may be made about 4 feet wide, with little paths for passages between. The ground of these beds being carefully digged and rendered smooth by the rake, and a little of the surface-soiiJ- being laid aside for the purpose of covering the seeds, these are to be scattered evenly on the surface, and a light wooden roller then passing over it, the earth, which had been laid aside, is to be spread carefully and equally over the seeds. The seeds of resinous trees must be lightly covered, and so also must some of the hard-wood kinds. Those of the larch, the Scotch or wild pine, and the spruce, should be covered about a quarter of an inch, and sown in the month of April ; whilst those of the oak, the ash, the chesnut, the sycamore, and others, may be more deeply covered, and sown at an earlier season. But some 2 H 482 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. of the hard-wood kinds require to be sown at a later period, on account of their being subject to injury from frost ; and some may be sown in summer and autumn. The young plants remain in the seed-beds for one or two years, during which periods they are termed seedlings. Some of the hardier resinous species, as the larch and the wild pine, may be transplanted at once from the seed-beds to the place which they are to occupy in the forest ; whilst others, including several of the resinous, and all the hard-wood kinds, are first transplanted into lines in another part of the nursery, where they remain for one or more years, and then are transplanted to their place in the forest. The most of the resinous trees, when they are to be transplanted into the nursery lines, may be one year’s seedlings ; others of the resinous, and all the hard-wood kinds, should not generally be less than two year’s seedlings before being trans- planted to the lines. The transplantation from the seed-beds to the nursery-lines may take place in autumn, after the descent of the sap, or in spring, before vegetation has commenced. The operation may be performed by the spade, but is often performed by the dibble. The plants are set at such distances in the rows that the horizontal branches of the young trees shall not inter- fere with one another. In transplanting, no part of the root should be lopped or shortened by the knife, nor the roots doubled in putting them into the ground ; and care should be taken in planting, where the dibble is used, that the root shall be fixed firmly without being compressed at the neck. Certain kinds of tree plants, instead of being propagated by seeds, are propagated by cuttings, consisting of a portion of the shoot of the previous year’s growth, 12 or 1 5 inches long. These cuttings are planted by thrusting one end a few inches into the ground. This is the manner in which willows and certain poplars are raised. Certain kinds, again, are best propagated by layers. This practice consists in bending down the branches of a growing tree, fixing them in the ground by means of crooked pins of wood, and covering them partly with earth. In this state the covered part PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 483 quickly shoots forth roots, and the branch being then separated from the parent tree, becomes a distinct plant. But in the case of the greater number of species, the practice is to sow the seeds in the seed-beds in the manner described. The hardier pines are often planted at once, as has been said, when seedlings ; whilst others of the resinous species, and most of the hard-wood, are not planted in the forest until they have been one or more years in the nursery-lines, where they extend their roots, and acquire strength and size. During the period in which the plants remain in these lines, they are to be kept free from weeds. They require no pruning at this early stage, fur- ther than to the extent of causing the leading or principal ascending shoot to preserve its ascend- ancy over the lateral and more horizontal ones, so that the plant shall not become what is termed forked, as in the figure. This may be simply ef- fected by shortening one of the branches as at a, or by simply nipping off the terminal bud of the branch at 5, by which means its lateral growth will be interrupted, and the main stem permitted to pre- serve its ascendancy. The next operation to be performed is that of planting. For this purpose the ground is to be enclosed by an efficient fence, and freed, when necessary, of surface water, by open drains, tra- versing the space to be planted ; and no further preparation is usually required than this fencing and car rying off of the surface water. It is not necessary to dig or manure the ground as for common crops. Nevertheless, when it is wished, from any cause, to hasten the growth of wood, and when expense is less regarded than accomplishing the purpose intended, the land may be trenched or even manured. This will hasten the growth of the trees, and render the failure of plants less frequent ; but it is a method of forest culture which has narrow limits, and which is impracticable, on account of the expense, over the greater part of those lands which form the fitting subject of planting in this Fig. 188. 484 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD, country. Were it necessary to cultivate land in this manner be- fore it could grow trees, a great part of the waste land of the country now covered with wood must have remained unplanted. The plants of the nursery, then, are to be transplanted to their place in the forest, which may be done in the case of some spe- cies when they are seedlings, but which is to be done in the case of the greater number when they have remained one or more years in th6 nursery lines, and when they are said to be one year, two years, or three years transplanted, according to the number of summers which they have remained in the lines. Two methods of planting may be practised. The one consists in making a slit in the ground with the spade, and putting in the plant : the other in digging a hole, in which the plant is placed, the earth being carefully shovelled over the roots. The first of these methods may be practised with trees which are transplanted when seedlings, or even with pines and firs which shall have been a year in the nursery-lines. The other method is practised generally with plants which have been for some time in the nursery-lines, and whose roots accordingly have become extended. When the manner of planting is by slits, it may be performed thus : — One person with a spade makes a deep slit in the ground, and then another slit crossing it. Having made the second slit, he bends down the spade until the slit becomes wide enough to ad- mit the roots of the plant. An assistant, who attends with a bundle of plants, then taking one of them, slips it into the aper- ture formed by the spade. The spade being then withdrawn, the edges of the sods close upon the plant, the heel of the planter treading smartly upon the sod to bring the edges together. In this manner two persons may plant from 1000 to 1200 plants in a day. Instead of the common spade, a small kind of spade, 1^9. so light that it can be worked by the hand, may be used. When this instrument is employed, no assistant is required. The person who i)lants carries a little bag of plants PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 485 before liim : with the spade in his right hand he makes a slit in the ground, and with his left he places the plant in the slit, and then he fixes the plant by a stroke of the heel. Practice renders this method of planting easy. One person, by this simple pro- cess, will set from 3000 to 4000 plants in a day, in such a man- ner, we, are informed by those who have planted on the largest scale of forest culture, that scarcely one plant will fail. But this method of planting is suited only to seedling plants of not more than two years’ growth ; for when they exceed that age, and come from the nursery-lines, the common spade must be employed, the strength of one hand not being sufficient to form a slit large enough to contain the root. The other method of planting is performed by digging a hole by the spade. This is the method to be practised when the plants, by having grown in the nursery-lines, have acquired ex- tended roots ; and the following is the method of proceed- ing The holes are first digged in the number and at the distances required, the earth taken out of them being laid beside them. The trees are then planted, and two persons arc employed at the work. The one places a plant in the centre of the hole, holding it upright by the top ; the other with the spade shovels the earth all round it. The earth being then trodden down by the foot, the tree is planted ; and it is a point of good practice that the sod or richer soil shall be laid next the roots. The rules to be observed in this operation are, that the holes shall be of sufficient size ; that the plants shall be set upright, and be properly fixed in their position ; and that no lopping away of the woody part of the root shall be permitted with the design of fitting it to the hole. The distance to which the plants arc to be set, is to be deter- mined by the nature of the soil and situation. A common dis- tance is from 3 to 4 feet. Trees ought in all cases to be planted at first much closer than they are intended to grow. The object of this is twofold : — 1st, That there may be a provision against the failure of plants, and that those may be ultimately selected for 486 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. standing which are the most vigorous and best formed ; and, 2d, That the plants may mutually shelter one another. For, although by this close planting the temperature of the air, as indicated by the thermometer, is not increased, the shelter afforded against the violence of the winds is found to contribute to the healthy, straight, and rapid growth of the trees. After a time, and by degrees, the superfluous plants are to be cut down. It is not, therefore, necessary that all the supernu- merary plants should be of the more valuable kinds of trees, which would unnecessarily enhance the expense. The cheapest and quickest growing trees are the best suited for sheltering the others, and none are so well adapted for the purpose, at least in cold countries, as the fir tribe ; these being at once cheap, easily raised, and beyond every other kind suited to the sheltering of other trees, by their being evergreens. The firs thus intended for nurses, may be planted in slits, the hard-wood trees in holes. The absolute necessity of sheltering by means of evergreens, doubtless only exists in a cold country, such as the more elevated parts of this island ; and where the situation is low and the soil fertile, the sheltering by evergreens may be dispensed with. Still, however, even in the most favoured situations, the plants should be set close together, both for the purpose of providing for con- tingencies, and for promoting the tendency to upright growth in the trees. The period of planting is between the fall of the leaf in au- tumn, and the time when the buds expand in spring, when the vegetation of the plant is inert, that is, from about the middle of October to the end of February. Between these two periods, all forest plants may be transplanted from the nursery to their ulti- mate destination, the precaution merely being taken that the weather shall be mild, and the ground not frozen, when the trans- plantation takes place. The next operations to be performed are those of pruning and thinning. The natural tendency of many trees is to rise with a conical stem shooting forth lateral branches from the base upwards. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 487 Some species of trees, as most of tlie resinous and some of the willow and poplar kinds, do not generally tend to deviate from this form, the main trunk rising erect, surrounded from the sum- mit to the base by smaller horizontal branches. But other trees, and these may be said to comprehend the greater part of the hard-wood, do not rise with the same regularity. Instead of one leading upright trunk, they send out many large boughs, which rival in size the principal trunk : such trees become forked near the base, and the principal trunk.below is short, while the top is largely branched. Now this is a form of the tree which, however conducive to beauty, is not so to utility. The main purpose of cultivating wood is for the timber, and the greater part of the useful timber of trees is contained in the trunk before it begins to shoot out into boughs. In the artificial cultivation of wood, therefore, it is important to produce as great a lengtii of trunk, in proportion to the branched top, as a due attention to the natural habits of the tree will allow. Further, it is important, for the obtaining of useful timber for the purposes of the carpenter, that the trunk shall be what is termed clean for as great a space upwards as possible. To un- derstand the meaning of this term, when a branch shoots out from the side of the trunk of a tree, a part of the vegetable cir- culation is carried on through that branch ; and hence there is at this place an interruption of the continuity of the circulation. The fibres of the branch lie in a different direction from those of the main stem, and this, when carried to a certain extent, is in- jurious to the texture of the wood. For these reasons, it is important that as great a part of the lower trunk as possible be freed from the lateral shoots. Nature in part performs this process. As the tree rises in height, the lower branches decay and fall off, so that there are few trees in which, even if left to themselves there will not be a cer- tain portion of the lower stems cleared of lateral branches. When trees are close together, tliis natural falling off of the lower branches takes place more quickly, and to a greater extent, than 488 PLANTS CULTIVATED PGR THEIR WOOD. when they are distant from one another. Thus, in natural forests the trees rise with very tall upright sl^ins, and are gra- dually divested of all their branches below to a great lieight. It is from natural forests, accordingly, that our finest, tallest, and most valuable timber is derived. But in the artificial culture of wood for its timber, we cannot entirely imitate the natural process, and allow the lateral branches to fall olF by themselves. We must in this case admit the air to the trees, by keeping them at a distance from one another : and under these circumstances, the tree tends greatly to shoot out into branches, and thus to produce a smaller growth of upright stem, as well as to have a smaller extent cleared of branches at the base. In the cultivation of wood, then, we must generally resort to artificial means to give the tree the form which we wish it to possess. We must first endeavour to promote the upright in place of the lateral extension, and then to have a sufiicient portion cleared of lateral branches. Further, the lateral branches should be taken off at as early a stage in the growth of the trees as is consistent with their health ; for it is to be observed, that when a branch shoots from a tree, the twisting of the fibres begins at the point where the branch had originated, and not, as from a cursory inspection might be supposed, from the surface of the stem. As in the practice of pruning, there are two distinct purposes to be aimed at ; first, giving the vertical tendency to the tree, and second, obtaining as great a portion as possible of clean stems ; so there are two periods in the growth of the tree at which these things are to be attended to. The first in order of time and importance, is giving the vertical tendency to the tree, and the second denuding it of its lower branches. Until the tree has attained the height of 15 or 16 feet, the only end to be aimed at is to give it the upright tendency in (piestion, and to prevent its becoming forked. The pruning for this purpose consists in merely shortening such branches as may be rivalling the leading shoot, or stretch- PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 489 ing out laterally with a growth disproportioned to that of the others. Frequently the mere nipping off of the terminal hud will he sufficient to retard the growth of a branch ; hut in all cases it will he completely effected hy cutting off the shoot as at a, Fig. 188, making it about half the length of the shoot above. This is the sole end in pruning during the first period of the growth of the tree ; and it is to he observed, that if a tree be .of itself tending to grow upright and without forking, no pruning, even of this simple kind, is required. For of all pruning, it is to he observed, that it is a violence done to the plant, and is to he avoided as much as possible. By cutting off branches and leaves, we cut off* organs of nutrition. We do not prune that we may increase the quantity of wood, for the operation has a directly opposite ten- dency and effect ; but we prune that we may give to the tree that form which is calculated to produce the greatest quantity of tim- ber in the proper place. The other branch of pruning, and the next in the order of time, consists in denuding the lower part of the trunk of branches, so that there may be obtained a sufficient extent of clean Avood. Although, for the reasons given, it is important that the taking off of these branches be at as early a period as possible, yet this must be done always under the conditions necessary to preserve the health of the tree. The tree should, in the first place, have attained sufficient strength and age to bear the being deprived of its branches ; and, in the next place, the process should be carried on so slowly as not to affect the healthy growth of the plant, and so gradually, that it may have vigour to cicatrize, or cover with bark, the wounds that have been made upon its sur- face. The period when Ave may safely commence this process of denudation is Avhen the tree has attained the height of 15 or 16 feet. Noav, every tree adds to the length of its leading shoots and branches from buds which groAV on the ends of the shoots. Every year a neAV shoot is made from each of these buds, of a length proportioned to the vigour of groAvth of the plant. The shoots thus formed in one year, produce each a bud, Avhich, in like 490 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. manner, produces a shoot in the following year ; and thus, while the tree is growing, there is a continued increase of the length of its leading shoots and branches. Further, when the annual shoot of any branch is produced, there is usually sent forth at the place w^here it originates one or more lateral shoots, so that there is a suc- cession of branches or tiers of branches, from the base to the sum- mit. Were these lateral branches not to fall oil, we could, by means of them, ascertain the age of the tree ; and in the case of many of the ConiferEe, we can frequently ascertain the number of years which they have lived, or that each individual branch has taken to grow, from the number of these annual shoots alone. A knowledge of this mode of growth will conduct us to a simple rule in practice for removing, without violence, the lower branches of the trunk. When we commence this pro- cess of pruning olF the branches of the stem, let us cut off the lowermost branch or tier of branches, that is, the branch or branches of one year’s growth, and no more : in the second year let us cut olf a second tier : in the third year a third tier ; and so on. In this manner, while the tree in each year makes one shoot vertically, the lateral shoots of another year are cut off below. Thus, in the annexed figure, the tree having made 15 shoots, and having risen, we will suppose, to the height of 15 feet, we com- mence the process of pruning, by cutting off the lowermost branches or set of branches 1. The tree then makes a shoot from 15 to 16, so that while we have cut ofi' the lateral shoots of Fig. 190. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 491 one year, anotlier year’s vertical slioot will be made. Tlie next year we prune away the branch or branches 2 ; and again the tree makes a shoot from 16 to 17. In the third year we cut off the branch or branches 3, the tree making again a shoot upwards as before, to 18 ; and so we take off each year the lateral shoots of one year, and never more. By this method we shall gradually denude the stem of its lateral branches from below upwards, while it is increasing in vertical growth. The extent of cleared trunk Avill thus gradually become larger in proportion to the uncleared portion or top. Thus, sup- pose that we begin to prune when the tree has made 15 years’ shoots, then, when it has made 30 years’ shoots, we shall have cleared off 15; that is, half the height of the tree. Now, when we have cleared half the height of the tree, or a very little more, we should pause in our further operations, and mark its state of growth. If it continue to grow vigorously, we may resume our operation of close pruning, but at longer intervals than before, so as never, in any case, to have more cleared away than one-half, or at the utmost three-fifths, of the height of the tree, and never taking off more than one year’s lateral growth of branches in a season. Every tree, it is to be observed, must possess a sufficient top ; that is, it must extend horizontally as well as vertically, so as to bear branches and leaves. The leaves are organs of nutrition of the plant, essential to the healthy exercise of the vegetable func- tions ; and we must be careful to deprive it of no more of these organs than consists with our purpose in pruning. Now, by pro- ceeding slowly in this gradual manner, never taking off more in any one year than the growth of one year’s lateral branches, we shall not usually interfere with the healthy growth of the tree, but shall always leave it a sufficient power of expansion at top to af- ford it the means of nutrition and growth. Further, by never cutting off more at a time than the growth of one year, the tree will generally have vigour to cicatrize the wounds that have been made upon its trunk : whereas, were we to lop off many. branches at a time, according to the practice too prevalent^ the tree might 492 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. not have vigour to cover them with a fresli growth of bark, and thus the wounds might remain, to the lasting injury and frequent destruction of the tree. In pruning in this manner, the branches are to be cut off quite close to the stem, so that the bark may quickly cover the wound ; and although trees may be pruned in summer, the fittest period of pruning, as of all operations upon the living plant, is when vegetation is inert ; that is, from the fall of the leaf to the period of the ascent of the sap in spring. Thus, then, the operation of pruning may be said to be begun in the nursery, but at that time with an extreme degree of tem- perance, all the end of pruning at that early period being to pre- vent the plant from becoming forked. When the trees are trans- planted to their ultimate situation, we may examine them in the third, or at latest the fourth year afterwards, and then, if more than one leading shoot is formed on any tree, we are to select the best, and shorten the others to about half the length of that which had been selected. , And in like manner, when any branch or set of branches is seen to be extending laterally, with a grov/th dis- proportioned to that of the others, then, by merely shortening them, the tendency to the lateral extension will be sufficiently checked to allow the other branches to extend in an equal degree. And should we find that all the branches of a tree are tending to extend too much laterally, by merely shortening tliem in a slight degree, we shall give the ascendancy to one leading shoot, and so promote the upward tendency ; and this is all the pruning re- quired until the tree has attained, as has been said, the height of 15 or 16 feet, Avhen the process of pruning the lower branches is to be begun, and carried on by the slow process described. But, even after we have begun the process of close pruning, we may still observe that the tree is ascending vertically, and if required, give this tendency from time to time by shortening any of the lateral branches. It is not essential to the success of this method of pruning, that it be carried on every year. It will be sufficient to approach as near to the perfect practice as circumstances will allow, obseiw- PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 493 iiig merely tlie general rule that not more than the growth of one year shall he taken off* at a time, and that the process shall not be carried farther than to the clearing off* of tliree-fifihs of the height of the tree. The method of pruning by the shortening of the lateral branch- es, was brought into notice in England by the writings of Mr Billington, who had charge of a portion of the Royal forests ; and it was further developed and explained, with the addition of the gradual denudation of the lower branches, by Mr Cree in Scot- land. To these deservino* individuals is due the merit of havine; introduced, and to the latter that of having perfected, a system of pruning very greatly superior to that which had been before in use. Pruning, as it is commonly practised, can scarcely be said to be founded on any principle. Branches are lopped off* without limit or caution, and thus the growth of the tree is injured, and wounds are formed upon its surface which are never afterwards ci- catrized. Often in the case of the youngest trees, we see the entire branches of successive years’ growth lopped off* in a season, and nothing left but a bush at the top. By this system of mutilation, millions of trees are sacrificed. A great proportion, indeed, of the whole cultivated wood of the country is annually destroyed, and it were better that the pruning-knife were never used at all than thus misapplied. The practice so common has probably been derived from that of the garden ; but it is to be observed, that, in the garden, the purpose in pruning is to repress the growth of wood and produce that of fruit ; and the principle, therefore, is in no degree applicable to the pruning required in the forest. The principal instruments to be employed in pruning are a sharp knife, chisels with handles for reaching the higher branches, and sometimes a small saw for the larger branches. The hatchet is on no occasion to be used in pruning. The following figures represent the chisel and the saw. The saw here shewn is the Indian saw, which is made to act by being pulled towards the ope- 494 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. Fig. 191. Fig. 192. rator, in place of being pushed from him like the common saw of Europe. By being fixed to a long handle, this instrument is adapted to the cutting off of the higher branches. When the proper direction has been given to the growth of the tree, and the lower branches have been pruned to the height to which it has been thought expedient to carry the operation, art has done all that it can do to render the tree useful. The natural growth of the tree must efiect the rest. The trunk will increase in diameter by the addition of concentric layers of wood, yearly formed between the bark and the stem. The longer a tree stands while in a growing state, the thicker will its trunk become, and the more valuable. It makes wood rapidly, to use a fami- liar expression, when the trunk has become of good size ; and it is an error, therefore, to fell wood which is intended for timber too soon. In the pruning of forest trees, one of the most frequent errors committed is to delay the process till too late. By this delay the form of the tree is often rendered such that it cannot be re- stored ; and the lopping off of large branches in the manner often practised, in order to give the tree a better shape, is for the most part attended with the evil of disfiguring it more, and enfeebling its growth. We constantly see these mistaken attempts to re- pair past neglect, by the lopping off of large limbs, the places of which the tree now wants vigour to heal. Vast numbers of trees are destroyed by this system of mutilation, when all further ob- ject in pruning is at an end. Sometimes a large branch may be lopped off when a tree is top-heavy, or when a branch is likely to be split, or for some other good reason. But it is an error, which must end in disappointment, to begin this system of lopping a full- PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 495 grown tree, with the design of compelling it to resume its process of increase when it has naturally ceased. When a tree has been neglected, but is not yet so far advanced but that we may hope to restore it, we have merely to apply the principle of pruning explained to the case of the particular tree. We have to shorten the lateral branches which are forming forks, so as gradually to produce the upright tendency of the leading stem required. The rule is to proceed with the greatest tempe- rance, taking care never to do too much in one season, lest, by depriving the tree of its branches, we enfeeble its vigour and im- pede its growth. The process of pruning has been described, but there is an- other part of forest-culture coincident with pruning, and of equal necessity. This is the thinning out of the superfluous trees, so as to admit the air, and give room to the trees that are to re- main. The trees, we have seen, have been planted greatly more closely than they are intended to grow, and many of them were designed merely to shelter the others during the early stages of their growth. Whenever the horizontal branches of trees begin to cross one another, the process of thinning should commence. This is to be done by cutting out such a quantity of the inferior trees, as shall allow a sufficient space between the remainder. The first thinnings of this kind wdil bo of little value, and will not repay the expense of clearing them out. Yet it is necessary that they be cleared away, in order to allow space and air for those which are left. From the period when this first thinning is made, the planta- tion should be gone over every two or three years, and the same process repeated, observing the simple rule that the boughs shall never be so close as to interlace. If the plantation consists of a mixture of hard-wood and resinous trees, the whole of the latter should have been cleared away by the time the wood is 14 years old or less, and the great mass of it long before. After this the hard-AVOod trees should be kept at the distance from one another of about half their height. 496 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. When a plantation consists entirely of resinons trees, they may he kept much closer together than in the case of hard-wood. Still it is important, in the case of the resinous trees, that the thin- ning be continued frequently, so that they shall not crowd upon one another. It is by neglect of this point that many thousand acres of cultivated wood become comparatively useless. The most frequent mistake committed in the management of mixed plantations of resinous trees and hard-wood, is the allow- ing of the former to remain until they have choked and enfeebled the hard-wood. This is done with the design of allowing the resinous trees to remain so long that they may be of some value when cut down. This, however, is an error of practice, by which the value of the hard-wood is lessened, while the full value of the softer wood is not obtained. The habits of the resinous trees and the hard-wood kinds are very different ; and Avhen the end proposed is merely the raising of Avood for future profit, the two kinds will be best cultivated separately. It is not an exception to this principle that firs and pines are planted along with hard-Avood. They are planted for the purpose of shelter, and they should be removed as soon as they have served this purpose. It is by allowing them to remain too long, with the design of combining the profit of the tAvo classes of trees, that the hard-Avood in many mixed plantations is stifled and rendered useless. Again, Avhen the end proposed is the profit to be derived from resinous trees, they are best planted without any mixture of hard- Avood. In this manner, a greater quantity, and of better quality, can be raised from a giA^en space. They can be suffered to arrive at maturity, and then cut down Avhen really of value ; Avhereas, if mixed Avith hard-Avood, they would need to be removed long before they had become of use. And not only Avlien ultimate profit is looked to should the two classes of trees be cultivated separately, but in many cases, in the planting of hard-Avood, the same kinds of them should be planted together. Thus a forest of oaks Avill be more A^aluable if unmixed with other trees. Besides, the oak possesses the PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 497 property of springing again from old stocks when cnt down. In this manner, after being felled, the plantation is formed into cop- pice, and made to yield periodical returns at intervals of 25 or 30 years. In like manner, willows and poplars are best planted in groups by themselves. In this case, a greater number of them can generally be raised upon a given space in the situations suited to them; and some of the species of willows, by being cnt regularly, may be formed into osier plantations, and yield successive crops. These are considerations to be regarded when the end is the profit to be derived from the wood ; but when the taste is to be likewise gratified, then the mixed plantation, with its varying tints and diversified forms of trees, may claim a preference over that which, on a mere calculation of profit, would be chosen. Difierent species of trees, whether planted together in groups or intermingled with others, have each peculiarities with respect to the manner of their growth, the soils and situations to which they are suited, and, in some cases, the method of management. With these difierences the forest planter should be rendered fami- liar. But the description of species and the manner of cultivat- ing them, forms itself an extensive branch of rural economy, which would exceed the limits which could be assigned to it in an elemen- tary work. The end proposed here has been to explain the ge- neral practice of planting, and the management of forest-trees, without entering into the lesser details, or into a description of the difierent species which are, or which may form, the subjects of cultivation. The following may be enumerated as forest-trees adapted to cultivation in this country : — 1. Pinus sylvestris — Wild Pine. 2. Pinus Laricio — Corsican Pine. .3. Pinus Cembra — Siberian Stone Pine. 4. Abies communis — Norway Spruce. 5. Abies Picea — Silver Fir. 6. Abies nigra — Black Spruce. 7. Abies alba — White Spruce. 8. Larix europaea — Common Larch. 9. Larix pendula — American Black Larch. 2 1 498 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. Tliese are all resinous trees, sufficiently liardy for forest cul- ture in this country. Of the hard-wood kinds there may be enumerated : — 1. Quercus Robur — Common Oak. 2. Quercus sessiliflora — Sessile-fruited Oak. 3. Quercus Cerris — Turkey Oak. 4. Quercus alba — White Oak. 5. Juglans regia — Walnut. 6. Castanea vesca — Sweet Chestnut. 7. .^Rsculus Hippocastanum — Horse Chestnut. 8. Fagus sylvatica — Common Beech. 9. Carpinus Betulus — Hornbeam. 10. Betula alba — Common Birch. 11. Betula pendula — Weeping Birch. 12. Betula lenta — Black Birch. 13. Betula papyracea — Canoe Birch. 14. Alnus glutinosa — Common Alder. 15. Salix alba — White Willow. 16. Salix russelliana— Bedford Willow. 17. Salix triandra — Long-leaved Triandrous Willow (for osiers). 18. Populus alba — Great White Poplar. 19. Populus dilatata — Lombardy Poplar. 20. Populus trernula — Aspen. 21. Ulmus campestris — Narrow-leaved English Elm. 22. Ulmus suberosa — Common Cork-barked Elm. 23. Ulmus montana — Wych Elm. 24. Fraxinus excelsior — Common Ash 25. Fraxinus americana— White Ash. 26. Fraxinus quadrangulata — Blue Ash. 27. Acer Pseudo-platanus — Sycamore. 28. Acer platanoides — Norway Maple. 29. Tilia europaea — European Lime-tree. 30. Tilia rubra — Red- twigged Lime-tree. Of the class of smaller trees cultivated for underwood, the fol- lowing may be mentioned : — 1. Corylus Avellana — Common Hazel. 2. Prunus Aucuparia — Mountain Ash. 3. Crataegus Oxyacantha — Hawthorn. 4. Cytisus alpinus — Laburnum. 5. Ilex Aquifolium — Common Holly. PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. 499 6. Prunus Laurocerasus — Common Laurel. 7. Prunus lusitanica — Portugal Laurel. When it is wished to form a mixed plantation of these and other species, they are to be planted of the kinds and in the proportions which are best suited to the soil and situation.* The profit to be derived from planting will appear to many to be contingent and distant, and yet to expend capital on planting, may be to lay out money to increase at a high rate of interest. * The following is an example of a mixed plantation, in which the larch, the spruce, and the wild pine, are designed to serve the purposes of nurses : 300 Oaks, ..... 20/ Per 1000. L.O 6 0 100 Wych Elms, ..... 12/6 0 1 3 150 Ashes, ..... 12/ 0 1 25 Sweet Chestnuts, . .* . . 25/ 0 0 n 50 Beeches, ..... 15/ 0 0 9 50 Sycamores, ..... 12/6 0 0 71 50 Weeping Birches, .... 25/ All these plants should be from 1^ to 2 feet high when planted ; but not exceeding 2 feet. 0 1 3 25 Bedford Willows, from cuttings, 10/ 0 0 3 25 White Poplars, from 3 to 4 feet high, 50/ 0 1 3 50 Hollies, from 9 to 12 inches. 20/ 0 1 0 50 Laburnums, from 2 to 3 feet. 20/ 0 1 0 50 Mountain Ashes, from 2 to 3 feet, 20/ 0 1 0 50 Hazels, 1^ foot, .... 17/6 0 0 10^ 50 Silver Firs, 1 foot high. 25/ 0 1 3 500 Larches, 1 foot high. 2/6 0 1 3 500 Norway Spruces, from 9 inches to 1 foot high. 3/ 0 1 6 1531 Wild Pines, about 9 inches high, 2/ 0 3 Oh 3556, being 3^ feet apart. Expense of planting, — the willows, larches, spruces, and L.l 4 8^ pines being put into slits, and the others in holes. 0 16 6 L.2 1 2^ To this is to be added the expense of enclosing, which increases in a great ratio as the space to be enclosed is lessened. Thus, to enclose the following quantities of land, in the form of a square, with a stone wall, at Is. 2d. per yard in length, will be as under Acres. Total Expense. Expense per Acre. 50 L.114 16 0 L.2 5 11 10 51 6 8 5 2 8 1 16 4 7 16 4 7 When the space to be enclosed, therefore, is 10 acres, the expense by the 500 PLANTS CULTIVATED FOR THEIR WOOD. Planting, therefore, may be to the landed proprietor a mode of setting aside a fund for a future purpose, and an estate may be preserved to a family by capital wisely expended on this improve- ment. But the profit is usually derived from planting land that is otherwise of comparatively little value. It is not the lands that will yield a good profit by cultivation that will yield a good profit by planting, but those that are otherwise little productive. Su- perior soils will produce more valuable wood ; but, taking into account the loss of rent for the long period of the age of a tree, it is the class of soils low in the scale of fertility and value that usually yield the largest return for planting. In the practice of forest culture we should take care that the work of planting be executed well. When we employ the com- mon labourers of the country, the digging of the holes for the trees may be done by contract ; but the putting in of the plants should be by days’ labour, in order that the persons employed about 2^ times more than when it is 50 acres ; and when the quantity is only 1 acre, it is about 7 times more. Hence the error of planting in patches. This may be done for shelter or embellishment ; but when profit from the timber is looked for, the difference between planting on the large and small scale may make the difference between profit and loss in the plantation. The expense of planting as above, per acre, is . . L.2 1 2i of enclosing, when the extent is 50 acres, . 2 5 11 L.4 7 H Now, the following calculation will shew the amount of the cost of planting, enclosing, and the rent of the land, up to the period when the outlay may be ex- pected to be repaid ; that is, when the wood has arrived at maturity, and is fit for being cut down : — Let it be supposed that wood requires sixty years to reach the age of good timber, and that the land is worth 5s. per acre yeaidy in its ori- ginal state, then, rating money at 5 per cent, compound interest, the amount of 5s. yearly for sixty years is .... . L.88 7 11 The expense of planting and enclosing, L.4 : 7 : l^for the same period, principal and interest, is . . . . 81 7 5 L.169 15 4 So that, if the wood shall be worth L.169 : 15 : 4 at the end of sixty years, the ori- ginal capital and the loss of rent will have been repaid. But L.169 : 15 : 4 per acre would be a very low price of wood of sixty years’ standing. Five or six times the amount, independent of the value of thinnings, might be expected to be de- rived ; and, therefore, on the conditions supposed, the capital would be profitably laid out in planting. PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 501 niay have no interest in executing the work in an imperfect man- ner. In choosing plants in tlie nursery, care must be taken to se- lect those that are of a proper size. It is an error to select plants because they are large. Such plants may perish or become enfeebled when transplanted from the nursery to the forest. Yet this is the kind of plants that inexperienced planters are apt to prefer. Care, too, should be taken that the plants selected be of healthy growth, and free from forks. When land has been planted, the ground should be examined regularly for several years afterwards, and the plants that may have died replaced. The ground should be kept free of stagnant water, and carefully defended from trespass during the early stage of the growth of the trees. 13. Plants Cultivated or used for Forage or Herbage. Plants cultivated for forage are those which are mown, and used, either in a green or dried state, as the food of animals. Plants cultivated for herbage are consumed upon the ground where they are produced. Certain kinds of plants are better suited for forage than herbage. But many are adapted to either purpose, and therefore no distinct line can be drawn between the two classes. The plants usually cultivated or employed for forage or her- bage, are — 1. The Tare and other species of Vetch. 2. Lucerne, and other species of Medick. 3. Sainfoin. 4. Wild Succory, and other plants producing leaves suited for forage. .5. Clovers, Vetchlings, Melilots, &c. 6. Heaths, Sedges, and Rushes. 7. Rye-grass and other grasses. 8. Burnet, and other plants producing herbage. 502 PLANTS CULTIVATED OK USED 1. The Tare. The Tare, Vicia sativa, is one of the most esteemed of the le- guminous forage-plants of this country. It is an annual plant, indigenous, and hardy. There are several varieties of it, one of which is distinguished by producing yellow seeds. The tare, by being sown in autumn or in spring, acquires habits so different, that many have supposed the spring and winter tares, as they are called, to be different species. They are, however, the same species, and do not even constitute botanical varieties ; but, from the different habits of ripening which they’ acquire, they should be always sown at the periods to which they are respec- tively suited ; that is, the winter-tares should be sown in autumn, and the spring-tares in spring ; for experiments have shewn, that the spring-tares sown in autumn will frequently perish in the first frosts, while the winter-tares will continue uninjured. This re- quires the more attention, as the seeds of the two kinds are so similar that no means of discriminating them exist. When tares are cultivated for green food at a late season, they are to be sown in spring ; and in order to procure a succession of cuttings during the months of summer and autumn, portions of the ground should be sown at intervals from the middle of Marcli till the end of May. When tares are to be sown in autumn, for early feeding in the ensuing season, the land frequently receives only one ploughing, after which the seeds are sown in the usual manner, and harrow- ed. A little farther tillage, however, would be beneficial, so as thoroughly to prepare the ground. When tares are sown in spring, the land should receive a plougli- ing before winter, as in the case of pease and beans. It should be cross-ploughed again in spring, and well harrowed, and re- ceive a second ploughing if possible : for it is always well to pre- pare the surface carefully for the seeds of this plant. After they are sown, the land should be rolled, to facilitate the subsequent FOK FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 503 action of the scythe. If manure had been required for the crop, it should have been applied in the previous autumn. Tares should always be sown on land which is in good condi- tion and clean. It is a great error to sow tares on land which is not in this state. The tares are considered in many places as a hind of bye-crop ; hence they are left to struggle with weeds, and many important advantages attending their cultivation are lost. The management of the tare in England is much superior to that pursued in Scotland. The quantity of seeds sown may be from 3 to 4 bushels to the acre. When the crop is sown for its seeds alone a smaller quan- tity will suffice, as 2^ bushels to the acre. It is common to mix a portion of some of the cereal grasses with the tare, the effect of which is to increase the quantity of fodder ; the stems of the grasses rising above the foliage of the tares, and both growing without interrupting one another. For winter-tares rye is best suited, for spring-tares, oats or barley. Tares, when used as green forage, are cut after the pods are formed, but long before the seeds become ripe. Tares, therefore, being in the class of crops not allowed to mature their seeds, are not very exhausting to the soil. On the contrary, with relation to the farm, they are to be considered as restorative crops, from the quantity of manure which the consumption of them affords. They are exceedingly nutritious, and supply a larger quantity of food for a limited period than most other forage crops. The usual mode of sowing tares is broadcast, though they are better sown in rows, like the pea and the bean. This, indeed, is by no means so essential to the success of the crop as in the case of the bean and pea, for the produce of the tare is chiefly the stem and leaves, and the pods and seeds are of little comparative importance ; the admission of air, therefore, for the swelling of the pods and seeds is not necessary. The plants, too, cover the intervals of the rows quickly, and so dp not admit of much time and opportunity for tillage during their growth. Tares are chiefly cultivated for green forage ; but they may be also cultivated partially for their seeds. In this case, the mode 504 PLANTS CULTIVATED OK USED of culture is the same as that of the pea. The land should not be too rich, so as to cause them to run to straw instead of pro- ducing pods ; and it is a good practice to mix up a small quan- tity of beans with them, to support and keep them from trailing on the ground. The beans, from their difference of size, are easily separated by riddles from the tares. In the practice of the farm it is common to cultivate tares for green forage, and merely to reserve that part of the crop for seeds which is not used in this manner. They are then reaped, stacked, and dressed, like pease. When the tare is cut very early, it may rise again and produce a second crop ; and even a third cutting is sometimes obtained. In the northern parts of the island, the farmers scarcely ever attempt to produce more than one crop in the season. Tares are sometimes consumed by penning sheep upon them ; hut the better practice is to feed the sheep from racks. When the larger animals are fed on this food, it should always he sup- plied to them from racks in houses or yard^. All the animals of the farm are fond of this legume, and all thrive upon it in an eminent degree. Hogs may he fattened en- tirely upon it. It is suited to milch-cows, causing them to give more butter than any other species of food, and it is employed extensively in the feeding of horses. All the English agricul- turists are impressed with a high opinion of the value of tares. They are not only casually employed, as in Scotland, to fill up the intervals between the cuttings of clovers, hut they are often the principal source of feeding from the month of May to No- vember. There are several species of Vicia, with broad leaves resem- bling those of beans, cultivated in Germany for the same purposes as the tare ; 1. Vicia narbonensis — Narboniie Vetch. 2. Vicia platycarpos — Broad-podded Vetch. 3. Vicia serratifolia — Saw-leaved Vetch. Foil FOKAGE OK HEKBAGE. 505 But none of these species is equal in productiveness to the common tare. Another of the genus Vicia is Vida pseado-cracca, Annual Tufted Vetch. This species is of a very luxuriant growth, but flowers at a late season. It is, as yet, untried in the agriculture of this country. It might, perhaps, supply a desideratum, namely, the affording of a large quantity of green forage after the pastures have begun to decay in autumn, and before the tur- nips and similar plants are ready for use. Vida hiennis, Biennial Vetch, is a native of Siberia. This species is of luxuriant growth, and comes early in spring. It was cultivated by Miller so long ago as 1759, and recommended by him as a plant of great promise ; but no experiments upon it on the large scale are recorded. Its stems have a certain degree of hardness, and its leaves a somewhat insipid taste. Vida sylvatica, Wood- Vetch, is perennial. It grows in woods with a stem from 3 to 5 feet high, climbing by its tendrils, and bearing beautiful little flowers streaked with bluish veins. The wood- vetch, as its name denotes, is truly the inhabitant of woods, and, when removed to exposed situations, its size and productive- ness diminish. For this reason, perhaps, it is not adapted to cultivation. Vida Cracca, Tufted Vetch, grows in hedges and bushy places, climbing also by tendrils, and bearing numerous purple flowers. It is, like the last, perennial, but is more productive when re- moved from its natural habitat. It is, however, late in growing, and appears to be much inferior in usefulness to the clovers. It grows on soils of low fertility. Vida sepium, Bush Vetch, is a plant growing also in hedges and bushy places. It is perennial, flowers early, and yields a good weight of produce. Although its natural habitat is bushy and shady places, it grows in cultivated fields, and has a some- what wide range of soils. From these characters, and the trials that have been made, there is reason to infer that the bush-vetch would be a beneficial addition to the cultivated herbage plants of tliis country. There is great difficulty in procuring its seeds in 506 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED the wild state, from its dispersing them as soon as ripe ; a cha- racter, however, which would probably be changed by cultivation, as happens in the case of other wild plants. Of the important genus Vida, about 100 species have been enumerated by botanists, and many of them seem to be highly deserving of experiment for their economical uses. 2. Lucerne. This plant, Medicago saliva, has been cultivated in Spain, Italy, and the south of France, and on all the northern shores of the Mediterranean, time out of mind. It is cultivated in the countries of the East. It was familiar to the Greeks and Romans, from whom we derive minute accounts of its nature, properties, and culture. Lucerne has a perennial root, and grows, when cultivated, from a foot and a half to two feet high and more. It is covered with leaves, downy below, and slightly so on the upper surface : it bears a flower of a fine purplish- violet : it flowers in June and July. Tiie cultivation of lucerne has been long stationary or retro- grade in the British Islands. In Guernsey and the islands of the Channel it maintains its reputation, and justly so, the climate and soil of these islands being suited to the plant. For the same reason, it is esteemed and partially cultivated in Kent, and some of the southern counties of England. The soil adapted to lucerne is deep and of the lighter class, with a free or kindly subsoil. When these circumstances do not exist, it is better not to attempt the cultivation of lucerne in this country. Two methods of raising this plant have been recommended and practised. The one is sowing it broadcast in spring, sometimes along with a corn-crop, in the same manner in which we sow clovers, and sometimes without a crop ; and the latter is the bet- ter practice, lucerne not being suited to grow freely under the FOK FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 507 shade of other plants. The other method of cultivating lucerne is in rows. Lucerne, like other cultivated forage plants, gra- dually gives place to the grasses and hardier indigenous plants. When cultivated in rows, and carefully hoed, these native plants can be kept down, and the lucerne preserved for a long period in the ground. But, when sown broadcast, this cannot be done in the same degree, and the lucerne then does not generally endure beyond nine or ten years. This is the main advantage which the row system possesses over the broadcast, in the cultivation of this plant. The best period of sowing lucerne is at or before the middle of April. When sown broadcast, the quantity of seeds to the acre may be 16 or 18 lb. ; and when sown in rows, 10 lb. The soil should be well prepared by deep ploughing, and a pre- vious summer-fallow, or fallow-crop, such as potatoes, turnips, or carrots. But when it is wished merely to possess a few acres of lucerne for the convenience of soiling, it is better to have the soil deeply trenched and prepared like a garden-bed, and at the same time well manured with dung and lime. When drilled, the rows need not be more than 18 or 20 inches apart, which will give room for tilling the intervals by the horse and hand hoe. After the seeds are sown, care must be taken to keep down, by means of the hoe, all weeds that spring up amongst the plants and in the rows* In the month of August of the first year when in flower, the crop may be mown, and, after this first cutting, the shoots may be kept down by a slight pasturing with sheep, but not while the soil is wet, nor should it be continued to a late period. Early in the following spring the ground is to be horse or hand hoed, so that all weeds may be kept down, and the earth stirred about the roots of the plants. In the month of May the crop will be ready for the first cutting. After being cut, it is to be horse-hoed in the intervals of the rows. It will now grow very rapidly ; and, when ready for cut- 508 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED ting, is to be cut again, and, after each cutting, hand-hoed. In this manner it may he mown four or five times in the season. It does not, however, arrive at its full growth till its third year, after which it will yield a large return in rich and early foliage. But it requires to he manured at intervals, as every third year. The manure may be farm-yard dung, spread upon the surface after the last cutting in autumn, or early in spring. When the system of broadcast is adopted, the difference in the method of tillage is, that, in place of the horse and hand hoe, the common harrow is used, which, passing over the surface, stirs the soil about the roots of the plant, and drags up and destroys weeds ; the lucerne itself, having a strong root striking down- wards, is not torn up by this rough treatment, but, on the con- trary, is benefited by the stirring of the soil round its roots and stems. This plant is eminently wholesome and nutritive. It is well suited for milch cows, causing them to yield good and abundant milk. It is perfectly adapted to the feeding of horses, and this, indeed, is one of the most common purposes to which it is ap- jDlied. It may be used with the like advantage for the soiling of any kind of stock. It is valuable for the early feeding which it supplies, being in this respect considerably before the clovers. When we possess a portion of lucerne, therefore, we can begin to soil at an earlier period than could otherwise be done. Portions of lucerne cultivated on the small scale, and with care, have been found to maintain a great number of animals ; and hence its advocates have formed an erroneous estimate of its fit- ness for extended cultivation. But although lucerne is very pro- ductive in itself, it is not a species of crop which is suited to general culture in this country. It takes three years to arrive at maturity, and it is very liable to fail from the attacks of insects in the fii'st year of its growth. It requires manure to be applied to the surface to keep it productive, and this is a wasteful mode of applying the manures of the farm. It requires also a deep rich soil, which is not always to be found. The limit, then, to FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 509 which it seems beneficial to confine the cultivation of lucerne, is to that of a small portion, for the purpose of supplying the place of the common forage plants in early spring, and of using it in addition to these during summer. With this design a few acres may often be very conveniently applied to its production ; but beyond this its cultivation can rarely be recommended in this country. Where the alternate system of husbandry is pursued, a better method of raising green food for stock is practised than applying any part of the farm constantly to that purpose. The most productive of the genus Medicago, is the species which has been described ; but there are others which are culti- vated. Two of these may be mentioned — 1. Medicago falcata, Yellow Sickle Medick. This is a smaller plant than the last, and is suited to soils lower in the scale of fer- tility. It is cultivated on the poorer soils of Switzerland, and in different parts of Europe. 2. Medicago lupulina, Black Medick, so termed from the black colour of its seed-vessels when ripe. This is sometimes termed Yellow Clover, and sown by farmers under that name. It is also termed Hop Trefoil, from the resemblance of the heads of its flowers to those of the hop. It is an indigenous plant, and grows naturally on dry and gravelly soils. It is a biennial when cul- tivated. Like most of the leguminous plants, it is nutritive, but not so readily eaten by pasturing animals as the clovers. It may be cultivated for forage or for herbage, when the land is to re- main only one year in grass. 3. Sainfoin. Sainfoin, Onohrgchis saliva, has a perennial root, is a native of Britain, and is extensively cultivated for green food in the chalk and sandy districts of England and France. Although this spe- cies has an extensive range of the lighter class of soils, it is yet, in a peculiar degree, adapted to the calcareous ; hence it is found growing naturally in many open downs and liilly pastures where the chalk-formation exists. 510 PLANTS CULTIVATED OE USED Sainfoin is a deep-rooted plant, with a branching stem bearing spikes of beatiful flowers. It grows wonderfully on rocky soils, stretching its roots to a prodigious depth amongst the crevices of rocks and open strata. It is, in truth, on dry rocky soils that the chief advantages of the cultivation of sainfoin are seen. On a chalky rock, covered with only a few inches of soil, it will thrive and grow for many years with vigour, where neither corn nor cul- tivated herbage plants would cover the surface. Like lucerne, although in a lesser degree, it is choked, and ultimately extirpated by the prevalence of the grasses ; but in a soil perfectly suited to it, as in a chalky down, it will have a duration perhaps as long as any other plant. Although best adapted to the calcareous soils, it will grow upon any light soil which has a free or open subsoil ; but on moist clays it will only last a few years, sometimes not above two. Sainfoin may be sown with a crop, in the same manner as the clovers and grasses. In the following season it may be mown for hay or green forage, although it does not attain its full ma- turity until the third year. When this mode of management is adopted, the sainfoin should be mixed with one or more of the clovers, of which the most suitable for the purpose is white clo- ver, which will add to the weight of the produce, without mate- rially interfering with the growth of the sainfoin. When greater care is thought necessary, sainfoin, like lucerne, may be cultivated in rows, being regularly tilled and horse-hoed during the summer, and manured at intervals, as every fourth or fifth year ; but for the most part, it is not thought necessary to resor^o this method of tillage, and the easier and more conve- nient practice of broadcast is preferred. The seeds of the sainfoin are larger than those of the clovers ; and when sown with the cereal grasses in spring, a little more care is necessary in covering them with the harrow and roller. The seeds should be of a good and tried kind, and perfectly fresh, for old seeds do not vegetate in a proper manner. The quantity, when sown broadcast, may be 4 bushels to the acre ; when sown in rows, FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 511 from 2 to 3 bushels. The best period of sowing it is in the month of March, although it is sometimes sown in February. Sainfoin does not bear such frequent cutting as lucerne. When used for soiling, it may be cut twice ; when used for hay, it should be cut once, and the aftermath depastured. Sainfoin may be used for herbage as well as for forage, and many farmers prefer depasturing it in the first year, so that in the second it may have attained its full growth before it is mown ; and this is a good practice. Sainfoin, when it is made into hay, should, like other legumi- nous forage-plants, be cut just when it comes into full flower. It is not very apt to be injured by heating, and therefore may be put up more quickly than other hay-plants. The produce in hay is generally reckoned from 1 to 2 tons to the acre, in districts where it is cultivated ; and, considering that it is grown on inferior soils, and that it yields good aftermath, it will be seen to be a productive plant. If ground is to be mown for successive years for forage, then, on such soils as are suited to it, scarcely a better crop can be cul- tivated than sainfoin, Avhich is easily grown, hardy, and produc- tive. But, with regard to this particular mode of cultivation, it cannot be at all commended. It is not the most beneficial mode of raising crops for forage ; for, independently of the smaller produce, the keeping of land under any one kind of crop, and manuring it upon the surface, is to deprive the cultivated land of manures for an end which may be better attained by other means. Sainfoin, when sown merely to produce one crop of hay, and then to be depastured for such a period as may be thought suited to the nature of the soil, answers well ; but in this case, it is re- commended that it be sown with a proportion of white clover and rye-grass. It is then merely a substitute for the red clover, and it is a good substitute, for it is a perennial, and will grow on soils on which the red-clover cannot be profitably cultivated. It is in this way only, it is conceived, that the cultivation of sainfoin 512 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED should be much extended in this country. It may be used as a substitute for red-cloyer, in many of the sandy, dry, and rocky soils of this country, Avhich are intended to remain for several years in herbage. Allied to sainfoin, is French Honeysuckle, Hedysarum coro- narimn. This is a perennial plant ; but, when cultivated in this country, it becomes biennial. Its flower-stalks sustain spikes of rich scarlet flowers, sometimes white, which expand in June and J uly in the second year, and perfect their seeds in August or Sep- tember, after which the roots decay. This beautiful plant is a native of Italy, and other countries of the Mediterranean, where it grows in great luxuriance, afford- ing excellent nourishment to horses, mules, and other animals. It is generally reckoned too delicate for field-culture in the north of Europe ; but in our gardens it is seen to grow with surpassing beauty and luxuriance. 4. Wild Succory, &c. I. The Wild Succory, Cichorimn Intyhus, is a native of the British Islands, as well as of many other countries. It is of the natural order Gompositce. It produces fine blue flowers, which open in the morning and shut in the evening. It is cultivated in many parts of Europe. In Lombardy and other parts of Italy, it is sown with other herbs, and esteemed as increasing the milk and flesh of cattle. It is there regarded as nutritious when made into hay ; and is used for feeding horses and other cattle by sum- mer soiling. In France and different countries, it is produced extensively for forage and other purposes, and enters into the regular rotation of the fields. Succory is doubtless capable of being rendered useful as a forage-plant. It is a native, and calcu- lated to withstand the severest cold. It bears drought well, its large leaves covering the ground, and its roots striking deep into it. It grows with great quickness, comes very early in spring, and may be cut several times for forage in the year. If used for FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. soiling, it will be ready in all cases before clover ; and this would be a great benefit, as the means of carrying on a system of soil- ing. Succory may be cultivated like clovers, and sown at the same time with corn in spring ; but the mode of growth of the plant, which is like that of the lettuce, points out a different manner of cultivation, as more suitable to it. This is by cultivating it by itself, and in rows. Under this system, the plant could be easily tilled by the horse and hand hoe. It can be sown at any period from March to September, and when above ground should be hoed out to the same distance in the rows as carrots, parsneps, and similar plants. In the second year, it may be cut for forage as soon as it is ready in spring, and the mowing repeated throughout the year two or three times, as the crop is ready. Care must be taken that it do not shoot forth its flower- stems and run to seed. When the seeds are sown broadcast, either with or without a corn-crop, the quantity may be from 12 to 14 lb. to the acre ; but when it is sown in rows, a much smaller quantity will be sufficient. The principal use of succory, as a field plant, is for green fo- rage ; though it may be also depastured. It is not well suited for being converted into hay, as is practised in Italy. 2. Oriental Bunias, Bunias orientalis, has been recommended for culture for its leaves. It is of the family Cruciferce, of which some, as the cabbage and the rape, have been already described, as yielding abundant green forage. The oriental bunias differs from these in being a perennial. It grows freely after being cut, though not with so much luxuriance as the succory. It is a plant of a very wide range of temperature and situation, growing from Arabia Felix to Siberia. 3. Prickly Comfrey, Byrnphytum asperrimum, is of a natural family noted for its mucilaginous produce and emollient proper- ties, namely, Boragmem. It is a native of the Caucasus. It is a perennial, is doubtless very productive, and is readily consumed 2 K 514 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED by animals in a green state, and grows freely after being cut. It is one of many plants worthy of further experiment, as are like- wise two native species, Symphytum officinale, Common Comfrey, and Symphytum luherosum, Tuberous-rooted Comfrey. 4. Common Cow-parsnep, Heracleum sphondylium, is a native plant of the family Umbelliferce. It yields a plentiful supply of leaves in early spring, which arc eaten by cows and other animals. It is of easy production, but has scarcely been introduced into cultivation. Others of the genus are yet more productive, and merit attention as forage-plants. 5. To this mixed class of plants may be added JJlex euro- pceus, Common Whin, Furze, or Gorse. This is a shrubby plant, of which the soft shoots are cropped by animals ; but it does not form the subject of cultivation in this country, though iu some places where the plant is produced naturally, its young shoots are cut off, bruised, and given to horses and other live-stock. It is exceedingly nutritive, and well relished by animals fed upon it, and, in the absence of cultivated forage -plants, may be beneficially employed. 5. Clovers, Vetchlings, Meltlots, kc . Of the genus Trifolmm, more than 160 species are enume- rated by botanists, many of them deserving of the attention of cultivators. Those that are of most frequent cultivation for her- bage and forage in this country are the Fed and White Clovers, Trifolium prateyise, Fed Clover, is a native species, and peren- nial, but the produce of that which is derived from France and other countries becomes, when cultivated in this country, bien- nial ; though, by being prevented from running to seed, it fre- quently lasts to the third year or longer. As, however, in ordi- nary cases, it is only a biennial plant, that is, being sown in one year, and arriving at maturity and dying in the next, it is not well suited for permanent pasturage. But when the purpose is to keep the land one year only in forage or herbage, tliere is none FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 515 of the species of trefoils which lias been found equal to the red clover for largeness of return and early maturity. Trifolmm repens, Creeping White Clover, is a native species, hardy, perennial, and suited to a variety of soil and climate. No plant knoAvn in the agriculture of Europe is so generally capable of cultivation as the white clover. There are varieties of it more or less nutritive and productive. It is usually mixed with the last species in cultivation, and these again with one or more of the grasses. Trifolmm hyhridiim, Hybrid Clover, Avas so named by Linnjeus from his supposing it to be intermediate between the two last species. It is a native of the south of Europe, but has been in- troduced into the agriculture of SAveden and the north of Ger- many. It seems to be Avell deserving of the attention of the agri- culturists of this country, being of larger groAvth than the creep- ing Avhite clover, and like it a perennial. It might, therefore, form a substitute for the red clover in cases Avhere land is laid down to perennial herbage. Trifolmm minus. Lesser YelloAV Trefoil, and Trifolmm pro- cumbens. Hop Trefoil, are frequently cultivated under the com- mon name of yellow clover. They are both annual plants, and, in practice, are often confounded Avith the black medick already described. Tri folium medium. Zigzag Trefoil, is sometimes termed Coav- grass or Marl-grass. It is a natiA^e plant, perennial, and of easy culture. Its value, lioweA^er, as a forage or herbage plant, is not A^ery satisfactorily determined. Trifolium incarnaium. Crimson Clover, is a native of the southern and central parts of Europe. The colour of its flowers is a beautiful red. But it is an annual plant, and as it must be soAvm in autumn, that it may flower and arrive at maturity in the folloAving season, it is not so Avell suited to the system of agri- culture practised in this country as the red and Avhite clovers. A variety of this species termed Molineri, Avith pale flesh-coloured floAAWS, is later in floAvering than the crimson clover, but does not otherAvise differ from it. 516 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED Trifolmm alexandrinum, Egyptian Clover, is like the last, an annual plant, and the same remark applies to it with regard to its suitableness for culture in this country. It is somewhat later than the crimson clover, hut scarcely so productive of leaves. It is not here necessary to enumerate other species of Trefoil. Those which experience has shewn to he suited to this climate, and the modes of agriculture practised, are the red and creeping white clover. Lathyrus, Vetchling or Everlasting Pea, contains about sixty species, of which seven are native. Lathyrus Aphaca, Yellow Vetchling, has been by some thought to merit attention as a forage-plant from the luxuriance of its growth. Its seeds, hoAvever, are said to he deleterious, which we have seen is the case with another of the genus before described as cultivated for its seeds, Lathyrus sativus. Lathyrus pratensis, Meadow Vetchling, is common in thickets, moist meadows, and even in good pastures. Although recom- mended for herbage by Linnseus, Haller, and others, it scarcely appears to merit a place amongst the cultivated herbage-plants. Laihyrus sylvestris, Narrow-leaved Everlasting Pea, is a per- ennial plant growing in moist meadows. It has a strong root, and grows with great luxuriance, intertwining with and over- powering the plants around it. How far it is grateful or nutri- tious to pasturing animals, has not been sufficiently determined. Lathyrus latifolius, Broad-leaved Everlasting Pea, is a well- known climber, with peduncles bearing many gay flowers. It has been suggested by botanists that it might be applied to agricul- tural purposes. The plant is perennial, and would yield an abundant produce ; but experiments are yet wanting to shew how far, by its nutritive properties, it is calculated to become a useful forage-plant. It has broader leaves than the last, but docs not differ much from it in habit. The two, if grown together, would probably yield a large return of provender. The other native species do not require especial notice. Nu- merous foreign species might be mentioned, as yielding a great FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 517 produce in stems and leaves, but tlieir uses for the purposes of the farmer have not been ascertained by experiment. Of the whole genus, it is to be observM that the characters are some- what suspicious. The leaves and stems are often bitter, and some of their seeds, as those of Apliaca and sativus, slightly poisonous. Melilotus officinalis, Common Yellow Melilot, King’s Clover, or Hart’s Clover, is a native species of easy culture, and though deemed annual, sometimes remains for more than one year in the ground. It is a tall plant, growing from 3 to 5 feet high and more, with a somewhat shrubby stem. It has a certain bitter- ness of taste, and a smell similar to that of sweet-scented vernal grass ; yet it does not appear to be disliked by animals, and might be cultivated in certain cases for forage. Melilotus leucantJia, White-flowered Melilot, is likewise a na- tive sjDecies, and of habits and character similar to the last, though often growing much taller. This plant grows with surpassing luxuriance in the countries on the Black Sea and the Caspian, where it is used for the food of horses and cattle. Melilotus Macrorhiza, Long-rooted Melilot, is a native of Hun- gary, and is cultivated in some parts of Europe. It is a peren- nial plant, and might yield a considerable supply of green forage or herbage on certain sandy soils. Lotus corniculatus, Common Bird’s-foot Trefoil, is an abundant plant in the higher natural pastures of this country. It is peren- nial, and in the month of June is readily distinguished by its tufts of yellow flowers. It is a small plant in its natural habitat, but enlarges by cultivation. Lotus major. Greater Bird’s-foot Trefoil, is by some regarded merely as a variety of the last species ; but its characters are dis- tinct, and continue so when cultivated under circumstances pre- cisely similar. Both these species, and especially the latter, merit some attention as herbage-plants. Common Broom can hardly be mentioned as a leguminous herb- age-plant, though its young shoots are eaten by stock ; but, when old, they are too bitter to be used. One of the genus, however, 518 PLANTfci CULTIVATED OK USED Cytisus alba, Spanish Broom, is used in tlie south of Europe as food for sheep. 6. Heaths, Sedges, and Bushes. These may be said to constitute a class of herbage-plants; they are generally of very inferior nutritive properties, but, forming a large part of the unimproved pastures of the country, they are of interest to the agriculturist. The Heaths, Ericece, cover a very large proportion of the high lands of this island, and are frequently found extending to the plains. They indicate very generally the existence of peaty mat- ter in the soil. Of the native species, the most abundant is Calluna vulgaris, Common Heath or Ling, which extends over all the primary and transition districts of this country. It is a bushy shrub, growing from half a foot to four feet in height. The branches of it afford shelter, and its seeds food, to numerous birds of the grouse kind. Bees collect honey largely from its flowers, and the honey is of a dark colour, and by many esteemed beyond that derived from the lower i^lains. Almost every part of the north of Europe abounds with this plant. It is used in some parts as dried fodder for cattle, and as thatch for covering houses and cabins. It is formed into ropes and other things for which straw is used : a decoction of it is employed for the purposes of tanning ; a yellow colour is ex- tracted from it for dyeing wool : and a species of ale can be made from its young shoots, mixed with a proportion of malt. In con- junction with the dried turf in which it grows, it is used in many places as fuel, though it is not so well suited for this purpose as the thicker strata of peat. Sheep, goats, and cattle, will feed on the young shoots of this and other species ; but they prefer the gramineous plants. In order to cause the young shoots to spring, it is a common prac- tice to set fire to the heath. This should be done in regular di- FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 519 visions over a stock farm, so that successive portions of young lieath sliall be obtained for the pasturing stock. By regular burning and close pasturing with sheep, the heath becomes less in quantity, and the grasses supply its place. The process is slow, but often it is the only practicable mode of improving mountain heaths The Cyperacece, or Sedge tribe, contain numerous species, which often so nearly resemble the grasses in appearance that they may be confounded. They are found in marshes, ditches, and running water. They are found also in heaths, moist woods, and meadows ; and certain species on sands, and on the sea- shore. They are a far inferior class to the grasses in their nutritive pro- perties ; for, while the grasses are noted for the abundance of sugar and fecula which they contain, the sedges are remarkable for the absence of these principles. They are frequently mingled with the grasses, and form a part of the sward of onr natural meadows, and sometimes they intrude amongst our cultivated herb- age-plants, when they are to be regarded as weeds. Sometimes, however, the plants of the sedge-family are important, from their covering large tracts of country, and affording an abundant coarse herbage. Thus, the Scaly-stalked Spike-rush, Eleocharis ccespi- tosa, grows on certain moors and moist heathy places in great profusion. In the Highlands of Scotland it is called Deer’s-hair, and occupying extensive tracts almost exclusively, is valued on account of its spring and summer pasturage. The cotton-grasses, too, Eriopliora^ are common in bogs, and send forth leaves very early in spring. They thus afford an early herbage in high countries for live-stock. The Juncece, or Bush-family, occur largely in the moister pas- ture-lands of this country. These plants are the most common indicators amongst us of wetness in the soil. They are all of an inferior class as herbage-plants, though they are cropped by cattle in their young state, and in the higher districts are frequently converted into hay. The most common species in low wet meadows are, Junrufy 520 PLANTS CULTIVATED OK USED conglomeratus, Common Rush, and Juncus effusus, Soft Rush. They are best got rid of by removing from the soil the wetness, whether of the surface or substratum, by draining. A very common species in the elevated parts of this country is Juncus acuiiflorus, Sharp-flowered Jointed- Rush. This spe- cies is abundant in peaty bogs, forming often the greater part of their herbage. It is familiarly known under the name of sprit or sprat. Though animals do not eat it readily, unless in the ab- sence of better food, yet, being made into hay, it is eaten largely by the hardier kinds of cattle. 7. Grasses. The most important of the herbage-plants of this and other parts of Europe are the grasses. Of these, however, many are of low nutritive and productive powers, and in cultivated grounds are held to be weeds. But some of the less valuable kinds re- quire attention on account of their frequent occurrence, and their adaptation to soils low in the scale of fertility. 1. Anthoxantkam odoratum, Sweet-scented Vernal-grass. This is one of the earliest grasses of the spring, coming into flower about the middle of April, and ripening its seeds by the middle of J une. It contributes mainly to give that delightful fragrance to new-mown hay, so familiar to us. It grows on al- most every soil ; it is not of itself remarkable for its nutritive qualities, nor does it seem to be peculiarly grateful to cattle, al- though eaten by them along with their other herbage. Its value is chiefly derived from its early growth, its hardiness, and its pro- perty of continuing till late in autumn to throw forth its flower- ing stems. It can scarcely form the subject, in any case, of use- ful cultivation. 2. Alopecucus pratensis, Meadow Foxtail. This is a very generally diftused species, being a native of Britain and of most parts of Europe. Its herbage is held to be nutritive, and it ap- pears to be grateful to ruminating animals. It is a very early Foil FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 521 grass, is perennial, and constitutes a considerable part of the richest of our meadows. It does not attain its full growth for several years, on which account it is not well suited to the alter- nate husbandry. The young plants, too, are so frequently the prey of insects, and the seeds are often so defective, that only an inconsiderable portion of them can be calculated on arriving at maturity. IS^otwithstanding of these things, this plant, on ac- count of its early growth, its permanence in the soil, and the quantity and value of its produce, deserves to be cultivated when the land is intended for perennial herbage. 3. Phleum pratense, Meadow Cat’s-tail. This species is a native of Britain, though it was first introduced into notice from Carolina. It is called herd-grass in America, and is greatly va- lued there as an herbage and forage plant. It produces abun- dance of foliage in early spring, and may be cropped till a late season. There is none of tlie grasses more easily cultivated. It is not a peculiarly good hay-grass, from the wiryness of its stem, and the shortness of its aftermath. But still it may be profit- ably cultivated for this purpose in conjunction with other grasses, and deserves to be cultivated in an especial manner when the pur- pose is to produce a sward of permanent herbage, or even when the land is to remain only one year in grass. 4. Agrostis alba, Marsh Bent-grass, is one of the species of Agrostis which grow on moist soils, and which, having generally creeping roots or stolons, form frequently troublesome weeds. It sometimes passes under the name of Black Couch-grass. When it takes possession of wet clayey soils, its roots penetrate to a considerable depth, and, from their vivacious properties, it is very difficult to extirpate them. In more favourable circumstances, the marsh bent-grass grows with broader leaves, and assumes the appearance of one of the superior grasses. It was under this form that it was introduced to notice as a beneficial object of cul- tivation, under the name of Fiorin Grass. It grows naturally in the moister soils, and extends itself sometimes to the extirpation of less powerful grasses, by its creeping roots and stolons. Its best property as a pasture-grass is the late period at which it 522 PLA]!^TS CULTIVATED Oil USED rises in the season, aftording food when other grasses have ceased to grow, and in spring also it affords an early herbage. These properties may render it sometimes expedient to cultivate this plant in small quantity, mixed with other grasses, when the end is perennial herbage, and especially in the case of irrigated mea- dows ; but otherwise it does not possess properties to entitle it to he ranked among the grasses deserving of cultivation. 5. Holcus lanatus, Meadow or Woolly Soft-grass, grows rea- dily upon all soils, and especially the peaty. It produces a pro- fusion of light seeds, which are easily dispersed by the wind ; from which circumstance, when it is once introduced, the soil is with difficulty freed from it. It is disliked by cattle, and refused by them when other herbage can be obtained. Nevertheless, the woolly soft-grass is not without its useful properties. It is su- perior to the heaths and some of the bents of peaty lands. Its easy propagation, therefore, on such soils is in this respect bene- ficial, that a pasture-grass can be substituted for the inferior na- tural produce of the soil. Although the woolly soft-grass may therefore be sown on the poorer class of peaty soils, it ought to be excluded from those on which better kinds can be produced. 6. llolcus mollis, Creeping Soft-grass, is frequently mistaken for the woolly soft-grass, but is readily distinguished from it by its awned florets and creeping root. The herbage of this plant is soft and tasteless, and apparently more disliked by stock than that of the woolly soft-grass. It is a troublesome and impover- ishing weed, which it should be the study of the husbandman in every case to extirpate. 7. Arrhenatherimi avenaceum, Common Oat-like grass, is the Aveaa elatior of Linmeus, and the Holcus avenaceus of some other botanists. It is a coarse though a productive grass, grow- ing rapidly after being cropped, and producing an early and j^len- tiful herbage in spring. It has been found, upon analysis, to con- tain more of bitter and saline matter than other pasture grasses, and hence it has been inferred that it ought not to he cultivated without a large admixture of other grasses. The juster infer- ence would be, tliat it should not be cultivated at all. The roots, FOK FOKAGE Oil HERBAGE. 523 wliicli are fibrous in tlie moister soils, become bulbous in tlie drier, and then tlie plant is a troublesome weed, difficult to be extirpated. 8. Poa aquatica^ Reed Meado^y-grass. This species grows in situations favourable to it to a great height. It is common in flat and fenny countries, on the banks of rivers and the mar- gins of pools. In the fens of Cambridge and Lincoln great tracts are covered with this grass, which not only affords rich herbage in summer, but abundant crops of hay for winter forage. It con- tains a larger proportion of sugar than the best herbage-grasses, and is accordingly much relislied by pasturing animals. It is, however, too purely aquatic in its habits to allow of any exten- sion of its culture. It is well suited to the swamps and fens where it grows naturally, but can 'scarcely be cultivated beyond them. 9. Poa fluitans, Floating Meadow-grass. This plant is found in ditches, stagnant waters, and other moist situations, its stem growing from 1 to 3 feet high. Its seeds are the manna of the shops, and are gathered abundantly in Poland, Russia, and some parts of Germany, where they are used as food. It is found in New Holland, a country abounding in vast marshes. It has been thought by some that it might be cultivated in this country. It is to be believed, hoAvever, that it is too aquatic in its habits to admit of cultivation, except in cases where it could be partially covered with water. 10. Poa annua^ Annual Meadow-gTass. This species has an annual root. It continues to flower throughout the spring, sum- mer, and autumn, and sometimes even in winter. It rarely at- tains, even in the most fertile situations, a height of 10 or 12 inches. It is, however, the most prolific of all the grasses. The only case in which we can suppose this species deserving of cul- tivation, is when other grasses had died out, and when, by being sown on the sward of these grasses in spring or autumn, the an- nual meadow-grass might be expected to afford a growth of herb- age in a few months. 11. Poa trivialis, Rough-stalked Meadow-grass, is one of the 524 FLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED superior pasture-grasses, foriuiug a part of our richest meadows. Its root is fibrous, and its stems are roughish, and hence its name. Kough-stalked meadow-grass is nutritive, and greatly relished by pasturing animals. It requires, however, situations somewhat slieltered and moist. In dry and exposed ground its produce is inconsiderable; and this circumstance must determine, in certain cases, the expediency of cultivating it. 12. Poa pratensis, Smooth-stalked Meadow-grass. This spe- cies is distinguished from the last by its having a creeping root, and by the sheaths of the stem being smooth to the touch. It comes early, but, in this respect, it is equalled by other grasses believed to be more productive, and after being cropped in sum- mer it gro’ws slowly. It is inferior to the last mentioned species, and it may be questioned whether it deserves to be reckoned amongst the superior pasture-grasses. 13. Poa fertilis. Fertile Meadow-grass, is a native of Ger- many, where it is esteemed one of the superior pasture-grasses. It grows in wet situations, and near rivers. It is said to perfect its seeds abundantly. Experiments, however, are yet wanting, in this country, on the value and uses of this species. 14. Dactylis glomerata, Rough Cocksfoot. This is a coarse but very nutritive grass, of early and rapid growth. Although a native of Britain, its seeds were introduced from Virginia about the year 1780. It was not, however, cultivated till many years afterwards. It is justly held to he amongst the superior pasture- grasses, and is suited for forage as well as for herbage. It is more nourishing in spring than in autumn, and requires to be closely cropped : for, when suftered to grow, it rises in tufts and patches, and loses greatly of its nutritive properties. Oxen, horses, and sheep, cat this grass eagerly. Cocksfoot should al- ways be sown in combination with other grasses, as the rye-grass, the meadow-fescue, and the other finer grasses. 15. Cynosurus cristahis, Crested Dog’s-tail, has a wide range of soils and situations, and is plentifully produced in most of our natural pastures. It flowers somewhat late, and its culms, when it [)erfects its seeds, become hard and wiry, and are rejected by FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 525 pasturing stock. Although slow iu arriving at perfection, late in flowering, and not very productive, this grass, on account of its easy culture, and the thick sward which it tends to produce, has been recommended for cultivation. This, however, should only be on inferior sheep-pastures, for the plant is not to be re- garded as one of the superior grasses. 16. Festuca ovina, Sheep’s Fescue-grass, is one of the smaller grasses growing on dry light elevated grounds. It is entirely an herbage-plant, and is only referred to here because botanists have spoken of it with approbation. It is a grass, however, which there can be no object in cultivating on arable soils in this coun- try. The business of the farmer is to stock his pastures with the best grasses which they are capable of producing ; inferior kinds will quickly tend to occupy the ground. 17. Festuca duriuscida. Hard Fescue-grass, is likewise one of the small grasses suited to the pasturage of sheep. It prevails on the lighter soils, but is found also in good natural pastures. It is superior in size to sheep’s fescue ; and may in some cases be sufficiently productive to deserve cultivation. 18. Festuca loliacea, Spiked Fescue-grass, grows in moist meadows, and is said to be very productive ; but experiments are yet wanting on its value as an agricultural plant. It rarely with us perfects it seeds ; which, however, would not be an objection to its cultivation were it otherwise useful, since seeds, in suffi- cient quantity, might be obtained from other countries. 19. Festuca pratensis, Meadow Fescue-grass, is justly ranked amongst the superior grass. Although a large it is not a coarse plant, and does not, like some of the other larger grasses, form tufts in growing. The leaves are succulent, and readily eaten by the larger pasturing animals. Its root is perennial and fibrous. It is found in the natural meadows of our richer clay-land vales, and may form a part of the pasture of all land of tolerable quality, laid down to perennial herbage. It requires, however, a longer time to arrive at its full maturity than some others of the supe- rior pasture-grasses, as the cocksfoot, and is, therefore, less suited than they to the alternate tillage. 526 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED 20. Lolium perenm. Perennial Darnel or Pye-grass, is one of the most important of the gramineous herbage-plants. It is the most generally cultivated of the herbage-grasses in Europe. This circumstance it owes to its early maturity, to its wide range of temperature and soils, and to the abundance and facility with which it can be raised from its seeds. However valuable the rye-grass from these qualities be, it wants certain properties which others of the grasses possess, and a good permanent meadow, therefore, will be best procured by imitating the natural process of mixing grasses together. In this manner, the different kinds coming into flower at different periods of the year, will better afford a succession of herbage throughout the season. The characters of this plant are greatly modified by the effects of climate, soil, and culture, and this has given rise to numerous distinctions, founded on the supposed qualities of the different sorts. The value of these to the agriculturist is mainly determined by the number and broadness of their leaves, their permanence in the soil, and the vigour with which they grow. There are two kinds, however, which must be distinguished from one another in practice. The one flowers for successive yeavs, and is therefore termed perennial ; the other flowers in the second year, and, having borne its flowers, the root decays. This is, therefore, a biennial plant, but it is generally termed annual rye-grass. It is more productive than the perennial kind in the year after being sown, and hence, when the purpose is to retain the land only one year for a crop of herbage or forage, the shor- ter-lived variety is to be preferred. There are no means of dis- tinguishing the biennial from the perennial kinds by their seeds alone, and great losses have been frequently sustained by mistak- ing the one for the other, when the purpose has been to keep the land for several years in grass. IVhen the land is to remain for more than one year in grass, the perennial kinds must be sown. llye-grass should always be sown with some of the clovers, ^lixed with the red clover, as will be afterwards seen, it is well FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 527 suited for hay. No other mode has yet been discovered equal to this for producing a crop of hay with certainty and economy, as the experience of farmers in the north of England, in Scotland, Flanders, and other parts of Europe, testifies. 21. Lolium Italiciun, Italian Rye-grass, is cultivated in Italy, and other parts of Europe. It is probably, in most cases, of bien- nial duration, hut by being cropped or mown before flowering, it may remain for several years in the ground. It reproduces itself freely from its seeds, which are scattered immediately on their becoming ripe. It grows with greater luxuriance than the com- mon rye-grass, and its nutritive properties may be inferred from the eagerness with which it is eaten by animals. It appears to he a very valuable herbage-plant ; but its permanence in the ground cannot be depended on. It thus appears, that the native grasses which experience has fully shewn to be of the superior class, of permanent duration, and suited to culture, are : — 1. Alopecurus pratensis — Meadow Foxtail. 2. Phleura pratense — Meadow Cat’s-tail. 3. Festuca pratensis — Meadow Fescue. 4. Poa trivialis — Rough-stalked Meadow-grass. 5. Dactylis glonierata — Rough Cocksfoot. 6. Lolium perenne — Rye- grass. 8. Burnet, &c. Burnet, Poterium Sanr/uisorba , has been frequently recom- mended, and partially cultivated, as an herbage-plant. It is of the Rose family. It grows naturally on dry and calcareous soils, with a stem of about a foot or more in height. It is a very hardy perennial, remaining verdant during the winter, and yielding an early spring food. It is this that constitutes the sole value of burnet on the inferior class of calcareous soils on which it grows, for, in weight of produce and nutritive properties, it cannot be com- pared with the clovers and other leguminous herbage-plants. 528 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED The Corn Spiirrey, Spergula arvensis, is cultivated in some countries for herbage. It is of the Pink tribe of plants, and is a native of the Old and New Continents, growing about Quebec, and the River Columbia, and plentifully in the gardens and fields throughout Europe. It is termed Spergula, or Spergularia, from the property which it possesses of spreading its seeds. It is by all foreign writers extolled as being very nutritious, and giving a rich flavour to butter. It is valued for its rapid growth. Being sown on the stubble in autumn, it will produce a crop in the same season. It is with us, however, regarded as a weed, and, from the smallness of its produce, can be of no value as an herbage-plant under the system of agriculture pursued in this country. The Yarrow, Achillea Millefolmm, of the natural family Com- positce, is a plant which is found in our richer meadows, and is closely eaten by pasturing animals. The yarrow has, on this ac- count, been cultivated along with other herbage-plants, though with what precise benefit has not been well determined. Ribwort Plantain, Plantago lanceolata, has been extensively cultivated in this country as an herbage-plant, under the name of Rib-grass. It is easily raised, and is eaten in its young state by pasturing stock ; but no experiment has yet shewn that it ought to take the place of gramineous and leguminous plants of known value. Of the various plants which have been enumerated, some are chiefly adapted to forage, some to herbage, and others may be employed partly for forage and partly for herbage. Several of the forage-plants, from their habits of growth, are best culti- vated by themselves, or with a very slight intermixture of stranger plants. Of this kind are the tare and other vetches which are mown for forage; lucerne, sainfoin, when used for forage ; wild succory, and others. The trefoils, again, and the other smaller leguminous herbage-plants, are best mixed with FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. 529 some of the grasses ; and it is a point of useful practice, to de- termine what kinds should he selected, and in what proportions they should be mixed. The most frequently employed of the leguminous plants for mixed forage and herbage are the red and white clovers, and of the indigenous grasses, rye-grass. This grass is well suited for general culture, arriving more quickly than most of the others at maturity, producing abundance of seeds, at all times easy to be obtained, and growing well under the shade of corn. For what- ever period, then, land is to remain in grass after being sown, it will generally be well to sow such a quantity of the seeds of the rye-grass as will produce a crop of that grass alone, independently of the other grasses which may be mixed with it. If the land is to remain for only one year in grass, then the rye-grass alone will be sufficient to form with the clovers good forage and herbage ; yet it will add to the value of the produce even for a single year, to sow it with a small proportion of the seeds of any of the indigenous grasses ; and of these, the best for this especial purpose is the meadow cat’s-tail, because it is the most easily propagated, and arrives the soonest at maturity. There may be sown 20 lb. of these two grasses in all, and 10 lb. of red and white clover, of which four-fifths may be red clover. The proportions may be — Rye -grass, 17 lb. Meadow Cat’s-tail, 3 — 20 lb. Red Clover, . 8 White Clover, 2 — 10 30 lb. A mixture in these proportions will yield a good produce for one season, whether it is used as herbage or forage. But if the land is to remain for more than one year in grass, 2 L 530 PLANTS CULTIVATED OR USED FOR FORAGE OR HERBAGE. then a mixture may be made of such of the other superior grasses as can be procured ; while the quantity of the red clover may be tliminished, and some other of the leguminous herbage-plants mixed with the clovers. We may sow in this case 12 lb. of the rye-grass seeds, which in most cases will be sufficient to secure a crop of this plant alone ; and we may sow the other grasses in such quantity that the whole shall amount to 24 lb. The follow- ing may be the proportions : Meadow Foxtail, . . . • 3^ lb. Meadow Cat’s-tail, ... ^ Rough Cochsfoot, ... 5 Meadow Fescue, .... 2 Rough-stalked Meadow-grass, . . | Rye-grass, . . . • .12 24 lb. To which are to be added : Red Clover, or Hybrid Clover, . 2 lb I White Clover, • ... . 6 Bush Vetch, Tufted Vetch, or other pe- rennial leguminous herbage-plants, 2 — 10 341b. In the preceding mixture of grasses, the quantity of rye-grass is equal to about half a bushel ; and with regard to the other grasses, the proportions are such that each will, in ordinary cir- cumstances, produce an equal number of plants. These propor- tions are obtained by computing the number of seeds in a given weight, and the number of each which, on an average, is found to vegetate. Were it wished that the rye-grass should be merely in propor- tion with the other grasses, and that each kind should produce an equal number of plants, the following would be nearly the pro- portions : WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. 531 Meadow Foxtail, . , . 5| lb. Meadow Cat’s-tail, . 1 Rough Cocksfoot, . 71 Meadow Fescue, . 3 Rough-stalked Meadow-grass, 11 Rye-grass, • 51 241b. 8. Weeds of Agriculture, The plants which have been described are those which form the subject of especial cultivation. The weeds of agriculture are those which grow among the cultivated plants, and which it is the province of the farmer to destroy. The prevailing plants of this class vary in every country, and in different parts of the same country. Weeds may be divided into two general classes : those which propagate themselves solely by their seeds, and which, having once flowered, perish ; and those which have perennial roots, and flower and bear seeds for successive years. The first are annual or biennial plants, according as they require one or two years to complete the period of their vegetation. The second are peren- nial plants, and grow again from their roots, as well as propagate themselves from their seeds. In the case of annual or biennial weeds, if the stem is destroyed at the time of flowering, or just before it, the individual is de- stroyed, and its further means to propagate the species are taken away ; but in the case of perennial weeds, the destruction of the stem does not infer the destruction of the plant, because the plant has the power of propagation from the roots. From this distinc- tion, it would seem more easy to destroy annual than perennial weeds, yet this conclusion does not always hold ; for some of the annual species have such numerous minute seeds, that it is often very difficult to extirpate them, and when they have got into 532 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. ' ground, keep possession even more inveterately than those which have the power of springing again from their roots. Of the perennial weeds, greatly the most troublesome are those which have creeping roots ; for these extend themselves below ground, and if any of the parts of the roots remain, these may give birth to new plants. Either class of weeds may be frequently destroyed by the same means, namely, by assiduous tillage of the ground ; but yet a na- tural division of them is into such as have annual and biennial roots, and such as have perennial roots. 1. Annual and Biennial Weeds. Of weeds which have annual or biennial roots, the following are the most prevalent in this country : — 1. Sinapis arvensis — Wild Mustard. 2. Raphanus Raphanistrum — Wild Radish. 3. Papaver Rhoeas — Corn Poppy. 4. Centaurea Cyanus — Corn Blue-Bottle. 5. Chrysanthemum segetum — Corn Marigold. 6. Pyrethrum inodorum — Corn Feverfew. 7. Sonchus oleraceus — Sow-Thistle. 8. Cnicus lanceolatus — Spear Plume-Thistle. 9. Arctium Lappa — Burdock. 10. Agrostemma Githago — Corn Cockle. 11. Stellaria media — Common Chickweed. 12. Spergula arvensis — Corn Spurrey. 13. Galium Aparine — Goose-grass. 14. Urtica urens — Small Nettle. 15. Lamium purpureum — Red Dead-Nettle. 16. Galeopsis Tetrahit — Common Hemp-Nettle. 17. Euphorbia helioscopia — Sun-Spurge. 18. Polygonum convolvulus — Climbing Buckwheat. 19. Polygonum aviculare — Knot-grass. 20. Ervum hirsutum — Hairy Tare. 21. Lolium temulentum — Bearded Darnel. 22. Avena fatua — Bearded Wild Oat. 23. Bromus mollis — Soft Brome-grass. ANNUAL AND BIENNIAL WEEDS. 533 1. The Wild Mustard, the Charlock of farmers, frequently springs up in vast abundance in fields of growing corn. It flowers in May or June, and as it ripens and sheds its seeds before har- vest, it is difficult to extirpate it. Sometimes its flowers are cut off by a scythe or hook as they rise above the*corn in spring; and sometimes they are pulled up from amongst the corn by the hand, which is an unsatisfactory and operose method. The row culture is, in an especial degree, beneficial in the case of this and similar plants, for the first crops of them can be cut down by the hoe in spring. But the period most suitable for destroying the wild mustard is during the summer-fallow and fallow-crops. Yet under any circumstances it is difficult to subdue it, its seeds lying for an indefinite period in the soil, until brought by the plough within the influence of the air. Often it springs up without any known cause, and covers entire fields. It abounds in fields of turnips, contending for mastery with the young plants. Other species of sinapis also spring up in cultivated ground, but this is the most prevalent and hurtful. 2. The Wild Radish, or Jointed Charlock, like the wild mus- tard, has yellow flowers, and grows and sheds its seeds amongst corn. The two plants, from their similarity, are frequently con- founded together, and pass under the common name of charlock. 3. The Corn Poppy is distinguished in summer by its gay red flowers. It sometimes rises in large quantities in corn-fields, especially in soils that are dry, sandy, or gravelly. It receives the name of red poppy, corn-rose, red weed, &c. 4. The Corn Blue-Bottle is of a genus which contains several species known as weeds. That, however, which is peculiar to corn-fields is the corn blue-bottle. It grows amongst corn, but rarely in great quantity, and its presence merely indicates careless farming. 5. The Corn Marigold is of a genus that supplies our gar-, dens and greenhouses with many beautiful flowers. From the colour of its flowers it is in some places termed yellow bottle, in other places gowlands, or yellow gowans. It grows amongst fields of corn, and may be pulled by the hand. It is not in this conn- 534 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. try a very generally diffused weed, being found only in particular parts. But in some sandy districts of Europe it prevails to so great a degree as to destroy the crops. 6. The Corn Feverfew or Scentless Mayweed, is generally class- ed by farmers under the name of Mayweed, with two other plants of similar appearance, Stinking Chamomile and Wild Chamomile. The corn feverfew rises sometimes in cultivated land in consider- able quantities. The corn poppy, the corn blue-bottle, the corn marigold, and the different mayweeds, may be said to form a class. They grow up with the crops of corn, and announce, by their beautiful flowers, the return of the warmer season. They are not of the formidable class of weeds, and yet assiduous tillage is required to eradicate them. They are frequently conveyed to the farm with the seeds of corn, and then careful winnowing is the best preventive. 7. The Sow-Thistle grows in fields of corn. It is of a family of plants whose light seeds are widely dispersed by the winds. But although a common, it is not a dangerous weed. 8. Spear Plume-Thistle is one of a genus of troublesome weeds, but which are mostly perennial, while the spear plume-thistle is biennial. It sometimes abounds in old pastures. It may in all cases be destroyed by cutting it over when in flower, and before its seeds are ripe. 9. The Burdock is a familiar plant, whose hooked scales fasten themselves pertinaceously to clothes and the fur of ani- mals. It is a biennial plant, seldom injurious, and easily extir- pated. 10. The Corn-Cockle or Corn-Campion, is of the pink tribe of plants. The flour of its seeds mixed with grain injures greatly the quality. The seeds are heavy, and, on this account, cannot be separated from corn in the operation of winnowing. It grows singly, chiefly amongst wheat ; and being easily distinguished, it can be pulled up by the liand. 11. Common Chickweed is of the same natural family, but of a different habit of growth. It grows not alone, but thickly in the parts of fields which are enriclied by the dung of animals. ANNUAL AND BIENNIAL WEEDS. 535 Under careless management it is often a troublesome weed ; and, in fields of turnips, it will contend for mastery with the young plants. 12. Corn Spurrey, likewise of the Pink tribe, sometimes grows thickly in corn-fields, and then it indicates bad condition of the soil, or careless farming. 13. Goose-grass, called also cleavers, catchweed, and goose- tongue, grows naturally in hedges, but is carried also to the cul- tivated fields, where it propagates itself rapidly. Its seeds are furnished with hooked bristles, which attach themselves to the fur of animals, and in this manner are disseminated. In some parts of England it is a troublesome weed, but in other parts it is comparatively inoffensive. 14. The small Nettle is an annual plant. It sometimes ex- tends over cultivated fields, and generally indicates that the soil is enriched by putrescent substances. 15. The Ked Dead-Nettle, though termed a nettle, is of the Mint tribe of plants. It is thus of the same family as the mint, the marjoram, the sage, and the thyme, plants all harmless, and possessing cordial and stomachic properties. The red dead- nettle is sometimes common in fields, especially near hedges, and in sheltered places. 16. The Common Hemp-Nettle, also of the Mint tribe of plants, is common in corn-fields. Reapers are sometimes af- fected by severe inflammation in the hand by grasping it. It is covered by bristles, and these, on being pressed, emit a poisonous fluid. 17. Sun-Spurge is one of a family of plants which yield a pe- culiar milky juice. It is sometimes abundant in corn and turnip fields. 18. Climbing Buckwheat is in some places termed bindweed, or bearbind. AYhen in quantity it is apt to overpower the corn. It is frequently seen twining round turnips and other plants. Its seeds are said to injure wheat ; but the seeds are in themselves nutritive, and, if mixed with oats, will not injure their (piality. 19. Knot-grass is another of tlic biickvvlieat genus, of fi-equent 536 WEEDS OP AGRICULTUliE. occurrence ; but it abounds more in waste places than in culti- vated grounds. 20. Hairy Tare is a leguminous plant which frequently occurs in cultivated fields, and then it is a hurtful weed. Several of the annual grasses are of frequent occurrence in cul- tivated grounds. 21. The Bearded Darnel is common in some countries, but it is comparatively rare in this. It has been condemned as a poison- ous plant for more than 2000 years. 22. The Bearded Wild Oat is often a very pernicious weed. Its seeds readily drop out when ripe ; and as it ripens sooner than the cereal grasses, and then sheds its seeds, it is difficult to extirpate it. It is frequently conveyed with the seed-corn to the ground, and thus may be propagated on the best managed farms. 23. Several of the Brome-grasses are found as weeds in our corn-fields. The most frequent of these is the Soft Brome-grass, in some places termed goose-grass. The seeds of this plant are like those of rye-grass, and are propagated along with that grass. But the plant itself is easily distinguished from the rye- grass ; and when the latter is to be thrashed for seeds, the Brome- grass may be picked out by the hand. The list of this class of weeds might be greatly extended, but this does not seem to be here necessary. They are all of them best extirpated by diligent tillage. The better cultivated a country becomes, the less prevalent and hurtful will be this class of plants. 2. Perennial Weeds. 1. Ranunculus acris — Upright Meadow Crowfoot, and other Ranun- culi. 2. Senecio Jacobaea — Common Ragwort. 3. Tussilago Farfara — Coltsfoot. 4. Beilis perennis — Daisy. 5. Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum — Great White Ox-eye. G. Cnicus arvensis — Corn or W^ay-thistle. PERENNIAL WEEDS. 537 7. Centaurea nigra — Black knapweed. 8. Sonchus arvensis — Corn Sow-thistle. 9. Lamium album — White Dead-nettle. 10. Rumex obtusifolius — Broad-leaved Dock. 11. Polygonum amphibium — Amphibious Persicaria. 12. Urtica dioica — Great Nettle. 13. Agrostis alba — Marsh Bent-grass. 11. Arrhenatherum avenaceum — Common Oat-like Grass. 1.5. Holcus mollis — Creeping Soft Grass. 16. Triticum repens — Common Wheat-grass. 17. Juncus efPusus — Soft Rush, and other Junci. 18. Ericae — Heaths, and other shrubby plants. 19. Filices — Ferns. 20. Musci — Mosses. 1. The Upright Meadow Crowfoot grows in a great variety of soils and situations. Like most of the dangerous family to which it belongs, it inflames and blisters the skin. It is too acrid to be eaten by cattle, unless largely mixed with other plants ; hut so mixed, it is consumed in small quantity, and, from its abounding in our meadows, is perhaps designed to serve as a condiment. In common with some others of the genus, it is termed butter-cup, or butter-flower, from a popular notion that it gives the yellow colour to butter. It, however, injures the butter, wUose yellow colour is due to the richness of the pastures, and not to these acrimonious plants. The Creeping Crowfoot, Ranunculus repens, and Bulbous Crow- foot, Ranunculus hulbosus, resemble the last in their properties. They adorn our meadows with their bright yellow flowers, and are comprehended under the common name of butter-flower, butter- cup, and sometimes of king’s-cup, golden-flower, &c. The break- ing up of grass land for a course of tillage is the only means of eradicating this class of weeds. 2. Common Ragwort is a large well-known weed in pasture fields. It receives many names, as ragwort, ragweed, canker- weed, &c. It has a perennial root, and grows to the height of 2 or 3 feet. It is best kept down by pasturing with sheep, which cat it in its early stages. By being pulled up by the hand, which can be easily done when the ground is soft from rain, it can be 538 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. extirpated in grass fields without taking up the land for a course of tillage. 3. Coltsfoot grows chiefly in moist clays, and especially in very marly soils. Its broad leaves overspreading the surface, it is very* hurtful where it prevails. Tillage and draining, and improving the texture and fertility of the soil, are the means to be adopted for rooting it out. 4. The Daisy, though everywhere loved and admired as the harbinger of summer, and the ornament of our fields, is, in the judgment of the farmer, a weed. Where it prevails too greatly, the land requires to be renovated by a course of good tillage, and by lime. 5. The great White Ox-eye, sometimes also called the great white daisy or moon-flower, often abounds in pastures, and is only to he extirpated by tillage. 6. Thistles form a class of weeds very formidable to the agri- culturist, from the ease Vfith which they are disseminated by means of their downy seeds, and the difficulty of eradicating them. Some of them have deep vivacious roots, and all of them, on account of their vigorous growth, and strong spreading leaves, are inju- rious amongst the cultivated plants. The most common of the thistle kind is the corn or the way- thistle. This plant has strong, creeping, and vivacious roots, the habit of which is to strike down to a great depth in the* ground. If any parts of these roots are left in the soil, they will again give birth to numerous plants. The means of extirpating the way-thistle from land is by a continued tillage and deep ploughing. Even an efficient year’s summer fallow will not always effect this ; for when land has been thoroughly overrun by the plants, they will spring up in future years, and require successive years’ tillage thoroughly to exter- minate them. The lands of various parts of this country used to be greatly more covered Avith thistles than they now are. In some parts of Scotland they Avere once so abundant, that they used to be cut regularly for five or six AA^eeks in summer to sup- ply food for the Avretched cattle of the day. In AATll-cultivated PERENNIAL WEEDS. 539 districts they have been got under, though so great is their ten- acity of life and power of propagating, that they demand con- stant attention on the best-cultivated farms, and, under negli- gent management, never fail to take possession of the soil. New lands brought into cultivation are often entirely covered with this species, and a course of tillage is necessary before it can be subdued. In the ordinary management of the farm, thistles will some- times spring up in great abundance with the first crop of oats after grass. In this case, they must be weeded early in summer, by being cut over near the surface, which is conveniently done by the weed-hook (Fig. 136). The sole effect of this, however, is to retard the growth of the plant, and prevent it from running to seed, or contending for mastery with the growing corn. Thistles sometimes spring up in great plenty in old pasture- fields. In this case, they should be cut close to the ground at least once a-year, so as to prevent their smothering the pasture- plants and running to seed. But it is only when the land is broken up for tillage that effectual means can be used for de- stroying them. Instruments, indeed, have been devised for pull- ing up thistles from the ground, but the roots of the plant are too easily broken, and the smallest portion left in the soil will spring up. The thistle not only grows from its creeping vivacious roots, but is widely disseminated by its light downy seeds. Thistles, therefore, ought to be cut down before being permitted to perfect their seeds ; and they should never be suffered to grow in waste places and hedges, whence their light seeds may be carried to poison the neighbouring fields. Further, when they have been cut down at an advanced stage, they should not be left on the ground, for, like many Compositse, they will mature their seeds though separated from the ground. 7. Black Knapweed is one of a class of thistle-like plants. It is termed horse-knot, and receives many other local names. It is a hurtful weed in pastures where it prevails, increasing much by the roots, and being extir])ated witli difficulty. 540 WEEDS OE AGRICULTURE. 8. The Corn Sow-thistle is a frequent plant in corn-fields, dis- tinguished by its tall stems and large yellow flowers ; but it is not usually a very hurtful weed. 9. The White Dead-nettle is occasionally common in corn- fields. Having a strong, creeping, perennial root, it should be carefully extirpated. This is one of the Mint tribe of plants be- fore referred to. 10. The Dock genus comprehends a variety of species known to the farmer as weeds. These plants produce a large quantity of seeds, which they readily mature. The seeds are heavy, and, though diffused by the smaller birds, to which they serve as food, they are not so readily disseminated by the winds as those of the thistle kind. They, however, vegetate freely when they fall on the ground, and produce plants, which, when once allowed to ex- tend their roots into the soil, it becomes difficult to exterminate. The roots are vivacious, and, if cut in pieces, the separate parts will send forth shoots. It is more easy, however, to raise up the roots of docks than of thistles by means of instruments, which receive the lower part of the stem in the cleft, and being used as a lever, wrench the plant from the ground. But the only effectual method of extirpating docks, as of most other weeds, is by sum- mer-fallow or cleaning crops. The seeds of docks are often con- veyed to the farm mixed with grass- seeds. When this takes place, the docks will frequently establish themselves with the grasses, and grow vigorously the second year. They should be then pulled up by the hand, so as to prevent their running to seed, and fur- ther overspreading the ground. The species of docks are very numerous. The most common is the broad-leaved dock, which is found in every country of Europe. In this country, it generally indicates a good soil. 11. Amphibious Persicaria is of the same natural family as the docks. On damp deep soil it is sometimes very abundant, over- spreading the surface when the land has been left in grass. The prevalence of this plant generally indicates the need of draining. 12. The Grreat Nettle is frequent in waste places, under walls, and in hedge-banks. This species grows over all Europe, and is PERENNIAL WEEDS. 541 found from Barbary to Siberia and Japan. In this country it generally indicates a good soil. When it takes root in pastures, it is yery difficult to extirpate it. It forms patches on which other plants will not grow. It may sometimes be destroyed by cutting the plant, so as to enfeeble it, and sometimes it is dug up by the roots. But Ayhen it prevails in pasture grounds to any extent, the proper remedy is a course of tillage. Several of the grasses are known as weeds, which, from their creeping or vivacious roots, it is difficult to extirpate. 13. The Marsh Bent-grass extends itself not only by its creep- ing roots below the surface, but by its stolons or suckers above ground. Others of the genus extend themselves in the same manner in wet situations. They receive the names of black couch, black twitch, or black wrack. 14. The Common Oat-like grass has bulbous roots, whence it is called by farmers knot-grass. It is a very troublesome weed in many soils. The little bulbs, when detached from the root, grow again, so that very careful tillage is required to extirpate the plant when it takes possession of a piece of ground. 15. Creeping Soft-grass is another plant, which, when it takes possession of ground, is not easily rooted out. It has a strong creeping root ; _but the species is comparatively rare. 16. Common Wheat-grass or Couch-grass, “is called likewise quick or wrack, and receives many other names. It is the most abundant of The perennial weeds of corn-lands. Its roots are creeping, and every part of them left in the ground will grow ; and hence the difficulty of extirpating the plant. The most ef- fectual mean of doing so, is by frequent ploughing and harrowing, and collecting the roots by the hand. This constitutes, as was formerly seen, an important part of the process of the summer- fallow, and preparatory cleaning crops. There is no weed which requires so constant a vigilance on the part of the husbandman as the creeping wheat-grass ; but it is well that, in contending with this perpetual enemy, he is compelled to give a more as- siduous tillage to his land than he might otherwise be induced to do. 542 WEEDS OF AGRICULTURE. These different grasses are frequently all confounded under the name of couch, quick, and wrack, — names sufficiently indicating their characters. 17. The Soft Rush, with other Junci, are all to be regarded as weeds when they preyail amongst the better plants. They indicate wetness, and are only to be effectually removed by drain- ing. 18. The Heaths are a widely extended family, covering a large part of the north of Europe. Where they intrude amongst the cultivated plants they are to be regarded as weeds. Many other shrubby plants are found in unimproved land, and one of the first objects of cultivation is to extirpate them. Fal- lowing and liming are the usual means by which this class of plants is destroyed. The Whin is one of the class of shrubby weeds. It requires continued culture thoroughly to extirpate it ; for, after being ap- parently subdued, it will spring up again in great numbers, and for successive years. When the land is in grass, the young shoots may be sometimes pulled up by the hand, after the land has been saturated by rain. But when whins have thoroughly established themselves in the soil, and extended their roots, they must fre- quently be hoed up before the plough can act. The land being then ploughed with a good furrow, the remaining roots are torn up, and the plants at length destroyed. On elevated sheep-farms, whins should be encouraged rather than destroyed, for in such situations they afford shelter and food. Broom is a shrubby plant, for the most part more easily extir- pated than the whin, though in certain situations it grows with great pertinacity. It affects the lighter soils. Brambles, and other shrubs of the Bose family, are often the possessors of unimproved soils. Certain species of the bramble are very tenacious of their situation. These plants are destroyed by the same means as the whin ; and the like remark applies to all the larger shrubs. 19. Another class of weeds is the acotyledonous, or flower- less plants, at the head of which stands the Fern. Of the fern FORAGE. 543 or fern-like plants, there are many species in this country. They grow chiefly in mountainous tracts of natural pastures. 20. The last in order of the weeds are the Mosses. These plants are altogether innutritions. They often intrude exten- sively on pasture-ground, and supplant the herbage-plants. The best remedy in all cases is a course of tillage, and the application of lime. The list of perennial weeds might be greatly extended. They differ in their characters and habits of growth, but they are all of them eradicated by careful tillage, chiefly during the period of the summer fallow and cleaning crops. 9. Management of Grass Lands. 1. Forage. The produce of land which is designed for the feeding of ani- mals may be consumed in three ways : — It may be eaten upon the ground where it grows ; it may be cut down and given to ani- mals while it is yet green, which is termed soiling ; or it may be dried, in order that it may be preserved, when it is termed hay. The plants employed for these purposes are the different for- age and herbage plants which have been enumerated, some of which are chiefly applicable to herbage, some to green or dried forage, and some to either of these purposes. The clovers and similar leguminous plants mixed with grasses, may be applied alike to forage and to herbage. They form what, in common language, are termed the artificial or cultivated grasses ; and land, when producing them, is commonly said to be in grass. The seeds of the grasses and leguminous plants are to be sown in spring in the manner before described, upon the surface of ground sown with the cereal grasses. When the crop of corn had been sown in autumn, the seeds of the clovers and grasses are sown in spring amongst the growing crop, the harrows pass- ing over the surface with a double turn. When the corn itself 544 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. is sown in spring, the grass-seeds are also sown, just before the last turn of the harrows, and then the roller is frequently em- ployed to complete the process. The seeds are sown either by the hand, or by the broadcast sowing-machine, which regulates better the quantity, and sows them with more regularity. Care must be taken that the seeds of the grasses be sound and of the proper kinds, and that those of the clovers be fresh and well ripened, which will be shewn by the shining appearance of the seeds ; and great care must be used that those of either kinds be free from the seeds of weeds. The proportion in which the different kinds of clovers and grasses may be sown together, is chiefly dependent upon the longer or shorter period for which the land is to remain in grass. The seeds of the clovers and grasses may be sown in autumn as well as in spring, without any corn-crop ; and this practice has been recommended, in the case of laying down land to permanent grass, as being calculated to afford a quicker and better sward : and so indeed it may do ; but then it is by the sacrifice of a crop of corn, which is too great to be disregarded in the practice of the farm. Cases may exist in which the value of permanent herbage is so great, with relation to that of corn and other crops, that this sacrifice may be made ; but, in the great majority of cases, the advantages to be derived from the practice will in nothing compensate the increased expenditure. There is no difficulty, under good management, of getting the seeds of grasses and clovers to vegetate under the shade of corn in sufficient quantity to stock the ground ; and in the forming of the meadow, there- fore, there can seldom be a reason for deviating from the simple and economical practice of sowing the seeds of the herbage and forage plants along with the crop of corn. The seeds, when sown, quickly vegetate, the plants springing up under the shelter of the larger crop ; and in autumn, when it is reaped, they Avill be seen to be covering the surface. In autumn, the ground may be slightly depastured with sheep ; but heavy cattle which would injure the surface, should not be put FORAGE. 545 upon it, and sheep only for a short time. During the period of winter, the land should remain untouched. In the following season, the plants may he consumed in any of the three ways that have been mentioned : — 1st, They may be depastured with live-stock. 2d, They may be mown two or more times during the season for green forage, and the aftermath depastured. 3d, They may be made into hay, and the aftermath depas- tured. When they are to be employed in the first of these ways, name- ly, for herbage, they may be depastured either by sheep or the larger cattle. Sheep may be put upon them in April or sooner, while they are yet short ; but cattle should not be put upon them till the plants afford a full bite, which will usually be in May. There is no period in the growth of these plants, at which they will afford so early and rich an herbage as in this, the second year after they are sown, or when, in the language of farmers, they are one-year-old grass. They will fatten the larger cattle per- fectly. But it is to sheep that they are in a peculiar degree adapted ; and, in the practice of the farm, the larger cattle are usually put upon the old grass, while the sheep are fed upon the young grass. Whether, in any case, a field of young grass shall be applied to herbage or forage, is dependent on considerations of expediency and profit. If there shall be stock upon the farm requiring good and early grass, it may be most advantageous to use the new grass for herbage : in certain cases, it may be more advantageous to employ it in soiling ; and in others, to convert it into hay ; and in the practice of tlie farm, it may be applied to all these purposes. When the grasses and clovers, or any other forage-plants, are to be used for soiling, they are mown with the scythe and carried directly to a house or yard, and put into a crib or rack, the ani- mals being at the same time well littered with straw, so as to be kept dry. A field of young grass intended to be mown is managed thus : 2 M 546 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. — When the land is sufficiently dry in spring, it is rolled so as to prepare the surface for the action of the scythe ; and should any loose stones be upon the ground, they are gathered by the hand previous to rolling, and thrown into carts driven slowly along the ridges. Sometimes the ground may be too soft to bear the carts, and in this case the stones may be laid in little heaps in the fur- rows, until it is convenient to remove them. These operations should take place in the end of March, or as early as possible in April. In the northern parts of the country, it is usually the beginning of June before the process of mowing can be begun, but in the southern parts mowing may commence several weeks earlier. The field, or part of a held, reserved for the purpose, is then mown daily in such portions as are required for each day’s feeding, and the forage given in its green and juicy state to the animals. AYhile the field, or portion of the field, is thus being gone over, a second crop will have been springing up. Beginning then with the part which had been first mown, the ground is again to be mown daily until it is passed over a second time. In this man- ner, two crops or cuttings will be obtained, and in favourable situations three. Should there be an interval between the cut- tings, that is, should the second crop not bo sufficiently ready after the field, or part of the field, has been passed over, then some food must be provided for the animals in the mean time. The best provision, in this case, is the tare, which is one of the reasons for cultivating this plant on farms where soiling is prac- tised. The practice of soiling has certain advantages over the yiore common system of allowing the animals to find their own food in the fields. Their provender is brought to them, and none of it is wasted by their treading it down, while they are freed from that disturbance to which all animals are subject in summer and au- tumn from insects. It is found, accordingly, that the larger ani- mals feed well under this system, and that a smaller space of ground will be sufficient for feeding an equal number. As a country becomes rich, highly cultivated, and populous, FORAGE. 547 soiling is the manner of feeding which will naturally prevail. Hence it is practised in this country in the neighbourhood of cities, where the land can be kept fertile ; and it is the system adopted in some of the richer parts of Europe, and in an especial degree in the Netherlands, whence we have derived it. But although soiling be the most profitable system of feeding Avhere it can be adopted, yet in this country it is in many cases not practicable, and in certain cases not expedient. The cases in which it is not practicable, are when land does not possess a sufficient degree of natural or acquired fertility to pro- duce good and early crops of grass, or when sufficient straw to litter the animals during the period of feeding cannot be obtained. A large proportion of the land of this country will yield an ade- quate quantity of grass for herbage, but not sufficiently early and good for regular soiling. The cases in which soiling is not expedient, although it may be j)racticable, are when the animals to be fed require exercise to keep them in health and in a growing state. Thus oxen are the better for moderate exercise in their first or second year. Young horses absolutely require it ; and even milch-cows, although they may be fed in the house or yard, maintain their health better in the fields. To the habits of the sheep, the confinement of the house or yard is still less suited ; and although in some parts of Europe the system of soiling sheep is practised, it makes no pro- gress in a country abounding in pastimes like Britain. A case in which soiling may be applied in all arable farms in this coun- try is that of feeding the working-cattle of the farm. The next and most common method of applying the sown ’ grasses and clovers is as dried forage or hay, in which state they can be preserved and given to the stock in winter, or at other times. When tlie sown grasses and clovers are intended for hay, the land is to be cleared of stones and rolled in spring, as in the case of green forage. And when the plants are in full fiower, and be- fore the seeds are ripe, or even before the flowers of the clovers have in any degree begun to fade, the crop is to be mown. 548 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. The plants, by the action of the scythe, are laid in swathes, with their heads lying pretty regular in one direction. The swathes lie for a short time to wither ; and are then turned gently over by a fork, or the handle of the hay-rake, in such a manner that they shall not be broken and spread abroad. In twenty-four hours or more afterwards, they may be put into small heaps or cocks on every third or fifth ridge, according to the bulk of the crop, the ground being at the same time carefully raked. It is a good practice to put up the hay green in these first cocks, and then to enlarge them by adding two together. If at this early stage they undergo a degree of incipient fermentation, it is no matter. It is in the later stages of the process that heat- ing or fermentation may become hurtful. When the hay has become dry in the cocks, the period of which will depend upon the weather, they are made into ricks in the fields. The cocks are dragged together by a horse with a rope, one end of which is attached to one of his traces, and the other end being put round the base of the cock, is fixed to his traces on the other side. He is then made to pull forward the cock to the place required ; and in this manner two or more of them may be dragged forward at once. The ricks are made by a person standing upon them to build and compress them. They are formed with a conical top, and are each bound down with a rope made of the hay itself. In this state they may resist a considerable fall of rain ; but the hay is not to be sufiered to remain longer in the ricks than is necessary to dry it in a sufficient degree to fit it for being stored in a larger stack. When the hay is sufficiently ready, which will be de- noted by its feeling dry when the hand is thrust into the rick, it is carried in the large sparred cart (Fig. 55) to the place where the hay-stack is to be formed, which is most conveniently in the barn-yard, near the stables. The hay-stack may be built in a circular or oblong form ; the latter is the most convenient when the quantity of hay is large. A number of persons being placed on the stack to build, the hay FOllAGE. 540 is forked up to them, and the stack, by the treading of tlieir feet upon it, is compressed in proportion as it is raised. In twenty- four hours it will have considerably subsided, and in a day or two afterwards it is thatched with straw, and bound down with straw ropes ; the loose hay of the exterior having been pulled carefully out all around, so that the whole shall present a neat ap- pearance. Hay, when put into a large mass of this kind will undergo a slight degree of heat ; but in the case of the clovers and grasses, the slighter the degree of heat at this period the better, and hence the necessity of a previous preparation of the material as carefully as the state of the weather will allow. Often great difficulty is experienced in the processes of the hay-harvest by the wetness of the weather. In such a case the farmer is obliged to watch the intervals of favourable weather, and employ every practicable means to forward the operations and secure the crop. Some recommend the strewing of salt upon the hay, as the building of the stack j^roceeds. This is a good practice, as it corrects the tendency to fermentation, and renders injured hay palatable to stock. In the making of hay, the great end to be aimed at is to pre- pare it as quickly as possible, and with as little exposure to the weather and as little waste of the natural juices, as circumstance^ will allow. When we are enabled to do this, the hay will be sweet, fragrant, and of a greenish colour. It is not usual to cut more than one crop of hay from the same ground in the year, although the second crop of the grasses and clovers may also be made into hay. It is never, however, so good as the first crop in weight and quality ; and, besides, the late period of the season renders the preparation of it difficult or precarious. For these reasons the proper system is to depasture the aftermath, and not to make it into hay. Wherever the system of the cultivated grasses is perfectly understood, they will never he mown for hay more than once. 550 MANAGEMENT OF GKASS LANDS. The first year’s aftermath, and all the subsequent years’ grass, so long as the land remains untilled, are to he used for herbage alone. The produce of this kind of hay varies greatly with the quality of the soil and state of the season. About 2 tons per acre may be regarded as a good crop, but often the produce is greatly more, and then the crop is considered to be a great one. Hay, in the field-rick, weighs somewhat better than 112 lb. per cubic yard; after being compressed in the stack, it weighs from 140 to 180 lb. ; and when old about 200 lb. Clovers, besides being raised for pasture or soiling, are some- times cultivated for their seeds. In this case the clover to be cultivated should be sown by itself, depastured with sheep till pretty late in May, and then allowed to grow and ripen its seeds. When the seeds are fully ripened, the crop is cut down and formed into very small cocks, which, after being thoroughly dried, are carried home, and put into stacks until thrashed. The process of thrashing is a somewhat troublesome one, from the difficulty of separating the seeds from the caj)sules. It is usually done by the flail ; and the seeds may be winnowed in the same manner as grain, but with sieves adapted to the purpose. This species of cultivation, however, has narrow limits in this country. The crop is a great exhauster of the soil, and, from the late period of ripening and the extreme dryness to which the plants must be brought, it is a somewhat precarious crop, even in the more fa- vourably situated parts of the island. For these reasons the greater part of the clover seeds consumed in this country is im- ported. The grasses, too, are frequently cultivated for their seeds. In this case the particular grass to be cultivated should be sown by itself. It should be dried and stacked like a crop of corn, and thrashed and winnowed. When a crop of this kind is cultivated, it should be regarded as an exhausting crop, and the land treated as if it had borne a crop of corn. Sometimes the seeds of ryegrass are procured by a more par- tial process. The hay being put into cocks in the usual man- FORAGE. 551 ner, it is thrashed just before being put into the larger ricks. The thrashing is performed in the field on a moveable floor of boards, placed upon a coarse canvass cloth. In this case the hay should be^slightly beaten by a flail, so as to detach the best ripened seeds without too greatly injuring or breaking the stems. The seeds are then put into sacks, and carried to the granary, on the floor of which they are spread and turned over as occa- sion requires. When dry, they may be dressed ; or they may remain mixed with the chaff" till spring. The hay, however, is always injured where this system is practised, both because it is deprived of the seeds, and because it is necessary to allow the plants to stand for a longer time to ripen than would otherwise be required. No method of producing hay has been found comparable to that of the cultivated grasses. Under this system, the forage- plants are cut when in their state of most luxuriant growth, and no manure is laid upon the surface in order to produce the hay ; and the manures, being applied to the preparatory fallow or green crops, are covered by the plough, and rendered entirely available. Yet over the greater part of England, land is kept permanently in grass for the purpose of mowing it, manure being applied from time to time to the surface. This system has be- come the very habit of the country, and, by the general adoption of it, beyond a question a vast public loss m sustained. The practice of the cultivated meadow 'was probably introduced into England by the Romans, and at a long subsequent period was made more fully known by the Flemings ; and yet by far the greater part of all the hay produced in this island is derived from perennial meadows, and thus an expensive method of production substituted over a whole country for one more cheap and efficient. Certain peculiarities in the state of property in England, the ef- fect of tithes, and the relative expense of keeping land in tillage and under grass, seem to have contributed to this so general sub- stitute of the natural for the cultivated meadow. From habit, too, a preference is given to the hay thus produced. It is sup- posed by many to be more suited to keep horses in wind ; and it 552 MANAGEMENT OE GRASS LANDS. may be so in tlie case of horses put to great speed, as the hun- ter and the race-horse ; but, for the mere purpose of feeding, it cannot be doubted that the produce of the cultivated meadow, consisting of the superior grasses and clovers alone, in their young and most juicy state, must be greatly superior to that of the older grasses, mixed as they always are with a class of infe- rior plants. But if the large application of capital and the waste of land, for the production of this species of food, are to be re- gretted, in no other country are the farmers so diligent and so experienced in the management of the hay itself as in England. The grasses to be mown are ready in the month of July, and they are cut down when the greater number of them have come into flower. When the land is of good natural quality, or when a ready command of manure exists, it may be mown every year for hay. But it is more common to mow it every alternate year, or every third or fourth year, according to its quality. It is then depastured in the intervening years, and in this way it is less exhausted than when mown every year. Land subjected to -this species of culture requires to be ma- nured at intervals upon the surface. When it is mown every year, the manures should be repeated every second or third year ; but when it is occasionally pastured, the manuring may be less frequent. The manures used may be of all the kinds applied to land in tillage. That most commonly employed in practice is the com- mon manure of the farm-yard, well rotted. This is spread thinly and regularly over the surface, generally at the rate of 7 or 8 tons to the acre. The period of laying it on is various ; some preferring to spread it in October, others after the hay is cut in July or August, and some in spring. The grass, when mown, is soon afterwards tedded, or spread abroad with a fork, so as to be exposed to the sun and air. It may be turned over one or more times, and while yet green put into little cocks. The manner of collecting the grass together is by raking it into rows, technically termed wind-rows, the hay-makers in bands following one another with rakes, until FORAGE. 553 they have thus collected the whole into rows. They are then easily able, by hand-labour, to form it into the small cocks de- scribed. These first cocks are afterwards to be spread abroad, and, being exposed for a time, formed into larger cocks, termed sometimes bastard-cocks. In the county of Middlesex, where extreme at- tention is paid to the appearance. and quality of this species of crop, the bastard-cocks are again spread abroad, and formed into yet larger cocks ; after which they are carried home, sometimes on the fourth or fifth day. The object of this repeated spread- ing abroad, and forming into cocks, is to secure the hay in the shortest time, and with the least waste of its natural juices. This, indeed, is aimed at in all cases of making hay, but the details of practice are modified by the state of the weather, and vary in dif- ferent parts of the country. Sometimes, to economise labour in these operations, hay-tedding and hay-raking machines are em- ployed. The hay-tedding machine consists of a set of rakes placed horizontally. Motion being communicated to them from the wheels, by intervening pinions, they revolve in a direction op- posite to that of the wheels, and, lifting up the hay, carry it round, and scatter it behind the machine. Fig. 193. Hay-raking machines are of different construction. One nearly similar to that represented in Fig. 1 44 may be used. Although tlie raising of hay on the natni’al meadow must be 554 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. regarded as ex23ensive, when compared with the raising of it on the cultivated meadow, yet there are soils and situations to which the practice is entirely suited, and in which it is the best method at the command of the fanner of obtaining' dry forage. One of these is the case of marshes, swamps, or bogs, produc- ing naturally rushes, sedges, and the larger grasses. These marshes are of every degree of natural fertility, sometimes pro- ducing chiefly the Carices and Junci, and at other times pro- ducing the grasses of wet ground, as the Poa aquatica, Poa fluitans, Agrostis alba, and other plants of marshes. The lovvest for the most part in the scale of fertility of these wet grounds, and yet of great importance in the elevated dis- tricts where they abound, are those which consist of a thick bed of peaty matter. These are usually termed bogs, and the produce consists chiefly of rushes, as the sharp-flowered jointed rush, and others. This species of hay is greatly less nutritive than that of the cultivated or finer natural grasses. It is generally re- garded as a little superior to the straw of wheat, barley, or oats, and will, for the most part, bear cutting but once in the year. It is too coarse fof sheep, but is adapted to the winter provender of cattle. To these it affords a valuable resource in all the more elevated pasture districts of this country. As the soil of the marsh improves, so for the most part does the natural produce which it yields. In flat and alluvial tracts the hay of the marsh is often valuable, even where cultivated forage can be otherwise obtained. It is frequently, therefore, a question of expediency, Avhether a marsh shall be broken up for tillage, or allowed to yield its natural plants. It may produce a great deal of manure without requiring any ; it may furnish a valuable resource to wintering stock ; and it may not be capable of being fitted for cultivation but by a considerable expenditure of capital. The manner of preparing the hay of marshes is similar to that of preparing the hay of the grasses already described, except that greatly less nicety is required. The rushes or grasses, after lying for forty-eight hours or more, should be tedded well, so as PASTURAGE. 555 to receive the influence of the sun and air. After this operation, which is usually repeated once or oftener, the hay should he put into small cocks, and when sufliciently dried, put into ricks, to remain in them till the danger of fermentation is removed, when it may he carried home and formed into a stack. A slight fer- mentation in the stack may take place vfithout injury, hut care must he taken that this he not carried so far as to injure the hay. There is another case in which perennial grass land, though not marshy, may he heneficially employed to produce hay. This is in elevated pasture districts, where cultivated forage cannot he obtained. In such situations hay must he procured for the stock during falls of snovr, and then the only means of obtaining it may be to set apart a portion of the herbage-land for mowing. This is a case produced by the peculiar circumstances of sheep-farms ; and it does not invalidate the general principle, that hay is best produced on the cultivated meadow. One other method, indeed, of producing natural hay free from all objection on account of the waste of manures, is yet to be considered. This is Irrigation ; hut irrigation applies to the production of herbage as Avell as dry forage, and we may, there- fore, iirst consider the management of land in the state of peren- nial herbage. 2. Pasturage. Much of the land of this country has never been cultivated, but produces without cultivation the herbage-plants peculiar to it ; such are all our mountain pastures, and the unimproved surface of the lower plains. It is an error to apply the term waste to lands of uncultivated pastures. They are in no degree waste, but are employed in pro- ducing the species of food which, in the circumstances in which they are placed, may be’ the best which they are suited to pro- duce. It may be supposed that, by cultivation, tliey will yield a 556 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. more abundant produce ; but it is always a question of prudence, whether the profit in cultivating them will be greater than that derived from them in their natural state. A primary improvement of which lands unsuited to cultivation are susceptible, is freeing them from stagnant water. This is for the most part to be efiected by affording an outlet to the water in channels cut in the most convenient places. This should never be omitted where the land is of sufficient value to repay the ex- penses ; and it is rare, when land is of sufficient fertility to pro- duce the grasses at ail, that the expense of giving an outlet to the surface-water will not be repaid by the increased value of the herbage-plaiits produced. A species of draining, which has been practised to a great ex- tent in some of the mountain districts of this country, is by means of narrow drains, about a foot in depth, made by the spade alone, carried along hollows and the sides of hills wherever the water is likely to be interrupted. By this species of draining, an import- ant improvement, at no great expense, has been effected in many mountain pastures ; and the tendency to rot, one of the most fatal disorders to which sheep-stock on wet lands is liable, lessen- ed or removed. Another method of improving the natural pastures of an ele- vated country is enclosing. In this way the animals of a farm are confined to the pastures which are suited to them, and per- mitted to feed undisturbed. And a great improvement of all elevated pasture-lands is shelter for the stock ; and judicious planting, accordingly, is one of the means of increasing the value of exposed pastures. But land is .not only left in grass in parts of the country in- capable of cultivation, or in cases where cultivation w^ould not repay the charges incurred, but much even of the better land is kept in grass, when it is found that in that state it yields a more safe and steady profit than if cultivated. It is also, in all cases, a renovation of the productive powers of cultivated land to allow it to remain for a period in grass ; and hence a large proportion of the whole country remains in that state. PASTURAGE. 557 Tlie animals that may be pastured on all lands under grass are onr ditferent kinds of herbivorous stock. Cattle and horses re- quire a large quantity, and, though they prefer the finer grasses, are satisfied with a coarser herbage than sheep. Hence, a rule of the farm is to put sheep on the finer and shorter grasses in pre- ference to cattle and horses, and cattle and horses upon the larger and ranker pastures. Whatever be the animals that are turned out to pasture, the rule is, that the pastures shall never be overstocked; that is, that there shall always be a sufficient quantity of food for the animals. When animals are kept in the fields during the months of win- ter, they must of necessity remain there till the herbage rises in spring. But when they are not kept throughout the winter in the field, they are not usually put to the pastures in spring till these are sufficiently advanced to receive them. The usual period is April or May when our various animals are put into their respec- tive pasture-fields for the summer. The benefits of freeing lands from injurious wetness have been adverted to in the case of upland pastures. They are yet greater in the case of the pastures of the plains, inasmuch as the relative value of the land is greater. In this case, not only should surface water be carried away by ditches and open drains wherever neces- sary, but under-draining should be resorted to, to free the land of wetness. By removing underground water, a more valuable spe- cies of herbage is produced, and the tendency to produce inferior plants is lessened. In the management of land kept in pasture, no manuring is required to maintain its fertility, which will be increased and not diminished by the effects of depasturing. Any species of manure, however, will add to the productiveness of land in grass ; and when, from any peculiar cause, it is thought expedient to manure land in grass, the best kind of manure is usually lime, or composts of earth, lime, and other substances. These are simply spread upon the surface, when vegetation has become inert at the fall of the year, or before it has become vigorous in spring. The surface of land kept in grass becomes uneven from se- 558 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. veral causes. One of these is of yearly occurrence, — the labour of the mole. In spring, the molehills should be spread regularly by the hoe or spade ; and, to prevent the animals from becoming numerous, they are taken in traps. Another creature, too, scarcely known in some parts of the country, but very troublesome in others, is the ant. The hills raised by the ants are unsightly and hurtful, and there is great difficulty in driving the little creatures from the habitation which they have so carefully constructed. The hills, forming little emi- nences like small hay-cocks, will sometimes cover a large part of the surface. The methods recommended for destroying the ants are, raising the sods containing them by the spade, and burning them in heaps; or, just before winter, dividing the ant-hill with the spade, and laying the contents upon the surface. The chief injury, however, which land when left long in grass is apt to sustain, is the decay of its herbage by the sj)ringing up of inferior plants. The most common of these are the Musci, Mosses. The mosses are altogether innutritions. They occupy the place of the herbage-plants, and thus render the pasturage of less value. They are most apt to grow where the soil is inferior and moist. The best method of destroying this class of plants is by drain- ing and liming ; and old grass-land, when overgrown by these and other unproductive plants, should be taken up and undergo a course of tillage. When it is inconvenient to break up the land, or when it is wished, for any good reason, to retain it in grass, the improve- ment of the sward may be attempted without tillage, although this will be found to be more expensive and less effectual. Rakes and harrows, with close-set teeth, may be employed to pull up the mosses ; but this, Avhich is merely a palliatiA'e, leaving the cause of the production of the plants unremoA^ed, should be accompa- nied Avith draining, Avhen necessary, and the application of calca- reous matter to the surface. A someAvhat more efficient mode of improvement is, to pare off the surface with the spade to the IlllUGATION. 559 depth of a few inches, and then, after stirring with the harrow the soil below, to replace the sod. The productive powers of old turf will be renovated by this process, and especially if any calcareous manure is applied before the sod is replaced. When land is kept in grass, weeds of various kinds may tend to occupy the ground, in place of the more useful herbage. The smaller kinds of these can only be eradicated by improving the ground itself. The larger weeds, as thistles, docks, ragweed, and others, should be pulled up or cut over when they come into flower, or before it. The best instrument for the latter purpose is a little spade, carried in the hand, by which the stem of the weed is cut at or below the surface. The scythe, too, must be used, to cut down such plants as tend to overshadow the ground ; and this should always be done before they have ripened their seeds. Whins, when old, must be hoed up, which is generally an unsatisfactory operation ; but young whins may frequently, when the weather is moist, be pulled up by the hand. All suckers of trees, too, should be pulled up as soon as they appear. The very detail of these circumstances, however, shews the expediency of taking up old turf for a course of tillage, when- ever it tends to produce injurious plants. It is in this way only that they can be thoroughly eradicated, and their place supplied by better herbage. 3. Irrigation. The fertilizing effect of water on the earth is one of those na- tural phenomena which everywhere force themselves upon the at- tention of mankind. Water is seen to be essential to vegetable life. In those climates where evaporation is the greatest. Nature has generally provided the most plentiful supply of this fluid in rains and dews. But the rains, often occurring at a particular season of the year, are insufficient for the life and nourishment of useful plants during the remainder, and the art of the irrigator is therefore necessary to produce fertility. Without the artificial 560 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. conveyance and distribution of water, some of the most fertile countries in the world could not have supported their inhabitants ; and the earliest husbandmen accordingly knew and practised the watering of lands as an art. In Egypt, where the great inun- dation of the Nile soon taught the inhabitants the value and uses of irrigation, this art is known to have been practised on a scale of surpassing magnitude ; and the canals and vast artificial lakes of that celebrated people, though less enduring, are more praise- worthy, monuments of their genius, than all the temples and ce- meteries with which they have covered their country. From the valley of the Nile, it is to be believed, the knowledge of the art would be extended to many countries. To the Greeks and the Romans it was well known, and the rustic writings of the latter abound with allusions and rules relating to the watering of land. Without water collected by art, rice, which furnishes food to the greater part of the human race, could not be cultivated ; and over the vast regions of Southern Asia, accordingly, the watering of land from rivers, brooks, lakes, and wells, is a labour essential to the support of the inhabitants. In all the southern countries of Europe, the art is more or less practised. It is there that the water is conveyed in little channels to the corn-fields, to the vine- yards, and to the olive-trees. The conducting of it from rivers and canals, and measuring it out in determined quantities, form, in several parts of Italy, a nice part of the science of engineering. In Piedmont, and the whole valley of the Po, the water is fre- quently paid for by the hour, and the utmost care is bestowed in economising so precious a substance.* The main object of irrigation, however, in all the inter tropical countries, and in the warmer parts of the temperate zones, seems merely to be to convey to the ground that quantity of water which is necessary for the growth and nourishment of the plants to bo produced. Sometimes, as in the case of rice, the earth must be saturated for successive months, and, in others, merely watered at intervals, during the periods of greatest evaporation. In all ^ I’aper by the Author in the (Quarterly .lournal of Agriculture. IRRiaATTON. 5G1 these cases the main purpose-is the same, namely, to supply the deficiency of water in the soil ; and this creates a great distinc- tion between that species of irrigation which has been described as called for by the wants of man over so great a part of the globe, and that to which we apply in England the term watered meadow. In the latter case, the purpose is not to supply the deficiency of water to the soil, for the water is conveyed over the surface at those times, namely, the months of winter, when there is an ex- cess, and not a deficiency, of moisture. Nay, it is held necessary in every well-formed watered meadow, to drain the ground very thoroughly of subterraneous water. Nor is this the only dis- tinction between the two kinds of irrigation. In the one, the water is generally allowed to stagnate until it shall have satu- rated the soil ; in the other, it is never allowed to stagnate, but is maintained in a constant flow over the surface. In one respect the two kinds of irrigation may serve a common purpose, that is, by the deposition of mud or other fertilizing matter upon the surface. The principal effect, we may believe, which the Nile produces in its periodical overflowings, is the sup- plying to the soil of the mere element of water, vfithout which, an arid soil, in a country where rain is scarcely known, would hai’dly produce any thing. But this effect is plainly greatly in- creased by the large quantity of mud which the river deposits. In the case, too, of the watered meadow, the water may, in like manner, deposit a fertilizing sediment ; but this, though it always adds greatly to the effect, is not essential to the producing of it ; and waters entirely free from all perceptible sediment, are yet successfully employed in the case of the watered meadow. In the watered meadow, a stream of water is to be conducted to the surface, and caused to flow over it in a constant manner; the meadow to be watered, for the most part lying upon the bank of the river from which the water is conveyed, and forming a flat surface, or rather a gently inclined plane. To the highest part of this inclined surface the water is conveyed in what is termed the main conductor, either by building a wear or dam across the 2 N 562 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. Fig. 194. river where the water is to he taken oft’, or hy bringing it from a higher source. In the preceding diagram, B A represents the main conductor, and C the Avear or dam. From the main conductor, and as nearly as possible at right angles to it, are taken oft* the various feeders, ddddd. These consist of small trenches 4 or 5 inches in depth, made Avidest, as a foot or 1 6 inches, Avhere they issue from the main conductor, and gradually lessening as they recede from it. They may be formed at the distance from one another of 40 feet, or less, being nearer Avhere the soil is stiff and retentive, and farther distant where it is loose and porous. The Avater is thus conveyed to the surface of the meadoAv. But it is necessary that it should maintain an equal flow over the ground, and so be carried off as quickly as it is admitted. This is done by means of the main drain DE, formed at the lower part of the meadoAv, and the several smaller drains, e eeee, passing IKKTGATION. 563 between the intervals of the feeders, in the manner shown in the ligure. These small drains are of the same dimensions as the feeders, but are larger where they enter the main drain, and be- come gradually smaller as they recede from it. The main drain conveys the water back to the river from which it was taken. But often this main drain becomes in its turn the main con- ductor to another meadow on a lower level. For the water which had floated the upper meadow being collected in this drain, can be carried from it by means of feeders in the manner described, and again collected in a drain below : "and in this manner various meadows may be successively floated by means of the same water. And even where the lower meadows are nearly on the same level as the higher, it is still expedient to resort to this re- peated collection of the Avater in drains, for it is found in prac- tice difficult to preserve the equal flow of the fluid over a very large extent of ground. In order to keep the Avater as it descends through the feeders at the necessary level, and to cause it to overflow the surface, it is interrupted in its course by what are termed stops, placed in the feeders. These sometimes may consist of small pieces of plank, each resting on two little stakes ; but oftener they are merely sods placed in the feeders, which are sometimes fixed doAvn by wooden pins. It is the province of the person who superintends the meadoAVS, Avhen floated, to adjust these stops in such a Avay as to maintain an equal current over the ground. Further, in order to convey the Avater quickly from the feeders to the drains, the surface of the meadoAV is formed into low ridges, the feeder being on the top of the ridge, and the drain in the hollow, a transverse section of Avhich would appear thus : — Fig. 195. 564 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. Here a represents the feeder, and h b the drains ; and in the lan- guage of the irrigator, the interval from a to 5 is termed a pane. This is the most perfect form of the watered meadow. But when the inclination of the plane of the surface is considerable, a different principle must be adopted for the conveyance and dis- tribution of the water. In this case, the feeders are not carried longitudinally through the meadow, but across the line of the de- scent, in the manner shown in Fig. 196. Here the several feeders are filled as before from the main conductor AB ; but tlie water having overflowed the lower side of the banks, is not dis- charged into smaller drains, as in the former case, but into the next feeder lower down ; and is thus conveyed from feeder to feeder, over the entire space of the meadow, to the main drain DE. This species of irrigation is termed catch-work, and, as it can be adopted where the surface is too much inclined to admit of the flat meadow, it is frequently practicable where the other is not, and is often combined with it in the same meadow where there are inequalities of surface. The process of floating the meadow commences generally in the month of October, being as soon as possible after the after- math has been consumed, or the last crop of hay removed. The water is kept upon the ground for periods of a fortnight or three weeks at a time. It is then let off, and the ground laid perfectly dry for five or six days ; and this process of alternate flooding and drying is continued generally during the months of Novem- ber, December, and January, care being taken to let ofi* the water when it begins to freeze. As the spring advances, and the grasses shoot forth, the periods of watering are shortened, so that the flooding shall not last above five or six days at a time. In the southern counties of England, the meadows are ready for the reception of stock of all kinds in the middle of March ; but more to the north, where the grasses do not make such early progress, tlie flooding is generally continued during the whole month of May. After this, it is discontinued for the season, and one or more crops of hay are produced. Flooding during the months of summer produces a rapid and rich vege- IRRIGATION. 565 Fig. 193. tatioii. But it is by summer flooding, wliere it is practised, that the fatal disease of rot is introduced, so that no sheep should ever touch the meadows which have been flooded during the summer months. The theory of the process of irrigation has been variously ex- plained. That the effect is not produced by the mere supply of deficient water, appears not only from the period at which the water is admitted, and when in our climate the soil is always sa- turated Avith the fluid ; but from the circumstance, that the effect is not produced when the water is alloAved to stagnate, and sink down in the soil, but ivhen it is kept in a current over it. When the water is suffered to stagnate, the soil tends to produce carices, junci, and other subaquatic plants ; but when it is kept in motion, and drained off at intervals, the finest grasses peculiar to the soil and climate are produced. Neither does the fact of the depo- sition of mud, or other fertilizing sediment, explain the pheno- menon ; for however such depositions may increase the effect, it is likewise found that Avater, Avithout any perceptible sediment, may be employed Avith success. It has been supposed, that the Avater acts beneficially, by maintaining the soil at a higher tem- perature. Water at a temperature of 40^ is of a gi’cater specific 5G6 MANAGEMENT OP GllASS LANDS. gravity than at a lower temperature ; and hence, as the water tends to tlie freezing point, the warmer portion of it is next to the ground. Much, however, cannot be ascribed to this cause in a current so shallow and constant as that which passes over the watered meadow. It may be believed, therefore, that the main effect is produced by the water acting upon and bringing nourish- ment to the fibres of the roots of the plants. The water con- tains a quantity of atmospheric air and carbonic acid, and always certain earthy and saline matters in suspension and solution. England is perhaps the country in which the watered meadow, as the mean of producing hay or herbage, is the best understood, and the most extensively pursued. There is no reason to doubt that this art, like so many others, was derived from the Homans ; and circumstances have conduced to its extension in England even more than in Italy. England is well suited to the production of the common grasses. These grow with a closeness and variety in the species unknown in more southerly countries, and with a vigour which ceases in higher latitudes. The rivers, too, in England, particularly in those parts most distinguished for this branch of husbandry, are generally turbid,* and flowing through a fertile and cultivated country, are enriched by the animal and vegetable matters which they receive in their progress, and thus not only irrigate, but manure, the lands to which they are conveyed. The counties of Gloucester and Wilts have long been the most celebrated for their irrigation ; but there are now others perhaps not inferior to them in the extent and perfection to which the practice has been carried. In the north of England, the practice almost ceases ; and on the Scottish side of the Tweed, it is still less practised as a branch of the rural art. The causes that have prevented this extension of the practice of irrigation to the north of England and to Scotland, are to be sought for rather in circumstances peculiar to those parts of the island, than in any indisposition on the part of tlie agriculturists there to adopt beneficial improvements. The useful effects of irrigation decrease with the diminished temperature of the cli- IRKRIATION. 567 mate. Tlie rivers in the north generally flow through a smaller tract of cultivated country, and thus do not in the same degree receive those enriching substances which aid the purpose of irri- gation ; neither do their banks generally present those extensive flat plains so flivourable to the art in the chief irrigating counties of England. But, hardly less than even the effects of climate and natural causes, a circumstance exists which retards the pro- gress, and lessens the comparative importance, of irrigation in the northern parts of the kingdom : this is the general establish- ment of the alternate system of agriculture, and the economical means thereby afforded of producing hay by means of the clovers and cultivated grasses. The more costly system of tillage adopted in the greater part of England gives a higher relative value to land kept permanently in grass, and to the hay of the indigenous grasses, than in districts where a rotation of crops and cultivated herbage is extensively practised. Although, for these reasons, the same value will never be attached to the watered meadow in the cultivated parts of Scot- land, as in such counties of England as Wilts and Gloucester, it is to be desired that the art of irrigation were better understood in Scotland than it now is. Even in the best cultivated districts, there will always be pieces of land which may be advantageously used for the raising of hay as an addition to the provender of cultivated farms ; and in the mountainous districts, forming the greater part of the Avhole country, where tillage on any consider- able scale is difficult, inexpedient, or impracticable, the raising of hay for the support of live-stock, during the severities of winter, is an object of primary importance ; and, in this respect, the re- sources of the Avatered meadoAV may frequently be made available Avith the best results. The effect of water, applied on the prin- ciple of the artificial meadoAV, is in all cases admirable, Avith re- gard to the production of indigenous grasses. Its effect is speedily to eradicate heath, and those mosses or lichens Avhich in- fest the surface, and repress the growth of the nutritive plants ; and, in all our mountainous districts, there is abundance of flat loAV land, barren, or productive only of the Avorst herbage in its 568 MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. natural state, Avliicli admits of irrigation from tlie innumerable rivers and streams by wliicli sucli districts are traversed. The formation of the surface of a watered meadow is a work demanding practical skill ; and no one should think of attempting such a work, but under the direction of persons possessed of the required experience. The diagrams Avhich have been given above illustrate the principle, but they do not in any degree exhibit the numerous variations that are required to suit the inequalities of the surface, the varying supplies of water, and other diversities of circumstances and situation. Besides the watered meadow, properly so called, there is a spe- cies of irrigation Avhich deserves the greatest attention Avhere local circumstances are favourable to it. This is when the liquid refuse of towns can be conveyed in drains or sewers to the land. This may be termed a species of liquid manuring rather than irri- gating ; yet it is found that the principles of the watered mea- dow, with respect to the mode of distributing and carrying off the water, are as applicable here as when the water is free from perceptible sediment. Another species of irrigating is termed Warping. But the end of warping is merely the deposition of mud from turbid water, and it is therefore conducted on principles entirely different from those adopted in the case of the watered meadow. It is usually the water of the tide in flat rivers that is employed for the pur- pose of warping. This is admitted by sluices, and having de- posited the earthy matter Avhich it contains, it is allowed to escape. In this manner, by repeated depositions, a large quantity of earthy matter is left behind, and a new soil by degrees formed. On the estuary of the Humber, where this operation is carried on on the largest scale, the water, rendered turbid by the meeting of the tides and the fresh-water, is conducted for miles inland, and, in the course of a single season, about a foot of the richest soil is added to the former surface. ( 569 ) X. THE REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. T. THE HORSE. I. Species and Varieties. Ill the genus Equus, naturalists comprehend several species, or animals nearly allied ; of which two are the subject of domes- tication, namely — 1. Equus Caballus — The Horse, 2. Equus Asinus — The Ass, and the Mule, a hybrid produced by the union of these species. The Ass has been the servant of man from the earliest records of the human race. He has come to us from the South and East, and it is there that he is seen in his perfect state. Were we to judge of the value and importance of this creature from the feeble services he is able to render us in the oppressed and degraded condition in which he appears in this country, we should form a very false estimate of his importance. He is the inhabitant of the desert, and an invaluable servant in the burning regions in which Nature has fitted him to exist. But yet more than this, he is endowed with the power of propagating a race of creatures of the highest importance to the inhabitants of many countries. The Mule, as an animal of burden in a rocky and precipitous country, far exceeds the horse or any other animal ; and coun- tries would remain separated from one another by impassable barriers, were it not for the matchless sagacity, patience, and surefootedness of this creature. It is in the south of Europe, and in an especial manner in the mountainous parts of it, that the mule is to be regarded as im- portant in the rural economy of Europe. Yet he is capable of being cultivated in the colder countries. He possesses tlie hardy properties wliich fit him for innumerable kinds of ligJiter labour; 570 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. lie is long-lived, and remarkably exempt from diseases, especially of tlie limbs ; and he can be maintained on far inferior kind of food to that required by the horse. The difficulty w.hich presents itself to the rearing of him to the same perfection in the colder parts of Europe as in the warmer, is that the male parent, the Ass, cannot be brought to perfection in cold countries ; and when the stallion is employed, the progeny, termed a Hinny, is never equal to the true mule. It is the Horse, then, which especially interests us in this country as the subject of cultivation. The horse, although he will partake of animal food, is strictly herbivorous, and more scrupulous with respect to the food he consumes than the ox. His stomach is comparatively small, and he eats often. He sleeps little, and frequently standing, for which purpose Nature has made a peculiar provision in the form of his limbs. In sleeping he is startled by the slightest motion. The horse is vastly modified in his form and characters by the physical condition of the countries in which he is naturalized. If reared in a country of plains and rich herbage, he tends to be- come large in his form ; and such is the character of the horse of the plains of Northern Europe, as of Holstein, England, and other countries abounding in rich herbage. But in an elevated country, where the herbage is scanty, the size and form of the horse vary with the circumstances in which he is placed. There he becomes small, hardy, and capable of subsisting on the scanty herbage with which the mountains supply him. No contrast be- tween animals of the same species can be greater than that be- tween the horse of the mountains and the horse of the plains. The pony of Norway or the Highlands of Scotland, as contrasted with the huge horse of the Lincolnshire fens, presents such ex- tremes of strength and size, that it is difficult to believe that creatures so different can be of the same species. Yet all this great diversity is ascribed to a difference in the supplies of food, as influenced by the eficcts of situation. Nor is this peculiar to the horse ; the domestic ox and the sheep are subject to the same law, and in a no less remarkable degree. These animals are os- THE HOESE. 571 seiitial to the subsistence of the human race, and, by a beneficent provision of Nature, they are formed to adapt themselves to the circumstances in which they are placed. The horse fed on the arid plains and scanty herbage of warmer countries assumes characters and a form entirely distinct from those of the large and massive animals fed on the rich pastures of temperate countries. It is from this cause that the large horse of England and the northern plains of Europe contrasts in a striking manner with the lighter horse of other regions. As we pass from the northern to the southern parts of Europe, this change of form and character appears, but yet more when we have crossed into Africa. There the horse of the desert dis- plays the light form and agile shape which fit him for his condi- tion. We see that he is here the creature of the circumstances in which he is placed. The heavy horse of the plains of Germany and England could no more subsist on the dry and scanty herb- age of Libya than on the heaths of Norway. The species would perish in conditions so different did not Nature provide a remedy, . by adapting the animal to its condition. The ancient horses of the North of Europe must have con- sisted either of the smaller horses of the mountains or of the larger horses of the plains. The horse which was chiefly em- ployed for common uses, for war, for the tournament, and even for the chase, seems to have been of the latter kind. This ap- pears from the accounts and representations given of him, and from the form which he yet retains when unmixed with the blood of the lighter races of the South and East. It is to this inter- mixture that the technical term blood is applied. Importations long ago took place of horses from Spain, from Barbary, and the Levant, and, at a later period, from Arabia. The African and Arabian horses, accordingly, have given their characters to the blood-horse of England and its innumerable varieties. The animal in which this effect of blood is the most remark- able is the English race-horse. For the combination of speed with the necessary strength, this creature can scarcely be sur- passed. He forms, however, a race of artificial creation, admir- 572 UEAKING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. ably suited for a particular purpose, but deserving of cultivation, from this, that it is the stallions of this race which are employed to communicate the properties of lightness and power of speed to the inferior races. From the race-horse, downwards to the races Avhere no mix- ture of southern blood can be traced, the gradations are innu- merable. It is in this class that our hunters, our road-horses, and hackneys, the horses employed in our coa,ches and carriages of all kinds, nay, often in the mere labour of heavy draught, are contained. It forms the most numerous class of horses in the country. But many of them are bad, having lost the hardiness and strength of the native race, without having arrived at the speed and other qualities of good breeding. They can scarcely be re- duced to breeds, but may be conveniently classified according to the uses to which they are chiefly applied. The superior class of riding-horses, generally termed the hunter, is perhaps the finest race of horses known. It combines the blood of the Arabian, and other races of the South and East, Avith the poAverful form of the horse of the north of Europe, in a happier proportion than even the race-horse. There is a class of horses also, Avhich, from their numbers and similarity of characters, have been usually regarded as a true breed. These arc the Cleveland Bays, reared chiefly in the dis- trict of Cleveland in Yorkshire. They are designed for coaches, chariots, and the lighter equipages. These are a very beautiful class of strong and agile horses, in high request in this and other countries. The remaining classes of horses consist of those in Avhich no mixture, or a very slight one, of stranger blood is found. These are either the ponies of our mountains and commons, or the larger horses of the plains. It is the last that interest the farmer as the animals of labour, and to them Ave commonly apply the term cart- horse or farm-horse. The variations produced in these horses by different effects of food and management arc very great. But sometimes classes of them exist in sufficient numbers, and with characters sufficiently THE HORSE. 573 permanent, to allow the term breeds to he applied to them. The most commonly enumerated of these breeds are— 1. The Old English Black Horse. 2. The Suffolk Punch. 3. The Clydesdale Horse. The Old English Black Horse may be said to be the native horse of the richer plains of England. He is chiefly bred in the midland counties from Lincolnshire to Staffordshire. These horses are of large size, with the breast broad, the thighs and fore-arm large and muscular, and the legs somewhat short. It is this va- riety which supplies London with those enormous dray-horses which excite the wonder of strangers. The defect of this breed is the too great bulk of the individuals, their consequent sloAvness of motion, and their comparative want of action. These faults, however, may be corrected, and have been so very generally ; and the true black horse of England affords the materials of an ex- cellent breed. Northward from the Humber, the horses of draught become less heavy, and more varied in colour and form. Many admirable horses of this mixed class are reared in the counties of York, Dur- ham, and Northumberland. The Suffolk Punch is so termed from its round or punchy form. This breed is supposed to have been produced by a mixture with the horses of •Normandy, which, from the similarity of characters, is probable. The Suffolk Punch is usually of plain figure, but compact, useful, and of good action. This breed is in great re- quest in the counties of Suffolk, Norfolk, and Essex, where it is preferred to every other for the plough. The Suffolk Punches have been long remarked for the trueness with which they per- form their work, and in an especial degree for their steady exer- tion at a dead pull. The breed has been largely crossed by the horses of Yorkshire and Durham. The Clydesdale is the breed of the western plains of Scotland, though cultivated in elevated districts. The horses of this breed are less than tl^e heavy black horses of the midland counties ; and 574 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. they draw steadily, and are generally free from vice. They are reared by the farmers of the district, and have good justice done to them with respect to feeding and light work, while in the hands of the breeders. It is to the good treatment of them when young that these horses owe much of their usefulness. Although inferior in physical strength to the English Black Horse, and in figure to many of the better class of draught-horses of York- shire and Durham, these horses have properties which render them one of the most safe and useful class of farm-horses to be anywhere found. Full descriptions of these and the other races and classes of horses proper to, or naturalized in. Great Britain, are contained in my Works on the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands.^ 2. Form. An examination of the form of the horse requires a cursory one of his anatomical structure. The bones of an animal constitute, it may be said, the foundation on which is erected the edifice of the living machine. They mainly give to it its form and proportions. Their various parts, con- nected by flexible ligaments, are capable of all the varieties of motion fitted to the condition of the animal. Motion is given to the bones by means of muscles or fleshy fibre ; but the flesh of animals is not a mere stratum covering the bones. Every muscle is a distinct organ, consisting of innumer- able parallel fibres, forming as it were, a fleshy band, stretching from bone to bone, or from muscle to muscle, and each serving its peculiar function. These muscles are of vast power when under the influence of * 1. On the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands, comprehending the Natural and Economical History of Species and Varieties, the Description of the Properties of External Form, and Observations on the Principles and Practice of Breeding. 8vo. 21s. 2. Breeds of the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands, with illustrative coloured lithographic plates, 2 vols. THE HORSE. 575 the vital principle. By contracting, they give motion to the hones and other parts. Each muscle consists of long threads or fibres, seemingly hound together by mesh-work. These fibres, in so far as the eye, assisted by very powerful glasses, can discover, are resolvable into minuter filaments. A number of these filaments may be said to form a fibre or thread ; a number of these fibres to form a fasciculus or bundle of fibres ; and a number of fasci- culi to form a muscle. Muscles assume a variety of form suited to their peculiar func- tions. Sometimes they are flat, extending over a considerable space, and often they form a fleshy band, swelling out in the centre, Fig. 197. and becoming small and tendinous at the points of their attach- ment to the bones. Not only is a class of muscles employed in giving motion to the bones, but a numerous class is employed within the body in giving motion to the organs of circulation and nutrition, as the heart and the stomach. The number of muscles is wonderfully small when we consider their functions, and the infinite variety of motion in the animal ; for, from the motions of the limbs to the expression of the face and modulations of the voice, all is moved by this machinery of surpassing beauty and simplicity. The bones, although harder than the muscular structure, are, like it, the parts of a living machine, furnished with their blood- vessels and nerves. They give to the animal its peculiar form, and, acted upon by the muscles, its powers of progression. The following figure represents the connexion of the principal bones of the horse : — 57G REAKINa AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Fig. 198. CC Cervical vertebrae. DD Dorsal vertebrae. EE Lumbar vertebrae. A Bones of the cranium. B Bones of the face. H Sacrum, or rump-bone. JJ Bones of the tail. FF Ribs. G Sternum, or breast-bone. I Os innominatum. Q Os Femoris, thigh-bone or haunch-bone. S Bones of the leg. R Patella, or stifle-bone. T Tarsal bones, or bones of the hock. U Metatarsal bones of the hind- leg. V Phalangeal bones, or bones of the fetlock and foot. K Scapula, or shoulder-blade. L Humerus. M Fore-arm. N Carpal bones. O Metacarpal bones of the foreleg. P Phalangeal bones. 1. Withers. 2. The elbow. 3. Point of the hock. 4. Hip-bone. The series of hones to which the others may be regarded as at- tached, is the vertebral or spinal column. This, in man, is erect, forming what is termed the back-bone. It is a pillar of bones, flexible, and of great strength, serving to support the head. These bones or vertebrae are jointed or articulated together, with THE HORSE. 577 a certain power of motion, and firmly bound by strong cartilage. Each vertebra has a cavity passing through its centre, so that, when all are united together, there is a continued canal passing along the whole column. It is within this canal that the conti- nuation of the medullary part of the brain, or spinal chord, is en- closed. Radiating from this, and passing through holes in the column, are nerves destined to give sensation to the muscles and other organs. In man the number of vertebrae is 24, in the horse 30; in man the column is erect, in the horse it is horizontal, to suit the po- sition of a quadruped. Of the vertebrae, those peculiar to the neck are termed cervical; those belonging to the back, and from which the ribs arise, dorsal ; those belonging to the loins, lumbar. In man there are 7 cervi- cal, 12 dorsal, and 5 lumbar, vertebrae; in the horse there are 7 cervical, 18 dorsal, and 5 lumbar, vertebrae. These vertebrae have each projections termed processes, which are designed for the attachment of muscles, and of which the up- right are termed spinous processes. In the horse, the spinous processes next the neck are very large, forming what are called withers. To them are attached muscles and ligaments which sup- port and give motion to the head and neck ; and large withers are connected with the power of active motion in the horse. Jointed or articulated to the first of the cervical vertebrae is the head, containing the brain and the principal organs of sense. The bones of the head are divided into two classes, those of the cranium or skull, and those of the face. The bones of the cra- nium are distinct pieces, firmly united, and many of them dove- tailed into one another, and forming a cavity fitted in the happiest manner for the protection of the vital organ within. The manner in which the cranium is articulated to the upper vertebra, is ana- logous to that in which the vertebrse themselves are united toge- ther. The cranium may be said to be itself a series of vertebrse, its parts being merely expanded and enlarged, so as to form a ca- vity for containing the brain. In man the cranium and face are round : in the horse they are 2 o 578 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. elongated, in order that the mouth may collect food. The head in man is nicely poised upon the summit of a column : in the horse, in order that it may reach the ground, it is pendent. In the horse, its great weight is supported hy powerful muscles, and by a strong ligament extending from the head to the spine. It is for the better attachment of this ligament and muscles, that the withers of the horse are large : in man withers are not required. The prehensile organ of the horse being the mouth, and not as in man the hands, the length of the cervical vertebrae must be so much greater in the horse than in man, that he may be able to reach the ground and collect his food. Although the number of cervical vertebrae in the horse is the same as in man, their rela- tive length in the horse is much greater. The spinal column becomes larger towards the base, when it gradually diminishes. This portion of it forms what is termed the sacrum ; the bones of which are not jointed, but united so as to form one bone. The vertebral canal is continued into the sa- crum, and sends forth nerves to the lower extremities. In man the sacrum is terminated by four or five little bones united together ; in the horse these bones extend to a greater length, forming the caudal vertebrse or tail. Rising from the several dorsal vertebrae are the ribs. These bones are flat, bent, and elastic, and terminate in cartilage. In man the number of dorsal vertebrae, and consequently of ribs, is 1 2 on each side. In the horse the number of dorsal vertebrae, and the number of ribs, accordingly, on each side, is 18. The other bones connected with the spinal column are those of the pelvis, to which is attached the bone of the thigh. Con- nected with the spinal column also by muscles, is the scapula or shoulder-blade, to which is attached the humerus or bone of the shoulder. The pelvis is at the lower part of the spinal column in man, and at the hinder part in the horse. It is a large irregular- shaped cavity, formed by the ossa innominata and other bones. It is within this cavity that the foetus is developed and nourished. A prominent bone of the pelvis is the ilium or hip-bone. THE HOHSE. 579 Into a cavity of the os innominatum on each side is inserted the os femoris or thigh-bone. The thigh in man is altogether detached from the trunk ; in the horse, being enveloped in muscle, it forms apparently a part of it. This is required by the dif- ferent position of the animal, and the bone has sufficient facility of motion in the manner in which it is placed. In man it stands vertical ; in the horse it is bent, which prevents the animal from being raised too high above the ground. In this position, too, he has a greater power of progression. When he moves the limb backwards it describes a large arch of a circle. Mow, were the thigh placed perpendicular to the ground, it wilh appear from the figure, that, when stretched backwards, it would describe a smaller arch of a circle. Its length, therefore, combined with its bent position, conduces to the vast power of progression of the ani-' mal : and the comparative power of motion in horses is very much dependent upon the length of this part. This greater length of the thigh-bone, again, is indicated to the eye by the dis- tance from the hip-bone backwards, forming what are termed the hind-quarters. Jockeys, accordingly, always look to the size of the quarters as connected witli the power of rapid progression of the horse. Next in order are the bones of the leg, consisting, first, of the patella or stifle-bone, corresponding with the pan of the knee in man, and next of the two bones, the tibia and fibula, united in the horse, and forming the leg properly so called, and corresponding with the leg in man. The leg of the horse should be long in pro- portion to the lower parts of the limb. The further bones of the limb correspond with the bones of the heel, the foot, and the toes of man. The bones of the heel in man are termed the tarsal bones ; of the foot, the metatarsal bones ; and of the toes, the phalangeal bones. In man the tar- sal bones are in number 7, the metatarsal 5, and the phalangeal 14. In the horse, the bones corresponding to the tarsal, meta- tarsal, and phalangeal bones, are likewise, as in man, many ; and this number of bones adds to the flexibility and elasticity of the limb. 580 KEARlNa AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Man, however, standing erect, requires a large pediment of support. The bones of the foot, therefore, are made to rest upon the ground. But the horse, having four limbs of support, does not require this large pediment. The metatarsal bones of the horse are therefore extended, in order to give length to the limb. The phalangeal bones form the fetlock and other parts, giving to them flexibility and elasticity ; and the lowermost only of the phalangeal bones are brought into contact with the ground. These last are not separate as in man, but together, and defended by horn. The horse, therefore, may be said to stand on his toes ; and if any person will attempt to walk on all-fours, he will find that the toes will touch the ground, while the bones of the foot will be raised up. The bone of the horse termed the point of the hock, corre- sponds with the great bone of the heel in man. To this are at- tached powerful muscles ; and the size of this bone, therefore, as giving space for the attachment of muscles, is connected with the power of progression in the horse, and is therefore one of the points looked at by jockeys. The bones of the other extremity of the horse correspond with the arm, the fore-arm, the wrist, the hand, and the fingers in man. In man the hand forms the prehensile organ, and a great flexi- bility is given to the different bones which form it. In the horse these bones form the limbs of support. They are not designed to seize objects, but to support the weight of the animal before, — to be raised from the ground when he pushes himself forward by the extension of the limbs behind, — and to receive his weight when he again reaches the ground. The scapula or shoulder-blade is in the horse, as in man, a large flat triangular bone, placed upon the ribs, and connected by means of muscles with the head, the ribs, and the spine. In man, the two scapulae are kept from approaching one another by the clavicle or collar-bone. From the form and position of the iiorse, this approximation cannot take place ; and there is there- fore no collar-bone in the horse. Into a cavity of the scapula is jointed on each side the humerus. THE HOUSE. 581 But the humerus, or arm from the shoulder to the elbow, is in man detached as it were from the body ; while in the horse it seems to form a part of it ; and in this position it has sufficient power of motion. It is bent, as will be seen from the figure, — an admirable and necessary provision to lessen the shocks which the animal receives on bringing his limbs to the ground ; for by this flexure it acts the part of a spring. Were this bone vertical, the limb would be shattered when it struck the ground. The shoulder of the horse should be oblique, and the humerus relatively short. The obliquity of the shoulder is a point con- nected with action in the horse ; and the reason why the humerus should not be long, will appear from the function which it has to perform. When the animal moves the limb forward to raise it from the ground, the humerus has to describe an arch of a circle ; but the muscular power being sufficient, the shorter radius de- scribes an equal arch with a longer, and thus fulfils its function with less displacement of the parts than when the radius is long. The next of the bones are two, the radius and ulna, united to- gether in the horse, forming the fore-arm in man, and what is termed the fore-arm in the horse. The termination of the ulna, corres- ponding with the elbow, forms an important point of the horse, because to it are attached powerful muscles for the movement of the limb. Jockeys, accordingly, look with attention to the size of the elbow of the horse. The remaining bones of the limb correspond with the bones of the wrist, the hand, and the fingers, in man, termed respectively the carpal, metacarpal, and phalangeal bones. The carpal bones of the horse are commonly called the bones of the knee ; but these bones do not correspond with the knee, but with the wrist of the human body. In man, they give flexi- bility to the hand ; in the horse they give flexibility to the limb of support. The next bones are the metacarpal bones. These correspond with the bones of the hand in man ; but in man they form a part 682 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. of a prehensile organ ; in the horse they are extended in order to give length to the limh. The bones of the fetlock and foot correspond with the pha- langeal bones, or bones of the finger in man. They are distinct in man ; they are together in the horse, and, touching the ground at their extremities, are defended by horn. The horse, abstracted from his neck, and viewed in profile, is contained nearly within a square, of which the body forms one- half, and the limbs form one-half. In this respect the form of the horse differs greatly from that of the ox, the body and limbs of the ox, abstracted from the neck, being included in a rectangle, in the manner to be afterwards shewn, and the body forming a greater proportion of the rectangle than the limbs. This circum- stance would alone account for the greater power of progression of the horse than the ox. In the horse, while sufficient space must be given in the size of the body to the respiratory and nutritive organs, this space must not be too great, because then the body will bear too large a proportion to the limbs for the purpose of active motion. In the ox, the larger the proportion of the fleshy matter of the body to the limbs the better. In the case both of the horse and the ox, the large expanded chest indicates a disposition to fatten ; but if this be carried too far in the horse, he will be incapable of active motion. Such a form may suit the dray-horse, when a large force is to be thrown upon the collar : but would be unsuited to those cases in which we require the power of active motion, or, in technical language, action. In a horse where speed alone is required, the chest must not be too broad before ; but in a horse in which we require active motion, combined with endurance, there should be a sufficient breadth of chest : and a medium, therefore, is what is desired in the hackney and the hunter. In the farm-horse, the chest should be broad ; because in the farm-horse we require the power of draught, and not of speed. The chest of the horse behind the shoulders should be deep ; THE HORSE. 583 his back, when we look for strength without sacrificing this to mere speed, should be short ; the ribs should approach near to the pelvis, as indicating strength, though, if speed alone be re- quired, this point may be sacrificed. The fore-arm and hind-leg, to the joints, should be muscular, and below these joints tendi- nous. The trunk should be barrel-shaped, but somewhat ellipti- cal, and gently enlarging from the breast backwards. 3. Rearing and Feeding. In the breeding of the horse, it is important that the parent of either sex be free from disease. It is well known to all breed- ers, that the diseases of the parents, as well as their good pro- perties, are transferred to their offspring. In breeding, atten- tion should be paid to the female as well as to the male parent, else disappointment may result with respect to the form and pro- perties of the progeny. A mare is capable of receiving the male at an early age ; but it is an error to commence breeding from any mare before strength has been acquired, and her form developed ; and this will rarely be sooner than at three or four years of age. The mare comes into season in spring : she goes with young about eleven months, although with an irregularity, even to the extent of several weeks on either side of that period. The most convenient time for her receiving the male is in May, that she may foal in April, when the herbage begins to spring. From the time she receives the male to that of foaling, the farm-mare may be kept at her usual work. She will give notice of the period of foaling, by the extension of the udder, and other symp- toms, and she may then be released from work. In general, little difficulty or danger attends the parturition of the mare. She rarely requires assistance ; but, should difficulty really arise, from the particular position of the foetus, it is pro- per to obtain the assistance of a veterinary surgeon, lest the mare be injured by unskilful and violent treatment. 584 REAKING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. As soon as the mare has foaled, she should he placed with her young, either in a house, or, what is better, in a pasture-close or paddock, with a shed to which she may go at all times. It is necessary, at this period, to supply her with nourishing food. It is better that the mother be kept in a field, and permitted to suckle the young undisturbed. But yet she may be put, with- out danger or injury, to moderate work within a short time after foaling. In this case the foal should be shut up in a house during the hours of work, which then should not be too long ; but, after the colt has acquired a little strength, it may be permitted to follow the mother even when at work in the fields. Many, indeed, do not approve of this practice, on account of the chance of acci- dents to the foal. But accidents seldom occur, and the foal has an opportunity of taking milk more frequently, is the better for the exercise, and becomes used to the objects around it. It is certainly better, however, that the mare be permitted to suckle her foal undisturbed ; and no other course is to be thought of with the finer classes of horses. In nine days or more after foaling, the mare will be again in season, and may receive the male. In six months the foal is to be weaned, which is done merely by separating it from the dam. It is then best put into a field. The mother is set to her ordinary work, and treated as usual. At the time of weaning, and during all the period of its growth the foal should be liberally fed. Bruised oats, meal, or any farina- ceous food, may be given to it. It is not necessary or proper that it be pampered ; but it is important to its growth and vigour, that it be supplied wfith sufficient food. The male foal intended for agricultural purposes must be cas- trated ; and the best period for performing the operation is at the age of twelve months. Some do it before weaning, but it is bet- ter that it be delayed till the masculine form of the animal has been more developed. If the colt be intended for the saddle, it is Avell that from this period it be accustomed to gentle handling by the person who feeds THE HORSE. 585 it, for this is a mean of rendering it docile and good-tempered. But however this he, nothing hut kindness is to he shewn to these young creatures, and any thing like rough treatment is to he carefully avoided. The colts are kept in their pastures during the summer, and when these fail before winter, the animals may he put into a yard with sheds, and plentifiilly littered with straw, like the young oxen upon the farm. They may receive straw for half the win- ter, and hay towards spring when the straw becomes dry and un- palatable ; hut it is better that they receive hay alone ; and turnips, or any green food, should also he supplied to them freely through- out the winter. It is a great error to starve colts, for this injures their growth and vigour in a degree far beyond the value of the increased food required. Although they may he confined in a yard in the manner described, it is greatly better, where conve- nience allows, that they have a piece of ground on which they may run in winter. This is favourable, in an eminent degree, to their health, and the state of their feet. But, however the colts are managed in winter, as early in spring as the pastures will allow, they are to be turned out to graze in the fields, where they are to be kept during summer ; and in the following winter put again into the yards or paddock, and treated in the same manner as before. And they are to be treated in a similar manner in the follow- ing summer and winter ; after which, namely, when three years old, they will be 'in a condition to be broken in, and, if draught- horses, employed in the work of the farm. They may be taken up for training even in the third autumn of their age, though at this period the work should be very gentle. A farm-horse usually receives little training, though it is bet- ter that a partial training, as in the case of the horse intended for the saddle, be given. But whether this be done or not, the colt should have a bridle with an easy bit put upon him for ten days or more, and allowed to champ it for an hour or two at a time in the stall. The harness being then put upon him by de- grees, lie may be trained to the different labours required of him. 586 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. In general, the farm-horse, working with his fellows, is easily brought to be obedient. But when a farm-horse is four or five years old before he is put to work, or if he is a stallion, or if he shews any vice, a little more care may be proper, and a partial training, as if he were intended for the saddle, given him. And if he is a valuable horse, and fit also for the saddle and the carriage, the more com- plete the training given to him the better. The art of training the horse for the saddle is now well under- stood, and the rude and violent practices of former times are ge- nerally abandoned by all who have any competent knowledge of the subject. In every case, gentleness and kind treatment are to be strictly observed in the management of the colt. He is first to be taught his duties, and corrected afterwards only when necessary to enforce submission. Fear, in the training of the horse, is that feeling with which he is soon endued, that he is under the dominion of a more powerful agent, whose will he can- not resist. Implicit submission is to be enforced, gently in so far as instruction is concerned, but by calling into action the prin- ciple of fear, when this is required to produce obedience. De- cision and firmness, with a resolution to be obeyed, after the horse has been fairly taught the duties that are required of him, are altogether distinct from violence and cruelty. Nothing is so destructive to the temper of a horse as useless coercion, and all the defects of temper, when they exist in the young horse, arise, in the great majority of cases, from injurious treatment. But we are here chiefly to consider the management of the horse as an animal of labour. The farm-horse demands, neither in the training nor in the feeding, that nicety which is required in the case of the horse designed for rapid motion or irregular labour. He requires merely to be maintained in good order, never to be worked beyond his power, and never to be allowed to fall, in condition, below the work which he is to perform. The stable for the farm-horse, as for every other, should be spacious and well ventilated. It is a great error to suppose THE HORSE. 587 that horses require a close, warm stable, to preserve them in health. To keep them fully sheltered, and free from the action of any cold current, is all that is requisite. The horse is well suited to bear an equal temperature, but not sudden changes pro- duced by artificial means. Farm-horses regularly worked have been known to be kept throughout the coldest winters in mere sheds, not only without injury, but with greater benefit to their health than if they had been too closely confined. Next to ventilation in importance, is cleanliness of the stable. No filth should be suffered to accumulate, but every day the stable should be cleaned out, with the same attention for the farm as for the saddle horse. In the farm-horse stable, every ploughman should have a small fork, a curry-comb, a brush, a mane-comb, and a foot-picker. (Figs. 76, 85, 86, 87, 88.) Light should be admitted into every stable, to a certain extent. But in the case of farm-horses, which are only in the stable dur- ing the hours of rest and feeding, less light is necessary than in the case of the saddle-horse, which passes a great part of his time within doors. The light required for the farm-horse stable is that which is sufficient to allow the workmen to perform their duties in the day-time. Sometimes there is a room adjoining the stable for holding the harness, but it is perfectly convenient and sufficient in practice to have the simple furniture of the farm- horse hung on pins in the wall behind each pair of horses. The food of the horse in this country consists of herbage, or green forage, as clovers and sainfoin ; of dried forage, as hay and straw ; of various farinaceous substances, as oats, barley, pease, and beans ; and of the succulent roots of plants, as the potato, the turnip, the carrot, the parsnep, and the beet. Of the grains given to the horse, the most generally employed in this country, and that which is regarded as well adapted to his strength and spirit, is the oat. The oat is, for the most part, given to the horse without any preparation, though it is sometimes bruised, which is beneficial, by rendering it more easily masticated. It is usually given in portions at a time, familiarly known under the term feeds, the 588 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. measure of which, however, varies in different districts. A feed in some places consists of a gallon, being the eighth part of a bushel, and weighing, upon a medium, about lb. Two gallons in the day, or 9 lb., are considered to be good feeding when the horse is on dry food, and not on hard work ; when on hard work, the quantity may be increased to 3 gallons, and when on light work and green food, it may be reduced to 1 gallon, and sometimes altogether withdrawn. But on an average, 2 gallons in the day, that is, about 90 bushels in the year, will be sufficient in every case for the working-horse of a farm. In prac- tice, too, it is not the superior but the lighter oats, formerly de- scribed, that are given to the farm-horses ; but in this case a larger quantity should be supplied. Oats may be given to horses reduced to a state of meal, but this is only practised in the case of gruel given to a sick horse. To induce a horse to take gruel, it is put into a pail and placed beside him, so that when thirsty he may drink of it. Meal is sometimes given with cold water to horses when tra- velling. This is a refreshing feed to a horse on a journey, and a safe one when the chill is just taken off the water ; but it is chiefly employed in journeys when time is of importance, and it is, ac- cordingly, rarely given in the case of the farm-horse, who should always have time given him to feed. When oats are kept in a damp state, fungi grow upon them, and they acquire a musty smell and bad taste. They should never be given in this state to a horse, hut should first be kiln-dried, so as to expel the moisture, and destroy the fungi. Barley is more nutritious than oats, although, iu the practice of this country, it is not so much approved of in feeding. But over all the Continent, barley is the most common food of the horse. If bruised and mixed with chopped straw or hay, it is an excellent provender. But the most common method of giving barley to horses in England is in what is termed a mash. The barley in this case is boiled in water, and the whole is then allowed to stand until it is sufficiently cool. The mash forms admirable food for a sick horse ; it keeps the bowels open, and is nutritive, without being heating. THE HORSE. 589 Wheat is rarely used for the feeding of the horse, the proper destination of wheat being the food of man. The only case, in ge- neral, in which wheat, with a regard to economy, can be applied to the feeding of the horse, is in that of light wheat, which, being made into a mash, may be given to a sick horse in the same man- ner as barley. Beans form an esteemed food for the horse. They are gene- rally supposed to be more astringent than oats, and to correct the tendency to laxativeness when it exists. They should in all cases be bruised, and mixed with other farinaceous food. The pea is similar in its feeding properties to the bean, and is even supposed to be more nutritive. It is, however, a dangerous food to be given in too great a quantity, from its tendency to swell in the stomach. It may, like the bean, be bruised, and should be given along with other food. The details in the manner of feeding the farm-horse necessa- rily differ according to the practices of different districts. The following is a system, simple, efficient, and capable of being reduced to practice upon every farm : — When the pastures, or other green food, fail in autumn, which will generally be by the beginning of October, the horses are to be put on hard food. They should receive at this period an allow- ance of hay at the rate of 20 lb. in the day, with 2 gallons of oats ; or, in place of a portion of the oats, they may receive at night a feed of steamed food, consisting of potatoes, or any other roots, mixed with a little corn, and seasoned with salt. The whole quan- tity may be a peck, weighing about 12 lb. The quantity of pota- toes that corresponds in nourishment with oats, is in the propor- tion of about 15 lb. of raw" potatoes to 1 gallon of oats. In the months of November, December, and January, when the days and the time of labour are short, the hay may be withdrawn, and the horses, in place of it, fed on straw, of which the best, when it can be obtained, is that of beans or pease. Next to these in quality is that of oats. The straw of wheat and barley is in this country only used as litter, though, were it to be cut into chaff, it could be advantageously used as fodder. 590 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. At this time the horses should receive 2 gallons of oats in the day ; or the quantity of oats may he diminished, and a portion of steamed food given at night. They should receive, as before, two feeds, one in the morning before going to work, and one at mid- day, and their steamed food at night. By the beginning of Fe- bruary, they should again be put on hay, in preparation for their harder work in spring. At or before the time of sowing the oats, that being the commencement of the season of active labour, the horses should receive their full allowance of 3 gallons of oats in the day, or, in place of a portion of their dry oats, a correspond- ing allowance of steamed food. They should be fed three times in the day, a feed of oats being given in the morning, a feed at mid-day between the intervals of work, and at night they may either receive their third feed of dry oats, or a corresponding quan- tity of boiled food. They are to receive this full allowance of hay and corn until about the beginning of June, when they may receive green food, on which they are fed during the remainder of the season, their daily allowance of oats being reduced to 1 gallon. Three methods of feeding them on green food may be adopt- ed : — they may be turned out to pasture in the fields ; they may be fed in the intervals of work on green food, and turned out in the evening to the fields to pasture; or they may have green forage cut and brought home to them in the yards or stalls. When the first of these methods is adopted, that is, when the horses are simply pastured, they are merely turned out to the field at night after work ; they are caught again, or driven home to the stables in the morning, and then again turned out after the • morning’s work, which may be about 10 o’clock, and allowed to feed till the afternoon’s work, which may begin about 1 o’clock ; they are then caught, and again set to work. The defects of this mode of management are apparent. Time is lost in taking the animals to and from the field during the intervals of work; and then, having to gather their own food, they have too short a time for rest and feeding during the in- terval. THE HORSE. 591 The second practice mentioned is to turn the horses out to pasture at niglit after work, but in the interval in the middle of tlie day, to give them cut gieen forage, which is brought home, and given to them in the stall or stable. In this manner they feed at leisure, undisturbed by insects ; and, having their food collected to them, waste no time in gathering it in those hours which are suffered to elapse between the labour of the morning and that of the afternoon. This is an approved method of man- aging the horses of the farm. Their health is generally the better for their being kept out at night, while the advantage of this is combined with the economical practice of soiling. The other method of feeding is to keep the horses constantly in the stable, or in a yard with sheds, and to feed them entirely on green forage. There is economy with respect to feeding in this system, and it is found to be perfectly suited to the habits and condition of the farm-horse. To carry on a system of soil- ing where clover and ryegrass are the forage-plants employed, a quantity of tares, equal to ^ acre for each horse, should be sown, to be given to the horses in the intervals between the first and second cutting of clover, or when they are engaged at hard work in harvest, or at other times. In the northern parts of this country, farmers cannot gene- rally begin to cut clover till the 1st of June ; but in the southern part of the country, the soiling can be commenced much earlier. When there are many horses, one man may be employed to do the work of cutting and putting the cut forage in bunches, and it should be taken home by a spare horse, so as to be ready when the horses return from work. One man will put into bunches a quantity sufficient for twenty horses, and each horse will consume upon an average about 200 lb. in a day. When the horses are turned out to the fields at night, and kept on cut forage during the day, they should be put into their stables by the beginning of September, and kept in the house during the night, receiving green forage if it is yet upon the farm, or else receiving hay. By the 1st of October they should generally be put upon hay and corn. 592 REARI^^G AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. This, then, forms the circle of feeding of the horses of the farm : — They are put on hard food by the beginning of October, receiving hay and a medium allowance of oats. In the months of November, December, and January, their hay may be with- drawn, and they may be put on straw, receiving a moderate allow- ance of oats. In February, they are again put on hay with a full allowance of oats, until about the commencement of June, when they are put on green food, with a lessened allowance of oats, and either fed entirely on cut forage, or pastured during the night, receiving cut forage during the intervals of work in the day. In the practice of feeding farm-horses, the utmost care must be taken that they never be allowed to get out of condition. In this case, not only are they unable to perform their work, but it requires a much greater expense to bring them again into order, than it would have required to keep them so. In feeding horses, even when upon hard work, a practice has been introduced of keeping them entirely on boiled or steamed food, with chopped hay or straw. The proportions of the dif- ferent kinds of food employed in this manner are not subject to rule. But about I in weight of the whole may consist of the chaff of straw, J of the chaff of hay, I of bruised or coarsely ground grain, and I may consist of boiled potatoes. To this should be added about 2 oz. of common salt. From 30 to 35 lb. of this mixed provender, or on an average 32J lb. in twenty-four hours, will suffice for a horse. Two methods may be adopted in the giving of this food. Either the whole substances may be mixed together, and a certain pro- portion given to the horses three or four times in the day, or the dried food alone may be given during the first part of the day, and the steamed food mixed with a portion of the dried food in a mess at night. In the first case, that is, when the whole mess is to be mixed together, the potatoes or other steamed food are first to be pre- pared, then weighed and mixed with the chopped straw or hay, and with the bruised oats. The quantity for twenty-four hours THE HORSE. 593 being mixed and prepared, the proportion for each horse is to be weighed and set apart in its proper pail, and given to each horse at three or more times, as shall best suit with the work with which he is engaged, taking care that considerably the largest quantity shall be given at night. When this method of feeding is adopted upon a farm, it should be confined entirely to the months of winter, for the horses of a farm will always be best and most economically fed during the months of summer on pasture and green forage. From the mixed nature of our husbandry, the habits of the people, and the attention paid to the rearing of the horse, a long and general preference has been given to this animal for the la- bours of the farm. In certain districts of England, the ox is still the more common beast of labour ; but in by much the greater number, the ox is either unknown as an animal of draught, or employed only partially as an assistant. The ox is a less expensive animal to rear to the age of labour than the horse ; his subsequent cost of maintenance is smaller ; he requires less care and attendance, and he is less subject to ac- cidents and diseases. He has this further advantage over the horse, that, at a certain age, when unfit for labour, he can be fattened, whereas the horse declines after a time, and becomes useless. But the ox, though well suited for a slovr and steady draught, such as the plough demands, is not so well adapted for active motion or distant carriages as the horse. Although patient of labour, he sinks under extreme fatigue, and is not capable of those sudden exertions which the diversified opera- tions of our agriculture require. The horse, therefore, which unites force of draught with quick action, facility of travelling, and the power of bearing great fatigue, is in these respects better suited than the ox to the varied labours of an extended farm. As agriculture, accordingly, has improved, the use of oxen has given place to that of horses for the common purposes of the farm. Being thus employed as the principal or only animal of draught 2 p 594 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. on the farms of this country, being in universal demand for car- riages of every kind, and for the innumerable purposes to which he is adapted, the breeding and rearing of the horse form an im- portant branch in the rural economy of this island. The demand for horses for the saddle, for the lighter and more rapid carriages, and for the heavier labours of every kind, is ex- ceedingly great. The vast supply required is furnished by the farms of the country. Either the farmer directly rears the ani- mals, or he raises the food by which another class of traders is enabled to rear them. The greater number of horses are pro- duced on the farms, and they consume the produce upon the ground until they are of an age to be used. The exceptions are the cases of those particular kinds of horses, as the race-horse and the finer animals for the saddle, that demand an especial attention. II. THE OX. 1. Species and Varieties. Of the Ox kind various species are enumerated by zoologists, of which two only enter into the rural economy of Europe, name- ly — 1. Bos buhalus — Th^ Common Buffalo. 2. Bos taurus — The Domestic Ox. The Common Buffalo, a native of the warmer regions, has come to us, beyond a question, from Asia. He seems to have been in- troduced into Italy about the sixth century, and is now an im- portant animal in the rural economy of that country. He is used by the Italians as food, and as the beast of labour, and may be said to form the riches of the inhabitants in many parts of the country. He is cultivated, too, in Greece and Hungary. He pre- fers moisture, and the rank herbage of marshes. The milk of the female is good, but the flesh is held in less esteem than that of THE OX. 595 the common ox. The pace of the animal is sluggish, but from the low manner in which he carries his head, throwing the weight of his great body forward when pulling, he is well suited for heavy draught. But this is not a property sufficiently important to cause the introduction of the buffalo into the agriculture of Northern Europe, and he is not likely, therefore, to be carried beyond the countries where he is now reared. Of all the species, the Domestic Ox is the most generally dif- fused, and the most valuable. He has existed in a domesticated state beyond all the records of history and tradition, and natural- ists can but conjecture from what parent stock he has been de- rived. Like all the animals necessary to the subsistence of man, he suits himself in a wonderful degree to the circumstances in which he is placed. Where food is scanty, he scarcely exceeds the dimensions of the deer ; but where it is abundant, he reaches to enormous size. He is found from the equator almost to the limits of vegetable life, and is everywhere subsequent to the wants and conveniences of the human race. The female is in a remarkable degree subordinate to the inte- rests of mankind. She is everywhere docile, patient, and humble. Milk, which forms so nutritive an aliment for the human species, is yielded by her with an abundance and facility unknown in the case of any other animal. She has a more capacious udder, and larger mammae, than any creature known to us. She has four teats, although she gives birth to but one young. Like the sheep and goat, she yields milk freely to the hand, although more abun- dantly. She yields it after the period of maternal solicitude, whilst many other animals refuse their milk, unless their own young, or some other animal, be allowed to partake of it by suck- ing them. From the earliest times, Great Britain has been remarkable for the excellence and numbers of her sheep and oxen, and owes no little part of her opulence to this cause. The varieties of those animals are greatly diversified, both by the different natural cir- cumstances in which they are placed, and by the effects of art in 596 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. changing their properties and form. To these varieties is usually applied the term lyreeds. The principal breeds of British cattle may be thus classi- fied : — 1. The Wild or White Forest Breed, which formerly inhabited, in a state of liberty, the woods of this and other countries of Eu- rope. Bemains of this remarkable race have been preserved for generations in the parks of opulent individuals in England, where the animals, herding and breeding exclusively with one another, retain the habits of their wild condition. In other cases they have been reared in a state of domestication, when they assume the ha- bits and essential characteristics of the common varieties. They were formerly numerous in the county of Pembroke, where remains of them are still found. 2. The Breeds of the Highlands of Scotland, spread over all the primary mountainous tracts of that country. These cattle are of small size, covered thickly with hair, hardy, and suited to a country of heaths and mountains. The finest, usually termed the West Highland Breed, are produced in the counties on the west- ern coasts, and the islands of the Hebrides ; the smallest in the central and northern Highlands ; and the largest towards the eastern coasts, in the districts bordering on the plains. These hardy cattle are reared in vast numbers on the natural herbage of the mountainous country where they have been indigenous from time immemorial, and whence they are transferred, at the suitable age, to be fattened in the lower country. No race of cattle can be better suited to the physical circumstances of the country in which it is reared; and what is to be desired, with respect to its improvement, is not a change of race, but judgment in rearing from the same race, so that the individuals may be brought to the greatest perfection, in form and disposition to fatten, which the nature of the country allows. 3. The Zetland Breed, inhabiting the remote islands of that name, and spreading over the Orkneys. These cattle are of Scan- dinavian origin, resembling those of Norway. When pure, they are of good form, but they have been greatly injured by crossing. THE OX. 597 Tliey are of small size, the horns are short, and the skins soft, and the flesh is finely marbled. The females are better milchers than any of the cattle of the Highlands, and are remarkable for the early period at which they arrive at maturity, and receive the male. 4. The Polled Angus Breed, allied in its essential characters to the cattle of the mountains, but enlarged in size by being na- turalized in a country of richer herbage, where artificial food can be supplied. The individuals have dark skins, and are usually destitute of horns. They resemble the Galloway breed in size and general aspect ; but they have thinner skins, and less hair ; their bodies are less deep ; and they rarely possess the fine- ness of rib which distinguishes the pure Galloways. But the modern Angus is assuming a new character by the care and skill bestowed on its improvement by eminent breeders. 5. The Galloway breed, proper to the mountainous tract of the southwest of Scotland, forming the high land of the counties of Wigton, Kirkcudbright, and Dumfries. These cattle are greatly valued for their hardiness, their adaptation to the purposes of the grazier, and the goodness of their beef. They have deep bodies, dark skins, and are usually destitute of horns. They are indifferent milchers, although yielding good cream. They are carried in great numbers to the pastures of England, chiefly of Norfolk, whence they are transferred to the London and other markets. They are well known at Smithfield, and are there greatly valued by the butchers. This breed being hardy, and well suited to the pastures and moist climate of the districts in which it is reared, every care should be bestowed in increasing its good pro- perties, by selection of the best individuals of the same race for breeding. The breed at one time suffered greatly from Avant of attention, and from injudicious crossing ; but the attention of the Galloway breeders is now alive to the expediency of preserving and improving this staple production of the district. 6. The Breeds of Wales. — These oxen generally exceed some- what in size the West Highland breed, and, like the latter, are suited to a country of hills and natural herbage. They have dark 598 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. or orange-yellow skins, and are generally of a black colour. The finest are reared in the county of Pembroke, in the district of Castle Martin. 7. The Kerry Breed, naturalized in the mountains of Kerry, but spread over all parts of Ireland. The cattle of this race are of small size, and of various colours, with tapering horns. They subsist on scanty food, and the females yielding milk abundantly, are greatly valued by the poorer inhabitants for the domestic dairy. 8. The North Devon Breed, naturalized in the higher parts of Devonshire on the Bristol Channel, but spreading through the lower country. These cattle have the skin of an orange-yellow colour, and are distinguished by their hair being of a deep red, and by their eyes being surrounded by an orange-yellow ring of the colour of the skin. Their general form is light and graceful. Their skins are soft, and their horns of medium length, very fine, and bending rather upwards. They are gentle, active, and above all our cattle suited to active labour. The females are small and deficient in their power of yielding milk, although the milk which they afford is well-coloured and rich in cream. They fatten with sufficient facility on good pastures, and in a temperate climate ; but they are inferior in hardiness and the power of subsisting on scanty herbage, to the mountain cattle of Scotland and Wales. They enlarge in size when naturalized in the lower country, so that the breed of South Devon differs in size and aspect from that of the higher lands. 9. The Sussex Breed, a variety of the Devon, and inheriting its properties, but of larger size and less delicate form. The breed has not been cultivated with the same attention to purity of blood as the North Devons. The individuals are not of such uniform colour as the Devons, being frequently marked with white. They are largely used for draught, and are nearly as active in the plough as the Devons, with a greater weight of body. This breed, although now undergoing great improve- ment by the care of eminent breeders, is as yet little sought after THE OX. 599 for the purposes of grazing, beyond the district in which it is reared. 10. The Glamorgan Breed, proper to the county of that name, and common to the high and the low parts of it, but only brought to perfection in the vale of Glamorgan. This breed possesses valuable qualities, and combines well the properties of milching and fattening ; but the improved variety is limited in numbers, and circumscribed in its diffusion by other breeds more generally cultivated. 11. The Hereford Breed, greatly valued for its fattening pro- perties, and extensively diffused for the purpose of grazing throughout the west of England. This breed is proper to the district of old red sandstone which comprehends the county of Hereford. It has a remote affinity with the Devon breed, though the characters of resemblance are not very striking in the modern Herefords. The breed owes all its celebrity to changes begun about the year 1760. The great improver, or rather it may be said the founder, of the modern breed, was the late Mr Tomkins of Kingspion, near Hereford, who, from a very humble stock of coAvs, but by means of a long course of skilful selection, commu- nicated to the breed its most valuable distinctive characters. The Herefords are of the larger class of the native breeds. They are of a red colour, with white faces, and with more or less of white on the other parts ; and the tendency of modern breeders is to cultivate more the Avhite colour of the stock. The cattle are of high estimation amongst the graziers of those parts of England where they prevail. The females are small as compared with the size to which the oxen reach, and they partake, too, of the character of the Devon and other allied breeds, in being bad milchers, on which account the modern Herefords are little valued for the regular dairy. The breed, with all its valuable properties, does not now extend itself, the limits of its range being every where pressed upon by the Teeswater Short-horns. 12. The Alderney Breed, reared in the Norman Islands of the British Channel. Of this race the finest are produced in the 600 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Island of Jersey, where they form the riches of the inhabitants, and are attended to with extreme care. The purity of the breed has been there preserved by jealous laws, prohibiting the intro- duction of foreign animals. They are of small size and ungainly form, with short crumpled horns. They are of delicate consti- tution, and require a temperate climate, but the females yield a rich and finely coloured milk. It is this property alone which gives all its value to the Alderney breed. Considerable numbers- of the cows are imported into the southern counties of England, where they are kept for the luxury of the opulent, or partially employed in the regular dairies to give richness to the milk. 13. The Ayrshire Breed, derived from the county of Ayr, but widely spread over the dairy districts of Scotland, and extending to Ireland. This is the most numerous breed cultivated exclu- sively for the dairy, in the British Islands. It resembles in cer- tain characters the Dutch or Holstein breed, but its essential characters connect it with the Alderney. The resemblance is so great, that a Jersey cow might sometimes be mistaken for an Ayrshire one. The cows of the district of Dunlop were the first celebrated for yielding milk, and tradition states, that the cows of that district were early mixed with the Alderney breed. But whatever were the progressive steps by which the present race was formed, the dairy breed of Ayrshire, as now cultivated and improved, is well defined in its characters. The individuals are of medium size, of various colours, and have short horns. Their limbs are delicate, their foreheads narrow, their shoulders thin, and their fore- quarters light. This is a form which is valued in the female as indicating a disposition to secrete milk ; but it does not correspond with the form of an animal which indicates a ten- dency to grow to great size and fatten readily. It is, however, as a dairy breed that the Ayrshire is to be regarded, and the attention of the breeders having been assiduously directed to the characters required, a breed has been produced, suited in an emi- nent degree to the ends proposed. The cows are capable of subsisting on ordinary pastures, and yield a large quantity of milk in proportion to their size and the food consumed. They THE OX. 601 have not acquired the same estimation in the richer dairy districts of England as in their native country. They have been greatly improved within the period of the present century, and the ut- most care ought to be employed by the breeders in preserving the purity of the native stock. 14. The Polled Suffolk, or Suffolk Dun, Breed, cultivated for an unknown period in Suffolk and the adjoining counties. The individuals are of medium size, with defective forms ; hut the cows are admirable for the quantity of milk which they yield under ordinary treatment. The prevailing colour used to be a mouse-dun, and thence the distinctive name of the breed, but their colour is now various. They are destitute of horns in the male and female. The oxen are usually termed home-breds in the market of Smithfield. The breed is losing ground continually, from the want of care on the part of the breeders, and from the effects of crossing. 15. The Falkland Breed, proper to the county of Fife. It de- rives its name from the royal palace and domain of Falkland, and is believed to have been the result of importations of cattle made during the residence there of the kings of Scotland. It is of the larger class of breeds, of a black colour, marked often with white, and having the skin of an orange-yellow tinge. It has short and very white horns, turned up in a manner sufficient to distinguish it. Unfortunately, this fine variety has been nearly lost in its state of purity ; but the traces of it are everywhere to be found amongst the cattle of the adjoining district. The other cattle of Fifeshire are of mixed origin, and scarcely possess such a com- munity of characters as to constitute a true breed. They are ge- nerally of coarse angular forms, but they are hardy, and the fe- males are good milchers. 16. The Polled Irish Breed, found in the valley of the Shan- non, and spread over different parts of Ireland. This breed is of large size, and w'ell suited to the dairy ; but it is much scattered, and is rapidly merging in the races with which it is crossed. 1 7 . The Sheeted Breed of Somersetshire, a variety rendered singular by the contrast of red and white colours on the body. It 602 REARINa AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. is suited to the dairy, but is now in small numbers, which are con- tinually decreasing. 18. The Long-horned Breed, from time immemorial spread over Ireland and the western counties of England. This breed, once the most widely-diffused of the larger races, still occupies a large tract of country, especially in Ireland, where its size varies with the fertility, natural or acquired, of the districts in which it is naturalized. It is frequently termed the Lancashire Breed, from its having been the prevailing one of that county ; but it ex- tended in great numbers northwards through Cumberland and Westmoreland, eastward into Yorkshire, and southward to Leicestershire, Warwickshire, and others of the midland counties. In Yorkshire, the district of Craven, lying on the confines of Lan- cashire, was long celebrated for its breed of long-horns, and af- forded bulls to other parts of the country. In the earlier part of the last century, Mr Webster of Canley, in the county of War- wick, was a distinguished breeder of this variety. His stock ob- tained the name of the Canley breed, and maintained its reputa- tion for a considerable period. But to the Canley breed, and partly derived from it, succeeded the Dishley breed, so named from Bobert Bakewell of Dishley, in the county of Leicester, who, soon after the middle of the last century, began those improvements in live-stock, which exercised so great an influence, not only on the long-horned breed of cattle, but on all the races of the domesti- cated animals of tliis country. Mr Bakewell chose, as the basis of his intended improvements, the long-horned breed as it then existed; and, by long perseverance and skilful experiment, com- municated to it the properties required of early maturity and dis- position to fatten. The older race of long-horns, and great numbers yet remain with the same characters, were distinguished by the thickness of their skins, by the length of their hair, by the largeness of their hoofs, and by a general heaviness of form. Their horns were very long, frequently bending downward. They were deep in the fore-quarters, and comparatively light in the hind-quarters, and they weighed Avell in proportion to their size. Their milk, THE OX. 603 though not large in quantity, was rich in cream, and hence they were not unsuited to the dairy. They were of all colours, but had usually a streak of white along the back. They were hardy, docile, and by these properties suited to heavy labour. From the thickness of their hides, and the length of their hair, they were well adapted to grazing in a moist climate, and on ordinary pastures. The labours of Bake well, and of others who pursued the same course of improvement, removed the main defects of the older breed. But although the improved breed possessed many excel- lent qualities, it has not maintained its place in public favour. The individuals, indeed, fatten readily, and do not require peculiar nicety of treatment ; but the quality of the flesh is inferior, the fat accumulates too much on the posterior parts, and the females are bad milchers. For these reasons, but chiefly from the preva- lence of a superior race, the Dishley breed has lost all the favour with which it was once received, even in the districts where it was most cultivated. 19. The Short-horned Breed, so named from the shortness of the horns, although this character alone does not distinguish them from other races. It appears, however, that from time immemorial, cattle possessing this character in a degree suflicient to distinguish them from the older Long-horns, inhabited the districts of the fens and several of the north-eastern counties of England. And further, it appears that various importations took place to these parts of England, from the opposite conti- nent, so that a variety of the breed became in time to be distin- guished as the Dutch or Holstein breed. It was in the district of the Tees that the greatest attention was bestowed in cultivating this variety for the purposes of grazing. During the last cen- tury various individuals distinguished themselves as breeders and improvers of the Short-horns, and at a period comparatively recent, Messrs Charles and Robert Colling of Darlington, in the county of Durham, proceeded with yet more success to complete the improvement of the breed. By judicious and happy selection, the former of these gentlemen did for the Short-horned breed 604 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. what Mr Bakewell had before done for the Long-horned. But the iinprovementg of Colling were made on a better basis, and the result was a superior race of cattle. It was not, however, till about the year 1800 that the reputation of the improved variety was fully established, and that it began to supersede other breeds in every part of the country. It is termed the Teeswater Short-horned breed, often simply the Short-horned, and it is now very generally known to breeders as the Durham breed. This fine variety, by assiduous culture and attention to the pro- perties of form, has now arrived at high estimation. It has be- come the most generally diffused of all the larger breeds. Al- though it may be rivalled by individuals of other races, it possesses a better combination of properties than any of the breeds of larger cattle yet produced in the British islands. It is every where extending its limits, and superseding the pre-existing breeds, or modifying their characters by intermixture. To these breeds might be added a numerous class of mixed characters and origin, but which rarely exist in such numbers, or exhibit such a uniform class of properties, as to admit of their being regarded as true breeds. The most varied of this class are found in the districts of the dairy, where individuals are selected for their milching properties without reference to their common origin.^ 2. Improvement of Breeds. The breed must be adapted to the means, natural or acquired, possessed of supplying food. Art and an improved system of tillage do much in supplying the food of herbivorous animals. By cultivation we can change the nature, and increase the abun- dance, of the food supplied. But in many cases, tillage is only practicable or expedient to a limited degree, and then the natu- * The breeds enumerated are classified and fully described in the Author's Work on the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands. THE OX. 605 ral pastures of the country must furnish the main supplies of food. In a mountainous country, where the principal food is na- tural herbage, and where the means do not exist of obtaining artificial food, it would be vain to attempt the rearing of a large and fine breed of oxen. We must, in such a case, be satisfied to rear a race, of hardy properties, of small size, and capable of sub- sisting on coarse herbage. Where, again, art, or the natural fertility of a country, admits of supplying sufficient food, the study of the breeder should be to select a race of animals, the best that circumstances will allow him to rear. Having fixed on the kind of breed which is the best suited to the circumstances of the district or farm, the practical question to be determined, is the manner in which a proper breed should be obtained, or the old one improved. There are three methods which may be adopted for this purpose : — 1. The entire change of the existing stock, and the substitu- tion of a different breed, females as well as males. 2. The retaining of the old breed, male and female, and improv- ing them by breeding from the best animals of the same breed. 3. The improving of the breed by crossing with males of a different breed. When the nature of a farm allows, the most speedy and the best method, certainly, of attaining the end is to change the stock, and to substitute females of the improved one from which it is proposed to breed. In this manner the purpose will be effected at once, without the labour or loss of time of improving a defec- tive stock. The second method is the retaining of the existing stock, and improving it by a selection of the best individuals of the same breed. This is the method which ought to be adopted, if the breed already existing is sufficiently suited to the natural circum- stances of the farm, and to the methods of cultivation which can be pursued upon it. The third method is that of crossing, that is, the retaining of the females, and the employing of males of a different breed. 606 HEARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. This method has often led to disappointment, from the nature of the crosses attempted, especially where the crosses have been violent, as between animals of very different characters. The first cross in general will be good, but in breeding from the pro- geny of this cross, expectation will often be disappointed. Not only do the good qualities of the first cross not always remain in the progeny, but often there are found in it defects which cannot be traced to the parents. This, however, generally arises from injudicious crossing, and from unacquaintance with the principle on which the crosses of different animals should be conducted. When a cross is made, it should be with a male of a superior breed ; and in this case the first cross will be almost always a good animal. To secure the full benefits of the cross, however, we should not too hastily re- sort to the males of the inferior stock, because it might be found, that, while we had injured the original breed, we had not sub- stituted a better in its stead. The general rule, therefore, should be, to cover again the first cross with a superior male of the same breed, and so on, until the good character of that breed became permanent in the progeny. This is said to be breeding up to the superior stock. In crossing, the essential characters of form are imprinted on the offspring by the male ; and it is surprising in how great a degree this imprinting of better characters takes place, when a male of superior breeding is employed. A first cross between a short-horned bull, for example, fully bred, and a very ordinary cow, produces, not only often, but generally, a fine animal, with an extraordinary aptitude to fatten. Many of the very fat ani- mals that receive premiums at the cattle-shows -in this country, are extreme crosses of this kind. But the benefit may end with the progeny, if we do not again cover with a male of the same superior breed, and so on until the good characters become per- manent. When a breeder, then, is to improve his stock by crossing, he ought to select a male of undoubtedly superior blood. And he should not generally, after the first cross, resort to the males of THE OX. 607 tlie inferior breed, but to those of the superior one, until he has formed, as it were, a breed for himself. There are, indeed, nume- rous cases in which a single mixture of better blood will do good, as with those inferior breeds which have no fixed characters. These will be improved by even the slightest intermixture with the blood of a better race; and a farmer who is in a district where this class of animals prevails, may avail himself of a good male, in the same manner as a breeder of horses would do, although the stallion were of a difterent character from the native stock. The cases where crossing of any kind is to be attempted with caution, are, when a breed of established good characters, or of characters Avhich fit it for the nature of the country and the state of its agri- culture, already exists. In crossing, then, the rule is, to breed from a male of superior stock ; and, fortunately, in this country we have now a breed of such established character, that no mistake can arise in the selec- tion of males. These have been formed to our hand with all the care that art can bestow in improving the form of fattening ani- mals. There is no need, therefore, for those mistaken attempts at crosses which were sometimes made with males of question- able characters, as between an Ayrshire cow and a Galloway bull, and vice versa. We can predicate nothing securely of the pro- geny of such crosses as these, the effect of which will probably be to destroy the good properties of either breed, as the apti- tude to yield milk of the Ayrshire, and the hardy and fattening qualities of the Galloway. But in crossing with a breed so highly cultivated as the short-horned, the breeder has the assurance that he will produce animals of large size and good fattening proper- ties. He is to consider, indeed, whether he has the means at his command of rearing the larger animals ; and if this be so, it will be better that he at once form his stock upon the best model, than run the hazard of wasting time and capital on questionable crosses. And it must be regarded as highly important as a mean of im- proving the live-stock of Great Britain, that a breed has been formed, by long-continued selection and care, which may always be 608 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. resorted to, to effect the purposes required, in the same manner as recourse is had to horses of known pedigree, to communicate their characters to their progeny. In this manner the labours of those who have improved the short-horned breed, have ex- tended far beyond what the original breeders contemplated. They have not only improved a peculiar breed, hut have furnished the most efficient means that can be used of improving the live-stock of the entire country ; and it is to be trusted that the breeders of this class of animals will have encouragement to maintain the characters of the breed with as much care as is used in the case of the race-horse, seeing tliat it is for a far more important end. But having selected the breed, or having fixed on the means to be employed for forming it, a point to be determined is the man- ner of maintaining or improving it, by the selection of good in- dividuals, male and female ; for it is to be observed that it is equally determined, in the case of the ox as of the horse, that the properties of the parents are conveyed to the offspring. The male undoubtedly acts the principal part in impressing his cha- racters on the young. But the form of the female is of the ut- most importance ; and if we hope to arrive at success in breed- ing, the form and characters of the female must be no more ne- glected than those of the male. Now we might breed either from animals nearly allied to one another in blood, as brothers and sisters, parents and their off- spring, technically termed breeding in-and-in, or from animals of different families. By the latter method are produced animals more hardy, and less subject to disease ; by the former, we are frequently enabled to produce animals of more delicate form, and greater fattening properties, and above all to give a greater per- manence to the characters of the parents in the offspring. It is known that Bakewell and other breeders were enabled by this system to give and perpetuate the peculiar characters of their stock. These first improvers, indeed, found the practice to be, to a certain extent, necessary, because they could not resort to THE OX. 609 the males of other families, without employing inferior animals, and so impairing the properties of their own breed. It is to be observed, that the breeding and continuing to breed from animals very near of blood, produces animals which have a greater tendency to arrive at early maturity, and to become fat. This seems to result from a tendency to premature age in the animal, which thus more quickly arrives at its maturity of bone and muscle, and so begins sooner to secrete fat. The system, however, of breeding from animals near of blood has its limits. Nature will not be forced too far for our purposes. It is known that, although this joining of animals closely allied diminishes the size of the bones, and gives a tendency to fatten to the progeny, it renders them also more delicate and subject to diseases. Although, then, this near breeding may be carried to a limited extent between very fine animals, for the purpose of ren- dering their qualities permanent in the offspring, we do a violence to nature when we carry it too far. The progeny, along with their early maturity and aptitude to fatten, become feeble ; the cows cease to secrete milk in sufficient quantity to nourish their young ; and the males lose their masculine characters, and become incapable of propagating their race. When, therefore, the stock of any farmer has become too nearly allied, he ought not to fail to change his males, and pro- cure the best of the same breed. This is essential to preserve the health of the stock for any time. Great losses have been sus- tained by breeders who have carried the system of close breeding too far, with the design of pushing the improvement of their breed to its limits. A character of a breed not to be neglected, is size of the indi- viduals. Although large animals consume more food than small animals of the same species, yet they do not consume food in pro- portion to their greater size ; and hence the benefit of rearing the larger animals, if the natural or acquired productiveness of the farm will allow' it. But although size be an important element in the character of a breed, there is another property to which 2 Q 610 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. that of size is subordinate, namely, that of a disposition to quick fattening and early maturity. This property depends not on size, but on a different class of characters. 3. Form. The principal purpose in rearing oxen in this country, is to produce flesh. The rearing of females for milk is, doubtless, also important ; but in the great majority of cases, this purpose is re- garded as subsidiary and -subordinate to that of fattening. There are certain external characters which indicate a disposi- tion in the animal to become fat, and certain characters which shew that the animal has less of this property, and does not quickly arrive at maturity. These characters are familiar to breeders, and a knowledge of them is readily acquired by prac- tice and observation. But before attending to these characters, it will be well to consider in what really consists the property of quick and easy fattening. The flesh of an animal consists of muscles. A muscle is a com- bination of threads or fibres, bound together by a sort of minute mesh-work, to which the term cellular tissue has been applied. Each thread or fibre is divided, so far as the eye assisted by powerful glasses can discover, into smaller fibres still. A num- ber of these smaller fibres or filaments form a fibre ; a number of these fibres form a fasciculus, or bundle of fibres ; and a number of these fasciculi form a muscle. Now, surrounding and inter- mixed with the fibres, the fasciculi, and the muscles, is the unc- tuous substance, fat. The same matter is formed between the muscular substance and the skin, and surrounds and is inter- mingled with the various viscera within the body. It surrounds, in large quantity, the heart, the kidneys, and other organs. The muscular fibre grows with the animal, and is essential to its existence and power of motion. When the animal arrives at its full growth, little further addition can be made to the muscle ; but it is otherwise with the growth of fatty matter. When the THE OX. 611 food which the animal assimilates by the action of its organs, is no longer needed to be converted into muscle, it is converted into fat, and this being intermingled with and surrounding the fibres, the fasciculi, and the muscles, the muscle becomes enlarged. By feeding an animal, then, we have little power over any increase of the muscular substance, but* we have a great one over the fatty substance, which, along with the muscle, forms food. Now, an animal that arrives soon at maturity with regard to the growth of his fleshy fibre, and tends readily to secrete fat, is the kind of animal best suited to the purposes of the breeder and the grazier. Such an animal is said to be a quick grower, and kindly feeder. And the external characters which indicate these properties are a wide chest, and a round capacious body, the first containing the organs of respiration, the latter the stomach and , other viscera employed in the process of digestion. In all cases, it is found that the property of fattening quickly is combined with this form. An animal having a wide chest and round trunk requires a less quantity of food to produce a given increase of weight, than one whose chest is narrow and whose sides are flat. When we look for a fattening animal, therefore, we require that his chest shall be broad, and his ribs well arched ; and where this form exists, the back will likewise be wide and flat. We re- quire, too, that the body shall be large in proportion to the limbs, or, in other words, that the limbs shall be short in proportion to the body. Further, it is seen, that, in animals indicating a disposition to fatten, there is a general rotundity of form, — as where the neck joins the head, where the shoulder joins the neck, and so on, — and that there is a general fineness or smallness of the bones, as of the limbs and head. The limbs being short, the neck is not re- quired to be long, and shortness of the neck, therefore, is a cha- racter indirectly connected with a disposition to fatten. In the case of the horse, it was seen that the body, abstracted from the neck and head, is comprehended within a square, the body occupying about half of the square. But, in the case of the ox, the body is comprehended within a rectangle, as in the 612 HEARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. following figure, and the body occupies more than the half of the rectangle. In the one case, there is the outline of an animal fitted for speed ; in the other, of an animal with great bulk of body, and unfitted for active motion. The horse which occupied too much of the square, would be regarded as of bad form, in so far as speed is concerned. In the ox, the more of the rectangle which the body occupies, the more does the form approach to that re- quired by the breeder. The tendency to early growth and fattening quickly is likewise indicated by the touch. This property is known to graziers and Fig. 199. T) JJ J 1 . CC Cervical Vertebras. DD Dorsal Vertebrae. EE Lumbar Vertebrae. A Bones of the Cranium. B Bones of the Face. H Sacrum or Rump-Bone. JJ Bones of the Tail. FF Ribs. G Sternum or Breast-bone. I Bone of the Pelvis. Q Os Femoris — Thigh-bone. R Patella — Stifle-bone. S Bones of the Leg. T Tarsal Bones, or Bones of the Hock. U Metatarsal Bones of the Leg. V Phalangeal Bones, or Bones of the Foot. K Scapula — Shoulder-blade. L Humerus. M Fore-arm. N Carpal Bones. O Metacarpal Bones. P Phalangeal Bones. 2. Hip-bone, Huckle or Hook bone. THE OX. 613 breeders, ayHo are all familiar witli the soft and delicate feel of a good animal. They call it a mellow feel, the meaning of which it is more easy to conceive than define. It is a certain softness combined with elasticity of the skin. The dilference between the skin of a coarse animal, and one possessing the peculiar softness here referred to, can, by a little practice, be easily discriminated. The same characters which indicate a disposition to fatten in the ox, indicate it in the other domesticated animals. The fine- ness of the bones, — the largeness of the body as compared with the limbs, neck, and head, — the broadness of the chest, — the roundness of the body, — and the soft and elastic touch, — indi- cate in all cases this property.* 4. Rearing and Feeding. The period of gestation of the cow is about forty weeks, vary- ing somewhat according to the constitution of the animal. She is sometimes capable of receiving the male during her first year, but he should not be admitted to her until after she has com- pleted her second year. Some time after having produced her young, the cow manifests a desire to receive the male. This continues for forty-eight ^ The following are several of the popular characters which are generally given as indicating the fattening powers of the ox : — 1. The head should be fine and tapering to the muzzle, which should be thin. 2. The neck should be free from coarseness, large where attached to the shoulder, and tapering to where it joins the head. 3. The breast should be wide, and projecting well in front of the fore- limhs. 4. The shoulder should be broad, but joining without abruptness to the neck before, and to the chine behind. 5. The back and loins should be straight, wide, and flat, 6. The girth behind the shoulders should be large ; the ribs should be well arched, and the distance between the last rib and the hook-bone small. 7. The hook-bones should be far apart and nearly on a level with the back-bone ; from the hook-bone to the rump the quarters should be long and straight. 8. The belly should not hang down ; the flanks should be well filled up ; the legs should be fleshy to the knee and hock, but below these joints they should be tendinous. The tail should begin on a level with the back, be broad at the top, and tapering to near the extremity. The hoofs should be small, the horns fine and pointed, and slightly attached to the head, the ears thin, the eyes prominent and lively. 614 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. hours or more, and returns at intervals of a fortnight or three weeks. When the male is admitted to her, she is generally at once impregnated. Should this not he so, the instinctive desire re- turns, and she must again be taken to the male until she has been impregnated, which is known by the ceasing of these periodical returns. It is important to the breeder of cattle that the calves should be born early in the season, so as to afford the means of bringing them well forward upon the summer grass. The proper season for calving is in the months of January, February, and March. When the period of producing the young has arrived, the cow has to be attended to with care, kept in the house, and the birth of the young waited for and assisted when necessary. The position of the foetus is with the head couched upon the fore-legs. When it is otherwise, the birth is more dif- ficult, and sometimes the calf must be turned into the proper position. But, in general, the parturition of the cow is easy. The calf, on being born, is to be carried away and placed loose in a pen or crib with clean dry litter. The cow need not be suf- fered to touch or recognise her young, as this only tends to ren- der her uneasy and distressed by the separation. The cow should then be milked and fed with some nourishing food. Some nourish- ing gruel should be given ; and an excellent food for some time pre- vious to calving, and for some time afterwards, is linseed boiled, or bruised oil-cake dissolved in warm water. In mountainous countries the cow may be permitted to suckle her calf during the months of summer ; and a practice similar to this is frequently adopted with the breeds of the plains. But where a good breed of cows exists, the young should at once be separated from the dam and fed from the pail. The first milk drawn from the cow is viscid, and is peculiarly fitted for the nourishment of the young ; for which reason, each calf should first be fed by the milk of its own dam. Tlie quantity of milk given to the young animal should be as much as it can consume, which will be found to be somewhat more than a wine gallon in the day. The quantity which it can con- THE OX. 615 sume, however, will gradually increase to nearly 2 gallons more, or about 3 gallons in all ; and this feeding may be continued for twelve weeks, when the animal is to be put into the course of being weaned, and in one month more completely weaned. The milk given to the calf is new milk, that is, milk directly from the cow. The milk, however, may be economised, by employing substitutes to a limited extent, and, in this manner, the milk of one cow be made to rear more than one calf. The best substitutes are fari- naceous food, as meal and porridge. Linseed or oil-cake can be given ; by using a little of these dissolved in the milk, its nourish- ing properties may be increased to any degree required. The calf should be fed three times in the day, regularly at a fixed hour. After twelve weeks, the use of new milk may be given up, and skimmed milk substituted, making it lukewarm, and gradually lessening the quantity ; and in the course of one month more, that is, in four months in all, the animal may be entirely weaned. This, indeed, is more liberal feeding than is usually deemed necessary ; yet it is a great error to stint animals in their food at this age, with the view of economising milk. It is from this cause that many stunted animals are to be seen in the hands of breeders, that never afterwards attain to a good size, nor acquire a disposition to fatten. During the period of feeding with milk, the animals will be taught by degrees to supply themselves with food. For this pur- pose, when the season is not sufficiently advanced, a bunch of sweet hay, or any green herbs, should be placed within reach of the animals; and a little salt may be given, which they will soon learn to lick, when placed beside them. If the weather allows, they may be turned into a yard for a few hours in the day, and after a time, when the weather becomes mild, into a little pad- dock, containing sweet grass, housing them at first at night, un- til they shall be fully hardened to the air. The males, when not intended for propagating, may be cas- trated when thirty days old. The operation is easily performed, by two incisions with a sharp knife. An analogous operation is 616 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. sometimes performed upon the female, when she is intended for fattening ; but the more approved practice is to preserve her entire. The weaning of the calf, it has been said, may take place at the end of four months. The calf is then merely turned into good pasture during the remainder of the season, and fed like the other stock, and generally along with the cows or oxen ; and, as in the case of all growing animals, it should be allowed ample food. The subsequent treatment of calves necessarily depends upon the nature of the farm, and the species of food which can be sup- plied. Where there is nothing but coarse pastures and inferior hay, and when no turnips or cultivated forage can be raised, then the stock of the farm must be suited to these circumstances. The breeders in such cases are generally merely the rearers of the animals. These, when they have reached a certain age, are disposed of to another class of farmers, who have the means to fatten them. A great proportion of the land of Britain and Ireland is better suited for breeding in this manner than for fat- tening ; and a large exportation of animals takes place from all the breeding farms and districts to be fattened elsewhere. The feeders purchase the cattle at such an age as suits their purposes, and keep them on their farms for such a period as they find ex- pedient. This is a division of labour in the breeding and fat- tening of live-stock perfectly natural, and in an eminent degree favourable to the interests of individuals and the country. It is in this manner that each district and farm is applied, with refer- ence to the production of live-stock, to the purpose to which it is best adapted. In cases where no other food can be supplied than the natural produce of the farm, the same care and delicacy in rearing are not necessary or practicable, as under a more artificial system of feeding. The cows, in such cases, are usually permitted to suckle their young. During the first winter, the young animals receive such pasture and natural hay as the fiirin affords. In THE OX. 617 the following summer they are kept on the coarse pastures of the farm ; in the following winter they are maintained as in the former one, and so on until disposed of, which may he in the se- cond or third, or even sometimes the fourth year of their age. The sooner cattle, under these circumstances, can be brought to maturity, the better is it for the interests of the breeder. The system of breeding, however, where the nature of the farm is such as to alFord a supply of proper food to the animals, and where the finer class of stock is kept, is altogether different. In this case, the principle of the system followed is to afford a full supply of food to the animal, from the birth to the time that it is transferred to the butcher. This principle applies to all animals intended to be fattened. The calves, after being weaned, are put, it has been said, on good pasture, and fed for the remainder of the season. When the herbage fails in autumn, which is generally by the end of Oc- tober or beginning of November, the animals should be put in yards, with sheds, into which they may retire for shelter. The number put into one division or yard should not be too great, though this is less important at this period of their life than afterwards. Calves to the number of 20 may be kept together in one yard, provided they have plenty of room ; but when ani- mals are of a large breed, it is better that the number should not exceed 10. The yards should have pure water in each, conveyed to them by pipes, and retained in troughs, to which the animals can have access at all times. Each yard should have, along one at least of the sides, shallow troughs, formed of wood or stone, for the purpose of holding turnips and similar food. The yards should be so dry, that the animals may not be incommoded. The ar- rangement of these yards, with their sheds, will be seen in the design of farm-buildings afterwards given. Before bringing the calves home for the winter, the yards should be bedded with a layer of coarse straw, or dried stems of plants of any kind. In the middle of each of these yards should be placed one or more 618 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. racks (Fig. 200 or 201), for containing straw, and preventing its being strewed about. The best kind of straw is that of the oat, and the rack should be constantly supplied. Fig. 200. A quantity of turnips (for this we may suppose to be the species of green food used) must be put into the troughs in the morning ; again a quantity at mid-day ; and, lastly, a quantity in the evening before night-fall. The calves must receive a full allowance of turnips, that is, they must receive as large a quantity as they can consume. At the same time, the racks must be kept always filled with straw, and some litter sprinkled, wherever necessary, over the yards, so as to keep them dry. When straw fails, hay must be supplied, and in place of turnips, should these also fail, potatoes or other succulent food. In the month of May, generally about the middle of it, in the northern parts of this country, but several weeks earlier in the THE OX. G19 more southern parts, the pastures will afford sufficient food for the young stock, which have now completed their first year, and are, in the language of farmers, yearlings, or one-year old. Until the grass is fully ready, the animals should on no account be turned out to the pastures, and care must be taken that the grounds be not overstocked, lest the animals be in any degree stinted in their food. They should at this period be gaining fat as w'ell as growth ; and no greater error in the management of cattle can be committed, than to allow their progress to be in any degree checked by the want of sufficient food. After pasturing for the summer, and at the same period as in the former year, namely, before the end of October, the animals, still yearlings, are taken from grass. In the case of the finer breeds, the animals may now be pre- pared for the butcher ; for which they wdll be ready in the follow- ing spring, after being fully fed during the winter, or after having received some grass during the following summer. This is the perfection of rearing and feeding oxen, and the practice shews how great must be the superiority of a breed that can be fattened at this early age. It is only, however, the finer classes of ani- mals, and that under a perfect system of feeding, that can be thus early matured. The more common case is, that they require one winter’s feeding more before they are ready for the butcher; and it will be better, therefore, to proceed upon this supposition in describing their further management. The year-olds, then, are to be taken from grass as soon as the pastures begin to fail in October or November. They are put into yards with shelter-sheds as before; but, in place of 20 in a yard, there should not be more than 10, the animals being now of larger size, and more apt to interfere with one another in feeding ; and they are to be treated in the same manner as during the first w'inter. They are to be well littered, to be fed three times in the day with turnips, and to receive their full allowance of straw\ It must be observed, however, that this is the period in the age of the animal at w'hich a slight relaxation may be made in the 620 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. system of full feeding, — not that it is well to relax in any de- gree, but that in practice, with the common supply of food which can be obtained on a farm, it is frequently necessary to do so. But whereyer food can be obtained to carry on the system of full feeding during the second winter as during the first, it should be done : for the importance is very great of keeping the animals not only growing, but fattening, from their birth to their full ma- turity. But if the feeder is unable to carry on the same system of feeding during the second winter as during the first, he may limit the quantity of succulent food, as to the half of the quantity of turnips which the animals, if unrestricted, would consume, giving, however, in all cases, an unlimited quantity of dry provender. In general, however, the necessity for the reduction of the richer food is much less than is supposed, for if substitutes for the turnip cannot be obtained, the quantity of stock may be reduced to the means possessed for carrying it on in a proper manner. In all cases, then, the study of the feeder must be to carry on the animals with a full allowance of good food from their birth to their maturity. But the period at which he can relax a little in this system of full feeding, and substitute more common proven- der, is in the second winter. Yet, even while he does relax to the extent of diminishing the more fattening food, he must take especial care that the animals, if they shall not gain fat, shall lose no part of their former condition. It is opposed to all the true principles of breeding to allow animals to fall off from the condi- tion at which they had arrived. It is not necessary, however, after the first winter, to give the same high feeding to the females intended for breeding, as to the males. The object proposed with the females intended for breed- ing, is not to render them fat, but to maintain them in a healthy and growing state. This is to be done, not by giving them a full allowance of the richer food, but such a portion of it only as, joined to the more common provender of the farm, will main- tain them in a healthy state. When tlie yearling steers are to be carried on during their second winter, on a modified, and not a full allowance of richer food, then the heifers need not be sepa- THE OX. 621 rated from them, because both are to be fed in the same manner; but when the steers are at this time to receive full feeding, then the heifers are to be put into a yard with a shed by themselves. They should not be tied to stakes, according to the common practice, but kept in yards with sheds. In the following sum- mer they are pastured along with the older cows, and receive the male as soon as they are ready to do so, which, in the case of heifers, is later than in that of the older cows. When winter comes, they are to be put into their separate pen again, and fed as in the first winter, and when within a few weeks of the period of calving, they may be tied up gently in their stall, or put into a separate box. But to return to the fattening stock : — The yearling steers are fed in their yards, either with their full allowance of straw and green food, or else with a full allowance of dried provender, and a modified allowance of green food. By the month of May they have completed their second year, and are now termed two- year-old steers. When the pastures are fully ready for them, they are turned out to feed, and are kept in these pastures until the herbage fails in autumn, when they are to be taken up once more, and fed on green food in the fullest quantity in which they can consume it. Two methods may be adopted in this final feeding of the ani- mals. They may either be tied in the house, having a trough or manger to feed from, or they may be kept in small yards, with open sheds attached. In the first case, that is, when confined to the house, or fed from a trough or manger, the animals are tied by the neck to upright posts. The best method of at- taching them is by a light chain, which encircles the neck, and is fastened to a ring moveable upon the post. In this manner the animal has the power of raising and lowering his head with such freedom as permits him to lie down. But instead of a series of upright posts, it is better that each animal have his own stall. A partition of wood at the heads of Fig. 202. 622 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. the oxen, or, a very good substitute, a broad stone, is placed be- tween each animal. A bar of iron is then fastened to the stall, with a ring moveable upon it, to which is fixed the chain which goes round the neck. Two oxen may be put into one stall, in such a manner that each ox shall be prevented from interfering with the provender of his neighbour, in the manner shewn under the head Farm-buildings. The other system of feeding is in small yards, with sheds. Each shed with its yard should be of a size to contain easily two oxen, or, if it is made of a size to hold four oxen, there should be a division between each pair, so that more than two shall not be together ; and in the open yard, and close to the wall, should be fixed troughs for holding the provender. Under this system of feeding, the animals have more freedom than when fed in close houses ; and that moderate exercise, which, without impeding their fattening, tends to keep them in health. They receive the benefit of the sun and air, and have always the shelter-shed to retire to. They have the power of going to their food at all times, even during the night, and this food being in the open air, is kept always fresh. The treatment of the cattle, too, in these sheds and yards is easy, and the injurious effects to the animals obviated of any deficient ventilation, or any want of care in the management. And experience has fully shewn that the finest animals may be fattened in these sheds equally well as in the warmest house when they are tied to the stake. But the latter practice of feeding is the more common ; and it is the most necessary, too, to be described, because it requires greater attention on the part of the keeper. When the cattle are, for the first time, to be fixed to their posts, some care is needed to induce them to go forward. Gentle means must be employed ; they must be somewhat tightly tied at first to prevent their turning round, and watched for a time lest they injure themselves by struggling. They must be well lit- tered, and the turnips placed in the low manger of the stall be- fore them. THE OX. 623 Early in the morning the first operation to he performed is, to remove the dung from behind the cattle, and to place the tur- nips in the stall, the stems and tap-roots having been previously cut off. While the cattle are feeding, the dung is to be wheeled out of the house, and deposited in the yard or dung- pit. When the turnips are eaten up, a little good oat-straw or hay may be placed before the animals ; and being now littered, they will soon lie down and chew the cud. At mid-day they are again to be fed as before, and again before sunset, a little provender of hay and straw being placed before them after each meal ; and finally, the keeper, before retiring for the night, is to examine them with a light, see that all is right, stir their litter, and place a little hay or straw before them. Under this system the oxen will be fully fed, and induced during the in- tervals of feeding to lie down, and left to repose during the night ; or they will take a little dry food, should they be inclined to feed. Early in the morning the same process recommences ; and the utmost regularity is to be observed in these operations, for the animals know the precise time of feeding, and become restless when it is not observed. They should be regularly rubbed with a Avisp of straAv. Careful feeders even currycomb their cattle, and in all cases observe that the skin is kept free from vermin, or other impurity. Frequently the turnips are cut into slices by the turnip-slicer (Fig. 49 or 50). This, though not essential, is very beneficial, by enabling the animals to take the turnips more easily into their mouths, and masticate them. In spring the Avhite turnips decay, and then there should be a succedaneum, first of yellow, and next of Swedish, turnips, which last retain their juices the latest in spring. If the animals are kept in the yards Avith shelter-sheds, the principle of feeding is the same as that described ; but the dung in this case is not removed from the animals, the litter being spread above it. An ox of 50 or 60 stones Aveight will consume about a ton 624 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. of turnips in the week, or about an acre in 24 weeks. If he thrive well, he will gain in weight 14 lb. or more in the week. Sometimes cattle, especially when tied to the post, are apt to be choked by a piece of turnip sticking in the throat. In this case, the common practice is, to endeavour to push the piece of turnip gently, but firmly, down into the stomach by means of a flexible stalk, terminating in a round bulb of wood or bone. The feeding with turnips is the most simple and economical method practised in this country. Turnips, however, cannot in all cases be raised in sufficient quantity, and in such cases they cannot be produced at all, and then, if a system of feeding is to be carried on, recourse must be had to other substances. Mangel-wurzel, the carrot, the parsnep, and the cabbage, are all suited to the purpose of feeding ; and the manner of consuming them is so similar to that of the turnip, that when the mode of applying the one is known, that of using the others is easy. Potatoes are also a nourishing food for ruminating animals. When given raw, they are applied in the same manner as the tur- nip ; but care should be taken to begin somewhat gradually, be- cause this food is apt to scour and injure cattle at first. Pota- toes and turnips may, with great advantage to cattle, be given at the same time. Different kinds of food have an exceedingly good effect in promoting the tendency to fatten of all cattle ; and in the case of feeding with potatoes and turnips, one meal of the former, and two of the latter, in the day, will be found to be a good arrangement. Potatoes boiled or steamed may be given to oxen ; but boiled food is never of the same advantage to rumi- nating animals, as to animals with single stomachs, as the horse and the hog. Bruised corn and meal are occasionally employed in feeding ; but these are expensive, and only subsidiary to more common food. Another species of food is the refuse of the distillery. This consists of the grains of malt after distillation, and of the wash or liquid refuse, and wherever these can be obtained, they may be applied to the feeding of cattle with success. They form a very THE OX. 625 nutritive food, rejected often at first by the animals, but after- wards consumed by them with eagerness. The grains may be given at the rate of from a bushel to a bushel and a half in the day, with a proper supply of dry food : the liquid portion, or wash, is drunk by the animals. The refuse of the brewery is in like manner used for the fattening of oxen. Oil-cake is one of the substances employed in feeding. It is highly nutritive, is greatly relished by cattle, and it never fails to increase their tendency to fatten when given with their other food. It may be given in quantities of 2 lb. or more in the day, along with any other food. It is frequently given with hay alone, and the quantity that will feed an ox is from 12 to 15 lb., with half a stone of hay in the day ; but this is an expensive method of feeding, and the better mode of using oil-cake is to give it in small quantities, with less costly provender. It may be given with great benefit along with turnips. In this manner the tur- nips upon a farm may be economised, and a much greater num- ber of animals nurtured upon it than would otherwise be prac- ticable. Salt should be given in limited quantity to fattening animals. The use of this universal condiment in the feeding of oxen, has been known from the earliest times. It does not directly tend to the secretion of fat, but it preserves the animals in health, and thus produces the result indirectly. The quantity given may be from 4 to 5 oz. in the day to old oxen, to yearlings from 2 to 3 oz., and to calves ^ oz. All oxen will soon learn to take it if placed within their reach. The general method of feeding oxen in this country in sum- mer, is in the fields in the manner described ; and this is the more simple and easy method, and that which is the most likely to be generally followed in a country abounding in pastures. The practice of soiling, however, has been often recommended, and- partially adopted, in the feeding of oxen. But this has usually been in favourable situations with respect to productiveness of the soil. It is not a practice well suited to very young stock, which require moderate exercise, and do not thrive so well, when 2 R 626 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. kept and fed in this manner, as when allowed to pasture in the fields. Soiling, therefore, when it is practised in any case, should generally he confined to the older stock, at the period of their final fattening. The best method of keeping oxen when soiled is in the same small sheds and yards as are employed for feeding on turnips. The food must he carried home, and given to the cattle from racks in moderate portions at a time. They must be fed three times, and may he fed four times, in the day : and they should be kept carefully littered. Between the period of consumption of the first crop of clover or other green forage and the second, there is sometimes an interval. At this time, 'therefore, there must be a supply of other food, as of tares, which, if sown in the pre- ceding March, will be ready at this time, and will carry on the cattle until the other forage is ready for being cut a second time. The rearing and feeding of cattle has been described from the birth to the maturity of the animals ; but deviations from the modes described necessarily take place : — The breeder in the case of certain farms, is not the feeder : He merely rears the ani- mal to the maturity of age, or degree of fatness, which the nature of his farm allows, while other persons complete the process of fattening, in the manner which their peculiar situations render profitable or expedient. The hardier breeds of the mountains are in general request for being fattened in this manner. They are generally purchased lean before winter, and taken to all parts of the low country. They are there fed on straw, or coarse natural hay, during the first winter, with merely such an allowance of green food as can be spared ; and they are either grazed and fattened in the follow- ing summer, or fed for another winter and summer, as suits best with their age and condition. And not only the mountain breeds, but lean cattle of all kinds, in a more or less advanced state of age and fatness, are in the course of being transferred ; and a great part of the profit of farmers depends upon the skill with which, on the one hand, THE OX. 627 they make their purchases, and, on the other, effect their sales of stock. Calves, instead of being reared to maturity in the manner de- scribed, are frequently disposed of in a fattened state when young. The calves, under this system, may be transferred soon after their birth to the butcher, or they may be fed for a longer period on milk. In the latter case, they are rarely good veal in less than five or six weeks, and the most approved period for keeping them is ten weeks. They are fed liberally on milk ; but linseed cake and other fattening substances may be also employed. The cribs in which they are kept should be perfectly dry, well littered, and ventilated. 5. Weight of Oxen. The parts of an ox to which the term offal is usually applied, are the head and feet, the tallow, the hide and horns, and the entrails. The fat of an ox, it has been said, is that unctuous substance which is intermingled with, and surrounds, the muscles and other parts. That which grows internally is mostly termed tallow, and is generally considered to be of the same value, weight for weight, as the flesh of the fore-quarters ; and so likewise is the hide. These, and the other parts termed offal, are commonly regarded as forming about one-fifth of the value of the animal. When beef is said to be sold at a certain price sinking the offals, the mean- ing merely is, that the whole price of the animal is reckoned upon the carcass alone ; hence, when beef is sold at a certain price sinking the oftals, that price is more than if it were sold without including in it the price of the offals. That portion of the ox which is used for food exclusive of the offals, is usually termed the quarters, because the animal, on being cut up, is divided into four parts or quarters. The most esteemed parts for food are the hind-quarters. These weigh somewhat less 628 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. than the fore-quarters ; though the more perfect the form of the animal is, the more nearly do the fore and hind quarters approach in weight. Practice enables persons to judge of the weight of animals by the eye alone; but it is convenient to be able to ascertain the weight by measurement. This may be done with considerable correctness in the following manner : — When the animal is stand- ing in a natural position, measure his length in feet from the foremost upper corner of the shoulder-blade in a straight line to the hindmost point of the rump ; then measure the girth or cir- cumference immediately behind the fore-legs ; multiply the square of the girth by the length, and this product by *238, which will give the weight of the quarters in stones of 14 lb. each. This rule has been arrived at by regarding the body of the animal as a cylinder, and determining, by experiment, what proportion, on an average, the actual weight of the quarters of animals bears to the cylinder. Another method of ascertaining the weight of fat cattle, is, by weighing them when alive. One-half of the live-weight may be considered as equal to that of the four quarters ; but in the case of fully fattened animals, a more correct result will be arrived at by multiplying the gross weight by six-tenths. This rule has been arrived at, by determining, from an average of cases, what pro- portion the dead weight of the four quarters is found to bear to the living weight of the animal. 6. Diseases of Oxen. The diseases of the larger ruminating animals are not of very frequent occurrence, although they are often dangerous and fatal. A malignant distemper, termed Murrain, has sometimes made dreadful ravages among the cattle of many conn tries, returning for successive years to the same country, and sweeping entire ge- nerations of cattle away. In the early part of the 18 th century, it long raged on the continent of Europe, and when it visited this THE ox. 629 island, continued its ravages for many years. But happily, since the period of its first introduction, its occurrence has only been partial and local. Cattle are subject to inflammatory diseases, which receive va- rious names, as quarter-ill, black-quarter, shewing-of-hlood, &c. Bleeding at the commencement of these diseases is proper ; but the subsequent treatment depends upon the stages of the disease at which the remedies are applied, and other circumstances. Cattle are subject to colds, which frequently terminate fatally. Colds are brought on, amongst other causes, by sudden changes of temperature, whether of the atmosphere or of the place of feed- ing of the animal. Bleeding will, in most of these cases, be pro- per ; and, in all cases, shelter should be afforded, and warm food supplied, as mashes, boiled turnips, and the like. Cattle are subject to different diseases, which receive the gene- ral name of cholic or gripes. Diarrhoea and dysentery are also diseases of cattle, and many diseases might be mentioned ; but it would be of no avail to enumerate them, without entering into de- tails. In general, what falls within the province of the farmer may be comprehended under the head of food and general treatment. The medicines which he should venture to administer should be cautiously given. Where violent inflammatory diseases attack the animal, he may always venture to bleed in the first stage ; when cos'tiveness occurs, he may administer some laxative medicine; when diarrhoea or looseness occurs, he may giA^e some laudanum, and in all cases mashes of boiled or steamed food. The bleeding of the ox, it is to be observed, should ahvays be large. One of the diseases of cattle, Avdth regard to which the farmer has to act upon the instant, is hoven, or inflation of the rumen. The paunch, or first stomach, of ruminating animals, is of large size, and as the green food which is taken into it is frequently charged with moisture, the stomach is not only overloaded, and unable to carry on its functions, but the mass fermenting, air is generated, by which the stomach becomes so distended, that either a rupture of it takes place, or the animal dies of suffocation. This 630 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. disease most frequently occurs wlien animals are turned into rich succulent pastures, particularly of clovers, when charged with the morning dews. Sometimes stimulants are given to assist the action of the sto- mach, of which the best is linseed oil and oil of turpentine, in the quantity of. 1 lb. of the former, and 2 or 3 oz. of the latter. Sometimes a hollow flexible tube is introduced into the stomach through the mouth, that the air may be permitted to escape. Should this operation not succeed, then an opening must be in- stantly made through the left side into the paunch. This is usually done by a pen-knife, while a quill, or something similar, is introduced, to allow the air to escape. But recently, the sto- mach-pump has been employed for this and other diseases, and with the best effects. It is fitted to withdraw the contents of the stomach, and also to inject liquids, so that, when the mass of the stomach is too hard, the matter may be first diluted by injected liquids, and then withdrawn. The stomach-pump is also suited to various diseases of the horse, and may be formed of smaller size for the sheep ; so that, by means of this instrument, the lives of many valuable animals may be saved upon the farm. 7. The Dairy. Milk is a secreted liquid intended for the nourishment of the young of mammiferous animals, and to this end it is eminently adapted. By agitating this substance, it separates into two parts, a fluid and a solid. The solid part is butter, having the pro- perties of an expressed oil. The fluid part is merely the milk deprived of its butyraceous part ; and when it is obtained by the operation of churning, it receives the name of butter-milk. But, if milk is left at rest for a time, it becomes acescent, and coagulates. This coagulation takes place of itself ; or it may be produced by adding certain substances to the milk, as acids, al- cohol, the juices of certain plants, and the gastric juice of ani- mals. The coagulated portion of tlie milk is curd : which, when THE OX. 631 the liquid is expressed from it, forms cheese. The liquid that is thus separated is termed whey. Whey, therefore, is milk de- prived of its caseous or cheesy matter. Again, milk, if left at rest for a time, separates into two parts ; a more oily part, which rises to the surface, and is termed cream ; and a more serous part, which, when the cream is removed, is termed skimmed milk. A portion of the cream still remains at- tached to the more serous milk, and the latter is a nutritive sub- stance, employed largely as human food, and for the feeding of calves and other animals. It is from the oily or creamy part that butter is derived. It may be allowed to rise to the surface, and then being removed from the more serous part, he churned, or the whole, namely, the serous and creamy part, may remain mixed together, and he churned. In either case butter will be obtained. In the first case, the butter will be of better quality ; in the second, it will be produced in larger quantity. The caseous or cheesy matter may he obtained by coagulation from the serous portion of the milk alone. But in this case it is less rich and grateful ; for when all the creamy part is left with the milk, a portion of it remains with the cheesy part. Hence, when it is wished to procure good cheese, the creamy part is not removed from the milk before coagulation. The manner of separating either the butyraceous part of the milk by agitation, or the cheesy matter by coagulation, is so easy, that it is not surprising that the means of doing so should be everywhere known and practised. Butter and cheese form, in all the temperate parts of the world, extensive articles of food ; but in warmer countries, the oil of plants is largely used, in place of the oily part of milk. In the practice of the dairy in this country, milk may be dis- 2)Osed of in three ways. The first is in the form of milk for food ; and this is the most profitable where, from the nearness of the market, and the de- mand for the 2)roduce, it can be adopted. In the vicinity of towns, accordingly, dairies are formed merely for the production 632 KEARINa AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS; of milk ; and these usually form the largest class of dairy esta- blishments, But the sale of milk in its fresh state is necessa- rily limited to a certain circle around the ditferent markets of consumption. The next most profitable production of the dairy is butter in a fresh state. This circle is more extended than that of milk alone, because butter can be preserved longer, and conveyed to a greater distance. At a greater distance still, the produce of the dairy consists chiefly of cheese, or, when butter is produced, it is salted for pre- servation, and not disposed of in its fresh state. It is for the combined production of cheese and butter that dairies are usually made ; and a dairy, that it may fulfil these purposes, should con- sist of several apartments : — 1. The milk-room. 2. The work-room. 3. The store-room. The milk-room is intended to contain the milk previous to ob- taining from it the cheese or cream. It should have its windows to the north, and be so formed as to preserve a cool and equal temperature. It should be well ventilated, kept dry and clean, and be as much as possible removed from the effluvia of putrid substances. The windows should be formed of gauze-cloth, which may exclude flies but admit the air, and protected from mice and accidents by a grating of wire. This apartment should be kept cool in summer, but in winter heated by a stove or otherwise, so as to maintain a temperature of from 50° to 55°. The work-room is that in which the different manual opera- tions are performed. It is to be fitted up with a boiler to boil water and heat milk, and it should be of sufficient size to allow of performing the operations of churning, cheese -making, washing the dairy vessels, and the like. But when the dairy is of the larger size, there should be more than one apartment ; namely, one for churning, one for making the cheese, and one for cleans- . ing the vessels. The store-room is intended merely to keep the cheeses when THE OX. 633 made. It may be placed wherever convenient, and should have a certain degree of warmth, without being too much heated or lighted. The Utensils required for a dairy are : — 1. Milking-pails, which may be formed of wood : 2. Sieves of hair or wire-gauze, for the purpose of passing the milk through and retaining the impurities : 3. Vessels for holding the milk until the cream rises upon the surface, and a vessel for contain- ing the cream: 4. Flat dishes of tin, ivory, or horn, for the purpose of skimming the cream from the surface of the milk : 5. A churn : 6. A wooden vat or tub, in which the milk is placed when the curd is coagulated : 7. A cheese-knife, for the purpose of cutting or breaking the coagulated curd, that the whey may be separated : 8. Sieves, or vessels perforated with holes, in which the curd may be placed, that it may be broken, and the serous matter further separated : 9. Wooden vessels, with perforated sides and bottom, in which the curd is placed for being compress- ed : 10. A cheese-press. The utensils more especially employed for the making of but- ter are the dishes for holding the milk until the cream separates, the skimming dishes for removing the cream, a vessel for holding the cream, and the churn. The dishes for containing the milk are made of various sub- stances, as marble, slate, tinned iron, earthen ware, and wood. Lead is sometimes employed, but improperly, as it may be acted upon by the acid of the milk ; and so likewise may iron, if not defended by a coating of some substance. The milk may cither be contained in one large vessel or trougli, with a stop-cock at the bottom, so that the milk may be withdrawn, leaving the cream in the trough, or it may be put in separate shalloAv vessels. These last have been recently made of cast-iron, smoothed within and coated with tin ; and more recently zinc has been employed. Either of the substances is superior to the more common ma- terial, wood. They arc more easily kept clean, and sooner cooled, which contributes to the moi*e ready separation of tlie cream. (334 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Churns are of difterent construction, the most common of which is the plunge-churn, mored by the hand. The form of this domestic instrument is everywhere known. It consists of a cylindrical vessel of wood, placed upright ; and the agitation is given to the milk within by a perforated board, which nearly fits the cylinder, and to which is attached a long handle. This being moved up and down, the milk is agitated until the butter sepa- rates. Sometimes, in place of a cylinder standing upright, there is employed a small barrel placed horizontally, and sometimes a square box. Through the box or barrel there passes a wooden axle, to which arms are attached, and motion being given by a handle, the milk is agitated, and the butter separated. Sometimes in the larger class of dairies, the churn is driven by machinery. The best principle of construction, it is conceived, is that of the plunge-churn, by which a greater agitation is given to the milk, and the operation more efiectively performed, than by arms revolving in a uniform direction. The following figures represent a churn of this construction. Fig. 205. THE OX. 035 Fig. 206. If a water-power is not at command, the machinery may he driven by a single horse attached to a shaft at the outside of the building. Motion is conveyed by a lying shaft, to the wheel A, and this, by the pinion B, gives motion to a shaft, on which is a crank D, as seen in Fig. 206. By this crank, and the connect- ing-rod K, motion is conveyed to the beam E, v/hich is thus al- ternately raised and depressed. To this beam is attached the handle F connected with the cross-handle GH. This handle X)asses through a hole in the lid of the churn I, and to the lower part of it is fixed a circular perforated board, fitting the churn. Motion being given to the machine, the handle is raised and de- pressed, and, by a rapid succession of strokes, the milk is speedily churned. In order to render the strokes longer or shorter, as may he wished, the end of the connecting-rod K can, by means of the screw L, he moved nearer to, or farther from, the centre of motion of the beam. When it is nearer to the centre, the end of the beam makes a larger sweep, and longer strokes are given by the handle. The size of the churn may he sufficient to contain 7 0 gallons of milk or more ; or, tliere may be two churns, with handles attached to the same beam. This machine has been found to he greatly superior in efficiency and despatch to any that had been before in use. dButter may he obtained either by separating the cream from 636 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. the milk and then churning it, or by churning the milk and cream together. By the first method, the best butter is obtained ; by the second, the largest quantity. When the first method is practised, that is, when the cream is churned by itself, the milk, immediately on being brought from the cow, is put into vessels to cool. These vessels may either he the large trough referred to, or the shallow separate vessels. The milk is put into the trough or vessels from 4 to 5 inches deep ; it remains undisturbed for a period of not less than twenty-four, and not more than thirty-six, hours. The cream, which has risen to the surface, is then separated from the milk ; in the case of the larger trough, by having the milk withdrawn by a stop-cock ; and in the case of the smaller vessels, by the cream itself being skimmed off by a flat dish. The cream is then put into a vessel, until a sufficient quantity of it is collected. Fresh portions of cream are added to this vessel, as they are procured from succes- sive milkings, and the whole soon acidifies. After a sufficient quantity of cream has been gradually col- lected, it is put into the churn, and is then churned ; and, in the space of an hour or more, the butter will be separated. The best temperature of the cream for the separation of the butter appears to be about 56°, and in cold w^eather it may be raised to this tem- perature, or somewhat higher, by the addition of some hot wa- ter, or, when the small churn is used, by plunging the end of the churn into hot water. ' The butter is now removed, and is washed and carefully kneaded by the hand, but better by a spatula, until all the milk is sepa- rated, which will appear by the water coming off pure. After this the butter is fit for present use, or it may be salted for pre- servation. This is the method practised when the cream is churned sepa- rately ; but when the cream and milk are churned together, the practice is somewhat different : — In this case, all the milk of one milking of the cows is put into the cooling-vessels, so that it may cool down to the tempe- rature of the milk-house. It is then, with the cream, put into a THE OX. 637 large barrel, where it becomes acid, and a slight coagulation takes place. It may remain in the barrels from two or three days to a week ; and when a sufficient quantity is collected it is put into the churn, and, after being churned a few seconds, is raised to the temperature of from 70° to 75°, by the addition of hot water. Some do not add hot water ; but the practice is not injurious, and saves labour. In two or three hours, when the hand-churn is used, and in an hour, or an hour and a half, when the larger churn, driven by machinery, is employed, the milk will be suffi- ciently churned. By thus churning the whole milk and cream together, a larger quantity of butter-milk will be procured, and of better quality, than when the cream is churned separately. The butter-milk procured in this manner is but slightly acid, and is a wholesome food, agreeable to those who are used to it ; and it is perfectly nutritious, all the caseous matter of the milk still remaining. When the churning process is completed, the butter is, as in the former case, removed and washed in cold water, until all the milk is separated, and the water comes off pure. In this state it may be formed into rolls for present use, or salted for preservation. The other preparation of milk is cheese.— Cheese consists of the caseous matter of milk united to a certain portion of the oily or creamy part. This oily portion adds to the flavour and richness of the cheese, and hence, when good cheese is wanted, the cream should not be separated. Cheese, however, can be made from milk from which the cream has been removed ; and it is then termed skimmilk cheese. It may even be made from butter-milk, in which the cheesy part entirely remains. But then the creamy part being more withdrawn than in the case of skim- milk, the cheese wants still more the properties and flavour which are valued in this species of food. For the making of cheese, the utensils usually required are ; — a large tub, in wliich the milk is coagulated, and the curd broken ; the cheese-knife, sometimes of wood and sometimes of ivory, with one or more blades for cutting the curd and allowing the whey to separate ; wooden dishes for removing the whey ; sieves, or ge- 638 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. nerally another wooden vessel perforated with holes, for further expressing the whey ; small circular vats, in which the cheese is placed that it may be compressed ; and, finally, the cheese-press. Cheese-presses are of different forms. They are generally made to act upon the curd by the continued pressure of a weight. The most simple is a long beam, made to act as a lever, the cheese to.be compressed being placed in its vat between the weight and the fulcrum, thus — Fig. 207. But more complex forms of the cheese-press, and, in some cases, more convenient, may be adopted. The following figure represents a press, in which the weight is attached to a lever, and acts on a board which is placed above the curd, by a series of intermediate wheels and teeth. Fig. 208. The coagulation of the milk is produced by various substances, but the most approved is runnet, which is prepared from the fourth stomach of a young calf. This substance may be ob- tained as follows : — THE OX. 639 The stomach of a newly killed calf, with its contents, consist- ing chiefly of chyme and coagulated milk, is to be taken. The matter of the stomach is to be preserved, separating merely any foreign substances that may be mixed with it. It will add to the quantity of runnet obtained to feed the animal largely with milk, some hours before it is killed. A few handfuls of salt are to be put into the stomach and around it. It is then to be rolled up, and hung near a fire to dry ; and its quality will improve by hanging it up a year or more before it is used. It is the gastric juice in this runnet which produces the coagulation of the milk. When the runnet is prepared for use, it is cut into small pieces, and put into a jar, with a handful or two of salt. Water, which had been previously boiled and cooled again, is then poured upon it, and allowed to remain for two or three days. It is then drawn off*, and sometimes a second infusion is made, but with a smaller quantity of water. This also remains a few days, and being withdrawn, the two liquors are mixed together, strained through a cloth, and put into bottles, to be used when required. The usual manner of making cheese is the following : — The milk is put into a large tub, and this as soon after being obtained from the cows as possible. If there be a sufficient number of cows upon the farm to produce one cheese at a milking, the pro- cess is performed immediately on* the milk being brought from the cows. The milk, after being strained through a sieve, is put into a vat ; and, while yet warm, a quantity of runnet is mixed with it, after which the coagulation soon takes place. The quan- tity of runnet employed depends upon the strength of the infu- sion. It should be just sufficient to cause the coagulation to be completed in an hour. If there be not a sufficient number of cows to make a cheese each time they are milked, then the milk, as it is brought from the cows, is put into the milk-vessels, until as much is collected as will form a cheese. When the cheese is ready to be made, the cream is skimmed off, and as much of the milk is heated se- parately as, when added to the mass again, will raise it to about 90°. The cream which has been separated, is then either mixed 640 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. with this heated milk, and so liquified and dissolved in it ; or it is not added to the general mass, until the heated milk has been added. The curd being fully formed, it is cut in various directions with the cheese-knife, so as to allow^ the whey to exude ; and the whey is then lifted out in flat dishes, the curd at the same time undergoing a gentle pressure. The curd is then cut into small pieces by the cheese-knife, and put into a sieve or vat with holes, and then repeatedly cut, pressed by the hand, and broken, until it ceases to give off any serous matter. It is last of all cut very small by the cheese-knife, and a quantity of salt, in the propor- tion of about half an ounce to a pound of cheese, being mixed with it, it is wrapped in a piece of cloth, and then put into a small wooden vessel with circular holes at the sides and bottom, and placed in the cheese-press ; sometimes the salt is not applied until the cheese has been compressed. The time during which the cheese remains in the press is de- pendent upon the nature of the cheese and the degree of previous manipulation which it had undergone. In some of the finer and richer cheeses, the pressure is comparatively slight, and in some cases the cheese-press is altogether dispensed with, the curd being compressed by fillets of cloth bound round it. But in ordinary cases, the cheese, being wrapped in a cloth and put into its vat, with a board above it to fit the vat, remains in the press from one to two hours. It is then taken out, wrapped in fresh cloth, and replaced in the cheese- vat ; and then the salt, if it has not been previously applied, is rubbed over the surface. It may then be taken out every five or six hours, the cloth being changed, and the salting repeated. After being pressed in this manner for two or three days, the operation will be complete. The cheese may then be put in a warm place for some time to dry, and ultimately placed in the store-room for preservation. But great variations take place in the manner of performing the operation of the cheese manufacture ; and certain districts are distinguished by their peculiarities of practice. In England, more care is generally employed than is thought necessary under THE OX. 641 the system of management adopted in the dairy districts of Scot- land. The richness and flavour of cheese very much depend upon the quantity of cream which the milk contains. In some of the disr tricts of England most celebrated for rich cheese, the cream of one milking is skimmed off and mixed with the entire milk of the subsequent milking. In this way the milk which produces cheese has its own cream, and that also of a previous milking. It is a frequent practice to colour the milk, so as to give a red tinge to the cheese. This is now generally done by a prepara- tion of the red pulp surrounding the seeds of the arnotta tree. This adds nothing to the goodness of the cheese, but the mixture is harmless. Tlie residuum after the separation of the curd, it has been said, is whey. This substance is chiefly employed for the feeding of pigs, and is exceedingly well suited to that purpose. These are the principal details which it is thought necessary to give regarding the preparation of these salutary and nutritive substances. By means of the dairy, a larger quantity of animal food can be obtained from the consumption of an equal quantity of herbage than by any other means. The dairy forms an im- portant branch of public industry, and contributes in a material degree to the support of the inhabitants of this and other coun- tries of Europe. In the practice of the farm, where the main end is rearing ani- mals for fattening, the kinds of animals will be selected for breed- ing which are the best suited to the purpose ; and the production of milk will be regarded as secondary and subordinate. But when the principal end is the production of milk, then animals will be selected which are the best adapted for yielding rich and plentiful 'milk. The form of animals that are best fitted to arrive at early ma- turity and secrete fat, differs in some respects from that which indicates a disposition to secrete and yield milk. A dairy-cow, like a fattening animal, should have a skin soft and mellow to the touch, — should have the back straight, the loins broad, the extre- 2 s 642 HEARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. raities small and delicate ; but she need not, as in the case of the fattening animal, have the chest broad and prominent before. She may have the fore-quarters light, but the hind-quarters should be relatively broad, capacious, and deep ; and she should have a large and well-formed udder. There should he no breeding in- and-in, as in the case of a fattening stock. The purpose in rear- ing cows for the dairy is not to produce animals that will arrive at premature age, but such as are hardy and of good constitution. By long attention to the characters that indicate a disposition to yield milk, the breed of Ayrshire has become greatly more esteemed for the dairy than other animals superior to them in size and fattening qualities. With respect to the manner of feeding the cows of the dairy, the most economical, perhaps, is feeding them entirely on green forage during the summer, and in winter on carrots, potatoes, parsneps, and cabbages ; on chaff and similar substances boiled ; on coarse meal, bruised beans, and other farinaceous food ; on dis- tillers’ w^ash, and other nutritive substances. This is the manner of feeding adopted in the large dairy establishments of towns ; and it is the practice pursued in various parts of Europe. But in a country of abundant pastures and enclosures, the cows may be allowed to pasture in summer, and be only stall-fed in winter. This is the practice adopted in most of the dairy dis- tricts of this country. During the heat of summer, however, the cows should be housed during the heat of the day, and fed at that time on green forage, and turned out to pasture in the cool of the evening. In winter, the cows of a common dairy may be fed on cabbages, potatoes, and other succulent food : and it is a good practice in many cases to boil or steam a portion of their food, and to mix salt with it, which may he done at the rate of 2 oz. or more in the day for each cow. In summer, the cows arc either milked in the field, or they are driven gently home to the dairy, and milked close to it. Many skilful dairy-farmers prefer the latter practice, in order that the time of the milkers maybe saved, and the milk transferred speedily THE SHEEP. 643 to the vessels of the dairy. The cows, when in full milk, may be milked three times in the day ; at other times twice in the day will suffice. The quantity of milk yielded by cows varies greatly with the health, constitution, and treatment of the animals. After calv- ing the cow yields her milk in the largest quantity. She, after a time, yields less and less until she approaches the period of bringing forth her young, for about six weeks previous to which she tends to become dry : and this natural provision should be favoured, and not prevented, as is sometimes attempted. If a cow is not in calf, she continues to yield milk for a long period, sometimes for several years. On a well managed dairy-farm, where a proper breed of dairy- cows exists, and where the cows are fed on herbage and green forage in summer, and stall-fed in winter, the average yearly pro- duce may be reckoned at from 600 to 800 gallons for each cow. Between 2 and 3 gallons of milk will yield 1 lb. of butter ; and about 1 gallon of milk will yield 1 lb. of cheese. III. THE SHEEP. 1. Species and Varieties. The origin of the Domestic Sheep has been sought for by na- turalists in various wild races ; but which of these has given rise to the common races has been matter of dispute. The domestic sheep, whether derived from one or more species, is usually termed Ovis aries. The female goes with young twenty-one weeks, and generally brings forth in spring. She produces one, and often two, but rarely more than two at a birth. She yields milk in quantity sufficient to nourish her young, which, in the domestic state, are frequently two at a birth. Her milk produces little cream ; but the quantity of caseous matter is com- paratively large. This, when made into cheese, is wholesome, but strong-tasted. 644 REAliENG AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. The sheep appears to attain its most perfect state as to size and form in the temperate zone. It is there covered with wool, whereas in warmer countries it is more covered with hair, as it also partially is in the colder countries, where its size is likewise diminutive. The wool of the sheep for the most part falls off and is renewed every year ; and the period of its falling off is early in summer. In its ruder state the sheep has horns ; but in the domesti- cated races the horns frequently disappear, and the most valued breeds are entirely destitute of them. The sheep is a very hardy creature with regard to the effects of temperature, its thick coat of wool defending it well from cold and moisture. It has been known to live for a long time under snow. It is a harmless and timid creature, and, in its domesticated state, is dependent upon man for protection and food. In mountainous countries, how- ever, where it is less domesticated, and must trust greatly to its own resources, it manifests its instinctive powers of self-protec- tion. It scratches up the snow with its feet in search of food : it is conscious of an impending storm, and takes the means to secure itself from its violence : it is wary and vigilant, and num- bers have been known to combine for defence against beasts of prey. But though, under these circumstances vigilant, and in cases of necessity bold, all the habits of this creature lead it to submit to the dominion of man, and from the earliest times, accordingly, it has been the subservient instrument of our race. The principal breeds or varieties of British sheep may be thus classed, — 1. The Zetland and Orkney Breed. These sheep exist in the islands from which they take their name. They are essentially the same in the various islands, though, in most cases, they have been more or less crossed with stranger blood. The pure breed is of the variety of short- tailed sheep, which exist in Norway and other parts of the north of Europe. They are amongst the least of our races of sheep. Their fur consists of a fine soft wool, mixed more or less with hair. It is of various colours, white, black, or yellowish-brown ; and often it is of a mixed colour of white and THE SHEEP. 645 black. It is the Zetland variety Avhich is the most noted for the fineness of its wool. All these sheep are hardy, and suited to the exposed conntry and barren pastures where they are reared. They would doubtless enlarge in size, were they naturalized in a lower country ; but no purpose of useful economy would be served by extending them to other parts of the country. It is rather to be desired that the native stock shall be improved, or a superior one substituted. 2. The Polycerate Breed of the Hebrides. This breed resem- bles that of Iceland, and was doubtless brought to the islands of Scotland by the Scandinavian rovers. It is nearly extinct, and is of no economical value. 3. The Soft-woolled Breed of Scotland. This breed is the remnant of the ancient sheep of the country. They are of small weight, have horns in both sexes, and bear a soft wool. They are exceedingly wild. They have been suffered to become nearly extinct, although they merited attention on account of their hardiness, their admirable adaptation to a country of heaths and steril pastures, and their remarkable exemption from ordinary diseases. 4. The Breeds of Wales, of the same race as the Soft-woolled Sheep of Scotland. These varieties may be divided into two groups ; the first comprehending a race of wild little sheep, in- habiting the highest mountains ; the second inhabiting a some- what lower range, and spread throughout the entire country. It is this latter variety which forms the most important of the breeds of Wales. The breeds are of small size and peculiar form, the hinder extremities being long, as if to fit them for vaulting as well as running. The ram has generally thin white horns ; the females are destitute of horns. The wool is soft, and much mixed with hair, and underneath the chin the hair prevails so greatly as to form a kind of beard. The colour of the fleece is frequently dun, brown, or black, and, like the other sheep of Wales, the animal tends to throw off the wool of the neck and shoulders early in spring ; for which reason these parts are clipped before winter, and hence it is, too, that the practice of “ wool- 646 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. gathering” still exists in Wales. These little sheep are exceed- ingly wild and shy. They rise on their hind legs to browse like goats, and crop the tops of shrubs and grasses. Their mutton is excellent, and numbers of them are fed in all the adjacent plains for the consumption of the capital and other opulent towns. Of the same origin are the Old Radnor, the Anglesea, and other va- rieties, which, however, are often mixed in blood with the races of the lower country. 5. The Breed of the Wicklow Mountains, similar in its essen- tial characters to the sheep of Wales. The wool of these sheep is fine, with a mixture of hair and coarser wool. They supply the market of Dublin with the smaller mutton, which is held in esteem. They are rapidly disappearing in the pure state from the effects of crossing. 6. The Breeds of Kerry, and the high lands of the west of Ireland, slow in arriving at maturity, and producing a fleece of medium fineness, hut irregular and mixed with hair. 7. The Black-faced Heath Breed, inhabiting the central chain of heathy mountains and moors which extend from Derbyshire northwards. These sheep have been long since carried to the mountains of Scotland, and now extend all northward through the northern Highlands to the Pentland Firth. The best examples of the breed are found in Tweeddale and the adjacent districts. They are of the smaller class of sheep, but hardy, bold, and active : they have horns, and the legs and faces are black ; they fatten readily when brought to good pastures, and their mutton is in great esteem. For an elevated and rugged country, where the chief pasture is heath, this breed is exceedingly well suited. The objection to it is the little value of the fleece, which is the coarsest of the wools produced in this country. This circumstance has in many districts caused a substitution of the Cheviot for the black-faced breed. But although the Cheviot breed is superior to the black- faced in weight and value of the wool, it is not possessed of the same hardy qualities, and the black-faced may therefore be cul- THE SHEEP. 647 tivated with advantage in situations to which the Cheviot is un- suited. The black-faced breed, though well defined, loses many of its characters when naturalized in a low, marshy, or less heathy dis- trict. Its wool becomes less coarse ; the darkness of its colour diminishes, its legs and face become spotted and grey; and its horns sometimes disappear. Hence this breed is in some places so changed in its external characters, as to have lost much of its resemblance to the parent stock. 8. The Penistone Breed. The black-faced heath breed passes by insensible degrees into those of the ancient commons, lower heaths, and forests ; and approximates to the larger sheep of the plains, through the coarse and unthrifty breed of Penistone. This variety occupies an elevated district of the coal-formation on the confines of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire. It is termed Penistone, from the market-town of that name, lying to the south of Huddersfield in Yorkshire. The animals are distinguished by their coarseness of form, especially of the extremities, and in a remarkable manner by their thick muscular tails. The rams are very large in proportion to the ewes. 9. The Cheviot breed, derived from a limited tract of hills in the north of England, and thence widely spread over the moun- tainous districts of Scotland, and of some parts of England and Ireland. These sheep are heavier than the black-faced. They are without horns, and the wool is fine. They are hardy, active, and well suited to an elevated country. The mountains where this race of sheep is indigenous, though high, are mostly covered with green sward, and thus differ from the heathy mountains of other parts. The nature of this range of pasturage may have contributed to give its peculiar characters to the breed, and considerable care has for many years been be- stowed by breeders on its improvement. In these improvements, attention having been more directed to the form and size of the animals than to the quality of the wool, the latter has increased in quantity, though it has diminished in fineness. The Cheviot 648 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. breed presents somewhat different characters, according to the nature of the country where it is reared, and the views of breed- ers. In those cases where artificial food can be supplied in con- siderable quantity, breeders prefer a larger form of the animal, with shorter legs. On more elevated pastures, and under less favourable circumstances, they are chosen of a lighter form, and with longer limbs. The properties to be desired in a mountain breed are, that it shall be hardy, of good form, of sufficient size, and with good wool ; and for a combination of these qualities, the mountain breed of the Cheviots has certainly not been surpassed in these islands. 10. The Old Norfolk Breed, reared in the heathy parts of Nor- folk, Suffolk, and Cambridge. These sheep are strong and agile, armed with horns in both sexes, which in the male are very long and twisted. Their legs and faces are entirely black. Their wool is short, and fitted for the making of secondary cloths. They are of wild and restless habits. They afford admirable first crosses for the markets of consumption with the Leicester and South- down sheep, and in an especial manner with the Southdown. But from the effect of this system long continued, the pure old Nor- folk is in danger of being lost as a separate variety. 11. The Breeds of the older Forests, Commons, and Chases. These vary in their aspect, size, and properties with the localities in which they have been naturalized. They have often dark or gray faces and limbs, have sometimes horns, and are sometimes destitute of horns, and bear for the most part a short felting wool. They have been continually diminishing in numbers, with the appropriation of commons, and the improvement of the country, so that few now remain without admixture with the more cultivated breeds. Of these forest breeds two may be mentioned, the Dartmoor and the Exmoor, so named from the districts which they respec- tively inhabit. The one is found on the high granitic range of tlie forest of Dartmoor, and the other on a no less steril tract at the source of the river Exe, on the confines of Somersetshire. THE SHEEP. 649 The Dartmoor sheep have white faces and legs, and the males have horns. They produce excellent mutton, which has been long known in London under the name of Oakhampton mutton, the animals being killed there, and their carcasses carried thence to London. But the term Oakhampton mutton is applied also to the Exmoor sheep, killed at the same place, as well as to the crosses between these two breeds respectively, .and the larger sheep of the lower country. The wild little sheep of Dartmoor are reared in their native pasture of heath, and fattened in the lower country. They are gradually disappearing in consequence of the effects of crossing. Tliey are chiefly crossed by the South- down or Leicester breeds, and the crosses with the Leicester are preferred. The Exmoor sheep are yet smaller, more wild, and more intractable than the Dartmoor. Both males and females have horns, with white faces and legs. Their wool is long and soft. The males are distinguished by a beard beneath the chin. These sheep are, like the Dartmoor, rapidly disappearing by the effects of crossing : they are giving place to other breeds, and especially to the Cheviots, which have been introduced into this district with great advantage. 12. The Rye! and Breed is one of the remains of the fine- woolled varieties of the western counties, naturalized in Here- fordshire. This pretty breed has nearly merged in the crosses that have been formed with it, and remnants only of the pure Ryelands remain. They are of small size and destitute of horns. Their wool is exceedingly fine, weighing about 2 lb. the fleece. They fatten readily, and their mutton is excellent. The Ryelands were extensively crossed with the Spanish Merinos soon after the introduction of the latter into England, and the produce was brought into notice under the name of Merino-Ry eland or Anglo- Merino. Great exertions were made to extend this new cross ; but though good wool was produced, the breed itself quickly de- clined in favour. The effects of these and other crosses are still to be traced in a mixed race of descendants. The defect of the pure Ryeland breed was the smallness of its size ; but by judi- cious crossing, this defect might have been corrected in the pro- 650 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. geny, and the Ryeland made the basis of a useful breed of fine- woolled sheep. 13. The Southdown Breed is a race of short-woolled sheep, extensively spread over the south-eastern counties of England. It may be said to he proper to the chalky districts, although now carried to other parts. The individuals are without horns, their legs and faces are gray, and, until improved by breeding, they have the light fore-quarters of mountain sheep. Their wool is short and of good quality, and their flesh is of excellent flavour. They fatten readily, and are well suited to an extensive range of the lighter soils. These sheep have been reared from time immemorial on the chalky soils of Sussex, whence they have spread into other dis- tricts ; and their general dififusion has effected a great change on the short-woolled breeds of this country. A considerable pro- portion of the breed has been little improved ; but the greater part has been brought, by the care and skill of breeders, to the highest perfection of form and fattening properties. But in these improvements attention having been mainly directed to the properties of form, the fineness of the wool has been somewhat diminished, though its quantity has increased. 14. The Old Wiltshire is one of the varieties of the large fine- woolled sheep of the central counties of chalk. The Wiltshire sheep at no distant time occupied nearly the whole of the county of that name. They are now almost extinct as a separate variety, having merged in the crosses that have been made with them, or given entire place to the Soiithdowns. They were the largest of the fine-woolled sheep of England. They were of an exceedingly coarse form. Their heads were large, their limbs thick, and the rams had strong horns. Their fleeces weighed about 24 lb. ; but their bellies were almost destitute of wool. They were very slow in fattening, but their mutton was good, and the wethers arrived at considerable weight. 15. The Dorset and Pink-nosed Somerset Breeds. The Dor- set variety, so named from the county of Dorset, has been carried to other parts chiefly within a circuit round London. The male THE SHEEP. 651 and female liave short horns ; and their legs and faces are white. Their wool is good, weighing from 3 to 4 lb. the fleece and up- wards. They have a resemblance in form to the Spanish Meri- nos. The females are prolific and abound in milk, and are re- markable for their tendency to receive the male at almost any season. On this account they are employed to yield lambs for winter consumption; but the rams employed for this purpose are not usually the Dorset, but the Leicester or the Southdown. Allied to the Dorsets, and employed for the same purposes, are the pink-nosed Somersets. These are believed to yield a larger lamb, but not to be such good nurses, or to fatten so quickly, as the true Dorsets. 16. The Isle of Portland Breed, inhabiting the islet of that name, is a variety of the Dorset, though of much smaller size. These sheep have been kept unmixed for an unknown period. They are gentle, and of good form. 17. The Spanish Merino Breed, now partially naturalized, was introduced into this country in the year 1788. Soon afterwards the rams were made to cross the Ilyeland, the Southdown, and other fine-woolled breeds of England. George III. had intro- duced rams of the Merino breed from Spain, and cultivated it with care. In the year 1804, the sale which began of his Majesty’s stock attracted great attention* to the breed ; and, in the year 1811, a society was formed for the purpose of encouraging and extending it. The result of the crosses with the native sheep did not fulfil the expectations formed. The wool of the native sheep was in- deed improved in quality ; but this was accompanied by defects in the characters of the animals themselves, not to be compen- sated by the increased value of the fleece. The sheep of the mixed breed nearly all proved defective in their forms, were slow in fattening, and less hardy than the parent stock. Flocks, however, of the pure Merinos have been preserved, and the progeny of these has remained superior to the new or cross breeds. The naturalized Merinos retain their natural cha- racters, though the wool becomes longer and heavier than in 652 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Spain, and the body more large. But the entire form of the Merino as a fattening animal is bad, and the return in mutton de- ficient both in quantity and value. It is in vain that some breed- ers still contend for the superiority of the pure Merinos : the general judgment of farmers is against them, and with perfect reason. Could the breeders of this country look more to the fleece than to the weight and value of the animal, as in Spain and the parts of Germany where the Merinos have been naturalized, the culture of the breed might become profitable. But the breeder in Eng- land finds it his interest to direct attention mainly to the weight and value of the flesh ; and while this is so, it will be more advan- tageous that this country import the wool of other countries, than that the feeders either adopt an inferior animal, like the Merino, or sacrifice the more essential properties of the native sheep. The races of sheep that have been referred to may be said to be proper to, or derived from, the mountains, lower moors, com- mons, and chalky downs. The sheep of the lower and richer country are usually of a larger size, and all destitute of horns, and produce long wool fitted for the purpose of combing, but little adapted for felting and the production of cloth. The greater number, but not all of the first named races, are termed short-woolled sheep, producing wool more or less fitted for felt- ing. The latter races are termed long-woolled sheep, and they have been all more or less mixed in blood with the New Leices- ter breed. Those that may now be referred to are, the Old Lin- coln breed, the Bomney-marsh breed, the Cotswold breed, the Devonshire Notts, the long-woolled Irish varieties, and the New Leicester breed. 18. The Old Lincoln formed a race of coarse heavy sheep, bear- ing an enormous fleece of long wool. In this respect they were the most remarkable sheep in Europe. But few of the ancient race remain, nearly all having been crossed more or less by the lighter sheep of modern times. The sheep of these crosses, how'- ever, arc still very weighty animals, and afford large supplies to London and other markets of consumption. They are fed in THE SHEEP. 653 numbers on the rich marshes of the Thames and elsewhere. They frequently weigh from 50 to 60 lb. per quarter. 19. The Eomney-marsh is the term applied to the race of heavy sheep kept from time immemorial on the alluvial tract on the southern coast of Kent termed Eomney-marsh. The sheep of this rich tract are large, yielding a heavy fleece of long wool. The older Eomney-marsh sheep, though esteemed by the butchers, were regarded as being very defective in form ; having narrow breasts, large bellies, and coarse extremities. It is long since they have been crossed by the new Leicester breed, which had the effect of diminishing their size and lessening the quantity of their wool, but of improving their general form, and giving them a better disposition to fatten. It was supposed, however, that besides the decrease of weight and deterioration of the fleece, the cross breed was less suited to the cold open pasture of the marsh. They were driven into the ditches by the strong south-westerly gales. The breeders of the Eomney-marsh, therefore, now ab- stain from crossing, and endeavour to revert more to the charac- ters of the original breed. 20. The Cotswold Breed, although now the inhabitants of low hills, must be classed with the sheep of the plains, from which they are manifestly derived. These sheep inhabit the calcareous tract of country Avhich forms the eastern part of Gloucestershire. They are of massive form, and bear long wool. The older breed has been universally crossed by the New Leicester and has been lessened in size, although doubtless improved in form. But the modern Cotswold is still a race of very weighty sheep. They are hardy, prolific of lambs, and good nurses ; and the lambs are early clothed with a thick fleece. They have a tendency to accumu- late fat on the rump. They are nothing like so perfect in form as the New Leicester breed, but their hardiness, prolificness, and size, give them a claim to attention amongst the superior breeds of this country. The system of crossing with the New Leicesters began about 50 years ago; but for a considerable period past, the breeders have sought to preserve the breed from further in- termixture, and to revert to the standard of the older race. 654 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 21. The Devonshire Notts formed a race of long-woolled sheep proper to the lower parts of Devonshire. There used to he two varieties, the Dun-faced Nott, and the Barapton Nott. They formed a clumsy race of sheep, with thick skins, bearing long close wool. They are now nearly extinct in their pure state, having been almost universally crossed by the New Leicester breed. This crossing has been singularly beneficial, the result being a race of long-woolled sheep of great size and good form. Many of the sheep of Devonshire are now to be ranked amongst the largest in the kingdom. 22. The Long-woolled Irish varieties extended, with some difference of characters, over the whole of the less elevated parts of Ireland. These sheep were of large size, had coarse heads, flat sides, and narrow chests. They have been universally crossed by the New Leicester breed, so that it is difficult to find an indi- vidual of unmixed blood in the whole country. To these breeds might be added others which may be rather said to have once existed than to be now found. Suck were the Old Warwickshire, the wool of which resembled that of the New Leicester, the Old Leicester, which has merged in the modern breed, and the Old Teesw^ater, which, in like manner, has had its characters entirely modified by the effects of crossing. These last Avere the long-woolled sheep of the district of the Tees. They Avere a race of very large sheep, arriving at great AA^eight, and being very prolific of lambs. The avooI .produced was long and heavy to the fleece. The traces of this breed are now only to be recognised in the flocks of a feAV breeders, distinguished by the superior size of the animals. 23. The NeAV Leicester is frequently termed the Dishley breed, from having been produced by Robert BakeAA^ell of Dishley, in the county of Leicester. This gentleman Avas the son of a con- siderable farmer, and, about the year 1755, began to turn his attention to those improvements in the form of animals, by which he became so distinguished. The precise steps Avhich he followed in the forming of his breed of sheep are not knoAvn,. as he chose to observe an entire mystery on the subject, and left not a single THE SHEEP. 655 written memorial behind him of his curious and important expe- riments. But whatever were the steps which Mr Bakewell pur- sued, it was hy breeding from animals of the form required, until he arrived at the properties aimed at in the progeny, that he gradually corrected the defects, and improved the form, of the animals. He was well aware of the external characters which in- dicate a disposition to fatten, and, hy a steady course of selec- tion continued during a lifetime, he obtained animals of superior fattening properties to any that had been before cultivated. By constantly breeding, too, from individuals of his own flock, and consequently near of blood to one another, he gave a permanence to the characters of his breed which it retains to the present hour. Mr Bakewell adopted the practice of letting out his rams for the season, and this contributed to the general diffusion of his breed. Successors to Mr Bakewell have continued the same system, and bestowed the utmost care in maintaining the purity of their flocks ; and thus from the county of Leicester, as a centre, this breed has spread to every part of England where the breeders have thought fit to receive it. It has entirely changed the cha- racter of the greater part of the long-woolled breeds of this king- dom, and been mainly instrumental in causing that substitution of long-woolled for short-woolled sheep, which has taken place to a great extent throughout England. The slieep of the New Leicester breed are inferior in size to the other varieties they have supplanted. The wool is only of moderate quality, and in weight it falls short of that of the larger breeds. The value of the breed, therefore, does not consist in the size of the individuals, or the quality or abundance of their wool, but in early maturity and aptitude to fatten. In these latter pro- perties the New Leicester has not been surpassed by any other breed of cultivated sheep. The breeds of sheep, then, of this country, may be divided into two classes, — the sheep of the mountains, lower moors, older commons, chases, and downs, — and the sheep of the plains. The sheep of the first class have sometimes horns and some- times want horns. The best of them have no horns, namely, the 656 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. Cheviot and the Southdown. One of them, the black-faced heath breed, has coarse wool ; the others have either short clothing wool, or long but still soft wool. Of the moorland and down breeds, as they may be called, the hardiest is the black-faced heath breed, and this property points it out as the most suitable for a high and rugged country, where artificial food cannot be procured. The breed next to this in hardy properties, but surpassing it in the weight of the individuals, is the Cheviot. Where the pasture contains a sufiiciency of grasses, this breed deserves the preference over any other known to us for a mountainous country. The next, breed meriting extensive cultivation is the South- down. This breed is suited to a lower range of country than the Cheviot and heath sheep. To the chalky and sandy downs where it is indigenous, no breed can be better fitted, and it may be carried far beyond these limits ; but it is unsuited to the more rough and elevated pastures, to which the black-faced and Cheviot breeds are adapted. These are the moorland and down breeds, which appear to be the most deserving of cultivation in this country. Of the larger breeds of the plains, the New Leicester is well adapted to general cultivation ; and wherever an improved system of tillage is esta- blished, may be introduced.* 2. Improvement of Breeds. The breed of sheep to be reared in any case must be selected according to the nature of the pastures, and the artificial means possessed of supplying food. If a mountain breed be selected for rearing on a low arable farm, then the advantage is lost which the farm possesses of producing a larger and finer class of ani- mals. If, on the other hand, a lowland breed is carried to a For the detailed economical history of these races, see the Author's Work On the Domesticated Animals of the British Islands.” THE SHEEP. 657 mountain farm, an error of a different kind, but yet more hurtful, is committed ; for a fine stock will be ruined if placed in circum- stances where it cannot be maintained. The breed, then, being selected which is the best suited to the circumstances in which it is to be placed, the province of the breeder is to breed from the best individuals. Disposition to fatten, and early maturity, are the properties most regarded in sheep to be reared for food. But the property of yielding good and abundant wool is not to be disregarded ; and there is another property essential in the rearing of this class of animals, namely, hardiness and sound health of the individuals. In the case of the sheep, as of the ox, refinement in breeding may be carried j:oo far, and with more danger. By breeding from animals near of blood, the same means exist in the case of the sheep as of the ox, of giving it that prematurity of age which pro- duces fineness of the bones and a disposition to fatten. But it is attended, too, with the same effect of rendering the animals more delicate and subject to diseases. It seems a violence done to nature when carried too far, and the animals shew the effects of it by becoming too fine in their skins, by ceasing to produce wool in sufficient quantity, by the females ceasing to yield a sufficient quantity of milk, and by the males becoming at length unable to continue their species. Whenever, then, the sheep of any flock become too near of blood, the breeder should resort to the best animals of another family, but of the same breed, to continue his stock. This spe- cies of crossing is now easy, since there is scarcely any of the cul- tivated breeds of which superior males may not be procured from other flocks. In the case of the New Leicester, so widely dif- fused and highly improved, no necessity can exist for breeding from animals too nearly allied. 658 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. 3. Form. In the sheep, as in other animals, certain external characters indicate a disposition to fatten, and at an early age. Other cha- racters indicate a disposition to produce wool ; and the quantity of wool, it has been said, is not to be disregarded in the rearing of the sheep. But the main purpose in rearing sheep in this country being for food, the province of the breeder is to accom- plish this object with as little sacrifice as possible of the second- ary qualities. A property that indicates a tendency to fatten in the sheep as in the ox, is a general rotundity of form and fineness of the bones. The chest should be broad, the ribs well arched, and the back and loins, accordingly, broad, flat, and straight. The sheep, like the ox, occupies, when viewed in profile, and independently of the neck and head, nearly a rectangle, and the larger the pro- portion of this rectangle which the body occupies, the more per- fect is his form. as a fattening animal. His body, therefore, should be large in proportion to his limbs ; his breast should be well forward, and his belly straight ; his head should be small and his ears thin ; his limbs to the knee and hock should be fleshy, below delicate and covered with short hair : his skin should be soft and elastic ; his wool soft to the touch, thick, and coming well forward to the face, but not covering it : his face and fore- head should be covered thickly with short hair, and his eyes, as indicative of health, should be lively. 4. Rearing and Feeding. In the rearing and feeding of sheep, the system to be adopted must depend upon tlie nature of the farm, and the kind of stock. The treatment of mountain-sheep in an elevated country is, of necessity, very difterent from that of the larger sheep on an arable THE SHEEP. 659 farm. It is the reaiing and feeding of the latter which may he first considered. The female sheep are ready to receive the ram in October, or sooner ; but the precise period is determined by the forward con- dition and constitution of the animals. A medium period is from tlie 5th to the 10th of October, in which case the ewes will begin to lamb previous to the beginning of March, and the principal period of lambing be in the early part of that month. To prepare the ewes, they should receive good feeding for a time previous to the male being introduced ; and, for this pur- pose, they may be turned upon the stubbles where the young grass is for a fortnight before. The ram is put into the field where the ewes are pasturing, and herds along with them. He covers them as they come into season ; and one ram is considered suffi- cient for eighty sheep. In order to show what females have re- ceived him, and what have not, it is usual to smear his breast with pigment, which appears upon the fleeces of such ewes as he has covered ; and if more than one ram is with the flock, then, by smearing the rams with different coloured pigments, as red and blue, the progeny of each is known. Such ewes as have not re- ceived the ram, may be taken from amongst the breeding-stock, and fattened for the butcher. Rams are fit to propagate their species in the autumn of the second year. Well-fed females will receive the male even in their first year ; but the proper period is in the October of the second year. The food of sheep is herbage, upon which they feed during summer. In winter, when the pastures fail, the fattening-stock are fed on a full allowance of turnips, or other succulent food ; but the ewes are suflfered to pasture during the entire winter, and merely receive such an allowance of food as is required to keep them in condition. During hard frosts and snow, they may re- ceive hay, which may be either given to them from racks, or simply spread upon the ground. They thus pasture in the fields, re- ceiving hay when occasion requires, until within a few weeks of 660 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. the period of lambing, when they should receive an allowance of turnips, or other succulent food, laid down in the fields where they ai’e pasturing. When the period of lambing arrives, every vigilance is neces- sary on the part of the shepherd. He must be at all time.s at hand to assist the births. He must take his necessary rest only during the day, and for the shortest time possible, when his place can be supplied. When a house is not at hand, cavered pens must be erected in the fields, and the ewes, when about to lamb, brought to the pens. The birth of the young must be assisted, but not precipitately. The proper position of the foetus is with its head couched upon its fore-legs. In other positions the birth is difficult, and then it generally becomes necessary to turn the foetus, which is done by elevating the ewe from behind. Experienced shepherds are acquainted with these duties. When the young is born, it is to be immediately recognised and licked by the dam, and assisted to the teat when necessary. When the lamb of any ewe dies, another should be supplied to her ; either one of the twins of another ewe, or one that has lost its own dam. Sometimes difficulty is experienced in getting the ewe to adopt another lamb ; and cases even occur, when the ewe,, from some unknown cause, deserts her own young. In propor- tion as the ewes have lambed, they should, if possible, be trans- ferred with their young to a field of new grass. An operation to be performed upon the lambs is castrating the males which are not to be reserved for rams. This may be per- formed in a few days after the birth, generally in eight or ten days. It is done by the shepherd, with an assistant to hold the animal, and, at the same time, it is usual to cut off a portion of the tail. The operation is performed on lots of the lambs, and not on each singly as it reaches a certain age. It is well that it be performed early, the difficulty and danger increasing with the age of the animal, and that the weatlier at that time be dry, cloudy, and mild. The lambs continue with the ewes, sucking them till the period THE SHEEP. 661 of weaning, which generally takes place by the middle of July. Weaning is simply performed by removing the young from their dams, and keeping them for a time so far asunder that they may not be disturbed by their mutual bleatings. When the lambs are weaned, the ewes may be milked for the purpose of relieving their udders and running them dry by de- grees. Three milkings will generally suffice, though, should any particular cases require more, it is the province of the shepherd to attend to them. Supposing the lambs to be weaned in the evening, the first milking may take place in the following even- ing, or in twenty- four hours ; the next at an interval of thirty- six hours ; the last at an interval of forty-eight hours. When the ewes are to be milked, they are driven into a narrow pen, the milkers, with pails, milking the ewes from behind ; and on each ewe being milked, she is turned round in the pen by an assistant, the milkers continuing their work until the whole are milked. After being weaned, the lambs receive the name of hoggets, or hogs, the rams being termed tup -hogs, the castrated males, wether- hogs, the ewes, ewe-hogs. The wether and ewe hoggets are now pastured together for the remainder of the season. When winter approaches, or rather when the pastures fail towards the end of October or beginning of November, the hoggets, male and female, are to be put on a full allowance of turnips. The turnips can either be conveyed to the ground where the animals feed, or the simpler process be adopted of penning the sheep upon the turnips. When the sheep are penned upon the turnips, they are con- fined to a given space, generally sufficient for them to consume in one week. The temporary fences used for penning th'em consist either of wooden hurdles, or nets, the latter being the most economical and convenient. In this space the sheep consume the turnips, and when they have eaten them close to the ground, the remaining portions of tlie roots 662 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. are picked up by means of the hoe, Fig. 209, so that the sheep may be enabled to eat them wholly up. When they have consumed one space, the pens are shifted to another, in such a manner as to leave the ground already cleared Fig. 210. open to the animals for walking over and resting upon. A rack, Fig. 210, should always be placed in the field with hay. The turnips, in place of being consumed in this manner, may be pulled up, cut into pieces by the turnip-slicer, and put into long narrow troughs. This is an approved practice. Further, besides the rack of hay, there may be placed in the field troughs containing oil-cake, corn, or other food, and a quantity of salt. The addition of oil-cake is in a peculiar manner beneficial to sheep feeding on turnips. Sometimes when young sheep are penned on turnips till late in spring, they find difficulty, from their teeth becoming loosened, in eating the turnips when whole. In this case, the turnip-slicer should be employed. The young sheep or hoggets are in this manner fed on turnips till the grass is ready in spring. This will be early in April, or, in the southern parts of the country, in March ; for sheep do not require the same full herbage as cattle, and may therefore be turned out at an earlier period to the fields. Should the turnips fail before the pastures are ready, then the young sheep are to be carried on by substitutes, as hay, or even corn. It is rarely, however, necessary on a well-ordered farm to resort entirely to this costly species of feeding ; yet, Avhen neces- sary, it must be don(3, since this inconvenience is less than the evil of siiflcring the stock to lose condition. THE SHEEP. 663 The period of shearing sheep depends upon the forward con- dition of the animals. When fat, the old wool begins to come off more early than when they are less forward. Good-conditioned sheep may be shorn in May, but always early in June ; the precise period being denoted by the state of the wool, which comes readily off when plucked, and which would fall entirely off were it not shorn. About eight days previous to shearing, the sheep are driven to a pool, if possible in a running stream, and three or more per- sons are to stand in this pool. The sheep are brought forward to a pen on the bank, and lifted into the pool one by one. The first of the persons in the pool seizes the sheep by the wool, and keeping it on its back, plunges it well from side to side. He passes it on to the person next in order, and he in like manner plunges the animal in every direction. This person then passes it Oil to the third, who examines the fleece as well as circum- stances will allow, plunging the sheep at the same time, and thus finishing the operation. The animal is thus passed through the hands of three persons, and sometimes more ; but the last should be a trusty person, such as the shepherd himself, whose duty it ' is to see that the fleece is completely washed and freed of sand and impurities. This description has a reference to young sheep or hoggets, whose management we are now considering ; but the same method is applicable to all the sheep upon the farm, young and old, with this difference, that the ewes, which are at this period suckling their young, have the lambs separated from them during the pro- cess of washing. The sheep being washed, are driven to a clean pasture, and when the fleece is dry, which it will be in a few days, if the wea- ther is good, the slieep may be shorn ; but it is generally thought better that seven or eight days should elapse before shearing them, in which case the yolk of the wool is renewed. When the sheep are to be shorn, they are driven to a pen or other enclosed space, and brought one by one to the shearers. 664 RE AKIN G AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. The sheep to he shorn is first placed upon its rump, and the shearer, with the shears (Fig. 211), beginning at the ^ neck, clips in a circular direction down the belly towards the back. The animal is then laid on its side, and kept down by the leg of the shearer, who clips the fleece all round to the back. Turning the animal on the other side, he clips in like manner round to the back ; and raising the sheep, he clips the part of the fleece not yet cut away, and so lets the animal go, taking care that it shall not entangle itself with the fleece. The fleece, as soon as it is shorn, is taken away by an attendant, spread out, neatly rolled up with the inner surface outmost, and then deposited in some dry place, until it is packed in the wool sheets. When the animals are shorn, they are frequently marked with a stamp (Fig. 212), dipped in boiling tar, to distinguish the kinds and ages of the sheep. This kind of mark, though convenient, is injurious to the wool. After the operation of clipping, the young sheep are termed shearling sheep ; the castrated males, shearling wethers ; the females, shearling ewes ; the rams, shear- ling tups or rams. But it is common in some districts to apply to them at this period the following terms : — The shearling we- thers are termed dinmonts ; the females are termed gimmers ; and the rams are still termed shearling rams ; and these names the animals retain until they are shorn of their second fleece in the following year. The shearling ewes or gimmers are, after being shorn, kept at grass for the remainder of the season, and they receive the rams in October in the manner described. The shearling wethers or dinmonts are, soon after shearing, fit for the butcher. They are then about one year and three months old. If of the Leicester breed, they will weigh 16 lb. or 18 lb. the quarter, and their fleeces will yield 7 lb. each, or more. But should the pasture be inferior, the breed bad, or the stock not in sufficient ordci*, or sliould the state of the markets rcnd(‘i* THE SHEEP. G65 it inexpedient to sell, then the shearling wethers may he kept upon the farm for one winter more. In this case they are pas- tured precisely as when they were hoggets during the remainder of the season ; and when in autumn the pastures again fail, they are penned on turnips, and treated in the same manner as in the previous winter. The shearling wethers or dinmonts are frequently sold fat be- fore they have completed the entire winter’s feeding. But it is more common to keep them during the winter on turnips, to put them upon good and early grass in spring, and to dispose of them after they are shorn. They are then two years and two or three months old, and have yielded two fleeces to the breeder. They will weigh at this age from 25 lb. to 30 lb. the quarter or more, and their fleeces will weigh about 8 lb. These and other sheep, after they are shorn of their second fleece, are termed two- shear sheep : the males not castrated are simply tups or rams ; the males castrated are wethers, and the females are ewes. It is more profitable to be able to feed off* sheep when shearlings, than to retain them till they are two years old. The former is the perfection of feeding ; but it is a perfec- tion attainable on every arable farm in this country on vvhich tur- nips can be raised, and a superior breed of sheep maintained. In the practice of the farm, then, the male sheep are disposed of either after having yielded one fleece, or after having yielded two fleeces. Such of the ewes as are reared on the farm, but are not to be employed for breeding, may be treated in the same manner. But with respect to the ewes upon the farm kept for breeding, it is necessary, after they have borne lambs for several years, to dispose of them, and to supply their place by younger ewes reared upon the farm. A certain number of shearling ewes or gimmers being each year added to the breeding stock, an equal number of the oldest ewes are disposed of, and thus the number of breeding- sheep is maintained. And not only are all ewes which have borne the required num- ber of lambs to be disposed of in this mannei*, but also all breeding 666 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. sheep, of whatever age, that are not healthy, or that are of a de- fective form, and their place is to be supplied by the younger and better stock reared upon the ground. These, then, have been the principal points of practice in the management of a sheep-stock reared upon the farm : The female stock, like the males, were suckled by the dams till July ; they were then weaned, and pastured with the wether-hoggets during the remainder of the season, when they were put together with the latter on turnips before winter ; they were fed on turnips till April, when they were turned out to pasture along with the wether- hoggets ; early in June they were dipt ; in the month of October they were joined to the rest of the ewe stock, sup- plying the place of the older ewes that had been disposed of ; and after this time they were treated in all respects as breeding- ewes, and kept upon the farm till they had borne lambs for three or four years. The males, it has been seen, were castrated a few days after birth, — were weaned in July, when they received the name of wether-hoggets, — were pastured during the remainder of the season, and were then, together with the ewe-hoggets, penned on turnips ; in the following April they were put on grass, and by the beginning of June they were washed and dipt ; they then received the name of shearling wethers or dinmonts, when they were fat, and ready to be sold as soon afterwards as con- venient : Or, when, from tlie deficiency of feeding or other cause, they Avere not then ready for the butcher, they Avere again pas- tured during the summer, and a second time penned on turnips, and generally pastured till they Avere dipt a second time, Avhen they Avere two-shear Avethers, and in high perfection Avith regard to groAvtli and fatness. Sheep, especially Avhen fat and loaded Avith avooI, are often iin- ■able to rise when they have fallen upon their backs in any hol- low place, and they Avill perish if not relieved in time. To guard against these and ail other accidents, sheep must be regularly tended. They must be examined at least tAvice in the day ; they are to be cleaned Avlien necessary, by cutting olf dotted wool, and above all things they are to be guarded against tlie attacks of THE SHEEP. 667 maggots. In the latter case, a decoction of tobacco mixed with spirits of tar, and in some cases a solution of sublimate of mer- cury, are the remedies commonly employed. Their heads are fre- quently injured by the attacks of flies ; for which a little tar spread upon the wound is the most common and the best remedy. In the whole treatment of sheep, gentleness is of great moment. The worrying and harassing of them by dogs is never to be thought of. In upland pastures the faithful dog is essential to the shepherd ; in an enclosed country the necessity for employing him is greatly lessened, and he is always to be used with temper- ance and humanity towards the flock. The treatment of a lowland stock has been described, where the breeder is likewise the feeder ; but sometimes the purpose of the breeder is not to fatten the stock which he rears, but, after having brought it to a certain age, to dispose of it to others who fatten it. Sometimes, on the other hand, the design of the farmer is not to breed sheep, but to buy them from others whose interest it has been to rear and not to fatten them. The effecting of these sales, on the one hand, and the making of these purchases on the other, constitute one of the branches of farming as a business. But it is a branch that cannot be taught by rule, but must be learned by practice. One of the branches of sheep-farming, in which the breeder is likewise the fattener, is the rearing of lambs and selling them when fattened. The lambs are fattened by the milk of the mothers, and are merely disposed of when they are ready for being killed. The feeding of the lambs in the house for early consumption is also practised, and in some parts has been brought to a system. This branch of management need not be described. The sheep of the Dorset breed are valued as being the best suited to yield early lambs in this manner. Grass in summer and turnips in winter, with a little hay for the ewes, have been spoken of as the essential food of sheep. The basis of this system is the turnip crop. But, iu certain cases, this mean of support may fail or be wanting, and it then becomes nece.«isary to rcsoi't 1o other substances. Potatoes, mangel- 668 KEARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. wurzel, and other roots, may be eaten by sheep as well as by oxen ; and cabbages and rape are perfectly suited to the purpose of feeding them. All kinds of farinaceous food are consumed by sheep. When corn is given, it is a common practice to lay down the sheaves unthrashed, when the sheep readily separate the grains from the straw ; but it is more correct management to place the corn in troughs. Brewers’ and distillers’ grains may be given to sheep ; and they will consume this nourishing substance readily. Oil-cake, too, is well calculated to fatten sheep, and may be used either along with turnips, or even along with hay, where cheaper methods of carrying on the stock are wanting. Attempts have sometimes been made to soil sheep during sum- mer, in the same manner as horses and oxen. This practice is common on the Continent, where the sheep are kept in pens and littered ; but it has made no progress, nor is it likely to make much progess, in England, so much more simple and economical is the turning out of the animals to pasture in the fields. Yet it is certain that there are cases in which sheep may be soiled without detriment to the animals, and with a large acquisition of useful manure. Besides common food, there is the condiment. Salt, of great importance to sheep, as to all domestic animals, but which is too much neglected in the rural economy of this country. If laid in troughs, or even on flat stones, the animals will quickly find their way to it, and will be seen to wait for their daily portion of salt with as much eagerness as for their periodical supply of food. I have spoken of the management of a lowland breed of sheep. It is necessary to consider also the ti*eatment of the animal under circumstances entirely different ; that is, when reared and pastured in a country where cultivated food is either wanting or to be pro- cured in limited quantity. The Cheviot sheep are roared in an elevated country. But in the places where they are produced, turnips and the cultivated grasses may generally be supplied in certain quantity. THE SHEEP. 669 In the rearing of this breed, the rams are usually put to the ewes from the middle to the 20th of November, so that the lambs shall begin to drop about the first of April. The ewes gene- rally receive no further feeding during the period of gestation than hay in falls of snow. This may be supplied to them from racks, or simply laid upon the surface of the snow. The ground is frequently covered with snow for six weeks ; but it is some- times covered for twice that period. During the winter, there- fore, a store of hay should be in reserve for three months’ con- sumption, and this may be calculated at the rate of lb. per day for the ewes and older sheep, and 1 lb. per day for the younger sheep. Should the winter be mild, what is left remains till the following season. When turnips are raised, these are given also to the breeding stock. The ewes receive them during falls of snow, and in an especial degree when the lambing season arrives, and during its continuance. When both hay and turnips are to be supplied, it will be pro- per either to give them at the same time, that is, a portion of hay and a portion of turnips each day, or to begin with hay and end with turnips ; for to begin with turnips and end with hay is to cause the sheep to pass from succulent food to one which is less grateful, so that a time elapses before the animals are re- conciled to the change. But when turnips are given, and hay supplied at the same time, the sheep take to this variety of feed- ing very readily. The process of lambing in these high districts demands the utmost vigilance of the shepherds. They must never be absent night or day, but relieve one another, and inspect the flock at short intervals, so as to assist the parturition of the ewes when necessary. Sometimes the lambs at their birth are so weak that they can- not rise to the teat, and thus perish or are forsaken by the dams. The shepherd assists them in such cases, and frequently takes the ewe with her young to a house or place of shelter, where they can be attended to. When the ewes have twins, and thus 670 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. liave two lambs to nurse, it is usual to give them a more liberal supply of food. For this purpose it is convenient to have an enclosure of early grass near the place of lambing, or the shep- herd’s cottage, to which ewes with twins, such as have too little milk, and such as are sick and infirm, or from any cause require more attendance than the rest of the flock, may be taken. Though various ewes produce twins, it is regarded as a favourable circum- stance in the case of this class of sheep when one lamb can be reared for each ewe of the flock. It is well when nineteen lambs can be reared for every twenty ewes. As soon as the weather is favourable, after a considerable num- ber of the ewes have lambs, they are collected into a fold, and all the males castrated, except such as are reserved for rams ; and the sooner the operation is performed after the lambs are a few days old the better. When the period of shearing arrives, which is known by the wool being fully grown, the sheep are washed, sometimes by men standing in the pool, who wash each sheep separately, in the man- ner before described ; or, when the flocks are large, by causing them to swim two or three times through the water to the oppo- site bank. After being washed, they are kept as much as possible on ground where they can be prevented from rubbing on banks, or otherwise soiling their wool. In two days, if there be no rain, they may be shorn, but it is generally thought better to wait seven or eight days. The wool is shorn in the manner before described, and stored in a proper place till packed in sheets. As soon as each sheep is shorn, it may be marked with a stamp dipped in boiling tar. The mark is made on different parts of the body, as the near shoulder, the far shoulder, the near rib, the far rib, so as that the different kinds and ages of the sheep can be known at a glance. About the middle of July, the lambs are weaned, when such lambs as are to be disposed of are separated from the remainder and sold. The lambs, now hoggets, are put on such good pas- turage as the farm affords, and supplied, if possible, with turnips THE SHEEP. 671 tliroughout the winter, at the rate of a cart-load for seven or eight scores in the day. Some farmers still milk their ewes for a few weeks ; but the more approved practice is to milk them only for a few days, merely to relieve the ewes of their milk by degrees. Before winter, it is a general practice, the utility of which is experienced in a very elevated country, to smear the skins of the sheep with a mixture of tar and butter. The practice, indeed, is found to deteriorate the wool, by staining it, and rendering it un- fit for receiving the brighter colours in dyeing. It is found, however, conducive to the health of the stock in an inclement country, destroying vermin, of itself an important object to the health of the sheep, and acting to a considerable degree in de- fending the animals from cold and moisture. The mixture is pre- pared by boiling the butter, and mixing it with the tar, and. some- times by adding some milk ; the proportions employed differing according to the practice of different farms and districts. In some places 6 lb. of butter to one gallon of tar are considered sufficient for twenty sheep. The period of smearing is the end of October or beginning of November, that is, before the rams are admitted to the ewes. The method is, to place the animal upon a stool, Fig. 213, to separate the wool, and with the end of the Fig. 213. finger to smear the skin longitudinally from head to tail. One man will smear from 20 to 25 sheep in a day. Substitutes are now very generally used for tar, which, though not so efficient, are less hurtful to the wool. 672 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. It is a general error on merely stock farms to plough up too much of the land for crop, or to intersperse the cultivated land with the range of the sheep-pasture. The object of tillage on such farms is to raise turnips and clover-hay, for keeping the stock throughout the winter months, and this being attained, the farmer ought rarely to carry his system of tillage further. In many cases, indeed, the farmer of a mountain farm has also a sufficient quantity of lowland ground to allow him to continue the practice both of rearing sheep and fattening them. This, when it occurs, is beneficial ; but when it does not occur, the proper occupa- tion of a mountain farm is to rear sheep, and not to fatten them ; and the general principle of management is to sell the sheep which are reared to the grazier as soon as they have come to tolerable ma- turity, that is, even after the first winter, when hoggets, or after the second winter, when shearlings. Reared in yet more elevated districts than the Cheviot, are the Black-faced heath sheep. These are amongst the hardiest of all our races of sheep, and in the parts of the country where they are principally cultivated, they must depend chiefly or entirely on the natural herbage of the farm. The rams are generally put to the ewes after the middle of November, and one ram is assigned to sixty ewes or less. The lambs intended for wethers are castrated somewhat later than the other sheep : they are weaned late in July, and the ewes milked sometimes for a few weeks. The sheep are shorn from the end of June to the middle of July ; and when they are to be washed, they are driven to a pool or deep stream, and forced to leap from the bank. This being a very wild race of sheep, the same deli- cacy of management is not necessary or practicable as in the case of the more docile breeds of the plains. They are shorn in the same manner as the other sheep ; and opportunity is then taken to place upon them their distinguishing marks. In all cases they should be smeared ; for though, as in the case of the Cheviot sheep, the wool is injured by the process, this is more than compen- sated by the benefits resulting to the flock. The food of these hardy sheep is in summer and winter the THE SHEEP. 673 same ; and all that can be generally done is to supply them with some hay during long-continued falls of snow. They are sold at the ages which suit the nature of the farm and the convenience of the breeder. The management of the other kinds of down or moorland sheep need not be detailed. These breeds are generally in low situa- tions, where the difficulty of procuring food is comparatively little. The nearer the management of this class of sheep ap- proaches to that of the larger sheep of the plains, already de- scribed, the more perfect will it be. 5. Diseases of Sheep. The diseases of these valuable creatures are sometimes of a very formidable nature, and baffle all the means of remedy which are known to us. Of these diseases the most dreaded is rot, which often extends over whole districts of a country. It is known that this disease is favoured, or produced, by a humid state of the soil and atmosphere. It is in wet seasons that it prevails the most, and is the most fatal. By draining land the tendency to it is lessened or taken away. Often sheep are rotted by pasturing on the wet parts of the farm, whereas if kept from these parts they remain free from disease. Nay, a single sheep that has a disposition to pick up its food in moist places will die, while the others will not be affected. The animal affected does not all at once show symptoms of disease ; for sometimes it remains a considerable time in apparent health, and long after it has been removed from the place of in- fection, droops and dies. Sheep are every year purchased in seem- ing health, and yet after a time they are found to be affected. A moist and even luxuriant autumn is dreaded above all things by the owners of sheep ; for the seeds of infection are then often spread, to appear in the following spring, or after the lapse of a longer period. 2 u 6Y4 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. The signs of rottenness in sheep are familiar to all shepherds. The animal becomes emaciated, its eye becomes dull and glassy, a black purging generally takes place, the wool, on being pulled, comes readily away from the skin, the breath becomes fetid, and the urine is small in quantity and high coloured. As the disease proceeds, the skin is marked with spots, and the emaciation in- creases continually, until the sheep dies. In short, the term rot expresses truly the state of the animal. The disease proceeds with various degrees of rapidity : sometimes it attacks the entire flock suddenly, and sometimes its progress is gradual, and it affects only a given number of individuals. Graziers often avail themselves of the period of the animals beginning to decline to rid themselves of an infected stock. During the first period of being tainted, the sheep have frequently a strong tendency to fatten, and if killed in time the flesh may not be perceptibly affected. In all cases of rot the disease is accompanied by a morbid state of the liver. During the progress of it, the fluke, a small animal, Fasciola hepatica, appears on the parts connected with the liver and the gall-bladder. At first the number of these creatures is small, but as the disease advances they increase, and before death are generally very numerous. In the last stage of the disease they have extended to the stomach and other parts. Frequently the disease terminates favourably, the inflammatory action going off without destroying the parts. But even in this case, the taint is rarely removed, and years afterwards, when the animal has been fattened and killed, the liver has been found to be diseased, the flukes being in great numbers. The best preventive of rot is to render the soil dry ; and hence on all sheep pastures the importance of draining. But should the disease, in spite of all precautions, appear, then we should, with- out loss of time, remove the sheep to a drier pasture, and supply them liberally with proper food. It is only, however, in the early stages of the disease, that a change of food will usually avail. If the disease has proceeded to a considerable extent, even though it should not have evinced itself by any great change in the external THE SHEEP. 675 appearance of the flock, the animals will often perish hourly amidst the most wholesome food with which they can he supplied. Of all the medicines that have been proposed for this fatal dis- ease, salt alone is that whose virtue has been established by any satisfactory testimony. The beneficial efiect of salt in the pre- vention and even cure of rot has been confirmed by the observa- tion of farmers in this and other countries. Salt, indeed, will not in all cases prevent or cure the disease ; for sometimes the tendency to it from particular causes is too strong to be counteracted, and, when it has once attacked the flock, too violent in its progress to be arrested. But though salt is not a specific, it is the best means of remedy with which we are acquainted. If salt be placed near the animals in troughs or on flat stones, they will eagerly lick it, and when disease threatens them, it may be given to them in any quantity in which they will consume it ; for it is then seen that they are obeying a natural instinct in having recourse to the remedy ; and in a wet season, when dis- ease may be apprehended, no one should grudge the trouble of so cheap and simple a precaution. !Much has been written upon the subject of this disease, but all that has been written has nearly left us where we were with regard to the remedy. It had been long known that wetness of the soil, however produced, gave rise to rot ; that the best pre- ventive was pasturing on dry ground, and giving sufficient food ; and that the best remedy where disease appeared was a change of pasture. To these results of old experience is to be added, the using of salt. Another disease, arising from a different cause than the rot, but like it ending in emaciation, and the death of the animal, is provincially termed pining. This disease is accompanied by a costive state of the animal, whereas the rot is never accompanied by costiveness ; and in the rot the liver is always affected, while in the pining the liver is sound. This disease seems to arise from the want of exercise, and from the animals feeding on very dry pastures. Before the ex- G7G REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS, tensive Graining of' the pastnn.'-lands, where it is now found, tlie disease was unknown. The rot was then common ; but with the (Iraining of the lands the rot disappeared, and this new disease took its place. The former practice of management in the dis- tricts where the disease now prevails was to keep the sheep in flocks, which were moved about along their allotted range of pas- tures, They are now, under a more approved system of manage- ment, siiffered to spread over a large extent of pasture ; and thus they are not obliged to take exercise, but are allowed to feed more on a given spot of ground. A change of place and food is the preventive or the remedy ; and if a change of food is resorted to in time, it is generally suf- ficient to arrest the progress of the disease. Even a removal to a fresh heath will sometimes accomplish the purpose, but the proper and effectual remedy in all cases is a change to a more rich and succulent pasture. The disease is sometimes very fatal, de- stroying entire flocks like a pestilence. Sheep are subject to a long and frightful train of inflammatory diseases. In all such cases, however they may affect the ani- mals, bleeding should be at once resorted to, as the only mean of subduing the disease, and giving a chance of safety. The eye- vein is that nsnally opened in bleeding the sheep ; but all shep- herds should be taught to bleed from the jugular vein, as being the most suitable. The quantity of blood extracted must vary with the age and strength of the animals. The rule in the case of the sheep, as in that of the ox, is to bleed freely. Purgative medicines, too, ought to be given to the sheep, in the case of this class of diseases, and of them the most approved are, Epsom salt, in the proportion of from 4 to G oz., and about half that quan- tity, or a little more, of Glauber’s salt. Common salt is often ap])lied in country practice with the effect desired. On the part of shepherds, it is to be observed, there exists a prejudice against the administration of medicines to sheep, doubtless from their having observed the little effect usually produced. But this pre- judice should not be permitted to operate where the lives of sheej) are in imminent hazard, as is the case in all inflammatory dis- THE SHEEP. r>77 eases. It is beyond a doubt, that, by prompt bleeding, and the judicious administration of purgatives, the lives of many thou- sands of tliese valuable creatures may be yearly saved to the country. Amongst the indammatory putrid fevers to which sheep are subject, one, termed braxy, is very destructive in various parts of the country. The progress of this disease is very sudden and violent. Of the remedies to be employed, bleeding and purging are plainly those which the nature of the disease points out. This- discase seems generally to be caused by bad food, and the most efficient jjreventive is known to be good feeding. Turnips or other succulent roots given to young sheep feeding on natural pastures are alM^ays beneficial ; and it is to be observed, that, in proportion as the treatment of sheep in tlie country has improved, this dangerous malady has diminished. Diarrhoea and dysentery are diseases of sheep. Diarrhoea is frequently produced by too sudden a growth of grass in spring, and it most fi'equently affects young sheep. It may be generally cured by removing the animals to drier pasture ; and a little corn may be always given with good effects. Dysentery is a more serious disease, and is often very destruc- tive. In this disease, bleeding is plainly required to subdue the inflammation, and purging to carry off the peccant matter in the intestines. Hay may be offered and a few sheaves of corn laid down, and the use of mashes will in an especial manner be found beneficial. Sheep are liable to various cutaneous diseases. The principal of these is termed scab ; and it is indicated by extreme itching and eruptions of the skin. When introduced into a flock it may be attended with very serious effects, unless checked by efficient remedies. The most common remedy for the disease is sulphur mixed with some unctuous substance to fix it on the skin. One of the best receipts perha})s is a decoction of tobacco and spirit of tur- pentine, with the addition of a little soft soap and sulphur vivum. The decoction of tobacco may be obtained by boiling the tobacco 678 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. in brine “or salt water. The liquid, when prepared, is applied from a vessel like a teapot with a spout, or from a bottle with a quill passed through the cork. A person lays the wool back in lines so as to expose the skin, and pours out the liquid along the lines upon the skin. But when the distemper is very violent, a mercurial preparation may be required. This is now to be ob- tained in apothecaries’ shops under the name of sheep-ointment. It is made into balls, and when used is dissolved in oil, and ap- plied to the skin of the animal. Sometimes infected sheep will find their way into the best managed flocks ; but every care must be taken to keep the disease from breaking out, or to cure it as quickly as possible when it ap- pears. The infection of a diseased flock is left behind it upon the hedges and pasture-fields, and therefore precaution is to be used before a fresh flock is turned into fields -where infected sheep had been recently feeding. Another disease of sheep is the foot-rot, which is an inflam- mation of the foot, followed by an ulceration and destruction of the hoof. This disease chiefly prevails in wet seasons, or in soft grounds. It is a very painful disease, causing the entire lame- ness and loss of condition of the animal. Certain grounds are noted for communicating the foot-rot ; and as it appears amongst the pasturing stock season after season, such grounds are popu- larly said to be infected with the foot-rot. But the cause may be reasonably ascribed to the accumulation of undecomposed ve- getable matter on the surface. Although painful and destructive to the good condition of the animal, this disease is not absolutely fatal, except under entire neglect, in which case the animal becomes unable to seek his food, crawls upon his knees, and, worn away by exhaustion, perishes. But if early attention be paid, the disease admits of remedy. In the first place, let all the affected part of the hoof be pared away, and the ulcerous matter removed, and then let the foot be washed with soap and hot water, and let the surface be dressed with some caustic, of which the best is muriate of antimony. In incipient cases, by simply paring the hoof, and cleansing it with soap and THE SIIEEl’. 679 water, and tlieii dipping it in boiled tar, the progress of the dis- ease will be arrested. The next disease to be mentioned is of frequent occurrence. This is hydatids, staggers, or water-in-the-head as it is some- times termed. The cause of this disease is a parasitic animal, a hydatid, which is found in the brain of sheep. It enlarges in size, and, if not removed, ultimately destroys the animal. This creature, when distended with fluid, resembles a round sac filled Avith Avater, and hence it was long supposed to be water, and the disease, in consequence, termed Avater-in-the-head. When the hydatid is in the brain, the animal affected shoAVS great symptoms of distress ; he leans his head to one side, mopes by himself, continues turning round, and finally dies. The re- medy for this disease is to reach the hydatid, and to extract it, or at least to perforate it in such a manner as to destroy its vi- tality. When it is situated at the surface of the brain, the part feels soft, and it may be reached by a sharp instrument, as a com- mon aA\d or gimlet, or the hydatid itself may be extracted. This may be done by the trephine. Shepherds perform the operation in a rude manner by a sharp knife. A small portion of the skull is so cut as to be raised up like a lid. The hydatid being ex- posed, is pulled out by pincers, and the fluid absorbed by a sponge or piece of linen. The skull is then replaced, and dressed with common tar put upon a piece of soft leather. Often the hydatid may be reached by a Avire thrust up the nos- trils, and it is remarkable that this operation frequently succeeds in the hands of shepherds. Sheep are liable to the attacks of A^arious animals. One of these, a species of aphis, termed the sheep-louse, is very common, and chiefly prevails where the sheep are in an unhealthy condi- tion. It is of a flat form, and, attaching itself to the throat and other parts, occasions much irritation. Tar, turpentine, or tobacco liquor, are the substances chiefly used to destroy this animal, and any simple mercurial preparation is effectual. But the most pernicious enemy that attacks sheep, is the com- mon sheep-maggot, the larva of a species of fiesh-fly. The fly 680 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. having (iepositecl her eggs on the skin of the sheep, the larvae are hatched in great numbers, and grow with amazing quickness. They commonly appear about the root of the tail, or wherever filth has allowed the fly to attach her eggs, and thence they spread over the entire body, consuming the skin, and eating into the flesh. The sheep, when attacked, manifest a strong sense of suf- fering. They frequently run with violence, until at length, over- powered and exhausted, they lie down and perish. It is in moist and warm seasons of the year that the sheep- maggot is chiefly produced. Constant vigilance is then demanded on the part of the shepherd, so that all foulness of the wool shall be dipt away ; and the sheep must be daily inspected, lest this dangerous enemy establish itself. The maggot is effectually de- stroyed by a solution of corrosive sublimate, and in its early stages by less potent applications, as by urine and lime. We must remember that the sheep, in his domesticated state, is yielded up to the care of man ; his natural instincts are blunted, and he is unfitted for those means of preservation Avhich in his wild state he might possess. He is the prey of a multitude of enemies, against which he has no defence ; and the more artificial his condition is, the more is he dependent on our care. 6. Wool. Hair is an appendage of the skin of the mammalia. It con- sists of fine filaments growing from beneath the skin, to which it serves as a covering ; it is nearly the same in its chemical com- position as horn and feathers ; it is kept flexible and moist by an oily secretion from the skin ; it is furnished with bloodvessels, like all the other oi*gans of animals. Being intended chiefly as a covering to the animal, it abounds the most under those circumstances where it is most required. Quadrupeds are more or less covered Avith it, and foi* the most ])art in the greatest de- gree where the cold is the greatest. Man is slightly supplied Avith THE SHEEP. 681 this universal defence; but he is enabled, by his reason, to adapt the hair of other animals to his use. When the hair of animals is very thick and strong, it forms spines and bristles ; when more fine, it forms hair, commonly so called ; when it is fine, and at the same .time curled, it is termed wool. It is this curling property of the wool which renders ,it more suitable than any other species of hair for being woven into cloth. The fur of animals consists of a mixture of hair and woo), but the latter is often in very small quantity. The wool princi- pally used for the purpose of forming cloths is that of the domes- tic sheep ; and we know that this substance has been so employed from the earliest records of the human race. But the wool of va- rious other animals is applied to the same purpose, as of the camel, the lama, and the goat. Wool frequently loses its curling property, and passes into hair. In the warmer regions the fur of sheep is more hairy than in the colder, apparently because a less thick and matted cover- ing is required for the protection of the animals. Hair also is found, and sometimes in large quantity, intermixed with the wool of sheep in cold and temperate countries. This intermixture of hair unfits the wool for many manufactures, and it is a process of art to separate it from the wool. By neglect in the treatment of the animal, the proportion of hair increases ; by care and more complete domestication, the quantity of hair diminishes. The wool of sheep, like the hair of other animals, is periodi- cally renewed, the older hair falling off, and a new growth taking its place. In the case of the sheep, this renewal of the wool usually occurs once in the year, and at the beginning of the warm season. It is at this period that we anticipate the natural pro- cess by shearing or cutting off the external part of the fleece. In some countries the fleece is not shorn, but is pulled off : and in certain conditions of climate and the animal, the wool remains for more than one year. This is especially observed in the Me- rino race. The manner in which the wool is i*enewed seems to he by a fresh growth from the same roots, and by the old portion breaking off. 682 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. Wool, like every kind of hair, grows quickly, when cut. We may shear our sheep, therefore, more than once in the year, and the wool will grow again. But, in this country, it is never thought expedient to shear the wool more than once in the year, and the proper period is always when the old fleece is about to fall off, that is, at the beginning of summer. The precise time is some- what dependent on the condition of the animal. When fat, the wool tends to fall ofl* more early than when the animal is lean. Frequently disease, and especially disease of the skin, causes the animal to lose his fleece. The wool of lambs is sometimes shorn, but this is a practice not to he followed in a cold climate. The sheep of this country ought never to be shorn until the second year of their age. The wool of sheep is sometimes black or brown, and the wool of all the less cultivated animals tends more or less to a dark co- % lour. Some of our sheep, even of superior breeds, have black faces and legs, as the Southdown ; and, in all these breeds, there is a tendency to a mixture of black wool with the white. This is an imperfection in the wool, the black piles not being fitted to receive the dyeing colours. • From notices in ancient writers, there is reason to believe that the former colour of sheep was more frequently black or brown than it now is. But if the least attention were paid to the choice of rams, it is easy to suppose that the white colour would ulti- mately prevail in the domestic sheep of almost all countries ; and, from the earliest times, it would be known that black wool was not fitted to receive those beautiful colours which so much please the taste even of the rudest nations. But, in this country, al- though we have frequently sheep bearing black wool, there is no inducement to propagate the peculiarity in the race, and hence black rams are never used. Wools are distinguished from one another by the length, which is termed the staple of the wool, and by the fineness of the pile or filaments. In this country, the length or staple of the wool is an import- ant distinction, because it is this which, in a great measure, THE SHEEP. 683 fits it for a certain manufacture. When the wool exceeds 3 inches in length, it is termed long wool ; when it falls short of 3 inches, it is termed short wool. The long wool is chiefly ap- plied to the manufacture of worsteds ; the short wool to that of woollen cloths. These two kinds of wool are also distinguished by the peculiar manner in which they are prepared for being spun into thread. The long wool, which is employed for the fabrication of worsteds and other fabrics, is passed in a peculiar manner through combs, with fine steel teeth. The design in this process is to assort and lay together the filaments of the wool somewhat in the same manner as in the case of flax, previous to the process of spinning. That wool may be suited to this operation, it must have a considerable degree of length as well as of strength of pile, so that it shall not be broken when passed between the teeth of the comb. It is the long and stronger avooIs that are usually treated in this manner, and hence the long wools of this country are familiarly termed combing avooIs. The wools, on the other hand, intended for the manufacture of woollen cloths, undergo an entirely different preparation pre- viously to being spun. They are not kept entire and assorted in lengths, but are broken into minute pieces, and mingled together in every direction. This is done by the operation of Avhat is called carding. Upon a board, let it be supposed, Avith a handle attached, is fixed a great number of crooked Avires or teeth bent in one direc- tion. These are partially filled Avith avooI. Another board or card of a similar kind is then pulled, so that its teeth shall pass through amongst the teeth of the other ; and, by the repeated action of these tAvo cards, the Avool'is broken into minute pieces, which, from the crisping or curling property of the avooI, hook themselves together, and, by a peculiar art, are formed into long rolls, or rovels as they are technically called. These rovels, con- sisting thus of the minute and broken parts of the avooI hooked together, are in a state to be spun, and may be said to form the rudimental thread. This is the process termed carding, which on G84 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANlMAJi.S. the great scale is performed by machinery ; and the short and more delicate wools being suited to this process, they are accordingly termed carding wools. We have thus two classes of wool ; the long wool, also termed combing-wool, used for the manufacture of worsteds ; and the short wool, also termed carding- wool, used for the manufacture of cloths. But, by improvements recently made in the machinery for the woollen manufacture, wool that was formerly deemed only suited for carding, may now be prepared by the comb. Thus, the South- down wool, which was entirely appropriated to the card, is now likewise prepared by the comb, and consequently may be employed for a different class of fabrics. On this account, short wool is not now entirely synonymous witli carding -wool, although it may be always prepared by that means. Wool, subjected to the carding process, ought to possess cer- tain qualities, It ought to have that peculiar crisping or curling quality which distinguishes wool from hair, so that when broken into minute pieces, each part may curl at its extremities, and all the parts be hooked together, and form what has been termed the revelling ; 2d, It ought to be free from hairs, for these, not possessing the curling property, will not amalgamate with the other parts, and so will injure the future fabric. Wool ought to be soft to the touch and pliable ; the filament, too, ought to be regular, that is, it ought to be cylindrical, or rather a scarcely perceptible cone from the root to the extremity. Further, it ought to have that peculiar property to which the term felting has been applied. This latter property consists in a tendency in the filaments to unite or adhere when pressed together. We avail ourselves of this property of hair in the manufacture of hats, which are formed of the wool and down of animals. By pressure and moisture, all the parts adhere so closely as to become a compact mass. The same property is applied in the manufacture of cloth, by pressure and moisture, after the cloth is woven, by which means the fila- ments and threads contract, adhei’c closely together, and do not THE SHEEP. ' 685 unravel when cut. This is a property of great estimation in woollen cloth, and certain wools possess more or less of this pro- perty of felting, or cohering together. Woollen threads after being woven into cloths, are subjected to the action of the fulling-mill. The use of this operation, which consists in beating the cloth in water, along with clay, is to free it from the oily matter with which it is mixed. It serves, how- ever, the further purpose of felting the woollen substances, which contract under the operation. The process of felting seems to depend upon the peculiar struc- ture of the filament, from which proceed innumerable minute laminse all round. Though important and necessary in the case of woollen cloths, the property of felting is not so in the case of certain worsted fabrics, as flannel. It is not then desired that the fabric shall contract and cohere like cloth, but that it shall main- tain a certain openness of texture ; and the wool is more or less deprived of its felting property in the combing process.* The properties to be chiefly regarded in wool, then, are, — 1 . The length of the pile, or filaments, Avhich chiefly deter- mines the peculiar species of manufacture to which it is appro- priated : 2. The curling or crisping property : 3. The softness of the wool ; with respect to which it is to be observed, that cer-. tain soils seem to communicate a greater or less degree of hard- ness to the filaments. The Saxon wools are noted for the pro- perty of softness ; in a peculiar degree the Australian ; and. ^ Air Youatt, in his Treatises on the Domestic Animals, contained in the fiih- rary of Useful Knowledge, has shewn that wool is beautifully serrated, the serra- tures rising from the filament in tiers of minute scales all round, somewhat resem- bling leaves. Mr Youatt has further very clearly shewn, that the felting property of wool has a constant relation to the number and form of these lamimc. Thus, on comparing a fibre of the Merino wool of Saxony with that of the Southdown, he found that the former, which is far superior in fineness and felting properties to the latter, was of an inch in diameter, and contained 2720 serratures in the space of an inch ; while the Southdown fibre was part of an inch in diameter, and contained only 2080 serratures in an inch; and further, that the serratures of the Southdown wool w^ere rounder and less acute than those of the Saxon ; and numerous other examples equally conclusive are given of the relation existing hetw'een the number and form of the serratures, and the felting properties of the wool. 686 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. amongst the native wools, the Zetland : 4. The pliability of the filament : 5. The regularity of the filaments, and the absence of hairs : 6. The peculiar property termed felting. Not only are fleeces thus difierent in the quality of their wool, but each fleece contains wool of difierent qualities with respect to fineness. It is the separating of these difierent sorts from one another that constitutes the process of stapling. The stapler divides the wool of the fleece into nine, ten, or more difierent sorts, to each of which he gives appropriate names. The operative part of this process is one of nicety, and to which men are trained, as to the other mechanical arts, by a careful ap- prenticeship. In this country, the stapling or assorting of wool is sometimes performed by the manufacturer, but chiefly by per- sons termed wool-staplers, who . purchase the raw material from the grower, and dispose of it, after it is assorted, to the manu- facturer. The process of stapling is best carried on in districts where the manufactures themselves are established, both because of the superior skill and experience which the workmen there possess, and because of the staplers being thus able to supply the manufacturer with that precise kind of wool which the wants of a present market may require. IV. THE GOAT. Of the species of the genus Capra enumerated by naturalists, that which is supposed to give origin to the greater number of the domesticated races, is Capra aegagrus — The Wild Goat. The goat appears to form the connecting link between the sheep on the one hand, and the antelope tribes on the other. It is a lively creature, full of seeming caprice in its motions, and, although fitted for a life of liberty, yet easily domesticated, and becoming attached to its protectors. It is the natural inhabitant of a mountainous region ; it delights to stand on the summits of rocks ; it climbs the steepest ascents with ease, and in springing THE GOAT. 687 from crag to crag, alights securely on the very verge of the pre- cipice. Its feet, viiich are hollowed out, and have sharp edges, are nicely suited to this condition of life. It is not fond of feed- ing on the herbage of plains, but deserts them to browse on the heaths, shrubs, the wild thyme, and other plants of the moun- tains. It is not well adapted to a country of enclosures, because it browses upon the twigs of hedges, and escapes over the barriers intended to confine it. It is in wild rocky countries, therefore, that the goat is chiefly reared ; but often it is domesticated in the plains for the pro- duction of milk, for which the female goat is eminently adapted. She gives a great quantity of milk for so small a creature, and that rich, nourishing, and light. Like the cow, she yields it freely to the hand, and for a long time. She is readily taught to suckle the young of other animals, and becomes attached to her adopted offspring. She feeds readily in situations where the cow could not subsist, and that is a quality which gives a high value to the goat in many countries. But in this island, the cultivation of the goat is limited and partial. It is chiefly confined to the mountainous parts of Wales, to parts of the remoter Highlands of Scotland, and to the little farms of the poorer peasants of Ireland, whose scanty possessions will not support a cow. In such a case as the last, the goat is a valuable creature, being easily and quickly reared to maturity, and feeding on herbs which other animals would reject. The great objection to the rearing of the goat in this country is the want of demand for its flesh. Even the kid, whose flesh is known to be so delicate and nourishing, is in no estimation amongst us, and hence all the other properties of the goat are insufficient to render it an object of profitable production. But the goat, although it never can be so valuable here as in the dry and rocky countries of the south of Europe, does not deserve that entire neglect with which it is treated. It arrives early at maturity, and is very prolific, bearing two and sometimes three kids at a birth. It does not produce wool, but its hair may bo shorn, and is of some little value ; and its skin, and especially G8S REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. tliat of tlie kid, is in demand. It browses on heaths, and on plants rejected by other animals ; and thus might, in certain situations, be fed in addition to other flocks, without injuring the herbage. The flesh of the old goat is indeed tough and strong-tasted, but it may be salted, and dried like bacon, as in Wales ; and with respect to the flesh of the kid, this is not sur- passed by that of the finest lamb. The goat, therefore, might certainly form an addition to the comforts of the cottagers of this and other parts of Europe, by supplying them with cheap food and milk. V. THE HOG. 1. Species and Varieties. Of the Hog tribe, various species exist in the wild state. That which is believed to be the parent stock of the common domestic hog and its varieties, is, Sus aper — The Wild Hog. The wild hog is a bold and powerful animal, found in Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Islands of the Eastern Seas. He dwells for the most part in moist and shady situations, and he feeds chiefly on plants and roots. In a state of nature his senses are acute, his ears very moveable, and his touch and smell so delicate, as to lead him to his food below ground, which he grubs up with his strong and flexible trunk, and this faculty he retains when in a state of slavery. The female carries her young about four months, and she is rarely seen with the males but in the rutting season. She suckles her young for several months, and retains them near her for a considerable time afterwards, to defend them. When assailed, she protects her offspring with amazing courage, and the young reward her cares by a long attachment. She is sometimes seen to be followed by several families, forming a troop, formidable to their assailants, and destructive, by their ravages, to the culti- THE HOG. 689 vated fields. A remarkable contrast with the long cares of the female is the solitary habit of the adult male, who will even, at their birth, destroy his OAvn young — a singular instinct of nature, given to him as well as to some other animals. Although the domestic hog loses many of the characters of the wild race, he retains enough of them to prove the affinity ; and all question upon the subject of his origin is removed by the change produced upon the progeny of the wild hog by domesti- cation. One of the most remarkable circumstances in the history of the domestic hog is, his general distribution over so many countries and distant islands, where no trace of any wild animal of the spe- cies exists in record or tradition. He exists in vast numbers in China and the islands of the East. He was found extensively in the islands of the South Sea, when first visited by European voyagers, furnishing the principal animal food of the natives ; though it is believed by many naturalists that, of the hogs found in the Asiatic and Polynesian islands, some are derived from a source distinct from the Siis aper. The common hog is not in- digenous to America, but was carried thither by the Spaniards ; and he was not found amongst the quadrupeds of New Holland, though he has now multiplied greatly jthere. This universal dif- fusion he seems to owe to his extraordinary fecundity, his adap- tation to every climate, and the facility with which he may be transported from one place to another. The hog, though chiefly herbivorous in his natural state, may be fed equally well on animal food. It is this Avhich renders him the most easily and cheaply reared of all the domestic qua- drupeds. Like the horse, the ox, and the sheep, the hog is affected in his character, size, and form, by the physical state of the countries in which he is naturalized. But he is more the creature of arti- ficial feeding than the sheep, the ox, or the horse; and hence his size and other characters are not so much dependent on the na- ture of the country in which he is reared. To the variations pro- duced on him by external causes, we apply, as in the case of other 2 X (590 REAHING AND FEEDINO OF ANIMAl^S. animals, the term breeds. But almost all the breeds of this country have been modified more or less by admixture with the races of other countries, as with those of Spain and other parts of the Mediterranean, with those of Africa, hut above all with the Siamese race of the East. The Siamese breed has the skin of a rich copper colour, but, like all the domesticated animals, the colour varies with different conditions of climate, food, and culture. Of tliis widely extended race are the varieties commonly termed Chinese, of which great numbers have been introduced into Eng- land. They are frequently black or brown like the parent stock, hut often white. They are for the most part less than the com- mon swine of Europe, but they are distinguished by their pecu- liar aptitude to fatten. Their hones are small, their limbs short, their ears erect, their skin and bristles soft, and their general aspect is delicate. The introduction of this race has insensibly produced a great change in the character of all the breeds of this country. It has been made to cross the greater number of them. It has dimi- nished the size, but removed the former coarseness of form, and increased the aptitude to fatten. The pure breed is little culti- vated, and it is through the medium, therefore, of its crosses with the native stock, that its value is chiefly known. In this respect, the introduction of the Eastern hog into England has been sin- gularly beneficial. The varieties which may be called native in the British Islands may be divided into two general classes. 1st, Those which are of small size, and have the ears erect or suberect; and, 2d, Those of larger size, which have the ears more or less pendent. Of the first class are those of the Highlands of Scotland and some other mountainous districts: of the second, the larger swine of the lower country. The native breeds of the Highlands and Islands of Scotland are of small size, of a dnn colour, with erect ears, rounded back, low shoulders, and with coarse bristles along the spine. They resemble the wild hog in their general form. They are usually THE HOG. 691 left to search for their own food ; and they will graze on the hills like sheep, and find tlieir way to the shore on the ebbing of the tide, to feed on sea- weeds. They are far inferior to the improved varieties of the lower country ; but they fatten, when supplied with proper food, more readily than their rough exterior would indicate. The Old English Breed may be held to be the type of the larger swine of England. It is distinguished by its great size, its lank form, and its pendent ears. Remnants of this unimproved race are yet to be found, but for the most part they have given place to the more improved varieties. Although of defective form and slow in fattening, the females are admirable nurses of their young : and when crossed by improved males, as the Berkshire, they pro- duce a progeny possessing the aptitude to fatten of the male parent, with the large size of the dam. The Berkshire was the earliest improved of the breeds of Eng- land, and is now the most generally diffused of all others. It has been formed by a mixture of the blood of the Eastern hog with the ancient swine of the country. The great improver of this breed was Mr Astley of Oldstonehall. The modern Berkshire, however, is of less size than the older breed ; but still the animals are usually of the larger class of swine. Their common colour is a reddish-brown, with dark spots; but many of the modern breed are merely black, manifesting their approach to the Sia- mese character ; and sometimes they are black, broken with white, indicating the effects of the cross of the White Chinese. The Berkshire is justly regarded as one of the superior breeds of England, combining good size, with aptitude ta fatten ; and their flesh is fitted for pork or bacon. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, and other eastern counties, there are breeds of a large size, of a white colour, and with pendent ears. They have been all more or less affected in their size and characters by crossing. A variety termed the Suffolk, is so named from the county of Suffolk, which has long produced great quan- tities of pork, chiefly for the supply of London. The Suffolk hogs have been crossed again and again with the Chinese, or de- 692 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. scendants of Chinese crosses, so as to reduce tlie size for the pur- pose of suiting the taste of the consumers. The Essex breed has tlie same general characters as the Suffolk; but generally with thinner skins, and bristles approaching more to hair. The same system of crossing has been applied to all the for- mer breeds of England, as the Rudgewick, the Cheshire, the Shropshire, so that the characters applied to these varieties by former breeders can scarcely be now traced in the progeny. Varieties have been frequently introduced from the countries of the Mediterranean, and been preserved for a longer or shorter time free from intermixture. One of these, the Maltese, was at one time in considerable favour. It is of small size, of a black colour, and nearly destitute of bristles. Another more recently introduced is the Neapolitan. The animals are of small size, of a round and delicate form : their skins are of a coal-black colour, and at the first introduction they are almost destitute of bristles ; but when several times bred in England the bristles come. They have a great aptitude to fatten, and have on this account been re- ceived with favour ; and they produce good crosses with the native stock. In Scotland there are various mixed kinds. On the east coast the farmers prefer the small and kindly fattening hogs ; on the west coast, where the dairy prevails, and the curing of bacon is established, they prefer the larger breeds. In Ireland vast quan- tities of swine are reared, which used to be of a large size and coarse form. But within the space of a few years, a prodigious improvement has taken place in this part of the live-stock of Ire- land. This has been effected chiefly by the introduction of im- proved males of the best English breeds, as the Berkshire and the Suffolk. 2. Form. The same external characters indicate, in the hog, a disposition to flitten, as in the other live-stock ; and there is no other animal THE HOG. 693 which can he made by cultivation to present so great a combina- tion of tliese characters, or which can be so easily improved in its form, from the facility with which it receives the characters of its parents, and from its rapid powers of increase. The chest should be deep and broad, the ribs largely arched, the neck short, and the head and limbs small ; the bristles should be soft, approach- ing to hair, and the skin soft and elastic. 3. Rearing and Feeding. The sow goes with young 112 days. She is fit to receive the male in the first year of her age, and the latter is able to propa- gate his species at the same early period, but he should be tw^elve months old before he is admitted to the female. The female produces from five to ten or more at a birth, and she can easily be made to produce and rear two litters in the year ; and she may even rear five in two years. She is ready to receive the male soon after the birth of her young ; but the time should be chosen which allows her to produce her litter at the most convenient season. Thus, if she is to be made to litter twice in one year, the first should, if possible, be produced about the beginning of February, and the second about the beginning of August, so that the last litter may gain full strength before the arrival of cold weather. When the sow is with young, slie should not be wholly con- fined to a jien, but be siiftered to walk at large in a yard or other convenient place ; care being taken that, as the time of producing her young draws on, she shall not be crowded witb others, lest she be injured by their feet. The time when slie is about to produce her littei* will be known by her carrying straw in her mouth to make her bed. Before this, however, she should have been separated fi’om her lellows and carefully littered. The straw should be short, and not in too great quantity, lest the pigs, nestling beneath it unperceived by the dam, be crushed by her when she lies down. 694 REARING AND FP^EDING OF ANIMALS. While nursing, she should be well fed, and the pigs accustomed to feed from a trough on milk, whey, or any liquid food, mixed with a little meal or bran. In 30 days the males may be cas- trated, and a like operation, though not absolutely necessary, may be performed upon the females at the same time. During the period of nursing, the dam and her young should be lodged dry and warm. They should be fed three times in the day with whey, milk, and a little water slightly warm, mixed with bran, meal, or any farinaceous substance, and when the pigs are in the course of feeding from the troughs, the mother may be al- lowed to go at large for an hour or two. In six weeks, if they are Avell fed, the pigs may be weaned, but should they not have been well fed, eight weeks will be required. When weaned, they are to be fed three times a-day with wheat- bran, barley-dust, or any farinaceous food, mixed with water warmed to the temperature of the mother’s milk, and with whey^ or other refuse of the dairy or the kitchen. In a few weeks they will begin to eat potatoes, turnips, and all other food. The young pigs are sometimes disposed of when sucking the dam. In other cases they are sold when Aveaned to persons Avho design to fatten them ; and in other cases they are fattened by the breeder himself. When they are fattened by the breeder, two modes of feeding may be adopted. They may either be sulFered to go at large, or they may be kept in pens and houses. By the first of these methods, after being weaned and fed for a period till they are able to shift for themselves, they are turned abroad to pick up what they can in the straAv-yards, a little green food, as tares or clover during summer, and turnips or potatoes during winter, being supplied to t]iem. They do not, under this management, receive any more expensive feeding until they are put up finally to be fattened, AA’hen they are conhned for a fcAv Aveeks, and fed on farinaceous and other food. The pigs intended for this spe- cies of management should be the best of the smaller varieties ; and they may be killed for domestic use, or disposed of Avhen of 7 or 8 stones Aveight. All the accommodation required under THE HOG. 695 tliis system of mcinagement, is a foAV pens with sheds ; first, for the breeding sows wlien nursing their young; and secondly, for the p*igs Avhich are in the course of being fattened. In all cases upon a farm, a certain number of pigs may be kept at large in this manner for picking up the waste of the farm-yards. But the regular course of management, and that to be adopted Adhere the feeding of the animals is carried on on the larger scale, is to have separate feeding-houses for the pigs, in which a greater or lesser number can be kept. The same general principle of feeding applies to the hog as to the other domestic animals. The breeding stock is to be kept in good order, but not over-fed ; the fattening stock is to receive a full alloAvance of good food from the period of Aveaning until it is fat. The food of the pigs is eA^ery kind of animal refuse, as that of the dairy and kitchen. Roots of any kind, raAV and boiled, Avill be eaten by them ; but it is better tliat this species of food be boiled or steamed. Bran, steamed or boiled, is likeAvise a nourish- ing food for pigs ; beans and pease bruised may be also giA^en to them ; and breAvers’ grain and wash furnish one of the best kinds of food that can be supplied. Hay or dried fodder is not relished by this class of animals ; they require food of a moist and suc- culent kind, and, therefore, though they dislike dried forage, they Avill not refuse hay, and even straAv, if chop})ed and boiled. Tliey feed on green food of all kinds ; and hence clover, lucerne, and tares, may be employed in feeding them in summer, though to fatten them finally, some farinaceous or other nourishing food Avill be required. They Avill also graze like sheep or oxen ; but grass consumed in this manner is not the natural food of the animal, Avhich consists of roots rather than of herbage. The feeding of pigs on herbage, is merely to carry them on for a time till more fattening food can be procured for them. When fed on herbage, a ring must be passed through the cartilage of the nose, to prevent their folloAving their natural instinct of ploughing up the ground ; but the same purpose may be more effectually served, by dividing the tendons by Avhicli they arc enabled to more tlie 696 REARING AND FEEDING OF ANIMALS. snout. Acorns and beech-mast are a favourite food of the hog, but these are rarely furnished in sufficient quantity for the pur- pose of feeding ; though in cases where there is access to woods producing these fruits, hogs may be turned into forests with advantage. All kinds of spoiled or waste fruits may be given to them ; and in the cider districts, accordingly, the refuse of the cider-press is employed for feeding them. In short, the animal is omnivorous, and there is not any species of animal or vege- table food which may not be given ; and in the case of no other of the larger animals, accordingly, is the process of feeding so simple. Pigs ought to be fed three times in the day, and the troughs in which the food is placed should be emptied before a fresh sup- ply is given, and kept perfectly clean. It is well to vary their food, to mix it with Avater or other liquid, and not to overload them too much at a time. It is a great error to leave these ani- mals in a state of filth and neglect. The hog is not a filthy ani- mal by choice ; he delights in a clean bed ; he Avill wallow in- deed in the mire, like the elephant, the rhinoceros, and other pachydermatous or thick-skinned animals to Avhich he belongs ; but this is not because he prefers filth, but because he Ioats coolness and moisture. There are tAvo purposes for Avhich pigs may be fattened. The one is to yield pork, which may be used either fresh, salted, or pickled ; and the other is to produce bacon, Avhich is prepared by salting and drying the flesh. When fed for pork, AAdiich is the most convenient system in the practice of the farm, the pigs may be reared to the age of six or eight months ; Avhen intended for bacon, they must be reared to a greater age and size, as ten or twelve months. When the object is pork, the smaller class of early-fattening pigs is to be preferred ; Avhen bacon is desired, the larger class 'should be cultivated. In the case of feeding for pork alone, it has been computed that, upon a regular farm, Avith a supply of tares and clovers to the animals in summer, and of potatoes and turnips in winter, and Avith no other feeding than the refuse of the barn, milkhouse, and THE HOG. (^97 kitchen, one pig may be fattened in the year for every six acres of land under corn-crop. Thus, supposing there are to be 240 acres in corn-crop, the quantity of pigs fed annually upon the farm might be forty. To fatten this stock, in addition to Avhat they can pick up in the straw-yards, about an acre and a quarter of clover, and an equal quantity of potates during winter, will be sufficient. To keep up the number, three breeding-sows will be required, of which two should be sold in each year, their place being supplied by an equal number of younger ones reared upon the ffirm. The surplus beyond the quantity of forty, which it is proposed to feed, may be disposed of when weaned. This is a method of management practicable upon ordinary farms, without any interference whatever with the food and attention required for the large stock. Another method of management may be adopted. This is to take only one litter of pigs. from each sow, to sell the pigs as soon as they are weaned, and immediately afterwards to fatten the sows. This will be a very profitable species of management, provided there is a sufficient demand in the district for so many pigs when weaned. Pigs, it has been said, may either be used for pork, fresh, salted, or pickled, Avhen they will be ready in six or eight months, or for bacon, when they will be ready in ten or twelve months. In the case of pickling pork, the carcase is to be cut in pieces, and may be packed in kits containing from 1 to 2 cwt. Salt is then dissolved in water, so as to form a strong brine, and this being boiled, is cooled again and poured upon the pork so as to cover it. This simple process prepares the pork for market; so that the preparation of it may ])e carried on with the greatest facility upon the premises of the farmer. When the animals are designed for bacon, the operation is per- formed by cutting the body so as to separate the hams or legs from the ditches or sides, the body for this purpose being cut first along the back-bone and then transversely. The hams and flitches are then laid on boards, sprinkled with salti)etre, and ^ lirown on Rural Affairs. 698 REARING AND FEEDING OP ANIMALS. covered with salt. They are then separately salted again, and at length put in a chimney or smoke-house to dry. The proper period for curing bacon is in the cold months, namely, from tlie middle of September to the middle of April. Private families in the country may supply themselves with fresh or pickled pork by very easy means : — Let a good sow be procured of the early-fattening kinds, as the Berkshire or Chinese cross. This sow will produce from fifteen to twenty pigs every year, and these pigs may be rendered sufficiently fat for domestic use when four or five months old. It Is unnecessary to keep a male, if one amongst the neighbouring farmers of the same breed is to be found. Let a small house be formed sufficient to hold two pigs at once, and for convenience as near the kitchen as possible. Let a pig be killed every three weeks, the oldest being taken first, and his place being supplied by another. With at- tention the animal will be ready in six weeks after being put up. In this manner a family may be supplied with fresh and pickled pork plentifully throughout the whole year, and at a very small expense. During the hot months the pork may be pickled in a cold cellar in a manner sufficient for household use ; or a portion, if wished, may be converted into small hams like those of AVest- phalia.* When we regard the number of mankind fed upon the flesh of this animal, it must be seen that he occupies an important place in the domestic economy of countries. His flesh is perfectly nu- tritive, and, from its ready reception of salt, it is better fitted for preservation than that of any other animal. It is thus eminently adapted for sea-voyages, for which purpose it is largely used. It forms a great part of the animal food of the labouring classes of Europe. The hog is truly the poor man’s stock, since it may be raised by the cottager as well as by the breeder on the larger scale. There is no animal which, in proportion to the food consumed, yields so great a quantity of muscle and fat. Ilis flesh, indeed, Henderson on Swine, THE RABBIT. 699 may not be so profitable as that of the sheep and ox ; but this arises from the facility of production, and the consequent ten- dency of the market to be overstocked. To the settler in a new country, the hog is the most valuable of all the larger domestic animals used as food. He is beyond every other quickly multiplied, reared, and brought to the required ma- turity. The clearers of land in the American forests could hardly subsist during their first year of labour and danger without this creature. And in our own country it is a great error for a farmer, how- ever extended his own concerns may be, to disregard this branch of farm-stock; it is to him a source of household economy and com- fort. He can raise the most delicate pork for use at all times, and with the greatest facility ; and will always derive a sufficient profit by the sale of the remainder, to repay him for his feeding, and induce him to give attention to this branch of economy. VI. THE RABBIT. Of the genus Lepm, the species to which the term Rabbit is usually applied are : — 1. Lepus cuniculus — The Common Rabbit. 2. Lepus tolai — The Siberian Rabbit. 3. Lepus americanus — The American Rabbit. That wliicli forms the subject of cultivation in tlie north of Em’ope is the Common Rabbit. The rabbit is a subject of considerable attention in some coun- tries. It is reared partly for its fur, which is employed chiefly in the manufacture of hats, and partly for its flesh. It is a won- asses of sheep and other animals, as the live-fence Fig. 217. FENCES. 727 frequently is in tlie early stages of its growth ; and that it occu- pies little room, and does not injure the growing crops, by har- bouring birds and other animals. For these reasons, there are many cases in which the stone-wall is the best species of fence. It is in an especial degree suited to an elevated country. No- thing, indeed, is more to be desired in such a country than to ob- tain shelter ; and live-fences, where they can be reared, afford a certain degree of shelter, by breaking the force of winds. But as live-fences grow for the most part feebly in very elevated situa- tions, they there perform but imperfectly the purposes of shel- ter. In such cases, shelter is better obtained by the planting of wood, which is superior to fences in affording the means of im- proving the climate of a bleak country. But, again, the live-fence, accompanied with ditches, has its advantages in the situations where it can be reared. Not to speak of it as an object of beauty, in which it far surpasses the stone-wall, it affords shelter, and, in combination with the ditch, the means of carrying off water from the ground. For this kind of fence, different plants of the Bose family are employed. These are armed with sharp spines, and, branching out in innumerable directions, form dense bushes. Of these plants, the most esteemed is Cratmgus Oxyacaniha^ the Haw- thorn. The hawthorn is easily produced from the seeds of its fruit or haw. It is best raised in the nursery, and, after being two years transplanted from the seed-bed, in the manner of forest-trees, planted in the line of the fence. The ground upon which thorns are to be planted, should un- dergo a complete preparation by deep ploughing, or trenching with the spade, and by a thorough manuring. Attention to this preparation is very important, and will, in many cases, constitute the difference between success and failure in forming a thorn- fence. When the ground is tolerably full of vegetable matter, lime may be used as a manure. But where the soil is poor, both lime and dung should be employed, and it is generally advantage- ous to apply them twelve months or more before the thorns are planted. 728 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. Having fixed upon the line of the fence, it may be laid off by means of poles, like the ridges of a field, and marked upon the ground. The instruments used in the practical operation are a common reel and line, like that of gardeners, and a rod of wood of about 6 feet in length, divided into feet and inches, with a piece of wood fixed at right angles to the end of it, so as to measure off with facility the breadth of the ditch, in a direction perpendicular to the line laid down. The instruments for work- ing are a common spade, a narrow-pointed shovel, a common mat- tock, and a foot-pick. The line of the side of the ditch along which the thorns are to be set, being marked out by the rod and line, and notched by the spade, the workman takes off a part of the earth from the surface of the intended ditch, and lays it along the future line of thorns, this earth being generally laid a few inches back from the notched line, so as to leave what is called a scarcement ; or, if there be sward, a row of sods are in like manner to be laid a few inches back from the notched line, with their grassy sides under- most. He then beats down the earth or sods thus laid with his spade, so as that the outer surface shall be in the line of the future mound, and sloping a little backwards in the manner shewn in the following figure, so that they shall be highest next the ditch. It is upon the row of earth or sods thus placed, technically termed the thorn-bed, that the thorns to be planted are laid. A further portion of the surface of the ditch is then stript off, and thrown behind the thorn-bed. The thorn plants have, in the mean time, been prepared in the following manner : — Each plant, with its roots and fibres as taken out of the ground, is grasped by one hand, while, with a sharp knife, the stem is cut through by a cut inclining upwards, so as to leave, exclusive of the root, about 8 inches of the stem. The plants being thus prepared, may be put in the earth again until they are ready to be planted. This is done that they may be protected from frost, for the process of planting being performed in winter, every precaution is to be employed to prevent the young plants from being injured. FENCES. 729 When a sufficient space of ground is ready for being planted, the plants are to be placed firmly upon the thorn-bed, so that, when the mound is made, they may project a very little beyond the surface, or rather just reach it. The distance at which they may be planted from one another, may be about 8 inches. While one or more persons are employed in laying the thorns, another is to shovel up from the ditch the loose mould immediately next the surface, and place it upon the stems of the plants. This earth being compressed by the foot, the plants will be firmly fixed in their position, and so covered as to be out of the reach of danger from frost. A section‘of the bank will appear at this stage of the process, as in Fig. 219. Fig. 219. A considerable portion being done in this manner, the ditch is to be cleared out to its fulf depth, and the earth thrown upon the bank. The mound is then to be rounded at top, and beaten all around by the shovel. A transverse section of the work when finished will appear as in Fig. 220. Fig. 220. 730 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. This completes the formation of the hedge and ditch. The ditch should he narrowed to a spade-breadth at bottom, and the sides made to slope at an angle of 45°. The mound will occupy a somewhat larger space than the breadth of the ditch. The ditch must be so laid out and formed, as to permit the descent of water. Where there are slight inequalities, it must be made deeper at one part than another, and if necessary, the earth must be wheeled away from the part where the ditch is deep, to make up the mound where the ditch is shallow ; and sometimes, in the case of passing a hollow place, the water must be carried away by a drain, cut through the mound and underneath the thorns into the adjoining field. It is a very common practice in making the ditch and hedge, to leave a scarcement or little space between the thorns and the edge of the ditch ; but some do not approve of this scarcement, conceiving it to be unnecessary, and to favour the growth of weeds. The advantage, however, of leaving the scarcement is, that it tends to prevent the earth from falling down into the ditch, and leaving the roots of the plants exposed. The proper time for performing the operation of planting, is from October to the beginning of March, that is, during the pe- riod when vegetation is inert. Following the practice that has been described, failure will be rare, except in situations entirely unsuited to the growth of the thorn. The plant, it will be seen, is set on a mould in the manner best suited to favour its growth : and the stem being laid nearly horizontal and covered with earth, it shoots forth fibres at every part, and becomes itself a root. In place of one mound and ditch formed in the manner de- scribed, two ditches are sometimes formed, with a mound between, and two rows of thorns. This kind of fence, however, is only mentioned that it may be condemned. It occupies more room than the single mound, creates nearly double the expense of ma- nagement, and is not so favourable to the growth of thorns. The only case in which a double row of thorns and ditch of this kind FENCES. 731 should be formed, is in hollows, where two ditches are required for carrying oft’ water. The fence, then, as described, is a mere bank of earth with a ditch, which animals can pass over. In its first stage, it forms of itself a feeble barrier, and is subject to be destroyed by ani- mals passing over it. It must, therefore, be defended until it becomes an efiectual barrier ; and this is done by means of rails or paling. Paling consists of horizontal rails, nailed to posts or stakes, placed vertically, and driven into the ground. It may be made with either two or three horizontal rails. The latter nnmber is preferable, and necessary where sheep are feeding. The rails are formed either of sawed or split wood. When the trees are small, they may be split, but when they are of sufficient size they should be sawed. Wild pine, spruce, larch, or any other of the fir or pine kinds, will answer ; and the quantity of these trees in all parts of the country is now so great, that they can be everywhere obtained with facility, and at a low price. Of the same material the stakes are formed. These are made about feet long, and sharpened to a point. They are driven into the ground with a mall to the depth of about 15 inches, and set at the distance of 5 or 6 feet from one another. The hori- zontal rails are attached to them by stout nails. Another species of temporary fence, which may sometimes supply the place of paling, is formed in the following manner : — Posts or stakes, as for paling, are driven into the ground, and branches of trees, or brushwood of any kind, are warped or wattled round the stakes. The but-ends of these branches are placed upon the ground in warping them, and an inclination is given to them as in the figure. A light spar along the top will render this species of fence very complete. It will last as long as paling, and is more economical, since the bushes and branches are of little value. 732 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. One set of paling will generally last sufficiently long to allow the fence to attain to the necessary height and strength. It is to ensure this that the paling should not be put up sooner than is really required ; so that, if the land be under a course of til- lage, the paling need not be put up until it is again laid down to grass. The rails for the protection of the fence may be placed upon the top of the mound. This forms an effectual barrier, in so far as it prevents animals from passing over ; but it does not pre- vent animals that may be pasturing on the thorn side of the field from reaching the young plants. They will rarely, indeed, do much injury, unless they pass over ; but all injury may be guarded against, by placing a row of paling along the edge of the ditch itself, so as to prevent access to it. In this way, indeed, there are two rows of paling, which increases the expense ; but these rows need not in this case have each more than two bars, and if it is important to rear an efficient fence, without the risk of fail- ure, it may be better to do the work in this manner. For the most part, however, when there is a good ditch, one row of paling of three bars on the top of the mound will be found suf- ficient. The hedge, mound, and ditch being formed, there is next to be considered the manner of managing the fence. The implements required for this purpose are, first, those for weeding, and, second- ly, those for cutting or lopping the branches or twigs. For the first of these purposes, that of weeding, a simple instru- ment will suffice, namely, a small spade, usually termed a hedge- spade, with a handle about 3w feet long, and a blade about 5 inches broad (Fig. 224). The instruments used for lopping or cutting may be three : The first is a slightly bent knife fixed to a handle, for cutting off the ends of the twigs or branches by an upward stroke (Fig. 223) ; or in place of this may be employed shears ; but the knife is equally efficient, and more expeditious. The next instrument is one of the same form, but of greater FENCES. 733 weight, and with a shorter and more slightly curved blade (Fig. 222). This instrument may weigh about 6 lb. ; it is employed for cutting through the stems of thorns. The other instrument is a light axe, which is employed for the same purpose. Fig. 222. Fig. 223. Fig. 224. The first object of attention, after the thorns are set, is the young plants, which, we have seen, have been buried in the ground, with one end just projecting to the surface. These will generally pass through to the day when they have begun to grow ; but should they not be able to make their way through, the earth is to be gently stirred with the hand or a stick, so as to open a way for them, taking care, however, not to rub olf any of the buds. During the first year of their growth, the plants will require little cleaning, and no pruning. Should weeds, however, spring up in quantity in the first year, they must be hoed down. The manner of hoeing is simple : The hedger, with his small spade, stands in the ditch, and with light horizontal strokes cuts down the weeds about the thorns. He may also, if necessary, pro- ceed along the top of the mound, and, working downwards, cut such weeds as he may not be able to reach from below. After this, the same process of cleaning should be performed at least once every year, and generally twice. The work may be done at any period in the year when the weeds are growing ; but when the fences are young, it is a good rule to perform the operation before the weeds rise in summer amongst the twigs of thorns. 734 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. The weeds that infest hedges are grasses of different kinds, of Avhich the most troublesome and difficult to be extirpated is couch- grass. Other plants, as docks of different kinds, thistles, and chiefly the way-thistle, chick-weed, and dead-nettle, goose-grass, common rest-harrow, wild mustard, tufted vetch, and many others, form the common weeds of hedges. The other process in the management of the hedge is that of pruning. This is intended to cause the plants to grow bushy and thick, so as to form a barrier to animals. It is simply per- formed by means of the light knife (Fig. 223). During the first year of the growth of the hedge, it will require, it has been said, no pruning ; the second year, after the fall of the leaf, pruning may be begun ; and it is to be observed, that in all cases of pruning, the proper season is when vegetation is inert. Fig. 225. and not when the sap is ascending. The thorns at this stage are to be pruned lightly, Avith an upward stroke of the knife, a small portion also of the shoots of the top being lopped off. The same process is to be annually repeated, keeping the Avhole nari-oAv at top, broad near the bottom, and inclined from the bottom up- wards in the manner shewn in Fig. 225. When the thorns, under this system of yearly lopping the lateral branches, and slightly cropping the top, have reached the height of 4 or 5 feet, two methods of management may be adopted. Either the whole may be allowed to grow to the height to Avhich FENCES. 735 it will naturally grow, the only further pruning being to cut oft' such of the lateral branches as are overshadowing those beneath ; or the process of pruning may be continued yearly, so as to keep the hedge at the proper height, namely, 4 or 5 feet. This, then, is the simple management of the thorn fence : — It is, or ought to be, every year weeded once or twice ; and it is to be regularly pruned, so as to render it bushy, until it gets to a certain height, when it may either be allowed to grow up to its full size without further pruning, or be kept by an annual pruning at a uniform height. The former method is sufficient with the fences of a farm, but the latter makes the neater and more bushy fence, although it is the more expensive. Under this management, the fence will continue vigorous for a long period. But when at length, from any cause, it gets thin at the root, or shews symptoms of feeble growth, or when, having reached its natural size, the lower lateral branches begin to fall off, a simple method of renewing it is to be practised. In this case, the whole thorns are to be cut down to within a few inches of the ground, employing either the heavy cutting- knife (Fig. 222), or, when the stems are very strong, the axe. In employing the cutting-knife, the hedger stands in the ditch with his right hand towards the thorns, and cuts upwards with a back stroke with his right hand. The stroke must in all cases be made obliquely upwards, and not downwards ; for the effect of the latter method would be to shatter the lower part of the stem, and subject it to injury from wetness. When the axe, instead of the knife, is used, the workman stands in a different position. His left hand is now next the hedge, and he uses both hands in cut- ting; the stroke, however, as before, being made obliquely up- wards. But it is only when the stems are very thick and old, that the knife will not effect the purpose. When the thorns are thus felled to within a few inches of their roots, the ground around the stems is to be carefully cleaned by digging; and the further operation to be performed is to clean out the ditch, and replace before and around the thorns the earth which had been drawn into the ditch by continued weeding. The 736 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. stocks of the thorns will now he nearly covered to the top. Fig. 226 shews the state of the fence before the ditch is cleaned out ; and Fig. 227 when the operation is completed. Fig. 226. In a very short time after this operation, shoots will spring from the old stems with vigour, and thus the fence will be re- stored, when it will appear as in Fig. 228. There may be cases. Fig. 228. indeed, in which shoots will not^spring from the old stocks. This indicates that the hedge has lived its natural term, and is the ir- remediable effect of age ; but in all cases in which the hedge pos- sesses sufficient vigour, this method of renewing it will be attend- ed with the effects desired. And in cases in which a thorc hedge is seen to have suffered FENCES. 737 from previous neglect, this simple mean may be employed to re- store it. In this case, also, the opportunity is taken to till up blank spaces in the line of the thorns. For this purpose, the earth in the blank spaces should be completely taken out, and the spaces filled with fresh soil ; and in place of the hawthorn, the crab may be planted, as being better calculated to succeed under such circumstances. Instead of planting new thorns to fill up a blank, a practice sometimes resorted to is, in the second year after the new shoots have sprung up, to take one of them on each side of the gap, and, bending them down, to fix them with a crooked stick, to the ground, in the manner practised by gar- Fig. 229. deners. Some earth being then laid upon the twigs, they will soon spring up and fill the interval of the gap, espe- cially if the earth of the gap has been filled with new soil, well dun^d and limed. A gap renewed in this manner will appear as in the figure. When hedges are lopped down to the ground in the manner described, they must be protected until the new shoots have at- tained a certain size, as in the case of new fences. But it is not usually necessary to have recourse to paling, because the thorns cut down furnish themselves material for forming a sufficient fence, termed a dead hedge. A dead hedge is thus formed : — The workman cuts the stems of the thorns into lengths of three or four feet. He forms bundles of these, mixing with them the smaller twigs, and compressing them so that they shall adhere together. Another person with a spade, working on the line which the dead hedge is to occupy, takes up a sod or spadeful of earth ; and a bundle of twigs being handed to him, he places the but-end of the bundle in the hole made by the spade, and leaning against the earth thrown out. He then lifts another sod or spadeful of earth, and places it upon the but-end of the first bundle, compressing it firmly with liis foot; and in this manner he forms the line of the fence. The 3 A 738 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. fence, when finished, appears as in the figure; and a proper situation for it is on the mound immediately behind the thorns. The plant which has been especially referred to as calculated for the hedge, is the hawthorn. But there are two other plants, similar in appearance, which are sometimes cultivated, either separately or intermixed with the hawthorn. These are, Prunus spinosa^’^ the Sloe, and Pyrus acerha, the Wild Apple or Crab. Both of these plants grow readily, and bear cutting ; but they are not so well suited for cultivation for hedge-plants as the haw- thorn. A plant sometimes cultivated for hedges, though destitute of spines, which so particularly fit the hawthorn for its purpose, is the Beech, Fagus sylvatica, which forms a tolerably good fence, from the mass of twigs which it sends forth when it is restrained in its upward or lateral growth by pruning. The Hornbeam, too, Carpinus Betulus, is equally well suited for the hedge as the beech, and is sometimes cultivated for that purpose. The properties which fit the beech and the hornbeam for the hedge are, the facility with which they can be produced, the man- ner in which they bear pruning, and their fitness to grow on land somewhat low in the scale of fertility. Sometimes the beech is mixed with thorns, every second or third plant being a beech. Good fences may be produced in this way, but, in general, the simple thorn is the best defence against cattle, and an inter- mixture of other trees and shrubs injures its utility. The beech and the hawthorn being of irregular growth, and the beech the most rapid, the latter tends to prevent the growth of the thorns, and often extirpates them altogether. The Alder and the Willow form tolerable fences on marshy ground, and grow on soils where the hawthorn could not be pro- duced ; and they may thus, in some cases, be beneficially substi- tuted for the thorn. They may be twisted together, for which their pliable branches peculiarly adapt them. Fig. 230. FENCES. 739 The Holly, Ilex aquifolium, has in some cases been substituted for the -thorn. It makes an impenetrable fence, bears cropping ■well, and its verdure does not suffer in the severest winter. The objections to the culture of this hardy plant are, the slowness with which it grows, and the difficulty of raising it. The holly, indeed, does not grow so quickly as the thorn, but yet it can be raised in many situations, if proper care be bestowed. ‘Not bear- ing transplanting well, it may be raised from seeds on the spot where it is to grow. Another plant, indigenous, easily cultivated, and growing even on moors, armed too with spines, and an evergreen, will suggest itself as a fitting plant for the hedge : this is the Common Whin or Gorse, Ulex europcem. A hedge of whin may be formed thus : — A mound is to be made 6 feet wide at bottom, 20 inches wide at top, and about 6 feet high. Each side is to be built firmly with sods, taken from the spot, the middle is to be filled up with loose earth, and the top rounded over. A shallow ditch is to be left on each side of the fence with an interval or scarcement of 1 0 or 1 2 inches between the ditch and wall of sod. The whin-seeds are to be sown along the top of the mound, while the earth is yet fresh and moist. A pound of seeds will sow about 200 yards, and the best season for sowing the seeds, and consequently for making the fence, is during the months of March and April. This species of fence becomes complete in the second year after it is made, and therefore requires no rails. The whins should be pruned once every year : upon attention to this the success of the hedge mainly depends ; and the proper period of pruning is in the month of June. The whin-hedge formed in this manner, is one of the cheapest fences that can be made. The roots of the whins will penetrate through every part of the mound, and prevent it from crumbling down, and the dense bush, formed at the height of 6 feet, will be sufficient to prevent the wildest sheep and cattle from passing over. With this facility of groAvth, cheapness of production, and seem- ing fitness of the plant for its purposes, it will reasonably be in- 740 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. quired why it is that the whin is so little used as a hedge-plant in this and other countries. The chief reason is unfortunately a good one — its want of durability. Although a native plant, and under certain circumstances, hardy, it is very apt to be destroyed by frost. It cannot, therefore, be depended upon as a permanent fence. Its duration indeed can be greatly prolonged by regular pruning, but under the best management, the whin is compara- tively of short duration as a useful fence. When, however, a cheap, and immediate fence is required, without especial regard to the time it is to last, the whin will answer the purpose well. The fences described are the stone- wall and the live-fence ; but sometimes the two may be combined together, and form efficient fences. The most common of these is formed in the following man- ner ; — A mound and ditch are to be made in the way already de- Fig. 231. scribed, but the one side is to be a wall of stone, of half the breadth of a common wall, and 4 J feet high, as shewn in the figure. This fence is therefore secured on one side, and requires only a row of two-bar paling on the other side to secure the hedge in its young state. Another species of combined fence is what is termed a sunk fence, faced up with a dry-stone wall, as in the following figure. The base of the wall is 2 feet, and on the top is laid a coping of FENCES. 741 turf of foot thick. The thorns, when the wall has reached Fig. 232. the proper height, are laid horizontally, and the stones so built that there shall be an aperture for each thorn at the distance from one another of 9 or 10 inches. The thorns laid in this man- ner will shoot through the apertures between the stones. This kind of fence is suited to situations in which one side is safe from trespass, as round plantations ; and, as a security against any animals attempting to scale it, whins may be sown along the top of the mound. Another point to be considered with relation to the fence is the Gate. The properties of a good gate are, that it shall com- bine with lightness the necessary strength, so that an equal quan- tity of materials shall produce the strongest gate. The strongest gate would be a solid piece of wood like a door, but this would not fulfil the other condition of lightness. Instead of the solid mass of wood, a set of horizontal bars will fulfil the purposes re- quired. These bars must be at such a distance from one another as to prevent the passage of animals, and so connected as to be firmly bound together. In the gate represented in the figure, there are five horizontal bars,^ connected together by a diagonal from the lower to the higher corner. This construction, it is conceived, will fulfil, suf- ficiently near for practice, the purpose of giving the parts of 742 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. the gate the greatest strength with a given weight of materials. Sometimes upright braces are nailed to the gate, hut these are not essential. The gate may be hung upon two hinges ; or the heel of the gate may rest in a socket placed in a stone on the ground, as in the figure. The bars should taper towards the fore part, so as to he lightest there, which diminishes the tendency of the fore part to fall down. For a gate, when we regard its tendency to sink down at the head, may he considered as a bended lever, of which the fulcrum is at B, the power at C, and the weight the centre of gravity of the gate, which, in the case of the gate being of uniform materials, will he represented on the lower bar at A. Hence, by increasing the length of BC in proportion to BA, the power of the hinge at C to support the weight of the gate is in- creased ; and this power is further increased when the gate is made heavier at its posterior part, so as to bring the centre of gravity nearer to B. In practice, therefore, the hinges should he kept at as great a distance from each other as possible, and the gate should be made light towards its anterior part. Fig. 233. In the figure there are shewn five horizontal and two upright bars. The extremities of the horizontal bars are mortised into the two outer upright bars. The diagonal consists of a plank nailed to the one side, and abutting on the upper bar ; and on the other side may be nailed an upright brace. The horizontal bars taper from the hinder part of the gate to the fore part. The length of the gate may be 9 feet, the height over the horizontal FENCES. 743 bars 3 feet 9 inches, the lower bar standing about six inches from the ground. The posts may consist of wood, and should be well sunk in the ground ; and any coarse kind of timber of sufficient strength may be employed ; or, what is better, when they can be procured of the proper size, single stones of granite, greenstone, or any of the harder rocks. The band of the hinge should pass through the wood or stone, as shewn in the figure, and be fixed by a bolt or screw-nut on the opposite side. The latch may be of various forms : that shewn in the figure is a spring of 2 feet in length, to which at right angles, as is more distinctly seen at c. Fig. 236, is fixed a piece of iron, which passes through the upright bar of the gate. This piece of iron, by means of two joints, acts as a lever when the hand is placed upon it, and withdraws the latch. Sometimes it is convenient that a gate shall shut of itself when opened. A good gate of this construction is represented in Fig. 234. The upper hinge of the gate is fixed to the upmost bar, and is received into a socket in the hinge, as seen at Z>, Fig. 235. The advantages of making the upper hinge move in a socket are, that while space is given to it to move, it is firmly supported in its place ; and that the means are afibrded of causing it to move smoothly by pouring a little oil into the socket. The lower hinge is formed upon the principle of afibrding two pivots or points of support to the lower part of the gate. It consists of two iron plates placed horizontally, the one a little above the other, the upper being fixed to the post and the lower to the gate. From the lower part of the upper plate project two small cylindrical pieces of iron, placed perpendicularly as seen at a. Fig. 235. These are received into the grooves or hollows of the under plate, so that the gate rests upon the two upright pieces of iron as pivots. The gate, when shut, has thus three points of support, namely, the socket of the upper hinge and the two lower pivots, the former of which is thus placed at the vertex, and the two latter at the base of an isosceles triangle; from which con- struction it results, that the gate is only in a state of equilibrium 744 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. when, being shut, it rests upon both the two lower pivots ; when opened accordingly it must tend to regain its former position. This construction, however, is not good in the case of the or- Fig. 234. liili IMiii III r Pi |jj||illlllj]j|l! ffllijlil 1 = 1 , j B iffiBi iliilllll bmIII 1* S iiiiimii illlllllllHilTll __ ' — Mill, Jill , - Fig. 235. dinary gates of a farm. They are apt to be torn olf the hinges by the passing of loaded carts. All the mortises of a gate, and the parts at which the diagonal and braces cross the bars, should be carefully coated with white lead ; and after the parts of the gate are joined together, the whole should receive two coats of oil-paint. Farm-gates have sometimes been made wholly of hammered iron. The chief objection to this kind of gate is, that it is apt to be bent. The wooden gate of good construction answers its purpose as well as can be wished.* Tn speaking of the fence, I have said nothing of that which we ^ Further details on the construction and management of the fences of the farm, are given in my Work on Landed Property and the Economy of Estates. FENCES. 745 are apt to associate with it, as its almost universal accompani- ment, the hedgerow tree. Were we to estimate the value of hedgerow trees by considera- tions of beauty alone, they would be beyond all price. Nothing gives so clothed and lively an aspect to a country as these beauti- ful objects ; and the cultivated scenery of England is, on this ac- count, amongst the richest anywhere seen. The taste for this species of planting in England is universal, and is rivetted by habit and the earliest associations. The practical farmer, however, feels from experience that in the hedge the forest-tree is out of its place. Its spreading roots interfere with and destroy the thorn, and its branches over- shadowing it are also hurtful ; and more than this, it extends the fibres of its roots into the adjacent fields, and, the branches over- hanging the corn in its vicinity, exclude the air which is neces- sary for the healthy growth of plants, and the labours of harvest. If profit, and not the gratification of taste, is to be regarded, trees should be planted, not in hedgerows, where all the value at which they will arrive Avill rarely balance the yearly loss which they produce, but in groves, belts, or masses, where the trees will really become of value as timber, without injury to the fences and cultivated fields around. Were the loss sustained in Eng- land by the excessive multiplication of hedgerow trees to be re- duced to calculation, it would exceed belief. 3. Capital necessary for the Farm. The capital necessary for a farm is the sum which a farmer must possess, in order that he may carry on his business. This partly depends on the customary degree of credit in a country. The farmer does not usually pay rea4y money for all the com- modities he requires, but trusts to that degree of credit which is common in his business. And the same remark applies to almost every class of traders in this country. A merchant rarely limits his trade to the extent of his ready money, but trusts to that de- 746 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. gree of confidence which exists ; and in this way the greater part of the trade of this country is carried on. In like manner, the person who enters to a farm may not find it necessary to possess all the capital which would be required were he to pay for every thing ; yet the nearer his funds approach to this condition, the greater will he his security. Too many en- gage in extensive farming on a loose and imperfect estimate of the funds required, and find, when too late, that they have mis- calculated their means. A want of the necessary funds is often more injurious to a far- mer, than even an obligation to pay a high rent. With an in- adequate capital, he is impeded at every step. He cannot render justice to his farm ; he must often bring his goods prematurely to market to supply his wants, and he will pay largely for the credit which he is compelled to seek. The farmer who has ready money at his command has, like every other trader, a great ad- vantage over one who is forced to seek credit, and will he en- abled to make a profit on many transactions on which the other would sustain a loss. While, therefore, it cannot he contended that a farmer, who lives in a country where credit is the soul of commerce, is not to avail himself of this benefit, yet he must he careful not to mis- calculate its effects ; and, at all events, and like every prudent man, he must make himself acquainted with the real amount of his pecuniary obligations. This is the true principle on which the capital required for a farm should he computed. The sum to he determined is that which the farmer has to advance, before a quantity of produce is raised upon the farm sufficient to replace the advance, and supposing all payments to be in money. But the amount of necessary advances differs greatly accord- ing to the nature of the farm, the mode of management to he pur- sued upon it, the period of entry and the time of paying rents, the manner of paying labourers, and a multitude of circumstances dependent on local practice. To calculate the amount of capital, therefore, required in any case, it is necessary to limit the cal- culation, not only to a certain district, with a certain set of local CAPITAL. 747 customs, but to a giyen farm, managed in a given manner. All, therefore, that can be done, in the case of calculating the amount of capital required for a farm, is to give an example of the man- ner of making such a calculation under certain supposed con- ditions. In the following calculation, the assumption is made of a farm where a combination exists of the practice of tillage and rearing live-stock, where two-horse teams are in use, and where a sys- tem of cultivation is pursued similar to that which has been ex- plained in the present work. The farm is supposed to contain 500 acres, to consist partly of clay and partly of turnip soil, and to be managed in a five years’ rotation, thus : — Isi, 100 acres in corn, namely — 95 acres in oats. 5 acres in tares. 100 2d, 100 acres in fallow and fallow-crops, namely — 60 acres in turnips. 5 acres in potatoes. 35 acres in summer-fallow. 100 Sd, 100 acres in corn, with which are sown clover and ryegrass seeds, namely — 60 acres in barley, after turnips. 40 acres in wheat, after summer-fallow and potatoes. 100 4:th, 100 acres in young grass, namely — 28 acres used for hay and green forage, 72 acres used for pasture. 100 5th, 100 acres in grass in its second year, used for pasture. 500 acres. 748 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. Under this system of management, the crops will succeed to one another in the order mentioned ; and the farm will every year be in five divisions, namely, 100 acres in oats, with a small quan- tity of tares ; 100 in fallow, turnips, and potatoes ; 100 in wheat and barley ; 100 in young grass ; and 100 in grass in its second year. The period of entry is assumed to he on the 15th day of May with respect to the land in grass, and the land to he in summer- fallow and fallow-crops in that year ; and to the land hearing corn-crops, when these are removed from the ground in autumn. This species of entry, with certain variations, prevails over a considerable part of England. The principle of it is, that the out-going tenant shall haA^e a crop in the last year of his posses- sion, or, as it is termed, a way-going crop ; hut that in the month of May of the same year, he shall give up to the entering tenant all the land in grass, and all the land which, in the regular course of management, would he in fallow or fallow-crops, and which the entering tenant, accordingly, works for his own use. The out- going tenant having sown his crop, has no further use for the houses upon the farm, and these, therefore, the entering tenant takes possession of in May. Under this supposition, the entering tenant has no corn-crop in the first year of his possession. He reaps the first crap of corn in the second year. We may assume that this crop is not really available to him till about the middle of November in the second year, that is, till eighteen months after his entry. But the crop upon an arable farm being the chief fund of a tenant for paying his rent, and replacing his advances of all kinds, we may assume that it is not till his crop is really available, that the fund advanced by him as farming capital has been replaced. To cal- culate his advance of capital, therefore, Ave are to reckon all the charges to which he has been subjected during the first eighteen months of his possession, deducting, however, any sales of pro- duce Avhich may have been made during that time. These ad- vances will be conveniently diAuded into classes, as Implements and Machines of the Farm, Live-Stock, &c. ( 749 ) (1.) Implements and Machines of the Farm. The first calculation to be made with respect to the implements and machines of the farm, relates to tlie number of ploughs to be kept regularly at work in tilling it. Upon this depend the num- ber of horses to be employed, and the number of ploughmen. The manner of determining the number of ploughs or teams, is by ascertaining the extent of ground to be kept in tillage, and by assigning for this such a number of ploughs or teams as ex- perience shews to be necessary for working the farm. Under a perfect system of labour, one man works two horses ; and this team will do all the labour required in the proportion of one pair of horses for every 50 acres kept in tillage. In the lighter class of soils, one pair of horses will work 60 acres; but it will be better to assume 50 acres as a medium. On the farm, then, to which the present calculations refer, 6 pairs of horses will require to be at work, there being in tillage each year three of the five divisions of the farm, that is, 300 acres. The num- ber of ploughs will accordingly be 6, and that of harrows and various other implements will bear a certain proportion to this number of ploughs : — 6 Iron ploughs, at L.3, 15s. (Fig. 12), . . L.22 10 0 But ploughs may be constructed partly of wood, which answer the purpose perfectly well. The expense of these will be from L.2, 16s. to L.3 each. 6 Pairs of common harrows, at L.l, 7s. (Fig. 21), 8 2 0 2 Pairs of lighter harrows for covering grass -seeds, at L.l, 76., . . L.2 14 0 Grubber (Fig. 25), . . 10 0 0 L.12 14 0 But the lighter harrows for covering grass-seeds, are not indispensable, and the grubber, though a highly useful, is not an absolutely necessary, implement of the farm. 1 Cast-iron roller (Fig. 26), . . . 10 0 0 1 Broadcast sowing-machine (Fig. 34), . . 10 10 0 Carried forward. L.51 2 0 750 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. Brought forward, L.51 1 Turnip sowing-machine (Fig. 38), . . 6 Besides which, the nature of some farms may re- quire, — 1 Machine for sowing corn in rows (Fig. 32), . . L.IO 0 0 1 Bean-harrow (Fig. 35), L.l, 10s., or better the machine. Fig. 36, the price of which is 3 15 0 L.13 15 0 2 Single-horse ploughs for hoeing fallow-crops, at L.3 (Fig. 40), .... 6 2 Horse-hoes for fallow-crops (Fig. 41), with move- able mould-boards (shewn in Fig. 42), at L.4, 10s., ..... 9 1 Thrashing-machine of six-horse power (Fig. 45), 100 This is upon the supposition that horses are em- ployed ; but should water or steam be used, there will be an increase in the first cost, al- though a great economy in the subsequent ex- pense. 1 Winnowing-machine (Fig. 47), . . 6 1 Turnip-slicer (Fig. 49) ; but of which a simpler kind may be used, price • . . 1 And although not absolutely necessary, there may be, — 1 Chaff-cutter (Fig. 52), . L.7 0 0 1 Steaming- apparatus (Fig. 53), 10 0 0 And, though less important still, 1 Corn-bruising machine, . 7 10 0 L.24 10 0 12 Single-horse carts at L.IO (Fig. 54), . . 120 6 Sparred corn and hay carts, exclusive of axles and wheels, at L.4 (Fig. 55), ... 24 1 Water-cart (Fig. 57), . • • 9 Churn and other utensils of the dairy, . . 10 This may be the amount when the dairy is the affair of the household ; but, where a regular dairy is established, a corresponding set of im- plements must be obtained. 2 Wheelbarrows at L.l (Fig. 59), . . 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 0 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carried forward. L.345 2 0 CAPITAL. 751 Brought forward, L.345 2 1 Handbarrow (Fig. 60), . . • 0 5 2 Spades at 4s. 6d, (Fig. 61), - . . . 0 9 6 Broad -pointed lime-shovels at 5s. (Fig. 62), . 1 10 4 Narrow-pointed lime-shovels at 4s. 6d. (Fig. 63), 0 18 1 Mattock (Fig. 64), . . . . 0 5 1 Pick-axe (Fig. 66), . . . . 0 5 1 Foot-pick (Fig. 65), . . . . 0 7 1 MaU (Fig. 71), . . . . . 0 2 1 Hammer (Fig. 70), . . . . 0 3 1 Sledge (Fig. 69), . . . . 0 4 1 Axe (Fig. 68), . . . . . 0 4 1 Saw (Fig. 67), • . . . . 0 5 6 Three-pronged forks at 4s. 8d. (Fig. 72), . 18 6 Small three-pronged for spreading dung, at 3s. 6d. (Fig. 73), . . . . 11 2 Dung-drags at 3s. (Fig. 80), . . . 0 6 2 Mud-scrapers at 3s. 6d. (Fig. 81), . . 0 7 6 Long forks at 3s. (Fig. 74), . . . 0 18 6 Short forks at 2s. 6d. (Fig. 75), . . 0 15 10 Hay-rakes at Is. 3d. (Fig. 77), . . 0 12 10 Turnip-hoes at Is. 5d. (Fig. 78), . . 0 14 2 Turnip-pickers at 2s. (Fig. 209), . . 0 4 2 Hedging-bills (Figs. 222 and 223), . . 0 7 1 Hedge-spade (Fig. 224), . . . 0 3 4 Scythes, 3 long (Fig. 79), and 1 short, with straps and stones, . . . . . 19 12 Sickles at Is. (Fig. 138), ... . 0 12 1 Hay -knife (Fig. 82), .* . . . 0 4 10 Weed-hooks at 6d. (Fig. 136), . . . 0 5 2 Straw-twisters at Is. 6d. (Fig. 146), . . 0 3 2 Long ladders of the respective leng-ths of 24 and 16 feet, . . . . . 2 0 4 Short ladders of 8 feet at 6s., . . . 14 4 Poles for laying off ridges at Is., . . 0 4 20 Binders for cattle at Is. 6d. (Fig. 202), . . 1 10 2 Pairs of sheep-shears at 4s. 6d. (Fig. 211), . 0 9 1 Sheep-stool (Fig. 213), . . . . 0 4 2 Sheep-racks at L.l, 2s. (Fig. 210), . . 24 4 Straw-racks for cattle at 8s. (Fig. 200), . . 1 12 1 Flexible tube for cattle (referred to at page 624), 0 7 Or 1 Stomach-pump may be substituted L.3, 3s. 1 Marking -iron for sheep (Fig. 212), . . 0 2 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 2 0 0 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Carried forward. L.369 5 8 752 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. I (Fig. 85), Brought forward, 10 Sheep-nets of 70 yards each at 12s., 200 Hardwood stakes for sheep-nets, 1 Grindstone (Fig. 84), .... 1 Weighing-machine for wool and grain, with a set of weights, ..... 1 Steel-yard for weighing hay and straw, only ne- cessary on certain farms, . L.IO 0 0 Tubs for pickling wheat. Vessel for holding grease. Cart-harness for 12 horses (Fig. 58), Plough-harness for do. (Fig. 19), Saddle-horse furniture, 1 Corn-chest for work-horse stable, 1 Corn-chest for saddle-horse stable, 6 Currycombs for farm-horse stable, 1 Currycomb for saddle-horse stable, 7 Brushes at 2s. (Fig. 86), 7 Mane-combs at 6d. (Fig. 87), 7 Foot-pickers at 6d. (Fig. 88), 7 Stable-forks at 3s. (Fig. 76), 6 Pairs of nose-bags at 10s., 2 Stable-lanterns at 5s., 2 Hand-lanterns at 2s., 1 Pair of horse-scissors (Fig. 89), 1 Oil-flask, 3 Water-pails at 4s., 2 Riddles for wheat at 2s. 6d., 2 Riddles for barley at 2s., 2 Riddles for oats at 2s. (Fig. 153) 1 Slap-riddle (Fig. 154), 1 Sieve, 2 Close-sieves at Is. 6d. (Fig, 152) 1 Corn-measure (Fig. 155), 2 Wooden- shovels at 2s. (Fig. 156), 2 Brooms at 3d., . 2 Canvass sheets for barn at 10s., 100 Sacks to contain 4 bushels each, at 2s., 1 Load-barrow (Fig. 157), 4 Canvass-carriers for sheaves at 3s. (Fig. 150), Or the sparred barrows (Fig. 151), 4 at L.l, 5s. each, L.5. Amount of Implements and Machines, L.369 6 0 1 0 0 41 12 6 2 1 0 0 0 1 3 0 . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 10 0 0 5 8 0 0 15 0 10 0 0 0 7 0 1 6 2 0 0 0 4 6 10 0 0 0 7 0 14 0 3 6 3 6 1 0 0 0 10 0 4 0 1 6 1 6 12 0 5 0 4 0 4 0 1 8 3 6 3 0 10 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 0 0 10 0 12 0 L.463 11 4 CAPITAL. 753 2. Live-Stock. The farm, it has been seen, is to be managed by six pairs of horses regularly employed in ploughing, and in other labours of the farm. Besides the regular teams, there should be a spare horse, which may be a breeding mare. The uses of a spare horse are, that by it many little operations can be performed, — as carrying w’ater, going to market for articles required for household use or the farm, bringing home green forage and the like, — without breaking in upon the regular labours. It is necessary, too, on such a farm, that the farmer have a saddle-horse, as being indis- pensable for that economy of time which on every considerable farm must be studied. The stock of horses may be therefore stated thus : — 13 Work-horses, at L.30, .... L.390 0 0 1 Saddle-horse, ..... 30 0 0 L.420 0 ■ 0 I To keep up his stock of horses, the farmer should endeavour to rear one colt every year. Now, the colt being broken in after he has completed his third year, there will be three colts on the farm in addition to the stock mentioned ; so that the regular stock of horses upon the farm after a time will be, — 13 Farm-horses. 1 Saddle-horse. 3 Colts. 17 The next class of live-stock consists of sheep and cattle. To determine the number and kinds of these, we must consider, l.s/, The quantity, of land which can be assigned for keeping them after the horses are supplied ; and, 2d, The mode of management which it will be expedient to pursue. 3 ]i 754 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. The quantity of land in grass, it has been seen, is — Of young grass, 100 acres. Of grass in its second year, . . . . 100 200 The quantity of tlie young grass required for liay and forage to the horses may be thus computed : 13 Farm-horses, at 20 lb. of hay each per day, for 5 months, ....... 348 cwt. 1 Saddle-horse, hay for 9 months, at 20 lb. per day, 48 396 Add for ewes in winter, colts, and contingencies, . 198 .594 To produce this quantity there will be required, at the rate of 33 cwt. to the acre, . . . . . 18 acres. To soil the farm-horses, at the rate of f acre each, there would be required, . . . 9f acres. For the saddle-horse, .... i — 10 28 The young grass in all, is, . . . . . 100 Which leaves to he depastured, of the young grass, 72 * And there are, of grass in its second year to be depastured, 100 Making, of grass to be depastured in all, 172 Tliis ground may be depastured partly with sheep, partly with cows, and partly with oxen in the course of being reared and fattened. It is usual, when there is young grass upon a f^irm, to give it, as being the richest and most succulent, only to the ewes with lambs, and to the stock, whetlier of slieep or oxen, in the course of being finally fattened. But we may suppose, in the special case of the farm in question, that the whole of the spare young grass, 72 acres, is depastured by sheep; and that the whole of the older grass, 100 acres, is depastured by the CAPITAL. 755 cows and oxen. We liave first to consider the number and kinds of slieep which 72 acres of new grass, together with such a sup- ply of turnips as will suffice for the sheep in winter, can main- tain. Noav, it is conceived that this quantity of pasture, with a pro- per supply of turnips, will, upon land of good quality, maintain a regular breeding stock of 120 Leicester ewes, that is, six scores, in the following manner. The ewes, amounting to 120, may be expected, under a pro- per system of management and feeding, to produce each year, in the months of March and April, such a number of lambs as that 180 shall arrive at full maturity ; and these lambs, for the sake of easier calculation, may be supposed to consist, one-half of males, and one-half of females. In the month of July, after being weaned, these lambs receive the name of hoggets or hogs. There are, therefore, upon the farm, in each July, of sheep produced in the same year: — 90 Wether-hoggets. 90 Ewe-hoggets. 180 The ewe and wether hoggets, under the system of management before explained, are to be penned together on turnips during the first winter. They will consume about 13^ acres of turnips, that is j of an acre for every ten sheep ; and if we allow 1^ acre for the ewes in the season of lambing, there will be 15 acres in all of turnips consumed by the sheep. Now, the ewe and wether hoggets are penned on turnips till the month of April, when they are turned out to the fields to pas- ture. In the beginning of June they are shorn, and then they receive the names — the male sheep, of shearling wethers or din- monts ; and the female sheep, of shearling ewes or gimniers. The shearling wethers are now to be sold, and as many of the shear- ling ewes as it is not necessary to keep upon the ftirin for breed- ing. The regular breeding-stock upon the farm is 120 ewes ; arid 756 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. these ewes may he supposed to be kept on the farm until they have borne each lambs for three successive years. Under this system, one- third of the ewes, that is forty, will be disposed of each year, and their place will be supplied by forty shearling ewes reared upon the farm. Now, after shearing the sheep in June, there were ninety shear- ling wethers to be disposed of ; and of shearling ewes, there were fifty to be disposed of, the other forty being reserved to receive the ram in October, and supply the place of the forty old ewes. Under this system of management, then, the ewes add, in each year, to the stock of sheep, 180, and an equal number of sheep are disposed of, namely — 90 Shearling wethers ; 50 Shearling ewes ; 40 Old ewes. 180 Tl?e sheep-stock on the 15th of May in each year, will there- fore stand thus : — ■ \ 120 Ewes, with their lambs; 90 Wether- hoggets ; 90 Ewe-hoggets. To which add, . ■ 2 Rams. 302 Sheep, with 180 lambs. These, then, are the kinds and numbers of sheep which the farmer ought to procure when he takes possession of the grass-land of his farm on the 1 5th of May. But it may be difficult or im- possible for an enteriitg tenant to procure at once the precise kinds of stock which he requires. All that he can do, therefoi-e, is to make the nearest approach to it that cii’cum stances will allow, so that he may, as soon as possible, be able to bring his stock into th.e regular course of management which he proposes to adopt. He may purchase at his entry, — CAPITAL. 757 120 Leicester ewes, with their lambs, at 60s., . L.360 0 0 40 Ewe-hoggets, which will supply an equal number of the worst of the old ewes in the same year, at 30s., 60 0 0 2 Shearling rams, . . . . • • 10 0 0 162 L.430 0 0 This, then, may be supposed to be the capital advanced for sheep-stock in the first year. The next class of stock consists of the cows and oxen. For these there are to be assigned 100 acres of grass for pasture, and such a quantity of turnips as will maintain and fatten them. It may be assumed that there are ten cows kept upon the farm, and that these ten cows, besides supplying the household dairy, will rear twenty calves. Now, the manner of management may be that formerly de- scribed as applicable to a stock of oxen. The twenty calves, in the first year, after being weaned, are pastured, and fed on turnips and straw ; in the second year they are pastured, and in the se- cond winter likewise fed on turnips and straw. They might then be killed fat ; but we may suppose, so as to render the manage- ment here pointed out practicable upon eVery farm producing tur- nips, that they are pastured for a third summer, and put to fat- ten during the third winter, before the conclusion of which they will have completed their third year, and be, in the language of farmers, three years old. A part of these will be heifers, but it will be unnecessary to embarrass the calculation with this suppo- sition, and therefore we may suppose them to be all males. Under this system of management, the stock of oxen, on tlie 15th of May in each year, will be, — 758 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. 10 Cows. 20 Calves. 20 One-year-old steers, that is, steers that were calved in the pre- ceding year, and have now completed their first year. 20 Two-year-old steers, that is, cattle that have completed their second year, and are to be fed on turnips in the following winter. And there may have been 20 three-year-old oxen, fattened on turnips, but which may be supposed to have been disposed of before the 15th day of May. 1 Bull. 71 The number of cattle, then, belonging to the farmer, to be pas- tured upon the farm, is, — 10 Cows. 20 Calves. 20 One-year-old steers. 20 Two-year-old steers. 1 Bull. 71 And this, therefore, is the stock to be purchased on the 15th of May in the year of entry. It may not, perhaps, be practicable to get the precise kinds of stock required in the first year, but a near approach to it may generally be made. It may, therefore, be supposed that the capital advanced in the first year for this class of stock is, for — 10 Cows calved, and which have again received the male, at L^2, .... . L.120 0 0 20 Calves, at 30s., 30 0 0 20 One-year-old steers, at L.7, 10s., 150 0 0 20 Two-year-old steers, at L.12, 10s., 250 0 0 1 Bull, one-year-old. 15 0 0 71 L.565 0 0 The quantity of grass-land to be depastured is 100 acres, which will suffice, if the land be of medium quality, to pasture the CAPITAL. 759 quantity of cows and oxen mentioned. But they will also require the following quantities of turnips : — 20 Calves will require ^ acre each, 20 One-year-old steers, f acre each, 20 Two-year-old steers, put to fatten, 1 acre each, 10 Cows, about i acre each, . 1 Bull, . . . . * . Spare produce for incidents, 5 acres. 15 ^ 20 ' H X 2 2 71 45 If to this he added the 15 acres required by the sheep-stock, it will he seen that the division of the farm which is to be in tur- nips every year will suffice for keeping the stock. The next class of live-stock is attended with no difficulty, name- ly, the swine. These will soon breed up to tlie quantity required. At the entry in May, there may he purchased — 2 Breeding sows, at L.2, . L.4 0 0 1 Young boar, .... 1 0 0 L.5 0 0 The remaining class of live-stock consists of poultry. This, like the last, will quickly breed up to the numbers wished for. In the first year may be purchased, — 20 Chickens, . . . ' . . L.l 10 0 12 Ducks, ..... 0 18 0 3 Geese, ..... 0 12 0 3 Turkeys, .... 0 15 0 L.3 15 0 The capital, therefore, advanced for the difterent classes of live- stock will he as under : — 1. Horses, . • . . . L.420 0 0 2. Sheep, 430 0 0 3. Cattle, .... 565 0 0 4. Swine, .... 5 0 0 5. Poultry, .... 3 15 0 L.1423 15 0 760 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. 3. Seeds. Previous to the period when the farmer takes possession in May, there ought to have been sown the grass and clover seeds on the division of the farm which, in the regular course, is to be sown with them. The outgoing tenant, however, has no interest in sowing these seeds, of which he does not reap the benefit ; but the entering tenant either sows them, or pays the cost of them to his predecessor. Now, supposing the same rotation to have been hitherto adopted as is now to be adopted, there will be a division of 100 acres to be sown with grass-seeds, namely, that which is in wheat and barley. 1 00 Acres sown with perennial ryegrass seeds, at 1 bushel per acre, at 3s. per bushel, L.15 0 0 Clover seeds, 101b. per acre, at lOd. per lb., . . . 41 13 4 L.56 13 4 And in the second spring there will be an equal quan- tity to be sown, . . ... 56 13 4 Tares to be sown in the first year for horses and pigs : — 5 Acres, at 3 bushels per acre,= 15 bushels, at 5s. per bushel, . . . . . 3 15 0 Arrangements, too, should be made in the first year to plant potatoes — 5 Acres, at 24 bushels per acre, = 120 bushels, at Is. 4d. per bushel, . . . ..800 The further seeds to be sown in the year of en- try are — 60 Acres of turnips, at 2 lb. per acre, n 120 lb., at 9d. per lb., .... L.4 10 0 The same quantity in the following year, 4 10 0 9 0 0 Carried forward. L.134 1 8 CAPITAL. 761 Brought forward, L.134 1 8 There is no corn to be sown in the spring of the year of entry ; but in the autumn of the same year the division of the land in summer-fallow and pota- toes, namely, 4 0 acres, is to be sown : — 40 Acres of wheat, at 3 bushels per acre, ~ 120 bushels, at 6s. 8d. per bushel, . . . 40 0 0 In the spring of the second year are to be sown the oats, tares, and barley, namely, — 95 Acres of oats, at 5 bushels per acre, =475 bushels, at 2s. 8d. per bushel, . . . 63 6 8 5 Acres of tares, at 3 bushels per acre, = 15 bushels, at 5s. per bushel, . . . . 3 15 0 60 Acres of barley, at 3 bushels per acre, = 180 bushels, at 3s. 8d. per bushel, . . 33 0 0 L.274 3 4 4. Manures. The dung made in the preceding winter has not at the period of entry been applied to the land, because the land to be in tur- nips and summer-fall ow% to which, in the regular course, it would be applied, is not yet ready to receive it. This dung may either be received by the entering tenant, according to the practice of certain districts, free of charge, or he may pay to his predecessor the price or value of it. Making this latter assumption, — The quantity of dung may be supposed to be 1000 tons, which, at 6s. 3d. per ton, . . L.312 10 0 A tenant does not always lime his land in the first year of his possession, and yet it is often very important that he should do so. Let it be supposed Carried forward, L.312 10 0 762 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. Brought forward, L.312 10 0 that he limes 40 acres in the summer of the first year, and an equal quantity in the summer of the second year. 80 Acres, at 144 bushels per acre, = 11,520 bushels, at 3d. per bushel, prime cost, L.144 0 0 Tolls, and other charges, the distance being supposed 12 miles, at the rate of 1 J(L per bushel, . 60 0 0 204 0 0 L.516 10 0 5. Labour. 6 Ploughmen, at Is. 9d. per day, 313 days, or L.27 : 7 : 9 per annum, for 1^ year, . L.246 9 1 Principal servant or overseer, at 2s. per day, or L.31, 6s. per annum, for 1 ^ year, . . 46 19 1 Shepherd, wages the same as the overseer, . 46 19 1 Hedger, employed chiefly in hedge-work, but also in other work upon the farm, Is. 9d. per day, for li year, . . . . . 41 1 1 Extra labourer, to take charge of the cattle in winter, and do any common work in summer, at Is. 6d. per day, for 1 year, . . , 23 9 Females and young persons are employed in hoeing turnips, and other work. Their wages for 1|- year may be, . . . . . 60 0 9 0 0 n 6 0 The entering tenant takes possession of the land to be worked for fallow and fallow-crops in May. But, previous to this time, it ought to have received, at least, one ploughing, for which the entering tenant pays those who have laboured it : — 100 Acres fallow, at 7s. per acre, 35 0 0 Carried forward, L.499 18 104 CAPITAL. 763 Brought forward, L.499 18 The other items of outlay on labour are : — Mowing hay, 18 acres at 2s. 6d. per acre, L.2 5 0 The same the second year, . . 2 5 0 Expense of the harvest work in the second year, that is, for the first crop raised by the new tenant, 195 acres at 9s, Lfd. per acre, . Keeping up the iron-work of horses and implements, at the rate of L. 3 per pair of horses, li year, — L.27. But the implements being new, the half of this will sufiice for the first 18 months. Carpenter work, on the same principle, Additional blacksmith and carpenter work, Saddler’s work, at the rate of L.l per pair of horses, for li year, .... Shoeing saddle-horse for 1^ year, Keeping houses in repair for 1^ year, L.7, 10s., but the houses being new, or put into a sufiScient state of repair, one-half may suffice for the first 18 months, ..... Incidental expenses, drugs to live-stock, oil for lamps, candles, tolls, expenses of marketing, &c.. 4 10 0 91 12 2i 13 10 0 13 10 0 5 0 0 9 0 0 1 10 0 3 15 0 16 0 0 L.658 6 Of 6. Maintenance of Horses. The annual expense of a working-horse, according to the me- thod of keeping horses formerly described, may be calculated thus : — Oats, 91f bushels, at 2s. 8d. per bushel, . . L.12 3 4 Green forage, f of an acre, at L.7, 10s., . . 5 12 6 Hay for five months, at 20 lb. per day, = 26 cwt.. 3 qr. 4 lb., at 3s. 6d. per cwt., . . . 4 13 9 Tares, f acre, at L.7, 10s., . . . . 1 17 6 L.24 7 1 The outlay on feeding horses, for the first 1«S months, niay be calculated as under : — 764 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. Hay for three weeks after entry for thirteen horses, at 20 lb. per day, = 48| cwt. at 3s. 6d. per cwt.. Hay for saddle-horse after entry, 4 cwt. at 3s. 6d., Oats for thirteen horses for the first year, at 91 J bushels each = 1186| bushels at 2s. 8d., Oats for 41 months in the second year, until the crop can be made available, n: 438f bushels, at 2s. 8d. per bushel, ..... Oats for saddle-horse for 1 year and 4^ months, 125 bushels, at 2s. 8d., .... L.8 10 7i 0 14 0 158 3 4 58 10 0 16 13 4 L.242 11 3|- 7 . Burdens. Poor-rates, highway conversion-money, assessed taxes, insurance, &c. vary greatly in difierent localities. Let them be assumed on a medium to be L. 50 per annum, or for lA year, . . L.75 0 0 AnSTRA CT. The various items of capita! enumerated are as follows : — 1. Implements and Machines, 2. Live-stock, 3. Seeds, 4. Manures, 5. Labour, &c., 6. Maintenance of horses, 7. Burdens, L.463 11 4 1423 15 0 274 3 4 516 10 0 658’ 6 Of 242 11 3A 75 0 0 L.3653 17 Of To this sum should be added : — 1. Proportion of the rent which may be supposed to be paid before the first corn-crop is reaped, .... L.460 16 If 2. Expense of furnishing a dwelling- house, . . L.200 0 0 Family expenses for If jear, 150 0 0 350 0 0 Amount of outlay. L.4464 13 If CAPITAL. 765 PRODUCE SOLD. Those parts of the produce of the farm sold during the first 18 months, and which must he taken into account, are : — 20 Two-year old cattle, which, after being wintered on turnips, and when they have passed their third year, may be reasonably supposed to weigh 65 stones, at 6s. per stone, . . . L.390 40 old ewes, at 40s., . . L.80 0 0 The same for the second year, . 80 0 0 160 50 Shearling ewes, 90 Shearling wethers, 50 Pigs, which may be reared each year to 7 stones each, at 3s. 6d. per stone, . L.61 5 0 One half-year more, . . . 30 12 6 at 40s., 280 0 0 0 0 0 0 L.91 17 6 But during the first eighteen months the calcu- lation may be one-half. Produce of dairy, which, besides rearing calves, may be supposed to be at the rate of 50s. per cow per annum — IL year, .... There will be 162 fleeces of wool sold the first season, viz — 120 Ewes, at 6^ lb. each, . 780 lb. 40 Ewe-hogs, at 7^ lb. each, . 300 2 Young rams, at 8 lb. each, 16 45 18 9 37 10 0 1096 lb. There will be 302 fleeces the second year, viz. 120 Ewes, at 6 ^ lb. each, 780 lb. 180 Ewe and wether hogs, at 7i lb., . .1350 2 Rams, at 9 lb., . 18 2148 3244 lb. of wool, at Is. per lb.. 3244 lb. 162 4 0 Amount of produce sold, L.1075 12 9 766 GENERAL ECONOMY OP THE FARM. Amount of outlay during the first eighteen months, Produce sold, L.4464 13 If 1075 12 9 Net capital, L.3389 0 4f Being at the rate of L.6 : 15 : 6f per acre imperial, or, exclu- sive of the rent, L.5 : 17 : li^. IV. EXPENSES AND PRODUCE OF THE FARM. The capital necessary for a farm is the fund which ought to be available to the possessor, that he may carry on his business : the annual expenses of a farm are the necessary charges to which a farm is subject. A very convenient period for determining the annual expenses of a farm is from May to May, but it may be done also from November to November, or indeed from any one period in the year to the same period in the following one, so as to comprehend the charges of the entire year. To calculate the average charges of a farm, the same data are assumed as in calculating the capital, namely, that the farm con- sists of 500 acres, and that it is managed, with respect to ro- tation of crops and the number and disposition of live-stock, in the manner already explained. The first consideration, and a large charge in the calculation of farm expenses, is Bent. Ingenious reasonings have been em- ployed to shew, that rent is necessary to equalize the profits of land of different degrees of fertility ; that, in every country, it is a charge as necessary as the w^ages of labour : but here we have only to consider the fact, that rent is a charge upon all who farm the lands of others in this country. The amount of rent should be such as to leave to the occupier a sufficient interest upon the capital advanced by him. This will in some degree depend upon the general rate of interest in the country, so that, caiteris paribus, rent should rise as the rate of CAPITAL. 767 interest falls. Tims, supposing that, when money is at 4 per cent., the farmer required 15 per cent, on his capital, when the general rate of interest has fallen to 3 per cent., he should re- ceive llj per cent. The advances of the farmer have been cal- culated at L.3389 : 0 : 4|, but from this there are to he deducted L.460 : 16 : being the half-year’s rent supposed to he paid be- fore the first crop is reaped, together with L.350 for family ex- penses and the furnishing of a dwelling-house, leaving, as the capital upon which interest should be charged, L.2578 : 4 : 3i, upon which sum 15 per cent, is L. 386:14: 7J. Taking this as the farmer’s return, and assuming certain rates of farm-produce after mentioned, the rent of the farm to which these calculations refer will he L.921 : 12 : 3. (1.) EXPENSES, The various kinds of outlay in money on a farm may generally be classed under five heads: — 1. Rent and burdens; 2. Stock purchased; 3. Seeds purchased ; 4. Manures; 5. Labour and minor outlays. The amount of these is the outlay in money. The wages of the labourers indeed may he paid in produce, or partly in pro- duce and partly in money ; hut it is better, in calculating the out- lays upon a farm, to consider the wages of the labourers as a payment in money. What is consumed upon the farm, the pro- duce of the farm itself, as seeds, corn and hay for horses, tur- nips, and the like, ought not to he regarded as an outlay, but as a diminution of the produce of the farm. When the outlay in money is known, the farmer has merely to deduct this from the produce of the farm which he can bring to market, to ascertain his profit. The following calculations, then, shew the annual ex- penses of the farm, including the wages of the labourers, in money ; and it is to be kept in mind, that these calculations arc, as in the case of those regarding capital, nothing more than an example, and that they have an especial reference to local usages, 768 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. and to a condition of the farmer which applies only to a given district. 1. Rent and Burdens. Rent, ...... L.921 12 3 Burdens, . . . . . 50 0 0 L.971 12 3 2. Stock Purchased. 10 Calves, at 30s., .... L.15 0 0 •. 3. Seeds Purchased. 60 Acres turnips at 2 lb. per acre, z= 120 lb., at 9d., 5 Acres tares, at 3 bushels per acre, = 15 bushels, at 5s., . . . . . > 100 Acres ryegrass seeds, at 1 bushel per acre, = 100 bushels, at 3s., 100 Acres clover-seeds, at 10 lb. per acre, = 1000 lb., at lOd., . . • . L.64 18 4 L.4 10 0 3 15 0 15 0 0 41 13 4 4. Manures. It may be assumed that the whole land is limed once during the first 10 years of the lease, at the rate of 50 acres annually ; 500 acres, at 144 bushels per acre = 72,000 bushels, at 4id. per bushel, = L.1275. This for 20 years, supposing 20 years to be the duration of the lease, will be, per annum, • . L.63 15 0 And further, there may be supposed to be laid out an- nually, for foreign manures, as bone-dust, rape- dust, &c., . . . . . . 25 0 0 L.88 15 0 CAPITAL. 769 5. Labour, &c. 6 Ploughmen, at Is. 9d. per day, 313 days, . L .164: 6 6 1 Overseer, at 2s. per da}?-, 31 6 0 1 Shepherd, at 2s. per day. 31 6 0 1 Hedger, at Is. 9d. per day. 27 7 9 1 Person to take care of cattle, &c., at Is. 6d. per day. 23 9 6 Hoeing, haymaking, &c.. 4:0 0 0 Mowing hay, 18 acres at 2s. 6d. per acre. 2 5 0 Harvest work, 195 acres at 9s. 4fd. per acre, 91 12 Carpenter’s work for implements, at the rate of L.3 per pair' of horses, .... 18 0 0 Iron- work for implements, at the same rate. 18 0 0 Saddler’s work, at the rate of L.l per pair of horses. 6 0 0 Shoeing saddle-horse, .... 1 0 0 Additional iron and carpenter work, not included in the above, ..... 7 0 0 Keeping houses in repair, 5 0 0 Expenses of carrying grain to market, supposing the distance to be 12 miles, carrying fuel, marketing, and delivery of stock, farriery, and minor charges, 32 16 6 L. 4:99 9 ARSTRAOP. 1. Rent and burdens. L.971 12 3 2. Stock purchased, 15 0 0 3. Seeds purchased, 64: 18 4 4. Manures, .... 88 15 0 5. Labour, &c.. 499 9 L.1639 15 (2.) PRODUVE. There remains to be considered what, on this calculation of expenses, may be the annual return of such a farm. This may be comprehended under two divisions — Vegetable Produce, and Live-Stock. 770 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. 1. Vegetable Produce. 95 Acres of oats, at 48 bushels per acre, The quantity consumed upon the farm is — For seed. 475 For work-horses, 1186J- For saddle-horse. For colts, hogs, and poultry, . 60 bush. Bushels. 4560 1812i Leaving for sale, 2747^^ 2747^ Bushels, at 2s. 8d., . . L.366 6 8 40 Acres of wheat, at 24 bushels per. acre, 960 bush. Deduct for seed, 3 bushels per acre, 120 840 Bushels, at 6s. 8d., . . . 280 0 0 60 Acres of barley, at 42 bushels per acre, 2520 bush. Deduct for seed, 3 bushels per acre, 180 2340 Bushels, at 3s. 8d., . . 429 0 0 Net annual return of Vegetable Produce, L.1075 6 8 2. Live-Stock. The sale of horses upon some farms is a source of profit ; on a regular farm, however, it will he safer not to calculate upon the profit derived from the breeding of horses, but rather to suppose that the horses reared are just sufficient to repair the casualties, and replace the tear and wear of the original stock. The produce of the dairy, after rearing 20 calves, may at 50s. per cow, or . 50 Pigs may be supposed to be sold or used each year, fed to 7 stones, at 3s. 6d. per stone, . Poultry, ..... 20 Steers, after being wintered on turnips, supposed to weigh 65 stones each, at 6s. per stone, 40 Old Ewes, at 40s., .... be calculated L.25 0 0 61 5 0 7 10 0 390 0 0 80 0 0 Carried forward, L.563 15 0 OPERATIOIS^S m ORDER OF TIME. 771 50 Gimmers, ] 90 Dinmonts, j Wool, 2148 lb. at Is., Brought forward, L.563 15 0 280 0 0 107 8 0 Net annual return of Live-stock, L.951 3 0 ABSTRACT. Vegetable produce, L.1075 6 8 Live-stock, .... 951 3 0 L.2026 9 8 If, from the gross produce as above. L.2026 9 8 Be deducted the expenditure in money, . 1639 15 Oi The net return to the farmer will be. L.386 14 V| Out of which sum he must maintain himself, and bear the hazard of bad debts, unforeseen losses, and the general casualties of trade. Should the produce be assumed to be less, or the capital or ex- penses greater, the amount of rent will be in a corresponding de- gree diminished ; and vice versa^ should the amount and rates of produce be greater, or the capital and expenses less. 5. OPERATIONS OF THE FARM IN THE ORDER OF TIME. The operations of the farm, connected with tillage and the management of live-stock, have been described ; but we have yet to consider these operations in the order of time in which they succeed to one another. This review will tend to render more precise a previous knowledge of details, and to lessen that per- plexity which is often experienced by those who are brought to the study of practice for the first time, and see so many different labours carried on together, and without apparent order. It will here suffice to detail the most important of these labours, as they 772 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. occur in a well-ordered farm, employed partly in tillage, and partly in tlie rearing and feeding of live-stock, and managed according to the system of agriculture which has been especially described in this work. But in speaking of farm-labours proper to pecu- liar months and periods, it is to be observed that great allow- ances must be made for the state of the weather, the forwardness or backwardness of the season, and the climate of the farm. November. The month of November may be said to be the commencement of the farmer’s year. By this time the labours of his harvest have been completed, and his produce has been secured ; and he is now proceeding to prepare the ground for the crop of another season. There are to be considered the state of the farm at the commencement of this month with respect to labour and live-stock, and the principal operations during its continuance. Livestock . — The cattle may be supposed to consist of cows ; of a certain number of calves ; of a certain number of the steers and heifers of the preceding year, termed therefore one-year-olds, as having completed their first year, but now approaching to the end of their second year ; of a certain number of steers and heifers which have completed their second year, and are therefore termed two-year-olds, though now approaching the end of their third year : and of a bull. The two-year-old steers and heifers are now arrived at maturity ; the heifers intended for breeding have received the male in the course of the season, and the older steers are ready for final fattening. As the month of October had advanced the pastures had begun to fail, and by the termination of the month the various cattle had been put in their respective houses, yards, and stalls. The cows which had borne calves in the early part of the year, had been put in the cow-house and tied in their respective stalls, — straw, and a limited proportion of succulent food, as turnips, having been supplied to them. OPEKATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 773 The calves which were horn in the early part of the year, had been put in one or more yards with sheds, had been w^ell littered, and had received straw as their provender, with an allowance of turnips. The steers and heifers of the preceding year, now turned their first year, and approaching the end of their second year, had also been put into yards with sheds. They had likewise been plen- tifully littered, receiving straw as provender, with an allowance of turnips. The older cattle, namely, those that have completed their second year, had been treated thus : — Such of them as were heifers to be retained for breeding, had been separated from the males in the preceding spring, had received the male as they came into season in spring and the early part of summer, and, being with calf, had been put into yards with sheds, to be tied to their re- spective stalls, when within a few weeks of calving. The steers, again, which are now to be finally fattened, had either been tied in stalls, or put into yards with sheds, in either case receiving a full allowance of turnips or other nourishing food. The bull had been put into a shed or yard by himself, receiv- ing straw for provender, and a sufficient supply of turnips. Such may be supposed to be the arrangement of the cattle at the commencement of the month of November. The same treat- ment with respect to them is to be continued during the entire month : — The cows and heifers are to receive straw, with a mo- dified allowance of turnips : the calves and steers straw, with a full allowance of turnips. The sheep, again, consisting, it may be assumed, of a regular breeding stock of ewes, may be supposed to have been arranged and treated thus : — The ewes, consisting partly of sheep that had borne lambs, had, by the 10th of October, tlie rams admitted to them. At the beginning of November, the rams and ewes are still pasturing together, receiving no other food but grass ; and by the middle of the month the rams are withdrawn. The lambs born in spring, now termed ewe and wether hoggets, had, on the failure of the pastures in October, been penned on 774 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. turnips. At the beginning of November they continued pen- ned on turnips, the province of the shepherd being to attend to them as well as to the other sheep, and to shift the pens when necessary. The horses, in the month of October, had been put upon their full allowance of hay and corn. At the beginning of November they are receiving full feeding, but before the middle of the month, when the hours of labour become short, the hay may be with- drawn, straw substituted, and the allowance of oats reduced to the half of the former quantity. By the beginning of the month the colts had been put into their yards, or into a paddock with a shed, receiving straw or hay as provender, with any succulent roots, as turnips and potatoes. The swine and poultry are receiving their usual food. The pigs are fattened at all times ; and the poultry receive their re- gular supplies of food in their yard : and as the same method of management continues throughout the year, the feeding of this class of stock need not be again adverted to. Labour . — As soon as the season of harvest was over, and the crop secured, the operation had been begun of ploughing the stubble-land — that is, the land which, having borne a crop of corn, is intended to be in summer-fallow, or fallow-crops, as turnips and potatoes, in the following year. At the beginning of November, then, the stubble-land is being ploughed, and this operation is continued throughout the month, the horses being kept regularly employed at this work, unless interrupted by frost or snow, or otherwise necessarily engaged. The thrashing of the crop is now carried on, so as to supply straw for litter and provender in a regular manner to the cattle. The corn is prepared and carried to market, that being retained which is required for feeding the stock upon the farm. At the commencement of and during the month, turnips are carried home in carts to the stock in the houses and yards, every two or three alternate drills being taken up for the cattle, while OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 775 the remainder is left in the ground for the sheep which may be penned in the field. This is the fitting season for pruning hedges, cleaning ditches, and performing other operations upon the live-fence. Hedger and ditcher work are, therefore, carried on during all the month of November, and draining and any kind of work by the spade. The work of the hedger is continued for the greater part of winter when the weather allows, in spring, in the early part of summer and autumn ; and draining and other spade-work are carried on at every convenient season. These labours of the farm, there- fore, need not be afterwards referred to. Winter being now at hand, it will be prudent to secure a sup- ply of fuel, which the horses may be employed to bring home when they are not otherwise occupied. These, then, have been the principal labours of the farm dur- ing the month of November, which may be said to be the first month of the winter quarter : — The cattle and sheep of all kinds have been receiving their winter food; the horses, from a full allowance of hay and corn, have been put upon straw and a smaller allowance of corn ; the operation of thrashing has been carried on ; the horses have been chiefly employed in ploughing the stub- ble-land for the fallow-crops and summer-fallow of the next year ; the hedger has been engaged in repairing the hedges, and spade-work when required has been going on ; and a supply of fuel has been provided against approaching winter. December. Livestock . — The cows are in the cow-houses ; the young cattle in their yards ; the feeding cattle in their houses or yards as be- fore ; and they are all kept and treated in the same manner through- out the month. The ewes are, as before, on grass, but in snows or hard frosts they receive an allowance of hay. The ewe and wether hoggets are penned on turnips as before, and are kept so during the month. 776 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM, The hours of daylight, and consequently of labour, being short, the horses are still fed on straw, and receive their modified al- lowance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock receiv- ing straw or hay, with an allowance of green food, and are kept so during the month. Labour . — The ploughing of the stubble-land continues during this month when the weather allows ; and, in ordinary circum- stances, it may be calculated that all the land intended for fallow and fallow-crops has been ploughed before the termination of the month. Thrashing is continued throughout the month so as to supply the stock regularly with straw, and the grain is carried to market in proportion as it is got ready. The wheat and barley straw is used chiefly for litter, and the grain is sold. The oat-straw is used for fodder, but instead of all the oats being sold, a portion of them may now be stored in the granary for the purpose of being used for seed in spring. A quantity of turnips should be pulled to be ready for the cattle in case of frost and snow. A portion should be placed either in a store in the open air, or, which is better, under a shed. Those given to the older fattening stock should be cut by the tur- nip- sheer. Towards the end of the month, should the weather not admit of ploughing, the carts are to be employed in carrying out dung from the yards, to be piled in heaps in the fields in which the tur- nips and other fallow* crops are to be grown in the following year. During the month of December, then, the stock of all kinds have been put on their winter food ; the horses have been on short day’s work, and on their winter allowance of corn and straw ; they have been employed in ploughing the remainder of the stubble- land, in bringing home turnips to the stock, in carrying corn to market, and towards the end of the month in taking, out dung from the farm-yards. December may be said to be the dead season of the farmer’s OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 777 labour, and yet it is not witliout its objects of interest and soli- citude. The farmer is engaged in realizing his profits ; his ani- mals of different kinds are feeding under his care ; and he is soon to look to the more active labours of spring. January. Live-stock . — The cattle are still in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month ; turnips being brought home, and a store kept in reserve as formerly. Some of the cows may calve during this month, especially towards the end of it. They are to be well attended to at this time ; and the calves separated from them at the birth, and fed on new milk three times in the day. The ewes are on grass-land, receiving hay when the weather renders it necessary. The ewe and wether hoggets continue penned on turnips as during the previous month. The horses are on straw, and are receiving their short allow- ance of corn. The colts are in their yard or paddock, and are fed as before. Labour . — The stubble-land intended for fallow and fallow- crops may be supposed to have been ploughed by the end of the last month. The land in grass intended to be sown with oats in spring, may now, therefore, be begun to be ploughed, and the horses kept engaged in this operation when the weather allows, and when they are not otherwise necessarily engaged. ^ Corn is to be thrashed to furnish straw for provender and litter, as during the preceding month. Wheat and barley are to be sent to market as usual, and the storing of oats for seed may be continued. Turnips are brought home to the cattle in the houses and yards as formerly ; and dung, when the weather will not admit of ploughing, is carried out from the yards. 778 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. These, then, have been the principal operations in the month of January : — The cattle have been fed on straw and turnips as in the former month ; the ewes have been kept on grass, receiving hay during hard frost and snow ; the ewe and wether hoggets have been penned on turnips as before ; the horses have been kept on straw and their short allowance of corn ; the thrashing of the corn has been proceeding ; the grass-land intended for oats has been ploughed as the weather has allowed ; and the dung has been carried out from the yards. February. Live-stock . — The cattle are in their houses and yards, and are fed as during the last month. The cows will calve during this month, and must be carefully attended to. The ewes are on grass ; but after the middle of the month they should have turnips carried to them in the fields in which they are pasturing, so as to prepare them for the lambing season by the middle of next month. The ewe and wether hogs are penned on turnips as before. By the middle of the month, if not sooner, the horses should be put again upon hay, and receive their full allowance of corn, in preparation for their work in spring. Labour. — The ploughing of grass-land intended for oats pro- ceeds during the month, and it is usual that the land which is to be first sown shall be first in the order of being ploughed. Corn as before is thrashed, so as to afford straw regularly for provender and litter. The corn which is still for sale is carried to market ; the oats which it is yet necessary to reserve for seed are stored. Barley, too, may now be stored, in preparation for the sowing of barley in April. The land from which turnips have been cleared is now to be formed into ridges ; and in frosty weather, when the ploughs can- OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OP TIME. 779 not work, the dung is to be carried from the yards to the fields as formerly. If spring-wheat is to be sown upon the land that has been in turnips, it may be done when the land is dry and the weather fa- vourable ; and should there be beans to be sown, the land may be worked, and the beans sown when the ground is dry. The following, then, have been the principal ^operations in the month of February : — The cattle have been kept in their houses and yards, feeding as formerly ; the cows have been attended to when calving ; the young sheep have been on turnips, and the ewes have received turnips after the middle of the month ; the horses have been put on their full work, and have received their full allowance of food ; corn has been thrashed in proportion as the stock has required straw for provender and litter ; the grain has been sold or stored for seed ; the land in grass has been ploughed for oats ; the cleared turnip-land has been formed into ridges, and where spring-wheat was to be sown, that has been done ; if the weather has allowed, the land intended for beans has been worked, and the beans have been sown ; and in frosty weather dung has been carried out from the yards. March. Live-stock . — The cattle are still in their yards, and feeding as before. During the month all the cows may be supposed to have calved. The additional calves required are to be purchased, the best and earliest that can be obtained. The ewe and wether hoggets are on turnips as before. The ewes will now begin to lamb. They have been hitherto receiving turnips, but as they lamb they are transferred with their young to new grass. The male lambs are castrated in lots when about eight days old. The horses are on full work, and are receiving their full allow- ance of hay and corn. The colts are receiving hay. 780 GENERAL ECONOMY OP THE FARM. Labour . — The corn is thrashed throughout the month to sup- ply straw. The grain is sold, except such of the oats or barley as are required for seed, or the purposes of the farm. If any of the grass-laud intended for oats has not yet been ploughed, it must now he done ; and any turnip-land cleared of turnips, and not yet ploughed, must now be ploughed. The oats are now to be sown as soon in the month as the land is sufficiently dry : the late ripening sorts being the first in the order of sowing, and next the more early. Tares are to be sown in portions, at intervals of ten days or a fortnight, so that they may be ready in succession in summer and autumn. The land intended for potatoes may now be cross- ploughed. Towards the end of the month, if the weather and state of the ground allow, the grass and clover seeds may be sown amongst the growing wheat. The land is to be harrowed, and it may at the same time be rolled : but the rolling may be delayed until the month of April. The dung intended for the early-rsown turnips should now be turned over, to hasten the pu- trefactive process. These, then, have been the principal operations of the month of March : — The cattle have been fed on straw and turnips as be- fore ; the calves have been fed on new milk ; the young sheep have been fed on turnips ; the ewes, after lambing, have been transferred with their young to new grass ; the horses have been fully worked and fed ; the corn has been thrashed, and barley stored for seed ; any remainder of the grass-land not yet ploughed has been ploughed, and also any land cleared of turnips ; oats have been sown, and tares in portions at intervals; grass and clover seeds, if the weather has been favourable, have been sown amongst the growing wheat ; and the dung for early turnips has been turned. OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 781 April. Live-stock . — The cattle are still in their yards, and are fed as before ; the calves are receiving milk, with such nourishing sub- stances in addition as may enable the milk of each cow to bring up two calves. The ewes are now on new grass with their lambs. At the com- mencement of the month, the ewe and wether hoggets are still on turnips, but by the middle of the month they are removed from turnips, and put on grass. The horses are on full work, and receive a full allowance of hay and corn. The colts that have reached their third year may now be taken up and trained to work ; or they may be allowed another summer’s grass, and be taken up for training in autumn. Mares will foal during this month. Labour.— If any part of the oats had not been sown during the preceding month, they are now to be sown ; if the grass and clover seeds had not been sown amongst the growing wheat, they are now to be sown. The potato-land which had been cross-ploughed in the pre- ceeding month, is to be ploughed again, harrowed, and otherwise worked, and the potatoes are to be planted. The land which had been for some time cleared of turnips and ploughed, receives a second ploughing or seed-furrow ; that which is just cleared may receive only one ploughing. The barley is sown, the grass and clover seeds are sown and harrowed, and the land is rolled. If the wheat-land had not been rolled at the time of sowing the grass-seeds, it may now be rolled. The land in new grass, and intended to be mown, is to have the stones upon the surface gathered, and to be rolled. The barley being sown, and that as early in the month as pos- sible, the preparation of the land for turnips commences ; but it is proper that the land intended for summer-fallow should also at this time receive one ploughing, so as to keep down the growth 782 GENERAL ECONOMY OP THE FARM. of weeds, and facilitate the subsequent preparation of the ground ; therefore the whole land intended for summer-fallow and turnips is now to be ploughed,- — the land intended for turnips in the first place, and across, — the land intended for summer-fallow length- wise, so as to preserve the former ridges. In preparing the land for turnips, that intended for the early- sown kinds is to he first worked, and care must he taken that the dung to be applied he in a proper state of preparation. If the dung is not so, the heap must he turned a second time ; and the heaps intended for the later-sown turnips must also he turned. The cattle being in their yards during the whole of this month, the thrashing of corn, so as to yield straw for provender and lit- ter, has been proceeding as hitherto. These, then, have been the principal operations in the month of April : — The cattle have been fed in their yards with straw and turnips ; the calves have been receiving milk ; the ewes and lambs have been fed on new grass, and the ewe and wether hog- gets, after having been fed on turnips till about the middle of the month, have been put also on grass ; oats have been sown, if they have not already been sown ; the potato-land has been planted ; the land cleared of turnips has been ploughed, and the barley and the grass and clover seeds have been sown ; all the land which it is necessary to roll has been rolled, namely, the barley-land, the new grass-land intended for mowing, and the wheat-land which had not been previously rolled ; the land in- tended for turnips and summer-fallow has been ploughed, and the heaps of dung for turnips have been turned ; and corn has been thrashed in the quantity necessary to furnish straw for the live- stock. May. Live-stoclc,—~At the commencement of the month, the cattle are in their yards and are fed as before. By the middle of the month, the former year’s calves, now OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 783 yearling steers, and the two-year-old steers, if the grass is suffi- ciently advanced, are turned out to pasture ; the cows are turned out to pasture ; and here it may he observed, that if there are any of the two-year-old cattle which are heifers from which it is wished to breed, they must he separated from the steers of the same age, and placed amongst the cows, and when they come into season, if they have not already done so, they must receive the male. During this month the older cows should all have received the male, so that they may calve in the following Fe- bruary. With respect to the fattening oxen now turned their third year, and consequently three-year-olds, these may he fed during the month as long as there are turnips sufficient for them, and then sold. During this month the mares should all have received the male, so that they may foal in the subsequent month of April. The colts are turned out for the season to grass. As the weather becomes warm, the sucking calves may be turned out to a small paddock. After being weaned in their fourth month, they are turned out to feed for the remainder of the season, along with the cows and other stock. The sheep of all kinds at the commencement of the month were on grass, and they continue to he pastured in their respec- tive fields during the month. By the end of it, the fat sheep, if ready, may be washed and shorn, or else these operations are de- ferred til] the beginning of June. The horses are in their stables and receive their full allowance of hay and corn. Labour . — Should any of the barley not have been sown dur- ing the last month, it must now, together with the grass-seeds, be sown ; and if the stones have not been gathered from the new grass, this must he done. The land planted with potatoes is to have the drills levelled by the harrows passing over them. But the main labour of this month is the preparation of the land for turnips, which is to he 784 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. done for the different kinds of turnips respectively, in the order in which they are to be sown ; the first in the order of sowing- being the Swedish turnips, the second the yellow turnips, and the third the Avhite. The land, then, intended for Swedish turnips, which had been cross-ploughed in the preceding month, is to he again ploughed, harrowed, rolled, cleaned, and made ready for being formed into drills ; and the dung being applied, the seeds are sown. The working of the other turnip-land is then to be proceeded with, so that it may be ready for being sown af the beginning of June. This land had received one ploughing in the month of April ; it now receives another ploughing, and is thoroughly worked by harrowing, rolling, and gathering of weeds ; and if this be not sufficient, it receives further ploughings, with such harrowing, rolling, and gathering of weeds as are sufficient to prepare it for being formed into drills. The preparation of the land for turnips will usually occupy the month of May, and lead into the month of June, but every effort which the state of the weather allows should be used to get the land as far as possible prepared during the month of May. In this month the operation of thrashing has become partial ; and towards the middle of the month when the cattle are turned out to grass, it may be said to have nearly ceased for the sea- son. The barn-yard of the farmer, indeed, may be generally con- sidered to be cleared in this month, except to the extent of such stacks as may be reserved for thrashing for litter in summer, and for affording straAv for thatching the new stacks when harvest arrives. The middle of this month is the usual period for farm-servants to enter into their new situations, or change from the old. It is then, too, that the farmer will most conveniently balance his yearly accounts. The more active period of the household dairy begins with the month of May, and continues till the end of October, when the cows are put on their winter food. OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 785 During this month the land in oats should be weeded, bands of females or young persons passing along the ridges with the weed-hook. In the month of May, then, the following have been the prin- cipal labours of the farm : — The sheep have been kept at gracs during the month, and towards the middle of it the cows and steers have been turned out to their respective fields ; the fat cattle have been disposed of ; the cows have received the male, . and so likewise have the mares ; the calves receiving milk have been turned out to their little paddock : if any barley-land has not been sown, or stones have not been gathered, it has now been done ; the preparation of the turnip-land has been proceeded with, and the early-sown turnips have been sown ; the potato-drills have been levelled ; the corn has been weeded ; the thrashing of corn has been carried on in so far as it has been necessary ; and the operations of the household dairy have been attended to. June. Live-stock . — The cows and steers are pastured in the field during the month. All the calves will be weaned during this month, and turned out to graze for the remainder of the season. Such of the cows, heifers, and mares as have not received the male now receive him. At the beginning of the month the horses should receive green forage, and towards the middle of it they may be put at night in the pasture-field. At the beginning of the month the ewes with their lambs, and the ewe and wether hoggets, are at grass in their respective en- closures ; and at or before the beginning of the month they are washed, and in eight days afterwards shorn. In ten days, or as soon as convenient after shearing, the Avether-hoggets, now dinmonts, and such of the ewe-hoggets, now gimniers, as are not to be retained on the farm for breeding, may be sold. 786 GENERAL ECONOMY OP THE FARM. The wool which has been shorn is to he put in a dry place, and sold as soon as a market olFers. Labour . — The turnip-land, in so far as it has not been worked during the previous month, is now to he worked. As soon as it is ready to be formed into drills, the dung is to he spread and the seeds sown, the yellow turnips being the first in order of being sown, and then the white. The potatoes are to he horse and hand hoed. The summer-fallow is tor receive its cross-ploughing, and then to he well harrowed, all weeds being carefully gathered. After this, the further working of the summer-fallow proceeds as ex- peditiously as the nature of the weather, and state of the labour upon the farm, allow. The turnips are to he horse and hand hoed for the first time. Lime is also being got forward to the land which is to he limed. These, then, have been the principal operations of the month of J une : — The cattle have been put to grass ; the females not yet covered have received the male ; the horses have been put on green forage ; the sheep have been shorn, and the dinmonts, and the gimmers not reserved for breeding, have been sold ; the wool has been disposed of as a market offered ; the turnip-land has been worked, and the turnips have been sown, the potatoes and -turnips have been horse and hand hoed ; the summer-fallow has been worked, and lime got forward. July. Livestock . — The whole of the cows, oxen, and weaned calves, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The horses continue to receive green forage during the day, and may he permitted to pasture in the fields at night ; and this method of feeding may he continued during the month. But their work having become easy towards the middle of the mouth, their allowance of corn may be lessened. OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OP TIME. 787 At the commencement of the month the ewes with their lambs are in their former fields of grass ; by the middle of the month the lambs are weaned; and from this time forward the lambs, now termed hogs or hoggets, are kept separate from the breed- ing ewes. Labour In the early part of the month the hay, when ready, is mown ; it is worked, put into cocks, and then put into ricks in the field ; or else it is carried at once from the cocks to the stack. In the mean time, the fallow-land is worked as the state of the weather allows. It received its first ploughing lengthwise, in April ; it received its next ploughing across, immediately on the preparation of the turnip-land being finished, when it was well harrowed and worked ; it is again ploughed and further harrowed and cleaned ; and it is again ploughed, worked, and formed into ridges. When thus prepared, it is ready to receive the dung, which being spread is covered by a ploughing. During this month, too, lime is brought forward to the fallow- land. It is laid in large heaps in the field to be slacked ; it may be applied at the same time at which the dung is applied, or at a later period. During the month, the turnips are again horse and hand hoed ; and, by the end of the month, they may be set up by the double mould-board plough. The potatoes, too, during this month are horse and hand hoed, and by the end of the month they are set up. These, then, have been the principal operations of the month of July : — The lambs have been weaned ; the hay has been mown, TTorked, and placed in ricks ; the fallow-land has been w^orked and dunged, and lime has been brought forward ; and the turnips and potatoes have been horse and hand hoed. 788 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. August. Live-stock . — The cows, steers, and calyes, are at grass, and are kept so during the month. The ewes are at grass in their own fields, and the ewe and wether hoggets in theirs. The old ewes which are to he sold may now he selected from the rest of the flock, and marked for that purpose by the marking-iron ; and, at the same time, all the other sheep may have their distinguishing mark put upon them. The horses are receiving green forage, and, when the first crop of clover is consumed, they may receive tares until the second crop is ready. They may still he allowed to remain in the fields at night. Labour . — In so far as the working of the fallow-land has not been performed during the last month, it is now to be done. Should the turnips not have been set up during the last month, they are now to be set up. The hay, when ready, is to he brought home to the barn-yard and stacked. The corn now becoming ripe, preparation is to be made for thatching the stack, by forming the straw into hunches and mak- ing straw-ropes. Reapers having been engaged, the operations of the harvest are commenced and carried on in proportion as the corn is ripe. The corn that has been reaped is, as soon as it is ready, carried home to the barn-yard and stacked. These, then, have been the principal operations during the month of August : — The cows, steers, and calves, have been kept on grass ; the old ewes intended to he sold have been selected and marked, and all the sheep have been likewise marked ; the labouring of the turnip-land and summer-fallow, in so far as it was not done in the preceding month, has been completed ; the hay has been carried home to the barn-yard and stacked ; the straw, in preparation for the thatching of the stacks, has been OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME- 789 got ready, and the harvest operations have been begun and pro- ceeded with. September. Live-stock . — The cows, calves, and steers, are all at grass, and are kept so during the month. ' All the sheep are likewise at grass during the month ; but before the end of it, the old ewes which had been marked for sale, may be sold. The horses are kept on green forage. As the month advances, they are taken up from grass at night, and kept in the stable ; and, at the end of the month, they are put again on hay and hard food. Labour . — The reaping of the corn, in so far as it is not com- pleted, proceeds with activity during this month, and it is carried home to the barn-yard as it becomes ready. The lime, if not previously applied, is laid upon the summer- fallow land, which then receives the seed-furrow, and is sown. These, then, have been the principal labours of the month of September : — The old ewes have been sold, and, towards the close of the month, the horses have been put on winter food ; the ope- rations of the harvest have been carried forward ; lime has been applied to the fallow-land ; and the wheat has been sown. October. Live-stock . — At the beginning of the month, the cows, calves, and steers are at grass, but as the month advances the cows may be taken up at night and receive green forage in the house. Before the 10th of the month the rams are admitted to the ewes and gimmers. At the commencement of the month, the ewe and wether hoggets are still at grass, but towards the end of it, when the pastures fail, they are penned on turnips. 790 GENERAL ECONOMY OP THE FARM. Towards the end of the month, too, as the pastures fail, the cows, calves, and steers are put finally into their winter-houses and yards ; namely, the cows into their cow-house ; the calves into a yard with sheds ; the year-old steers, if not ready to be finally fattened, likewise into yards with sheds ; and the two-year old steers into their stalls, or into small yards and sheds ; the bull into a separate yard and shed ; and the colts into their yard or paddock. Labour , — If the wheat had not been sown during the last month, it is now to be sown. After the stubbles are cleared of corn, the operation of plough- ing the stubble-land commences, and is proceeded with till all the land intended for fallow and fallow-crops is ploughed. The cattle being put into their respective yards, the process of thrashing for fodder and provender commences, and is con- tinued throughout the winter. These, then, have been the principal operations of the month of October : — The male has been admitted to the ewes and gim^ mers ; the ewe and wether hoggets have been put on turnips ; the cows, calves, steers, and colts, have been put into their respec- tive yards and stalls ; the ploughing of the land to be in fallow and fallow-crops, has been carried on, and the thrashing of the corn has commenced. The whole of this series of labours may be said to be compre- hended in four periods, corresponding with the four quarters of the year, — winter, spring, summer, and autumn. The winter quarter comprehends the months of November, December, and January ; the spring quarter, the months of February, March, and April ; the summer quarter, May, June, and July ; and the autumn quarter, August, September, and October ; each of these periods being distinguished by labours peculiarly its own. During the winter quarter, the cattle of different kinds are put into their yards, houses, and stalls, and fed on straw and tur- OPERATIONS IN THE ORDER OF TIME. 791 nips, or other succulent food : and the horses are put on their winter provender, consisting of straw with a short allowance of corn. The breeding ewes, having previously received the male, are kept on grass, and receive hay in hard frosts and snow ; and the young sheep are penned on turnips. The main employment of the horses is ploughing the stubble- land for the next year’s fallow and fallow-crops, and ploughing the grass-land, which is to be sown with oats in spring ; they are further employed in taking corn to market, in bringing tur- nips to the stock in the yards and stalls, and, after the quarter is somewhat advanced, in carrying dung from the yards to the fields which are to be in fallow and fallow-crops. Hedger and ditcher work, and draining and spade work of all kinds, proceed during this and the other quarters. In the spring quarter, comprehending the months of February, March, and April, the cattle are kept in the yards with their al- lowance of straw and turnips, or other succulent food. The cows calve, if they have not done so in the last quarter. The ewes, when the period of lambing approaches, receive turnips ; about the middle of the quarter they lamb, and are then put on new grass ; and the young sheep are kept penned on turnips till April, when they are turned out to pasture for the season. The labour of the farm now becomes active ; the horses are put upon their full allowance of corn and hay ; the oats are sown ; the potatoes are planted ; the barley and grass-seeds are sown ; the land in wheat and barley, and the land in new grass, are rolled, and that intended for summer-falloAV and fallow-crops receives its first spring-ploughing. During this quarter, too, the thrashing of corn is carried on ; and the dung is taken from the yards. The summer quarter comprehends the months of May, June, and July. Soon after the commencement of the quarter, the fat cattle are sold ; the cows and cattle in the yards are turned out to pasture ; the cows and mares that have not received the male, receive him. As the quarter advances, the calves are 792 GENERAL ECONOMY OF THE FARM. weaned and turned out to graze ; the sheep are washed and shorn ; the young fat sheep are disposed of, and the wool is sold ; and, before the conclusion of the quarter, the lambs are weaned. The labour of this quarter commences with bringing forward any part- of the spring operations not completed, and afterwards consists chiefly in working the turnip-land, in hoeing turnips and potatoes, and in preparing and manuring the summer-fallow. The hay, too, is mown and ricked. Regular thrashing ceases soon after the commencement of the quarter. The horses are put on green food ; and, after the labour of tilling the turnip- land is over, they are put upon a short allowance of corn. This, too, and the following quarter, are the active season of the house- hold dairy. The autumn quarter comprehends the months of August, Sep- tember, and October. The cattle are kept on grass during this period till towards the conclusion of it, when they are put in their houses and yards, and fed on straw and turnips, or other succulent substances. The horses, too, are put upon their winter food. The ewes are kept in their enclosures ; and, about the middle of the quarter, the oldest and worst of them may be sold, their place being supplied by the younger ewes, which had been retained for that purpose ; the breeding ewes receive the male ; the lambs, now ewe and wether hoggets, are kept in their enclo- sures until the end of the quarter, when they are taken from grass and fed on turnips. The labours of the quarter commence with bringing forward the work of the former quarter, and in securing the hay ; the reaping and stacking of the corn proceed ; the wheat is sown ; the stubble-land is ploughed : And thus again begins the circle of the labours of the Farm. INDEX. Abies alba Page 497 Animal manures Page 102 Balsamea . 470 Anthoxanthum odoratum 520 communis 469, 497 Ants 558 nigra .. 497 Apple, . 471, 473 Picea 470, 497 wild 474 Acacia . . 467 Apricot 471 Acer platanoides . 498 April, operations of 781 Pseudo-platanus . . 498 Arachis hypogaea 450 saccharinum . 456 Arctium Lappa 51, 532 Acerinese . 457 Arenaria rubra 49 Achillea Millefolium 61, 528 Argillaceous soils 15 ^-Esculus Hippocastanum ; 498 Arrhenatherum avenaceum 522, 537 Agrostemma Githago . 532 Arrow-grass, marsh , 50 Agrostis alba . 50, 521 , 537, 554 Artemisia vulgaris 465 vulgaris . 48 Artichoke, Jerusalem 428 Ainslie’s tile-machine . . 262 Arundo Phragmites 50 Aira caespitosa . 50 Asclepias syriaca . 443 caryophyllea . 49 Ash, blue 498 cristata . . . 49 common 498 praecox . 49 mountain . 476, 498 Alcohol 472, 476 white 498 Alder, common 498, 738 Ashes, coal 100 Ale . . 475 Dutch 99 Alluvial soils 5, 41 peat 98 Almond oil . 450 sea-weed 99 tribe 470, 474 wood 98 Alnus glutinosa . 498 Aspen . 498 Aloe . 444 Ass 569 Alopecurus geniculatus . 50 Astragalus boeticus 480 pratensis 51, 520 August, operations of 788 Alum . 74 Avena brevis 347 Alumina 14, 18, 74 elatior . 522 Amentaceae . 480 fatua 532 Ammonia . 102 nuda 347 Ammophila arundinac^a . 50 oriental is 347 Amygdalaceae . 472 sativa 347 Amygdalus persica . 470 strigosa 346 Anas aegyptiaca . 713 Axe 205 anser . 712 boschas . 709 Bacon 697 canadensis . 713 Balm 479 galericulata . 711 Balsam, Canadian 470 raoschata . 711 Carpathian 470 olor . 714 ■ Hungarian 470 Animals, rearing and feeding of 569 Barley, 337 794 INDEX. Barley, diseases of . 346 hummeller . 345 Nepaul . 340 period of sowing . 341 place in the rotation . 341 pot or pearl . 346 produce and weight . 345 quantity of seed . 344 reaping . . 344 six-rowed . 339 six-rowed black . 340 six-rowed naked . 340 six-rowed sprat or battle- dore . . 340 straw . 346 two-rowed . 338 two-rowed black . 339 two-rowed naked . 339 two-rowed sprat or battle- dore . . 339 uses . 346 Barnacle . 713 Barn-utensils . . . 320 Barrow, bean . 174 hand . 204 load . 320 sparred . 317 wheel . . 203 Basalt . . 37 Bean, . 358 common . 358 culture . 365 dibbling . 364 diseases of 369 drilling . 360 harvest management of . 368 Heligoland . 359 horse . 359 long-podded . 359 manuring . . 363 May or flat-tick . 359 Mazagan . 359 period of sowing . . 364 place in the rotation . 359 preparation of the land . 360 produce . 368 quantity of seed . 364 small or Essex tick . 359 soil for . 359 sowing . 362 straw . 369 tick . 359 Bean-barrow . 174 Bean drill-machine . 175 Bedstraw, smooth-headed . 49 white water . . 50 yellow or lady’s 49, 455 Beech, common 450, 471, 498, 738 Beer . 476 Beet, 425, 455 culture . 426 Beet, dibbling . . . 426 manuring . . 426 period of sowing . . 426 preparation of the land . 425 sowing . . . 426 storing . . .27 uses . . , 427 Bell-flower, round-leaved . 49 Beilis perennis . . 536 Bent-grass, fine . . 48 marsh . 50, 521, 541 Bere or bigg . . . 339 Beta cicla . . . 455 vulgaris . . 425, 455 Betula alba . . 456, 498 lenta . . . 498 papyracea . . 498 pendula . . . 498 Birch, black . , . 498 canoe . . . 498 common . 456, 498 weeping . . 498 Bird’p-foot trefoil, common . 517 greater . 517 Bitter principle, plants cultivated for their . . . 462 Bitterwort . . . 466 Blood-horse . . .571 Bluebottle, corn . .533 Boetian milk-vetch . . 480 Bog-asphodel, Lancashire . 49 Bone-manure . . . 103 Bone-mill . . .104 Boragineas . . .513 Boring-rod . . . 277 Bos bubulus . . . 594 taurus . . . 594 Bottle, yellow . . .533 Bramble, . , . 542 common dwarf . 479 Brand .... 334 Brassica campestris 381, 396, 445 campestris, Napo-bras- sica . . 382 Napus 381, 396, 445 ^apus esculenta . 382 oleracea . 381, 399 oleracea caulo-rapa . 382 praecox 381, 396, 445 rapa . 381, 396, 445, 455 Break . . . .158 for flax . . . 435 Breast-plough . . . 245 Brier, sweet . . . 479 Bi'oadcast sowing-machine . 173 Broccoli . . 400, 401 Brome-grass, soft . . 536 Bromus mollis . . . 532 Brooklime , . .50 Broom, common 444, 465, 517, 542 Spanish . 444, 518 INDEX. 795 Bruchus granarius 375 Butterwort, common . 50 Bruising-machine 194 Brush, horse 208 Cabbage, . 399 Brushwood fence 731 American . 401 Buckhean 465 broccoli 400, 401 Buckthorn, yellow-berried 456 cauliflower 400, 401 Buckwheat, 379 cow . 400 climbing 535 culture . 402 common 379 j dibbling . 402 notch-seeded 379 Drumhead . 401 period of sowing 380 greens . 400 ploughing down green Jersey cole . 400 for manure 95, 381 large Scottish or York- produce 380 shire . 401 quantity of seed 380 manure . 401 soils for 380 period of sowing . 402 stem of 380 preparation of the land 401 Tartarian 379 Savoy . 399 uses . 380 thousand-headed . 400 Buffalo, common 594 turnip-stemmed, or Kohl- Buildings of the farm 714 rabi 382, 401 bailiff’s house 722 uses . 402 barns . 717 Caffea arabica . 479 blacksmith’s shop 721 Calcareous soils . 15 boiling-house . 720 Calcium, chloride of . 90 carpenter’s shop 721 Calluna vulgaris 10, 48, 518 cart-shed 721 Camelina, cultivated . 448 * coal-house 721 Camelina sativa . 448 cow-houses 718 Campanula rotundifolia . 49 dairy . 723 Campion, corn . . 534 dressing-barn 717 Canary-grass . 357 elevation of 716 Cankerweed . 537 extent of 715 Cannabis sativa . 437 feeding-sheds 720 Canvass-carrier . 317 granary 718 Capital necessary for the farm 745 ground-plan of 716 Burdens . 764 hay-house 720 Implements and Machines 749 pig-houses 72r Labour . 762 poultry-houses 721 Live-stock . 753 root-house 720 Maintenance of Horses 763 sewer 722 Manures . 761 shelter-sheds . , 718 Produce . 765 situation of 714 Seeds . 760 smithy 721 Capra aegagrus . 686 spare-house . 722 Caraway . 478 stables . 720 Carbon 18 straw-barn 717 Cardamine pratensis . 50 tanks 722 Carex arenaria . 50 thrashing-barn . 717 Carex, sea . 50 tool-house . 721 Carpinus Betulus 498, 738 turnip-shed 720 Carriages, wheel . 197 water for 715 Carrot, . 419 Bunias, oriental 513 Altringham . 420 Bunias orientalis 513 cultivated . 420 Burdock, common 51, , 534 different modes of cultiva- Burnet 527 ting . . 420 Burning, paring and 244 long-red . 420 Burnt-corn 334 manure . . 420 Butter . 631, , 636 orange . . 420 Buttercup 537 period of sowing . 421 Butter-flower 537 preparation of the land 420 Butter-milk 630, , 637 produce . 422 796 INDEX. Carrot, quantity of seed 421 Cichorium Intybus 480, , 512 soil for 420 Cider 473 storing 422 Cider-press 473 uses 422 Cladonia rangeriflna 48 wild . 419 Clayey soils 4 Carses . . 5 Clay-formation, London 39 Cart, single-horse 198 Plastic 38 sparred or corn 200 Clay-marl 82 turn-up . 199 Cleavers 535 water 201 Cleaving of ridges 219 Cart-harness 202 Cleveland Bay breed of horses 572 Carthamus tinctorius 454 Climate and altitude, properties Carum carui 477 of soils as determined by 51 Castanea vesca 498 Close-sieve 320 Casting of ridges 218 Clothier’s teasel 477 Castor-oil plant 450 Clover, creeping white 515 Catabrosa aquatica 50 crimson 515 Catch-weed 535 Egyptian 516 Cat’stail-grass, meadow 521 hybrid 515 Cattle. See Ox. King’s or Hart’s 517 Cattle-racks 618 red 514 Cauliflower 400, 401 seed 550 Cecidomya Tritici . 335 yellow . , 515 Centaurea Cyanus 532 Club-moss, common 48 nigra 537 Clydesdale breed of horses 573 Cereal grasses, 302, 475 Cnicus arvensis , 536 drilling 303 lanceolatus 51, 532 reaping 304 palustris 50 sowing 302 Coal, ashes of . 100 stacking 311 Coal-formation 30 thrashing 316 Cocculus indicus . 465 weeding . 304 Cock, 702 winnowing 318 Bantam 705 Cetraria islandica 48 breeding . 705 Chaff-cutter 193 Chitagong or Malay 705 Chalk . 84 cramming 708 Chalk-formation . 35 Dorking . 704 Chamomile, stinking 534 eggs 706 wild 534 feeding 705 Charlock, 533 game-fowl 704 jointed 533 habits . 702 Cheese, 631, 637 Jungle 702 utensils for making 637 Poland 705 Cheese-press 638 Cockle, corn 534 Chemical analysis, properties of Cocksfoot, hairy . 358 soils as determined by 12 rough 51, 524 Chemistry and vegetable physio- Coffee-plant 479 logy, uses of a knowledge of 132 Cole, . . 381, 396, 445 Chenopodeae 425 early 381, 396 Cherry 471 Jersey 400 Chestnut, horse 498 turnip-rooted 382 sweet 498 Collier, the 369 Chick-pea , 377 Coltsfoot 538 Chickweed, common 51, 534 Columba livia 708 Chisel, pruning 494 Colza 396, 445 Chlorine 18 Comb, mane 208 Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum 536 Comfrey, common 514 segetum 532 prickly ol3 Chunna 377 tuberous-rooted 514 Churn . 634 Compositae 449 ('icer arietinum 377 Composts • 122 index. 797 Coniferse 468, 480 Dactylis glomerata 51, 524 Coriander 449, 478 Dairy, . . 630 Coriandrura sativum 449, 477 apartments of . 632 Corn bluebottle 533 butter 631, 636 campion . 534 buttei’-milk 630, 637 cart 200 cheese 631, 637 cockle 534 cow . 641 drill-machine 170 cream . 631 feverfew 534 curd 630, 640 horse-tail 50 feeding of cows . . 642 marigold 533 milk . 630 measure 320 milk-room . 632 poppy 533 quantity of milk of cow . 643 rose 533 runnet . 638 sow-thistle 540 skim-milk . 631 spurrey . 528, 535 store-room . 632 thistle 538 utensils of 203, 633 Corylus Avellana 471, 498 whey 631, 641 Cotton-grass, broad-leaved 49 work-room . 632 common 49 Daisy, . . 538 hare’s-tail 49 great white . 538 Cotton-grasses . 445, 519 Darnel, bearded . . 536 Cotton-plant 444 perennial . 526 Couch . 542 Daucus carota . . 419 Couch-grass, 541 Dead-hedge . 737 black 521 Dead-nettle, red . 535 Cow, 595, 613 white . 540 dairy 641 December, operations of . 775 quantity of milk of . 643 Deer’s-hair . 519 Cow-grass 515 Digging . 228 Cow-parsnep, common 514 Digitaria sanguinalis . 357 Crab 738 Dipsacus Fullonura . 477 Cradle-scythe 307 Distillation . 476 Crakeberry 48 Ditch . 728 Crataegus Oxyacantha . 498, 727 Dock, . . 540 Cream . 631 broad-leaved . 540 Crocus, saffron 454 Dog’stail-grass, crested . 524 Crocus sativus 454 Domestic economy and the Arts, Crops, preparation of land for 229 plants used in . 476 succession of 283 Dourra . 353 Cross-ploughing 220 Drag . 164 Croton, oflBcinal 455 Draining, . 251 Croton tinctoridm 455 boring- rods . 277 Crowberr^, black 48 Elkington’s system 277 Crowfoot, bulbous 537 furrow . 270 creeping 537 in mountain pastures 556 upright meadoAv 537 surface . 252 Crystalline Schists 24 underground . 252 Cucumber 472 wedge . 260 Cucurbita Pepo 470 Drains, . 252 Cultivators 161 covered . 254 Curd 630 , 640 open . 252 Currant, black 479 sheep . 556 Currant tribe 471 ,474 Drystone-wall . . 725 Currycomb 208 Duck, Chinese . . 711 Cynosurus cristatus 524 domestic . 710 Cyperaceae 519 feeding . 711 Cytisus alba . 518 habits . 710 alpinus 498 hook-billed . 711 scoparius 444 , 465 Muscovy or Musk . 711 798 INDEX. Duck, wild . . * 709 Fences, drystone-wall . . 725 Dung, bird’s 112 gate . 741 farm-yard 113, 235 hedge and ditch . 729 Dung-drag . 207 paling . . 731 Dust-brand 334 stone-wall . 724 Dutch ashes 99 sunk . 741 Dye-plants . 451 Fermented and distilled liquors, Dyer’s oleander , 455 plants cultivated for . 472 weed 453 Fern . 542 Ferruginous soils . 15 Earthnut, American . 450 Fescue-grass, hard . 525 Elater segetis 352 meadow 51, 525 Eleocharis caespitosa 49, 519 sheep’s . 525 Elkington’s system of draining 277 spiked . 525 Elm, common cork-barked , 498 Festuca duriuscula . 525 narrow-leaved English 498 loliacea . 525 Wych 498 ovina . 525 Elymus arenarius 50 pratensis 51, 525 Empetrum nigrum 48 Feverfew, corn . 534 Equisetum arvense 50 Fibres, plants cultivated for their 429 Equus asinus 569 Filices . 537 qaballus 569 Finger-grass . 358 Ergot in rye 337 Finlai<5on’s harrow or grubber 161 Erica cinerea 48 Fiorin-grass 50, 521 Tetralix 48 Fir, Scotch . 468 Ericeae . 518, 537 silver 470, 497 Eriophora 445, 519 Fir-tribe 468, 480 Eriophorum angustifolium 49 Flax, 429, 448 jiolystachion 49 breaking . . 435 vaginatum 49 dew-rotting . 434 Ervum Ervilia 376 for seeds . 436 hirsutum 532 heckling . . 433 Lens 376 New Zealand . 444 monanthos 376 period of sowing . . 431 Esparto rush 444 place in the rotation . 430 Euphorbia helioscopia 532 preparation of the land . 431 Euphrasia officinalis 50 produce . 436 Expenses of the farm 767 pulling . 432 Extirpators 161 purging . . 49 Eyebright 50 quantity of seed . 431 rippling . 433 Faba vulgaris . 358 scutching . , 435 Fagus sylvatica 498, 738 soils for . 429 Fallow-crops 229 steeping . 433 Fallow, summer 229 weeding . 432 Fallowing 229 Flax-lily, Iris-leaved . 444 Farm, artificial divisions of the 724 Food, apparatus for steaming 195 buildings 714 Footpick . 204 capital . 745 Footpicker . 208 expenses and produce 766 Forage and herbage plants . 501 order of operations 771 depasturing of . 545 Farm-yard dung, management of 113 making into hay . 547 mode of applying 235 mixture of seeds for 529 Fasciola hepatica 674 mowing 545, 547 February, operations of 778 period of sowing . 543 Felspar 14 second crop 546, 549 Fences, 724 soiling . 545 brushwood 731 sowing . 543 combination of stone-wall when for seed , 550 and live-fence 740 Fork, dung . 205 dead-hedge 737 long . 206 INDEX. 799 Fork, short . 206 Gowans, yellow 533 stable . 206 Gowlands 533 Fowls, domestic . 702 Grain, machine for bruising 194 gallinaceous . 702 Graine d’Avignon 455 web-footed . 709 Gram 377 Fox-tail grass, floating . 50 Gramineae 457 meadow 51, 520 Granite 24 Fragaria vesca . 470 Grano marzolano . 333 Fraxinus araericana . 498 Grape . . • . 456 excelsior . 498 Grasses, . 520 quadrangulata . 498 cereal . 302, 475 French honeysuckle . 512 for seed 550 Fruits, plants cultivated for their 470 Grass-lands, 543 Furrow-draining . 270 for hay 547, , 551 Furze . 514 for herbage 545 for soiling 545 Galeopsis Tetrahit . 532 irrigation of 559 Galium Aparine . 532 mixture of seeds for 529 palustre 50 mowing 545, 547 saxatile . 49 pasturage . 555 verum . 49, 455 permanent 551 Gallinacese . 702 Grass-seed harrow 159 Gallinaceous fowls . 702 Grass-seeds, sowing of . 332 Gate, farm . 741 Gravel, limestone 84 Gathering of ridges . 217 Gravelly soils . 6 Gault . 36 Green-sand 35 Genista anglica . 48 Greenstone 37 Gentian, yellow . 466 Greenwood, needle 48 Gentiana lutea . 466 Green vitriol 79 purpurea . 466 Grindstone 208 rubra . 466 Grossulaceae 472 Gentianege . 466 Ground-ivy 466 Geological relations, properties of Grubber, 160 soils as determined by their 23 action of the 226 Gilliflower, sea . 50 Finlaison’s 161 Glechoma hederacea . 466 Kirkwood’s 163 Glycyrrhiza glabra . 477 Guano . 112 Goat, . 686 Guinea-fowl 708 domestic . 687 Gypsum 84 flesh . 687 habits . 686 Hainault scythe 309 milk . 687 Hair 680 wild . 686 Hair-grass, ci'ested 49 Golden-flower . 537 early 49 Golden rod, sweet-smelling . 479 silvery 49 Goose, Canadian . 713 turfy 50 Chinese . 713 Haltica nemorum 395 domestic . 712 Hammer 205 Egyptian . 713 Hand-barrow 204 Embden . 713 Hand-hoe 205 feathers . 713 Hard-wood 480 food . 713 Harebell 49 habits . 712 Harrow, 154 Spanish . 713 drill 412 wild . 712 Finlaison’s 161 Gooseberry 471, 474 grass-seed 159 Goose-grass 535, 536 iron 160 Goose-tongue . 535 Harrowing 224 Corse 514, 739 Hawkweed, common mouse-ear 49 Gossypium . 444 Hawthorn 498, 727 Gourd-tribe . 471 Hay, 547 800 INDEX. Hay, mowing foi’ 547 Hog, Essex 692 of bogs 554 feeding 695 of elevated pasture-lands . 555 flitches 697 of marshes . 554 form 692 of permanent grass-land 551 habits 693 of the cultivated grasses 547 hams 697 produce and weight 550 Highland . 690 second crop 549 Lincolnshire 691 stacking^ 548 Maltese 692 working of 548 552 native 690 Hay-knife 207 Neapolitan 692 Hay-tedding machine 553 number to be kept 697 Hay-rake 206 pickling of pork , 697 Hazel . . 450, 471, 498 pork 697 Heath, common 518 rearing 694 cross-leaved . 48 Rudgewick 692 fine-leaved 48 Shropshire 692 Heath-grass, decumbent 50 Siamese 690 Heaths . . 48, 518, 542 Suffolk 691 Heathy soils 48 wild 688 Hedge, 728 Yorkshire.. 691 dead 737 Holcus avenaceus 522 Hedge-knife 733 lanatus 522 Hedge-spade 733 mollis 522. , 537 Hedgerow trees 745 Holly, common . 498, . 739 Hedysarum coronarium 512 Honeysuckle, French 512 Helianthus annuus 449 Hop CO 462 tuberosus 428 Hop-trefoil 515 Hemlock spruce 467 Hordeum distichum 338 Hemp, . 05 448 disticho-zeocriton 339 breaking 442 gymno-distichum 339 culture of 439 gymno-hexastichum . 340 heckling 442 hexastichum . 339 narcotic properties of 438 hexasticho-zeocriton . 340 place in the rotation 438 vulgare 341 period of sowing 439 zeocriton 339 preparation of the land 439 Hornbeam 498, 738 produce 442 Horse, 569, 570 quantity of seed . 439 blood 571 soil for 438 bones of . 576 steeping . 440 breeding 583 taking up the crop 440 breeds 573 uses 438 cart or farm 572 Hemp marsh-mallow 444 Cleveland bay 572 Hemp-nettle, common 535 Clydesdale 573 Heracleum sphondylium 514 comparison with the Ox . 593 Herbage plants. See Forage and food of . . ' 587 herbage plants. form . 574 Herd-grass 521 hackney . 572 Ilieracium Pilosella 49 hunter 572 Hinny 570 mode of feeding . 589 Hoe, hand 207 old English black . 573 horse 180, 181 race 571 Hoeing implements 178 rearing 583 Hog, 688 road . 572 bacon 697 stable 586 Berkshire . 691 Suffolk Punch 573 breeds 690 training . 585 Cheshire 692 varieties . 570 Chinese 690 Horse-brush 208 English, old 691 Horse-chestnut 498 INDEX. 80.1 Ilorse-hoes 180 , 181 j Larcli, common 466 , 469, 497 Horse-knot 539 ! Larix europsea 469 497 Ilorse-rake 309 pendula 497 Horse-scissors 208 Lathyrus, cultivated 377 Horse-tail, corn 50 Lathyrus 516 Hot-lime 86 Aphaca 516 Hummelei’, barley 345 latifolius 516 Ilumulus lupulus 443 , 462 pratensis 516 Humus 10, 16 sativus 377 Hunter 572 sylvestris 516 Laurel, common 499 Iceland moss 48 Portugal 499 Hex Aquifolium 498 , 739 Lavandula Spica 477 Implements of the farm 138 Lavender 479 of manual labour . 203 Leguminous plants 358 prices of 749 Lentil, bastard 376 Indian millet 353 common 376 Indigo . 451 one-flowered 376 Indigofera 451 Lepus americanus 699 Iris-leaved Flax-lily 444 cuniculus 699 Iron 15, 18, 87 tolai 699 Irrigation, 559 Levelling ground. 238 bed-work 562 machine for 243 catch-work ’ . 564 Lias 33 kinds of 561 Light or free soils . 5 meadov.- 561 Lily-tribe 444 theory of 565 Lime, . . 14, 18, 74, 236 warping 568 carbonate of 75 Isatis tinctoria 451 chloride of 91 hot , 86 January, operations of . 777 hydrate of 76 Jersey cole 400 mode of applying 80 parsnep 423 nitrate of 86 Jerusalem artichoke 428 phosphate of . 85 Juglans regia 471, 498 quantity applied 81 July, operations of 786 sulphate of 84 Junceae 519 Limestone, lias and oolitic 75 Junci 542 magnesian 75 Juncus acutiflorus 49, 520 mountain 75 conglomeratus 50, 520 primary 75 effusus 50, 520, 537 tertiary 75 squarrosus 49 transition 75 June, operations of 785 Lime-tree, European 498 red-twigged 498 Kelp 99 Lineae 429 Kidney-bean, common 377 Ling, common . 10 48, 518 King’s-cup 537 Linseed-oil 436, 448 Kirkwood’s grubber 163 Lint 436 Knapweed, black 539 Linum catharticum 49 Knot-grass 535 usitatissimum 429, 448 Kohl-rabi 382, 401 Liquid manure 109 Liquorice, smooth 478 Labour, implements of manual 203 Live-fence, 727 Laburnum 498 cleaning out ditch 735 Ladder . 208 cutting 735 Lady’s smock, common meadow 50 dead-hedge 737 Lamb 660 filling up blanks 737 Lamium album 537 implements for 728, 732 purpureum 532 making 727 Lancashire Bog-asphodel 49 paling 731 Larch, American black 497 period of making 730 3e 802 INDEX. Live-fence, plants for . 727, 738 Manures, animal 192 pruning 734 animal oils 103 weeding 733 ashes of coal . 100 whin 739 peat 98 Load-barrow 320 sea-weed 99 Loams 2, 5 wood 98 Lolium italicum 527 bones . 103 perenne . 51, 526 calcareous gravel 84 temulentum 532 sand 84 London clay-formation 39 chalk . 84 Lotus corniculatus 517 clay-marl 83 major 517 composts 122 tetragonolobus 480 cotton-plant, seeds of 101 Louse-wort, pasture 50 dung of birds 112 Lucerne 506 Dutch ashes 99 Lupine, white . 95 farm-yard dung 113 Lupinus albus 378 fish 103 Lychnis Flos-Cuculi 50 flesh, &c. 102 Lychnis, meadow 50 folding sheep . 125 Lycopodium clavatum 48 graves 108 Lyme-grass, upright sea 50 guano 112 gypsum 84 Machine for breaking flax 435 hair and feathers 107 for bruising grain 194 horn and hoof 107 for levelling ground 243 kelp 99 for raising stones 240 leaves of trees 96 for thrashing 184 lime, and its compounds 74 for winnowing 188 magnesia, and its com- oil-bruising 446 pounds 86 rippling , 433 malt-dust 102 for sowing beans and marl 82 peas 174 mineral 73 corn and grass- night-soil 110 seeds, broadcast 170 oil-cake 101 corn in rows 166 peat 97 turnips, &c. 175 plants ploughed in 95 Madder 452 potassa 88 Madia sativa 449 rape-cake 101 Magnesia, . 15, 18, 86 rock-marl 82 nitrate of 87 roots of plants 96 phosphate of 87 salt 91 sulphate of 87 saltpetre 89 Magnesian limestone . 32, 86 sea-weeds 97 soils 15 seeds and seed-vessels of Maize, . . . 354 plants 100 harvest-labours of 355 shell-marl 83 mode of cultivating 354 shells 108 uses of . 356 soda, and its compounds 89 Mall .... 205 soot 100 Mallard 709 street . 124 Malt .... 475 sugar-scum 109 Malt-dust 102 urine . 109 Malting 476 vegetable 93 Mane-comb 208 wool, skin, &:c. 108 Manganese . . 16, 18, 88 woollen substances 108 Mangel-wurzel 425 Maple, Norway 498 Manna .... 358 sugar 456 Manual labour, implements of 203 jMarch, operations of 779 Manures, 71 i Marigold, corn 533 ammonia 102 i Marl, . 82 analysis of 71 1 clay 83 INDEX. 803 Marl, rock 82 Moorband . 69 shell 83 Moss, Iceland 48 Marl-grass 515 rein-deer 48 Marsh arrow-grass 50 Mosses, 543, 558 bent-grass 50, 521 , 541 mode of destroying . 558 plume-thistle 50 iMould 10 trefoil 466 Mountain limestone . 30 woundwort 50 pastures, . 555 Marshes, hay of 554 draining of . 556 Marsh-mallow, hemp 444 enclosing . 556 Mat-grass 48 live stock for 557 ;Mat-weed 50 manuring . 557 Mattock 204 ]Mouse-ear hawkweed, common 49 Maw-seed 460 Mud-scraper . . - . 207 May, operations of 782 Mugwort . 465 ■Vlay-weed, scentless 534 Mule . 569 Meadow, natural 551 Musci 537, 558 bogs . 554 Mustard, . 447 of elevated districts 555 black 447, 477 marshes 554 white 447, 477 mosses 558 wild . 533 swamps 554 Myrtle-family . • 467 watered 561 Meadow-grass, annual 523 Narcotic principle, plants cultiva- fertile 524 ted for their . 458 floating 50, 358 523 Nardus stricta 48 reed 50 523 Narthecium ossifragum 49 rough-stalked 51, , 523 Natural meadow . 551 smooth-stalked 524 pastures. . 555 Medicago falcata 509 draining of . 556 lupulina 509 enclosing . 556 sativa 506 live-stock for . 557 Medick, black . 509 manuring . 557 yellow sickle 509 Navew, wild 381, 445 Medlar 470 Nectarine . 471 Meleagris gallo-pavo 706 Needle-greenwood . 48 Melica coerulea 48 Nepaul barley . . 340 Melic-grass, pui’ple 48 Nerium tinctorium . 455 Melilot, common yellow 517 Nettle, Chinese or white-leaved 443 long-rooted 517 great . .51, 443, 540 white-flowered 517 Siberian or hemp-leaved 443 Melilotus leucantha 517 small . 535 macrorhiza 517 New Bed sandstone . 32 officinalis 517 New Zealand flax . 444 Melon 472 Nicotiana . 458 Menyanthes trifoliata 466 rustica . 458 Meslin . 336 tabacum . 458 ^letamorphic rocks 24 Night-soil . 110 Milk 630 Norway spruce 469, 497 Milk-room of dairy 632 November, operations of . 772 Milk-vetch, Boetian 480 Numidia Meleagris . 708 Millet, . 352 N ursery . 480 common 353 Indian 353 Oak, 467, 471 ilillstone Grit . 31 common . 498 Mineral manures 73 sessile-fruited . 498 Mint-family 445 Turkey . 498 Mole 558 Oak, white . 498 ]Mole-plough 260 Oat, . 346 Moon-flower 538 Angus, late and early . 349 Moor 4 black . 348 804 INDEX. Oat, Blainslie 349 Ox, Devon 598 blue 348 diseases 628 bristle-pointed 346 Dishley 602 common 347 domestic 595 diseases 352 Durham 604 dun or gray 348 Dutch or Holstein 603 Hopetoun . 349 Falkland or Fifeshire 601 naked 347 feeding 617 period of sowing . 351 feeding in yards 622 place in the rotation 349 form 610 Poland 349 Galloway 597 Potato 348 Glamorgan 599 produce and weight 351 Hereford 599 quantity of seed 351 Highland 596 reaping 351 improvement of breeds 604 red 348 Irish, polled 601 short 347 Kerry 598 soil for 349 kinds of food 624 straw 352 Lancashire 602 Tartarian . 347 Long-horned 602 uses 352 one-year-olds 619 white 348 Pembroke 598 Oat-like grass, common 522, 541 rearing 615 October, operations of 789 sheeted breed of Somersetshire 601 Oil-bruising machine 446 Short-horned 603 Oil-cake . 101, 436, 448 soiling 625 Oil, almond 450 stall-feeding 621 castor 450 Suffolk Dun 601 linseed . . 436, 448 Sussex 598 of turpentine 469 Teeswater 604 olive 450 two-year-olds 621 plants cultivated for 445 weight 627 poppy 449 Welsh 597 Oils, animal 103 Wild or White Forest 596 fixed 445 Zetland and Orkney 596 volatile 445 Ox-eye, great white 538 Oily grain 450 Old English black horse 573 Paling 731 Old Red sandstone 29 Palmipedes 702 Oleander, dyer’s 455 Pan 69 Olive-oil 450 Panicum miliaceum 352 Onobrychis sativa 509 Papaver 449, 460 Oolite 33 V Rhoeas 532 Operations of the farm, order of 771 somniferum 449, 460 Opium 461 album 460 Opium poppy . . 449, 460 nigrum 460 Orge celeste 340 Paring and burning 244 Oryza sativa 356 Parsnep, 423, , 456 Ovis aries 643 cultivated 423 Ox, .... 594 large Jersey 423 Alderney 599 period of sowing 423 Angus, polled 597 preparation of the land 423 Ayrshire 600 seeds 424 bones of . 612 soils for 424 breeding 613 uses 424 breeds 596 wild 423 calves 614 Pastinaca sativa 423, 455 calves fattened 617 Pasturage, 555 Oanley 602 mountain 555 crossing 606 Pasture-lands, . 554 dniry . ... 630 draining of 556 index. 805 Pasture-lands, enclosing of 556 Pinus Laricio . 497 live-stock for 557 Pinaster . 470 manuring 557 Pinea . 470 Pasture lousewort 50 Pumilio . 470 Pavo cristatus . 708 sylvestris 468, 497 Pea, 369 Pistacia terebinthus . 476 boilers 375 Pisum arvense . 369 broad-leaved everlasting 516 sativum . 369 common white or Suffolk 370 Pitch . 469 cultivated 369 Plantago lanceolata . 528 culture 372 Plantain, ribwort . 528 dibbling 371 Planting, . 483 diseases 375 by holes . 485 early Charlton 370 by slits , 484 early gray 370 period of . 486 everlasting 516 Plants, cultivation of . 302 golden Hotspur 370 nutrition of 16 gray 369 Plastic clay-formation . . 38 harvest management of 374 Plough, . 139 manuring 373 breast . 245 narrow-leaved everlasting 516 harness . 153 pearl 370 single-horse . 179 period of sowing . 371 subsoil . 212 place in the rotation 371 Ploughing . 210 preparation of the land 372 Plum 471, 474 produce 374 Plume-thistle, marsh 50 purple winged 480 spear 51, 534 quantity of seed 372 Poa annua . 523 soils for 371 aquatica 50, 523, 554 sowing 372 fertilis . 524 straw 375 fluitans 50, 357 , 523, 554 uses 374 pratensis . 524 Peach 471, , 474 trivialis 51, 523 Peacock 708 Polygonum amphibium 50, 537 Pear 470, , 474 aviculare . 532 Peat, 2, 8, 97 convolvulus . 532 ashes of 98 emarginatum . 379 origin of 8 Pagopyrum . 379 Peaty soils 2, ^ i, 63 tataricum . 379 Pedicular is sylvatica 50 Polytrichum, common . 49 Perry 474 Poly trichum commune . 49 Persicaria, amphibious 50, , 540 Pomaceae 471, 473 Phalaris canariensis 357 Poplar, great white . 498 Phaseolus vulgaris 378 Lombardy . 498 Phasianus gallus 702 Poppy, . 449, 460 Phleum pratense 521 corn or red . 533 Phormium tenax 444 oil of the . . 449 Phosphorus 19, 90 sleep-bringing, oropium449,460 Pickaxe 204 Pop ulus alba . 498 Pigeon, common 708 dilatata . 498 Pigs 694 tremula . 498 Pilcorn or Peelcorn 347 Pork . 696 Pine, cluster 470 Porter . 475 Corsic^an 497 I’otassa, 16, 18, 88 Siberian stone 497 carbonate of . 88 swamp 469 I nitrate of . 89 wild 468, , 497 1 sulphate of . 88 Pinguicula vulgaris 50 ! Potato, . 404, 456 Pintado or Guinea-fowl 708 : American early . 407 Pinus austi’alis 469 ' autumn planting . 416 cembra 497 I Hcdfordsliirc kidney . 407 806 lifDEX. Potato, Bread-fruit . . 407 Cape of Good Hope kidney 407 culture . . 412 curl . . . 418 early champion . . 407 early red . . 407 early shaw . . 407 forcing . . . 407 Lancashire pink . 407 late champion . . 408 lazy-hed system of culture 409 manuring . .411 mode of planting . 405 ox-nohle . . 408 period of planting 412, 415 place in the rotation . 409 planting . .411 preparation of the land . 410 procuring of new varieties 408 . 416 . 412 . 418 . 407 . 409 . 416 . 415 . 408 . 414 . 416 . 527 produce quantity planted recent disease red-apple soils for starch storing . Surinam taking up crojj uses Poterium Sanguisorba Prices of implements and machines 749 Primary rock-formations Produce of the farm Prunella vulgaris Pruning, instruments for Prunus Laurocerasus lusitanica spinosa Prussic acid Puccinia graminis Pumpkin Pyrethrum inodorum Pyrus acerha Aucuparia Malus 25 . 769 . 50 483, 488 . 493 . 499 499 479, 738 . 471 . 334 . 470 . 532 . 738 . 498 . 470 Quartz Quassia (^uercus alha Cerris Robur sessiliflora tinctpria (iuick (Quicklime (iuince tiuinoa 14 466 498 498 498 498 453 542 76 470 427 Rabbit, American b99 699 Rabbit, common . 699 flesh of . . 700 food . 701 form . 701 French . . 701 habits . 699 Siberian . 699 tame . 700 Turkish . 701 warren . . 700 wild . 700 Race-horse . 571 Radish, . 447 common . 447 wild . 533 Ragged Robin . 50 Ragweed . 537 Ragwort, common . 537 Rails . 731 Rake, hay . 206 horse . 309 stubble . 308 Ranunculus acris . . 536 bulbosus . 537 Flammula . 50 repens . 537 Rajje, 381, 396, 445 manuring . 397 j)eriod of sowing . 398 place in the rotation . 398 preparation of the land . 397 soils for . 397 uses . 399 Rape-cake 101, 447 Rape-dust . 447 Raphanus . 447 Raphanistrum . 532 sativus . 447 oleifer . 447 Raspberry . 471 Rattle, common yellow . 50 dwarf red . 50 Rearing and feeding of animals 569 Red-rattle, dwarf 50 Red-weed . 533 Reed, common . . 50 common sea . 50 Reed meadow-grass 50, 523 Rein-deer moss 48 Rent . 766 Reseda Luteola . 453 Resins, plants cultivated for their 468 Resinous trees . 480 Rhamuus infectorius . 455 Rhinanthus Crista-Galli 50 Rhus Coriaria . . 468 Cotinus . 468 Rib-grass . 528 Ribes grossularia . 470 rubrum . 479 Ribwort plantain . 528 INDEX. 807 Kice, Canadian 358 Sandstone, New Red 32 common 356 Old Red 29 Ricinus communis 450 Sandwort, purple 49 Riddle .... 320 Sandy soils 6 Ridges, casting of 218 Saw, 205 cleaving of 219 Indian 494 forming of 213 Scaly-stalked spike-rush 49 , 519 gathering of 217 Scarifiers 161 Rippling-machine 433 Schists, crystalline 24 Robin, ragged . 50 Scissors, horse 208 Rock-formations, 23 Scotch fir 468 primary 25 Scraper, mud . 207 tertiary 38 Scythe, . 207 transition ' 26 cradle 307 secondary 28 Hainault 310 supratertiary 40 Sea carex 50 Rock-mai‘1 82 gilliflower 50 Roller .... 164 lyme-grass, upright 50 Rolling 227 reed, common 50 Root of Scarcity 425 rushy wheat-grass 50 Rosa ruhiginosa 479 Sea-weed, 97 Rosaceae 474 ashes of 99 Rose-family 468 Secale cereale 336 Rubia tinctorum 452 Secondary rock-formations 28 Rubus arcticus 479 Sedges . 519 Rumex acetosella 49 Seedlings 482 obtusifolius 537 Seeds, plants cultivated for their 302 Runnet .... 638 Self-heal 50 Rush, common . . 50, 520 Senecio Jacobaea 536 Esparto . 444 September, operations of 789 heath 49 Sesaraum 450 scaly-stalked spike 49, 519 Setaria, German 353 sharp-flowered joint- Italian 353 ed . 49, 520, 554 Setaria germanica 352 soft . 50, 520, 542 italica 352 Rushes 519 Sheep, 643 Rushy wheat-grass, sea 50 Anglesea 646 Rye, . . . • 336 Anglo-Merino 649 ergot in . 337 Bampton Nott 654 period of sowing . 336 Black-faced Heath 646 soil for 336 breeds 644 straw 337 castrating lambs 660, , 670, , 672 uses 337 Cheviot 647 Rye-grass, . • 51, 526 Cotswold . 653 annual or biennial 526 Dartmoor 648 Italian 527 Devonshire Notts 654 perennial 526 dinraonts 664 diseases 673 Saccharum officinarum 455 Dishley 654 Safflower 454 domestic . 643 Saffron, bastard 454 Dorset 650 Saffron crocus 454 Dun-faced Nott . 654 Sage .... 479 ewe-hogs 661 Sainfoin 509 ewes 665 Salix alba 498 Exmoor 649 fusca 48 fattening lambs 667 Russelliana 498 food 662, 667 triandra . 498 form 658 Salt, common , . 16 , 91 gimmers . 664 Saltpetre 89 habits 644 Sand, calcareous 84 hair 680 808 INDEX. Sheep, hoggets . . . 661 improvement of breeds . 656 Isle of Portland . 651 Kerry . . . 646 lambing . . 660, 669 Long-woolled Irish . 654 marking . 664, 670 Merino-Ryeland . . 649 milk . . . 643 milking . . 661, 671 New Leicester . . 654 Old Leicester . . 654 Old Lincoln . . 652 Old Norfolk . . 648 Old Radnor . . 646 Old Teeswater . . 654 Old Warwickshire . 654 Old Wiltshire . . 650 Penistone . . 647 penning on turnips . 661 period of admitting ram . 659, 669, 672 period of shearing 663, 670, 672 Pink-nosed' Somerset . 650 Polycerate breed of the Hebrides . .645 rams . . . 665 rearing in an elevated country . . 668 rearing on arable farms . 658 Romney-Marsh . . 653 Ryeland . . 649 salt for . . . 668 shearing . . . 664 shearling . . 664 smearing . 664, 670 Soft-woolled breed of Scot- land . . . 645 soiling of . . 668 Southdown . . 650 Spanish Merino . . 651 treatment of . . 666 tup-hogs . . . 661 tups . . . 665 two-shear . . 665 varieties . . 644 washing . . 663, 670 weaning . . 661, 670 weight of . 664, 665 Welsh . . .645 wether-hogs . . 661 wethers . . . 665 Wicklow mountain . 646 wool . . . 680 Zetland and Orkney . 644 Sheep-drains . . . 556 Sheep-rack . . . 662 Sheep’s-sorrel . . .49 Shell-marl . . .83 Shells . . . .108 Shovel, broad-pointed . . 204 Shovel, narrow-pointed . 204 wooden . 320 Sickle . . 305 Sieve, . 320 close . 320 Silica 14, 18, 73 Siliceous soils . 15 Silver fir 469, 497 Sinapis . 447 alba 447, 477 arvensis . 532 nigra 447, 477 Skim-milk . 631 Sledge . 205 Sloe 479, 738 Soda, 16, 18, 88 carbonate of . 89 nitrate of . 90 sulphate of . 90 Soft-grass, creeping 522, 541 meadow or woolly . 522 Soft-wood . 480 Soils, . 1 absorbent powers of . 19 alluvial 5, 41 argillaceous 15 calcareous 15 carses 5 chemical analysis . 12 clayey 4 climate and altitude . 51 ferruginous 15 geological relations . 23 gravelly . 6 heathy 48 humus 10, 16 light or free 5 loams . 2, 5 magnesian . 15 means of increasing pro- ductive powers of 65 mode of distinguishing . ^3 moors 4 mould 10 peaty 2, 8, 63 sandy 6 siliceous . . 15 vegetable productions 44 Solanese . 404 Solanum tuberosum 404, 455 Solidago odora . 479 Sonchus arvensis . 537 oleraceus . 532 Soot . 100 Sorghum vulgar e . 352 Sorrel, sheep’s . 49 Sow . 693 Sow-thistle, . 534 corn . 540 Sowing, machines for. . 166 beans and pease . 174 INDEX. 809 Sowing, machines for, corn and Surface-drains, covered . 254 grass-seeds. Sus aper . 688 broadcast . 170 Swallow-wort, Syrian . 443 corn in rows . 166 Swan, domestic . 714 turnips, &c. . 175 Swedish turnip . 383 Spade . 204 Sweet-brier . 479 labour . 228 Sycamore . 498 Sparred barrow . 317 Symphytum asperrimum . 513 Spartium junceum . 444 officinale . 514 Spear plume-thistle Spearwort, lesser 51, 534 50 tuberosum . . 514 Spergula arvensis 528, 532 Tannin principle, plants culti- Sphagnum acutifolium 49 vated for their . 466 obtusifolium 49 Tar . . 468 Sphagnum, blunt-leaved . 49 Tare, . 502 sharp-leaved 49 hairy . 536 Spike-rush, scaly-stalked 49, 519 spring . 502 Spirits of turpentine . 469 winter . 502 Spruce, black . 497 Tea, common . 479 hemlock . 467 Tertiary formations . 38 Norway 469, 497 Thea' viridis . 479 white . 497 Thinning , 495 Spurrey, corn, . 528, 535 Thistle, . 538 for manure . 95 corn or way . 538 Stable, . . 586 sow . 534 utensils of . 208 Thrashing-machine . 181 Stachys palustris . 50 Thread, plants cultivated for . 429 Stacks, building of . 311 Thrift 50 pillars and frames for . 315 Tile-draining . 261 thatching . 313 Tile-machine, Ainslie’s . 263 Statice Armeria 50 Tilia europaea . . 498 Steaming food, apparatus for . 195 rubra . 498 Stellaria media 51, 532 Tillage, . 126 Stipa tenacissima . 444 purposes served by . 129 Stone- wall . 724 removing obstructions to 238 Store-room of dairy . 632 simple operations of . 210 Straw-basket . 302 Tobacco, . 458 Straw-rope twister . 313 common . 458 Strawberry . . 471, 474 Virginian . 458 Street manure . . 124 Transition rock -formations . 26 Stubble-rake . 308 Trap-rocks . 37 Subsoil, 1, 2, 68 Trees, . . 497 earthy 3 Amentaceae . 480 rocky 3 Coniferae . 480 Subsoil-plough . 212 hardwood 480, 498 Succession of crops . 283 hedgerow . 745 Succory, wild . . 480, 512 kinds of . 497 Suffolk Punch breed of horses 573 mixture of . 499 Sugar, plants cultivated for . 455 planting . 483 Sugar-cane . 457 pruning 483, 488 maple . 456 resinous 480, 497 scum . 109 seedling . 482 Sulphur 18, 90 soft-wood . 480 Sumach . 468 thinning , . . 495 Summer-falloAv . 229 transplanted . 482 Sunflower . 449 underwood . 498 Sun-spurge . 535 Trefoil, bird’s-foot . 517 Sunk-fence . 740 hop 509, 515 Supratertiary formations . 40 hybrid . . 515 Surface-draining . 252 lesser yellow . 515 Surface-drains, open 252 marsh 3 F . 466 810 INDEX. Trefoil, zigzag . . 515 Trench-ploughing . . 211 Trifolium alexandrinum . 516 hyhridum . . 515 incarnatuiu . . 515 incarnatum Molineri 515 medium . .515 minus . . 515 pratense . .514 procumbens . . 515 repens . . 515 Triglochin palustre . . 50 Triodia decumbens . . 50 Triticum mstivum . . 322 atratum . . 324 cdmpactum . . 323 compositum . . 323 hordeiforme . . 325 hybernum . . 323 junceum . . 50 monococcum . . 325 polonicum . . 326 repeus . . 537 Spelta . . 325 turgidum . . 324 Zea . . . 325 Truck for carrying implements 209 Turkey, . . .706 food of . . 707 habits of . .707 Turnip, . 381, 445, 456 common . . 382 cultivating for seed . 394 culture of . . 391 depressed . . 382 diseases . . 395 fusiform , . 382 globe . . . 383 manuring . 385, 388 modes of using . . 393 Norfolk . . 383 period of sowing . 391 place in the rotation . 384 preparation of the land 384 quantity of seed . 391 soils for . . 384 sowing . . . 390 Swedish . . 383 tankard . . 383 yellow . . 383 Turnip drill-machine . . 176 Turnip-fly . . . 395 Turnip-picker . . . 661 Turnip-slicer . . . 191 Turnip-spade . . . 193 Turnsole . . . 455 Tui-pentine, . . . 469 llourdeaux . 470 Cyi)rus . .470 oil of . . 469 spirits of . . 469 Turpentine, Strasburg . 470 Venetian 469 Tussilago Farfara 536 Twitch, black 541 Ulex europaeus 514, 739 Ulmus campestris . 498 montana 498 suberosa 498 Umbelliferas 419, 449 Underground-draining . 252 Underwood 498 Uredo caries 334 segetum 334, 346, 352 Urine 109 Urtica canadensis 443 cannabina 443 dioica . . 51, 443, 537 nivea 443 urens . 532 Ui'ticese 437 Vegetable manures 93 Vegetable productions, properties of soils as determined by their 44 Vernal grass, sweet-scented 520 Veronica Beccabunga 50 Vetch, annual-tufted 505 biennial 505 broad-podded 504 bush 505 narbonne 501 saw-leaved 504 tufted 505 wood 505 Vetchling, 516 meadow 516 yellow 516 Vicia biennis 505 cracca 505 narbonensis 504 platycarpos 504 pseudo-cracca 505 sativa 502 sepium 505 serratifolia 504 sylvatica 505 Vine . . 456, , 471, 472 Vitis vinifera 456 , 470 Vitriol, green 79,88 Waggon 197 Wall, drystone. 724 advantages of 726 building 725 coping . 726 dimensions of 726 expense of 726 implements j for building 725 Walnut . 450 , 471 , 498 INDEX. 811 Warping 568 1 Wheat-grass, sea rushy . 50 Water . 16 , 19 ! Wheelbarrow . 203 W ater-cart 201 Wheel-carriages . 197 Watered meadow 561 Whey . 631, 641 Way -thistle 538 Whin, . . 514, 542, 739 Wealden 34 petty . 48 Web-footed fowls 709 Whin-fence . 739 Wedge-draining 260 Whorl-grass, water 50 Weed-hook 304 Wild-oat, bearded . 536 Weeds of agriculture 531 ! Willow, 466, 738 annual and biennial 532 j Bedford . 498 perennial 536 : dwarf silky 48 Weighing-machine 209 ' Leicester . 467 Weight of cattle, 627 i long-leaved triandrous 498 by measurement 628 ! white . 498 by weighing when 1 Wine . 472 alive 628 1 Winged-pea, purple . '480 AVeld . 453 Wire-worm . 352 Wheat, 321 Woad . . ' . . 451 barley-like 325 Wood, plants cultivated for . 480 compact . , 323 planting 483, 488 cone 324 pruning . 486 dark-spiked 324 thinning . 495 dibbling 331 Wood-ashes . 98 diseases of 333 Wooden shovel . 320 Egyptian 323 Wool, . . 680 Far 325 black . 682 one-grained 325 carding . 684 period of sowing 327 , 330 combing . 683 pickling 328 felting . 684 place in the rotation 328 ;, 330 long . 683 Polish 326 properties of . 685 produce and weight 333 staple of . 682 quantity of seed 329 stapling . . * . 686 reaping 333 short . 683 soils for 327 Woollen rags . 107 sowing 329 Woolly soft-grass . 522 Spelt 325 Work-room of dairy . 632 spring 326 Woundwort, marsh . 50 straw 333 Wrack, . 542 summer 322 black . 541 tillering 331 turgid 324 Yarrow, common 51, 528 uses 333 winter or Lammas 323 Zea Ma'is . 354 Wheat-fly, 335 Zizania aquatica . 358 Wheat-grass, common . 541 PKrXTKP BV NUILB ANO COMI^V^Y, KOINBfMJOlt. I iWmiV. \, -■'... 'V'-' ■ '.la' sat^t ' ■ ' - ' ■- - ■■ ; ■■ ■ « ♦'«'.: 'l-J ^ ■tr*- . V' -. ■ ’■' -''J .^V' (”■" - - '-ri .■irr7' vi'-' . .r-SAVV* ■' : -,, . ■ t «■ ,: .. V'’'22i -V ■*i^.. . ■ ■ •■/iifi < ■'' ■ ..r^ i ^ i*.-! r >Tvv-,>.s^ -J-v: :';-^; 5 . .•;' ■• J-' . (V> * .('■ y»r.rf - l^,4t -Vv ifiv, ?!**:*£■? ,y'.. ^1^,’ ' '[■ T' : ^ . i.: 'i.,^;J i i , >u>' ■ .- .,-,j ■•>^' ■ . ' . j ■ :i': ■■f V ' ‘;tP*>-' - ■ • -jfci. .•■■ ■.tv, 4 Wl', , '■ 1 ’r .-iVi' jf .>;r;. »>V* 4 ’ *-t .Tk-vr^^ fc*'. ^ -4 ; -ft'*". ;. ji » . r**r’ • ' if/S) ■ . ■■■'•isAi..; l-^i-i-r^'iU *,* ’ '■•'^1 '•>; ‘ • ^- . '■ <>t S'-Xv/ t-' ./I ■' A •C ■■* •->■'''>■ -X 5 m, ^Uitite^vM '■ -TTiV. .iC.” ."f XlilW - g ' -rif _ _ ., jr'Sf ..-ba »<{, -JVi'itwf .i*U, !< ‘I w*-'- 'r. t> 1*^4'- r. ,4. ‘I •8T#:- >r. ^'. UiW. . > '* (..»>•« V ” ... ^..‘wr,t•«> -,■t^-*'■ 41 A ■• I V.- . ■- .. ' ' . ■* ' •^ 4 .'. ■' , ' . ■■- > .-Ti^ . , V 1..IW . > »..»>•« 1 ‘V , ; ’, « -. -V-‘^-:- I'J- ’♦14 ' 2 :. . . - ' . ■v't^'«•■'' ,'.f^ '- ■ s ■■* '"^ ■''. •. .. ■".«r t' . >1,4 lb*-. • K. ,j»*■ _, * ' ..- ■.'• ■•i ■» ■■ - •: ;4 .Wa - -V..-- ,x ^ - .. 4 ^ JH v! . Vv c !/v 'lia' ‘ l;J 4’ . t -A'lA HEW WORKS MISCELLANEOUS & GENERAL LITERATURE, PUBLISHED BY Messrs. LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, and LONGMANS, PATERNOSTER ROW, LONDON. Classifitti Agi-icuLtwe aitd Rural Affairs. Pages. Bayldon On valuing Rents, &c. - 4 Crocker’s Land-Surveying - - 7 Johnson’s Farmer’s Encyclopaedia 14 Loudon’s Agriculture - - - 17 “ Self-Instruction - - 17 “ Lady’s Country Compan. 17 Low’s Elements of .Agriculture - 18 “ Cattle Breeds - - - 18 “ On Landed Property - - 18 “ On the Domesticated Animals 18 Parnell On Roads - - - '23 Thomson On Fattening Cattle - 30 Arts and Manufactures. 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Dunlop’s History of Fiction - 8 Ebtvos’ Village Notary - - - 9 Hall’s Midsummer Eve - - - 11 Lady Willoughby’s Diary - - 32 Lan dor’s Fountain of Arethusa - 16 Madame De Malguet - - - 19 Marryat’s Masterman Ready - - 20 “ Settlers in Canada - 20 “ Mission - - - - 20 “ Privateers-man - - 20 Senior’s Charles V ernon - - 26 Sinclair’s Sir Edward Graham - 27 Sir Roger de Coverley - - - 27 .^ketches (The) . - - 27 Southey’s The Doctor, &c. - - 28 Twelve Years Ago : a Tale - - 31 1 vol. Cyr loped ias6^Dicl ionaries. Blaine’s Rural Sports - - - 4 Brande’s Science, Literature, & Art 5 Copland’s Dictionary of Medicine - 7 Cresy’s Civil Engineering - 7 G wilt’s Architecture - - - 11 Johnson’s Farmer’s Encyclopsedia 14 Loudon’s Agriculture - - - 17 “ Rural Architecture - 17 Pages. 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L.’s Poetical Works - - 16 Linwood’s Anthologia Oxoniensis - 17 Macaulay’s Lays of Ancient Rome 18 Mackay’s English Lakes - - 18 Montgomery’s Poetical Works - 21 Moore’s Poetical Works - - 22 “ Lalla Rookh - - - 22 “ Irish Melodies - - - 22 ‘c Songs and Ballads - - 22 Rowton’s British Poetesses - - 25 Shakspeare, by Bowdler - - 26 Songs, Madrigals, and Sonnets - 28 Southey’s Poetical Works - - 28 “ British Poets - - - 28 Swain’s English Melodies - - 29 Thomson’s Seasons illustrated - 30 “ edited by Dr. A. T. Thomson 30 Political Economy Statistics. Banfield and Weld’s Statistics - 3 Gilbart’s Treatise on Banking - 10 Gray’s Tables of Life Contingencies 11 M'Culloch’s Geog. Statist. &c. Diet. 19 “ Dictionary of Commerce 19 “ Political Economy - 19 “ StatisticsofGt. Britain 19] “ On Funding & Taxation 19 Marcet’s Political Economy - - 19 Tooke’s Histories of Prices - - 31 Religious and Moral Works Amy Herbert - . . - 26 Barrett’s Old Testament Criticisms 4 Blakey On Christianity - - - 4 Bloomfield’s Greek Testament - 4 “ College and School do. 4 “ Lexicon to do. - - 4 Book of Ruth (illuminated) - - 5 Bunsen on theCliurch of the Future 5 Burder’s Oriental Customs - - 5 Burns’s Christian Philosophy - 5 “ “ Fragments - 5 Callcott’s Scripture Herbal - - 6 Gonybeare and Howson’s St. Paul 6 Cooper’s Sermons - - - - 7 Coquerel’s Christianity - - - 7 Dale’s Domestic Liturgy - . 7 Dibdin’s Sunday Library - - 8 Discipline ----- 8 Ecclesiastes, illuminated - 9 Englishman’s Greek Concordance 9 Englishman’sHeb.&Chald. Concord. 9 Etheridge’s Acts and Epistles - 9 Forster’s Hist. Geography of Arabia 10 From Oxford to Rome - - - 10 Gertrude ----- 26 Hook’s Lectures on Passion Week 12 Horne’s Introduction to Scriptures 13 “ Abridgment of ditto - 14 Jameson’s Sacred Legends - - 14 “ Monastic Legends - - 14 Jebb’s Translation of the Psalms - 14 Jeremy Ta,ylor’s Works - - - 14 Kip’s Christmas in Rome - - 14 Laneton Parsonage - - - 26 Letters to My Unknown Friends - 16 Maitland’s Church in the Catacombs 19 “ On Prophecy - - 19 Margaret Percival - - - - 26 Marriage Service (illuminated) - 20 Maxims of the Saviour - - - 21 Milner’s Church History - - 21 Mirdcles of Our Saviour - - 21 Moore On the Use of the Body - 21 “ “ Soul and Body - 21 “ ’s Man and his Motives - 21 Morell’s Philosophy of Religion - 22 Mosheim’s Ecclesiastical History- 22 Neale’s Closing Scene - - - 23 Parables of Our Lord - - - 23 Parkes’s Domestic Duties - - 23 Rest in the Church - - - 24 Riddle’s Letters from a Godfather - 25 Sandford’s Parochialia - - - 26 “ Female Improvement - 26 “ On Woman - - 26 Sermon on the Mount (The) - - 26 Shunammite (The Good) - 27 Sinclair’s Journey of Life - - 27 “ Business of Life - - 27 , Smith’s (G.) Perilous Times - - 27 “ “ Religion of Anc. Britain 27 “ “ Sacred Annals - - 27 “ (Sydney) Sermons - - 27 “ (J.) St. Paul - - - 28 Soames’ Latin Church - - - 28 Solomon’s Song, illuminated - 28 Southey’s Life of Wesley - - 28 Stephen’s Church of Scotland - 29 Tate’s History of St. Paul - - 29 Tayler’s Lady Mary - - . 29 “ Margaret; or, the Pearl - 29 “ (Isaac) Loyola - - 30 Thumb Bible (The) - - - 30 Tomline’s Introduction to the Bible 30 Turner’s Sacred History - - - 31 Twelve Years Ago - - - 31 Walker’s Elementa Liturgica - 32 Wardlaw’s Socinian Controversy - 32 Wilberforce’s View of Christianity 32 Wilson’s Lands of the Bible - - 32 Wisdom of Johnson’s Rambler, &c. 14 Woodcock’s Scripture Lands- - 32 Rural Sports. Blaine’s Dictionary of Sports - 4 Ephemera on Angling - - - 9 Hawbuck Grange - - - - 11 Hawker’s Instructionsto Sportsmen 1 1 Loudon’s Lady’s Country Comp. - 17 Pocket and the Stud - - - 24 Stable Talk and Table Talk - - 29 The Stud, for practical purposes - 29 “I Cl The Sciences and Mathematics. 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GRAY AND MITCHELL’S ORNITHOLOGY.-THE GENERA Of BIRDS ; comprising their Generic Characters, a Notice of the Habits of each Genus, and an extensive List of Species, referred to their several Genera. By George Robert Gray, Acad. Imp. Georg. Florent. Soc. Corresp. Senior Assistant of the Zoological Department, British Museum ; and Author of the “ List of the Genera of Birds,” &c. 3 vols. imperial 4to. illustrated with 350 coloured and plain Plates, by David William Mitchell. *!(* Parts I. to XLIX. imperial 4to. 10s. 6d. each.— Part L., with Title, Indexes, Tables, &c. completing the work, in 3 vols., is nearly ready. GRIMBLOT.-LETTERS OE WILLIAM III. AND LOUIS XIY. and of their Ministers. Illustrating the Domestic and Foreign Politics of England from the Peace of Ryswick to the Accession of Philip V. of Spain (1697 to 1770). Edited by Paul Grimblot. 2 vols. Svo. 30s. cloth. GWILT.-AN ENCYCLOPJIDIA OF ARCHITECTURE; Historical, Theoretical, and Practical. By Joseph Gwilt, Esq. F.S.A. 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