Pesmese See ee ee Saar ya Se Teter ee Sees aes FPP OPE OTIS: pereszseaet EMMA PLIST IS: Serpseseect PALL LILES IP SIE OOO TS ‘oh nen OER ORS Br vas PERRIS LIS III FFA OSSO LY. Dea ae sean er ee PLP LAI IS Berens ty Fe ® Seto ee oie Pe revere maten aot. err. ste bad Sor ee —=s LF ease eee eat Sone he are Baa wenn eee ay Par eanreeneraes estat SE rae tar oiere Soo ireiecamen ee Se a Boge ees aus 3 ae 2. G “4 eae * weoit eh ieore Ch Ae tees, Fear mente Mate Hey. i. eo oe Sah id One? RAlemertts fan Om te easee eee Pee er pete enc actetieete Nec s Aer rr parr i A ee AIEEE pigeon neite ie Oe, a ee a ee eee ORNS SPLIELD IIL ATS Seri ee eS SPE ALSIP IS Sar ern fs ve ere ads Soe hake nk £4 SE EE KARA ALS Es aa SECU hnen ghelehat talatrt t+ eee CARA AAG Stel R pete route Anat ps omni “AOSD ASS Z r A - ci PPI OLE Pee eeee * ¥ seer SPELLOIP LS SB LAP PID Fe A tens Ae THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the, collection of Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918. — 612.395 R390 tA. ofall Return this book on or before the Latest Date stamped below. co kas ? > (? University of Illinois Library 21) b OAs ee ae Seat ae ans i A S| Se L161—H41 THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS LIBRARY From the, collection of | Julius Doerner, Chicago Purchased, 1918. | 612.394 R390 | ; * ae tet Riss: Orton. lf. pu 28 want ‘ re : : be notte S. yf i > Giro Tid Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2021 with funding from — University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Alternates httos://archive.org/details/onalcoholcourseo00rich_0 ON PICO) TO menovunee OF SIX CANTOR LECTURES DELIV- Pai) BEPORKE. IH SOCIETY OF ARTS, BY BENJAMIN W. RICHARDSON, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS, AND HONORARY PHYSICIAN TO THE ROYAL LITERARY FUND. NEW YORK: The National Temperance Society and Publication House, 58 READE STREET. —_—s= 1876. Copyright. J. N. STEARNS, Pusiisuinc AGENT. Joun Ross & Co., PrinTers AND STEREOTYPERS, 27 Rose Srreet, N. Y. Ab Meo Pal ebh INTRODUCTORY NOTE. HE course of Cantor Lectures on Alcohol here published were prepared at the re- quest of the Council of the Society of Arts, and were delivered before the Society in the months of November, December, January, and February last. I do not remember to have delivered any Lec- tures that have attracted so much earnest public attention, and in publishing them in this cheap form Iam responding to a request too general to admit of hesitation or delay on my part. With the exception of the transference of the tabular matter into an Appendix, the introduction of a few minor and verbal corrections, and the addi- tion of a page of learned and interesting passages kindly communicated to me by Mr. Stanford, Rie lab ge tne) Lectures’ are published as they were spoken. 6 Introductory Note. In this form I found them favorably received by the large audiences who honored me with their attention, and- I .am,-therefore, led. to hope for them equal favor with the larger public to whom they are now addressed. It remains for me only to add, that though I have spoken out freely the lessons I have learned from nature, no pledge binds me, and no society banded to propagate particular views and tenets claims my allegiance. I stand forth simply as an interpreter cf natural fact and law. I2 HINDE STREET, W. May I, 1875. COIN INES Preface, by Dr. Willard Parker, ° aPipies Ms I, On Alcchol, in reiation to some of its varied services to Mankind, . . : 2 : ; : 5 ‘ Fs II, The Alcohol Group of organic Bodies—Actions of diffe- rent Alcohols, . : ‘ : : , : AYE The Influence of Common or Ethylic Alcohol on Animal Life—The.-primary physiological Action of Alcohol, . IV. The Position of Alcohol asa Food—Effects of Alcohol on the Animal Temperature—Hygienic Lessons, , : 7 PAGE 13-40 “41-68 69-63 94-122 8 Contents. Vv. PAGE The Secondary Action of Aitcohol on the Animal Func- tions, and on the Physical Deteriorations of Structure incident to its Excessive Use, ‘ ‘ RA - 123-148 VI, Physical Deteriorations from Aicohol (cosd¢inued)—Influ- ence of Alcohol on the Vital Organs—Mental Phe- nomena induced by its Use—Summary, . ° « 149-179 APPENDIX, ° : . ° . ° . I8I-I90 eee A Oiae I am very glad to learn that the “ Course of Cantor Lectures on Alcohol,” delivered by B. W. Richardson, M.D., F.R.S., before the Edinburgh Society of Arts, is about to be presented to the American public. They are clear, scientific, and couched in language free from technicalities and easily understood by all. { have seen no work on this subject so satisfactory as these lectures, which present it without “special pleading”; I hope they will be carefully read in every household. Aiming as they do to impart knowledge based on sound scientific principles, to the public mind, they cannot fail to awaken it to a realization of the evil that is being wrought by this agency, most destructive to human life and usefulness. ite Preface. Alcohol has no place in the healthy system, but is an “irritant poison,’ producing a dis- eased condition of body and mind. Statistics show that ten per cent. of the annual number of deaths in this country are due to alcohol; that fully thirty-five per cent. of our insane, are so either directly or indirectly from its use; and that from seventy-five to ninety per cent. of the inmates of our penal and pauper institutions owe their condition to its influence. Besides this, we find that forty- five per cent. of the inmates of our asylums for idiots, are the offspring of parents ad- dicted to drink. Destroying as its use does, the will, the judgment, and the moral sense, may we not: with propriety consider it a cause of that low state of public and private integrity which permits, even in our very midst, the forma- tion of those shameful combinations to de- fraud and steal commonly known as “rings”? Now the question meets us, how can this destruction of lives valuable to the state in their productiveness, be azrested, and a better Preface. II condition of things be brought about, so that the burden of our taxation be lightened—tax- ation of which the great proportion goes to support our drinking-classes and their off- spring. Let public intelligence and- public morals be so educated that the cause of these things be appreciated, and so appreciated that they shall insist on laying the axe at the root of the tree, instead of lopping off the branches, by pveventzng a trafhe in alcohol, instead of punishing the unfortunate victims OP its Ase. In Pennsylvania, in the year 1867, for every fourteen dollars received from license fees, the State expended one hundred in the sup- port of the victims of alcohol; on principles ef political economy, is this sound legisla- tion? If the habitual use of distilled liquors in- crease as rapidly within the opening century as it has during the one just ending, how sad the outlook! Ican discern nothing in the fu- ture but a wreck of national honor, and the sinking to a lower standard of civilization 12 Preface. and morality, unless public sentiment in this regard be changed. As a means to this end, let me again express the hope that these lectures may be carefully read in every home in the land. WitLarD Parker, M.D., ete. ON ALCOHOL. GANTOR LECTURES. PRG RUE: I. ON ALCOHOL, IN RELATION TO SOME OF ITS VARIED SERVICES TO MANKIND. WE had before us a few weeks since an interest- ing national event. It was that of an archbishop and a minister of the Crown speaking almost at the same time, on one of the most important sub- jects of the day, viz., the part performed by alco- hol on the national stage as it is set forth and played upon at this period of our history. The distinguished prelate took naturally for his view of the subject the moral influence of alcohol, and from this point denounced alcohol, in whatever form it presents itself for human consumption, in terms as eloquent as they were persuasive and forcible. The statesman took for his view of the subject the financial influence of alcohol; he gave a clear and by no means exaggerated estimate of the impor- tance of an agent which, 1n these kingdoms, rests on an invested capital of not less than one hundred 13 I4 On Alcohol. and seventeen millions of money; and submitted, in conclusive terms, an argument, which, contrasted with that of the prelate, means that an agent so commercially potential cannot be materially inter- fered with in the present stage of our civilization, whatever may be the result of its influence on the community for good or for evil. To the utterances of the church and of the legis- lative chamber we are accustomed to listen with such regard, that when any representative of cither body speaks, we turn an car almost auto- matically, and accept what is said as commanding respect, even though we dissent from the opinions that are expressed. No one therefore who stands out of these spheres can hope to obtain a hearing extended so far and wide, and equally authorita- tive. And yet there is scope for honest utterance on another side of the alcohol question. The prelate and the legislator can hardly have more intimate conversance with the influence of alcoho! than the physician and man of science. To the moral view of the question and to the legislative may well therefore be added the physical, and it isto this I shall try to direct public attention in these dis- courses, conscious, fully, of the disadvantages un- der which I should labor were it not for the coun- tenance and support I shall hope to receive from you. The strain running through all these lectures, in however diverse a manner the subject-matter of them may be pursued, will then be simply this: Of what physical value has alcohol been to man? The Term “Alcohol.” 15 of what value is it to man? We know it is of no value to any other animal, and thus we limit our inquiry at once to the highest order of the ani- mate series of natural development, or of natural creation. In the studies that are in this sense to be under- taken, I will not fail to remember the injunction placed upon me to speak simply and plainly; not to offend pride of learning by too great simplicity of statement, nor yet to embarrass humility by a display of technical language and of the abstruse technical reasoning, for which the subject in hand affords so much opportunity. As far as possible I will strive to be plainness itself, and that, not only in mode of expression, but in matter of it; I mean in truthfulness of expression, as far as I am guided by the light that enables me to see what is nearest to the truth. I shall propose in this description to glance first at the value of alcohol to man in a general sense ; that is to say, to its value as an agent useful for other purposes than asa fluid to be imbibed. From this I shall be naturally led to consider its action, physically, on man, and its use as a fluid consumed with, and, according to common acceptation, as a food. Lastly, I shall be brought to treat upon its secondary action on the vital functions, physical and mental, i.e., on the deteriorations of structure and derangements of function, which may follow its use. THE TERM ‘‘ ALCOHOL. The first employment of the word alcohol is ob- 16 On Alcohol. scurely recorded. Bartholomew Parr, one of the most learned of our scientific classics, taking the usual derivation of the word as from the Arabic A’l-ka-hol, a subtile essence, says 1t was originally employed to designate an impalpable powder, used by the Eastern women to tinge the hair and the margins of the eyelids. As this powder, viz., an ore of lead, was impalpable, the same name was given to other subtile powders, and then to the spirit of wine exalted to its highest purity and per- fection. The earliest systematic and truly scientific use of the term that I can discover is in Nicholas Le- mert’s ‘Course of Chemistry,’ published in 1698. There the word is used as a verb, “ to alcoholize,” and the definition of this is said to be “to reduce to alcohol, as when a mixture is beaten into an im- palpable powder.” The word, says Lemert, is also used to express a very fine spirit ; “thus the spirit of wine well rectified is called the alcohol of vine.” The word employed in this sense merely tells us of a refined fluid substance obtained by a subtile process of separation from a grosser substance. But it was not applied to the special fluid now un- der our consideration until long after that fluid had actually been separated. Then it was used as a supplementary term to the earlier terms, Venu adustum, Vinum ardens, Spiritus vint, Spiritus ar- dens, by which a spirit obtained from the grosser fluid, by the action of fire, was known and de- scribed. Fermentation of Wine. 17 FERMENTATION OF WINE. We must now go back to a much earlier study, viz., to the study of the primitive fluid, from which the subtile spirit was derived. In the history of the production of alcohol we gather, in fact, the use of two of the most prominent words of our modern language: fermentation and distillation. They each mark distinct progressive epochs in natural science. The term fermentation brings us in contact with the primitive fluid. It leads us to ask how, from the vegetable world, by change or mutation of its matter, anew product wasevolved? The origin of this procedure is so old we have no possible means of tracing it. Before ever the word chemistry, or the science which that word implies, was dreamed of, this process of obtaining the crude liquor, from which alcohol was ultimately extracted, was in active operation. By some accidental discovery it had been started by human hands, and the act of first lighting and reproducing fire was hardly a less wonderful development of the higher faculties resident in man, than was this discovery. The operation itself, originally, was, we may presume, very simple. As there is a spontaneity in nature to produce fire, as for instance, when a metal like iron strikes a stone, so there is a spontaneity of fermentation in vegetable matter—especially in the juices of fresh ripe fruits in warm weather—which fact being observed, first, from the motion induced in the fluids, and secondly from the crude products that were left, would lead naturally to the contem- 18 On Alcohol. plation of the steps of the process, to its easy, arti- ficial, and more perfect development, to a method of separating and purifying the products, and after- wards of tasting and using them. The products of fermenting fruits were limited to four: an active air which escapes freely ; a froth or yeast which floats above as a crust; a heavy mass or lees which sinks to the bottom; anda fluid which remains apart. These portions, each read- ily separable, indeed, separable of themselves, were soon understood in respect of their virtues. That invisible air, which escapes so actively, is a deadly vapor or miasm; that froth, unpleasant to the taste, is an active promoter of the motion that springs from the fruit; those lees are like sediment from muddy water, excrementitious, to be cast away ; but that remaining subtile fluid, to the pal- ate so grateful, to the senses so exhilarating, to the heart so forcing, to the intellect so exciting or so deadening :—let it be brought forth in the daintiest . cups the handicrafts can fashion from the rude earth! It is not, to the savage, a mortal thing at all. Water flows in open streams, a common liquid, at which cattle and creeping things may drink; this must be the drink of the superior in- telligences from whom the savage came! It lifts the man who takes it into a higher sphere of. life, or it degrades him to the lowest. It introduces him, as it were, to a new human organization that is not to be a passing phenomenon, but, for good or for evil, is to remain for ages. The fluid is wine. The discovery 1s an epoch surpassed by none Fermentation of Wine. I 9 other, in the history of one portion of man- kind, and the early dawning civilizations show their wonder at it in their mythology. Egypt claims the invention for her god Osiris, Greece for Bacchus, and Rome for Saturn. The Greeks, most ambitious to be connected with the origin, assert that the very name belongs to them, for the drink was first discovered in AStolia by Orestheus, the son of Deucalion, whose grandson, Oeneus, was so called from Oinos, which was the old name of the vine. Or else the discovery was by Oeneus him- self, who first pressed the rich grapes. Thus Oinos—oinon—vinum—wine. Then by these na- tions the praises of wine and of the wine gods, one and all, were sung into the later times. The first of the Roman poets, excited to his labor by Mzce- nas, the friend of Augustus, who would that the vineyards should flourish, is thus prompted to in- voke Bacchus, under the name of Pater Lenzeus— “ Hither, ch, Leneus—Father Leneus, come. By thee with heavy viny harvest crowned, The pasture flourishes. In the full vats The vintaze foams. Hither Lenzus, Father Lenzus come, And, wiih thy buskins off, in the new wine, Stain, thou, thy naked legs even with me.” And thus on until our own cra, in which—alas for the mutability of even god-like virtues !—under the atle of “The Worship of Bacchus,” our vete- ran artist, George Cruikshank, has turned the praises of his brother artist, Virgil, into scorn, and has transfurmed. Puter Lenzeus the wine giver, 20 Ou Alcohol. into the destroyer of every civilization over which he has become enthroned. It is worthy here of special remark that the in- vention of wine was local on the planet, and that it came from some centre of the ancient world lying near to those points from whence our modern civi- lization took its rise. For when that civilization concentrated itself into bands or armies, or navies, for the purpose of discovering new portions of the earth, where other savage nations, as they are called, dwell, it found the wine god, the wine cup, and the wine equally unknown. A good three- quarters of the old world knew no more of wine than of the people who invented it, until they were taught to know it—then they learned about it fast enough. The practice of exciting fermentation and of ob- taining the coveted fermented liquor once known, the knowledge was extended, until from varied vegetable substances wine became a product ex- tracted by an art that was successful, however rude. The discovery of the ferment, that is to say of the body that would produce fermentation, was sufficient to set in mutation or intestine mo- tion a whole series of fermentable vegetable sub- stances, and to extend the manufacture of various vinous fluids to an unlimited degree. From the expressed juice of the grape the transition was easy to other juicy fruits, such as the mulberry, the apple, the pear, the peach: from these again to those juices which exude from trees, as from the Eastern palm-tree; and from these again to such similar looking substances as manna and Fermentation of Whine. 21 honey. From fruits, moreover, it was an easy transition to seeds, and from seeds that were soft and succulent to seeds that were hard and of the character of what we now call grain. From all these varied sources of fermentable substances there was produced for ages the fluid containing the basis of alcohol. Its most common name was wine, though the term was modified by adjective additions signifying sometimes its color, sometimes the place where it was made or mar- keted. Thus were introduced the white and red wines, the Vino Tinto and the golden unctuous Vino Greco. Even after the discovery (of which I shall soon again speak) of the existence of a dis- tinct essence or spirit in wine, the original fluid held pre-eminence over all other strong drinks, and in the early and middle stages of civilization in Europe the number of wines that were used ex- ceeded anything we now have in commonuse. In the Appendix to these lectures, there will be found, in a table—Table I.—lsts of ancient Roman wines arranged in nine groups. Asamatter of some historical interest, itis worth a moment or two to touch on the special qualities of a few of those vinous drinks. Certain of the ancient Roman wines of the first group were home wines. The Falernian, one of these, was, it is believed, something like our modern Madeira, and was not commonly used until it was ten years old. After it was twenty years old it affected the body unfavorably, causing headache. This was the experience of Galen. Other wines were foreign. Chian, also called 23 On Alcohol. the Ariusian, of which there were three varieties— austere, sweet, and intermediate—and the Lesbian, considered to be a diuretic, were of this kind. Some wines were named after their color, as white, dark, and red. The white were thought to be the thinnest and least heating ; the dark-colored and sweet the most nourishing; the red the most heating. 7 Some, again, were named after qualities, of age, and the like: as old (Vetus); new (Novum); of the present year (Hornum); of three years (Trimum) ; mellow (Molle, Lene, Vetustate edentulum); rough (Asperum); pure (Merum); strong (Fortius). Certain wines, named Myndian, Halicarnassian, Rhodian, and Coan, were made with salt water. They were considered not to be intoxicating, but to promote digestion. Two wines, Cnidian and Adrian, were also me- dicinal wines. The first, it was believed, engen- dered blood and was at the same time a laxative; the second was diaphoretic. Mustum was a term applied to wine newly made, or the fresh juice of the grape. Protropum was the juice which runs from the grapes without pressing. Mulsum was a mixture of wine and honey. Sapa was Mustum boiled down to a third. Defrutum was Mustum reduced to half, and Carenum was the same reduced to a third. Passum was a sweet wine, prepared from grapes that had been dried in the sun. Passum creticum, also a sweet wine, 1s believed to have been the same as the wine which our own forefathers called Malm- sey; the wine in which the Duke of Clarence Fermentation of Wane. 23 brother of Edward the Fourth, elected to be drowned. A wine called Murrhina, placed in the last group in the Appendix, hasa curious history. The Greeks had a wine of this kind, which consisted of pure wine perfumed with odorous substances. The Romans had a wine similarly named, which is sup- posed to have been wine mingled with myrrh. It was administered to those who were about to sutier torture, in order to intoxicate them and to remove the sense of suffering. The ancient wines retained their place probably until the end of the Middle Ages, but we have no reliable evidence bearing upon this point, 1f we ex- cept an occasional reference by some poet or phy- sician to the subject of winc. Very slowly the names, rather than the wines, changed generaily. The Roman conqueror who built his villa on our islands, and fitted it with so much taste and means of luxury, added to it his wine-cellar, in the manner he had been instructed by his forefathers, and from it took out his red and white and old wine, as we do now; boasting possibly of the vintage from which it was grown, and eloquent as to its age and perfect ripeness. If he had no old port, he had old Falernian or Passum; his rough and his sweet, his light and his heavy wines, the same as our connois- seur of to-day. But, perhaps, he knew a great deal more, in the way of fact about the vintages, than his modern follower. How the wines changed in name through the centuries will be gathered from the lists of the wines of Europe in use in the last century, collected 24 On Alcohol. by the distinguished chemist Neumann, and detail- ed in the Appendix, Table II. Some of the wines medizeval and later derive ad- ditional names from peculiarities in themselves. Sec, from which we derive the name of the wine Sack, on which Sir John Falstaff so keenly enjoyed himself, means dry ; the wine being made from half dried grapes. Malmsey was called by the Italians “Manna alla bocca e balsamo al cervello ”’—‘“* Man- na to the mouth and balsam to the brain.” From the chemist of last century, Neumann, who has collected for us such a long lst of wines, we are supplied with a very instructive table of analy- ses showing the amount of spirit present in the different specimens. The wines he analysed are tabulated in alphabetical order. I believe his to be the first true chemical analyses that were ever made, on an extensive and comparative scale, of different wines, and if they indicate all the spirit in the wines named, it is clear that the amount of spirit in them was exceedingly small, when com- pared with what is present in the wines of the present day. Malmsey, the strongest of them, con- tained but about twelve per cent. of spirit, and sack a little more than half that amount. Falstaff might readily drink ata draught a pint of sack that contained rather less than seven and a half per cent. of spirit. BEER, The only other diluted rival of wine optained by fermentation was the liquid derived from corn. Tradition, active again in giving celestial origin Beer. 25 to strong drinks, has assigned the introduction of the art of making this product first to Osiris, the divinity of Egypt, and afterwards to the goddess Ceres. The ‘luid thus produced became, in Saxon language, known as beer, bere, from barley, or perhaps from the Hebrew, dar, corn. Tacitus calls it Zythum. The Egyptians, it is said, made it first for the common folk that they too might receive the gift of Osiris. In its original state beer was what we would now call the sweet fluid or wort fresh from the vat, and untinctured with any additional substance. So it continued proba- bly until the ninth century, when it began to be treated with the /zpulus, or hop. The first men- tion of this plant is made by an Arabian, named Mesue, of about the year 850, but he does not refer to it in relation to beer. The hop not only flavored but tended to preserve the beer, and in a few cen- turies it became of general use. In the reign of Henry the Sixth the use of hops was for a time forbidden, on the ground that they spoiled the beer and rendered it dangerous. An order pro- hibiting hops and sulphur for beer was also made in the reign of Henry the Eighth. But the hops at last won their way. It is worthy of notice that Neumann, who analysed the beers of last century, as well as the wines, found that the beers contained an amount of spirit varying from 5 per cent. in the weakest, to 10.90 per cent. in the strongest kinds. The malt liquors of the last century were, it ap- pears from this, of much the same strength as those of the present. Thus in the history of alcohol the first step of 26 On Alcohol. discovery was that of its production from vege- table matter by the process of fermentation. As so produced it was a mixture of that which we now call pure spirit, or alcohol, with water, and with small quantities of other extraneous substances of minor moment. On the nature of the fermentative change by which the juice of the fruit, or the exuded fluid of the plant or tree, or the seed or the sweet sugar, is transformed into the new product, speculation has been rife for a hundred years at least. In this day the atomic constitution of water, of alcohol, and of the substances which yield alcohol are known, and the atomic change of constitution that takes place 1s known; but the reason of the pro- cess 1s, according to my judgment, as httle under- stood as it was when the discussion began. Prob- ably, indeed, the latest theories that have been advanced are rather a retrogression, by a line of learned subticties, from the earlier views, than an approach to simplicity of truth. I do not, there- fore, venture to trouble you with any description on this head. One word I would add in the way of a guard against misuse of terms from assumed analogies. We often hear processes described as fermentative, which in truth have no relation, by any proved physical argument, with the true pro- cess of fermentation of vegetable matter connected with the production of wine. To take one exam- ple; we speak commonly of the zymotic or fer- mentative diseascs, applying the term to those maladies which, in the form of contagious fevers, become epidemic. Hence many are led to believe Distillation. 27 that in these diseases there is in the body an actual fermentation tke that in wine or beer; a comparison no closer, according to our knowledge as it now actually exists, than might be instituted between the same process and the so called fer- ment of a mob when it assembles to give vent to its turbulent rage. DISTILLATION. I have said that for many centuries there was nothing known to mankind beyond the formation of a vinous fluid. At length a new process was brought to bear on wine, which simple as it is to us now, was in its early days, and for many long days afterwards, a wonder and a mystery. This was the simple act of distilling wine, and of obtain- ing from it by distillation a fine spirit containing no water. . The discovery of distillation of wine has been attributed to Albucasis, or Casa, an Arabian chemist and physician of the eleventh century. The evidence on this point is not very convincing. It is true that the refined body called spirit of wine began to be known in alchemical and Arabian schools about or soon atter the time of Casa, and from that circumstance, rather than from direct evidence derived from his works, the discovery has probably been imputed to him. However, it is historically correct that from the school of Albucasis the discovery sprang. The alchemists or adepts were conversant with pure spirit, and, says Boerhaave, when they had reduc- cd it to the utmost subtlety, they made use of it in the preparations of all their secret menstruums. 28 On Alcohol, Distillation itself was probably an imitation of nature, for nature is ever distilling and condens- ing. In the cold, water condenses on the leaf and on the grass, as dew, and ascends as vapor in the sun. This process of raising water into a state of vapor by heat, and condensing it by cold, the simplest of immediate imitations of nature, would by easy transition pass to other liquids, and with special ease to that liquid which has rivalled water as a drink for man—wine. The pure spirit of wine in its earlier use was applied mainly to chemical and medicinal pur- poses, and indeed many centuries clapsed before the process of distillation became active for the production of those stronger drinks, which, under the name of “ spirits,’ are now in such common use in daily life. Brandy from dvenzen, to burn; thus Branntwein, brandy, is a comparatively late term in European literature. Gin, contracted from Geneva, is not to be found as signifying a spirituous drink in our vocabularies of two hun- dred years ago. The term rum is assigned to the native American peoples, who so designated the vinous spirit distilled from sugar; and whiskey (Celtic uzsge, water), though it may have been known as a distilled drink as long as Branntwein, has not been Anglicised, I believe, for more than a century and a half. Some further notes on this subject by Mr. Stanford will be found in the Ap- pendix. In the earlier modes of distillation the instru- ments used were simple but effective. They con- sisted of the furnace, the receptacle to the furnace, Distillation. 29 the receiver which stood within the receptacle, and the alembic or condenser, which was made of tin or other metal. The ancient alembic, the use of which is still valued, was, in truth, a very scientific instru- nent, and caused a perfect collection of the dis- tiled fluid. The spirit from the crude wine ascended from a heated reservoir into a conical tube, and then downwards through a returning exit tube into a receiver. The adepts were, indeed, marvellously mechani- cal, and when we recall that they neither had cork nor elastic tubing, nor gas, we wonder by what clever devices they were so successful. They had many useful arts, I am sure, which we have im- properly forgotten, and which might with advan-- tage be revived. Some of their instruments, for a long time thought to be fanciful and useless, are being again considered of value. One of these was called a cohobator, and another called a cir- culator, in which they caused spirits to boil and distil, and condense and distil again, for months at atime. The fluids went round and round in the circulator like the wheel of fortune, and many an adept has looked upon his fortune as spinning in that wheel, from which the elixir of life and the philosopher’s stone were, in his ardent imagina- tion, to be evolved. To sum up, let us remember the four stages in the general history of alcohol, from the first to the time when it came strictly under analytical chemical observation ; and, in regard to common knowledge, to the present time. 30 On Alcohol. (2.) The stage of manufacture of wine or beer hy fermentation. A stage extending from the earliest history until the time of the adepts, say about the eleventh century of the Christian era. (6.) A stage when there was distilled from the wine a lighter spirit calied, first, spirit of wine, and afterwards alcohol. (c.) A stage when this subtile or distilled spirit from wine was applied in its refined and pure state to the arts and to the sciences. . (dZ.) A stage when this same process of distilla- tion was applied to the production of alcoholic spirits for the use of man as spirituous drinks, under the names of brandy, gin, whiskey, rum,—a stage comparatively modern. USES OF WINE, We will, if you please, leave now, for a time, the consideration of wine and alcohol as drinks, and dwell briefly on the uses to which these fluids have been applied for other purposes. The study is peculiarly interesting, and I could casily carry you on during the whole course of these lectures with the narration of it. Unfortunately every word I have to say must be introduced into this hour, so that I can refer only to the salient points, and to a few only of these. From the first, the preservative or antiseptic quality of wine was recognised, and the fluid was employed for the preservation of animal and vege- table substances. The Roman butchers, who, like our modern butchers, sold their fresh and their salted meats, prepared their salted flesh in the fol- Uses of Wine. . 3r lowing manner:—The animals they intended to preserve were kept from drinking any fluid on the eve of the day on which the killing took place. After the killing the parts to be preserved were boned and sprinkled lightly with pounded salt. Then, having well dried off all dampness, the operators sprinkled more salt, and placed the pieces so as not to touch each other, in vessels that had been used for oil or vinegar. Over the whole they poured sweet wine, covered the con- tents of the vessel with straw, and, when they could, kept down the temperature of the room in which the vessel was placed by sprinkling snow around. When the cook wished to remove the salt from the meat, he took it out of the wine and boiled it first in milk and afterwards in rain water. Long previous to the Roman era this preserva- tive process of wine had been recognised and applied. Palm wine was used by the Egyptians in their most costly processes of embalming the bodies ofthe dead. This same application of wine, or spirits of wine, for the preservation of animal and also of vegetable substances, has been maintained up to our time. In our museums the specimens therein preserved, in the moist state, are im- mersed in spirit, and the modern art of embalm- ing is not perfected without the employment of the same antiseptic agent. Early after the discovery of the properties of wine the fact must have been observed that from a change in it another substance was produced, to which, in these davs, we give the name of vinegar, a2 ; On Alcohol. To prevent the formation of vinegar in wine, the ancients boiled the wine, and to remove the acidity arising from vinegar they added gypsum to sour wine, and thus rendered it palatable. Vinegar itself they employed for purposes precisely the same as we in this day; they partook of it with vegetables, they employed it for preservation of animal and vegetable substances, and they applied it for numerous medicinal purposes. After the process of distillation was discovered by the adepts, the distillation of vinegar was also carried on, and in this way was obtained that strong vine- gar, which enters so largely into various uses as an acid, called aromatic vinegar. Very early in history wine was employed for another purpose, that, namely, of extracting the active principles from plants and other substances possessing, or supposed to possess, medicinal vir- tues. Duoscorides, one of the fathers of medicine, and particularly of that part which pertains to the use of curative substances, or medicaments proper, is full of descriptions of vinous tinctures, some of which were sufficiently potent even for our pre- sent use. A vinous tincture of this kind has a very singular and, I had almost said, romantic history. This is the wine of Mandragora. In the Isles of Greece there has grown for ages a plant called mandrake ; it belongs to the same family of plants as our belladonna, or deadly nightshade. From the root of this plant the Greeks extracted, by means of wine, a narcotic, and what in this day we should call an anesthetic. Some, says our learned Dioscorides, boil the root in the wine down to a Uses of Wine. 33 third part and preserve the decoction, of which they administer a cyathus (about what would now be a common wineglassful), for want of sleep, or for severe pains of any part, and also before ope- rations with the knife or cautery, that these may not be felt. Again, he says, a wine is prepared from the bark without boiling, and three pounds of it are put into a cadus (about cighteen gallons) of sweet wine, and three cyathi of this are given to those who are cut or cauterised, when, being thrown into a deep sleep, they do not feel any pain. Again, he speaks of a preparation of man- dragora called morion, which causes infatuation and takes away the reason. Under the influence of this agent the person sleeps, without sense, in the attitude in which he took it, for three or four hours afterwards. Phny, the Roman historian, bears evidence, much later, to the same effect, and adds the singular remark that some persons have sought sleep from the smell of this medicine. And again, Lucius Apuleius, the author of the book called the ‘Golden Ass,’ who lived about 160 A.D., and of whose works eleven editions were repub- lished in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, says that if a man has to have a limb mutilated, sawn, or burnt, he may take half an ounce of man- dragora in wine, and whilst he sleeps the member may be cut off without pain or sense. It is unquestionably to this same anzsthetic wine our own Shakespeare refers in his half-im- aginary, half-legendary Middle Age history. This is the wine of that insane root, which, says Mac- beth, ‘“‘takes the reason prisoner.” This is the 34 On Alcohol. wine that Juliet drinks, and the action of which the Friar Lawrence describes— “ Through all thy veins shall run A cold and drowsy humor, which shall seize Each vital spirit ; for no pulse shall keep His natural progress, but surcease to beat: No warmth, no breath, shall testify thou liv’st ; The roses in thy lips and checks shall fade To paly ashes ; thy eyes’ windows fall, Like death when he shuts up the day of life ; Each part, deprived of supple government, Shall stiff, and stark, and cold appear like death: And in this borrow’d likeness of shrunk death Thou shalt remain full two and forty hours, And then awake as from a pleasant sleep.” It follows therefore from the history of scientific discovery that our modern great advance of re- moving pain during surgical operations is in fact, if not as old as the hills, as old almost as wine. But is the story true, you say? I answer Yes, and the answer is from experiment. Thinking it a subject of very great interest, I instituted, a few years ago, an inquiry into the matter. Through the kindness of my friend, the late Mr. Daniel Hanbury, F.R.S., I obtained a fine specimen of mandragora root, and I made once again, after a lapse of probably five centuries, Mandragora wine. I tested this, and found it was a narcotic having precisely the properties that were anciently as- cribed to it. I found that in animals it would pro- duce even the sleep of Julict, not for thirty or forty hours, a term that must be accepted as a poetical licence, but for the four hours named by Diosco- rides easily, and that in awakening there was an Uses of Sptrit of Wine or Alcohol. 35 excitement which tallies with the same phenome- non that was observed by the older physicians. Thus, one of the first uses of wine to man was amongst the most noble and beneficent that man by his ingenuity can confer on his kind, and if wine had ever been used in this way and in none worse, Pater Lenaeus might have retained his su- premacy in the good opinion of all the world. Besides using wine for extracting the virtues of the vegetable kingdom, our ancient chemists tested it on metals and made it here subservient to their purpose. What they called the extract of Mars was a solution of iron, made with an astringent wine, and reduced into a thick consistency by fire. Eight ounces of the rust of iron, powdered very fine, were put into an iron pot and covered with four pints of strong red wine. The iron crucible was then set on the fire, and the mixture, stirred with an iron rod, was boiled to a third: then it was strained through a cloth and evaporated into an extract. To this extract wonderful curative powers were ascribed, and indeed it was a very useful medicine. The metal antimony also was subjected to the action of wine. The so called liver of antimony was treated with white wine and dissolved in it, and to this day we retain the reme- dy. It was originally called the emetic wine. USES OF SPIRIT OF WINE OR ALCOHOL. After the process of distillation of wine was dis- covered, the use of the new spirit rose rapidly into application in a variety of ways. The adepts, the 36 On Alcohol. Middle Age chemists of whom I have spoken, kept this distilled spirit long a secret. They found in it a solvent for many things that before were insolu- ble. Oils, resins, gum resins, balsams were now brought into a medium that acted towards them as a menstruum, and straightway they were dis- solved. The East Indian Styrax Benzoin yielded a balsam which, dissolved in the distilled spirit, was a fortune to the chemists. The Commander’s balsam, or balsam for wounds, or Friar’s balsam, was soon the reputed heal-all of every injury. The useful extracted first out of the new distil- late, beauty was next remembered. Alas for the female face divine, the cosmetic and the subtile wash that should veritably make young faces old and assumably make old faces young, were soon 1n process in the laboratory of the adept who could distil wine. Again, the artist came in for a share in the discovery. The once insoluble and the use- less resins and ambers were dissolved for his brush, and gave him coatings, preservatives, and wash- ings, of which previously he had no conception. This spirit of wine burns. It does not touch oil for the hight it gives, but how strange! it burns away without a trace of smoke, and with an excel- lent heat. So the spirit lamp in due time is in- vented. A trifle, say you? Nay, it was as great an advance to the chemist who first used it as the gas in the Bunsen burner is to us. Once more; this subtle spirit has in it the virtue of preserving all organic substances with which it is brought in contact. It masters putrefaction it- self; perchance the elixir of life 1s therefore found. Uses of Spirit of Wine or Alcohol. 37 It dissolves insoluble bodies; perchance it will by careful study and experiment reveal the grand secret of transmutation. In this way reasoned its first masters. | 1 must not dwell longer over these details of minor things of major usefulness. I must turn to some applications of our refined spirit which are major in fact as well as in use, in theory as well as in practice, in science as well as in art. In this re- gard we have to consider alcohol as the basis of other essences not less potent than itself. | The process of distillation of essences from liquids and from vegetable substances once established, it was but natural that some adept should turn his hand to mineral bodies and try if they would not yicld some new product that should be of effective and novel quality. Into the distillatory soon pass, therefore, all manner of things, from the horn of the stag or hart, to the skull and brain of the dead man. Among other substances there was submit- ted to distillation the green stony crystal found in the earth, and called green vitriol, in Latin vztrzo- Jum. The result of the distillation of this vztrzolum was to obtain as a yield, in the retort, the heavy oily corrosive fluid called, originally, spirit of vit- riol, called now oil of vitriol or sulphuric acid. Many were the fanciful things thought of by the adepts concerning this oil, and even to the letters of which the word wtriolum is made up they attached a mystical symbolism. In course of time they began to combine and to distil other fluids with the corrosive sulphurous oil, and amongst the first of fluids used in this manner 38 | On Alcohol. stood spirit of wine. The experiment did not de- ceive them, for it gave them as a product one of the most useful and wonderful of liquids. To them this new liquid as it first was taken from the retort was an infinite marvel. They poured it on water and it floated, on spirit and it floated. They poured it into their hands, and, lo! it boiled there. It escaped from them into an invisible state or air before they could well bottle it; 1t burned and ex- ploded. It caused, when it passed off from the surface of the living body, an intense cold. It dis- solved wax, oil, fat, gums, resins, balsams, and yet when it was set free it let them fall again. It was so light that a measure which would hold ten pounds weight of water would only hold seven pounds of this light intangible liquid. What name shall they apply to this substance, the lightest known? They designate it by a term indicating the lightest thing they can conceive: they com- pare it with the refined medium, with which the philosophers imagine the firmament to be filled, and they give it the same name. They call it ether. , Of what strange after-use this magical fluid has been to man we all know. It was introduced early into medicine, and was well studied last century by Dr. Ward, and by Mr. Turner, of Liverpool. In our own time, it has been discovered to have the power of suspending sensation and sensibility after being inhaled by the lungs, and by its means there has been re-introduced to the world that beneficent and long lost art of rendering the body insensible to pain during surgical operations. Uses of Spirit of Wine or Alcohol. 39 More recently by a study cf the application of ether for the production of intense cold, I myself introduced that local use of it for benumbing the body, called the ether spray. The value of this secondary alcohol to man is indeed inestimable. You know how valuable it has been in photography as the volatile solvent of collodion, and in other various departments of the fine and useful arts it has rendered equally good service. From the distillation of vztrzo/um our adepts soon passed to other solid substances. They distilled saltpetre, and so got the spirit of nitre, which we call now nitric acid; they distilled common salt in combination with oil of vitriol, and so got spirit of salts (marine acid), which we call hydrochloric acid. Again, with these new spirits they distilled spirits of wine to obtain new ethers, nitrous and marine. Then a chemist, the Count de Laura- enais, distilled together acetic acid and spirit of wine, by which process he obtained acetous ether. Thus by these double actions, a numcrous series of useful ethers has been obtained, it were too long for me to enumerate. From the observation of the fermentation of wine we derive, in a certain sense, our first knowledge of gases. Van Helmont gave to the gas which comes from the fermenting of vegetable matter the name of gas sylvestre, and from this may be dated the origin of the study of these invisible forms of matter. Priestley made some of his carly observations on the gas which escaped from fer- menting malt in a brewery at Warrington, and was 40 On Alcohol. led step by step to the lberation of gases from mineral and earthy substances, and so to the dis- covery of oxygen. Upon that discovery, coupled with his method of collecting gases by displace- ment of water, and of trying their qualitics, came the process of distilling and collecting a gas from coal, and thus coal gas. After the discovery of the element known as chlorine, and of the compounds of that element with other elements, another new era was opened in the history of alcohol. By passing chlorine through alcohol, Liebig obtained that narcotic sub- stance which we call chloral hydrate ; and by treat- ing alcohol with chloride of lime, the same great experimentalist produced for us chloroform, an agent which has rivalled ether in its service as a soother and saver of pain. A glance at the table— No. IV. of the Appendix—of anzesthetics or sleep producers will show by the names in italics those substances which come from alcohol. All that have proved of most use excepting one, nitrous oxide or laughing gas, have this common origin. Had the time not been expended, I could have brought before you further illustration upon illus- tration of these secondary uses of alcohol to man; but I must stop, content in having recalled to your minds some of the more striking facts in the his- tory of the curious and important agent which is now the subject of our studies. LECTURE II. THE ALCOHOL GROUP OF ORGANIC BODIES— ColuM Of DIF RERENT ALCOHOLS: {¥ before a chemist of a hundred years ago you could have placed a specimen of spirit of wine or alcohol, and could have asked him of what it was composed, he would have told you that it was the element of water combined with elementary fire, to which elementary fire he would give the name of phlogiston, a name derived from a Greek word signifying to burn or inflame. He would tell you that all bodies that burned were phlogisticated, and that bodies that would not burn were dephlo- gisticated. The substance that was left behind was, he would probably add, the element with which the clementary fire had previously been combined. Were you to ask him whence he de- rived this knowledge, he would say, “from the greatest chemist who had ever lived before his time, George Ernest Stahl, Professor of Medicine, Anatomy, and Chemistry in the University of Halle, who had died in Berlin, whither he had gone to be physician to the King of Prussia, forty years ago.” As proof that alcohol was elementary water combined with phlogiston, our ancient chemist would probably show you this experiment :—He 41 42 On Alcohol. would place a portion of the spirit in a cup, would set fire to the spirit, and would invert over the flame a glass vessel, shaped almost like a common globe, which he would call a cucurbit, into which he would allow the flame to ascend. He would indicate that within the glass vessel a vapor, derived from the burning fluid, formed and condensed, as you see it forming and condensing now. Collect- ing this fluid, he would prove to you that it was water, which water he could show to be nothing else but one indivisible thing, therefore an element. Thus his demonstration would be complete. The element, while it existed as spirit, yielded fire on burning; it was fire water. The fire was con- densed with the water. Nothing could be plainer, according to his light of science. Lf you had inquired of the chemist whether he had any symbol by which to denote elementary water or spirit, he would give you, as a symbol for water, a sign something like the letter ¥, with two wavy lines following the letters; and for spirit of wine, a sign like the letter ¥ with the letter § in the centre, as I put it on the blackboard; and if once more you questioned him as to whether his laboratory contained any similar chemical substance, he would answer—none. Spirit of wine stood by itself a pure substance, possessing single and special vir- tues. If, passing over the intervening hundred years, you asked the chemist of to-day, “What is alco- hol?” he would tell you that it was an organic radical called ethyl, combined with the elements of water. He would explain that water was no The Alcohol Group of Organic Bodies. 43 longer considered to be an element, but to be com- posed of two elements, called hydrogen and oxy- gen, two equivalents of hydrogen being combined in it with one equivalent of oxygen. He would inform you that the radical he had called ethyl was a compound of carbon and hydrogen, and he would add that this radical in alcohol took the place of one of the equivalents of hydrogen of water. He thereupon would give you symbols for water and alcohol, but symbols of a very different kind to those presented by his learned predecessor. He would express the names of the elements compos- ing the water and spirit by the first letters of their names, and add their equivalents, or parts, by fig- ures attached to the letters. Thus his symbol for water would be H,Q; for the radical ethyl, C,H; ; and for alcohol (C,H;) HO or C,H,O. Were you interested about the theory of phlo- giston, invented by the illustrious George Ernest Stahl, your modern guide would instruct you that the theory had long since been discarded, and tha towards the latter part of the last century the very books of its discoverer had been burned, in derision, by a priestess of science in one of the temples cf science in Paris. Then through what a wonderful history of discovery during the hundred years he would, if he liked, lead you. Into this cucurbit in which I burned the alcohol, and which you will observe I closed by placing it with its mouth downwards upon the table, he would pour clear lime water as I do now; he would shake the water round the sides of the cucurbit and sce, as he did it, the water would become milky white. 44 On Alcohol. This phenomenon he would indicate was due to the presence of a gas which the old chemist had actually collected but had overlooked. That gas is carbonic acid. It, as well as the water, was the product of the combustion of the spirit, and it now, in combination with the lime water, has united with the lime, forming carbonate of lime or chalk. Following the history of this gas, called once fixed air, because it could thus be fixed by lime and other substances, he would show how it had been proved to consist of carbon and oxygen; how it is given off from the burning cf bodics con- taining carbon; and how a French chemist of, the last century, named Lavoisier, traced out by analy- sis that, in fermentation, the juice of grapes is changed from being swect and full of sugar into a vinous liquor, which no longer contains any sugar, the inflammable liquor known as spirit of wine. Thence it would be shown that the same illustrious chemist, making an analysis of sugar and studying the effects of yeast in causing fermentation of sugar, collected and weighed the elements pro- duced, determined the elementary composition of spirit as consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen, and from his research announced the new principle in chemistry, that in all the operations in art and nature nothing is created; that an equal quantity of matter exists both before and after the experiment; that the quality and quantity of the elements remain precisely the same; that nothing takes place beyond changes and modifications in the combinations of the elements; and that in every chemical experiment an exact equality must the Alcohol Group of Organic Bodtes. 45 be supposed between the elements of the body ex- amined, and those of the products of its analysis. Finally, on this head, he would state the theory of Lavoisier, that zz2st consists of alcohol combined with carbonic acid, and that the effects of vinous fermentation upon sugar are reduced to the mere se- paration of the clements of sugar into two portions ; one portion oxygenated at the expense of the other, so as to form carbonic acid; the other disoxyge- nated to form alcohol; so that were it possible to reunite alcohol and carbonic acid the product would be sugar. Bringing you down to a later period, the modern chemist would describe a the- ory current about between thirty and forty years ago that alcohol is a compound of olefiant gas and water, and that in a state of vapor it consists of equal volumes of these. Or, again, that it was a hydrate of ether; or, again, according to a still later view, that it was a hydrated oxide of ethyl. Thus he would bring you to the latest theory as to composition which I have already supplied. Lastly, if for the sake of further comparison you asked the chemist of to-day whether alcohol had any ally or congener, he would reply, many. He would give you, for instance, this spirit, which he would call methylic alcohol, and which he would tell you was got also by distillation, only that the distillation was dry, and that the substance dis- tilled was wood; or he would give you this speci- men, which he would call amylic alcohol, and which he would tell you was got by distillation, not of wood, but of potato. Again, he would show you other specimens, to which he would give 46 On Alcohol. different names as indicated in table No. V. of the Appendix. Directing your attention to the composition of these alcohols, the chemist would beg you to ob- serve that their chemical construction is through- out the same, that is to say, in all cases, a radical composed of carbon and hydrogen has replaced one of the equivalents of hydrogen of water. The radicals, however, vary in respect to the equiva- lents of the elements of which they are composed, and to distinguish them they have different names. Essentially each radical, though it is composed of more than one element, acts as if it were one, and is called a base, because it 1s a root or origin upon which other structures rest. Thus, in the present case, the radicals, as they vary in amount of car- bon and hydrogen which they contain, produce, in each case of their combination with water, an alcohol possessing a ditierent property or different properties from the other alcohols. The table No. VI. of the Appendix will give an illustration of the increase of carbon and hydrogen in the radicals of the series. The first of the radicals, methyl, 1s composed of one equivalent of carbon and three of hydrogen. The radical ethyl of two of carbon and five of hydrogen. The radical propyl of three of carbon and seven of hydrogen, and so on, the increase in the cquivalents of the elements being after a given rule in the whole series, the carbon increasing one, and the hydrogen two with each progressive step. So, as the alcohols progressively change from the first of the series, the methylic, they grow richer The Alcohol Group of Organic Bodies. A7 in carbon and hydrogen, and proportionatcly they grow heavier, less soluble, and less volatile. A very simple experiment suffices to show the Increase of carbon in these series. If I take a piece of cotton wool, place it ina glass cup, pour upon it a little methylic alcohol, in which alcohol there is the smallest amount of carbon, set fire to it and hold a white plate over the flame, the plate remains white because the air that reaches the flame is sufficient to consume all the carbon. If J] do the same experiment with ethylic alcohol, although the carbon is a little greater, yet the result remains the same. If I move two steps higher, viz., to butylic alcohol, in which there are four equivalents of carbon, the combustion is not quite complete, and therefore a shade or stain of carbon is left on the plate: and if, going one step further in the series, I use amylic alcohol, then the combustion is rendered so imperfect that a thick layer of carbon, derived from the alcohol, in the destruction of it by the burning, 1s left upon the white surface. I may digress here for a moment to state,—if the practical fact about to be told be considered a digression,—that this simple mode of testing common alcohol will serve roughly to detect extreme adultcration of it with the heavier alcohol—fusel oil, some of which I last burnt. This heavier alcohol is used in -adulteration, and as you will learn when you hear of its effects, it is a dangerous adulterant. I was dining a few months ago with some friends, one of whom pro- duced a small flask of precious liquor he had had presented to him, and which was said to be an 48 On Alcohol. unusualiy choice hollands. On examining it I felt sure it was a gin treated with fusel cil, and on burning a little of it, this suspicion was confirmed by a deposit of carbon upon a white dish. I warned my iriends forthwith of the danger of drinking this heavy, though certainly pleasant spirit, and. the majority took the warning. Two, less prudent, indulged, to suffer for the next two or three succeeding days to an extent that con- vinced them that there was no mistake in the scientific and friendly admonition they had re- ceived. The physical distinctions between the various alcohols now before us are marked by other signs. For example, as we move from the methylic alco- hol upwards, we discover that their vapors in-: crease in weight, that as fluids they grow heavier, and that their boiling point, that is to say the tem- perature required to make them boil, has to be increased. Another table, No. VII. of the Appen- dix, illustrates these facts in relation to four alco- hols of the series: viz., methylic, ethylic, butylic, and amylic. Thus the vapor densrty of methylic alcohol is 16 when compared with hydrogen gas as a standard; of cthylic alcohol, 23; of butylic, 37; and of amy- lic, 44. In respect to the specific gravity of the fluids, that is to say of the weights of the fluids themselves, compared with water estimated as a thousand, the same rule cxtends, with the one remarkable exception, viz., that the methylic alco- hol appears heavier than the ethylic, after which the weights increase, so that amylic alcohol stands The Atcokol Group of Organic Bodies. 49 as 811, to 792 the weight of ethylic. Again, as to the boiling points, the hghtest aicohol boils at 140, that is 72° below the boiling point of water; ethy- erat gerepropylic at 205; butylic at +230; or 18° above the boiling point of water; and amylic at 270, or 58° above the boiling point of water, on Fahrenheit's scale. The analogies between these various alcohols are sustained throughout by other chemical changes relating to them. If we expose diluted common alcohol to the atmosphere under fitting conditions it becomes acidified; in other words, it is converted into vinegar. This is due to its oxy- dation, in which process there are two steps; one by which the spirit is converted into a substance called aldehyde (dehydrated alcohol—al-de-hyd), and then into acetic acid, or vinegar. In the for- mation of the aldehyde two atoms of the hydrogen are oxydised, by which water is produced, and the aldehyde has therefore the composition of to). im the! formation’ of the acetic “acid another atom of oxygen is added, and the acetic acid has therefore the composition of C,H,Q,. This same series of changes extends through all the alcohols, as will be seen from table No. VIII. of the Appendix. I said, in the first lecture, that from common or ethylic alcohol a new compound can be obtained by heating it with sulphuric acid, to which com- pound the name of ether is applied. In like man- ner, an ether can be obtained from the other alcohols. If chlorine be brought to bear upon cthylic 50 On Alcohol. \ alcohol, the elements of water, that is to say, the oxygen and the hydrogen are removed, and are replaced by chlorine, and there is formed chloride of ethyl. This change can be extended to all the other alcohols, the properties of the products being modified by the base. The same rule extends to the action of iodine, and to that of nitrous acid. Tables [X. to XII. of the Appendix afford iliustrations of these facts. They could be largely extended, but they are sufficient for our purpose. I have brought for those who are curious to see them, twelve specimens of the different compounds formed on the alcohols. Six of these belong to the cthyl, or common alcohol series, six to the amyl, and they include respectively specimens of the alcohols, of the acids of the alcohols, of the ethers, of the chlorides, of the iodides, and of the nitrites: One of these specimens, I mean the nitrite of amyl, has within these last few years obtained a remarkable importance owing to its extraordinary action upon the body. A distin- guished chemist, Professor Guthrie, while distill- ing over nitrite of amyl from amylic alcohol, ob- served that the vapor, when inhaled, quickened his circulation, and made him feel as if he had been running. There was flushing of his face, rapid action of his heart, and breathlessness. In 1861-2, | made a careful and prolonged study of the action of this singular body, and discovered that it produced its effect by causing an extreme rclaxation, first, of the blood vessels, and) aiter- wards of the muscular fibres of the body. To The Alcoho! Group of Organic Bodies. 31 such an extent did this agent relax, I. found it would even overcome the tetanic spasm produced by strychnia, and having thus discovered its action, | ventured to propose its use for removing the spasm in some of the extremest spasmodic diseases. The results have more than realised my expectations. Under the influence of this agent, one of the most agonising of known human mala- dies, called Angina pectoris, has becn brought under uch control that the paroxysms have been regu- larly prevented, and in one instance, at least, altogether removed. Even tetanus, or lock-jaw has been subdued by it, and in two instances, of an extreme kind so effectively as to warrant the credit of what may be truly called a cure. I notice this action of nitrite of amyl because it will be referred to again in explanation of certain of the eflects of alcohol. Tshould have hked; 1 there had been time, to have dwelt at greater length on many other inte- resting points bearing on these different alcohols and their derivatives. I should have bcen pleased to have presented to you a more extended account of the progress of discovery during the past cen- tury leading to these modern facts; and I should much have liked to have rendered more complete the description of the alcohol series cf bodics, by explaining the differences of what are called mona- tomic, diatomic, and triatomic alcohols; but I must desist for two reasons; first, because the study would Icad me into too great detail, and secondly, because it would introduce to notice a scrics of compounds, the physiological action of 52 On Alcohol. which are not so wel! understood as are those to which { shall soon direct your attention and the study of which is more than enough for the time that is at our disposal. It must be considered suf- ficient, therefore, if I have succeeded in showing that the common alcohol is but one of a group of a series of chemical compounds, and that its supe- rior claim to our notice rests upon its antiquity as a discovered substance, and on its enormous dis- tribution in civilised communities, rather than on its special or distinctive properties as a chemical agent. One other series of facts I would, however, briefly describe before leaving this part of my subject. If into this ethylic alcohol I throw a portion of the metal sodium, a brisk action imme- diately begins to take place; as you will see, a gas escapes which I easily collect in a glass tube, which burns, and if mixed with air, explodes, as you hear. The gas is hydrogen. A change of substitution has occurred in this experiment. The hydrogen belonging to the water of the alcohol has been replaced by the sodium, and what is called sodium alcohol is produced. The result would have been the same with potassium as the replacing metal. By acting on common alcohol with strong pot- ash, then with sulphuretted hydrogen, and after- ~ wards with iodide of ethyl, a new alcohol is pro- duced called mercaptan. In this fluid the oxygen of the alcohol is replaced by sulphur, so that the formula for it is (C,H;) HS. It is a fluid, whitish in color, and of so offensive and penetrating an Action of Methylie Alcohol. 53 odor that it can hardly be approached until it is largely diluted with common alcohol. It is nearly insoluble in water, but imparts to it its peculiar odor; its specific gravity 1s 832, compared with watcr as 1,000; it 1s thirty-one times heavier than hydrogen, and it boils at 135° Fahr. Sulphur alcohol is very rarely seen, but there is a diluted specimen here which has been prepared with very great care. Therc is only 5 per cent. of it in the solution, and yet its odor is as strong as can well be borne. From this point I proceed to dwell on the action of certain of the alcohols which have been brought before us up to the present time, excluding on this occasion the alcohol best known, I meanthe common alcohol of commerce, or as we know it chemically, ethylic alcohol. The point I shall aim at will be to show the influence of these alcohols upon ani- mal life, and thereby to lead up to the action of ethylic alcohol pure and simple. The subject is one entirely new, and is limited to a very few bodies of the alcohol group, viz., to methylic alco- hol, butylic, amylic, the potassium and sodium alcohols, and sulphur alcohol or mercaptan. Deon OF METHYLIC ALCOHOL, Methylic alcohol, pyroxylic spirit or wood spirit, as it has been differently called, the spirit contained in the liquid got by distilling wood, has been known for about 62 years. It was discovered by Mr. Philip Taylor, in 1812, and was soon applied for lamps and for other purposes as a spirit. It was prob. 54 On Alcohel. ably first made commercially by Messrs. Turnbull and Ramsay, of Glasgow. Its properties were in- vestigated and reported upon by Sir Robert Kane, of Dublin, in 1836, and it was also analysed by Messrs. Dumas and Pcligot, who determined that it contained 37.5 per cent. of carbon, 12.5 per cent. of hydrogen, and 50 per cent. of oxygen. When it is pure it remains clear in the atmosphere. It has an aromatic smell, with a shght acidity. The specimen I[ have used for my research had a speci- fic weight of 810, water being 1,000, and it boiled at 140° Fahr. The spirit has been much used :n the arts in the place of alcohol for making varnishes. Having a lower boiling point it is more volatile than com- mon alcohol. It is now also largely used in mu- seums for preserving purposes, and it yiclds on oxydation a very powerful preservative vinegar. For the sake of economy it is often employed in the manufacture of other compounds cailed methy- lated. Owing to the volatile nature of this alcoho: it may be exhibited freely by inhalation in the same manner that chloroform is administered. It then enters the blood by being carried with the air that is inspired into the pulmonary tract, and thus into the air vesicles. Herc it is absorbed into the cir- culation by the minute blood-vessels which make their way from the heart over the lungs, and which ramify upon the vesicles. By administrating th vapor of methylic alcohol in. this way its effects are rapidly developed, for it condenses quickly in the blood, is carried rapidly into the left side of Action of Methylie Alcchol. 55 the heart, and thence is distributed by the arteries over the whole body as quickly as it is condensed and absorbed. The alcohol may be administered in the usual way, that is to say, in combination with water, hot or cold. In this way it is not unpleasant to the taste, and in one instance, as I am informed by a veteran member of my profession, this alcohol was invariably drunk by. a well-known physician, in preference to common alcohol. He was accus- tomed to make it into toddy, with water and sugar, and considered that while it was as pleasant to take as ordinary spirituous drinks, it was less in- qurious ‘than they are.’ | have mysclf, ‘of late years, when cor npelled to allow the administration of alcohol, sometimes recommended this methylic lighter spirit, and [ am satisfied, with better re- sults than if the heavier or ethylic spirit had been se lgahies I have ventured also to suggest that in many instances other physicians might follow the same ea tice with advantage; for methylic alcohol 1s much more rapid in its action, and much less prolonged ints effects than is common alco- hol, so that it pro oduces its eilests promptly, and what is of most importance, it demands the least possible ultimate expenditure of animal force for its climination from the body. This latter fact, I repeat, 1s of great moment, for, in the end, all these alcohohe fluids are depressants, and although at first, by their calling vigorously into play the na- tural forces, they seem to excite and are therefore called stimulants, they themselves supply no force at any time, but cause expenditure of force, by 56 Ox Alcoho’. which means they get away out of the body and therewith lead to exhaustion and paralysis of mo- tion. In other words, the animal force which should be expended on the nutrition and sensation of the body, is in part expended on the alcohol, an entirely foreign expenditure. The lighter the alcohol therefore, ceteris paribus, the less injurious its action, and so we may put down methylic alcohol as the safest of the series of bodies to which it belongs. But it is not without potency of effect, and the phenomena it produces are sufficiently demonstrative. Its effects are de- veloped in four distinct stages. The first stage 1s that of excitement of the ner- vous organisation; the pulse is quickened, the breathing is quickened, the surface of the body is flushed, and the pupil is dilated. After a little time there is a sense of languor, the muscles falling into a state of prostration and the muscular move- ments becoming irregular. Thereupon the second stage follows, 1f the administration be continued. In this second stage the muscular prostration is increased, the breathing is labored, and is attended by deep sighing movements at intervals of about four or five seconds, followed by further prostra- tion, rolling over of the body upon the side, and distinct signs of intoxication. From this condition the subject passes into the third stage, which is that of entire intoxication, complete insensibility to pa:n, with unconsciousness of all external ob- jects, and with inability to exert any voluntary muscular’ power. The breathing now becomes embarrassed and blowing, with what is techni- Action of Methylic Alcohol. 57 cally called “ bronchial rale,” or rattle, due to the passage of air through fluid that has accumulated in the finer bronchial passages. The heart and lungs, however, even in this stage, retain their functions, and therefore recovery will take place if the conditions for it be favorable. Also, if the body be touched or irritated in parts, there will be response of motion, not from any knowledge or consciousness, but from what we physiologists call “reflex action ;” that is to say, the impression we have made by irritation upon the surface of the body has travelled by its usual route through the nerves to its nervous centre in the brain, and un- controlled there by the consciousness has rolled back again, stimulating in its course some muscu- lar fibre to motion. Probably the reason why the heart, which is a muscle, and the breathing mus- cles, continue to beat while all the other portions are at rest is due to this fact, that the blood which the heart drives to the brain and other nervous centres conveys to the centres which supply the heart a wave of motion that rolls back upon these vital muscles, and sustains them still in their rhythmical motion. During all these stages there is no violent con- vulsive action from this alcohol, and no distinct tremor; but one phenomenon has been step by step more marked, and that phenomenon is a re- duction of the animal temperature. Even though the body of the subject be exposed to a tempera- ture of 84°, that is summer heat, it will begin to cool from the first, and will continue to cool through all the stages, so that at last the loss of 5 8 On Alcohol. heat will become actually dangerous; for the cold body cannot throw off water freely, and therefore fluid collects in the lungs, and there is risk of what may be plainly considered suffocation like as from drowning. 1 have seen this decline of tempera- ture from methylic alcohol, in animals narcotised by it, procced to the loss of eight degrees of heat on Fahrenheit’s scale when the insensibility was at its extreme point. Presuming that the administration of the me- thylic spirit be continued when the third degree has been reached, there is a last stage, which is that of death. The two remaining nervous cen- tres which feed the heart and respiration cease simultaneously to act, and all motion is over. After the death the blood throughout the body is found charged with the alcohol. The circulation of blood over the lungs has continued to the last, and so the lungs are found containmg blood in both sides of the heart; the vessels of the brain are engorged with blood, as are the other vascular organs. The blood itself is not materially changed in physical quality, but coagulates, or forms into clot, rather more siowly than usual. If at the third stage of insensibility the adminis- tration of methylic spirit be stopped, recovery from the insensibility and prostration will invaria- bly take place on one condition, that the body be kept dry and warm. From four to five hours, however, are necessary before the recovery is complete, and under the best conditions the resto- ration of the animal temperature is not perfected under a period of seven hours. Action of Methylic Alcohol, 59 Happily we have no data to guide us that will show the effects on the animal body of the long continued use of methylic alcohol, for men have not as yet so steadily plied themselves with it as a drink as to induce phenomena of chronic intoxica- tion from it. The above-named facts, however, drawn from careful observations, in which the effects of the agent were seen on the inferior ani- mals, and in one instance where the fluid was taken by accident by the human subject, show that me- thylic alcohol, though it may be less potent than its allies, is sufficiently potent, and the inference is fair, indeed irresistible, that if the use of it were persevered in for long periods of time, it would lead to structural change in the body, just as all other chemical agents do that modify and pervert the natural mechanism. An agent that causes con- gestion of the brain cannot be employed many times without destroying the delicate organisation of the vascular structure of the brain, neither can it influence the other vascular organs in the same way without prejudice to their structure; neither can it destroy the function of the nerves, of the muscles, and of the organs of the senses without prejudice to their functions. In many respects this, the lightest and least injurious of the alcohols, resembles chloroform in the ultimate action it pro- duces on the body. It still more closely resem- bles ether, although recovery from the effects of both these agents is very much more rapid than from the spirit. It may consequently, as a chem1- cal agent possessing a specific power of action over the living organism, be fairly classified with 60 On Alcohol. these agents. It is quite as artificial as they are, it is quite as dangerous in the long run, and its effects are more prolonged. ACTIONSORNBUTY LIC ALCOHOL: I pass over the second alcohol of our series, viz., ethylic alcohol, the common alcohol of wines and spirits, because that will of itself engage our atten- tion for the remaining part of the course, after this lecture is concluded. I pass over propylic also for the reason that it is not easily separated as an alcohol, and is less perfectly studied than the other _ members of the group before us. Thus I am brought to what is called butylic alcohol. With this spirit we arrive at one of the heavier bodies of the group in which, as our table shows, there is a higher proportion of carbon and hydro- gen than exists in those that are placed above it in the scale. Compared with common alcohol the weight of its vapor is as 37 to 23. Its weight, asa fluid, is 803 to-792, and its boiling point 230 Fahr. to 172. Itisa heavier fluid ; it mixcs indifferently with water, but it is not unpleasant to take when diluted and sweetened. Apphed to the lips and tongue when in a pure state it creates a sensation of burning, in the same way as common spirit, but with more intensity, and there is this remarkable fact connected with the sensation, that after the burning effect has passed away an extreme numb- ness of the part, where the fluid was applied, re- mains. I made this observation originally in 1869, and I have since often applied the knowledge with Action of Butylie Alcohol. 61 effect, in relieving, by the application of the agent, local pain. Toothache, for instance, is very quickly soothed by it. The alcohol is not obtained by a special process of distillation ; it is produced with other alcohols in the process of fermentation, and is obtained by what is called fractional distillation, that is, by dis- tillation of it, at certain fixed temperatures, from fusel oil, or from the oil of beet-root, or from mo- lasses after distillation of ethylic spirit. The action of butylic alcohol on the animal body is divisible into four stages, the same as we have scen in respect to methyl spirit, but the period required for producing the different stages is greatly prolonged ; and when the third stage, that of complete insensibility, is reached, there is added a new phenomenon which does not belong to any of the lighter alcohols. In this third degree, after the temperature of the body is depressed to the minimum by the butylic spirit, distinct tremors occur throughout the whole of the muscular sys- tem. These come on at regular intervals spon- taneously, but they can be excited by a touch at any time, and in the intervals where they are absent there is frequent twitching of the muscles. The tremors themselves are not positively muscu- lar contractions, but are rather vibrations or wave- like motions through the muscles, and are attended with an extreme deficiency of true contractile power in the muscular fibre. An electrical cur- rent passed through the muscles, which would, in health, throw them into rigid contraction, will now excite the tremors and keep them proceeding, B2an On Alcohol. but will not excite complete contraction. So long as the tremors are present, the temperature of the body is depressed, falling even half a degree; but when they cease the temperature rises again, not to the natural standard, but to or near that which existed before the tremors were excited. After the tremors are once established, they continue without further administration of the alcohol for ten and twelve hours, and so slowly do they decline, they may remain in a slight degree for even thirty-six hours. They subside by remission of intensity and prolongation of interval of recur- rence. One fact of singular significance attaches itself to these muscular tremors. They are the tremors which occur in man during the stage of alcoholic disease, when there is set up that malady to which we give the name of delirium tremens. An ordinary intoxication with a lighter alcohol is insufficient to produce this extreme perversion of nervous and muscular power, but the introduction of one of these heavier alcohols, or, it may be, the excessive saturation cf the body with a lghter spirit, for on this point I am not sure, is sufficient to cause the tremulous motion. What the nature of these muscular movements 1s, what unnatural relationships exist between the nervous system, the muscles, and the blood, to lead to them are questions still unsolved. Involuntary, developed even against the will, excited by any external touch, attended with great reduction of tempera- ture, and remaining as long as the temperature is reduced, they indicate an extreme depression of animal force: a condition in which all the force af ee Es Action of Butylic Alcohol. 63 life that remains has to be expended on the mere organic acts of life, on the support of the motions of the heart, the muscles of. respiration, and the functions of the secreting glands. The voluntary systems of nerve and muscle are indeed well-nigh dead, and recovery rests entircly on the mainten- ance of the organic nervous power. Still recovery will take place if the body be sustained by external heat and by internal nourishment. In the extreme stage of intoxication from butylic alcohol the red blood in the arteries loses its rich color, and the blood from the veins, which flows with difficulty, is of a dirty hue. The blood coagulates readily, but the clot is loose, and the fibrine of which it is composed separates in a coarse network or mesh. The little corpuscles of the blood run into each other, forming rolls or columns. Indced, it is wonderful how the blood circulates through the structures it should nourish. The vascular membranes of the brain are found charged with this tarry blood; the brain structure is softened, and gives the odor of the poison, and the muscles, when divided by the knife, cut with- out firmness, yielding from numerous points the same tar-like blood. The vascular organs—splcen, liver, lungs, kidneys—are equally changed, and in % < asimilar manner. Thcir fine structures are infil- trated with the deteriorated vascular fluid which was intended for their maintenancc, and even the secretions and cavities of the body are perverted ‘by being charged with fluid derived from the un- natural blood. This is the state of the body of one who dies insensible after the delirium and tremors 64 On Alcohol. which characterise the human malady, self-inflicted and terrible, known as delirium tremens. ACTION OF AMYLIC ALCOHOL: Amylic alcohol, the next of our series, is obtained by the fermentation of potato starch, or starch of grain, and when pure is a colorless fluid. Its weight, compared with water as 1,000, is 818, and it boils at 270° Fahr. It is from this alcohol that the active substance, nitrite of amyl, to which I have before referred, is derived. The odor of amylic alcohol is sweet, nauseous, and heavy. The sensation of its presence remains long. In taste it is burning and acrid, and it is itself practically in- soluble in water. When it is diluted with common alcohol it dissolves freely in water, and gives a soft and rather unctuous flavor, I may call it a fruity flavor, something like that of ripe pears. From the quantities of it imported into this coun- try it is believed to be employed largely in the adulteration of wines and spirits. Amylic alcohol, when it is introduced as an adulterant, is an extremely dangerous addition to ordinary alcohol, in whatever form it is presented, whether as wine or spirit. Its action on the body is the same as that of butylicalcohol. It produces three stages of insensibility, ending in the pro- foundest narcotism, or coma, followed by reduction of temperature and by muscular tremors. These tremors recur with the most perfect regularity of themselves, but they can be excited at any moment by touching the body, or blowing upon it, or even Action of Sodium and Potassium Alcohols. 65 by a sharp noise, such as the snap of the finger. In all other respects the phenomena induced are the same as are observed from butylic alcohol, ex- cept that they are much more prolonged, from two to three days being sometimes required for the complete restoration of the animal temperature. The reason of this prolongation of action lies in the greater weight and the greater insolubility of this spirit ; that is to say, the force required to decom- pose it, or mechanically to lift it out of the body when it has once entered it, is so much greater than is required for the lighter spirits, which diffuse more readily through the secretions, volatilise by the breath or possibly undergo rapid decompo- sition. The odor of the substance remains for many hours in the animal tissues. Amylic alcohol acts upon some resins and resinous substances, dis- solving, I believe, certain of them more easily than the lighter spirits, but its peculiar odor prevents its application on a large scale. ACTION OF SODIUM AND POTASSIUM ALCOHOLS. The action of the sodium and potassium alcohols is exceedingly interesting in a physiological, al- though not in a practical point of view, except in respect to their various uses as chemical re-agents. They act on the living animal tissues as caustics, and will one day be considered of great service to the surgeon. Brought into contact with blood, in solution, there is produced by them an almost instant crystallisation of needle-like crystals spread out in beautiful arborescent filaments. This ar- 66 On Alcohol. borescent appearance is identical with a crystall- sation which can be induced in these alcohois themselves, but there are also formed smaller radiant crystals due to the crystallisation of the crystalloidal matter of the blood-cells, and singu- larly like the forms which, since the time of Dr. Richard Mead, have been described as occurring in the blood after infection by the poison of the viper. These metallic alcohols are powerful antiseptics, like common alcohol, over which they have an advantage in that they more thoroughly harden soft structures. I have taken advantage of this action to employ them for the preservation of nervous matter, which is rapidly prone to decom- position. I should add that, by some chemists these alco- hols are called ethylates of sodium or potassium, a term which is thought to define more correctly their chemical construction. ACTION OF MERCAPTAN OR SULPHUR ALCOHOL, I have already referred briefly to this most cursous body of the alcohol series, describing it as an alcohol in which oxygen is replaced by sulphur. In experimenting with it a solution containing 5 per cent. is sufficient, and the vapor of it may be inhaled in order to produce its effects. These are most remarkable. I found, by direct experiment, that the vapor is not irritating to breathe, but that its influence on the system is speedily pronounced. There is a Action of Mercaptan or Sulphur Alcohol. 67 desire for sleep, and a strange, unhappy sensation, as 1f some actual or impending trouble were .at hand. This is succeeded by an casy but cxtreme sensation of muscular fatigue; the limbs feel too heavy to be lifted, and rest is absolutely necessary. There is, at the same time, no insensibility to pain, and no intoxication. The pulse is rendered fecble and slow, and remains so for one or two hours; but, in time, all the effects pass off, and active mo- tion in the air helps quickly to dispose of-them. On the inferior animals the action of mercaptan is equally peculiar. Frogs exposed to its vapor fall asleep, and seem to pass into actual death, ex- cept that the eye remains bright. They may be left in this apparently lifeless state for half an hour, then, removed into the air, they commence, in the course of an hour and a half or two hours, to breathe again, and gradually recover, precisely as if they were awaking from sleep. The action _of this alcohol on the animal body, though it pro- duces these extreme cffects, is less injurious than that of the other alcohols. It escapes rapidly by the breath, and in some new form, as a sulphur compound. It communicates to the breath an odor which is by no means uncommon in persons who indulge to a great extent in the use of or- dinary alcohol. This observation suggests a most important explanation of certain phenomena con- nected with the action of common alcohol. It appears to me that in some states there is actually produced in the living organism, by the vital chemistry, sulphur compounds, derived probably from the bile, a substance rich in sulphur, which 68 On Alcohol. compounds, distributed by the blood to the ner- vous matter, create phenomena similar to those I have described as following upon the inhalation of mercaptan. Thus, under unnatural modes of hfe, the body may actually make its own poisons, and the doctor be often asked to remove what the patient, if he were a better chemist and a wiser man, would never produce for the exercise of the doctor’s skill. | EA ORG aed ad THE INFLUENCE OF COMMON OR ETHYLIC ALCO- HOL ON ANIMAL LIFE. THE PRIMARY PHYSIO- LOGICAL ACTION OF ALCOHOL. THE primary action of ethylic alcohol on animal life forms our next study. This is the alcoholic spirit which enters into wines, beers, and ordinary spirituous liquors. There are two modes in which this subject must be discussed. One relates to the mere physical action of alcohol upon the body, the other to its action as a food for the body. Of the varied sub- stances which we take into our systems, some, like chloroform, or opium, produce very marked phy- sical effects, which we may call physiological, but which have nothing to do with the nourishment of the organism, nor with the sustainment of its vital power. Other substances act as foods, producing certain continuous phenomena of structural build and of vital function. Alcohol is peculiar in that we are obliged to consider it, at the present time, from each of these points of view, and I now take up the first, | mean the purely physical action of alcohol, reserving the question of its qualities as a food for a future lecture. A very simple problem lies before us. The sum of £117,000,000 of money is invested in this country on alcohol as a commercial substance. Where 69 70 On Alcohol. does the alcohol go? We know that the larger part of it goes for consumption by human beings. A little—I mean, by comparison, a little—is used for the purposes of art and science, but the greater portion of it, practically*all but the whole of it, is consumed by human beings. Thus a question arises, Wwe may almost say, of engineering and com- merce, a question, therefore, particularly worthy of this Society, viz., What is the good of this invested capital, and of the substance which it supplies? It is not necessary for any of us to consider ourselves as physicians in studying this matter, but we may all consider ourselves as animal engineers, anxious to know the physical properties of agents which in- fluence the animal life. To put itin avery practical way, suppose that there was no question involved in regard to the influence of alcohol upon the body, but that in the course of the invention of motive engines—common inanimate engines, which can be made to exhibit motive power by the application of heat to water—it had originally become the practice from some circumstance to put into the engines so much spirit with the water, and to work the engines with this mixture. Then suppose somebody said, “‘ This is a very expensive process of working the engines ; may be they will work as well without the spirit.” You would naturally in- quire, “Can such be fact?””? And you would seek an engineer to fill the place I have now the honor to occupy, to explain to you-the mechanism of the engines. You would also beg him to explain and put before you facts which would bear upon the point, whether the admixture of spirit and water Absorption of Alcohol by the Lody. 71 was useful or useless? Now, please, consider me to-night as an engineer, and the animal body as the engine I am to speak upon. I am not going to pildcess a word to you as a physician; I am not going to offer advice. I simply mean to place be- fore you, as far as I know them, the facts relating to the physical eficcts of this thing, alcohol, os it is put into one of those millions of engines which we call men. Alcohol will enter the body—the engine of which I am about to speak—by many channels. It can be introduced by injecting it under the skin or intoa vein. Exalted by heat into the form of vapor, it may be inhaled by man or animal, when it will penctrate into the lungs, will diffuse through the bronchial tubes, will pass into the minute air vesicles of the lungs, will travel through the minute circulation with a blood that is going over the air yesicics to. the heart, will condense in that blood, will go direct to the Icft side of the heart, thence into the arterial canals and so throughout the body. Or, again, the spirit can be taken in by the more ordinary channcl, the stomach. Through this channel it finds its way, by two routes, into the circulation. In summary of what has past, I may be brief- ness itself. This chemical substance, alcohol, an artificial product devised by man for his purposes, and in many things that lic outside his orguifisra a useful substance, is neither a food nor a drink suitable for his natural demands. Its application as an agent that shall enter the living organization is properly limited by the learning and abil possessed by the physician—a learning that itself admits of being recast and revised in many important details, and perhaps in principles. If this agent do really for the moment cheer the weary and impart a flush of transient pleasure to Summary. 179 the unwearied who crave for mirth, its influence (doubtful even in these modest and moderate de- grecs) is an infinitesimal advantage, by the side of an infinity of evil for which there is no compensa- tion, and.no human cure. «ae ee “ % , A a Pas ~A = : a Pes bie a f es it m1 he + at oe a Pek add oe gin a a ae i ue * Bil = be 9 j ¥ ; 4 o @ “> d AUSHSTD 4 = => ARP EN: DITX. I. REFERENCES TO TABLES. TABLE I. NAMES OF ANCIENT ROMAN WINES. I Falernum Massicum Setinum Surrentinun 2 Chium Lesbium Leucadium Naxium Mamertinum Thasium Mcenium Mareoticum 5 Album Nigrum Rubrum Vetus Novum Recens Hornum Trimum Molle Lene Vetustate edentulum Asperum Calenum Coecubum Albanum Merum Fortius Coum Rhodium Myndian Halicarnassum 181 6 Cnidum Adrium Mustum Protropum Mulsum Sapa Defrutum Carenum 8 Passum Passum creticum 9 Murrhina 182 A ppend. 1X. VABLIT WINES OF ITALY. Vesuvius. Vino Greco Mangiacuerra Verracia Vino Vergine Tuscany. Florence (white and red) Monte Pulciano Montalneo Porte Hercole Lombardy. Modenese Montserrat Marcemino Brescian Veronese Placentine Lumelline Pucine Naples. Campania or Pausilippo Muscatel Surentine Salernitan Chiarello Carcassone Lachryma Christi Albano Montefiascone Nomentan Monteran Velitrin Preenetic Il Romanesca D’Orvieto Sicilian, Sardinian, and Cor- sican. Catanean Panormitan Messinian Syracusan Genod. Vino di Monte Vernaccia Vino Tinto Madeira WINES OF MADEIRA AND CA- NARIES ISLANDS. Madeira Sec Canary or Palm Sec WINES OF FRANCE AND SWITZERLAND. Languedoc Picardy Champagne Burgundy Vino Amabile, or Vino di Cinque Terre Vino Razzese Muscadine Appendix. 183 TABLE Il.—Contfnued. Rosatz Vino Piccante WINES OF GERMANY. Tyrolese Tramin Etsch Wine of Worms Edinghof Ambach Rhenish Mayne Moselle Neckar Elsass Hock Bohemian Silesian Thuringian Misnian Naumberg Brandenburg WINES OF AUSTRIA AND HUN- GARY, Klosterneuberg Brosenberg Edenburg Tokay WINES OF SPAIN AND POR- TUGAL. Aland Alicant Sherry (or Xeres) Spanish Malmsey Tarragan Salamanca Malaga Cordova Galicia Andalusia Vino de Toro Spanish Vin de Beaune (or Partridge eye) Cote Roti St. Laurence Frontiniac Muscat de Lion Cahors Hermitage ‘ Grave Vin d’Haye Neufchatel Velteline Lacote Reiff 1384 Appendix. TABLE III. TABLE OF THE CONTENTS OF DIFFERENT WINES IN A QUART OF EACH. Highly aie ay x Rese’ | Minos feoug Blac) Wate oz.dr. gr.| oz. dr. an oz.dr. gr. lbs. oz. dr. gr. Aland 7 seme. 16 !.20|5.302~> 0) Ste o|s 2 ena Alicant ge, eae 3.656) 6 © 20) -0 1°40, 2. 236780 Burgundy . . 2 -2egGmOrd.0| 0 1) 40] 2 gsomso Carcassone. . 2@GmeG Oud I0| 0 1 20)°2 S430 Champagne 2 Meee on0 40}'0 T° Ol 2 (Se ateG French . SFOS" Omo 6X40!" 1. Ol 2 Beewro Frontignao%. -SHs39| %3) 01 Fal 33.4 0] 0 5 20/92 =eenGman Vin Grave . . 250) O10 16480) "6. 2250) 22 omega Hermitage. . 27.9) 129 50\. 001240] oe er eae Madeira’. . \. 22] 253 ROMS S20 "Ont Cm ls eres Malmsey . . (. | 4-0 (O0)8403) (O)7 202 ssolm eeu Maen ey oy 2.6 .\0| 0.3) Ol\0N2240| 92 ace omss Moselle . . 242.50) 0-4 20170 130) 26 qupmma Muscadine. . 3.0220} 2-4 40l01 (0 (0) 72) -areeee Neufchatel... £ 5 | 3° 2-5.0)°4 80 Sol 537 S* 012) eee Palmi5ce wae. 213 2O\2t4) OAc sy Oh eee Pontack:.. 5 .?%s4"200 “ol 0.5 20) /o7meero 2 Gageoe Old-Rhenish ... |.2.0 (0lel 0 (O\Sog2e2o BomaoueeaD Rhenish .. .-. | 2.2 0] 0°3 20) B01 34) g@oueo Salamanca... «193.0 0 3 4.0) 2a.) 0} 7m reetan elites ed 30°60} 6 0 O| 2 2 (0) a teweo Spanish cee. 1°2.40| 2 4 0| 9 4 Sot teeeaeo Vino Tinto . 3.0 0o| 6 4- 0| 1 6° oO eeoemeeg Tokay . . . .|2 2 0) 4 3 0] 5 0 (0) 2 etaueuee Tyrol Red Wine .| 14 o| 1 2 O| o 4 of(2ieBtGaro Red, Wine = 5] 1:6 0| 0 4 40) 07238 sz MRS 9 Fe 20. O|'0 7.0) 50753 76) een Appendrx. 185 TABLE IV. LIST OF SUBSTANCES THAT WILL PRODUCE ANASTHETIC SLEEP. Nitrous oxide gas fleavy carburetled hydrogen Carbonic oxide gas gas (olefiant gas or ethy- Carbonic acid gas lene) Bisulphide of carbon LEthylic or absolute ether Light carburetted hydrogen | Chloride of ethyl (hydride of methyl or! Bichloride of ethylene (Dutch marsh gas) liquid) Methylic alcohol Bromide of ethyl, or hydrobro- Methylic ether gas mic ether Chloride of methyl gas Hydride of amyl Bichloride of methylene Amylene Terchloride of formyl, or chlo-| Benzol roform Turpentine spirit Tetra-chloride of carbon TABLE V. ALCOHOLS, Elementary Composition. Methylic or Protylic (wood spirit) . MO NSE, ASG. , H, HO Hao _H, HO Ethylic or Deutylic (common alcohol) AV AS, Propylic or ‘ixilylic C Butylic or Tetrylic : Cc Amylic or Pentylic (potato ick, fel a. CSOs (0, Hexylic : : : PG Bebe te tS: Heptylic or fenanthic ‘ : . oo. Gee Ele LO? C C C C a Octylicw: > : ; ; ° ° SRO As ode ld, 10 Hy, HO 16 H,, HO 30 ie HO Decatylic . : . : . : Cetylic ° se es e e ° Melylic e e e e e e 186 Appendix. TABLE. VI. RADICALS OF ALCOHOLS. Composition, Old name. . New name. Gd a bh Methyl Protylen. Cai Ethyl Deutylen. Cee we Propyl Trityléte* | Crisk Butyl Tetrylen. Cert 3 Amyl Pentylen. Caatis tHexyl Hexylen. OE be Heptyl Heptylen. Ex Gal Octyl Octylen. Cees Decatyl — Cane Cetyl _ ga. Cr tek, Melyl _ TABLE VII. ALCOHOLS. Chemical Vapor oes : Bolfif NAME. composition. | denereye Specific Stavuy: pate Old. | New. | | Hy=1. | Water 1ooo. Cen,' Fah. Methylic |Protylic.|C H, O} 16 | 814 ato” C| 60140 Ethylic . ‘Deutylic emi) (23.55.7027 es 78)172 803 4a I10}230 SUL 132/270 Butylic . |Tetrylic.|C, H,, O| 37 Amylic . Paeae ral ioe) |) a4 a Appendix. 187 TABLE VIII. Alcohols. | Aldehydes. Acids. Mythylic C Il, O/Formaldehyde . C HI, O/Formic .C He» Oz Ethylic .C: Hg Oj/Aldehyde. . . C.H,OjAcctic . Co HyO; Propylic C3; Hg O 'Propionaldehyde C3; Hs O Proponic. C; He O2 Butylic , Cy Tj O'Butylaldehy de . C4 Hs O|Butyric . Cs Hs O2 . Amylic .C; cinivaet C5 HicO | Valerianic Cs HO: TABLE IX. ae “8 te ETHERS. | NaME. Ws Composition, Form. | Boiling point. —!) ———_ oS, See | | Methyl Ether .-.|/ C, H, .O | Gas | ay YP el Aad ae | er i Ge) Eiud 1" o4~ Fah: Aster) e) id Ege d peer: oo. Dre 40 Eaten @ | (fe 153e3Kah:; Butyl “« . Geri =.) «| 219° Fah, Puy] ee | Crartin ©) | J | 348° Fah, : ce ADL AeX: CHLORIDES., . Chemical | V } : Boili NAME. | composition. | deci brs | Specific gravity. nea | | H,=1. Water 1rovo. |Cen.| Fah. Metis | a oe ss v) Gas siete Ethyl .| Deutyl. ie EL. 32 id o2t ations 7 yikes WietAOsst O80 / a3 70 158 on Butyl quetryl a Gerd Amyl Pentyinqe rt elie 5354 nh 102/216 | a ee een 183 Appendix. TABLE XI. IODIDES. NAME Chemical Vapor Specific Boiling | Per cent. e | composition. | density. gravity. point. | of lodine. wick fake Ae Bea ht Old. New. H, =1. | Water 1000. |Cen. Fah. Methyl) Protyl}C H, [| 471 2240 | 421108} 89.4 Ethyl. | Deutyl C, Heal .78 LOAD sil+ 7.2;162)~ Bia Butyl. Tetryl | Cri G2 1604 |120248| 69.0 Amyl. oe Ceti : 99 1511 |146295| 64.1 TABLE XII. NITRITES. © vom | eel. | dane, | sas | a Old. | New. H, =r. | Water rooo. | Cen. Fah, Methyl. | Protyls Ce ee) 2am ae ; EVs | Deutyl. Cer NO 2a 0.917 18, 64 Biulyle | REtEV ret) Garena O2! Seal eee 64 147 Amyl” 5) -Pentyl (Chea a 58 0.877 Re 205 IJ. REFERENCES TO WORDS AND DERIs VATIONS. While the delivery of these Lectures was in progress, I received from John F. Stanford, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., a phi- Jological scholar, whose dictionary of Anglicised foreign words and phrases will, it is to be hoped, soon appear— many very useful and interesting notes relating to deriva- Appendix. 189 tions of words and terms respecting alcohol. By his kind permission I add a few of his notes in this place. Alcohol.—The best Arabic scholars write the word Al- Kool, though there is no word in Arabic which corre- sponds to the meaning assigned to it in the English lan- guage. Agua Vite—This word, Mr. Stanford reminds me, is used by Shakspeare. (Nurse.) ‘*Give me some aqua vite.”—Romeo and Fultet, Act. iii, Sc. 2. ‘*T would as soon trust an Irishman with my aqua vite bottle.”—Merry Wives of Windsor. Aqua vitae was, Mr. Stanford believes, made before any other spirit, viz., about 1260 A.p., by the monks of Ireland, who got the secret frota Spain, the Spaniards having got it from the Moors, and the Moors (Arabs) from the Chinese. Whisky, he thinks, was possibly the oldest term applied to aqua vite. The etymon is usige-biatha, which in Erse means aqua vite, corrupted afterwards to usquebaugh. This compound term shared the fate of many other words, and was abbreviated to ws7ge, whence whisky. © Arrac—Hindustane for an alcohol, distilled from palm- tree juice and several other juices: it is the aqua vite of the East. The word is corrupted to Rakiin Russia, Tur- key, and Germany, or sometimes to Rakk. The intoxi- cating liquor mace from the juice of the palm-tree is called in India and Ceylon oddee, whence the Scotch term “ Toddy.” ‘There is a coarse Arrac called Pariah Arrac, very generally consumed throughout India, which is ren- dered narcotic by addition of extract of Indian hemp. The importation of Arrac or Rack was regulated by 11 Geo. I. c. 30. It was imported to make punch, so called Rack punch. Gii.—This term Mr. Stanford traces from French 190 Appendix. ginévre, abbreviated from the Italian ginepro, Latin juni- perus, English juniper, the berries of the juniper being used in the distillation of the spirit as a flavoring substance. Gin-sing.—This is the term used by the Chinese for the famous Mandrake narcotic reputed to be worth its weight in gold for medicinal purposes, and at the head of their pharmacopeeia. Metheglin.—Was the name of a fermented honey-drink of Cornwall, an intoxicating narcotic beverage. Potheen or Poteen—Lhish, Poitin.—A small pot or still, the name of the liquor being derived from the still in which it was made. Poitin is probably from the Latin fetio, a drink, Rum.—Mr. Stanford believes the word “rum” to be an abbreviation, by apheeresis, of sacca-rum, not an original native name, PUBLICATIONS OF THE Nations! "[’emperance fAND Pu BLICATION Jiouse. HE Nationac TEMPERANCE Society, organized in 1866 for the purpose of supplying a sound and able Temperance literature, have already stereotyped and published three hundred and fifiy publications of all sorts and sizes, from the one-page tract up to the bound volume of 500 pages. This list comprises books, tracts, and pamphlets, containing essays, stories, sermons, arguments, statistics, history, etc., upon every phase of the question. Special attention has been given to the department For Sunsay-School Libraries. Over’sixty volumes have already been issued, written by some of the best authors in the land. These have been carefully examined and unani- mously approved by the Publication Committee of the Society, represent- ing the various religious denominations and Temperance organizations of the country, which consists of the following members: PETER CARTER, Rev. J. B. DUNN, Rev. W. M. TAYLOR, Rev. A. G. LAWSON, . A. A. ROBBINS, Rev. ALFRED TAYLOR, REV. HALSEY MOORE, R. R. SINCLAIR, T. A. BROUWER, Rev. C. D. FOSS, y J. N. STEARNS, JAMES BLACK, Rev. WILLIAM HOWELL TAYLOR. These volumes have been cordially commended by leading clergymen of all denominations, and by various national and State bodies, all over the land. The following is the list, which can be procured through the regular Sunday-School trade, or by sending direct to the rooms of the Society : Rey. Dr. Willoughby and his Wine. 12mo, 458 pages. By Mrs. Mary Sprinc WALKER, author of ‘‘ The Family Doctor,” etc, . . . $1 50 This thrillingly interestir ~ book depicts in a vivid manner the terrible influence exerted by those who stand as the servants of God, and who sanction the social custoin of wine-drinking It is fairand faithful tothe truth. Itisnot a bitter tirade against the church or the ministry On the contrary, it plainly and earnestly acknowledges that the ministry is the friend of moraliy, and the great bulwark of practical virtue. At Lion’s Mouth. remo, 410 pp. By Miss Mary Dwinect CHE Lis, author of ‘* Temperance Doctor,” “ Out of.-the Fire,” ‘“ Aunt ‘Dinah’s Pledge,” etch gy wumte tpectpeRtin ts Pie Ts eet ge Poe a RRO This is one of the best books ever issued, written in a simple yet thrilling and interest \ng style. It speaks boldly for the entire suppression of the Mquor traffic, depicting vividly tt misery and wrongs resulting from it. The Christian tone is most excellent, showing the neces sity of God’s grace in the heart to overcome temptation and the power of appetite, and the ‘afluence which one zealous Christian can exert upon his companions and the community. > ao? ae The National Temperance Society's Books, Aunt Dinah’s Pledge. s12mo, 318 ages. By Miss Mary DwiNneLi JHELLIS, author of ** Temperance Doctor,” ** Out” of the. Fire.” tC. oo ea er See Laas Aunt Dinah was an eminent Christian wo- man. Her pledge included swearing and smok- ing, as well as drinking. It saved her boys who lived useful lives, and died happy; an by quiet, yet loving and persistent work, names of many others were added who seemed alicost beyond hope of salvation. The Temperance Doctor. 12mo, 370 ages. By Miss Mary Dwinecci HILLS: %,. » dees Maes ee This is a true story, replete with interest, and adapted to Sunday-school and family read- ing In it we have graphically depicted the sad ravages that are caused by the use ol intox- icating beverages; also, the blessings of Tem- perance, and what may be accomplished by one earnest soul for that reform. It ought to find yeader: in every household. Out of the Fire. remo, 420 pages. By Miss Mary DwinELt CHELLIS, author of ‘t Deacon Sim’s Pray- ers, ete) ee Oe Ca Sab lt is one of the most effective and impressive Temperance books eyer published. The evils of the drinking customs of society, and the blessings of sobriety and total abstinence, are strikingly developed in the history of various families in the community. History of a Threepenny Bit. 18mo, 216-PASES,S / An unanswerable argument against the use of intoxicating wine at Communion, and pre- senting the Bible argument in favor of total abstinence. Bible Wines; ; or, The Laws of Fer- mentation and Wines of the Ancients. 12mo, 139 pages. By Rev. Wn. Patron, D.D. Pape:. $0 cts.; cloth, . . . . $0 60 It presents the whole matter of Bible Tem- perance and the wines of ancient times in 8 new, clear, and satis'actory manner, develop- ing the laws of fermentation, and giving a large number of references and statistica never before collected, showing conclusively the existence of unfermented wine in the elden time. Alcohol: Its Place and Power, by James MiLver; and The Use and Abuse of Tobacco, by Joun Li- | ren eer tt eal e ac aU The Nattonal Temperance Society's Books. ® w The Medical Use of Alcohol. Three Lectures by James EpMmunpDs, M.D., Member of the Royal Col- lege of Physicians of London, Senior Physician to the London Temperance Hospital. r2mo, 96 pp. Paper cover, 25 cents; cloth etch eters 050 Dr. Edmunds is one of the ablest physicians of England, has thoroughly studied the whole question from a Medical stand-point, and not in the tnterest of the cause of Temperance. It is, however, clearly shown that Science and Temperance both point in one direction, and this book should find its way into every house- hold fn the land. The three Lectures are as follows: 1. The Medical Use of Alcohol. 2. Stimulants for Women and Nursing Mothers, 3. The Dietetic Use of Alcohol, It isa full and reliable exp..{tion from one of the ablest physicians of the world, and we hope it will be widely circulated. The Youth’s Temperance Banner The National Temperance Society and Publication House publish a beautifully illustrated Monthly Paper, especially adapted to children and youth, Sunday-school and Juvenile Tem- perance Organizations. Each number contains several choice engravings, a piece of music, anda great variety of articles from the pens of the best writer@for children in America. It should be placed in the hands of every chitd in the land. TERMS IN ADVANCE, INCLUDING POSTAGE: Bingle copy, one year........ «6.90 3d Thirty copies to one address....$4 06 Bight, to one eddrecs... 032 1-08 | Forty. ERE SE se 40 Ten si sed doo ee see ape teen OO Fift - wee nwle nace a OnO Fic Ve 6 Twenty, “ aT TM idecek coctnvesee AO Onehundred, On Petcccccnvrcesstlolun THE NATIONAL TEMPERANCE ADVOCATE. The National Temperance Society and Publication House publish a Monthly Temperance Paper, the object of whichis to promote the interests of the cause of Temperance by disseminating light from every quarter upon its moral, social, financial, and scientific bearings. The best talent in the land will be secured forits editors and contributors. Terms in advance, includin postage, one doliar and ten cents a year. 10 copies, to one address, $10; oe one address, $18. All over at the last-named rate, which {ncludes Twenty-four Page Pamphlets. (With Covers.) Five Cents each; 60 Cents per Doz. Medicinal Drinking. Drinking Usages of Soclety! Fruits of the Liquor Traffic. Is Alcohol a Necessary of Life? A High Fence of Fifteen Bare The Son of My Friend. Band of Hope Supplies, ee Alconol Food? Physiological Action of Alcohol, Adalteration of Liquors. Will the Coming Man Drink Wine? pry and Mystery of a Glass of Ale, thle Teetotalism. Manual, Per dozen, $0 60 Juvenile Temperance Speaker, - - cp deny Catechism. Per dozen, 60 Illuminated Temperance Cards. Set of Band of Hope Melodies. Paper, 10 ten, - = Juvenile Temperance Pledges, Per100, 3 00 . Enameled, $1 25 Bend of Hope Badges) Bnamcllotss Certificates of Membership. Per 100, - 3 00 r dozen; 12cents singly. Piain, % per dozen; 10 pas singly. The Temperance Speaker, - = -_ = ilver and Enamelled, 50 cents Catechism on Alcohol. By Miss Juha each, Colman. Per dozen, ot aah Sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of price. Address Address JN. STEARNS, Publishing Agent, 58 Reade Sireet, New York. - ma © A. he , eet : ‘ . : ‘ . t % BARI nes at Sohal URBANA IAA | UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS Ln} 4] fee) © ee] © co © N beni Saas © ie) il